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= Wii =
The Wii ( / ˈwiː / WEE ) is a home video game console released by Nintendo on November 19 , 2006 . As a seventh @-@ generation console , the Wii competed with Microsoft 's Xbox 360 and Sony 's PlayStation 3 . Nintendo states that its console targets a broader demographic than that of the two others . As of the first quarter of 2012 , the Wii leads its generation over PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in worldwide sales , with more than 101 million units sold ; in December 2009 , the console broke the sales record for a single month in the United States .
The Wii introduced the Wii Remote controller , which can be used as a handheld pointing device and which detects movement in three dimensions . Another notable feature of the console is the now defunct WiiConnect24 , which enabled it to receive messages and updates over the Internet while in standby mode . Like other seventh @-@ generation consoles , it features a game download service , called " Virtual Console " , which features emulated games from past systems .
It succeeded the GameCube , and early models are fully backward @-@ compatible with all GameCube games and most accessories . Nintendo first spoke of the console at the E3 2004 press conference and later unveiled it at E3 2005 . Nintendo CEO Satoru Iwata revealed a prototype of the controller at the September 2005 Tokyo Game Show . At E3 2006 , the console won the first of several awards . By December 8 , 2006 , it had completed its launch in the four key markets .
In late 2011 , Nintendo released a reconfigured model , the " Wii Family Edition " , which lacks Nintendo GameCube compatibility ; this model was not released in Japan . The Wii Mini , Nintendo 's first major console redesign since the compact SNES , succeeded the standard Wii model and was released first in Canada on December 7 , 2012 . The Wii Mini can only play Wii optical discs , as it omits GameCube compatibility and all networking capabilities ; this model was not released in Japan , Australia , or New Zealand . The Wii 's successor , the Wii U , was released on November 18 , 2012 . On October 20 , 2013 , Nintendo confirmed it had discontinued production of the Wii in Japan and Europe , although the Wii Mini is still in production and available in Europe .
= = History = =
The console was conceived in 2001 , as the Nintendo GameCube was first released . According to an interview with Nintendo game designer Shigeru Miyamoto , the concept involved focusing on a new form of player interaction . " The consensus was that power isn 't everything for a console . Too many powerful consoles can 't coexist . It 's like having only ferocious dinosaurs . They might fight and hasten their own extinction . "
In 2003 , game engineers and designers were brought together to develop the concept further . By 2005 the controller interface had taken form , but a public showing at that year 's Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) was canceled . Miyamoto stated that the company " had some troubleshooting to do . So we decided not to reveal the controller and instead we displayed just the console . " Nintendo president Satoru Iwata later unveiled and demonstrated the Wii Remote at the September Tokyo Game Show .
The Nintendo DS is said to have influenced the Wii 's design . Designer Ken 'ichiro Ashida noted , " We had the DS on our minds as we worked on the Wii . We thought about copying the DS 's touch @-@ panel interface and even came up with a prototype . " The idea was eventually rejected because of the notion that the two gaming systems would be identical . Miyamoto also stated , " [ ... ] if the DS had flopped , we might have taken the Wii back to the drawing board . " In June 2011 Nintendo unveiled the prototype of its successor to the Wii , to be known as Wii U.
= = = Name = = =
The console was known by the code name " Revolution " until April 27 , 2006 , immediately before E3 .
Nintendo 's spelling of " Wii " ( with two lower @-@ case " i " characters ) is intended to resemble two people standing side @-@ by @-@ side ( representing players gathering together ) and to represent the Wii Remote and Nunchuk . One reason the company has given for this name choice since the announcement is :
Some video game developers and members of the press stated that they preferred " Revolution " over " Wii " . Forbes expressed a fear " that the name would convey a continued sense of ' kidiness ' to the console . " The BBC reported the day after the name was announced that " a long list of puerile jokes , based on the name , " had appeared on the Internet .
Nintendo of America 's Vice President of Corporate Affairs Perrin Kaplan defended the choice of " Wii " over " Revolution " and responded to critics of the name , stating " Live with it , sleep with it , eat with it , move along with it and hopefully they 'll arrive at the same place . " Nintendo of America 's president Reggie Fils @-@ Aime acknowledged the initial reaction and further explained the change :
Nintendo has stated that the official plural form is " Wii systems " or " Wii consoles . " The Nintendo Style Guide refers to the console as " simply Wii , not Nintendo Wii " , making it the first home console Nintendo has marketed outside Japan without the company name in its trademark .
= = = Launch = = =
On September 14 , 2006 Nintendo announced release information for Japan , North and South America , Oceania , Asia and Europe including dates , prices , and projected unit @-@ distribution figures . It was announced that the majority of the 2006 shipments would be allotted to the Americas , and 33 titles would be available at its launch . The Wii was launched in the United States on November 19 , 2006 for $ 249 @.@ 99 , and was later launched in the United Kingdom on December 8 , 2006 for £ 179 . The United Kingdom experienced a widespread shortage of Wii units in many High @-@ Street and online stores , and was unable to fulfill all pre @-@ orders at its release . The Wii was launched in South Korea on April 26 , 2008 and Taiwan on July 12 , 2008 .
= = Software library = =
Retail copies of games are supplied on proprietary , DVD @-@ type Wii optical discs , which are packaged in keep cases with instructions . In Europe , the boxes have a triangle at the bottom corner of the paper sleeve @-@ insert side . The triangle is color @-@ coded to identify the region for which the title is intended and which manual languages are included . The console supports regional lockout ( software purchased in a region can be only played on that region 's hardware ) .
New games in Nintendo 's flagship franchises ( including The Legend of Zelda , Super Mario , Pokémon , and Metroid ) have been released , in addition to many original titles and third @-@ party @-@ developed games . Nintendo has received third @-@ party support from companies such as Ubisoft , Sega , Square Enix , Activision Blizzard , Electronic Arts and Capcom , with more games being developed for Wii than for the PlayStation 3 or Xbox 360 . Nintendo also launched the New Play Control ! line , a selection of enhanced GameCube games for the Wii featuring updated controls .
The Virtual Console service allows Wii owners to play games originally released for the Nintendo Entertainment System , Super Nintendo Entertainment System , Nintendo 64 , Sega 's Mega Drive / Genesis and Sega Mark III / Sega Master System , NEC 's TurboGrafx @-@ 16 / PC Engine , SNK 's Neo Geo console , Commodore 64 and arcade games . Virtual Console games are distributed over broadband Internet via the Wii Shop Channel , and are saved to the Wii internal flash memory or to a removable SD card . Once downloaded , Virtual Console games can be accessed from the Wii Menu ( as individual channels ) or from an SD card via the SD Card Menu . There is also a Wii homebrew community , dedicated to creating and playing content unendorsed by Nintendo .
The game development suite Unity can be used to create official Wii games ; however , the developer must be authorized by Nintendo to develop games for the console . Games must also be accepted by Nintendo to be sold .
914 @.@ 28 million Wii games have been sold worldwide as of March 31 , 2016 , and 103 titles had surpassed the million @-@ unit mark by March 2011 . The most successful game ( Wii Sports , which comes bundled with the console in most regions ) sold 82 @.@ 78 million copies worldwide by March 2016 , surpassing Super Mario Bros. as the best @-@ selling game of all time . The best @-@ selling unbundled game , Mario Kart Wii , had sold 36 @.@ 75 million units .
= = = Launch titles = = =
Twenty @-@ one games were announced for launch day in North and South America , with another twelve announced for release later in 2006 . Wii Sports was included with the console bundle in all regions except Japan and South Korea . In contrast to the price of $ 60 quoted for many seventh @-@ generation games in the US , Wii titles cost ( at most ) $ 50 at major US retail stores .
Key :
NA North America , including Central and South Americas
EU Europe
JP Japan
AUS Australasia
Metroid Prime 3 : Corruption was promoted as a launch title , but its release was eventually postponed until August 27 , 2007 in North America . Satoru Iwata also initially wished for Super Smash Bros. Brawl to be released at launch .
= = Demographic = =
Nintendo has hoped to target a wider demographic with its console than that of others in the seventh generation . At a press conference for the then @-@ upcoming Nintendo DS game Dragon Quest IX : Sentinels of the Starry Skies in December 2006 , Satoru Iwata insisted " We 're not thinking about fighting Sony , but about how many people we can get to play games . The thing we 're thinking about most is not portable systems , consoles , and so forth , but that we want to get new people playing games . " This is reflected in Nintendo 's series of television advertisements in North America ( directed by Academy Award winner Stephen Gaghan ) and its Internet ads . The advertising slogans were " Wii would like to play " and " Experience a new way to play " ; the ads began November 15 , 2006 , and had a total budget of over US $ 200 million for the year . The productions were Nintendo 's first broad @-@ based advertising strategy and included a two @-@ minute video clip showing an assortment of people enjoying the Wii system : urban apartment @-@ dwellers , ranchers , grandparents , and parents with their children . The music in the ads was from the song " Kodo ( Inside the Sun Remix ) " by the Yoshida Brothers . The marketing campaign was successful ; pensioners as old as 103 were reported to be playing the Wii in the United Kingdom . A report by the British newspaper The People also stated that Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom has used the console .
= = Hardware = =
The Wii is Nintendo 's smallest home console to date ; it measures 44 mm ( 1 @.@ 73 in ) wide , 157 mm ( 6 @.@ 18 in ) tall and 215 @.@ 4 mm ( 8 @.@ 48 in ) deep in its vertical orientation , slightly larger than three DVD cases stacked together . The included stand measures 55 @.@ 4 mm ( 2 @.@ 18 in ) wide , 44 mm ( 1 @.@ 73 in ) tall and 225 @.@ 6 mm ( 8 @.@ 88 in ) deep . The system weighs 1 @.@ 2 kg ( 2 @.@ 7 lb ) , making it the lightest of the three major seventh @-@ generation consoles . The Wii may stand horizontally or vertically . The prefix for the numbering scheme of the system and its parts and accessories is " RVL- " for its code name , " Revolution " .
The front of the console features an illuminated slot @-@ loading optical media drive which accepts only 12 cm Wii Optical Discs and 8 cm Nintendo GameCube Game Discs . ( Units sold in South Korea and later revisions do not support GameCube discs . ) The blue light in the disc slot illuminates briefly when the console is turned on , and pulses when new data is received through WiiConnect24 . After the update ( including System Menu 3 @.@ 0 ) , the disc @-@ slot light activates whenever a Wii disc is inserted or ejected . When there is no WiiConnect24 information , the light stays off . The disc @-@ slot light remains off during game play or when using other features . Two USB ports are located at its rear . An SD @-@ card slot is located behind the cover on the front of the console .
The Wii launch package includes the console ; a stand to allow the console to be placed vertically ; a round , clear stabilizer for the main stand ; a Wii Remote ; a Nunchuk attachment ; a Sensor Bar ; a removable stand for the bar ; an external power adapter ; two AA batteries ; a composite AV cable with RCA connectors ; a SCART adapter in European countries ( component video and other types of cables are available separately ) ; operation documentation and ( in Europe and the Americas ) a copy of the game Wii Sports .
The disc reader of the Wii does not play DVD @-@ Video , DVD @-@ Audio or Compact Discs . A 2006 announcement stated that a new version of the Wii ( capable of DVD @-@ Video playback ) would be released in 2007 ; however , Nintendo delayed its release to focus on meeting demand for the original console . Nintendo 's initial announcement stated that it " requires more than a firmware upgrade " to implement , and the capability could not be made available as an upgrade option for the existing Wii . Despite this assertion , third parties have used Wii homebrew to add DVD playback to unmodified Wii units . The Wii also can be hacked to enable an owner to use the console for activities unintended by the manufacturer . Several brands of modchips are available for the Wii .
Although Nintendo showed the console and the Wii Remote in white , black , silver , lime @-@ green and red before it was released , it was only available in white for its first two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years of sales . Black consoles were available in Japan in August 2009 , in Europe in November 2009 and in North America on May 9 , 2010 . A red Wii system bundle was available in Japan on November 11 , 2010 , commemorating the 25th anniversary of Super Mario Bros. The UK version of the limited @-@ edition red Wii was released October 29 , 2010 , preloaded with the original Donkey Kong game . It also featured the Wii Remote Plus , a new version of the controller with integrated Wii Motion Plus technology . The red Wii bundle was released in North America on November 7 , 2010 with New Super Mario Bros. Wii and the Wii Remote Plus .
On July 11 , 2007 , Nintendo unveiled the Wii Balance Board at E3 2007 with Wii Fit . It is a wireless balance board accessory for the Wii , with multiple pressure sensors used to measure the user 's center of balance . Namco Bandai produced a mat controller ( a simpler , less @-@ sophisticated competitor to the balance board ) .
= = = Wii Remote = = =
The Wii Remote is the primary controller for the console . It uses a combination of built @-@ in accelerometers and infrared detection to sense its position in 3D space when pointed at the LEDs in the Sensor Bar . This design allows users to control the game with physical gestures as well as button @-@ presses . The controller connects to the console using Bluetooth with an approximate 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) range , and features rumble and an internal speaker . The Wii Remote can connect to expansion devices through a proprietary port at the base of the controller . The device bundled with the Wii retail package is the Nunchuk unit , which features an accelerometer and a traditional analog stick with two trigger buttons . In addition , an attachable wrist strap can be used to prevent the player from unintentionally dropping ( or throwing ) the Wii Remote . Nintendo has since offered a stronger strap and the Wii Remote Jacket to provide extra grip and protection . The Wii MotionPlus is another accessory that connects to the Wii Remote to supplement the accelerometer and sensor @-@ bar capabilities , enabling actions to appear on the screen in real time . Further augmenting the remote 's capabilities is the Wii Vitality Sensor , a fingertip pulse oximeter sensor that connects through the Wii Remote .
= = = Memory storage = = =
The Wii console contains 512 megabytes of internal flash memory , and features an SD card slot for external storage . An SD card can be used for uploading photos and backing up saved game data and downloaded Virtual Console and WiiWare games . To use the SD slot for transferring game saves , an update must be installed . Installation may be initiated from the Wii options menu through an Internet connection , or by inserting a game disc containing the update . Virtual Console data cannot be restored to any system except the unit of origin . An SD card can also be used to create customized in @-@ game music from stored MP3 files ( as first shown in Excite Truck ) and music for the slide @-@ show feature of the Photo Channel . Version 1 @.@ 1 of the Photo Channel removed MP3 playback in favor of AAC support .
At the Nintendo Fall Press Conference in October 2008 , Satoru Iwata announced that Wii owners would have the option to download WiiWare and Virtual Console content directly onto an SD card . The option would offer an alternative to " address the console 's insufficient memory storage " . The announcement stated that it would be available in Japan in spring 2009 ; Nintendo made the update available on March 25 . In addition to the previously announced feature , it lets the player load Virtual Console and WiiWare games directly from the SD card . The update allows the use of SDHC cards , increasing the limit on SD card size from 2 GB to 32 GB .
= = = Specifications = = =
Nintendo has released few technical details regarding the Wii system , but some key facts have leaked through the press . Although none of these reports has been officially confirmed , they generally indicate that the console is an extension ( or advancement ) of the Nintendo GameCube architecture . Specifically , the analyses report that the Wii is roughly 1 @.@ 5 to 2 times as powerful as its predecessor . Based on specifications , the Wii has been called the least powerful of the major home consoles of its generation .
= = = Technical problems = = =
The first Wii system software update ( via WiiConnect24 ) caused a small number of launch units to become completely unusable . This forced users to either send their units to Nintendo for repairs ( if they wished to retain their saved data ) or exchange them for free replacements .
With the release of dual @-@ layer Wii Optical Discs , Nintendo of America stated that some Wii systems may have difficulty reading the high @-@ density software ( due to a contaminated laser lens ) . Nintendo offers retail lens @-@ cleaning kits and free console repairs for owners who experience this issue .
The Wii Remote can lose track of the Wii system it has been set to , requiring that it be reset and resynchronized . Nintendo 's support website provides instructions for this process and troubleshooting related issues .
= = = Legal issues = = =
Interlink Electronics filed a patent @-@ infringement lawsuit against Nintendo over the pointing functionality of the Wii Remote , claiming " loss of reasonable royalties , reduced sales and / or lost profits as a result of the infringing activities " of Nintendo . The law firm Green Welling LLP filed a class action lawsuit against Nintendo for its " defective wrist straps " . A Texas @-@ based company ( Lonestar Inventions ) sued Nintendo , claiming that the company copied one of Lonestar 's patented capacitor designs and used it in the Wii console .
Anascape Ltd , a Texas @-@ based firm , filed a lawsuit against Nintendo for patent infringement regarding Nintendo 's controllers . A July 2008 verdict banned Nintendo from selling the Classic Controller in the United States . Following an appeal to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit , on April 22 , 2010 the Federal Circuit Court ruled in Nintendo 's favor .
On August 19 , 2008 Hillcrest Laboratories Inc. filed a complaint against Nintendo with the U.S International Trade Commission , alleging that the Wii Remote infringed on three of its patents . A fourth Hillcrest patent ( for graphical interfaces displayed on television screens ) was also allegedly violated . Hillcrest sought a ban on Wii consoles imported to the U.S. On August 24 , 2009 Nintendo and Hillcrest reached a settlement , although the terms were not publicly disclosed .
The trademark application for the Wii Remote was initially rejected by the United States Patent and Trademark Office . The USPTO claimed that the word " remote " is commonly used , and therefore should not be trademarked . The USPTO would accept Nintendo 's trademark filing if the company disclaims exclusive rights to the word " remote " in the term .
= = Features = =
The console has a number of internal features made available from its hardware and firmware components . The hardware allows for extendability ( via expansion ports ) , while the firmware ( and some software ) can receive periodic updates via the WiiConnect24 service .
= = = Wii Menu = = =
The Wii Menu interface is designed to emulate television channels . Separate channels are graphically displayed in a grid , and are navigated using the pointer capability of the Wii Remote . Except for the Disc Channel , it is possible to change the arrangement by holding down the A and B buttons to " grab " channels and move them around . There are six primary channels : the Disc Channel , Mii Channel , Photo Channel , Wii Shop Channel , Forecast Channel and News Channel . The latter two were initially unavailable at launch , but were later activated in updates . The Wii + Internet Video Channel was installed in consoles manufactured after September 2008 . Additional channels are available for download from the Wii Shop Channel through WiiWare , and appear with each Virtual Console title ; these include the Everybody Votes Channel , Internet Channel , Check Mii Out Channel and the Nintendo Channel . As of October 18 , 2010 , Wii owners can download the Netflix Channel from the Wii Shop Channel .
= = = Backward compatibility = = =
Wii consoles with the original design are backward @-@ compatible with all Nintendo GameCube software , Nintendo GameCube Memory Cards and controllers . Software compatibility is achieved by the slot @-@ loading drive 's ability to accept Nintendo GameCube Game Discs . However , redesigned " Family Edition " Wiis and the Wii Mini are not backward @-@ compatible .
A Wii console running a GameCube disc is restricted to GameCube functionality , and GameCube controller is required to play GameCube titles . A Nintendo GameCube Memory Card is also necessary to save game progress and content , since the Wii internal flash memory will not save GameCube games . Also , backward compatibility is limited in some areas . For example , online and LAN @-@ enabled features for Nintendo GameCube titles are unavailable on the Wii , since the console lacks serial ports for the Nintendo GameCube Broadband Adapter and Modem Adapter .
= = = Nintendo DS connectivity = = =
The Wii system supports wireless connectivity with the Nintendo DS without any additional accessories . This connectivity allows the player to use the Nintendo DS microphone and touchscreen as inputs for Wii games . The first game utilizing Nintendo DS @-@ Wii connectivity is Pokémon Battle Revolution . Players with either the Pokémon Diamond or Pearl Nintendo DS games are able to play battles using the Nintendo DS as a controller . Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles : Echoes of Time , released on both Nintendo DS and Wii , features connectivity in which both games can advance simultaneously . Nintendo later released the Nintendo Channel , which allows Wii owners to download game demos or additional data to their Nintendo DS in a process similar to that of a DS Download Station . The console is also able to expand Nintendo DS games .
= = = Online connectivity = = =
The Wii console connects to the Internet through its built @-@ in 802.11b / g Wi @-@ Fi or through a USB @-@ to @-@ Ethernet adapter ; either method allows players to access the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection service . The service has several features for the console , including the Virtual Console , WiiConnect24 , Internet Channel , Forecast Channel , Everybody Votes Channel , News Channel and the Check Mii Out Channel . The Wii can also communicate ( and connect ) with other Wii systems through a self @-@ generated wireless LAN , enabling local wireless multi @-@ playing on different television sets . Battalion Wars 2 first demonstrated this feature for non @-@ split screen multi @-@ playing between two ( or more ) televisions .
On April 9 , 2008 , the BBC announced that its online BBC iPlayer would be available on the Wii via the Internet Channel browser ; however , some users experienced difficulty with the service . On November 18 , 2009 , BBC iPlayer on the Wii was relaunched as the BBC iPlayer Channel , a free download from the Wii Shop Channel ; however , the service is only available to people in the United Kingdom . On December 26 , 2008 , Nintendo announced a new video channel for the Wii . As of October 18 , 2010 , American and Canadian Wii owners can watch Netflix instantly on a channel ( without requiring a disc ) .
= = = Parental controls = = =
The console features parental controls , which can be used to prohibit younger users from playing games with content unsuitable for their age level . When one attempts to play a Wii or Virtual Console game , it reads the content rating encoded in the game data ; if this rating is greater than the system 's set age level , the game will not load without a password . Parental controls may also restrict Internet access , which blocks the Internet Channel and system @-@ update features . Since the console is restricted to Nintendo GameCube functionality when playing Nintendo GameCube Game Discs , GameCube software is unaffected by Wii parental @-@ control settings .
European units primarily use the PEGI rating system , while North American units use the ESRB rating system . The Wii supports the rating systems of many countries , including CERO in Japan , the USK in Germany , the PEGI and BBFC in the United Kingdom , the ACB in Australia and the OFLC in New Zealand . Homebrew developers have reverse @-@ engineered the function which Nintendo uses to recover lost parental @-@ control passwords , creating a simple script to obtain parental @-@ control reset codes .
= = Reception = =
The Wii has received mixed reviews . The system was well received after its exhibition at E3 2006 . At the event , Nintendo 's console won the Game Critics Awards for Best of Show and Best Hardware . In the December 2006 issue of Popular Science , the console was named a Grand Award Winner in home entertainment . Spike TV 's Video Games Award cited the Wii 's breakthrough technology . GameSpot chose the console as having the best hardware in its " Best and Worst 2006 " awards . The system was also chosen as one of PC World magazine 's 20 Most Innovative Products of the Year . The console received a Golden Joystick for Innovation of the Year 2007 at the Golden Joystick Awards . In the category of Engineering & Technology for Creation and Implementation of Video Games and Platforms , Nintendo was awarded an Emmy Award for Game Controller Innovation by the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences . In 2009 , IGN named the Wii the 10th greatest console of all time ( out of 25 ) .
The Wii 's success caught third @-@ party developers by surprise , leading to apologies for the quality of their early games . In an interview with German news magazine Der Spiegel , Ubisoft 's Yves Guillemot and Alain Corre admitted that they made a mistake in rushing out their launch titles , promising to take future projects more seriously . Take @-@ Two Interactive , which released few games for the Nintendo GameCube , changed its stance towards Nintendo by placing a higher priority on the Wii .
At the same time , criticism of the Wii Remote and Wii hardware specifications has surfaced . Former GameSpot editor and Giantbomb.com founder Jeff Gerstmann stated that the controller 's speaker produces low @-@ quality sound , while Factor 5 President Julian Eggebrecht criticized the hardware audio as substandard for a console of its generation . UK @-@ based developer Free Radical Design stated that the Wii hardware lacks the power necessary to run the software it scheduled for release on other seventh @-@ generation consoles . Online connectivity of the Wii was also criticized ; Matt Casamassina of IGN compared it to the " entirely unintuitive " service provided for the Nintendo DS .
Game designer and The Sims creator Will Wright shared his thoughts on the Wii in the context of the current console generation : " The only next gen system I 've seen is the Wii – the PS3 and the Xbox 360 feel like better versions of the last , but pretty much the same game with incremental improvement . But the Wii feels like a major jump – not that the graphics are more powerful , but that it hits a completely different demographic . "
The Wii is seen as more physically demanding than other game consoles . Some Wii players have experienced a form of tennis elbow , known as " Wiiitis " . A study published in the British Medical Journal stated that Wii players use more energy than they do playing sedentary computer games . While this energy increase may be beneficial to weight management , it was not an adequate replacement for regular exercise . A case study published in the American Physical Therapy Association 's journal , Physical Therapy , focused on use of the Wii for rehabilitation in a teenager with cerebral palsy . It is believed to be the first published research demonstrating physical @-@ therapy benefits from use of the gaming system . Researchers say the system complements traditional techniques through use of simultaneous gaming rehabilitation efforts . In May 2010 the American Heart Association ( AHA ) endorsed the Wii to encourage sedentary people to take the first step toward fitness . The AHA heart icon covers the console and two of its more @-@ active games , Wii Fit Plus and Wii Sports Resort .
By 2008 , two years after the Wii 's release , Nintendo acknowledged several limitations and challenges with the system ( such as the perception that the system catered primarily to a " casual " audience and was unpopular among " core " gamers ) . Game designer Shigeru Miyamoto admitted that the lack of support for high definition video output on the Wii and its limited network infrastructure also contributed to the system being regarded separately from its competitors ' systems , the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 .
An executive for Frontline Studios stated that major publishers were wary of releasing exclusive titles for the Wii , due to the perception that third @-@ party companies were not strongly supported by consumers . In his blog , 1UP.com editor Jeremy Parish stated that Nintendo was the biggest disappointment for him in 2007 . Commenting on the lack of quality third @-@ party support , he stated that " the Wii landscape is bleak . Worse than it was on N64 . Worse than on GameCube ... the resulting third @-@ party content is overwhelmingly bargain @-@ bin trash . " The Globe and Mail and Forbes noted that the Wii had few successful third @-@ party titles compared to its rivals ( due , in part , to its weaker hardware ) . Third @-@ party developers often skipped the Wii instead of making games for all three consoles simultaneously ( " blockbusters like the Call of Duty franchise either never arrive on Nintendo hardware or show up in neutered form " ) . Forbes observed that of the most successful games of 2011 ( The Elder Scrolls V : Skyrim , Mass Effect 3 , Portal 2 , L.A. Noire , Battlefield 3 , Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 3 ) , although all were released for PC , Xbox 360 , and PlayStation 3 , only Modern Warfare 3 received a Wii version which was also the least positively received port of the game . The lack of third @-@ party games may be exacerbated in the future , as Nintendo faces the " dilemma of having fallen out of sync with its rivals in the console cycle " ; Microsoft and Sony would design their consoles to be more powerful than the Wii U. Strong third @-@ party titles are seen as a key sign of a gaming console 's health .
The Globe and Mail , in suggesting why Nintendo posted a record loss of $ 926 million for the initial six months of its 2011 – 2012 fiscal year , blamed the Wii 's design for being " short @-@ sighted " . The Wii initially enjoyed phenomenal success because it was inexpensive ( due to its being less sophisticated than its competitors ) and introduced a " gaming gimmick " . However , this approach meant that the Wii 's hardware soon became outdated and could not keep up long @-@ term ( in contrast to more @-@ advanced rivals such as Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 , which are expected to continue doing well in 2012 – 2013 ) " as both user desires and surrounding technologies evolved " later in the generation . Furthermore , price cuts and the introduction of motion @-@ sensor controllers for the Xbox 360 and PS3 nullified advantages once held by the Wii . The Globe suggested that there were other reasons for Nintendo 's poor financial performance , including a strong yen and a tepid reception to the Nintendo 3DS handheld as mobile gaming becomes popular on smartphones and tablets ( such as the iPad ) .
= = = Sales = = =
As of March 31 , 2016 , the Wii has sold 101 @.@ 63 million consoles worldwide .
Since its launch , monthly sales numbers of the console have generally been higher than its competitors around the globe . According to the NPD Group , the Wii sold more units in the United States than the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 combined in the first half of 2007 . This lead is even larger in the Japanese market , where it currently leads in total sales ( having outsold both consoles by factors of 2 : 1 to 6 : 1 nearly every week from its launch to November 2007 ) . In Australia the Wii broke the record set by the Xbox 360 and became the fastest @-@ selling game console in Australian history .
On September 12 , 2007 , the Financial Times reported that the Wii had surpassed the Xbox 360 ( released a year earlier ) and had become market leader in home @-@ console sales for the current generation , based on sales figures from Enterbrain , NPD Group and GfK . This was the first time a Nintendo console led its generation in sales since the Super Nintendo Entertainment System .
On July 11 , 2007 , Nintendo warned that the Wii would remain in short supply throughout that calendar year . In December , Reggie Fils @-@ Aime revealed that Nintendo was producing approximately 1 @.@ 8 million Wii consoles each month . Some UK stores still had a shortage of consoles in March 2007 , demand still outpaced supply in the United States in June 2007 , and the console was " selling out almost as quickly as it hits retail shelves " in Canada in April 2008 . In October 2008 Nintendo announced that between October and December the Wii would have its North American supplies increased considerably from 2007 levels , while producing 2 @.@ 4 million Wii units a month worldwide ( compared to 1 @.@ 6 million per month in 2007 ) .
In the United States the Wii sold 10 @.@ 9 million units by July 1 , 2008 , making it the leader in current @-@ generation home console sales according to the NPD Group ( and surpassing the Xbox 360 ) .
In Japan the Wii surpassed the number of GameCube units sold by January 2008 ; it sold 7 @,@ 526 @,@ 821 units by December 2008 , according to Enterbrain . According to the NPD Group the Wii surpassed the Xbox 360 to become the best @-@ selling " next @-@ generation " home video @-@ game console in Canada ( with 813 @,@ 000 units sold by April 1 , 2008 ) , and was the best @-@ selling home console for 13 of the previous 17 months . According to the NPD Group the Wii had sold a total of 1 @,@ 060 @,@ 000 units in Canada by August 2008 , making it the first current @-@ generation home console to surpass the million @-@ unit mark in that country . In the United Kingdom the Wii leads in current @-@ generation home @-@ console sales with 4 @.@ 9 million units sold as of January 3 , 2009 , according to GfK Chart @-@ Track . On March 25 , 2009 at the Game Developers Conference , Satoru Iwata said that worldwide shipments of Wii had reached 50 million .
While Microsoft and Sony have experienced losses producing their consoles in the hopes of making a long @-@ term profit on software sales , Nintendo reportedly has optimized production costs to obtain a significant profit margin with each Wii unit sold . On September 17 , 2007 the Financial Times reported that the direct profit per Wii sold may vary , from $ 13 in Japan to $ 49 in the United States and $ 79 in Europe . On December 2 , 2008 , Forbes reported that Nintendo made a $ 6 operating profit per Wii unit sold .
On September 23 , 2009 , Nintendo announced its first price reductions for the console . Nintendo sold more than three million Wii consoles in the U.S. in December 2009 ( setting a regional record for the month and ending nine months of declining sales ) , due to the price cut and software releases such as New Super Mario Bros. Wii . On January 31 , 2010 the Wii became the best @-@ selling home video @-@ game console produced by Nintendo , with sales of over 67 million units ( surpassing those of the original Nintendo Entertainment System ) . Nintendo reported that on Black Friday 2011 over 500 @,@ 000 Wii consoles were sold , making it the most successful Black Friday in company history .
= = Other models = =
= = = Family Edition = = =
The Wii Family Edition variant is identical to the original model , but is designed to sit horizontally ( the vertical feet are still present ; however , the front labels are rotated and a stand is no longer included ) and removes the GameCube controller and memory card ports although the casing under the top cover stil has the GameCube controller and memory card ports holes with no ports and no slots . For this reason , the Family Edition variant is incompatible with GameCube games and accessories . The console was announced on August 17 , 2011 and released in Europe and North America in October 2011 .
The Wii Family Edition was made available in Europe , bundled with a Wii Remote Plus , Wii Party and Wii Sports . A blue Wii Family Edition was launched to coincide with Black Friday and the release of Mario & Sonic at the London 2012 Olympic Games on November 18 , 2011 and a black Wii Family Edition ( bundled with New Super Mario Bros. Wii and the official soundtrack CD of Super Mario Galaxy ) was released on October 23 , 2011 . In late 2012 Nintendo released a version of the North America black edition , including Wii Sports and Wii Sports Resort games on a single disc instead of the New Super Mario Bros. Wii game and the Super Mario Galaxy soundtrack .
= = = Wii Mini = = =
The Wii Mini ( stylized as Wii mini ) is a smaller , redesigned Wii with a top @-@ loading disc drive . This model lacks YPBPR ( component video / D @-@ Terminal ) , S @-@ Video , RGB SCART output , GameCube compatibility , online connectivity , the SD card slot and Wi @-@ Fi support , and has only one USB port unlike the previous models ' two . The initial release omitted a pack @-@ in game , but Mario Kart Wii was included at no extra charge beginning on September 18 , 2013 in Canada and from launch in the United States . It was released in Canada on December 7 , 2012 with a MSRP of C $ 99 @.@ 99 , in Europe on March 22 , 2013 , and in the United States on November 17 , 2013 . Nintendo uses this console and the Nintendo Selects game series to promote low @-@ cost gaming . The Wii Mini is styled in matte black with a red border , and includes a red Wii Remote Plus and Nunchuk . A composite video / audio cable , wired sensor bar and power adapter are also included .
= = Successor = =
Nintendo announced the successor to the Wii , Wii U , at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2011 . The Wii U features a controller with an embedded touch screen and output 1080p high @-@ definition graphics ; it is fully backward @-@ compatible with Wii games and peripherals for the Wii . The Wii remote , Nunchuk controller and balance board are compatible with Wii U games which include support for them . The Wii U was released on November 18 , 2012 in North America , November 30 , 2012 in Europe and Australia , and December 8 , 2012 in Japan .
= = In popular culture = =
In the 2011 episode of The Cat in the Hat Knows a Lot About That ! , " Squirreled Away " , when Nick is looking for his Yo @-@ Yo , a Wii console is seen at the bottom @-@ right corner of the screen .
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= Treaty of Butre =
The Treaty of Butre between the Netherlands and Ahanta was signed at Butre ( historical spelling : Boutry ) , Dutch Gold Coast on 27 August 1656 . The treaty regulated the jurisdiction of the Netherlands and the Dutch West India Company over the town of Butre and the surrounding country of Upper Ahanta , creating a Dutch protectorate over the area . The treaty lasted until the Dutch departure from the Gold Coast in April 1872 .
= = Background = =
The country of Ahanta , in what is now the Western Region of the Republic of Ghana , comprised a regional power in the form of a confederacy of chiefdoms which had come in early contact with the European nations settling on the Gold Coast for the purpose of trade .
In the middle of the seventeenth century the four European competitors in the area were the Dutch West India Company , Danish Africa Company , Royal Africa Company and the Swedish Africa Company . The Dutch had been active in Athana and resident in neighboring Axim since 1642 , the Swedish from Butre since 1650 , the Danish since 1658 in Fort Carolusborg and the English from Kormantin . The European powers allied themselves with African states and chiefs in order to gain a sustainable dominance in the area .
In their efforts to dislodge the Swedish from Butre , the Dutch struck up different tactical alliances with the chiefdoms of Ahanta and the state of Encasser , a political entity of which little is known .
After the Dutch had driven the Swedish out of Butre , the director general of the Dutch West India Company , with headquarters in St. George d 'Elmina in the central Gold Coast , decided that it would be beneficial to negotiate a treaty with the local political leadership in order to establish a peaceful long @-@ term relationship . The Ahanta leaders found it equally beneficial to enter into such an agreement . The 1656 treaty signalled the definitive switch in European jurisdiction in the area until 1872 .
The treaty and the terms of the protectorate turned out to be very stable , most likely in part because the Dutch never had the intention to interfere in the affairs of the Ahanta states . That is , except for the town of Butre , where they built a fort ( Fort Batenstein ) . The treaty could be interpreted as a treaty of friendship and cooperation , rather than as a treaty establishing a Dutch protectorate . The Dutch worked in close cooperation with the local chief , who was also second in line in the political leadership of what became known as the Kingdom of Ahanta and had its capital at the nearby seaside town of Busua .
In 1837 the king of Ahanta , Baidoo Bonsoe II ( Badu Bonsu II ) , rebelled against the Dutch government and killed several officers , including acting governor Hendrik Tonneboeijer . The Dutch government used the treaty as the basis for military action and an expeditionary force was sent to Ahanta . In the war that followed King Baidoo Bonsoe II was killed . The Dutch reorganised the Ahanta state , after the rebellion , appointing the chief of Butre as regent , keeping the country under close control with an enlarged military and civilian presence .
When the Dutch transferred their possessions on the Gold Coast to the British on 6 April 1872 , the treaty of 1656 was still in effect , having regulated political relations between the Dutch and Ahanta for more than 213 years . The treaty was one of the oldest and one of the longest functioning treaties between an African and a European state .
With the Dutch possessions , the British took over all legal obligations including the existing treaties and contracts . After the transfer the British started to develop their own policies towards the now united Gold Coast possessions . Ahanta resisted the British take @-@ over , with the result that the British Royal Navy bombed Butre in 1873 to achieve a political submission . In 1874 Britain declared the entire Gold Coast – including Ahanta – a Crown Colony , de jure and de facto ending all former diplomatic and legal obligations .
= = Content = =
= = = Title = = =
The treaty is titled " Dedication of Upper Ahanta and Butre " ( Opdracht van Hooghanta ende Boutry ) , which immediately indicates the nature of the contract , namely the establishment of a protectorate .
= = = Location and date = = =
The treaty was signed by both the Ahanta and the Dutch delegates at Butre on 27 August 1656 and took effect immediately .
= = = Contracting partners = = =
The contracting parties on the Dutch side were : the Dutch West India Company , for itself , and by way of its director general representing the States General , the sovereign power of the country , for the Republic of the United Netherlands . Signatories were Eduard Man , fiscal , and Adriaan Hoogenhouck , commissioner in the service of the Dutch West India Company .
The contracting partners on the Ahanta side were Cubiesang , Aloiny , Ampatee and Maniboy , " chiefs of the Country Anta " . They were also the signatories of the treaty , together with Ladrou , Azizon , Guary , and Acha . Harman van Saccondé , Menemé , and Rochia , " captain of Boutry " are mentioned as additional parties in the treaty , and they ratified the treaty , together with Tanoe .
= = = Terms = = =
Being a dedication , the treaty is rather unilateral in its terms . Ahanta declared that in view of former good relations with the Dutch government established in the past at neighbouring Axim , and in view of the adverse circumstances caused by the war with Encasser , it was decided to invite the Dutch director general at Elmina to come to Butre and " accept possession of that what was offered him " . Ahanta placed itself under the protection of both the States General of the United Netherlands and the Dutch West India Company . This was done on the condition that the Dutch fortified and defended the places under their protection , and kept the Ahanta free from the dangers of war .
= = = Literature = = =
Doortmont , Michel R. ; Jinna Smit ( 2007 ) . Sources for the mutual history of Ghana and the Netherlands . An annotated guide to the Dutch archives relating to Ghana and West Africa in the Nationaal Archief , 1593 @-@ 1960s . Leiden : Brill . ISBN 978 @-@ 90 @-@ 04 @-@ 15850 @-@ 4 .
van Dantzig , Albert ( 1981 ) . Forts and castles of Ghana . Accra : Sedco Publishing . ISBN 9964 @-@ 72 @-@ 010 @-@ 6 .
Doortmont , Michel R. ; Savoldi , Benedetta , eds . ( 2006 ) , The castles of Ghana : Axim , Butre , Anomabu . Historical and architectural research of three Ghanaian forts , Lurano : Associazione Giovanni Secco Suardo .
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= Stoor worm =
The stoor worm , or Mester Stoor Worm , was a gigantic evil sea serpent of Orcadian folklore , capable of contaminating plants and destroying animals and humans with its putrid breath . It is probably an Orkney variant of the Norse Jörmungandr , also known as the Midgard Serpent , or world serpent , and has been described as a sea dragon .
The king of one country threatened by the beast 's arrival was advised to offer it a weekly sacrifice of seven virgins . In desperation the king eventually issued a proclamation offering his kingdom , his daughter 's hand in marriage and a magic sword to anyone who could destroy the monster . Assipattle , the youngest son of a local farmer , defeated the creature ; as it died its teeth fell out to become the islands of Orkney , Shetland and the Faroes , and its body became Iceland .
Similarities between Assipatle 's defeat of the monster and other dragon @-@ slayer tales , including Herakles ' destruction of a sea monster to save Hesione , have been noted by several authors . It has been suggested that tales of this genre evolved during a period of enlightenment , when human sacrifices to bestial divinities were beginning to be suppressed .
= = Etymology = =
The name stoor worm may be derived from the Old Norse Storðar @-@ gandr , an alternative name for Jörmungandr , the world or Midgard Serpent of Norse mythology , Stoor or stour was a term used by Scots in the latter part of the 14th century to describe fighting or battles ; it could also be applied to " violent conflicts " of the weather elements . Similar definitions are given by the Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue that covers the period up to the start of the 18th century ; later volumes , when it was published as the Dictionary of the Scots Language and covered from 1700 onwards , include substantial , large and big ; it further indicates it may be akin to the Old Norse stórr . It shows stoorworm as " a monster serpent , a sea @-@ dragon " using Traill Dennison 's tale as the basis for the definition .
Mester means master ; it may have been deemed Mester Stoor Worm because it was the " master and father of all stoorworms " . In Scotland worm may frequently be applied to a dragon , as it is in northern England according to folklorist Katharine Briggs , a usage that derives from the Saxon and Norse terms . The spelling of the Old English and obsolete variant of the word worm is wyrm , meaning dragon or serpent . Traill Dennison 's definition gives mester as " superior " with stoor being " large , powerful , strong or stern " . He describes worm as " any animal of serpent shape " .
= = Folk beliefs = =
= = = Description and common attributes = = =
An inhabitant of the sea , the stoor worm was a mythical serpent @-@ like creature created by malevolent spirits . A gigantic beast with a ferocious appetite , it was able to demolish ships and houses with its prehensile forked tongue it used as a pair of tongs , and even to drag entire hillsides and villages into the sea . Its eyes were like " round lochs , very deep and dark " in the modern retelling , whereas it " glowed and flamed like a ward fire " in Dennison 's long text , which noted in an aside that some accounts stated that the stoor worm had only one eye .
According to folklorist Jennifer Westwood , the stoor worm 's head was " like a great mountain " ; its breath was putrid , contaminating plants and destroying any humans or animals with its blast . Traill Dennison reported the serpent 's length was " beyond telling , and reached thousands and thousands of miles in the sea " . Giant sea swells and earthquakes were attributed to the beast yawning , a sign it wanted to be fed rather than of fatigue . Islanders were terrified of the serpent ; it was described by Traill Dennison , who transcribed its story , as " the worst of the nine fearful curses that plague mankind " . A further tale recorded by Traill Dennison gives a brief mention of another stoor worm , described as the progeny of the Orcadian monster , which is killed when it is severed in two by an oversized mythical ship .
= = = Sacrificial offerings = = =
The king of one country threatened by the imminent arrival of the stoor worm sought the advice of a wise man or spaeman , who suggests that the beast might be appeased if it is fed seven virgins every week . In line with the wise man 's advice , every Saturday the islanders provide a sacrificial offering of seven virgins , who were tied up and placed on the beach for the serpent to sweep into its mouth as it reared its head from the sea .
As the regular sacrifices continue the islanders approach the king for help , as they are worried there will soon be no young girls left . The king again asks the advice of the spaeman , who tentatively suggests that the king 's only daughter , Princess Gem @-@ de @-@ lovely , his most prized possession , will have to be offered to the stoor worm to encourage it to leave . During the ten @-@ week period of grace before the princess has to be sacrificed , messengers are despatched to every corner of the realm offering the kingdom , marriage to the princess , and the magic sword the king had inherited from the god Odin .
= = = Slaying = = =
The number of prospective heroes who come forward as a result of the king 's appeal varies in the telling from 30 to 36 , but they all leave without confronting the monster . The day before the princess is due to be sacrificed , Assipattle , the youngest son of a local farmer and despised by his family , mounts his father 's horse and at dawn arrives on the beach where the creature is just beginning to awaken . After stealing some hot peat and acquiring a small boat , Assipattle is driven by the waves into the stoor worm 's mouth as it starts yawning . The boat is carried down to the depths of the creature 's stomach until it finally comes to rest . Assipattle plunges the still burning peat into the stoor worm 's liver , causing a " fire that blazed like a furnace " . The pain of its burning liver causes the creature to have a fit of retching that carries Assipattle , who has managed to return to his boat , back out of the monster 's mouth .
The commotion caused by the stoor worm 's writhing agonies draws a crowd to the beach , and Assipattle lands safely among them . The ferocity of the fire burning in the creature 's liver increases , causing smoke clouds to be expelled from its mouth and nostrils , turning the skies black . The islanders , believing that the world is about to end , clamber up a hillside to watch the final death throes of the creature at a safe distance from the resulting tidal waves and earthquakes . As it dies , the creature 's teeth fall out to become the islands of Orkney , Shetland and the Faroes . The Baltic Sea is created where its tongue falls out , and when the creature finally curls up into a tight knot and dies , its body becomes Iceland . True to his word , once the skies clear and the earth settles , the king relinquishes his kingdom to Assipattle , who marries Princess Gem @-@ de @-@ lovely . As promised , the king also gives Odin 's magic sword to Assipattle .
= = Origins = =
The stoor worm is likely to be an Orkney variant of the Norse Jörmungandr , or world serpent , also known as the Midgard Serpent . The Orcadian folklorist Marwick highlights the similarity between the method Assipattle used to kill the mythical creature and those recounted in the slaying of the Worm of Linton and the Cnoc na Cnoimh of Sutherland tales . He also notes that in Bel and the Dragon , the dragon is killed by Daniel using " fat and hair " instead of peat . In Shetland there was a long @-@ standing belief that " away , far out to sea , near the edge of the world , lived a monstrous sea @-@ serpent that took about six hours to draw in his breath , and six hours to let it out " , which Marwick speculates was probably an explanation for the cycle of the tides .
Hartland published an analysis of the myths of the Perseus cycle in the last decade of the 19th century with the stated aim to determine " whether it be possible to ascertain what was its primitive form , where it originated , and how it became diffused over the Eastern continent . " He highlighted similarities between Assipattle 's defeat of the stoor worm and Herakle 's rescue of Hesione . When researching the Dartmoor legend of Childe 's Tomb folklorist Theo Brown also drew comparisons between the slaying of the stoor worm and Jonah 's three @-@ day confinement inside a whale . Hartland concluded that tales of this genre were confined to countries beginning to move away from primitive beliefs and possibly evolved " out of the suppression of human sacrifices to divinities in bestial form . "
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= The Boat Race 2001 =
The 147th Boat Race was won by Cambridge by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths . It was the first time in the history of the event that the race was stopped and restarted , following a clash of blades .
In the reserve race Goldie beat Isis ; Cambridge also won the Women 's race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is an annual competition between the boat clubs of the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge . First held in 1829 , the competition is a 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) race along the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 2000 race by three lengths , but Cambridge led overall with 76 victories to Oxford 's 69 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The race was sponsored by Aberdeen Asset Management for the second consecutive year .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) consisted of seven Britons , an American and a Norwegian , while the Cambridge crew ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) was composed of six Britons , a German , an Australian and a British / American . The Cambridge crew weighed , on average , 4 @.@ 5 pounds ( 2 @.@ 0 kg ) more than their rivals , while Josh West , Cambridge 's number five , was the tallest rower , at 6 ft 9 in ( 2 @.@ 06 m ) .
= = Race = =
Boat club presidents Kieran West and Dan Snow met on the banks of the Thames at Putney for the coin toss at soon after noon on 24 March 2001 . Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . While the river was calm , rain began to fall just prior the start of the race . Oxford took an early lead , but both coxes were given warnings by race umpire Rupert Obholzer . A clash of blades ensued , with Cambridge 's bow Colin Swainson losing his oar ; this resulted in Obholzer called for a restart for the first time in the history of the race . Once again , Oxford took the lead and held a two @-@ second lead at Hammersmith Bridge . Although rating the same , Cambridge took the lead , to be ahead by half @-@ a @-@ length at the Surrey bend , and seven seconds ahead by Chiswick Steps . Extending their lead to more than two lengths by Barnes Bridge , Cambridge passed the finishing post in a time of 19 minutes 59 seconds . It was Cambridge 's eighth win in nine races , and took their overall lead to 77 victories to Oxford 's 69 .
In the reserve race Goldie beat Isis by six lengths in a time of 19 minutes , 36 seconds . Cambridge also won the Women 's race by three feet .
= = Reaction = =
Race umpire Obholzer stated " I could have disqualified Oxford but both sides were responsible " . Cambridge president and number six West said " Both teams had a good row but we had good rhythm and pushed really hard " , while Oxford president Snow remarked " The Boat Race is not fair ... six months ' work to be screwed by the system . We have got to deal with that " . BBC commentator and former Light Blue president Richard Phelps believed that Cambridge " deserved " the win and that " it was the superior power and application of it that saw Cambridge slowly pull clear of Oxford " . Cambridge coach Robin Williams said " It was a brave , quick decision by the umpire " , while former Dark Blue and Olympic gold medallist Matthew Pinsent suggested the clash was simply a racing incident and that the race could have been allowed to continue . He added : " There is no yellow card offence between a warning and disqualification " . Oxford coach Sean Bowden blamed the defeat on the restart : " We rowed with a lot of courage ... but having to restart after that great first take @-@ off really hurt us . It just put us at a disadvantage from then on " .
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= Geraldine Ferraro =
Geraldine Anne Ferraro ( August 26 , 1935 – March 26 , 2011 ) was an American attorney , a Democratic Party politician , and a member of the United States House of Representatives . In 1984 , she was the first female vice presidential candidate representing a major American political party .
Ferraro grew up in New York City and worked as a public school teacher before training as a lawyer . She joined the Queens County District Attorney 's Office in 1974 , heading the new Special Victims Bureau that dealt with sex crimes , child abuse , and domestic violence . In 1978 she was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives , where she rose rapidly in the party hierarchy while focusing on legislation to bring equity for women in the areas of wages , pensions , and retirement plans . In 1984 , former vice president and presidential candidate Walter Mondale , seen as an underdog , selected Ferraro to be his running mate in the upcoming election . Ferraro became the only Italian American to be a major @-@ party national nominee in addition to being the first woman . The positive polling the Mondale @-@ Ferraro ticket received when she joined soon faded , as damaging questions arose about her and her businessman husband 's finances and wealth and her Congressional disclosure statements . In the general election , Mondale and Ferraro were defeated in a landslide by incumbent President Ronald Reagan and Vice President George H. W. Bush .
Ferraro ran campaigns for a seat in the United States Senate from New York in 1992 and 1998 , both times starting as the front @-@ runner for her party 's nomination before losing in the primary election . She served as a United States Ambassador to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights from 1993 until 1996 , in the presidential administration of Bill Clinton . She also continued her career as a journalist , author , and businesswoman , and served in the 2008 presidential campaign of Senator Hillary Clinton . Ferraro died on March 26 , 2011 , from multiple myeloma , 12 years after being diagnosed .
= = Early life and education = =
Geraldine Ferraro was born on August 26 , 1935 in Newburgh , New York , the daughter of Antonetta L. Ferraro ( née Corrieri ) , a first @-@ generation Italian American seamstress , and Dominick Ferraro , an Italian immigrant ( from Marcianise , Campania ) and owner of two restaurants . She had three brothers born before her , but one died in infancy and another at age three . Ferraro attended the parochial school Mount Saint Mary 's in Newburgh when she was young . Her father died of a heart attack in May 1944 , when she was eight . Ferraro 's mother soon invested and lost the remainder of the family 's money , forcing the family to move to a low @-@ income area in the South Bronx while Ferraro 's mother worked in the garment industry to support them .
Ferraro stayed on at Mount Saint Mary 's as a boarder for a while , then briefly attended a parochial school in the South Bronx . Beginning in 1947 , she attended and lived at the parochial Marymount Academy in Tarrytown , New York , using income from a family rental property in Italy and skipping seventh grade . At Marymount Ferraro was a member of the honor society , active in several clubs and sports , voted most likely to succeed , and graduated in 1952 . Her mother was adamant that she get a full education , despite an uncle in the family saying , " Why bother ? She 's pretty . She 's a girl . She 'll get married . " Ferraro attended Marymount Manhattan College with a scholarship while sometimes holding two or three jobs at the same time . During her senior year she began dating John Zaccaro of Forest Hills , Queens , who had graduated from Iona College with a commission in the U.S. Marine Corps . Ferraro received a Bachelor of Arts in English in 1956 ; she was the first woman in her family to gain a college degree . She also passed the city exam to become a licensed school teacher .
Ferraro began working as an elementary school teacher in public schools in Astoria , Queens , " because that 's what women were supposed to do . " Unsatisfied , she decided to attend law school ; an admissions officer said to her , " I hope you 're serious , Gerry . You 're taking a man 's place , you know . " She earned a Juris Doctor degree with honors from Fordham University School of Law in 1960 , going to classes at night while continuing to work as a second @-@ grade teacher at schools such as P.S. 57 during the day . Ferraro was one of only two women in her graduating class of 179 . She was admitted to the bar of New York State in March 1961 .
= = Family , lawyer , prosecutor = =
Ferraro became engaged to Zaccaro in August 1959 and married him on July 16 , 1960 . He became a realtor and businessman . She kept her birth name professionally , as a way to honor her mother for having supported the family after her father 's death , but used his name in parts of her private life . The couple had three children , Donna ( born 1962 ) , John Jr . ( born 1964 ) , and Laura ( born 1966 ) . They lived in Forest Hills Gardens , Queens , and in 1971 , added a vacation house in Saltaire on Fire Island . They would buy a condominium in Saint Croix in the U.S. Virgin Islands in 1983 .
While raising the children , Ferraro worked part @-@ time as a civil lawyer in her husband 's real estate firm for 13 years . She also occasionally worked for other clients and did some pro bono work for women in family court . She spent time at local Democratic clubs , which allowed her to maintain contacts within the legal profession and become involved in local politics and campaigns . While organizing community opposition to a proposed building , Ferraro met lawyer and Democratic figure Mario Cuomo , who became a political mentor . In 1970 , she was elected president of the Queens County Women 's Bar Association .
Ferraro 's first full @-@ time political job came in January 1974 , when she was appointed Assistant District Attorney for Queens County , New York , by her cousin , District Attorney Nicholas Ferraro . At the time , women prosecutors in the city were uncommon . Grumblings that she was the beneficiary of nepotism were countered by her being rated as qualified by a screening committee and by her early job performance in the Investigations Bureau . The following year , Ferraro was assigned to the new Special Victims Bureau , which prosecuted cases involving rape , child abuse , spouse abuse , and domestic violence . She was named head of the unit in 1977 , with two other assistant district attorneys assigned to her . In this role , she became a strong advocate for abused children . She was admitted to the U.S. Supreme Court Bar in 1978 .
As part of the D.A. office , Ferraro worked long hours , and gained a reputation for being a tough prosecutor but fair in plea negotiations . Although her unit was supposed to turn over cases which were bound for trial to another division , she took an active role in trying some cases herself , and juries were persuaded by her summations . Ferraro was upset to discover that her superior was paying her less than equivalent male colleagues because she was a married woman and already had a husband . Moreover , Ferraro found the nature of the cases she dealt with debilitating ; the work left her " drained and angry " and she developed an ulcer . She grew frustrated that she was unable to deal with root causes , and talked about running for legislative office ; Cuomo , now Secretary of State of New York , suggested the United States Congress .
= = House of Representatives = =
Ferraro ran for election to the U.S. House of Representatives from New York 's 9th Congressional District in Queens in 1978 , after longtime Democratic incumbent James Delaney announced his retirement . The location for the television series All in the Family , the district , which stretched from Astoria to Ozone Park was known for its ethnic composition and conservative views . In a three @-@ candidate primary race for the Democratic nomination , Ferraro faced two better @-@ known rivals , the party organization candidate , City Councilman Thomas J. Manton and Patrick Deignan . Her main issues were law and order , support for the elderly , and neighborhood preservation . She labeled herself a " ' small c ' conservative " and emphasized that she was not a bleeding @-@ heart liberal ; her campaign slogan was " Finally , A Tough Democrat " . Her Italian heritage also appealed to ethnic residents in the district . She won the three @-@ way primary with 53 percent of the vote , and then captured the general election as well , defeating Republican Alfred A. DelliBovi by a 10 @-@ percentage @-@ point margin in a contest in which dealing with crime was the major issue and personal attacks by DelliBovi were frequent . She had been aided by $ 130 @,@ 000 in campaign loans and donations from her own family , including $ 110 @,@ 000 in loans from Zaccaro , of which only $ 4 @,@ 000 was legal . The source and nature of these transactions were declared illegal by the Federal Election Commission shortly before the primary , causing Ferraro to pay back the loans in October 1978 , via several real estate transactions . In 1979 , the campaign and Zaccaro paid $ 750 in fines for civil violations of election law .
Despite being a newcomer to the House , Ferraro made a vivid impression upon arrival and quickly found prominence . She became a protégé of House Speaker Tip O 'Neil , established a rapport with other House Democratic leaders , and rose rapidly in the party hierarchy . She was elected to be the Secretary of the House Democratic Caucus for 1981 – 1983 and again for 1983 – 1985 ; this entitled her to a seat on the influential Steering and Policy Committee . In 1983 , she was named to the powerful House Budget Committee . She also served on the Public Works and Transportation Committee and the Post Office and Civil Service Committee , both of which allowed Ferraro to push through projects to benefit her district . In particular , she assisted the successful effort of the Ridgewood and Glendale neighborhoods to get their ZIP codes changed from Brooklyn to their native Queens . Male colleagues viewed her with respect as someone who was tough and ambitious and in turn she was , as The New York Times later wrote , " comfortable with the boys " .
Ferraro was active in Democratic presidential politics as well . She served as one of the deputy chairs for the 1980 Carter @-@ Mondale campaign . Following the election , she served actively on the Hunt Commission that in 1982 , rewrote the Democratic delegate selection rules ; Ferraro was credited as having been the prime agent behind the creation of superdelegates . By 1983 , she was regarded as one of the up @-@ and @-@ coming stars of the party . She was the Chairwoman of the Platform Committee for the 1984 Democratic National Convention , the first woman to hold that position . There she held multiple hearings around the country and further gained in visibility .
While in Congress , Ferraro focused much of her legislative attention on equity for women in the areas of wages , pensions , and retirement plans . She was a cosponsor of the 1981 Economic Equity Act . On the House Select Committee on Aging , she concentrated on the problems of elderly women . In 1984 , she championed a pension equity law revision that would improve the benefits of people who left work for long periods and then returned , a typical case for women with families . The Reagan administration , at first lukewarm to the measure , decided to sign it to gain the benefits of its popular appeal .
Ferraro also worked on some environmental issues . During 1980 , she tried to prevent the federal government from gaining the power to override local laws on hazardous materials transportation , an effort she continued in subsequent years . In August 1984 , she led passage of a Superfund renewal bill and attacked the Reagan administration 's handling of environmental site cleanups .
Ferraro took a congressional trip to Nicaragua at the start of 1984 , where she spoke to the Contras . She decided that the Reagan Administration 's military interventions there and in El Salvador were counterproductive towards reaching U.S. security goals , and that regional negotiations would be better .
In all , Ferraro served three two @-@ year terms , being re @-@ elected in 1980 and 1982 . Her vote shares increased to 58 percent and then 73 percent and much of her funding came from political action committees . While Ferraro 's pro @-@ choice views conflicted with those of many of her constituents as well as the Catholic Church to which she belonged , her positions on other social and foreign policy issues were in alignment with the district . She broke with her party in favoring an anti @-@ busing amendment to the Constitution . She supported deployment of the Pershing II missile and the Trident submarine , although she opposed funding for the MX missile , the B @-@ 1B bomber , and the Strategic Defense Initiative .
While in the House , Ferraro 's political self @-@ description evolved to " moderate " . In 1982 , she said her experiences as assistant district attorney had changed some of her views : " ... because no matter how concerned I am about spending , I have seen first hand what poverty can do to people 's lives and I just can 't , in good conscience , not do something about it . " For her six years in Congress , Ferraro had an average 78 percent " Liberal Quotient " from Americans for Democratic Action and an average 8 percent rating from the American Conservative Union . The AFL @-@ CIO 's Committee on Political Education gave her an average approval rating of 91 percent .
= = 1984 vice @-@ presidential candidacy = =
As the 1984 U.S. presidential election primary season neared its end and Walter Mondale became the likely Democratic nominee , the idea of picking a woman as his vice @-@ presidential running mate gained considerable momentum . The National Organization for Women and the National Women 's Political Caucus pushed the notion , as did several top Democratic figures such as Speaker Tip O 'Neill . Women mentioned for the role included Ferraro and Mayor of San Francisco Dianne Feinstein , both of whom were on Mondale 's five @-@ person short list .
Mondale selected Ferraro to be his Vice @-@ Presidential candidate on July 12 , 1984 . She stated , " I am absolutely thrilled . " The Mondale campaign hoped that her selection would change a campaign in which he was well behind ; in addition to attracting women , they hoped she could attract ethnic Democrats in the Northeast U.S. who had abandoned their party for Reagan in 1980 . Her personality , variously described as blunt , feisty , spirited , and somewhat saucy , was also viewed as an asset . In turn , Mondale accepted the risk that came with her inexperience .
As Ferraro was the first woman to run on a major party national ticket in the U.S. , and the first Italian American , her July 19 nomination at the 1984 Democratic National Convention was one of the most emotional moments of that gathering , with female delegates appearing joyous and proud at the historic occasion . In her acceptance speech , Ferraro said , " The daughter of an immigrant from Italy has been chosen to run for vice president in the new land my father came to love . " Convention attendees were in tears during the speech , not just for its significance for women but for all those who had immigrated to America . The speech was listed as number 56 in American Rhetoric 's Top 100 Speeches of the 20th Century .
Ferraro gained immediate , large @-@ scale media attention . At first , journalists focused on her novelty as a woman and her poor family background , and their coverage was overwhelmingly favorable . Nevertheless , Ferraro faced many press questions about her foreign policy inexperience , and responded by discussing her attention to foreign and national security issues in Congress . She faced a threshold of proving competence that other high @-@ level female political figures have had to face , especially those who might become commander @-@ in @-@ chief ; the question " Are you tough enough ? " was often directed to her . Ted Koppel questioned her closely about nuclear strategy and during Meet the Press she was asked , " Do you think that in any way the Soviets might be tempted to try to take advantage of you simply because you are a woman ? "
The choice of Ferraro was viewed as a gamble , and pundits were uncertain whether it would result in a net gain or loss of votes for the Mondale campaign . While her choice was popular among Democratic activists , polls immediately after the announcement showed that only 22 percent of women were excited about Ferraro 's selection , versus 18 percent who agreed that it was a " bad idea " . By a three @-@ to @-@ one margin , voters thought that pressure from women 's groups had led to Mondale 's decision rather than his having chosen the best available candidate . Nonetheless , in the days after the convention Ferraro proved an effective campaigner , with a brash and confident style that forcefully criticized the Reagan administration and sometimes almost overshadowed Mondale . Mondale had been 16 points behind Reagan in polls before the pick , and after the convention he pulled even for a short time .
By the last week of July , however , questions — due initially to reporting by The New York Times — began about Ferraro 's finances , the finances of her husband , John Zaccaro , and their separately filed tax returns . ( While the Mondale campaign had anticipated some questions , it had only spent 48 hours on vetting Ferraro 's family 's finances . ) This was also the first time the American media had to deal with a national candidate 's husband . Ferraro said she would release both their returns within a month , but maintained she was correct not to have included her husband 's financial holdings on her past annual Congressional disclosure statements . The media also reported on the FEC 's past investigation into Ferraro 's 1978 campaign funds . Although Ferraro and Zaccaro 's finances were often interwoven on paper , with each half partners in Zaccaro 's company , Ferraro had little knowledge of his business , or even how much he was worth . Zaccaro did not understand the greater public exposure that his wife 's new position brought to their family , and resisted releasing his financial information . On August 12 , Ferraro announced that her husband would not in fact be releasing his tax returns , on the grounds that to do so would disadvantage his real estate business and that such a disclosure was voluntary and not part of election law . She joked , " You people who are married to Italian men , you know what it 's like " , angering fellow Italian Americans .
The announcement dominated television and newspapers ; Ferraro was besieged by questions regarding the finances as well as criticism for ethnic stereotyping . As she later wrote , " I had created a monster . " Republicans saw her finances as a " genderless " issue that they could attack Ferraro with without creating a backlash , and some Mondale staffers thought Ferraro might have to leave the ticket . The Philadelphia Inquirer went even further in its investigations , seeking to link Zaccaro to organized crime figures , but most publishers avoided this topic and law enforcement officials did not treat the allegations with much seriousness . A week after her previous statement , Ferraro said Zaccaro had changed his mind and would indeed release his tax records , which was done on August 20 . The full statements included notice of payment of some $ 53 @,@ 000 in back federal taxes that she owed due to what was described as an accountant 's error . Ferraro said the statements proved overall that she had nothing to hide and that there had been no financial wrongdoing . The disclosures indicated that Ferraro and her husband were worth nearly $ 4 million , had a full @-@ time maid , and owned a boat and the two vacation homes . Much of their wealth was tied up in real estate rather than being disposable income , but the disclosures hurt Ferraro 's image as a rags @-@ to @-@ riches story .
Ferraro 's strong performance at an August 22 press conference covering the final disclosure — where she answered all questions for two hours — effectively ended the issue for the remainder of the campaign , but significant damage had been done . No campaign issue during the entire 1984 presidential campaign received more media attention than Ferraro 's finances . The exposure diminished Ferraro 's rising stardom , removed whatever momentum the Mondale – Ferraro ticket gained out of the convention , and delayed formation of a coherent message for the fall campaign .
Sharp criticism from Catholic Church authorities put Ferraro on the defensive during the entire campaign , with abortion opponents frequently protesting her appearances with a level of fervor not usually encountered by pro @-@ choice Catholic male candidates such as Mario Cuomo and Ted Kennedy . In a 1982 briefing for Congress , Ferraro had written that " the Catholic position on abortion is not monolithic and there can be a range of personal and political responses to the issue . " Ferraro was criticized by Cardinal John O 'Connor , the Catholic Archbishop of New York , and James Timlin , the Bishop of Scranton , for misrepresenting the Catholic Church 's position on abortion . After several days of back @-@ and @-@ forth debate in the public media , Ferraro finally conceded that , " the Catholic Church 's position on abortion is monolithic " but went on to say that " But I do believe that there are a lot of Catholics who do not share the view of the Catholic Church " . Ferraro was also criticized for saying that Reagan was not a " good Christian " because , she said , his policies hurt the poor . To defend Ferraro , the pro @-@ choice group Catholics for a Free Choice placed an October 7 , 1984 , full @-@ page ad in The New York Times titled " A Catholic Statement on Pluralism and Abortion " .
Ferraro drew large crowds on the campaign trail , many of whom wished to see the history @-@ making candidate in person , who often chanted , " Ger @-@ ry ! Ger @-@ ry ! " Mondale and Ferraro rarely touched during their appearances together , to the point that he would not even place his palm on her back when they stood side @-@ by @-@ side ; Ferraro later said this was because anything more and " people were afraid that it would look like , ' Oh , my God , they 're dating . ' " .
There was one vice @-@ presidential debate between Congresswoman Ferraro and Vice President George H. W. Bush . Held on October 11 , the result was proclaimed mostly even by the press and historians ; women voters tended to think Ferraro had won , while men , Bush . At it , Ferraro criticized Reagan 's initial refusal to support an extension to the Voting Rights Act . Her experience was questioned at the debate and she was asked how her three terms in Congress stacked up with Bush 's extensive government experience . To one Bush statement she said , " Let me just say first of all , that I almost resent , Vice President Bush , your patronizing attitude that you have to teach me about foreign policy . " She strongly defended her position on abortion , which earned her applause and a respectful reply from her opponent . In the days leading up to the debate , Second Lady of the United States Barbara Bush had publicly referred to Ferraro as " that four @-@ million @-@ dollar — I can 't say it , but it rhymes with ' rich ' . " Barbara Bush soon apologized . Ferraro 's womanhood was consistently discussed during the campaign ; one study found that a quarter of newspaper articles written about her contained gendered language .
On October 18 the New York Post accurately reported that her father had been arrested for possession of numbers slips in Newburgh shortly before his death , and inaccurately speculated that something mysterious had been covered up about that death . Ferraro 's mother had never told her about his arrest ; she had been also arrested as an accomplice but released after her husband 's death . The printing of the story led Ferraro to state that Post publisher Rupert Murdoch " does not have the worth to wipe the dirt under [ my mother 's ] shoes . " Throughout , Ferraro kept campaigning , taking on the traditional running mate role of attacking the opposition vigorously . By the end , she had traveled more than Mondale and more than Reagan and Bush combined .
On November 6 , Mondale and Ferraro lost the general election in a landslide . They received only 41 percent of the popular vote compared to Reagan and Bush 's 59 percent , and in the Electoral College won only Mondale 's home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia . Ferraro failed to carry her own congressional district , which always tended to vote Republican in presidential races . Ferraro 's presence on the ticket had little measurable effect overall . Reagan captured 55 percent of women voters and about the same share of Catholic voters , the latter being the highest level yet for a Republican presidential candidate . Of the tenth of voters who decided based on the vice @-@ presidential candidates , 54 percent went to Mondale – Ferraro , establishing that Ferraro provided a net gain to the Democrats of 0 @.@ 8 percent . Reagan 's personal appeal and campaign themes of prosperity and " It 's morning again in America " were quite strong , and political observers generally agree that no combination of Democrats could have won the election in 1984 . Mondale himself would later reflect that " I knew that I was in for it with Reagan " and that he had no regrets about choosing Ferraro .
After the election , the House Ethics Committee found that Ferraro had technically violated the Ethics in Government Act by failing to report , or reporting incorrectly , details of her family 's finances , and that she should have reported her husband 's holdings on her Congressional disclosure forms . However , the committee concluded that she had acted without " deceptive intent " , and since she was leaving Congress anyway , no action against her was taken . Ferraro said , " I consider myself completely vindicated . " The scrutiny of her husband and his business dealings presaged a trend that women candidates would face in American electoral politics .
Ferraro is one of only two U.S. women to run as vice @-@ president on a major party national ticket . The other is Alaska governor Sarah Palin , the 2008 Republican vice @-@ presidential nominee , whose ticket also lost .
= = First Senate run and ambassadorship = =
Ferraro had relinquished her House seat to run for the vice @-@ presidency . Her new @-@ found fame led to an appearance in a Diet Pepsi commercial in 1985 . She published Ferraro : My Story , an account of the campaign with some of her life leading up to it , in November 1985 . It was a best seller and earned her $ 1 million . She also earned over $ 300 @,@ 000 by giving speeches . She founded the Americans Concerned for Tomorrow political action committee , which focused on getting ten women candidates elected in the 1986 Congressional elections ( eight of whom would be successful ) . Despite the one @-@ sided national loss in 1984 , Ferraro was still viewed as someone with a bright political future . Many expected her to run in the 1986 United States Senate election in New York against first @-@ term Republican incumbent Al D 'Amato , and during 1985 she did Upstate New York groundwork towards that end . A Senate candidacy had been her original plan for her career , before she was named to Mondale 's ticket . But in December 1985 , she said she would not run , due to an ongoing U.S. Justice Department probe on her and her husband 's finances stemming from the 1984 campaign revelations .
Members of Ferraro 's family were indeed facing legal issues . Her husband John Zaccaro had pleaded guilty in January 1985 , to fraudulently obtaining bank financing in a real estate transaction and had been sentenced to 150 hours of community service . Then in October 1986 , he was indicted on unrelated felony charges regarding an alleged 1981 bribery of Queens Borough President Donald Manes concerning a cable television contract . A full year later , he was acquitted at trial . The case against him was circumstantial , a key prosecution witness proved unreliable , and the defense did not have to present its own testimony . Ferraro said her husband never would have been charged had she not run for vice president . Meanwhile , in February 1986 , the couple 's son John had been arrested for possession and sale of cocaine . He was convicted , and in June 1988 , sentenced to four months imprisonment ; Ferraro broke down in tears in court relating the stress the episode had placed on her family . Ferraro worked on an unpublished book about the conflicting rights between a free press and being able to have fair trials . Asked in September 1987 , whether she would have accepted the vice @-@ presidential nomination had she known of all the family problems that would follow , she said , " More than once I have sat down and said to myself , oh , God , I wish I had never gone through with it ... I think the candidacy opened a door for women in national politics , and I don 't regret that for one minute . I 'm proud of that . But I just wish it could have been done in a different way . "
Ferraro remained active in raising money for Democratic candidates nationwide , especially women candidates . During the 1988 presidential election , Ferraro served as vice chair of the party 's Victory Fund . She also did some commentating for television . Ferraro was a fellow at the Harvard Institute of Politics from 1988 to 1992 , teaching in @-@ demand seminars such as " So You Want to be President ? " She also took care of her mother , who suffered from emphysema for several years before her death in early 1990 .
By October 1991 , Ferraro was ready to enter elective politics again , and ran for the Democratic nomination in the 1992 United States Senate election in New York . Her opponents were State Attorney General Robert Abrams , Reverend Al Sharpton , Congressman Robert J. Mrazek , and New York City Comptroller and former Congresswoman Elizabeth Holtzman . Abrams was considered the early front @-@ runner . The D 'Amato campaign feared facing Ferraro the most among these , as her Italian ancestry , effective debating and stump speech skills , and her staunch pro @-@ choice views would eat into several of D 'Amato 's usual bases of support . Ferraro emphasized her career as a teacher , prosecutor , congresswoman , and mother , and talked about how she was tough on crime . Ferraro drew renewed attacks during the primary campaign from the media and her opponents over Zaccaro 's finances and business relationships . She objected that a male candidate would not receive nearly as much attention regarding his wife 's activities . Ferraro became the front @-@ runner , capitalizing on her star power from 1984 , and using the campaign attacks against her as an explicitly feminist rallying point for women voters . As the primary date neared , her lead began to dwindle under the charges , and she released additional tax returns from the 1980s to try to defray the attacks .
Holtzman ran a negative ad accusing Ferraro and Zaccaro of taking more than $ 300 @,@ 000 in rent in the 1980s from a pornographer with ties to organized crime . Ferraro said there had been efforts to oust the man , Robert DiBernardo , after reports of the tenancy originated during her 1984 vice @-@ presidential campaign , but he had remained in the building for three more years . In addition , a report by an investigator for the New York State Organized Crime Task Force found its way to the media via a tip from a Holtzman aide ; it said that Zaccaro had been seen meeting with the DiBernardo in 1985 . Ferraro said in response that those two had never met .
The final debates were nasty , and Holtzman in particular constantly attacked Ferraro 's integrity and finances . In an unusual election @-@ eve television broadcast , Ferraro talked about " the ethnic slur that I am somehow or other connected to organized crime . There 's lots of innuendo but no proof . However , it is made plausible because of the fact that I am an Italian @-@ American . This tactic comes from the poisoned well of fear and stereotype ... " On the September 15 , 1992 , primary , Abrams edged out Ferraro by less than a percentage point , winning 37 percent of the vote to 36 percent , with Sharpton and Holtzman well behind . Ferraro did not concede she had lost for two weeks .
Abrams spent much of the remainder of the campaign trying to get Ferraro 's endorsement . Ferraro , enraged and bitter after the nature of the primary , ignored Abrams and accepted Bill Clinton 's request to campaign for his presidential bid instead . She was eventually persuaded by state party leaders into giving an unenthusiastic endorsement with just three days to go before the general election , in exchange for an apology by Abrams for the tone of the primary . D 'Amato won the election by a very narrow margin . The Ferraro @-@ Holtzman fighting of the campaign was viewed as a disaster by many feminists , but overall the 1992 U.S. Senate elections saw so many victories that it became known as the " Year of the Woman " .
Following the primary loss , Ferraro became a managing partner in the New York office of Keck , Mahin & Cate , a Chicago @-@ based law firm . There she organized the office and spoke with clients , but did not actively practice law and left before the firm fell into difficulties . Ferraro 's second book , a collection of her speeches , was titled Changing History : Women , Power and Politics and was published in 1993 .
President Clinton appointed Ferraro as a member of the United States delegation to United Nations Commission on Human Rights in January 1993 . She attended the June 1993 World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna as the alternate U.S. delegate . Then in October 1993 , Clinton promoted her to be United States Ambassador to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights , saying that Ferraro had been " a highly effective voice for the human rights of women around the world . " The Clinton administration named Ferraro vice @-@ chair of the U.S. delegation to the landmark September 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing ; in this role she picked a strong team of experts in human rights issues to serve with her . During her stint on the commission , it for the first time condemned anti @-@ Semitism as a human rights violation , and also for the first time prevented China from blocking a motion criticizing its human rights record . Regarding a previous China motion that had failed , Ferraro had told the commission , " Let us do what we were sent here to do — decide important questions of human rights on their merits , not avoid them . " Ferraro held the U.N. position into 1996 .
= = Commentator and second Senate run = =
In February 1996 , Ferraro joined the high @-@ visibility CNN political talk show Crossfire , as the co @-@ host representing the " from the left " vantage . She kept her brassy , rapid @-@ fire speech and New York accent intact , and her trial experience from her prosecutor days was a good fit for the program 's format . She sparred effectively with " from the right " co @-@ host Pat Buchanan , for whom she developed a personal liking . The show stayed strong in ratings for CNN , and the job was lucrative . She welcomed how the role " keeps me visible [ and ] keeps me extremely well informed on the issues . "
At the start of 1998 , Ferraro left Crossfire and ran for the Democratic nomination again in the 1998 United States Senate election in New York . The other candidates were Congressman Charles Schumer and New York City Public Advocate Mark J. Green . She had done no fundraising , out of fear of conflict of interest with her Crossfire job , but was nonetheless immediately perceived as the front @-@ runner . Indeed , December and January polls had her 25 percentage points ahead of Green in the race and even further ahead of Schumer . Unlike the previous campaigns , her family finances never became an issue . However , she lost ground during the summer , with Schumer catching up in the polls by early August and then soon passing her . Schumer , a tireless fundraiser , outspent her by a five @-@ to @-@ one margin , and Ferraro failed to establish a political image current with the times . In the September 15 , 1998 primary , she was beaten soundly by Schumer by a 51 percent to 26 percent margin . Unlike 1992 , the contest was not divisive , and Ferraro and third @-@ place finisher Green endorsed Schumer at a unity breakfast the following day . Schumer would go on to decisively unseat D 'Amato in the general election .
The 1998 primary defeat brought an end to Ferraro 's political career . The New York Times wrote at the time : " If Ms. Ferraro 's rise was meteoric , her political career 's denouement was protracted , often agonizing and , at first glance , baffling . " She still retained admirers , though . Anita Perez Ferguson , president of the National Women 's Political Caucus , noted that female New York political figures in the past had been reluctant to enter the state 's notoriously fierce primary races , and said : " This woman has probably been more of an opinion maker than most people sitting for six terms straight in the House of Representatives or Senate . Her attempts , and even her losses , have accomplished far beyond what others have accomplished by winning . "
= = Business career , illness and medical activism = =
In 1980 , Ferraro co @-@ founded the National Organization of Italian American Women , which sought to support the educational and professional goals of its members and put forward positive role models in order to fight ethnic stereotyping , and was still a distinguished member of its board at the time of her death . Ferraro was connected with many other political and non @-@ profit organizations . She was a board member of the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs , and a member of the Council on Foreign Relations . She became president of the newly established International Institute for Women 's Political Leadership in 1989 . In 1992 , she was on the founding board of Project Vote Smart . By 1993 , she was serving on the Fordham Law School Board of Visitors , as well as on the boards of the National Breast Cancer Research Fund , the New York Easter Seal Society , and the Pension Rights Center , and was one of hundreds of public figures on the Planned Parenthood Federation of America 's Board of Advocates . In 1999 , she joined the board of the Bertarelli Foundation , and in 2003 , the board of the National Women 's Health Resource Center . During the 2000s she was on the board of advisors to the Committee to Free Lori Berenson .
Framing a Life : A Family Memoir was published by Ferraro in November 1998 . It depicts the life story of her mother and immigrant grandmother ; it also portrays the rest of her family , and is a memoir of her early life , but includes relatively little about her political career .
Ferraro had felt unusually tired at the end of her second senate campaign . In November 1998 , she was diagnosed with multiple myeloma , a form of blood cancer where plasma cells secrete abnormal antibodies known as Bence @-@ Jones proteins , which can cause bones to disintegrate and dump toxic amounts of calcium into the bloodstream . She did not publicly disclose the illness until June 2001 , when she went to Washington to successfully press in Congressional hearings for passage of the Hematological Cancer Research Investment and Education Act . A portion of the Act created the Geraldine Ferraro Cancer Education Program , which directs the U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services to establish an education program for patients of blood cancers and the general public . Ferraro became a frequent speaker on the disease , and an avid supporter and honorary board member of the Multiple Myeloma Research Foundation .
Though initially given only three to five years to live , by virtue of several new drug therapies and a bone marrow transplant in 2005 , she would beat the disease 's Stage 1 survival mean of 62 months by over a factor of two . Her advocacy helped make the new treatments approved and available for others as well . For much of the last decade of her life , Ferraro was not in remission , but the disease was managed by continually adjusting her treatments .
Ferraro joined Fox News Channel as a regular political commentator in October 1999 . By 2005 , she was making sporadic appearances on the channel , which continued into 2007 , and beyond . She partnered with Laura Ingraham , starting in December 1999 , in writing the alternate @-@ weeks column " Campaign Countdown " on the 2000 presidential election for The New York Times Syndicate . During the 2000s , Ferraro was an affiliated faculty member at the Georgetown Public Policy Institute .
In January 2000 , Ferraro and Lynn Martin — a former Republican Congresswoman and U.S. Secretary of Labor who had played Ferraro in George H. W. Bush 's debate preparations in 1984 — co @-@ founded , and served as co @-@ presidents of , G & L Strategies , a management consulting firm underneath Weber McGinn . Its goal was to advise corporations on how to develop more women leaders and make their workplaces more amenable to female employees . G & L Strategies subsequently became part of Golin Harris International . In June 2003 , Ferraro was made executive vice president and managing director of the public affairs practice of the Global Consulting Group , an international investor relations and corporate communications component of Huntsworth . There she worked with corporations , non @-@ profit organizations , state governments and political figures . She continued there as a senior advisor working about two days a month .
After living for many years in Forest Hills Gardens , Queens , she and her husband moved to Manhattan in 2002 . She republished Ferraro : My Story in 2004 , with a postscript summarizing her life in the twenty years since the campaign .
Ferraro was a member of the board of directors of Goodrich Petroleum beginning in August 2003 . She was also a board member for New York Bancorp in the 1990s .
Ferraro became a principal in the government relations practice of the Blank Rome law firm in February 2007 , working both in New York and Washington about two days a week in their lobbying and communications activities . As she passed the age of 70 , she was thankful for still being alive , and said " This is about as retired as I get , which is part time , " and that if she fully retired , she would " go nuts " .
= = 2008 presidential campaign involvement = =
In December 2006 , Ferraro announced her support for Democratic presidential candidate Hillary Clinton . Later , she vowed to help defend Clinton from being " swiftboated " in a manner akin to 2004 presidential candidate John Kerry . She assisted with fundraising by assuming an honorary post on the finance committee for Clinton 's 2008 presidential campaign . A heated nomination battle emerged between Clinton and Barack Obama , in which racial dust @-@ ups caused by perceptions of remarks made by campaign surrogates took place . Ferraro became livid when her daughter voted for Obama in a primary , which reflected a generational difference among American women in how they viewed the significance of a woman being elected president .
In March 2008 she gave an interview with the Daily Breeze in which she said : " If Obama was a white man , he would not be in this position . And if he was a woman ( of any color ) he would not be in this position . He happens to be very lucky to be who he is . And the country is caught up in the concept . " Ferraro justified the statements by referring to her own run for vice president . Echoing a statement she wrote about herself in 1988 , Ferraro said that " I was talking about historic candidacies and what I started off by saying ( was that ) if you go back to 1984 and look at my historic candidacy , which I had just talked about all these things , in 1984 , if my name was Gerard Ferraro instead of Geraldine Ferraro , I would have never been chosen as a vice @-@ presidential candidate . It had nothing to do with my qualification . " Her comments resonated with some older white women , but generated an immediate backlash elsewhere . There was strong criticism and charges of racism from many supporters of Obama and Obama called them " patently absurd " . Clinton publicly expressed disagreement with Ferraro 's remarks , while Ferraro vehemently denied she was a racist . Again speaking to the Breeze , Ferraro responded to the attacks by saying : " I really think they 're attacking me because I 'm white . How 's that ? " Ferraro resigned from Clinton 's finance committee on March 12 , 2008 , two days after the firestorm began , saying that she didn 't want the Obama camp to use her comments to hurt Clinton 's campaign .
Ferraro continued to engage the issue and criticize the Obama campaign via her position as a Fox News Channel contributor . By early April , Ferraro said people were deluging her with negative comments and trying to get her removed from one of the boards she was on : " This has been the worst three weeks of my life . " Ferraro stated in mid @-@ May 2008 that Clinton had " raised this whole woman candidate thing to a whole different level than when I ran " . She thought Obama had behaved in a sexist manner and that she might not vote for him .
During September 2008 , Ferraro gained attention yet again after the announcement of Sarah Palin as the Republican vice @-@ presidential nominee , the first such major party bid for a woman since her own in 1984 . Palin mentioned Ferraro as well as Clinton as forerunners in her introductory appearance . In reaction to the nomination , Ferraro said , " It 's great to be the first , but I don 't want to be the only . And so now it is wonderful to see a woman on a national ticket . " Ferraro speculated that the pick might win Republican presidential nominee John McCain the election , but said that she was supporting Obama now due to his running mate selection of Joe Biden having resolved her concerns about Obama 's lack of experience in certain areas . Ferraro criticized the media 's scrutiny of Palin 's background and family as gender @-@ based and saw parallels with how she was treated by the media during her own run ; a University of Alabama study also found that media framing of Ferraro and Palin was similar and often revolved around their nominations being political gambles . A Newsweek cover story detected a change in how women voters responded to a female vice presidential candidate from Ferraro 's time to Palin 's , but Ferraro correctly predicted that the bounce that McCain received from the Palin pick would dissipate . In a friendly joint retrospective of her 1984 debate with George H. W. Bush , Ferraro said she had had more national issues experience in 1984 than Palin did now , but that it was important that Palin make a good showing in her vice presidential debate so that " little girls [ could ] see someone there who can stand toe to toe with [ Biden ] . " McCain and Palin ended up losing , but regardless of the 1984 or 2008 election result , Ferraro said that " Every time a woman runs , women win . " Ferraro made a joint appearance with Palin on Fox News during the network 's election @-@ night coverage of the 2010 midterms .
= = Final year , death and tributes = =
Ferraro continued to battle her cancer , making repeated visits to hospitals during her last year and undergoing difficult procedures . Much of her care took place at Dana @-@ Farber Cancer Institute in Boston , where she also acted as an informal advocate for other patients . She was able to make a joint appearance with Palin on Fox News Channel 's coverage of the November 2010 midterm elections .
In March 2011 she went to Massachusetts General Hospital to receive treatment for pain caused by a fracture , a common complication of multiple myeloma . Once there , however , doctors discovered she had come down with pneumonia . Unable to return to her New York home , Ferraro died at Massachusetts General on March 26 , 2011 . In addition to her husband and three children , who were all present , she was survived by eight grandchildren .
President Obama said upon her death that " Geraldine will forever be remembered as a trailblazer who broke down barriers for women , and Americans of all backgrounds and walks of life , " and said that his own two daughters would grow up in a more equal country because of what Ferraro had done . Mondale called her " a remarkable woman and a dear human being ... She was a pioneer in our country for justice for women and a more open society . She broke a lot of molds and it 's a better country for what she did . " George H. W. Bush said , " Though we were one @-@ time political opponents , I am happy to say Gerry and I became friends in time – a friendship marked by respect and affection . I admired Gerry in many ways , not the least of which was the dignified and principled manner she blazed new trails for women in politics . " Palin paid tribute to her on Facebook , expressing gratitude for having been able to work with her the year before and saying , " She broke one huge barrier and then went on to break many more . May her example of hard work and dedication to America continue to inspire all women . " Bill and Hillary Clinton said in a statement that , " Gerry Ferraro was one of a kind – tough , brilliant , and never afraid to speak her mind or stand up for what she believed in – a New York icon and a true American original . "
A funeral Mass was held for her on March 31 at the Church of St. Vincent Ferrer in New York , the site where Ferraro and Zaccaro had been married and had renewed their vows on their 50th anniversary the year before . Figures from local , state , and national politics were present , and Mondale and both Clintons were among the speakers . She is buried in St. John Cemetery in Middle Village , Queens , within her old congressional district .
= = Awards and honors = =
Ferraro was inducted into the National Women 's Hall of Fame in 1994 .
Ferraro received honorary degrees during the 1980s and early 1990s , from Marymount Manhattan College ( 1982 ) , New York University Law School ( 1984 ) , Hunter College ( 1985 ) , Plattsburgh College ( 1985 ) , College of Boca Raton ( 1989 ) , Virginia State University ( 1989 ) , Muhlenberg College ( 1990 ) , Briarcliffe College for Business ( 1990 ) , and Potsdam College ( 1991 ) . She subsequently received an honorary degree from Case Western Reserve University ( 2003 ) .
During her time in Congress , Ferraro received numerous awards from local organizations in Queens .
In 2007 , Ferraro received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Sons of Italy Foundation . In 2008 , Ferraro was the initial recipient of the annual Trailblazer Award from the National Conference of Women 's Bar Associations , and received the Edith I. Spivack Award from the New York County Lawyers ' Association . In 2009 , legislation passed the House of Representatives calling for a post office in Long Island City in Queens to be renamed for Ferraro , and in 2010 , the Geraldine A Ferraro Post Office was accordingly rededicated .
In the fall of 2013 , P.S. 290 in Maspeth in Queens was renamed the Geraldine A. Ferraro Campus .
= = Electoral history = =
Democratic primary for New York 's 9th congressional district , 1978
Geraldine Ferraro – 10 @,@ 254 ( 52 @.@ 98 % )
Thomas J. Manton – 5 @,@ 499 ( 28 @.@ 41 % )
Patrick C. Deignan – 3 @,@ 603 ( 18 @.@ 61 % )
New York 's 9th congressional district , 1978
Geraldine Ferraro ( D ) – 51 @,@ 350 ( 54 @.@ 17 % )
Alfred A. DelliBovi ( R , Conservative ) – 42 @,@ 108 ( 44 @.@ 42 % )
Theodore E. Garrison ( Liberal ) – 1 @,@ 329 ( 1 @.@ 40 % )
New York 's 9th congressional district , 1980
Geraldine Ferraro ( D ) ( Inc . ) – 63 @,@ 796 ( 58 @.@ 34 % )
Vito P. Battista ( R , Conservative , Right to Life ) – 44 @,@ 473 ( 40 @.@ 67 % )
Gertrude Geniale ( Liberal ) – 1 @,@ 091 ( 1 @.@ 00 % )
New York 's 9th congressional district , 1982
Geraldine Ferraro ( D ) ( Inc . ) – 75 @,@ 286 ( 73 @.@ 22 % )
John J. Weigandt ( R ) – 20 @,@ 352 ( 19 @.@ 79 % )
Ralph G. Groves ( Conservative ) – 6 @,@ 011 ( 5 @.@ 85 % )
Patricia A. Salargo ( Liberal ) – 1 @,@ 171 ( 1 @.@ 14 % )
1984 Democratic National Convention ( Vice @-@ Presidential tally )
Geraldine Ferraro – 3 @,@ 920
Shirley Chisholm – 3
United States presidential election , 1984
Ronald Reagan / George H. W. Bush ( R ) ( Inc . ) – 54 @,@ 166 @,@ 829 ( 58 @.@ 5 % ) and 525 electoral votes ( 49 states carried )
Walter Mondale / Geraldine Ferraro ( D ) – 37 @,@ 449 @,@ 813 ( 40 @.@ 4 % ) and 13 electoral votes ( 1 state and D.C. carried )
David Bergland / Jim Lewis ( L ) – 227 @,@ 204 ( 0 @.@ 2 % ) and 0 electoral votes
Democratic primary for the United States Senate , 1992
Robert Abrams – 426 @,@ 904 ( 37 % )
Geraldine Ferraro – 415 @,@ 650 ( 36 % )
Al Sharpton – 166 @,@ 665 ( 14 % )
Elizabeth Holtzman – 144 @,@ 026 ( 12 % )
Democratic primary for the United States Senate , 1998
Chuck Schumer – 388 @,@ 701 ( 50 @.@ 83 % )
Geraldine Ferraro – 201 @,@ 625 ( 26 @.@ 37 % )
Mark Green – 145 @,@ 819 ( 19 @.@ 07 % )
Eric Ruano @-@ Melendez – 28 @,@ 493 ( 3 @.@ 73 % )
|
= Down ( band ) =
Down is an American heavy metal supergroup that formed in 1991 in New Orleans , Louisiana . The band 's current lineup consists of vocalist Phil Anselmo ( Pantera ) , guitarist Pepper Keenan ( Corrosion of Conformity ) , guitarist Bobby Landgraf ( Honky ) , bassist Pat Bruders ( Goatwhore ) , and drummer Jimmy Bower ( Crowbar , Eyehategod , and Superjoint Ritual ) . Since their formation , Down has gone on hiatus twice . To date , Down has released five studio albums . The first three were LPs entitled NOLA ( 1995 ) , Down II : A Bustle in Your Hedgerow ( 2002 ) , and Down III : Over the Under ( 2007 ) . In 2008 , the band began working on additional material , which resulted in two EPs entitled Down IV – Part I , released in September 2012 and Down IV – Part II , released in May 2014 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and NOLA ( 1991 – 1998 ) = = =
Down formed in 1991 with vocalist / songwriter Phil Anselmo of Pantera , guitarist Pepper Keenan of Corrosion of Conformity , second guitarist Kirk Windstein and bassist Todd Strange of Crowbar , and drummer Jimmy Bower of Eyehategod . All of the band members were longtime friends , and shared interest in bands such as Black Sabbath , Trouble , and Saint Vitus , which would significantly influence the music they made . The band made a three @-@ track demo for underground trading . In an effort to build a fan base , the band would ask heavy metal fans if they had ever " heard of this band , Down " and hand them copies of the tape without telling the person that they were in the band . Eventually , the tape was distributed throughout the United States and Down played a small concert in its hometown . A record executive from Elektra Records was attending the show . When he found out who the members of the band were , he signed Down to a recording contract .
Down released its debut album , NOLA , on September 19 , 1995 , debuting at number 55 on the Billboard 200 . AllMusic reviewer David Reamer gave the album a nearly perfect 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , praising the songs " Temptations Wings " , " Stone the Crow " , and " Bury Me in Smoke " . Reamer stated that " this is a landmark album that combines the talents of dedicated rock musicians , and should be included in any collection of heavy metal music . " NOLA was supported by a 13 @-@ date tour , and afterward the band went on hiatus in order to return to their respective bands .
= = = A Bustle in Your Hedgerow and Over the Under ( 1999 – 2008 ) = = =
In 1999 , while Down was on hiatus , Strange left the band and was replaced by Pantera bassist Rex Brown . In late November 2001 , Down came back from hiatus to make another record . The band wrote and recorded Down II : A Bustle in Your Hedgerow in 28 " drug and booze induced " days in Philip 's barn called " Nödferatu 's lair . " The album was released on March 26 , 2002 , but was not received with the same positive reviews as NOLA . Blabbermouth.net reviewer Borivoj Krgin stated , " Down II appears to have been thrown together more haphazardly , with much of the material falling short of the standard set by the Down 's classic debut offering . " Despite poor reviews , the album debuted at number 44 on the Billboard 200 . To support the album , Down toured on the second stage of Ozzfest in 2002 . Afterward , the band once again entered an indefinite hiatus to focus on their respective bands .
Newly signed to Warner Bros. Records , Down once again reformed in 2006 . The band wrote an album over the course of a year . The lyrical content of Down III : Over the Under covers subjects such as the breakup of Pantera , the murder of ex @-@ Pantera guitarist Dimebag Darrell , the band 's anger at the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina , and Anselmo 's recovery from back surgery and drug addiction . Debuting at number 26 on the Billboard 200 , the album was released on September 25 , 2007 , and received generally positive reviews . Kirk Miller of Decibel Magazine said of the album , " for almost an hour , it 's like the metal world was set right again . "
The release of Down III was preceded by a tour with Heaven & Hell and Megadeth . To further support their album , Down headlined a tour starting at the end of September 2007 .
On April 22 , 2008 , the BBC Radio 1 Rockshow broadcast a new session of Down recordings featuring alternate versions of " NOD " , " Beneath the Tides " , and " Jail " , along with a cover of " When The Levee Breaks " ( written by Kansas Joe McCoy and his wife Memphis Minnie , and famously covered by Led Zeppelin ) .
= = = Diary of a Mad Band ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = =
On July 24 , 2008 , frontman Phil Anselmo mentioned in a post on the band 's Myspace blog that Down had been " fucking around with some new material " and had " enough material already recorded " — at least six new songs in addition to those that did not make the final cut on Over the Under . Just what or how much will be included on the tentative Down IV is uncertain , but according to Anselmo , there is " definitely enough for an awesome EP , with some surprises within . "
Asked in November 2008 what the current status of the new album was , bassist Rex Brown told Billboard.com that Down had been " writing constantly on the road . We still have all these ideas , and we play a lot of new stuff at sound check , just to feel it out . Hopefully , we can get back in the studio in the fall and work on something . "
On February 3 , 2009 , Down was announced on -and later removed from- the lineup for the 2009 Bonnaroo Music Festival in Manchester , Tennessee , a large annual outdoor music festival since 2002 . On February 18 , 2009 , Down was announced in the lineup for the 2009 Roskilde Festival in Denmark . Following these live dates , the band toured the USA and Canada during August and September 2009 . On March 30 , 2009 , Down posted a statement on their message board indicating that they will be back in the studio from October through November writing and recording what will eventually become Down IV . In the summer of 2009 , Down began a US tour without Rex on bass , who had developed acute pancreatitis .
On January 27 , 2010 , it was announced that Brown had nearly fully recuperated from his fight with pancreatitis . Down had discussed reconvening in New Orleans sometime after the 2010 Super Bowl to begin work on a new album . With a release date yet to be announced , the new album will be the band 's fourth studio offering . After legal issues with Warner Brothers Records regarding the rights to the music , Down released Diary of a Mad Band : Europe in the Year of VI CD / DVD on October 5 via Roadrunner Records . The title is a reference to Diary of a Madman , an Ozzy Osbourne album .
= = = Brown 's departure and EPs ( 2011 – present ) = = =
In 2011 , Phil Anselmo commented on the future of Down , stating : " Man , there will be a time for Down . Matter of fact we had a meeting this past week , and I know Jimmy 's gotta go do an Eyehategod tour in February . But after that , I think we 're looking to do some shows starting in March . Maybe local around here , maybe even some Mardi Gras gigs . But yeah , last week we sat around and they played me some new stuff they 're working on , and it sounds good . Sounds like it 's got a lot of promise , and really they just need me in the fuckin ' practice room . So all this is going to happen this year . It has to happen . I know there 's a responsibility here . Down has a fanbase and they are very very very loyal . So I don 't want to let those people down . They deserve some new music , we have it . We 've demoed other songs , there 's songs that haven 't even been released that people have never heard , so there 's always Down there . For all you people out there , don 't you stress . We got the Down coming . "
On May 11 , 2011 , Down announced on their Facebook page that they " demoed a brand new tune . " Down played at Download Festival on Saturday 11 June 2011 . They played alongside System of a Down , Avenged Sevenfold and Alice Cooper . Rex did not tour with Down during their spring 2011 shows . Crowbar bassist Pat Bruders filled in for Rex during those shows . " Rex is not gonna be with us , " said Keenan . " He 's got things he needs to deal with , and we gave him an ultimatum and he 's trying to work things out . We 've got Pat ( Bruders ) from Crowbar playing bass , and he 's ass @-@ kickin ' in the same way . He plays with his fingers — which is really cool ; he 's got the whole Geezer Butler thing going on . " When asked whether or not Brown was still considered a part of the band , Keenan was hopeful but hesitant : " I don 't know what to really say on that ; he 's not out of the band , but he 's not playing with us live . " On June 22 , 2011 , Jimmy Bower announced that Rex Brown would not be returning to Down , and that Pat Bruders is his replacement .
The band spoke on their Facebook page and said they started recording new material on October 20 . On January 16 , 2012 , they revealed track names for the new EP on Facebook . Initially , rumors spread about the possibility of Down releasing four EPs , instead of an album . However , when asked about it in an interview with Scuzz TV , Anselmo said that " It would be too pretentious , we try not to think as far ahead as that , and just go with what we feel at the time . " In the summer of 2013 , Kirk Windstein quit the band and was replaced by Bobby Landgraf . Down IV – Part II was released on May 13 , 2014 .
Following Phil 's Nazi salute controversy during the Dimebash event in the US , the organizers of FortaRock Festival decided to cancel the appearance of the band for the 2016 event .
= = Band members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = = Gallery from Hellfest 2013 = = =
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Extended Plays = = =
= = = Live albums = = =
= = = Singles = = =
|
= William McKinley presidential campaign , 1896 =
In 1896 , William McKinley was elected President of the United States . McKinley , a Republican and former Governor of Ohio , defeated the joint Democratic and Populist nominee , William Jennings Bryan , as well as minor @-@ party candidates . McKinley 's decisive victory in what is sometimes seen as a realigning election ended a period of close presidential contests , and ushered in an era of dominance for the Republican Party .
McKinley was born in 1843 in Niles , Ohio . After service in the Civil War , he became a lawyer and settled in Canton , Ohio . In 1876 , he was elected to Congress and remained there most of the time until 1890 , when he was defeated for re @-@ election in a gerrymandered district . By this time he was considered a likely presidential candidate , especially when elected governor in 1891 and 1893 . McKinley had incautiously co @-@ signed the loans of a friend , and demands for repayment were made on him when his friend went bankrupt in the Panic of 1893 . Personal insolvency would have removed McKinley as a factor in the 1896 campaign , but he was rescued from this by businessmen who supported him , led by his friend and political manager , Mark Hanna . With that obstacle removed , Hanna built McKinley 's campaign organization through 1895 and 1896 . McKinley refused to deal with the eastern bosses such as Thomas Platt and Matthew Quay , and they tried to block his nomination by encouraging state favorite son candidates to run and prevent McKinley from getting a majority of delegate votes , which might force him to make deals on political patronage . Their efforts were in vain , as the large , efficient McKinley organization swept him to a first ballot victory at the 1896 Republican National Convention , with New Jersey 's Garret Hobart as his running mate .
McKinley was a noted protectionist , and was confident of winning an election fought on that question . But it was free silver that became the issue of the day , with William Jennings Bryan capturing the Democratic nomination as a foe of the gold standard . Hanna raised millions for a campaign of education with trainloads of pamphlets to convince the voter that free silver would be harmful , and once that had its effect , even more were printed on protectionism . McKinley stayed at home in Canton , Ohio , running a front porch campaign and reaching millions through newspaper coverage of the speeches he gave to organized groups of people who came to see him and hear him address them . This contrasted with Bryan , who toured the nation by rail in his campaign . Supported by the well @-@ to @-@ do , urban dwellers , and prosperous farmers , McKinley won a majority of the popular vote and an easy victory in the Electoral College . McKinley 's systemized approach to gaining the presidency laid the groundwork for modern campaigns , and he forged an electoral coalition that would keep the Republicans in power most of the time until 1932 .
= = Background = =
William McKinley was born in Niles , Ohio , in 1843 . He left college to work as a teacher , and enlisted in the Union Army when the American Civil War broke out in 1861 . He served throughout the war , ending it as a brevet major . Afterwards , he attended Albany Law School in New York state , and was admitted to the bar in Ohio . He settled in Canton , Ohio , and after practicing law there , was elected to Congress in 1876 , and except for short periods served there until 1891 . In 1890 , he was defeated for re @-@ election , but was elected governor the following year , serving two two @-@ year terms .
In the latter part of the 19th century , Ohio was deemed a crucial battleground state ; taking its electoral votes was thought essential for a Republican to win the White House . One way of , hopefully , assuring victory there was to nominate a son of Ohio . Between 1865 and 1929 , every Republican president who first gained his office by election ( that is , rather than succeeding on the death of his predecessor ) was born in Ohio . Deadlocked Republican conventions in 1876 , 1880 , and 1888 turned to men born in Ohio , and in each case the nominee won the presidency . Thus , any successful Ohio Republican was a plausible president . One of McKinley 's rivals among the Ohio contenders was Governor Joseph B. Foraker , but Foraker 's light dimmed when he was defeated for a third two @-@ year term in 1889 .
There were strong factional conflicts inside the Ohio Republican party . One source of bitterness was the 1888 Republican National Convention . Ohio Republicans had endorsed the state 's senior senator , John Sherman , for president . This was Sherman 's third attempt at the Republican nomination ; among his supporters were Cleveland industrialist Mark Hanna , and Governor Foraker , whom Hanna had to that point strongly supported . After repeated balloting , Sherman did not get close to the number of delegate votes needed to nominate , and when rumors swept the convention that the party 's 1884 nominee , former Maine senator James G. Blaine , might enter the race , Foraker expressed willingness to support Blaine . This dealt a serious blow to Sherman 's candidacy by showing division in his home state , and the nomination went to former Indiana senator Benjamin Harrison , who was Ohio @-@ born and who was elected . McKinley had received some delegate votes , and his action in refusing to consider a candidacy while pledged to support Sherman impressed Mark Hanna . The industrialist was outraged at Foraker and abandoned him . McKinley and Hanna shared similar political views , including support for a tariff to protect and encourage American industry , and in the years following 1888 , Hanna became a strong supporter of McKinley .
Revenue from tariffs was then a major source of income for the federal government . There was no federal income tax and tariff debates were passionate ; the 1888 presidential election had them as a major issue . Many Democrats supported a tariff for revenue only , that is , the purpose of tariffs should be to finance government , not to encourage American manufacturers . McKinley disagreed with that and sponsored the McKinley Tariff of 1890 . This act , passed by the Republican @-@ dominated Congress , raised rates on imports to protect American industry . McKinley 's tariff proved unpopular among many people who had to pay the increased prices , and was seen as a reason not only for his defeat for re @-@ election to Congress in 1890 , but for the Republicans losing control of both House and Senate in that year 's midterm elections . Nevertheless , McKinley 's defeat did not , in the end , damage his political prospects , as the Democrats were blamed for gerrymandering him out of his seat .
Sometime between 1888 and 1890 , McKinley decided to run for president , but to have a realistic chance of attaining that goal , he needed to regain office . Foraker 's ambition then was the Senate — he planned to challenge Sherman in the legislative election to be held in January 1892 — and he agreed to nominate McKinley for governor at the state convention in Columbus . McKinley was elected , and Sherman narrowly turned back Foraker 's challenge with considerable help from Hanna .
Harrison had proven unpopular even in his own party , and by the start of 1892 , McKinley was talked about as a potential presidential candidate . McKinley 's name was not offered in nomination at the 1892 Republican National Convention , where he served as permanent chairman , but some delegates voted for him anyway , and he finished third behind Harrison ( who won a first ballot victory ) and Blaine . Hanna had sought support from delegates , but his and McKinley 's strategy is uncertain , due to lack of surviving documents . According to Hanna biographer William T. Horner , " McKinley 's behavior at the convention supports the idea that he liked the attention but was not ready for a campaign " . According to McKinley biographer H. Wayne Morgan , many delegates " saw in [ McKinley ] their nominee for 1896 " .
= = Gaining the nomination = =
= = = Preparing for a run = = =
Harrison was defeated in the November 1892 election by former president Grover Cleveland , a Democrat , who returned to the White House in March 1893 . President Harrison left office proclaiming the nation 's prosperity , but in May , amid economic uncertainty that caused many people to convert assets into gold , the stock market crashed , and many firms went bankrupt . The depression that ensued became known as the Panic of 1893 . Among those who became insolvent in 1893 was a McKinley friend , Robert Walker . McKinley had co @-@ signed promissory notes for Walker , and thought the total to be $ 17 @,@ 000 . Walker had deceived McKinley , telling the governor that fresh loans were renewals of old ones , and the total indebtedness , for which McKinley had made himself liable , was over $ 130 @,@ 000 . That sum was beyond McKinley 's means , and he planned to resign and earn the money as a lawyer . He was rescued by Hanna and other wealthy supporters , who raised the money to pay the loans . According to McKinley biographer Kevin Phillips , the governor 's backers " paid off the cosigned notes so that McKinley — by now , the probable next president — did not need to go back to practicing law " .
The public sympathized with McKinley for his financial trouble , and he was easily re @-@ elected as governor in late 1893 . At that time , the United States , for all practical purposes , was on the gold standard . Many Democrats , and some Republicans , felt that the gold standard limited economic growth , and supported bimetallism , making silver legal tender , as it had been until the passage of the Coinage Act of 1873 . Doing so would likely be inflationary , permitting holders of silver to deposit bullion at the mints , and receive payment for about twice the silver 's 1896 market value . Many farmers , faced with the long decline in agricultural prices that persisted through the first half of the 1890s , felt that bimetallism would expand the money supply and make it easier to pay their debts . Cleveland was a firm supporter of the gold standard , and believed the massive amounts of silver @-@ backed currency issued pursuant to the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 had helped crash the economy . In 1893 , he forced through the act 's repeal , outraging western Democrats such as Nebraska Congressman William Jennings Bryan . The Democratic Congress in 1894 passed the Wilson @-@ Gorman Tariff , significantly lowering many rates from the McKinley Tariff of 1890 . The economy did not improve in 1894 , and other Cleveland actions , such as federal intervention to halt the Pullman strike , further split his party ,
The 1894 election campaign saw the Democrats divided , and the electorate further split by the new People 's Party ( or Populists ) , which had emerged from the agricultural discontent . There were more demands for McKinley to speak than he could possibly fulfill . Campaigning throughout the eastern half of the country on behalf of Republican candidates , and venturing even to New Orleans , in the Democratic Solid South , McKinley spoke to large , enthusiastic crowds as often as 23 times in a day . According to his biographer , Margaret Leech , " McKinley 's fervor was irresistible to his audiences . He was better than a spellbinder . He was a vote @-@ getter . The whirlwind campaign of the Governor of Ohio was a sensation of the autumn . " The 1894 elections saw the Democrats suffer the greatest losses by a majority party in congressional history , as the Republicans again took control of both houses .
= = = First modern primary campaign = = =
The outcome of the 1894 elections made it increasingly likely a Republican would be the next president . At the time , the presidential nominating process started much later than it subsequently would , and McKinley , in quietly organizing his campaign with Hanna 's aid in the early months of 1895 , was alone among the candidates in acting so early . Other potential Republican candidates were former president Harrison , incoming Speaker of the House Thomas Brackett Reed of Maine , Iowa Senator William B. Allison , and several state favorite sons , such as Illinois Senator Shelby Cullom . If former president Harrison entered the race , he would immediately become a major contender , and uncertainty over his status hung over the race in 1895 . At the time , unless there was an incumbent elected Republican president , the nomination was generally not decided until the convention , with state political bosses and delegates exacting a price for their support . A candidate 's efforts to gain the nomination did not begin until shortly before the state delegate conventions in the spring of the election year , where fights over the makeup of the delegation often focused on who would be on it , rather than who delegates would support . McKinley and Hanna decided on a systematic nationwide effort to gain the nomination , what onetime presidential adviser Karl Rove , who penned a book on the 1896 race , called " the first modern primary campaign " .
To devote himself full @-@ time to McKinley 's presidential campaign , Hanna in 1895 turned over management of his companies to his brother Leonard , and rented a house in Thomasville , Georgia , expressing a dislike for Cleveland 's winters . He was joined there by William and Ida McKinley in early 1895 . The location was a plausibly nonpolitical vacation spot for McKinley , and also permitted him to meet many southern Republicans , including blacks . Although southern Republicans rarely had local electoral success , they elected a substantial number of delegates to the national convention . McKinley and Hanna hosted many southern Republican leaders in Thomasville , subsidizing those who did not have the money to come , and made many converts . The governor also traveled in the South ; in Savannah at the end of March 1895 , he became the first presidential hopeful in American history to address an audience of blacks when he spoke at an African American church . By the time he left Thomasville , he had gained the support of the majority of likely southern delegates ; Platt wrote mournfully in his autobiography that Hanna " had the South practically solid before some of us awakened " .
In giving attention to national affairs , McKinley neglected his home front in Ohio , and when the Republican state convention met in Zanesville in May 1895 , it proved to be controlled by the resurgent Foraker , who sought the Senate seat to be filled by the Ohio General Assembly in January 1896 . That convention endorsed McKinley for president and Foraker for Senate , and nominated Foraker supporters for state and party offices , including Asa Bushnell to succeed McKinley as governor . McKinley realized that it would be risky to have a faction hostile to the presidential candidate within his home state , and sought an alliance , campaigning for Bushnell and for a Republican legislature that would send Foraker to Washington . The voters chose Bushnell and gave the state Republicans a large majority in the legislature . In January 1896 , Foraker was overwhelmingly elected ( to take office in March 1897 ) , and McKinley gained Foraker 's agreement to support him for president , assuring party political peace at home .
During 1895 , Hanna journeyed east to meet with the political bosses there , including Pennsylvania Senator Matthew Quay and Thomas C. Platt of New York . He returned to report that the bosses were willing to assure McKinley 's nomination in exchange for a promise to give them control over patronage in their states and a promise in writing that Platt would be Treasury Secretary . McKinley was unwilling to deal , seeking a nomination without strings , and Hanna , though noting that this made his task much harder , undertook to get it . McKinley decided on a theme for his nomination campaign , " The People Against the Bosses " . With Hanna 's aid , McKinley found talented men to run the state organizations , who would in turn find locals to ensure McKinley triumphed at the series of conventions that would elect delegates to the June 1896 Republican convention in St. Louis . Notable among these appointments was Charles G. Dawes in Illinois , a young banker and entrepreneur who had recently moved to Chicago from Nebraska , where he had known Congressman Bryan . In trying to organize Illinois for McKinley , Dawes faced the enmity of the local Republican bosses , who preferred to take a delegation to St. Louis that would support Senator Cullom until the bosses made the right deal .
McKinley left office as governor in January 1896 . In February , Harrison made it clear he would not seek a third nomination . Hanna 's operatives immediately organized Harrison 's home state of Indiana for McKinley with a haste the former president privately found unseemly . By early 1896 , the Reed and Allison campaigns were beginning to form themselves , but had little luck in Indiana . McKinley challenged his rivals everywhere except in states , like Iowa , that he deemed had serious candidates like Senator Allison . The favorite son candidacies of Minnesota Senator Cushman K. Davis and former Nebraska senator Charles F. Manderson fell victim to the McKinley forces , well @-@ financed by Hanna , who took their states away from them . McKinley was disliked by the American Protective Association , an anti @-@ Catholic group angered that as governor he had appointed to office members of that faith . Their wide pamphleting caused Hanna to act against falsehoods that his candidate was a Catholic .
According to historian Stanley Jones in his account of the 1896 campaign , " another feature common to the Reed and Allison campaigns was their failure to make headway against the tide which was running toward McKinley . In fact , both campaigns from the moment they were launched were in retreat . " In March and April 1896 , state conventions in Ohio , Michigan , California , Indiana , and other states elected delegates to the national convention , instructed to vote for McKinley . In New England , McKinley made inroads into Reed 's regional support , as New Hampshire proclaimed no preference between the Speaker and McKinley , and the Vermont convention expressed support for McKinley . The Ohioan was not successful everywhere ; Iowa remained loyally behind Allison , Morton won a majority of the New York delegation , and the bosses were successful in denying McKinley in New Mexico Territory and Oklahoma Territory . The contest was still undetermined going into the April 29 Illinois state convention , with the McKinley forces led by Dawes against the local bosses . McKinley gained most of Illinois ' delegates , giving him a sizable lead , and influencing remaining state conventions to jump on his bandwagon .
McKinley remained well ahead when the state conventions concluded , leaving his opponents ' only hope the Republican National Committee ( RNC ) , which would make initial rulings on which delegates would be seated ; there were contested seats or rival delegations in several states , and rulings against McKinley could still deprive him of a first @-@ ballot majority . When the RNC met in mid @-@ June , just prior to the convention , McKinley was easily victorious in almost all cases .
= = = Republican convention = = =
The 1896 Republican National Convention convened at the Wigwam , a temporary structure in St. Louis , on June 16 . With most credentials battles settled in McKinley 's favor , the roll of delegates drawn up by the RNC heavily favored the Ohioan , though Reed , Allison , Morton and Quay remained in the race . The credentials report served as a test vote , which the McKinley forces won easily . Hanna , who was a delegate from Ohio , was in full control of the convention .
Many westerners , including Republicans , were supporters of free silver . McKinley 's advisors had anticipated there would be strong feelings about the currency question , and pressed the candidate for a decision on what the party platform should say on the subject . McKinley had hoped to avoid this issue ; his surrogates had presented him as firmly for the gold standard in the East , where support for that policy was strong . Western supporters , who often favored silver , were told he was sympathetic to the bimetallic cause . In the following years , several McKinley associates , including publisher H. H. Kohlsaat and Wisconsin 's Henry C. Payne , took credit for including an explicit mention of the gold standard in the platform 's currency plank ( for they deemed it vital to the Republican victory in November ) , but it was not inserted in the draft until Hanna consulted with McKinley by telephone . The silver Republicans from the West were led by Colorado Senator Henry M. Teller , who drafted a plank promoting free silver , only to see it voted down in the drafting committee , and in the full Platform Committee . Teller was determined to have the full convention vote on his language , although it was certain he would lose as most Republican delegates favored the gold standard . The debate was held on June 18 . After Teller 's minority report was voted down and the gold plank adopted by an overwhelming majority , 23 delegates , including Teller and his Senate colleagues Frank Cannon of Utah and Fred Dubois of Idaho , walked out of the convention and thus left the Republican Party . Amid a tumultuous scene , an angry Hanna was seen standing on a chair , shouting at the departing men , " Go ! Go ! Go ! "
Although Platt desired a recess , Hanna refused , wanting the convention to complete its work that day , and the delegates proceeded to the presidential nomination . McKinley had insisted that Foraker nominate him to demonstrate the unity of the Ohio Republican Party , and after some reluctance by the senator @-@ elect , who feared blame if anything went wrong , Foraker agreed . McKinley was waiting with family and friends at his house in Canton , being kept up to date by telegraph and telephone . He was able to listen to part of Foraker 's speech , and the tremendous reception that met it , over the phone line . McKinley was easily nominated on the first ballot , with Reed his nearest competitor . Canton erupted in celebration , with McKinley making speech after speech to the townsfolk and to those who poured in that day by rail from across Ohio , even from his birthplace of Niles .
This left the question of the vice presidential candidate . McKinley had offered the second place on the ticket to Reed , who had refused it . Platt wanted Morton , who had been vice president under Harrison ; the New York governor did not want it , and McKinley did not want him . It was usual at that time for major @-@ party tickets to have one candidate from Ohio or Indiana , and the other from New York , but with that state having supported Morton for the nomination , putting a New Yorker on the ticket would be an unmerited reward . RNC vice chairman Garret Hobart was from Paterson , New Jersey , near to New York City . He was a businessman , lawyer , and former state legislator , and was acceptable to Hanna and other Republican backers while being popular among party activists . Several days before the convention , McKinley chose him as running mate , though no announcement was made . At the convention , Hobart expressed surprise in a letter to his wife , but his selection had been strongly rumored and buttons with his name and McKinley 's seen in St. Louis . Delegates ratified the selection of Hobart , nominating him on the first ballot .
= = General election campaign = =
= = = Getting an opponent = = =
In the days after the Republican convention , McKinley remained in Canton . Hanna had been elected chairman of the RNC during the convention ; he established campaign headquarters in Chicago , in the electorally @-@ crucial Midwest , appointed an executive committee and began to organize the campaign , which as chairman was his responsibility . McKinley oversaw the activities of Hanna and other key managers , and addressed delegations of workers who came to visit him . He met with Hobart , who came to Canton on a brief visit on June 30 , 1896 , and who joined his running mate in speaking to a crowd of visitors . In his speeches , McKinley concentrated on tariffs , which he expected to dominate the campaign , and gave short shrift to the currency question . As McKinley awaited his opponent , he privately commented on the nationwide debate over silver , stating to his Canton crony , Judge William R. Day , " This money matter is unduly prominent . In thirty days you won 't hear anything about it . " The future Secretary of State and Supreme Court justice responded : " In my opinion in thirty days you won 't hear of anything else . "
At the time McKinley was nominated , it was not clear who his Democratic rival would be . Cleveland 's opponents within his party had mobilized into an organized effort to take over the Democratic Party and pass a platform supporting free silver . The platform was deemed of highest priority , and only once that fight was won was a candidate for president to be considered . Despite this resolution , several Democrats sought the nomination , with the foremost being former Missouri representative Richard P. Bland and former Iowa governor Horace Boies . Others either seeking or spoken of for the nomination included South Carolina Senator Benjamin Tillman , Senator Joseph C. Blackburn of Kentucky , and former Nebraska representative William Jennings Bryan .
Dawes had known Bryan in Nebraska and predicted that if Bryan got to address the convention , he would use his skills as a speaker to stampede it to a nomination . McKinley and Hanna mocked Dawes , telling him that Bland would be the Democratic choice . The 1896 Democratic National Convention opened in Chicago on July 7 , with the silverites in full control ; they drafted a platform supporting free silver . The final speaker during the debate on the platform was former congressman Bryan , who with Dawes in the gallery delivered a speech decrying the gold standard that to Democrats , according to Phillips , was " messianic — a call to arms " . Dawes deemed his friend 's Cross of Gold speech magnificent , though with " pitiably weak " logic , but it won Bryan the presidential nomination , and Phillips noted that the address " unnerved Midwestern Republicans , mindful of their own distrust of the East , and threw a weighty stone into the quiet pool of June GOP electoral assumptions " .
When journalist Murat Halstead telephoned McKinley from Chicago to inform him that Bryan would be nominated , he responded dismissively and hung up the phone . Bryan 's nomination briefly gratified the Republicans , believing that his selection would lead to an easy victory for McKinley . In those days when the presidential campaign did not begin in earnest until September , Hanna had planned a vacation while McKinley anticipated a quiet summer . The Republicans were caught by surprise by the wave of enthusiasm that Bryan 's speech and nomination caused , and scuttled these plans ; as Hanna wrote to McKinley on July 16 , " the Chicago convention has changed everything " .
= = = Fundraising and organization = = =
Hanna quickly realized that the currency issue struck an emotional chord in many Americans , and decided on a campaign to persuade the voter that " sound money " , the gold standard unless modified by international agreement , was much preferable to bimetallism . Such propaganda would not be cheap , as before the age of mass media , the most effective way of reaching the electorate was through the written word , and through public speakers who would address meetings on behalf of the candidate . This would take money , and Hanna undertook to raise it from his corporate connections . As Hanna began his fundraising efforts in late July , the Populists met in St. Louis . Faced with splitting the silver vote , they chose to endorse Bryan , beginning their dissolution as a party .
Large sums had to be spent quickly , and Hanna energetically built a businesslike campaign . Bryan 's surge contributed to a sense of crisis that enabled Hanna to make peace in his party , eventually uniting all behind McKinley with the exception of some Silver Republicans . But as the campaign began operations , and began them on a huge scale , money was short . Hanna initially spent much of his time in New York , where many financiers were based . He faced resistance at first , both because he was not yet widely known on the national scene , and because some moneymen , although appalled at the Democratic position on the currency issue , felt Bryan was so extreme that McKinley was sure to win . Others were disappointed New York Governor Morton was not the presidential nominee , but their support became warmer as they came to know McKinley and Hanna . Reports of Bryan support in the crucial Midwest , and intervention by Hanna 's old schoolmate , John D. Rockefeller ( his Standard Oil gave $ 250 @,@ 000 ) , made executives more willing to listen . After a gloomy August for the campaign 's fundraising , in September , corporate moguls " opened their purse strings to Hanna " . J.P. Morgan gave $ 250 @,@ 000 . Dawes recorded an official figure for fundraising of $ 3 @,@ 570 @,@ 397 @.@ 13 , twice what the Republicans had raised in 1892 , and as much as ten times what Bryan may have had to spend . Dawes ' figure did not include fundraising by state and local committees , nor in @-@ kind donations such as railroad fare discounts , which were heavily subsidized for Republican political travelers . Estimates of what Republicans may have raised in total have ranged as high as $ 16 @.@ 5 million .
From his house on North Market Street in Canton , McKinley ran his campaign , with telephone and telegraph at his disposal . Hanna was busy meeting with executives to extract funds , and delegated much of the day @-@ to @-@ day policymaking to others , most prominently Dawes , who was a member of the campaign executive committee and was responsible for distributing much of the money that Hanna raised . Payne was nominally in charge of the Chicago office , but Dawes , a member of the McKinley inner circle , had more influence . Pamphlets were sent from Chicago in carload lots across the country . The campaign spent almost $ 500 @,@ 000 on printing alone , which Stanley Jones , in his account of the 1896 campaign , estimated paid for hundreds of millions of pamphlets . The campaign paid for hundreds of speakers to stump on McKinley 's behalf . Efforts were made to keep expenses down ; Dawes insisted on competitive bidding , and most of his top @-@ level hires were business associates , not political operatives . Others prominent in the Chicago office included Charles Dick , the secretary of the organization and later a senator .
= = = Front porch campaign = = =
From the moment he was nominated , McKinley was beset by supporters coming to Canton to hail him , hoping to hear him give a political speech . McKinley remained in Canton , available to the public every day but Sunday , continuously from his June nomination until Election Day in November , excepting one trip in July to give previously arranged nonpolitical speeches in Cleveland and at Mount Union College . He also took one weekend of rest in late August . The need to greet and speak to supporters made it difficult for McKinley to get campaign work done ; one political club interrupted his conference with Hobart in late June . McKinley complained that his time was not being well managed .
Bryan 's announcement , after gaining the Democratic nomination , that he would undertake a nationwide tour by rail , something then unusual for presidential candidates , put pressure on McKinley to match him . Hanna especially urged his candidate to hit the road . McKinley decided against this , feeling that he could not outdo Bryan , who was a brilliant stump speaker , and that he would be foolish to try . " I might as well put up a trapeze on my front lawn and compete against some professional athlete as go out speaking against Bryan . I have to think when I speak . " . Furthermore , no matter how McKinley traveled , Bryan would upstage him by choosing a less comfortable manner . McKinley was unwilling to compete with Bryan on the Democrat 's terms , and sought to find his own way to reach the people .
The front porch campaign that McKinley decided on was a natural extension of the pilgrimages to Canton by McKinley devotees that were already occurring . After a few initial stumbles , things settled into routine by mid @-@ September . While any group could visit McKinley by writing in advance , his campaign arranged for many of them , and they came from towns small and large . If possible , the group 's leader was brought to Canton in advance to confer with McKinley on what each would say ; if not , the group would be met at the Canton railroad station by a McKinley representative , who would discuss what would be said with the group 's leader . There were parades every day in Canton that campaign season , as the groups marched through the bunting @-@ draped streets , escorted by a mounted troop known as the McKinley Home Guards , who saw to it that groups arrived at the McKinley home on a prearranged schedule . There , the group leader would deliver his remarks , and McKinley would deliver a reply often prepared in advance . Afterwards , there might be refreshments or the opportunity to shake hands with McKinley , before the delegation was escorted off for their return journey to the railroad station . If it rained , the meetings took place in one of several indoor venues .
Bicycling was the latest craze in the United States in 1896 , and among those who came to salute McKinley was a brigade of bicyclists , who pulled images of McKinley and Hobart behind their vehicles , and performed tricks as they went to see their presidential candidate . The people of Canton joined in enthusiastically , and restaurants and souvenir venders expanded their operations . A popular source of keepsakes was the wood of McKinley 's front porch or fence , whittled as supporters listened , and the blades of his lawn , when not trampled underfoot , made later appearances in scrapbooks . In between delegations , McKinley entertained visitors ; future Secretary of State John Hay , a major backer , came to Canton reluctantly , not relishing the crowds , but wrote " he met me at the [ railroad ] station , gave me meat & took me upstairs and talked for two hours as calmly & serenely as if we were summer boarders in Bethlehem , at a loss for means to kill time . I was more struck than ever with his mask . It is a genuine Italian ecclesiastical face of the XVth Century . "
With his campaign ill @-@ financed , Bryan was his own greatest asset , and traveled to 27 of the 45 states , logging 18 @,@ 000 miles ( 29 @,@ 000 km ) , and in his estimated 600 speeches reached some 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 listeners . McKinley did not match those numbers , speaking 300 times to 750 @,@ 000 visitors , but in remaining at home , he avoided the fatigue of Bryan 's exhausting tour . The Republican was better able to provide fresh material for the next day 's newspapers without making gaffes ; Bryan made several . According to R. Hal Williams in his book on the 1896 campaign , " The Front Porch Campaign was a remarkable success . "
= = = Issues and tactics = = =
Bryan 's nomination caused defections and divisions in the Republican party ; many farmers in the Midwest , even in McKinley 's Ohio , found the inflation it was expected free silver would cause to be attractive , as it would make it easier to repay debts . Polls in battleground midwestern states , and word from activists there , showed that Bryan had made deep inroads into Republican support . One survey in August showed that of the midwestern states , only Wisconsin was safe for the Republicans .
By early in August , the McKinley campaign had decided upon a strategy : appeal to labor and established farmers . McKinley , on the urgent advice of his advisers , by the middle of that month had decided that the currency question must be addressed immediately , and the campaign machine began the process of generating millions of publications and sending hundreds of speakers into the field . The pamphlets contained quotes or articles from McKinley , members of Congress , and financial experts on why a bimetallic standard would be ruinous to the country . Theodore Roosevelt , then a member of the New York City Police Commission , recalled seeing boxcars full of paper being dispatched when he visited the Chicago headquarters in August . For the benefit of those who did not read English , there were pamphlets in French , Spanish , Portuguese , Yiddish , German , Polish , Norwegian , Italian , Danish , and Dutch . Pre @-@ written articles were sent to periodicals , and the campaign paid for friendly newspapers to be sent to thousands of citizens across the country for the duration . Five million families received McKinley campaign materials on a weekly basis . Among the surrogates sent out on McKinley 's behalf was newspaper editor Warren G. Harding , paid to make speeches across Ohio . The future president made a positive impression and three years later was elected to the Ohio State Senate , beginning his political rise .
On his front porch , McKinley urged sound money , though he never ceased to promote protectionism to support American industry . Horner noted , " the campaign effectively linked both gold and protectionism with patriotism . " McKinley felt that he could not campaign entirely on the money issue , as many midwestern Republicans who supported silver considered protection the major issue of the campaign , and would stay with the party if it promoted tariffs . These issues were given different emphases sectionally : in the East and South , the money issue was stressed most strongly , while tariffs were given more attention in the Midwest . McKinley had little support in the mining @-@ dominated Rocky Mountain states , where even most Republicans were for silver and Bryan . On the Pacific coast , where there was strong silver sentiment , but where McKinley had some hope of winning , the tariff was made the major issue .
McKinley soothed ruffled feathers of party bigwigs by mail and in person . Though former president Harrison refused to tour , he gave a speech in New York where he railed against free silver , stating , " the first dirty errand that a dirty dollar does is to cheat the workingman " . The public was closely following the campaign , and the Republican efforts had their effect . In September , polls showed the midwestern states leaning Republican , though silver @-@ supporting Iowa was still close . McKinley 's running mate , Hobart , continued to look after his law practice and business interests , and was apparently a major contributor to the Republican campaign . He helped to run the New York office , gave some speeches from his own front porch in Paterson , and in October went on a short campaign tour of New Jersey , though he was a reluctant public speaker . Hobart was much stronger for the gold standard than was McKinley , and made clear his views in his speeches .
William Randolph Hearst 's New York Journal was hostile to McKinley throughout the campaign ; prior to the Republican convention , Alfred Henry Lewis accused Hanna of acting on behalf of a syndicate , controlling McKinley . During the general election campaign , the Democratic newspapers , especially the papers owned by Hearst , attacked Hanna for his supposed role as McKinley 's political master . These articles and cartoons have contributed to a lasting popular belief that McKinley was not his own man , but that he was effectively owned by the corporations , through Hanna . Homer Davenport 's cartoons for the Hearst papers were especially effective in molding public opinion about Hanna , who was often depicted as " Dollar Mark " , in a suit decorated with dollar signs ( a term for which " dollar mark " was a common alternative ) . McKinley 's 1893 personal financial crisis allowed him to be convincingly depicted as a child , helpless in the hands of businessmen and their mere tool in the 1896 campaign . Hearst and the Journal gave $ 41 @,@ 000 to Bryan 's campaign , one of the largest the Democrats received , but that amount was dwarfed by the sums raised by Hanna .
September saw Maine and Vermont go heavily Republican in their state elections , meaning the Northeast was likely safe for McKinley . Early in that month , dissident Democrats , who favored the gold standard and President Cleveland 's policies , formed the National Democratic Party , or Gold Democrats , meeting in Indianapolis . The nomination of Illinois Senator John M. Palmer for president and former Kentucky governor Simon Bolivar Buckner for vice president meant Bryan would have to overcome an electoral split in his party . Hanna applauded the selection , and predicted it would get large numbers of votes . There was no chance Palmer would win the election , and Hanna saw to it that the Gold Democrats were aided with quietly @-@ provided funds .
The Midwest was the crucial battleground , and both parties poured in their resources , with Bryan spending most of his time there , as did Hanna . McKinley and Hanna began to sense that the flood of materials and speakers on the silver question had had their effect in the Midwest . Dawes began to slow the flow of pamphlets against silver , and set loose a flood of material favoring McKinley 's tariff policies . Events favored the Republicans : wheat prices rose considerably in the final weeks of the campaign , lessening the enthusiasm of farmers for free silver . The Democrats alleged that Republicans were coercing workers into voting for McKinley on threat of losing their jobs ; Hanna denied it , and offered a reward for evidence , that was not claimed . To Bryan 's outrage , Hanna called for a " Flag Day " for the final Saturday , October 31 , as the campaign again sought to link support for McKinley to patriotism , a theme echoed by the candidate as he addressed his final delegations . Hundreds of thousands marched through the streets of the nation 's cities in honor of the flag ; New York City saw its largest parade since 1865 . Election day was November 3 ; on its eve Hanna and Dawes predicted overwhelming victory .
= = Election = =
Stanley Jones wrote of the 1896 campaign :
For the people it was a campaign of study and analysis , of exhortation and conviction — a campaign of search for economic and political truth . Pamphlets tumbled from the presses , to be snatched up eagerly , to be read , reread , studied , debated , to become guides to economic thought and political action . They were printed and distributed by the million , enough to provide several copies for every man , woman , and child in the country ; but the people clamored for more . Favorite pamphlets became dog @-@ eared , grimy , fell apart as their owners laboriously restudied their arguments and quoted from them in public and private debate .
Voters cast their ballots on November 3 , and that evening gathered in cities and around telegraph offices . In places like New York , the results were projected by stereopticon onto the sides of newspaper buildings . The election was considered by many to be the most crucial since 1860 , and large numbers of voters followed the returns all night . McKinley cast his ballot early , going with his brother Abner to the polling place , and met Hanna for lunch . That evening , McKinley sat in his library as the returns came in by telegraph . It was quickly apparent that McKinley was leading , and by midnight he had pencilled the figure " 241 " on a pad , the number of electoral votes of states that were certain , enough for victory . Hanna wired from Cleveland to Canton , " The feeling here beggars description ... I will not attempt bulletins . You are elected to the highest office of the land by a people who always loved and trusted you . "
McKinley won the entire Northeast and Midwest , and broke into the border states to win Delaware , Maryland , Kentucky , and West Virginia . He won North Dakota , and came close in South Dakota , Kansas , and in Bryan 's Nebraska . McKinley was also successful in California and Oregon . McKinley won with 7 @.@ 1 million votes to Bryan 's 6 @.@ 5 million , 51 % to 47 % . The electoral vote was not as close : 271 for McKinley to 176 for Bryan . McKinley increased the Republican vote by 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 from Harrison 's defeat in 1892 , though Bryan also increased the Democratic total .
Bryan had hoped to sweep the rural vote and make inroads on urban labor , but he was not successful . McKinley became the first Republican candidate to win in New York City , and won in its rival city of Brooklyn as well . He lost only one city with a population of over 45 @,@ 000 in the Midwest , and won many rural counties in crucial states . Although Bryan won all states south of Kentucky and from Texas east , McKinley won most urban centers there .
Irish immigrants generally remained loyal to the Democratic Party , but McKinley 's promises of sound money attracted German @-@ Americans who were appalled by Bryan 's inflationary proposals . German @-@ Americans had long been Democratic ; efforts by that party to rebut McKinley , including circulating a statement by Bismarck in support of bimetallism , were ineffective . Many Catholics and recent immigrants favored McKinley because of the dislike the American Protective Association had for him .
= = Appraisal = =
Rove saw several reasons for McKinley 's triumph . McKinley campaigned on big issues , the tariff and sound money . The candidate went after Bryan 's strongest issue , silver , arguing that bimetallism would harm Americans and hit the working class hardest . McKinley 's theme was that it was morally wrong to debase the currency ; he linked his stand for sound money with the tariff and with patriotism , appealing to crucial voter blocs who gave McKinley the biggest victory in a presidential election since Grant in 1872 . He reached out to immigrants and urban factory workers , recognizing their importance in a changing America . And to implement these strategies , McKinley , with Hanna 's aid , created a larger , more organized campaign structure than had previously been seen in presidential campaigns .
Jones noted , " The Republican Party , under the skillful leadership of McKinley and Hanna , produced a combination of votes which gave it the victory in 1896 and which promised Republican ascendency for many years in the future . " The 1896 presidential race is often considered a realigning election , when there is a major shift in voting patterns , upsetting the political balance . McKinley was supported by middle @-@ class and wealthy voters , urban laborers , and prosperous farmers ; this coalition would keep the Republicans mostly in power until the 1930s . McKinley 's wooing of the Midwest would pay ample dividends in the years to come , as it remained solidly Republican in most years until 1932 .
Williams suggested that McKinley 's campaign of education of the voter through speakers and literature brought him victory , but with a cost to the close identification between voters and the political parties that was typical in the 19th century . Voter turnout was almost 80 percent in 1896 , about average for presidential elections in the late 19th century , but then dropped substantially and remained at lower levels as voters , who once participated in rallies and torchlight processions for candidates , were distracted by radio and by professional sports . Nevertheless , later campaigns tried to recapture the magic of 1896 ; Warren G. Harding conducted his own front porch campaign in 1920 , even borrowing the flagpole from McKinley 's old front yard .
William D. Harpine , studying McKinley 's rhetoric during the front porch campaign , argued that McKinley 's campaign was in some ways ahead of its time , " even in the age of broadcasting , most candidates for nationwide office embark on a campaign tour . In 1896 , long before the advent of broadcasting , McKinley accomplished the same purpose as a modem candidate , and did so without making a campaign tour . " The visits of the delegations to the McKinley home in Canton constituted a series of media events that McKinley used to get his speeches into the newspapers . In speaking from his front porch , McKinley was not principally addressing the delegations , but the many Americans who would not visit Canton , and who would read the speeches in newspapers . Williams agreed , " the remarkable Front Porch Campaign used modern technology to bring 750 @,@ 000 visitors to his small hometown and dispatched his message nationwide . "
Rove , while an advisor to Texas Governor George W. Bush during the 2000 election campaign , often spoke of the parallels he saw between McKinley and his 1896 campaign , and the 2000 election , going so far as to fax copies of books on McKinley . The media took the parallels further than Rove intended , making comparisons between him and Hanna , hinting that Rove controlled Bush like it was said Hanna controlled McKinley . Williams also saw the lasting effect of McKinley 's 1896 campaign , " a new approach to campaigning , the educational or merchandising style , continues to mold campaigns today , as does McKinley 's focus on message , Hanna 's use of money , and Dawes 's reliance on efficiency and education ... more than a century later , Americans and their political leaders can still learn from the events of the 1890s , whose lessons echo down the years today . "
Harpine saw McKinley 's personal touch as key to his successful race :
McKinley created the impression that he was , in the fashion of pre @-@ Civil War candidates , waiting casually at home for the people to elect him . Yet , McKinley during the summer of 1896 initiated a vigorous , carefully crafted campaign that employed all of the resources available to him to reach and persuade the national voting public ... There was something folksy about campaigning so casually from a modest , middle @-@ class home . When the throngs of voters stepped off the train in Canton , they discovered that McKinley was to all appearances one of them . It was in large part this quality , the ability to project warm personality through these groups to the press , that led to the success of the Front Porch campaign .
= = Results = =
( a ) Includes 222 @,@ 583 votes as the People 's nominee . ( b ) Sewall was Bryan 's Democratic running mate . ( c ) Watson was Bryan 's People 's running mate .
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= Manasollasa =
The Manasollāsa , also known as Abhilashitartha Chintamani , is an early 12th @-@ century Sanskrit text composed by the South Indian king Someshvara III of the Kalyani Chalukya dynasty . The text is an encyclopedic work covering topics such as polity , governance , ethics , economics , astronomy , astrology , rhetoric , veterinary medicine , horticulture , perfumes , food , architecture , sports , painting , poetry and music . The text is a valuable source of socio @-@ cultural information on 11th- and 12th @-@ century India .
The encyclopedic treatise is structured as five sub @-@ books with a cumulative total of 100 chapters . It is notable for its extensive discussion of arts , particularly music and dance . It is also notable for including chapters on food recipes and festivals , many of which continue to be a part of modern Indian culture .
Another medieval era Sanskrit text with the title Mānasollāsa also exists , consisting of devotional praise hymns ( stotra ) , and it is different from the encyclopedic treatise .
= = Nomenclature = =
The title Manasollasa ( मनसोल ् लास ) is a compound Sanskrit word , consisting of Mana ( मन ) or " mind " and Sollasa ( सोल ् लास ) or " rejoicing , delighting " . It means " the joy , delighter or entertainer of the mind " . Alternatively , the compound word can be broken as Manasa and Ullasa , which mean " happiness of mind " .
The work is divided into five sub @-@ books suffixed as Viṁśati ( vinshati , विंशति ) which means the number twenty , and refers to the 20 chapters in the sub @-@ book . The text , in modern scholarship , is referred by both IAST spellings " Manasollāsa " , and " Mānasollāsa " .
The text is also known as the Abhilashitartha Chintamani ( Abhilaṣitārtha Cintāmaṇi ) ( literally , the precious gem that fulfills wish ) . This text title is spelled Manasollāsa , and there is another medieval era Indian text with the title , Mānasollāsa ( Sanskrit : मानसोल ् लास ) , written in Stotra ( poetry of praise ) style related to Dakshinamurti , very different in its scope , and attributed to Adi Shankara or Suresvara .
= = Date and author = =
The text was completed in 1129 CE , and the author of the text was Someshvara III . He became the king in 1127 , was part of the Kalyani Chalukya dynasty , and the third king in this dynasty . The year when he succeeded to the throne is approximate , and some scholars state it to be 1125 CE . The author hailed from the medieval Deccan region consisting of large parts of modern Karnataka , Telangana , western Andhra Pradesh and southern Maharashtra .
Epigraphical evidence suggests that the dynasty made numerous land grants and financial awards to the causes of Shaivism and monastic scholarship . These monasteries in the Indian peninsula became centers of the study of the Vedas and Hindu philosophies such as the Nyaya school . Someshvara III composed this text in the initial years of his kingship .
= = Structure = =
The Manasollasa encyclopedic treatise was written in Sanskrit in a Kannada language speaking region ( Kannadiga ) . The script of the text is Devanagari . The encyclopedia is in poetic verse style .
It is structured into five sub @-@ books and cumulatively contains 100 chapters . The five Vinshatis ( sub @-@ book of twenties ) are subtitled as Rājyaprāptikāraṇa , Rājyasya Sthairyakāraṇa , Bhartur Upabhogakāraṇa , Pramoda kāraṇa and the Krīḍā viṁśati . Each chapter deals with a specific topic , ranging from gaining a kingdom , its governance , economics , infrastructure , architecture , medicine , cuisine , ornaments , perfumery and love @-@ games , sports , jewelry , painting , music and dance . A major part of the text is dedicated to music and musical instruments , with 2500 verses dedicated to it .
The number of ślokas in this work are :
= = Contents = =
= = = Kingdom and qualifications of a king : Rājyaprāptikāraṇa = = =
The Rajyapraptikarana sub @-@ book describes the qualifications of a king and ministers , their duties and moral characteristics that enable the king to rule a stable , prosperous kingdom .
The chapter asserts that the king should be truthful , avoid anger , be virtuous and lead by example . The king , ministers and citizens should , states the Manasollasa 's first sub @-@ book , refrain from injury to others , practice self @-@ restraint , generosity , have faith in gods , feed and support the poor and helpless , and be friendly . The king , according to the text , should honour his ancestors and all guests .
= = = Governance , economics and political stability : Rājyasya Sthairyakāraṇa = = =
The second sub @-@ book Rajyasya Sthairyakaraṇa Vimshati is dedicated to governance and economic matters to help a king retain the kingdom . It describes the ministers and their qualifications , the maintenance , equipment and training of an army with a Senapati ( general ) to command the army , the priests and astrologer as advisors to the king , the treasury and methods of taxation .
J Duncan M Derrett , a professor of Oriental Laws , states that chapter 2 @.@ 8 of the text discusses three kinds of constitutions and recommends that the king should delegate large responsibilities to their ministers , a system that implied that the kingdom was virtually ruled through the ministers . The Manasollasa gives a significant role to an astrologer in the council of advisors to the king who would forecast the auspicious time to respond to an attack , which Hartmut Scharfe , a professor of Indo @-@ European Studies , states proved disastrous during Muslim and foreign invasion of the Deccan peninsula .
The delegated form of governance in the existing or acquired provinces is recommended by the text , with the qualification that the province should be ruled by someone born in that province . However , all ministers in immediate vicinity of the king must be born within the long established state . The king , states the text , must watch out and act against bureaucrats and officials who torment his subjects . The text cautions that the king should prevent abuse of his subjects from officials , robbers , enemies , king 's favorites and his own greed .
This sub @-@ book also describes various types of Shulka ( taxation ) . In the 4th chapter , it explains the tax collected at port of entry , on goods that arrive at the border .
The second sub @-@ book includes chapters on veterinary care of animals such as horses and elephants who served the army . Many veterinary ailments are described , ranging from fever to injury to stomach upsets , and the proper nourishment , care of the animals as well as formulations of medicines are outlined in the verses of chapter 2 @.@ 6 for example . The text also includes the names of over forty herbs used for recipes of veterinary care .
= = = Food and entertainment : Bhartur Upabhogakāraṇa = = =
The Manasollasa contains numerous recipes of vegetarian and non @-@ vegetarian cuisines , which according to Mary Ellen Snodgrass , the editor of Encyclopedia of Kitchen History , preceded the cookbook writing history in Europe by a century . While the text is not the first among Indian books to describe fermented foods , it contains a range of cuisines based on fermentation of cereals and flours . Among meat dishes , the text does not include the meat of cow , horse , elephant , parrot , peacock or eggs , but describes cuisines based on pork , venison , goat meat , fish among others .
The text asserts that fresh water is Amrita ( nectar ) of cuisine , and Visha ( poison ) otherwise . Someshvara III recommends fresh water from rains ( autumn ) , springs ( summer ) , rivers and lakes ( winter ) for daily use , after it has been filtered with a clean cloth . The text recommends boiling the water before use , and using the water so prepared within a day . For drinking , if boiling is not possible , the text recommends alternate purification method based on Triphala , and then adding a piece of mango , patala or champaka flower or powder of camphor for flavor and delight . The text mentions fresh coconut water , and various drinks called Panakas .
The art of preparing wine is described in Manasollasa from grape and sugarcane , with unusual sources being based on brewing of Talimadya ( palm ) , Narikelasava ( coconut ) and Khajurasava ( date ) .
= = = Joy and delight : Pramoda kāraṇa = = =
The fourth sub @-@ book of Manasollasa deals with entertainment such as music , dance , songs and competitive sports . The text covers dance and music in exclusive chapters , dedicating far more verses to these two topics than first two sub @-@ books combined . This may reflect the importance of performance arts in 12th @-@ century India , since Someshvara III 's son and successor to the throne king Jagadekamalla II also wrote a famed treatise Sangita @-@ chudamani , literally " crown jewel of music " .
The text describes various types of songs and music , instruments and dances along with occasions of their performance . The Tripadi , states the text in chapter 4 @.@ 16 , was performed during harvesting and husking season , the Shatpadi was performed by folk story tellers , the Dhavala sung at marriages , while festivals such as Holi were celebrated with Mangala and Caccari genre of songs and music . The Charya , asserts the text , were songs of meditation . The text also claims Gana ( गान ) to be a form of " popular music " , and that Geet that is neither fast nor slow , but contains both high and low notes , where the words and musical meter are equally important to be preferred by spiritual teachers .
Rhetoric is discussed in chapter 4 @.@ 17 of Manasollasa . The text dedicates over 450 verses in chapter 4 @.@ 18 to dance and describes various types of dance forms , musical instruments that go with dance performances , and the various occasions when dances were celebrated . The text discusses six types of performers , their characteristics and their roles – Nata ( actor ) , Nartaka ( dancer ) , Nartaki ( danseuse ) , Vaitalika ( bard ) , Charana ( wandering performer ) and Kollatika ( acrobat ) . Their body movements ( 6 Anga , 8 Upanga and 6 Pratyanga ) are explained in the text with their significance . This discussion is similar to that found in Natya Shastra , a Sanskrit text composed around 1st @-@ century BCE . The text thereafter presents the 21 Sthanas and 26 Charis of the dance tradition . The discussion on dance movements is compiled by six categories – mimetic ( natya ) , delicate ( lasya ) , vigorous ( tandava ) , acrobatic ( visama ) , ludicrious ( vikata ) and graceful ( laghu ) .
The fourth sub @-@ book also describes various sports , such as fishing , dog ( greyhound @-@ type ) racing , horse racing , elephant racing as well as archery , wrestling and athletics . The text also describes some unique team sports , such as a form of Indian polo involving two teams of eight members each .
= = = Games , arts and leisure : Krīḍā viṁśati = = =
The last sub @-@ book of the text discusses recreation through horticulture and the art of creating gardens , painting , perfumery , architecture and the training and breeding of horses , elephants , lavakki ( a type of quail ) , and other wildlife . A chapter is devoted to the royal sport of hunting deer or other wild game . It deals with 35 different ways of game hunting of deer , in addition to hunting with dogs , falconry and fishing .
The garden design , asserts the text , should include rocks and raised mounds of summits , manicured with plants and trees of diverse varieties , artificial ponds and flowing brooks . It describes the arrangement , the soils , the seeds , the distance between different types of plants and trees , the methods of preparing manure , proper fertilizing and maintaining the garden , which plants and trees are best planted first , when to plant others , watering , signs of overwatering and underwatering , weeds , means of protecting the garden and other details . Both public parks and woodland gardens are described by the text , with about forty types of trees recommended for the park in the Vana @-@ krida chapter .
Other arts and leisure activities described in the fifth sub @-@ book include activities such as garland making and perfumery , wherein the various flowers are arranged in patterns of pleasing colors and one 's that delight the senses . The text lists various types of aromatic woods , such as sandalwood and their qualities . The text describes the art of painting as three types – Viddha ( representational ) , Aviddha ( sketch , outline ) and Bhava ( narrative ) . The text includes a recipe for making various types of paints , as well as crayons for drawing , and then recommends the steps in making a drawing .
The 12th @-@ century text describes jewelry and make up of women including those applied to their eyelids , lashes , cheeks and forearms , mentioning different styles and colors of Tilak on their foreheads . In jewelry , those for hairdo and earrings are notable .
= = Reception = =
The Manasollasa has been called an important source on socio @-@ cultural history of medieval India , particularly for the history of food , drinks and cuisines and of sports . Mandakranta Bose , a professor on South Asian studies , describes the text to be of great interest because it is the earliest known text with details on certain dance genre in India . A team consisting of Bruno Nettl , a professor of music and anthropology , has called Manasollasa an enormous treatise with large sections on music , dance and other performance arts .
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= Operation Barbarossa =
Operation Barbarossa ( German : Unternehmen Barbarossa ) was the code name for Nazi Germany 's World War II invasion of the Soviet Union , which began on 22 June 1941 . The operation was driven by Adolf Hitler 's ideological desire to conquer Soviet territory as outlined in his 1925 manifesto Mein Kampf ( " My Struggle " ) .
In the two years leading up to the invasion , the two countries signed political and economic pacts for strategic purposes . Nevertheless , on 18 December 1940 , Hitler authorized an invasion of the Soviet Union , with a planned start date of 15 May 1941 . The actual invasion began on 22 June 1941 . Over the course of the operation , about four million soldiers of the Axis powers invaded the Soviet Union along a 2 @,@ 900 @-@ kilometer ( 1 @,@ 800 mi ) front , the largest invasion force in the history of warfare . In addition to troops , the Germans employed some 600 @,@ 000 motor vehicles and between 600 @,@ 000 and 700 @,@ 000 horses . It marked the beginning of the rapid escalation of the war , both geographically and in the formation of the Allied coalition .
Operationally , the Germans won resounding victories and occupied some of the most important economic areas of the Soviet Union , mainly in Ukraine , both inflicting and sustaining heavy casualties . Despite their successes , the German offensive stalled on the outskirts of Moscow and was subsequently pushed back by a Soviet counteroffensive . The Red Army repelled the Wehrmacht 's strongest blows and forced Germany into a war of attrition for which it was unprepared . The Germans would never again mount a simultaneous offensive along the entire strategic Soviet @-@ Axis front . The failure of the operation drove Hitler to demand further operations inside the USSR of increasingly limited scope , all of which eventually failed , such as Case Blue and Operation Citadel .
The failure of Operation Barbarossa was a turning point in the fortunes of the Third Reich . Most importantly , the operation opened up the Eastern Front , to which more forces were committed than in any other theater of war in world history . The Eastern Front became the site of some of the largest battles , most horrific atrocities , and highest casualties for Soviets and Germans alike , all of which influenced the course of both World War II and the subsequent history of the 20th century . The German forces captured millions of Soviet prisoners who were not granted protections stipulated in the Geneva Conventions . Most of them never returned alive ; Germany deliberately starved the prisoners to death as part of a " Hunger Plan " that aimed to reduce the population of Eastern Europe and then re @-@ populate it with ethnic Germans . Over a million Soviet Jews were murdered by Einsatzgruppen death squads and gassing as part of the Holocaust .
= = Background = =
= = = Racial policies of Nazi Germany = = =
As early as 1925 , Adolf Hitler vaguely declared in his political manifesto and autobiography Mein Kampf that he would invade the Soviet Union , asserting that the German people needed to secure Lebensraum ( " living space " ) to ensure the survival of Germany for generations to come . On 10 February 1939 , Hitler told his army commanders that the next war would be " purely a war of Weltanschauungen ... totally a people 's war , a racial war . " On 23 November , once World War II had already started , Hitler declared that " racial war has broken out and this war shall determine who shall govern Europe , and with it , the world . " Racial policy of Nazi Germany viewed the Soviet Union ( and all of Eastern Europe ) as populated by non @-@ Aryan Untermenschen ( " sub @-@ humans " ) , ruled by " Jewish Bolshevik conspirators " . Hitler claimed in Mein Kampf that Germany 's destiny was to " turn to the East " as it did " six hundred years ago " . Accordingly , it was stated Nazi policy to kill , deport , or enslave the majority of Russian and other Slavic populations and repopulate the land with Germanic peoples , under the Generalplan Ost . The Germans ' belief in their ethnic superiority is discernible in official German records and by pseudoscientific articles in German periodicals at the time , which covered topics such as " how to deal with alien populations " .
While older historiography tended to emphasize the notion of a " clean " Wehrmacht , the historian Jürgen Förster notes that " In fact , the military commanders were caught up in the ideological character of the conflict , and involved in its implementation as willing participants . " Before and during the invasion of the Soviet Union , German troops were heavily indoctrinated with anti @-@ Bolshevik , anti @-@ Semitic and anti @-@ Slavic ideology via movies , radio , lectures , books and leaflets . Likening the Soviets to the forces of Genghis Khan , Hitler told Croatian military leader Slavko Kvaternik that the " Mongolian race " threatened Europe . Following the invasion , Wehrmacht officers told their soldiers to target people who were described as " Jewish Bolshevik subhumans " , the " Mongol hordes " , the " Asiatic flood " and the " Red beast " . Nazi propaganda portrayed the war against the Soviet Union as both an ideological war between German National Socialism and Jewish Bolshevism and a racial war between the Germans and the Jewish , Gypsies and Slavic Untermenschen . German army commanders cast the Jews as the major cause behind the " partisan struggle " . The main guideline policy for German troops was " Where there 's a partisan , there 's a Jew , and where there 's a Jew , there 's a partisan , " or " The partisan is where the Jew is . " Many German troops viewed the war in Nazi terms and regarded their Soviet enemies as sub @-@ human .
After the war began , the Nazis issued a ban on sexual relations between Germans and foreign slave workers . There were regulations enacted against the Ost @-@ Arbeiter ( " Eastern Workers " ) that included the death penalty for sexual relations with a German person . Heinrich Himmler , in his secret memorandum , Reflections on the Treatment of Peoples of Alien Races in the East , ( dated 25 May 1940 ) outlined the future plans for the non @-@ German populations in the East . Himmler believed the Germanization process in Eastern Europe would be complete when " in the East dwell only men with truly German , Germanic blood " .
The Nazi secret plan Generalplan Ost ( " General Plan for the East " ) , which was prepared in 1941 and confirmed in 1942 , called for a " new order of ethnographical relations " in the territories occupied by Nazi Germany in Eastern Europe . The plan envisaged ethnic cleansing , executions and enslavement of the overwhelming majority of the populations of conquered counties with very small differing percentages of the various conquered nations undergoing Germanization , expulsion into the depths of Russia and other fates . The net effect of this plan would be to ensure that the conquered territories would be Germanized . It was divided into two parts : the Kleine Planung ( " Small Plan " ) , which covered actions to be taken during the war , and the Große Planung ( " Large Plan " ) , which covered actions to be undertaken after the war was won , and to be implemented gradually over a period of 25 to 30 years .
Evidence from a speech given by General Erich Hoepner indicates the disposition of Operation Barbarossa and the Nazi racial plan , as he informed the 4th Panzer Group that the war against the Soviet Union was " an essential part of the German people 's struggle for existence " ( Daseinkampf ) , also referring to the imminent battle as the " old struggle of Germans against Slavs " and even stated , " the struggle must aim at the annihilation of today 's Russia and must therefore be waged with unparalleled harshness . " To Hoepner , the imminent conflict would be " the old battle of the Germanic against the Slav peoples ... the defense of European culture against Moscovite @-@ Asiatic inundation , and the repulse of Jewish Bolshevism ... No adherents of the present Russian @-@ Bolshevik system are to be spared . " Walther von Brauchitsch also told his subordinates that troops should view the war as a " struggle between two different races and [ should ] act with the necessary severity . " Racial motivations were central to Nazi ideology and played a key role in planning for Operation Barbarossa since both Jews and communists were considered equivalent enemies of the Nazi state . Nazi imperialist ambitions were exercised without moral consideration for either group in their ultimate struggle for Lebensraum . In the eyes of the Nazis , the war against the Soviet Union would be a Vernichtungskrieg , a war of annihilation .
= = = German @-@ Soviet relations of 1939 – 40 = = =
In August 1939 , Germany and the Soviet Union signed a non @-@ aggression pact in Moscow known as the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact shortly before the German invasion of Poland that triggered the outbreak of World War II in Europe . A secret protocol to the pact outlined an agreement between Germany and the Soviet Union on the division of the eastern European border states between their respective " spheres of influence " : the Soviet Union and Germany would partition Poland in the event of an invasion by Germany , and the Soviets would be allowed to overrun the Baltic states and Finland . On 23 August 1939 the rest of the world learned of the pact between the Nazis and the Soviets but were unaware of the provisions to partition Poland . The conclusion of this pact was indeed followed by a Soviet invasion of Poland that led to the annexation of the eastern part of the country . The pact stunned the world because of the parties ' earlier mutual hostility and their conflicting ideologies . As a result of the pact , Germany and the Soviet Union maintained reasonably strong diplomatic relations for two years and fostered an important economic relationship . The countries entered a trade pact in 1940 by which the Soviets received German military equipment and trade goods in exchange for raw materials , such as oil and wheat , to help the Nazis circumvent a British blockade of Germany .
Despite the parties ' ostensibly cordial relations , each side was highly suspicious of the other 's intentions . After Germany entered the Axis Pact with Japan and Italy , it began negotiations about a potential Soviet entry into the pact . After two days of negotiations in Berlin from 12 to 14 November 1940 , Germany presented a written proposal for a Soviet entry into the Axis . On 25 November 1940 , the Soviet Union offered a written counter @-@ proposal to join the Axis if Germany would agree to refrain from interference in the Soviet Union 's sphere of influence , but Germany did not respond . As both sides began colliding with each other in Eastern Europe , conflict appeared more likely , although they did sign a border and commercial agreement addressing several open issues in January 1941 . Historian Robert Service avows that Soviet leader Joseph Stalin was convinced that the overall military strength of the USSR was such that he had nothing to fear and anticipated an easy victory should Germany attack ; moreover , Stalin believed that since the Germans were still fighting the British in the west , Hitler would be unlikely to open up a two front war and subsequently delayed the reconstruction of defensive fortifications in the border regions . When German soldiers swam across the Bug River to warn the Red Army of an impending attack , they were treated like enemy agents and shot . Some historians believe that Stalin , despite providing an amicable front to Hitler , did not wish to remain allies with Germany . Rather , Stalin might have had intentions to break off from Germany and proceed with his own campaign against Germany to be followed by one against the rest of Europe .
= = = German invasion plans = = =
Stalin 's reputation as a brutal dictator contributed both to the Nazis ' justification of their assault and their faith in success ; many competent and experienced military officers were killed in the Great Purge of the 1930s , leaving the Red Army with a relatively inexperienced leadership compared to that of their German counterparts . The Nazis often emphasized the Soviet regime 's brutality when targeting the Slavs with propaganda . They also claimed that the Red Army was preparing to attack the Germans , and their own invasion was thus presented as a pre @-@ emptive strike .
In the middle of 1940 , following the rising tension between the Soviet Union and Germany over territories in the Balkans , an eventual invasion of the Soviet Union seemed to Hitler to be the only solution . While no concrete plans were made yet , Hitler told one of his generals in June that the victories in Western Europe finally freed his hands for his important real task : the showdown with Bolshevism . With the successful end to the campaign in France , General Erich Marcks was assigned to the working group drawing up the initial invasion plans of the Soviet Union . The first battle plans were entitled Operation Draft East ( but colloquially it was known as the Marcks Plan ) . His report advocated the A @-@ A line to be the operational objective of any invasion of the Soviet Union . This goal would extend from northern city of Arkhangelsk on the Arctic Sea through Gorky and Rostov to the port city of Astrakhan at the mouth of the Volga on the Caspian Sea . The report concluded that this military border would reduce the threat to Germany ( and the Third Reich ) from attacks by enemy bombers .
Although Hitler was warned by his general staff that occupying " Western Russia " would create " more of a drain than a relief for Germany 's economic situation " , he anticipated compensatory benefits , such as the demobilization of entire divisions to relieve the acute labor shortage in German industry ; the exploitation of Ukraine as a reliable and immense source of agricultural products ; the use of forced labor to stimulate Germany 's overall economy ; and the expansion of territory to improve Germany 's efforts to isolate Great Britain . Hitler was convinced that Britain would sue for peace once the Germans triumphed in the Soviet Union .
On 5 December 1940 , Hitler received the final military plans for the invasion on which the German High Command had been working since July 1940 under the codename " Operation Otto " . Hitler , however , was dissatisfied with these plans and on 18 December issued Führer Directive 21 , which called for a new battle plan , now codenamed " Operation Barbarossa " . The operation was named after medieval Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of the Holy Roman Empire , a leader of the Third Crusade in the 12th century . The invasion was set for 15 May 1941 , though it was delayed for about 7 weeks in favor of further time for preparation because of the war in the Balkans .
According to a 1978 essay by German historian Andreas Hillgruber , the invasion plans drawn up by the German military elite were coloured by hubris stemming from the rapid defeat of France at the hands of the " invincible " Wehrmacht and by ignorance tempered by traditional German stereotypes of Russia as a primitive , backward " Asiatic " country . Red Army soldiers were considered brave and tough , but the officer corps was held in contempt . The leadership of the Wehrmacht paid little attention to politics , culture and the considerable industrial capacity of the Soviet Union , in favour of a very narrow military view . Hillgruber argued that because these assumptions were shared by the entire military elite , Hitler was able to push through with a " war of annihilation " that would be waged in the most inhumane fashion possible with the complicity of " several military leaders " , even though it was quite clear that this would be in violation of all accepted norms of warfare .
In autumn 1940 , high @-@ ranking German officials drafted a memorandum on the dangers of an invasion of the Soviet Union . They said Ukraine , Belorussia and the Baltic States would end up as only a further economic burden for Germany . It was argued that the Soviets in their current bureaucratic form were harmless and that the occupation would not benefit Germany . Hitler disagreed with economists about the risks and told his right @-@ hand man Hermann Göring , the chief of the Luftwaffe , that he would no longer listen to misgivings about the economic dangers of a war with Russia . It is speculated that this was passed on to General Georg Thomas , who had produced reports that predicted a net economic drain for Germany in the event of an invasion of the Soviet Union unless its economy was captured intact and the Caucasus oilfields seized in the first blow , and he consequently revised his future report to fit Hitler 's wishes . The Red Army 's ineptitude in the Winter War against Finland in 1939 – 40 convinced Hitler of a quick victory within a few months . He did not anticipate a long campaign lasting into the winter , and therefore adequate preparations , such as the distribution of warm clothing and winterization of vehicles and lubricants , were not made .
Beginning in March 1941 , Göring 's Green Folder laid out details for the disposal of the Soviet economy after conquest . The Hunger Plan outlined how the entire urban population of conquered territories was to be starved to death , thus creating an agricultural surplus to feed Germany and urban space for the German upper class . Nazi policy aimed to destroy the Soviet Union as a political entity in accordance with the geopolitical Lebensraum ideals for the benefit of future generations of the " Nordic master race " . In 1941 , Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg , later appointed Reich Minister of the Occupied Eastern Territories , suggested that conquered Soviet territory should be administered in the following Reichskommissariate ( " Reich Commissionerships " ) :
German military planners also researched Napoleon 's failed invasion of Russia . In their calculations , they concluded that there was little danger of a large @-@ scale retreat of the Red Army into the Russian interior , as it could not afford to give up the Baltic states , Ukraine , or the Moscow and Leningrad regions , all of which were vital to the Red Army for supply reasons and would thus have to be defended . Hitler and his generals disagreed on where Germany should focus its energy . Hitler , in many discussions with his generals , repeated his order of " Leningrad first , the Donbass second , Moscow third " ; but he consistently emphasized the destruction of the Red Army over the achievement of specific terrain objectives . Hitler believed Moscow to be of " no great importance " in the defeat of the Soviet Union and instead believed victory would come with the destruction of the Red Army west of the capital , especially west of the Western Dvina and Dnieper rivers , and this pervaded the plan for Barbarossa . This belief later led to disputes between Hitler and several German senior officers , including Heinz Guderian , Gerhard Engel , Fedor von Bock and Franz Halder , who believed the decisive victory could only be delivered at Moscow . Hitler had grown overconfident in his own military judgment as a result of the rapid successes in Western Europe .
= = German preparations = =
The Germans had begun massing troops near the Soviet border even before the campaign in the Balkans had finished . By the third week of February 1941 , 680 @,@ 000 German soldiers were gathered in assembly areas on the Romanian @-@ Soviet border . In preparation for the attack , Hitler moved more than 3 @.@ 2 million German and about 500 @,@ 000 Axis soldiers to the Soviet border , launched many aerial surveillance missions over Soviet territory , and stockpiled war materiel in the East .
Although the Soviet High Command was alarmed by this , Stalin 's belief that the Third Reich was unlikely to attack only two years after signing the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact resulted in a slow Soviet preparation . Since April 1941 , the Germans had begun setting up Operation Haifisch to substantiate their claims that Britain was the real target . These simulated preparations in Norway and the English Channel coast included activities such as ship concentrations , reconnaissance flights and training exercises .
The postponement of Barbarossa from the initially planned date of 15 May to the actual invasion date of 22 June 1941 ( a 38 @-@ day delay ) occurred for a number of reasons . Most importantly , the Balkans Campaign required a diversion of troops and resources that hampered preparations , and an unusually wet winter kept rivers at full flood until late spring . The full floods could have discouraged an earlier attack , even if it was unlikely to have happened before the end of the Balkans Campaign .
The importance of the delay is still debated . William Shirer argued that Hitler 's Balkans Campaign had delayed the commencement of Barbarossa by several weeks and thereby jeopardized it . He cited the deputy chief of the German General Staff in 1941 Friedrich Paulus , who claimed the campaign resulted in a delay of " about five weeks . " This figure is corroborated by both the German Naval War Diary and Gerd von Rundstedt . Antony Beevor names a variety of factors that delayed Barbarossa , including the delay in distributing motor transport , problems with fuel distribution , and the difficulty in establishing forward airfields for the Luftwaffe .
The Germans deployed one independent regiment , one separate motorized training brigade and 153 divisions for Barbarossa , which included 104 infantry , 19 panzer and 15 motorized infantry divisions in three army groups , nine security divisions to operate in conquered territories , four divisions in Finland and two divisions as reserve under the direct control of OKH . These were equipped with about 3 @,@ 350 tanks , 7 @,@ 200 artillery pieces , 2 @,@ 770 aircraft ( that amounted to 65 percent of the Luftwaffe ) , about 600 @,@ 000 motor vehicles and 625 @,@ 000 – 700 @,@ 000 horses . Finland slated 14 divisions for the invasion , and Romania offered 13 divisions and eight brigades over the course of Barbarossa . The entire Axis forces , 3 @.@ 8 million personnel , deployed across a front extending from the Arctic Ocean southward to the Black Sea , were all controlled by the OKH and organized into Army Norway , Army Group North , Army Group Center and Army Group South , alongside three luftflotten ( air fleets , the air force equivalent of army groups ) that supported the army groups : Luftflotte 1 for North , Luftflotte 2 for Center and Luftflotte 4 for South .
Army Norway was to operate in far northern Scandinavia and bordering Soviet territories . Army Group North was to march through the Baltic states into northern Russia , either take or destroy the city of Leningrad and link up with Finnish forces . Army Group Center , the army group equipped with the most armour and air power , was to strike from Poland into Belorussia and the west @-@ central regions of Russia proper , and advance to Smolensk and then Moscow . Army Group South was to strike the heavily populated and agricultural heartland of Ukraine , taking Kiev before continuing eastward over the steppes of southern USSR to the Volga with the aim of controlling the oil @-@ rich Caucasus . Army Group South was deployed in two sections separated by a 198 @-@ mile ( 319 km ) gap . The northern section , which contained the army group 's only panzer group , was in southern Poland right next to Army Group Center , and the southern section was in Romania .
The German forces in the rear ( mostly Waffen @-@ SS and Einsatzgruppen units ) were to operate in conquered territories to counter any partisan activity in areas they controlled , as well as to execute captured Soviet political commissars and Jews . On 17 June , Reich Main Security Office ( RSHA ) chief Reinhard Heydrich briefed around thirty to fifty Einsatzgruppen commanders on " the policy of eliminating Jews in Soviet territories , at least in general terms . " While the Einsatzgruppen were assigned to the Wehrmacht 's units , which provided them with supplies such as gasoline and food , they were controlled by the RSHA . The official plan for Barbarossa assumed that the army groups would be able to advance freely to their primary objectives simultaneously , without spreading thin , once they had won the border battles and destroyed the Red Army 's forces in the border area .
= = Soviet preparations = =
In 1930 , Mikhail Tukhachevsky , a prominent military theorist in tank warfare in the interwar period and later Marshal of the Soviet Union , forwarded a memo to the Kremlin that lobbied for colossal investment in the resources required for the mass production of weapons , pressing the case for " 40 @,@ 000 aircraft and 50 @,@ 000 tanks " . In the early 1930s , a very modern operational doctrine for the Red Army was developed and promulgated in the 1936 Field Regulations in the form of the Deep Battle Concept . Defense expenditure also grew rapidly from just 12 percent of the gross national product in 1933 to 18 percent by 1940 .
However , during Stalin 's Great Purge in the late 1930s , which was still partially ongoing at the start of the war in June 1941 , the officer corps of the Red Army was decimated and their replacements , appointed by Stalin for political reasons , often lacked military competence . Of the five Marshals of the Soviet Union appointed in 1935 , only two survived Stalin 's purge . 15 out of 16 army commanders , 50 out of the 57 corps commanders , 154 out of the 186 divisional commanders and 401 out of 456 colonels were killed , and many other officers were dismissed . In total , about 30 @,@ 000 Red Army personnel were executed . Stalin further underscored his control by reasserting the role of political commissars at the divisional level and below to oversee the political loyalty of the Army to the regime . The commissars held a position equal to that of the commander of the unit they were overseeing . But in spite of efforts to ensure the political subservience of the armed forces , in the wake of Red Army 's poor performance in Poland and in the Winter War , about 80 percent of the officers dismissed during the Great Purge were reinstated by 1941 . Also , between January 1939 and May 1941 , 161 new divisions were activated . Although about 75 percent of all the officers had been in their position for less than one year at the start of the German invasion of 1941 , many of the short tenures can be attributed not only to the purge , but also to the rapid increase in creation of military units .
In the Soviet Union , speaking to his generals in December 1940 , Stalin mentioned Hitler 's references to an attack on the Soviet Union in Mein Kampf and Hitler 's belief that the Red Army would need four years to ready itself . Stalin declared " we must be ready much earlier " and " we will try to delay the war for another two years " . As early as August 1940 , British intelligence had received hints of German plans to attack the Soviets only a week after Hitler informally approved the plans for Barbarossa and warned the Soviet Union accordingly . But Stalin 's distrust of the British led him to ignore their warnings in the belief that they were a trick designed to bring the Soviet Union into the war on their side . He had an ill @-@ founded confidence in the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact and suspected the British of trying to spread false rumours in order to trigger a war between Germany and the USSR . In early 1941 , Stalin 's own intelligence services and American intelligence gave regular and repeated warnings of an impending German attack . Soviet spy Richard Sorge also gave Stalin the exact German launch date , but Sorge and other informers had previously given different invasion dates that passed peacefully before the actual invasion . Stalin acknowledged the possibility of an attack in general and therefore made significant preparations , but decided not to run the risk of provoking Hitler .
Beginning in July 1940 , the Red Army General Staff developed war plans that identified the Wehrmacht as the most dangerous threat to the Soviet Union , and that in the case of a war with Germany , the Wehrmacht 's main attack would come through the region north of the Pripyat Marshes into Belorussia ; which later proved to be correct . But Stalin disagreed , and in October he authorized the development of new plans that assumed a German attack would focus on the region south of Pripyat Marshes towards the economically vital regions in Ukraine . This became the basis for all subsequent Soviet war plans and the deployment of their armed forces in preparation for the German invasion .
In early 1941 Stalin authorized the State Defense Plan 1941 ( DP @-@ 41 ) , which along with the Mobilization Plan 1941 ( MP @-@ 41 ) , called for the deployment of 186 divisions , as the first strategic echelon , in the four military districts of the western Soviet Union that faced the Axis territories ; and the deployment of another 51 divisions along the Dvina and Dnieper rivers as the second strategic echelon under Stavka control , which in the case of a German invasion was tasked to spearhead a Soviet counteroffensive along with the remaining forces of the first echelon . But on 22 June 1941 the first echelon only contained 171 divisions , numbering 2 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 9 million ; and the second strategic echelon contained 57 divisions that were still mobilizing , most of which were still seriously understrength . The second echelon was undetected by German intelligence until days after the invasion commenced , in most cases only when the German ground forces bumped into them .
At the start of the invasion , the manpower of the Soviet military force that had been mobilized was 5 @.@ 3 – 5 @.@ 5 million , and it was still increasing as the Soviet reserve force of 14 million , with at least basic military training , continued to mobilize . The Red Army was dispersed and still preparing when the invasion commenced . Their units were often separated and lacked adequate transportation .
The Soviet Union had some 23 @,@ 000 tanks in service , of which about 11 @,@ 000 were in the western military districts that faced the German invasion force . Hitler later declared to some of his generals , " If I had known about the Russian tank strength in 1941 I would not have attacked " . However , maintenance and readiness standards were very poor ; ammunition and radios were in short supply , and many armoured units lacked the trucks for supplies . The most advanced Soviet tank models – the KV @-@ 1 and T @-@ 34 – which were superior to all current German tanks , as well as all designs still in development as of the summer 1941 , were not available in large numbers at the time the invasion commenced . Furthermore , in the autumn of 1939 , the Soviets disbanded their mechanized corps and partly dispersed their tanks to infantry divisions ; but following their observation of the German campaign in France , in late 1940 they began to reorganize most of their armored assets back into mechanized corps with a target strength of 1 @,@ 031 tanks each . But these large armoured formations were unwieldy , and moreover they were spread out in scattered garrisons , with their subordinate divisions up to 100 kilometres apart . Furthermore , the reorganization was still in progress and incomplete when Barbarossa commenced . Soviet tank units were rarely well equipped , and they lacked training and logistical support . Units were sent into combat with no arrangements in place for refueling , ammunition resupply , or personnel replacement . Often , after a single engagement , units were destroyed or rendered ineffective . The Soviet numerical advantage in heavy equipment was thoroughly offset by the superior training and organization of the Wehrmacht .
The Soviet Air Force ( VVS ) held the numerical advantage with a total of approximately 19 @,@ 533 aircraft , which made it the largest air force in the world in the summer of 1941 . About 7 @,@ 133 – 9 @,@ 100 of these were deployed in the five western military districts , and an additional 1445 were under Naval control .
Historians have debated whether Stalin was planning an invasion of German territory in the summer of 1941 . The debate began in the late 1980s when Viktor Suvorov published a journal article and later the book Icebreaker in which he stated that Stalin had seen the outbreak of war in western Europe as an opportunity to spread communist revolutions throughout the continent , and that the Soviet military was being deployed for an imminent attack at the time of the German invasion . This view had also been advanced by former German generals following the war . Suvorov 's thesis was fully or partially accepted by some historians , including Valeri Danilov , Joachim Hoffmann , Mikhail Meltyukhov and Vladimir Nevezhin , and attracted public attention in Germany , Israel and Russia . However , it has been strongly rejected by most historians of this period , and Icebreaker is generally considered to be an " anti @-@ Soviet tract " in western countries . David Glantz and Gabriel Gorodetsky wrote books to rebut Suvorov 's arguments , and most historians believe that Stalin was seeking to avoid war in 1941 as he believed that his military was not ready to fight the German forces .
= = Order of battle = =
= = Invasion = =
At around 1 : 00 am on 22 June 1941 , the Soviet military districts in the border area were alerted by NKO Directive No. 1 , which was issued late on night of 21 June . It called on them to " bring all forces to combat readiness , " but to " avoid provocative actions of any kind . " It took up to 2 hours for several of the units subordinate to the Fronts to receive the order of the directive , and the majority did not receive it before the invasion commenced .
At around 3 : 15 am on 22 June 1941 , the Axis Powers commenced the invasion of the Soviet Union with the bombing of major cities in Soviet @-@ occupied Poland and an artillery barrage on Red Army defences on the entire front . The heavy air @-@ raids reached as far as Kronstadt near Leningrad , Ismail in Bessarabia , and Sevastopol in the Crimea . Meanwhile , ground troops crossed the border , accompanied in some locales by Lithuanian and Ukrainian fifth columnists . Roughly three million soldiers of the Wehrmacht went into action and faced slightly fewer Soviet troops at the border .
At around noon , the news of the invasion was broadcast to the population by Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov : " ... Without a declaration of war , German forces fell on our country , attacked our frontiers in many places ... The Red Army and the whole nation will wage a victorious Patriotic War for our beloved country , for honour , for liberty ... Our cause is just . The enemy will be beaten . Victory will be ours ! " By calling upon the population 's devotion to their nation rather than the Party , Molotov struck a patriotic chord that helped a stunned people absorb the shattering news . Within the first few days of the invasion , the Soviet High Command and Red Army were extensively reorganized so as to place them on the necessary war footing . Stalin did not address the nation about the German invasion until 3 July , when he also called for a " Patriotic War ... of the entire Soviet people " .
In Germany , on the morning of 22 June , Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels announced the invasion to the waking nation in a radio broadcast , " At this moment a march is taking place that , for its extent , compares with the greatest the world has ever seen . I have decided today to place the fate and future of the Reich and our people in the hands of our soldiers . May God aid us , especially in this fight ! " Later the same morning , Hitler proclaimed to his colleagues , " Before three months have passed , we shall witness a collapse of Russia , the like of which has never been seen in history . "
= = Phase one = =
The initial momentum of the German ground and air attack completely destroyed the Soviet organizational command and control within the first few hours , paralyzing every level of command from the infantry platoon to the Soviet High Command in Moscow . Therefore , Moscow failed to grasp the magnitude of the catastrophe that confronted the Soviet forces in the border area . At around 7 : 15 am , Stalin issued NKO Directive No. 2 , which announced the invasion to the Soviet Armed Forces , and called on them to attack Axis forces wherever they had violated the borders and launch air strikes into the border regions of German territory . At around 9 : 15 pm , Stalin issued NKO Directive No. 3 , signed by Marshal Semyon Timoshenko , which now called for a general counteroffensive on the entire front " without any regards for borders " that both men hoped would sweep the enemy from Soviet territory . Timoshenko 's order was not based on a realistic appraisal of the military situation at hand , and it resulted in devastating casualties .
= = = Air war = = =
Luftwaffe reconnaissance units worked frantically to plot Soviet troop concentration , supply dumps , and airfields , and mark them down for destruction . In contrast , Soviet artillery observers based at the border area had been under the strictest instructions not to open fire on German aircraft prior to the invasion . The Luftwaffe reported to have destroyed 1 @,@ 489 aircraft on the first day of the invasion and over 3 @,@ 100 over the first three days . Hermann Göring , Minister of Aviation and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Luftwaffe , distrusted the reports and ordered the figure checked . Luftwaffe staffs surveyed the wreckage on Soviet airfields , and their original figure proved conservative , as over 2 @,@ 000 Soviet aircraft were estimated to have been destroyed on the first day of the invasion . In reality , Soviet losses were likely higher ; a Soviet archival document recorded the loss of 3 @,@ 922 Soviet aircraft in the first three days against an estimated loss of 78 German aircraft . The Luftwaffe reported the loss of only 35 aircraft on the first day of combat . A document from the German Federal Archives puts the Luftwaffe 's loss at 63 aircraft for the first day .
By the end of the first week , the Luftwaffe had achieved air supremacy over the battlefields of all the army groups , but was unable to effect this air dominance over the vast expanse of the western Soviet Union . According to the war diaries of the German High Command , the Luftwaffe by 5 July had lost 491 aircraft with 316 more damaged , leaving it with only about 70 percent of the strength it had at the start of the invasion .
= = = Baltic states = = =
On 22 June , Army Group North attacked the Soviet Northwestern Front and broke through its 8th and 11th Armies . The Soviets immediately launched a powerful counterattack against the German 4th Panzer Group with the Soviet 3rd and 12th Mechanized Corps , but the Soviet attack was defeated . On 25 June , the 8th and 11th Armies were ordered to withdraw to the Western Dvina River , where it was planned to meetup with the 21st Mechanized Corps and the 22nd and 27th Armies . However , on 26 June , Erich von Manstein 's LVI Panzer Corps reached the river first and secured a bridgehead across it . The Northwestern Front was forced to abandon the river defenses , and on 29 June Stavka ordered the Front to withdraw to the Stalin Line on the approaches to Leningrad . On 2 July , Army Group North began its attack on the Stalin Line with its 4th Panzer Group , and on 8 July captured Pskov , devastating the defenses of the Stalin Line and reaching Leningrad oblast . The 4th Panzer Group had advanced about 450 kilometres ( 280 mi ) since the start of the invasion and was now only about 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) from its primary objective Leningrad . On 9 July it began its attack towards the Soviet defenses along the Luga River in Leningrad oblast .
= = = Ukraine and Moldavia = = =
The northern section of Army Group South faced the Southwestern Front , which had the largest concentration of Soviet forces , and the southern section faced the Southern Front . In addition , the Pripyat Marshes and the Carpathian Mountains posed a serious challenge to the army group 's northern and southern sections respectively . On 22 June , only the northern section of Army Group South attacked , but the terrain impeded their assault , giving the Soviet defenders ample time to react . The German 1st Panzer Group and 6th Army attacked and broke through the Soviet 5th Army . Starting on the night of 23 June , the Soviet 22nd and 15th Mechanized Corps attacked the flanks of the 1st Panzer Group from north and south respectively . Although intended to be concerted , Soviet tank units were sent in piecemeal due to poor coordination . The 22nd Mechanized Corp ran into the 1st Panzer Army 's III Motorized Corps and was decimated , and its commander killed . The 1st Panzer Group bypassed much of the 15th Mechanized Corps , which engaged the German 6th Army 's 297th Infantry Division , where it was defeated by antitank fire and Luftwaffe attacks . On 26 June , the Soviets launched another counterattack on the 1st Panzer Group from north and south simultaneously with the 9th , 19th and 8th Mechanized Corps , which altogether fielded 1649 tanks , and supported by the remnants of the 15th Mechanized Corps . The battle lasted for four days , ending in the defeat of the Soviet tank units . On 30 June Stavka ordered the remaining forces of the Southwestern Front to withdraw to the Stalin Line , where it would defend the approaches to Kiev .
On 2 July , the southern section of Army Group South – the Romanian 3rd and 4th Armies , alongside the German 11th Army – invaded Soviet Moldavia , which was defended by the Southern Front . Counterattacks by the Front 's 2nd Mechanized Corps and 9th Army were defeated , but on 9 July the Axis advance stalled along the defenses of the Soviet 18th Army between the Prut and Dniester Rivers .
= = = Belorussia = = =
In the opening hours of the invasion , the Luftwaffe destroyed the Western Front 's air force on the ground , and with the aid of Abwehr and their supporting anti @-@ communist fifth columns operating in the Soviet rear paralyzed the Front 's communication lines , which particularly cut off the Soviet 4th Army headquarters from headquarters above and below it . On the same day , the 2nd Panzer Group crossed the Bug River , broke through the 4th Army , bypassed Brest Fortress , and pressed on towards Minsk , while the 3rd Panzer Group bypassed most of the 3rd Army and pressed on towards Vilnius . Simultaneously , the German 4th and 9th Armies engaged the Western Front forces in the environs of Białystok . On the order of Dmitry Pavlov , the commander of the Western Front , the 6th and 11th Mechanized Corps and the 6th Cavalry Corps launched a strong counterstrike towards Grodno on 24 – 25 June in hopes of destroying the 3rd Panzer Group . However , the 3rd Panzer Group had already moved on , with its forward units reaching Vilnius on the evening of 23 June , and the Western Front 's armoured counterattack instead ran into infantry and antitank fire from the V Army Corps of the German 9th Army , supported by Luftwaffe air attacks . By the night of 25 June , the Soviet counterattack was defeated , and the commander of the 6th Cavalry Corps was captured . The same night , Pavlov ordered all the remnants of the Western Front to withdraw to Slonim towards Minsk . Subsequent counterattacks to buy time for the withdrawal were launched against the German forces , but all of them failed . On 27 June , the 2nd and 3rd Panzer Groups met near Minsk and captured the city the next day , completing the encirclement of almost all of the Western Front in two pockets : one around Białystok and another west of Minsk . The Germans destroyed the Soviet 3rd and 10th Armies while inflicting serious losses on the 4th , 11th and 13th Armies , and reported to have captured 324 @,@ 000 Soviet troops , 3 @,@ 300 tanks , 1 @,@ 800 artillery pieces . On 30 June , Stalin relieved Pavlov of his command , and on 22 July tried and executed him along with many members of his staff on charges of " cowardice " and " criminal incompetence " .
A Soviet directive was issued on 29 June to combat the mass panic rampant among the civilians and the armed forces personnel . The order stipulated swift , severe measures against anyone inciting panic or displaying cowardice . The NKVD worked with commissars and military commanders to scour possible withdrawal routes of soldiers retreating without military authorization . Field expedient general courts were established to deal with civilians spreading rumours and military deserters .
On 29 June , Hitler , through the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the German Army Walther von Brauchitsch , instructed the commander of Army Group Center Fedor von Bock to halt the advance of his panzers until the infantry formations liquidating the pockets catch up . But the commander of the 2nd Panzer Group Heinz Guderian , with the tacit support of Fedor von Bock and the chief of OKH Franz Halder , ignored the instruction and attacked on eastward towards Bobruisk , albeit reporting the advance as a reconnaissance @-@ in @-@ force . He also personally conducted an aerial inspection of the Minsk @-@ Białystok pocket on 30 June and concluded that his panzer group was not needed to contain it , since Hermann Hoth 's 3rd Panzer Group was already involved in the Minsk pocket . On the same day , some of the infantry corps of the 9th and 4th Armies , having sufficiently liquidated the Białystok pocket , resumed their march eastward to catch up with the panzer groups . On 1 July , Fedor von Bock ordered the panzer groups to resume their full offensive eastward on the morning of 3 July . But Brauchitsch , upholding Hitler 's instruction , and Halder , unwillingly going along with it , opposed Bock 's order . However , Bock insisted on the order by stating that it would be flatly irresponsible to reverse orders already issued . The panzer groups , however , resumed their offensive on 2 July before the infantry formations had sufficiently caught up .
= = Phase two = =
On 2 July and through the next six days , a rainstorm typical of Belarusian summers slowed the progress of the panzers of Army Group Center , and Soviet defenses stiffened . The delays gave the Soviets time to organize a massive counterattack against Army Group Center . The army group 's ultimate objective was Smolensk , which commanded the road to Moscow . Facing the Germans was an old Soviet defensive line held by six armies . On 6 July , the Soviets attacked the 3rd Panzer Group with 1000 tanks . The Germans defeated this counterattack with overwhelming air superiority . The 2nd Panzer Group crossed the Dnieper River and closed in on Smolensk from the south while the 3rd Panzer Group , after defeating the Soviet counterattack , closed on Smolensk from the north . Trapped between their pincers were three Soviet armies . On 18 July , the Panzer Groups came to within sixteen kilometres of closing the gap , but the trap did not snap shut until 26 July . When the Panzer Groups finally closed the gap , 300 @,@ 000 Red Army soldiers were captured , but 200 @,@ 000 Red Army soldiers escaped to stand between the Germans and Moscow .
Four weeks into the campaign , the Germans realized they had grossly underestimated Soviet strength . The German troops had used their initial supplies without attaining the expected strategic freedom of movement . Operations were now slowed down to allow for resupply ; the delay was to be used to adapt strategy to the new situation . Hitler by now had lost faith in battles of encirclement as large numbers of Soviet soldiers had escaped the pincers . He now believed he could defeat the Soviets by economic damage , depriving them of the industrial capacity to continue the war . That meant seizing the industrial center of Kharkov , the Donbass and the oil fields of the Caucasus in the south and the speedy capture of Leningrad , a major center of military production , in the north .
Fedor von Bock , the commander of Army Group Center , and almost all the German generals involved in Operation Barbarossa argued vehemently in favor of continuing the all @-@ out drive toward Moscow . Besides the psychological importance of capturing the enemy 's capital , the generals pointed out that Moscow was a major center of arms production , the center of the Soviet communications system and an important transportation hub . More significantly , intelligence reports indicated that the bulk of the Red Army was deployed near Moscow under Semyon Timoshenko for an all @-@ out defense of the capital . But Hitler was adamant , and he issued a direct order to the panzer commander Heinz Guderian — bypassing Guderian 's commanding officer , von Bock — to send Army Group Center 's tanks to the north and south , temporarily halting the drive to Moscow .
= = Phase three = =
By mid @-@ July , the Germans had advanced within a few kilometers of Kiev below the Pripyat Marshes . The 1st Panzer Group then went south while the 17th Army struck east and trapped three Soviet armies near Uman . As the Germans eliminated the pocket , the tanks turned north and crossed the Dnieper . Meanwhile , the 2nd Panzer Group , diverted from Army Group Center , had crossed the Desna River with 2nd Army on its right flank . The two Panzer armies now trapped four Soviet armies and parts of two others .
By August , as the serviceability and the quantity of the Luftwaffe 's inventory steadily reduced due to combat , while demand for air support only increased as the VVS stubbornly resurged , the Luftwaffe found itself struggling to maintain local air superiority in the front lines . Also with the onset of bad weather in October , the Luftwaffe was on several occasions forced to halt nearly all aerial operations . The VVS , although faced with the same weather difficulties , had a clear advantage thanks to the prewar experience with cold @-@ weather flying techniques , and the fact that they were operating from intact airbases and airports . By December , the VVS had matched the Luftwaffe and was even pressing to achieve air supremacy over the battlefields .
For its final attack on Leningrad , the 4th Panzer Group was reinforced by tanks from Army Group Center . On 8 August , the Panzers broke through the Soviet defenses . By the end of August , 4th Panzer Group had penetrated to within 48 kilometers of Leningrad . The Finns had pushed southeast on both sides of Lake Ladoga to reach the old Finnish @-@ Soviet frontier .
The Germans attacked Leningrad in August 1941 ; in the following three " black months " of 1941 , 400 @,@ 000 residents of the city worked to build the city 's fortifications as fighting continued , while 160 @,@ 000 others joined the ranks of the Red Army . On 7 September , the German 20th Motorized Division seized Shlisselburg , cutting off all land routes to Leningrad . The Germans severed the railroads to Moscow and captured the railroad to Murmansk with Finnish assistance to inaugurate the start of a siege that would last for over two years .
At this stage , Hitler ordered the final destruction of Leningrad with no prisoners taken , and on 9 September , Army Group North began the final push . Within ten days it had advanced within 11 kilometers of the city . However , the push over the last 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) proved very slow and casualties mounted . Hitler , now out of patience , ordered that Leningrad should not be stormed , but rather starved into submission . Deprived of its Panzer forces , Army Group Center remained static and was subjected to numerous Soviet counterattacks , in particular the Yelnya Offensive , in which the Germans suffered their first major tactical defeat since their invasion began . These attacks prompted Hitler to concentrate his attention back to Army Group Center and its drive on Moscow . The Germans ordered the 3rd and 4th Panzer Armies to break off their Siege of Leningrad and support Army Group Center in its attack on Moscow .
Before it could begin , operations in Kiev needed to be finished . Half of Army Group Center had swung to the south in the back of the Kiev position , while Army Group South moved to the north from its Dniepr bridgehead . The encirclement of Soviet forces in Kiev was achieved on 16 September . A savage battle ensued in which the Soviets were hammered with tanks , artillery , and aerial bombardment . After ten days of vicious fighting , the Germans claimed over 600 @,@ 000 Soviet soldiers captured . Actual losses were 452 @,@ 720 men , 3 @,@ 867 artillery pieces and mortars from 43 divisions of the 5th , 21st , 26th , and 37th Soviet Armies .
= = Phase four = =
After Kiev , the Red Army no longer outnumbered the Germans and there were no more trained reserves directly available . To defend Moscow , Stalin could field 800 @,@ 000 men in 83 divisions , but no more than 25 divisions were fully effective . Operation Typhoon , the drive to Moscow , began on 2 October . In front of Army Group Center was a series of elaborate defense lines , the first centered on Vyazma and the second on Mozhaysk .
The first blow took the Soviets completely by surprise when the 2nd Panzer Group , returning from the south , took Oryol , just 121 km ( 75 mi ) south of the Soviet first main defense line . Three days later , the Panzers pushed on to Bryansk , while the 2nd Army attacked from the west . The Soviet 3rd and 13th Armies were now encircled . To the north , the 3rd and 4th Panzer Armies attacked Vyazma , trapping the 19th , 20th , 24th and 32nd Armies . Moscow 's first line of defense had been shattered . The pocket eventually yielded over 500 @,@ 000 Soviet prisoners , bringing the tally since the start of the invasion to three million . The Soviets had now only 90 @,@ 000 men and 150 tanks left for the defense of Moscow .
The German government now publicly predicted the imminent capture of Moscow and convinced foreign correspondents of a pending Soviet collapse . On 13 October , the 3rd Panzer Group penetrated to within 140 km ( 87 mi ) of the capital . Martial law was declared in Moscow . Almost from the beginning of Operation Typhoon , however , the weather worsened . Temperatures fell while there was a continued rainfall . This turned the unpaved road network into mud and steadily slowed the German advance on Moscow to as little as 3 @.@ 2 km ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) a day . At the same time , the supply situation for the Germans rapidly deteriorated . On 31 October , the German Army High Command ordered a halt to Operation Typhoon while the armies were reorganized . The pause gave the Soviets , who were in a far better supply situation , time to consolidate their positions and organize formations of newly activated reservists . In little over a month , the Soviets organized eleven new armies that included 30 divisions of Siberian troops . These had been freed from the Soviet Far East after Soviet intelligence assured Stalin that there was no longer a threat from the Japanese . Over 1 @,@ 000 tanks and 1 @,@ 000 aircraft arrived along with the Siberian forces .
On 15 November , with the ground hardening due to the cold weather , the Germans once again began the attack on Moscow . Although the troops themselves were now able to advance again , there had been no delay allowed to improve the supply situation . Facing the Germans were the 5th , 16th , 30th , 43rd , 49th , and 50th Soviet armies . The Germans intended to let the 3rd and 4th Panzer Armies cross the Moscow Canal and envelop Moscow from the northeast . The 2nd Panzer Group would attack Tula and then close in on Moscow from the south . As the Soviets reacted to the flanks , the 4th Army would attack the center . In two weeks of desperate fighting , lacking sufficient fuel and ammunition , the Germans slowly crept towards Moscow . However , in the south , the 2nd Panzer Group was being blocked . On 22 November , Soviet Siberian units , augmented with the 49th and 50th Soviet Armies , attacked the 2nd Panzer Group and inflicted a shocking defeat on the Germans . The 4th Panzer Group pushed the Soviet 16th Army back , however , and succeeded in crossing the Moscow canal to begin the attempted encirclement of Moscow .
On 2 December , part of the 258th Infantry Division advanced to within 24 km ( 15 mi ) of Moscow and could see the spires of the Kremlin , but by then the first blizzards had already begun . A reconnaissance battalion also managed to reach the town of Khimki , only about 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) away from the Soviet capital . It captured the bridge over the Moscow @-@ Volga Canal as well as the railway station , which marked the farthest eastern advance of German forces . But in spite of the progress made , the Wehrmacht was not equipped for winter warfare , and the bitter cold caused severe problems for their guns and equipment . Furthermore , weather conditions grounded the Luftwaffe from conducting any large @-@ scale operations . Newly created Soviet units near Moscow now numbered over 500 @,@ 000 men , and on 5 December , they launched a massive counterattack as part of the Battle of Moscow that pushed the Germans back over 320 km ( 200 mi ) . By late December 1941 , the Germans had lost the Battle for Moscow , and the invasion had cost the German army over 830 @,@ 000 casualties in killed , wounded , captured or missing in action .
= = Aftermath = =
With the failure of the Battle of Moscow , all German plans for a quick defeat of the Soviet Union had to be revised . The Soviet counteroffensives in December 1941 caused heavy casualties on both sides , but ultimately eliminated the German threat to Moscow .
In addition to this devastating setback for Germany , the Soviet Union also suffered heavily from the conflict , losing huge tracts of territory , and vast losses in men and material . Despite the rapid relocation of Red Army armaments installations east of the Urals and a dramatic increase of production in 1942 , especially of armour , new aircraft types and artillery , the Wehrmacht was able to mount another large @-@ scale offensive in July 1942 . Hitler , having realized that Germany 's oil supply was " severely depleted , " aimed to capture the oil fields of Baku in an offensive , codenamed Case Blue . Once again , the Germans quickly overran great expanses of Soviet territory , but they failed to achieve their ultimate goals in the wake of their decisive defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad .
By 1943 , Soviet armaments production was fully operational and increasingly outproducing the German war economy . The Red Army through steadily more ambitious and tactically sophisticated offensives was able to liberate the areas previously occupied by the German invasion by the summer of 1944 . The war ended with the total defeat and occupation of Nazi Germany in May 1945 .
= = = War crimes = = =
While the Soviet Union had not signed the Geneva convention , this did not mean their soldiers were entirely exempted from the protection it afforded ; Germany had signed the treaty and was thus obligated to offer Soviet POWs treatment according to its provisions ( as they generally did with other Allied POWs ) . Article 82 of the convention specified that " In case , in time of war , one of the belligerents is not a party to the Convention , its provisions shall nevertheless remain in force as between the belligerents who are parties thereto . " Despite this Hitler called for the battle against the Soviet Union to be a " struggle for existence " and accordingly authorized crimes against Soviet prisoners of war . A Nazi memorandum from 16 July 1941 , recorded by Martin Bormann , quotes Hitler saying , " The giant [ occupied ] area must naturally be pacified as quickly as possible ; this will happen at best if anyone who just looks funny should be shot " .
Before the war , Hitler issued the notorious Commissar Order , which called for all Soviet political commissars taken prisoner at the front to be shot immediately without trial . German soldiers both willingly and unwillingly participated in these mass killings . On the eve of the invasion , German soldiers were informed that their battle " demands ruthless and vigorous measures against Bolshevik inciters , guerrillas , saboteurs , Jews and the complete elimination of all active and passive resistance . " Collective punishment was authorized against partisan attacks ; if a perpetrator could not be quickly identified , then burning villages and mass executions were considered acceptable reprisals . An estimated two million Soviet prisoners of war died of starvation during Barbarossa alone ; nothing was done for their survival . The famished prisoners of war were hardly able to walk by themselves . By the end of the war , 58 percent of all Soviet prisoners of war died in German captivity .
Organized crimes against civilians , including women and children , were also carried out on a huge scale by the German police and military forces , as well as the local collaborators . Under the command of the Reich Main Security Office , the Einsatzgruppen killing squads conducted large @-@ scale massacres of Jews and communists in conquered Soviet territories . Holocaust historian Raul Hilberg puts the number of Jews murdered by " mobile killing operations " at 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 . The original instructions to kill " Jews in party and state positions " was broadened to include " all male Jews of military age " and was expanded once more to " all male Jews regardless of age . " By the end of July , the Germans were regularly killing women and children . On 18 December 1941 , Himmler and Hitler discussed the " Jewish question " , and Himmler noted the meeting 's result in his appointment book : " To be annihilated as partisans . " According to Christopher Browning , this represented the Nazi decision of " annihilating Jews and solving the so @-@ called ' Jewish question ' under the cover of killing partisans . " In accordance with Nazi policies against " inferior " Asian peoples , Turkmens were also persecuted ; according to a post @-@ war report by Prince Veli Kajum Khan , they were imprisoned in concentration camps in terrible conditions , where those deemed to have " Mongolian " features were murdered daily . Asians were also targeted by the Einsatzgruppen and were the subjects of lethal medical experiments and murder at a " pathological institute " in Kiev .
Burning houses suspected of being partisan meeting places and poisoning water wells became common practice for soldiers of the German 9th Army . At Kharkov , the fourth largest city in the Soviet Union , food was provided only to the small number of civilians who worked for the Germans , with the rest designated to slowly starve . Thousands of Soviets were deported to Germany to be used as slave labor .
The citizens of Leningrad were subjected to heavy bombardment and a siege that would last 872 days and starve more than a million people to death , of whom approximately 400 @,@ 000 were children below the age of 14 . The German @-@ Finnish blockade cut off access to food , fuel and raw materials , and rations reached a low , for the non @-@ working population , of four ounces ( five thin slices ) of bread and a little watery soup per day . Starving Soviet civilians began to eat their domestic animals , along with hair tonic and Vaseline . Some desperate citizens resorted to cannibalism ; Soviet records list 2 @,@ 000 people arrested for " the use of human meat as food " during the siege , 886 of them during the first winter of 1941 – 42 . The Wehrmacht planned to seal off Leningrad , starve out the population , and then demolish the city entirely .
= = = Historical significance = = =
Operation Barbarossa was the largest military operation in human history — more men , tanks , guns and aircraft were committed than had ever been deployed before in a single offensive . A total of 75 percent of the entire German military participated . The invasion opened up the Eastern Front of World War II , the largest theater of war during that conflict , and it witnessed titanic clashes of unprecedented violence and destruction for four years that resulted in the deaths of more than 26 million people . More people died fighting on the Eastern Front than in all other fighting across the globe during World War II .
= = = Informational notes = = =
= = = = Printed = = = =
= = = = Online = = = =
Graham Royde @-@ Smith , John . " European History : Operation Barbarossa " . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 16 May 2015 . ( subscription required )
" Heeresarzt 10 @-@ Day Casualty Reports per Theater of War , 1941 " . World War II Stats . Retrieved 10 May 2013 .
" AOK / Ic POW Summary Reports " . World War II Stats . Retrieved 3 April 2015 .
" Army vs. NKVD figures " . World War II Stats . Retrieved 3 April 2015 .
Davidson , Nick ( producer ) ( 2009 ) . Hitler Strikes East ( television documentary ) . World War II in HD Colour . NM Productions ( for IMG Media ) . Retrieved 19 March 2015 .
Knopp , Guido ; Müllner , Jörg ( directors ) ; Renate Bardong ( producer ) ( 1998 ) . General Wilhelm Keitel : The Lackey ( television documentary ) . Hitler 's Warriors . ZDF . Retrieved 24 March 2015 .
" Modern History Sourcebook : The Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact , 1939 " . University of Fordham . Retrieved 19 March 2015 .
Browning , Christopher . " Evidence for the Implementation of the Final Solution : Electronic Edition " . Holocaust Denial on Trial . Emory University .
" Nazi Persecution of Soviet Prisoners of War " . The Holocaust Encyclopedia . United States Holocaust Museum . 20 June 2014 . Retrieved 24 March 2015 .
Grazhdan , Anna ( director ) ; Artem Drabkin & Aleksey Isaev ( writers ) ; Valeriy Babich , Vlad Ryashin , et. al ( producers ) ( 2011 ) . Operation Barbarossa ( television documentary ) . Soviet Storm : World War II in the East . Star Media . Retrieved 19 March 2015 .
Meltyukhov , Mikhail Ivanovich . " Оценка советским руководством событий Второй мировой войны в 1939 – 1941 " ( in Russian ) . Russian Military Library Moscow . Retrieved 19 March 2015 .
Grazhdan , Anna ( director ) ; Artem Drabkin & Aleksey Isaev ( writers ) ; Valeriy Babich , Vlad Ryashin , et. al ( producers ) ( 2011 ) . Siege of Leningrad ( television documentary ) . Soviet Storm : World War II in the East . Star Media . Retrieved 15 May 2015 .
Aitken , Andy , Dave Flitton & James Wignall ( directors ) , Dave Flitton ( series producer ) ; Dave Flitton , Andy Aitken & James Wignall ( writers ) ( 1996 ) . The Battle for Russia ( television documentary ) . Battlefield . PBS . Retrieved 19 March 2015 .
Jones , Bill Treharne ( producer ) ; Christopher Andrew ( presenter and co @-@ producer ) ( 1989 ) . The Fatal Attraction of Adolf Hitler ( television documentary ) . BBC . Retrieved 19 March 2015 .
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= Capture of Le Quesnoy ( 1918 ) =
The Capture of Le Quesnoy was an engagement of the First World War that took place on 4 November 1918 as part of the Battle of the Sambre . Elements of the New Zealand Division scaled the fortified walls of the French town of Le Quesnoy and captured it from the defending German garrison
Beginning at 5 : 30 am , the New Zealand Rifle Brigade advanced from its starting positions east of the town , aiming to surround it and link up on the far side . By late morning , the linkup had been achieved and other elements of the New Zealand Division moved further west into the Mormal Forest , leaving the Rifle Brigade to capture the town itself . After mopping up outlying outposts , the New Zealanders moved up to the ramparts of the town , but were held back by machine @-@ gun fire . Late in the afternoon , a scouting party located an unguarded section of the walls and the brigade 's 4th Battalion managed to climb the ramparts and move into the town , quickly seizing it . The capture of Le Quesnoy was the last major engagement of the war for the New Zealanders .
= = Prelude = =
By mid @-@ 1918 , the German Army had been fought to a standstill after its Spring Offensive and the Allies had sought to take the initiative . Accordingly , the Hundred Days Offensive began on 8 August , with an attack on Amiens which marked the beginning of a series of advances by the Allies that ultimately ended the war . By late October , the New Zealand Division , commanded by Major General Andrew Russell , along with part of the British Third Army , had advanced to the west of the town of Le Quesnoy .
The Battle of the Sambre , which was planned to begin on 4 November , was the next phase of the Allied advance . The battle was to consist of a series of engagements mounted by the British First , Third and Fourth Armies across a 30 @-@ mile ( 48 km ) front , extending from Oisy to Valenciennes , that were conceptualised to cut off the German line of retreat from the French Army front . IV Corps , with the New Zealand Division and the 37th Division , was to surround Le Quesnoy and its garrison of over 1 @,@ 500 soldiers . The 37th Division was on the southern flank of the New Zealand Division while to its north , 62nd Division , of VI Corps , moved south to shorten the New Zealand front . The New Zealand Division was to extend the front line to and around Le Quesnoy and into the Mormal Forest .
= = = Le Quesnoy = = =
Positioned on high ground between the Ecaillon and Rhonelle Rivers , Le Quesnoy was a medieval town that had been fought over several times in previous centuries . It guarded a natural approach across plains to the north @-@ east and had fortress walls with ramparts designed by Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban , a 17th @-@ century military engineer . A moat surrounded the town and was in fact two distinct ditches , with 20 – 30 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 – 9 @.@ 1 m ) high fortifications , effectively an outer rampart , separating them . The town could be entered by three roads , guarded by gates . Le Quesnoy had a population of 5 @,@ 000 and had been in German hands since August 1914 . The Germans also held the Cambrai railway line to the west of Le Quesnoy , and had a strong presence in the area around the intersection of the Valenciennes – Cambrai railway lines , immediately to the north @-@ west of the town .
= = = Plan of attack = = =
On 3 November , the New Zealand Division section of the front line was around 2 @,@ 500 yards ( 2 @,@ 300 m ) in length , running southwards from a level crossing on the Valenciennes railway line . It was 400 yards ( 370 m ) from the Cambrai railway , with the ramparts of Le Quesnoy a further 400 yards ( 370 m ) to the east . The front line was manned by the four battalions of the New Zealand Rifle Brigade , commanded by Brigadier General Herbert Hart .
The ramparts of Le Quesnoy clearly made a frontal attack undesirable and artillery could not be used on the town , due to the presence of the civilian population . Instead , it was intended that under the cover of a smokescreen , the town be enveloped from the north and south , thereby encircling it . Two New Zealand brigades were to be involved ; Hart 's Rifle Brigade was tasked with the capture of the town , while the 1st Infantry Brigade , under the command of Brigadier General Charles Melvill , was to push into the Mormal Forest . The division 's flanks were held by the 62nd Division and the 37th Division , on the left and right respectively and these formations were to make corresponding movements forward .
The capture of Le Quesnoy was to be achieved through a series of advances , covered by artillery , by the battalions of the Rifle Brigade with some of the battalions of 1st Infantry Brigade in support . Beginning from the brigade 's existing positions , the first advance was to involve the 1st , 2nd and 4th Rifle Battalions moving forward to a line defining an arc to the west of Le Quesnoy , including the railway line , which was designated the " Blue Line " . Then the 1st Battalion of the 1st Infantry Brigade would push north @-@ east around the town , while the 3rd Rifle Battalion went to the south @-@ east . The advance westwards would culminate in the establishment of a new front line , designated the " Green Line " to the east of Le Quesnoy , which would be manned by the battalions of 1st Brigade . Once the " Green Line " had been formed , the Rifle Brigade was to move into the town , while the battalions of 1st Brigade were to advance further to the west up to the Mormal Forest .
= = Battle = =
The covering artillery barrage commenced at 5 : 30 am and three battalions of the Rifle Brigade moved off towards its first objective , the railway line , which established a continuous front west of Le Quesnoy . This was captured by 7 : 29 am . A reserve company moved to the railway line to hold it , while the attacking battalions moved forward . A platoon of the reserve company had to deal with 150 Germans , who were retreating from the advance of the flanking 37th Division and quickly secured their surrender . By 10 : 00 am , the battalions of the Rifle Brigade had surrounded Le Quesnoy and established a new front line 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the east of the town . The 1st Infantry Brigade moved off to the Mormal Forest , leaving the Rifle Brigade to complete its planned move into the town . The German garrison , despite being surrounded , did not make any indications of surrender .
The 2nd Rifle Battalion probed from the north , while the 3rd Rifle Battalion did the same from the south @-@ east , driving for the Landrecies road which led to one of the entry points into Le Quesnoy . German troops held a bridge on the road in force and were able to keep the New Zealanders at bay in this area . In the north , a small party reached the outer rampart dividing the moat along their stretch of the front . Gunfire from the main ramparts soon drove them off but Lieutenant Colonel Leonard Jardine , commanding the 2nd Rifle Battalion , co @-@ ordinated the movements of his companies , which gradually moved forward . By 4 : 00 pm mortar fire was able to be brought to bear on the main ramparts and this silenced the German machine @-@ guns .
In the meantime , the 4th Rifle Battalion , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Harold Barrowclough and positioned a distance from the west wall of the ramparts , had carried out scouting expeditions to explore the defences . Gradually , the German posts around the fortifications fell to the attacking platoons of the battalion . As on the northern side of the town , machine @-@ gun fire from the ramparts prevented any further advance . One party reached the outer rampart but became pinned down by gunfire for several hours . By midday , the situation had settled into a temporary stalemate . In the afternoon , some German prisoners of war were sent into the town with an invitation to surrender but this approach was rebuffed , as had been a similar attempt earlier that morning .
Second Lieutenant Leslie Averill , the intelligence officer for 4th Rifle Battalion , continued to investigate the defences . He was able to locate a route to a section of the ramparts that appeared unmanned and was not under fire from the defenders . He was ordered by Barrowclough to force an approach . With the benefit of covering mortar fire , Averill and a platoon of the battalion reserve company , managed to cross the moat and found themselves at the inner ramparts . With the aid of a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) ladder supplied by the Divisional Engineers , Averill was able to ascend to the top of the ramparts , closely followed by the platoon commander . With his revolver , Averill fired at two Germans manning a guard post , forcing them to cover , fire and the rest of the platoon joined him . Shortly afterwards , Barrowclough and the rest of the battalion used the ladder and entered the town . At the same time , a party from 2nd Rifle Battalion , seized the gate guarding the road into Le Quesnoy from Valenciennes and began entering the town from the north and the Germans quickly surrendered .
= = Aftermath = =
Over 2 @,@ 000 Germans were taken prisoner by the division , of whom 711 surrendered in Le Quesnoy . German casualties in the town were 43 killed and 251 men wounded and many more German troops were killed during the advance of the brigade to the ramparts . Four 8 @-@ inch howitzers , forty @-@ two 4 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns and 26 field guns were captured by the 1st New Zealand Brigade . The New Zealand Division operation on 4 November was its most successful day on the Western Front . Of the 122 New Zealanders who died during the capture of Le Quesnoy , the Rifle Brigade suffered 43 killed and 250 men wounded . Other units of the New Zealand Division involved in the battle lost 79 men killed and about 125 wounded .
An advance into the Mormal Forest was continued the next day by the 2nd Infantry Brigade but the capture of Le Quesnoy was the last major engagement of the war for the New Zealand Division . The New Zealanders began withdrawing to the rear area at midnight on 5 November . A few days after the capture of the town , the mayor of Le Quesnoy presented the Rifle Brigade commander , Herbert Hart , with the French flag that was raised over the town on the day it was captured from the Germans .
The town retains links to New Zealand , with some streets named for prominent New Zealanders , including Averill . Since 1999 , it has been twinned with Cambridge . A monument commemorating the liberation of Le Quesnoy by the New Zealand Division is set into the rampart wall , near where Averill scaled them .
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= 2015 Paris – Nice =
The 2015 Paris – Nice was the 73rd edition of the Paris – Nice stage race . It took place from 8 to 15 March and was the second race of the 2015 UCI World Tour following the Tour Down Under . The race was a return to the traditional format of Paris − Nice after an unorthodox course in 2014 . It started in Yvelines , west of Paris , with a prologue time trial ; the course then moved south through France with several stages suitable for sprinters . The decisive part of the race began on stage four with a summit finish at the Col de la Croix de Chaubouret ; stage six also had a mountainous route . The race ended after seven days with the climb of Col d 'Eze outside Nice .
The 2014 champion , Carlos Betancur ( AG2R La Mondiale ) , chose not to defend his title . The early lead in the race was taken by Michał Kwiatkowski ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) in the prologue ; he kept the lead until stage three , when Michael Matthews took over the race lead through time bonuses . Stage four was won by Richie Porte ( Team Sky ) , while Kwiatkowski took back the race lead . On stage six , a chaotic stage in rainy conditions , Tony Gallopin ( Lotto – Soudal ) won and took over the race lead , but he was unable to defend his lead on the final @-@ day time trial . Porte , the 2013 champion , won the general classification as well as two stages . Kwiatkowski finished second overall , with Simon Špilak ( Team Katusha ) on the same time in third place .
The points classification was won by Matthews , who had four top @-@ ten finishes as well as his stage win . The mountains classification was won by Thomas De Gendt ( Lotto – Soudal ) . Kwiatkowski won the young riders classification as the best rider born after 1 January 1990 . The teams classification was won by Team Sky .
= = Teams = =
As Paris – Nice is a UCI World Tour event , all 17 UCI WorldTeams were invited automatically and were obliged to send a squad . Three Professional Continental teams received wildcard invitations .
= = Pre @-@ race favourites = =
Paris – Nice overlaps with another UCI WorldTour race , the 2015 Tirreno – Adriatico . In 2015 , the Italian race attracted the main Grand Tour riders , such as Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , Chris Froome ( Team Sky ) , Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) and Nairo Quintana ( Movistar Team ) . Only one former Grand Tour champion chose to compete Paris – Nice : Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) .
The favourites for the race included the 2013 champion , Richie Porte ( Team Sky ) , the 2011 champion , Tony Martin ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and the 2014 world champion , Michał Kwiatkowski ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) . Other riders considered to have a chance of victory included Geraint Thomas ( Team Sky ) , who had just won the Volta ao Algarve , Romain Bardet and Jean @-@ Christophe Péraud ( both AG2R La Mondiale ) , Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) , Andrew Talansky ( Cannondale – Garmin ) and Rui Costa ( Lampre – Merida ) .
Paris – Nice is also raced by many classics riders preparing for the Spring Classics and especially Milan – San Remo , which comes just a few days later . Riders expected to feature on the flatter days included classics specialists such as Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) , John Degenkolb ( Giant – Alpecin ) , Arnaud Démare ( FDJ ) and Philippe Gilbert ( BMC Racing Team ) and sprinters like Nacer Bouhanni ( Cofidis ) and André Greipel ( Lotto – Soudal ) .
= = Route = =
The previous edition had been an unusual race with no time trials or summit finishes , but the 2015 edition of the race was a return to the traditional form : the race began with a prologue individual time trial near Paris ; this was followed by a series of road stages south through France , including one summit finish ; the race ended with a mountain time trial on Col d 'Eze . The race is known as the " race to the Sun " and is seen as a mini Tour de France , where riders need to be both competent time @-@ trialists and capable of climbing mountains . The key stages were expected to be the summit finish to Col de la Croix de Chaubouret on stage 4 and the concluding time trial on Col d 'Eze .
= = Stages = =
= = = Prologue = = =
8 March 2015 — Maurepas to Maurepas , 6 @.@ 7 km ( 4 @.@ 2 mi )
The race began with a prologue individual time trial in the Yvelines department . The 6 @.@ 7 km ( 4 @.@ 2 mi ) prologue was flat , with three major turns . The riders included four of the top five of previous year 's world time trial championships in Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) , Tony Martin ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , Tom Dumoulin ( Giant – Alpecin ) and Rohan Dennis ( BMC Racing Team ) .
The first rider to set off in the race was Daniel McLay ( Bretagne – Séché Environnement ) . Dylan van Baarle ( Cannondale – Garmin ) was the leader for a significant period , with a time of 8 ' 04 " . The lead was briefly held by Giacomo Nizzolo ( Trek Factory Racing ) and Tiago Machado ( Team Katusha ) . Their times were beaten by Dennis , who recorded a time of 7 ' 40 " . Dennis held the lead for an hour and a half , until he was beaten by Michał Kwiatkowski by less than a second . Kwiatkowski 's time was enough to beat all the other riders . He therefore took the yellow jersey of the overall leader , as well as the green jersey of the points leader and the white jersey of the best young rider . The absence of categorised climbs meant that no polka @-@ dot jersey was awarded .
= = = Stage 1 = = =
9 March 2015 — Saint @-@ Rémy @-@ lès @-@ Chevreuse to Contres , 192 km ( 119 @.@ 3 mi )
The first road stage of the race took the riders over an almost entirely flat course 192 km ( 119 @.@ 3 mi ) course south from Saint @-@ Rémy @-@ lès @-@ Chevreuse to Contres . There was one climb in the day 's racing – the Côte de Bel Air – after 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) .
The first breakaway of the day came from Jonathan Hivert ( Bretagne – Séché Environnement ) . He attacked alone and took both the mountains points and the victory at the first intermediate sprint . Despite at one point having a lead of nearly four minutes , he sat up and was caught by the peloton . Michael Matthews ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) , in eighth place after the prologue , took second place in the intermediate sprint to win two bonus seconds , moving him to ten seconds behind Kwiatkowski , while John Degenkolb ( Giant – Alpecin ) took a second for finishing third .
The next significant move was made by Hivert 's teammate , Anthony Delaplace , who broke away with Thomas Voeckler ( Team Europcar ) . The two remained in the breakaway for most of the rest of the stage , which was raced at a very slow pace . Delaplace and Voeckler had a lead of over six minutes , but the peloton gradually chased them down . With 25 km ( 16 mi ) remaining , they had about a minute 's lead and Voeckler forced an acceleration . Their lead extended to over 1 ' 40 " with 15 km ( 9 mi ) remaining , and they won the final intermediate sprint . Geraint Thomas ( Team Sky ) took the bonus second for third place . The breakaway still had over 40 seconds ' lead with 5 km ( 3 mi ) remaining , but were caught by the sprinters ' teams 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 9 mi ) from the finish line .
Degenkolb was the first rider to start the sprint in a disorganised finale to the stage , but he was not able to maintain his speed and finished outside the top ten . The stage was won by Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) ahead of Nacer Bouhanni ( Cofidis ) and Bryan Coquard ( Team Europcar ) . Kwiatkowski therefore maintained his lead in the general , points and youth classifications , while Hivert took the polka dot jersey of the mountains classification .
18 km ( 11 mi ) from the end of the stage , Tom Boonen clashed wheels while riding at the back of the peloton . He fell on his shoulder and , after receiving medical attention , abandoned the race with a suspected broken collarbone . That evening , it was announced that , though his collarbone was not broken , he had suffered a dislocation in his shoulder and would miss the Spring Classics season , including his principal targets at Paris – Roubaix and the Tour of Flanders .
= = = Stage 2 = = =
10 March 2015 — ZooParc de Beauval – Saint @-@ Aignan to Saint @-@ Amand @-@ Montrond , 172 km ( 106 @.@ 9 mi )
The second road stage was a 172 km ( 106 @.@ 9 mi ) route from the ZooParc de Beauval to the town of Saint @-@ Amand @-@ Montrond . The first part of the route was a 127 km ( 79 mi ) route southeast . The riders then entered a finishing circuit ; they first rode the final 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) of the circuit , before doing a complete 45 km ( 28 mi ) lap . The route was again mostly flat , with just one categorised climb . This was the Côte de la Tour and came as part of the finishing circuit .
The first breakaway of the day was formed by Arnaud Gerard ( Bretagne – Séché Environnement ) , who escaped alone and earned a lead of over eight minutes , with the peloton riding slowly behind . Gerard won both intermediate sprints . On the first , Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) took second place to win two bonus seconds . John Degenkolb ( Giant – Alpecin ) , who had come third and won a one @-@ second bonus in the first sprint , took second place in the second sprint ahead of Michael Matthews ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) .
The chase was led by Cofidis and Team Europcar and Gerard had less than a minute 's lead at the Côte de la Tour . Philippe Gilbert ( BMC Racing Team ) , Jonathan Hivert ( Bretagne – Séché Environnement ) and Laurens De Vreese ( Astana ) attacked over the climb , with Hivert winning a point for the mountains classification and maintaining his lead in the competition . The race came back together with approximately 38 km ( 24 mi ) left to race .
The following period of racing was relatively calm , without attacks and with Cannondale – Garmin controlling the pace . With 9 @.@ 2 km ( 5 @.@ 7 mi ) remaining , however , Tony Martin ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) attacked and was joined by Geraint Thomas ( Team Sky ) , Lars Boom ( Astana ) and Matti Breschel ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) . Breschel suffered a puncture and dropped out of the move , but Martin , Thomas and Boom continued their breakaway attempt . Several riders , including Rui Costa ( Lampre – Merida ) , made unsuccessful attempts to bridge across to the leading group . The chase in the main peloton was led by Lotto – Soudal and the leading group was caught with 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 9 mi ) remaining .
The first team to move forward in the sprint was Orica – GreenEDGE , with IAM Cycling following soon afterwards . Greg Henderson , however , was the penultimate man in the Lotto – Soudal train ; his lead @-@ out brought André Greipel to a perfect position to open his sprint . Arnaud Démare ( FDJ ) came close , but Greipel was able to win the stage . Degenkolb took third place and , with bonus seconds taken into account , was just two seconds behind Kwiatkowski .
= = = Stage 3 = = =
11 March 2015 — Saint @-@ Amand @-@ Montrond to Saint @-@ Pourçain @-@ sur @-@ Sioule , 179 km ( 111 mi )
The third stage started where stage two had ended , Saint @-@ Amand @-@ Montrond , and took the riders over a 179 km ( 111 mi ) route to the finish line in Saint @-@ Pourçain @-@ sur @-@ Sioule . The route started with a 146 @.@ 5 km ( 91 @.@ 0 mi ) route , initially heading south @-@ east before turning north in the final part of the stage . The riders then entered another finishing circuit . They first rode the final 13 km ( 8 mi ) of the circuit , then did an entire 19 @.@ 5 km ( 12 @.@ 1 mi ) lap . There was a short climb and two corners in the final kilometre of the stage .
The first break of the day was formed by Philippe Gilbert ( BMC Racing Team ) and Florian Vachon ( Bretagne – Séché Environnement ) after 9 km ( 6 mi ) . Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) and Antoine Duchesne ( Team Europcar ) attempted to bridge across to the leading pair ; Wiggins was first to drop back , while Duchesne was never able to get closer than two minutes to the pair ahead . Bob Jungels ( Trek Factory Racing ) took third place in the first intermediate sprint . At the first mountains sprint , Gilbert crossed the line first to win four points and take the lead of the mountains classification . Following repeated attacks from the peloton behind , Gilbert and Vachon were joined after 74 km ( 46 mi ) by Thomas Voeckler ( Team Europcar ) . Gilbert then won the two other third @-@ category climbs , earning a nine @-@ point lead in the classification .
With 50 km ( 31 mi ) remaining , Gilbert , Vachon and Voeckler still had a five @-@ minute lead , with the sprinters ' teams joining Kwiatkowski 's Etixx – Quick @-@ Step team in chasing the breakaway down . With 20 km ( 12 mi ) to race , the lead was cut to 43 seconds , and Gilbert dropped out of the break with 17 km ( 11 mi ) remaining . Vachon was next to drop out of the leading group ; Voeckler was then joined by Paolo Tiralongo ( Astana ) . Voeckler himself then fell back , while Tiralongo was joined by two AG2R La Mondiale riders : Jan Bakelants and Romain Bardet . This group of three riders held a gap of approximately 16 seconds , but were chased down by the peloton .
The sprint was led by Orica – GreenEDGE in support of Michael Matthews , for whom the short hill before the finish line was ideal . Lampre – Merida tried and failed to come past them in the final kilometre . With 500 m ( 1 @,@ 640 ft ) to go , Orica – GreenEDGE still had four riders at the head of the peloton . Matthews was able to hold on for the win , despite a late challenge from Davide Cimolai ( Lampre – Merida ) and Giacomo Nizzolo ( Trek Factory Racing ) .
Thanks to the bonus seconds he won on the line , Matthews took over the overall lead in the race , as well as the leadership of the points and young rider classifications .
= = = Stage 4 = = =
12 March 2015 — Varennes @-@ sur @-@ Allier to Col de la Croix de Chaubouret , 204 km ( 126 @.@ 8 mi )
The fourth stage of the race was the longest of the race : a 204 km ( 126 @.@ 8 mi ) route from Varennes @-@ sur @-@ Allier to the Col de la Croix de Chaubouret , the only summit finish in the race . The route was hilly throughout , with two second @-@ category and five third @-@ category climbs before the final ascent . The Col de la Croix de Chaubouret was the highest point in the race at 1 @,@ 201 m ( 3 @,@ 940 ft ) , making this the queen stage of the 2015 Paris – Nice . It was a 10 km ( 6 mi ) climb averaging 6 @.@ 7 % , with some sections at 9 % .
The early break was formed by Antoine Duchesne ( Team Europcar ) , Thomas De Gendt ( Lotto – Soudal ) and Chris Anker Sørensen ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) . They earned a lead of more than eight minutes , with De Gendt winning the first seven mountain sprints of the day . This won him enough points to put him in the lead of the mountains classification . Duchesne was dropped on the first second @-@ category climb of the day , the Côte de La Gimond , which came after 152 km ( 94 mi ) . Work in the main peloton from Orica – GreenEDGE had reduced the deficit significantly and , on the Gimond , AG2R La Mondiale drove hard to split the peloton in two . Rafał Majka ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) was among the riders temporarily distanced , though his teammates were able to bring him back into the main group .
As they crossed the Col de La Gachet with 29 km ( 18 mi ) remaining , De Gendt and Sørensen had two minutes ' lead ; this was reduced to less than a minute 3 @.@ 5 km ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) later at the summit of the penultimate climb of the day , the Côte de la Croix Blanche . Andrew Talansky ( Cannondale – Garmin ) and Majka both suffered mechanical problems around the summit of this climb . Etixx – Quick @-@ Step continued to chase the breakaway down and they were caught with 13 km ( 8 mi ) remaining .
At the base of the Col de la Croix de Chaubouret , Team Sky and BMC Racing Team came to the head of the peloton . Sky 's Lars Petter Nordhaug led the peloton through the first 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) of the climb , dropping Michael Matthews ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) along the way . Warren Barguil ( Giant – Alpecin ) crashed at the base of the climb ; though he eventually finished the stage , he was unable to return to the main group . After Nordhaug pulled off , his teammate Nicolas Roche took over . His turn at the head of the group caused several riders to be distanced , including Talansky , Majka and Wilco Kelderman ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) .
With 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) remaining , Roche pulled off and Geraint Thomas ( Team Sky ) attacked the small group of leaders . He gained a small lead and was joined by Jakob Fuglsang ( Astana ) and Simon Špilak ( Team Katusha ) . Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) and Rubén Fernández ( Movistar Team ) attempted to bridge across , but Fernández , while looking at the group behind , cycled straight into Van Garderen and crashed . Richie Porte ( Team Sky ) covered this move . He was again able to follow as Michał Kwiatkowski attacked . When Kwiatkowski had caught Thomas 's group inside the final one kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) , Porte himself attacked . Thomas , his teammate , was the only rider able to follow him and they finished first and second on the stage . Kwiatkowski finished third , eight seconds behind .
With the time bonuses won on the stage , Kwiatkowski was able to re @-@ take the race lead ; he was one second ahead of Porte with Thomas a further two seconds back .
= = = Stage 5 = = =
13 March 2015 — Saint @-@ Étienne to Rasteau , 192 @.@ 5 km ( 119 @.@ 6 mi )
The fifth stage of the race was a 192 @.@ 5 km ( 119 @.@ 6 mi ) route that started in Saint @-@ Étienne , travelled south and ended in Rasteau . The course began with a first @-@ category climb , the Col de la Republique , but the remainder of the stage was generally flat . Three categorised climbs were located in the second half of the stage ( two third category and one second ) , with the final climb 8 @.@ 5 km ( 5 mi ) from the stage finish . The final 500 m ( 1 @,@ 640 ft ) were uphill .
The break was formed on the first @-@ category climb that began the day 's racing . Thomas De Gendt ( Lotto – Soudal ) , who had taken the lead of the mountains classification on stage four , attacked again . He was joined by Andrew Talansky ( Cannondale – Garmin ) , Romain Sicard ( Team Europcar ) , Egor Silin ( Team Katusha ) and Paweł Poljański ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) . De Gendt won the mountain sprint on this climb and on all the other climbs of the day . The group was never allowed more than four minutes ' lead , since Talansky was only 2 ' 51 " behind the leader on general classification . The chase was led by Kwiatkowski 's Etixx – Quick @-@ Step team , who were joined by Cofidis with 60 km ( 37 mi ) remaining . With 20 km ( 12 mi ) remaining and the gap at 1 ' 30 " , Team Sky 's Bradley Wiggins moved to the front of the peloton . After Wiggins had reduced the gap , BMC Racing Team took up the pace @-@ setting .
Sicard and Poljański dropped out of the leading group on the final climb and , with less than 5 km ( 3 mi ) remaining and a lead of 25 seconds , an attack from De Gendt distanced Talansky too . Orica – GreenEDGE were now leading the chase behind but , with 3 km ( 2 mi ) left , the leading pair still had a 30 @-@ second lead . With 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) remaining , a final attack from De Gendt dropped Silin . De Gendt attempted to hold on for a solo victory , but he was unable to avoid the sprinters ' teams . As he was caught , Bryan Coquard ( Team Europcar ) opened his sprint . Davide Cimolai ( Lampre – Merida ) , however , was able to come past him in the final metres to take his second win of the year . Coquard finished second , with Michael Matthews ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) winning further points for the green jersey by finishing third .
The top 10 of the general classification remained unchanged after the stage .
= = = Stage 6 = = =
14 March 2015 — Vence to Nice , 181 @.@ 5 km ( 112 @.@ 8 mi )
The final road stage of the race was a 181 @.@ 5 km ( 112 @.@ 8 mi ) route starting in Vence and ending on the Promenade des Anglais in Nice . The route was mountainous throughout : it included three first @-@ category climbs and three second @-@ category climbs . The summit of the final climb , the Côte de Peille , came with 27 km ( 17 mi ) remaining , as the riders descended into Nice down the Col d 'Èze . The end of the descent came with approximately 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining , with a flat run to the finishing line .
A large breakaway escaped in the early part of the stage . This included 31 riders , representing a variety of teams but not Team Sky or Etixx – Quick @-@ Step . Tim Wellens ( Lotto – Soudal ) was the best placed rider on general classification , 1 ' 25 " behind Kwiatkowski ; he was the virtual leader of the race through much of the day . Wellens 's teammate Thomas De Gendt was also in the breakaway : he won the first two climbs of the day to increase his lead in the mountains classification .
The first major attacks came with about 60 km ( 37 mi ) remaining : Kwiatkowski attacked with three teammates ( Tony Martin , Julian Alaphilippe and Michał Gołaś ) , briefly gaining a lead of half a minute . Team Sky were able to catch them . After the next climb , the Col Saint @-@ Roch , the same four riders attacked , with Tony Gallopin ( Lotto – Soudal ) following . They again gained a half @-@ minute lead , while Sky had just one domestique left to help Porte and Thomas . Etixx – Quick @-@ Step were unable to continue their pressure , however , on the Côte de Peille . Gallopin attacked after sensing that Kwiatkowski was vulnerable . Near the top of the climb , Porte and Thomas caught Kwiatkowski 's group , then attacked them and left them behind . They were joined by several riders , including Simon Špilak ( Team Katusha ) and Jakob Fuglsang ( Astana ) .
At the summit of the final climb , therefore , Gallopin had a lead over Porte and Thomas 's group , with Kwiatkowski struggling in another group behind . On the descent , however , Porte and Thomas both crashed in separate incidents ; they were recaptured by Kwiatkowski 's group . ( After the final stage , Porte attributed these crashes to over @-@ inflated tyres . ) Gallopin won the final intermediate sprint and the bonus seconds , ahead of the chasing group that was led by Rui Costa ( Lampre – Merida ) and Fuglsang . Gallopin , however , was able to extend his lead throughout the long descent . He won the stage solo , more than 30 seconds ahead of the first chasing group . Porte and Thomas were over a minute behind , with Kwiatkowski losing an additional two seconds on the finish line .
Gallopin , who had been 38 " behind Kwiatkowski , took the race lead . He was now 36 " ahead of Porte , with Kwiatkowski , Thomas , Fuglsang and Costa within six seconds of him . Gallopin said after the stage that , while he hoped to defend his yellow jersey in the final stage time trial on the Col d 'Èze , it would be difficult to stay ahead of Porte .
= = = Stage 7 = = =
15 March 2015 — Nice to Col d 'Èze , 9 @.@ 6 km ( 6 @.@ 0 mi )
The 2015 Paris – Nice concluded with a mountain time trial on the Col d 'Èze . The 9 @.@ 6 km ( 6 @.@ 0 mi ) course began in Nice and had an average gradient of 4 @.@ 7 % . The steepest part of the climb came in the early stages : the second kilometre had an average gradient of 8 @.@ 5 % . The intermediate timing point came at the Col des Quatre Chemins , 4 km ( 2 mi ) from the finish . The final 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 9 mi ) towards the summit of Col d 'Èze were contested on a false flat . This time trial is the traditional final stage of Paris – Nice , though it was absent from the 2014 edition . The last time the course was used , in the last stage of the 2013 Paris – Nice , the stage was won by Richie Porte ( Team Sky ) , securing his overall race victory . As is customary in time trial stages , the riders set off in reverse order from where they were ranked in the general classification at the end of the previous stage . The race was held in rainy and windy conditions .
The first major news of the day was that Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) , who had won the stage in the 2012 Paris – Nice and who was the reigning world time trial champion , would not start the stage . He had been in 103rd place overnight , more than 56 minutes behind the race leader .
The first rider to set off was Stijn Vandenbergh ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , who recorded a time of 23 ' 37 " . Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) completed the course in 22 ' 11 " and led the race for a while . Sérgio Paulinho ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) briefly took over the lead , before he was overtaken by Thomas De Gendt ( Lotto – Soudal ) , whose time was 21 ' 19 " . Rein Taaramäe ( Cofidis ) recorded a better time , but was immediately beaten by the next rider , Andrew Talansky ( Cannondale – Garmin ) . Talansky 's time was 21 ' 00 " ; he led until former world time trial champion Tony Martin ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) became the first rider to complete the course in under 21 minutes . Martin was the leader of the stage until the final few riders completed the course .
Simon Špilak ( Team Katusha ) was the first of the general classification contenders to beat Martin ; his time was 20 ' 36 " . This was enough to beat many of the other contenders for the overall classification : Rui Costa ( Lampre – Merida ) , Geraint Thomas ( Team Sky ) and Michał Kwiatkowski ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) all finished behind Špilak . Porte , in second place overnight , was the only rider able to beat Špilak 's time : Porte was 11 seconds ahead at the intermediate time check and finished the stage 13 seconds ahead .
The final rider to set off was the race leader Tony Gallopin ( Lotto – Soudal ) . Gallopin was 36 seconds ahead of Porte overnight and expressed hope that he would be able to defend his lead and take overall victory . Immediately after he set off , however , he was nervous and uncomfortable on his bike . ( Gallopin , like most of the riders , was riding a conventional road bike with aero bars attached . ) At the intermediate time check , he was already 58 seconds behind Porte ; he lost another 41 seconds in the second part of the stage . His time of 22 ' 02 " meant he finished 29th on the stage and lost the yellow jersey . He dropped to sixth place overall .
Porte therefore won both the stage and the overall victory in the race , his first general classification victory since he won Paris – Nice in 2013 . Kwiatkowski 's fifth place on the stage was enough to ensure both second place overall ( 30 seconds behind Porte ) and victory in the young rider classification . Špilak finished on the same overall time as Kwiatkowski in third place , with Costa also on the same time in fourth .
= = Classification leadership table = =
In the 2015 Paris – Nice , four jerseys were awarded . The general classification was calculated by adding each cyclist 's finishing times on each stage . Time bonuses were awarded to the first three finishers on road stages ( stages 1 – 6 ) : the stage winner won a ten @-@ second bonus , with six and four seconds for the second and third riders respectively . Bonus seconds were also awarded to the first three riders at intermediate sprints ( three seconds for the winner of the sprint , two seconds for the rider in second and one second for the rider in third . The leader of the general classification received a yellow jersey . This classification was considered the most important of the 2015 Paris – Nice , and the winner of the classification was considered the winner of the race .
The second classification was the points classification . Riders were awarded points for finishing in the top ten in a stage . Unlike in the points classification in the Tour de France , the winners of all stages were awarded the same number of points . Points were also won in intermediate sprints ; three points for crossing the sprint line first , two points for second place , and one for third . The leader of the points classification was awarded a green jersey .
There was also a mountains classification , for which points were awarded for reaching the top of a climb before other riders . Each climb was categorised as either first , second , or third @-@ category , with more points available for the more difficult , higher @-@ categorised climbs . For first @-@ category climbs , the top seven riders earned points ; on second @-@ category climbs , five riders won points ; on third @-@ category climbs , only the top three riders earned points . The leadership of the mountains classification was marked by a white jersey with red polka @-@ dots .
The fourth jersey represented the young rider classification , marked by a white jersey . Only riders born after 1 January 1990 were eligible ; the young rider best placed in the general classification was the leader of the young rider classification .
There was also a classification for teams , in which the times of the best three cyclists in a team on each stage were added together ; the leading team at the end of the race was the team with the lowest cumulative time .
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= Good Kid , M.A.A.D City =
Good Kid , M.A.A.D City ( stylized as good kid , m.A.A.d city ) is the second studio album by American rapper Kendrick Lamar . The album was released on October 22 , 2012 , by Top Dawg Entertainment , Aftermath Entertainment , and was distributed by Interscope Records . The album serves as Lamar 's major label debut , after his signing to Aftermath and Interscope in early 2012 . It was preceded by the release of Kendrick 's debut studio album Section.80 ( 2011 ) , released exclusively through the iTunes Store independently .
The album was recorded mostly at several studios in California with producers such as Dr. Dre , Just Blaze , Pharrell Williams , Hit @-@ Boy , Scoop DeVille , Jack Splash and T @-@ Minus , among others . Billed as a " short film by Kendrick Lamar " on the album cover , the concept album follows the story of Lamar 's teenage experiences in the drug @-@ infested streets and gang lifestyle of his native Compton , California . Good Kid , M.A.A.D City received widespread acclaim from critics , who praised its thematic scope and Lamar 's lyrics . Good Kid M.A.A.D City earned Lamar four Grammy Award nominations at the 56th Grammy Awards including Album of the Year .
The album debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 chart , selling 242 @,@ 000 copies in its first week – earning the highest first @-@ week hip hop album sales of 2012 from a male artist , along with the best @-@ selling debut from a male artist of the year . It became Lamar 's first album to enter the UK Albums Chart , peaking at number 16 , and entering the UK R & B Albums Chart at number two . The album was also named to many end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ year lists , often topping them . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in August 2013 . By March 2015 , the album had sold 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 copies domestically , according to Nielsen SoundScan .
The album 's release was supported by five singles – " The Recipe " featuring Dr. Dre , " Swimming Pools ( Drank ) " , " Backseat Freestyle " , " Poetic Justice " featuring Drake and " Bitch , Don 't Kill My Vibe " . All five singles received varied chart success . Lamar also went on a world tour between May and August 2013 , featuring the other members of the hip hop collective Black Hippy .
= = Background = =
After the release and success of his debut studio album Section.80 ( 2011 ) , Lamar signed a major label record deal with Interscope and Dr. Dre 's Aftermath . He told HipHopDX that he did not want to work with high @-@ profile producers , but with those he had established himself with , mainly producers from Top Dawg 's in @-@ house production team Digi + Phonics .
In an interview for XXL , Lamar said that the album would not sound like Section.80 , but will return to his Compton , California roots : " I couldn 't tell you what type of sound or where I 'ma be in the next five years as far as music ... Going back to the neighbourhood and going to different spots , chilling with my homeboys , put me back in that same space where we used to be , bringing back them thoughts , reminiscing how I was feeling . I got myself right back in that mode and I got inspired by that . So this album won 't sound like Section.80. Completely nothing like it . "
Lamar also said that the album will showcase the influence of his hometown : " The kid that 's trying to escape that influence , trying his best to escape that influence , has always been pulled back in because of circumstances that be " . Before the album 's title was officially revealed , fans had already been calling Lamar 's major label debut Good Kid , Mad City or Good Kid in a Mad City , as it was a nickname of some sort that Lamar had given himself . The album 's title mainly refers to Lamar 's childhood innocence and how the notorious city of Compton , California affected that and his life . After keeping the album title 's acronym concealed , Lamar later revealed M.A.A.D is an acronym with two meanings : " My Angry Adolescence Divided " and more importantly " My Angels on Angel Dust " , with Lamar stating : " That was me . I got laced . The reason why I don 't smoke , and it 's in the album . It 's in the story . It was just me getting my hands on the wrong thing at the wrong time , being oblivious to it . "
The cover artwork for Good Kid , M.A.A.D City fits to the concept of the album . The album cover features Kendrick Lamar , two of his uncles , and his grandfather , with the elders ' eyes censored . Though there is no confirmed explanation for why Kendrick chose to do this , he explained that the reason why he had not censored his own eyes was that the story was told through his eyes , and the story is based around his experiences . The uncle who is holding Lamar also is displaying the Crips gang sign with his hand , which also fits the story of the album , and how Kendrick was stuck in a lifestyle of gangs and drugs . The poster above the head of Kendrick features him and his father .
= = Recording and production = =
Recording sessions for the album took place at PatchWerk Recording Studios in Atlanta , Encore Studios in Burbank , TDE Red Room in Carson , and " At [ Kendrick Lamar 's ] Mama 's Studio " in Los Angeles . Lamar stated Good Kid , M.A.A.D City would sound " nothing " like his previous album , Section.80 : " I couldn 't tell you what type of sound or where I 'ma be in the next five years as far as music , " he said . " It 's a big difference from the next project compared to the last . And that 's what happened with this album . Going back to the neighborhood and going to different spots , chilling with my homeboys , put me back in that same space where we used to be , bringing back them thoughts , reminiscing how I was feeling . I got myself right back in that mode and I got inspired by that . So this album won 't sound like Section.80. Completely nothing like it , " he told XXL . The first song Lamar and Dr. Dre ever worked on together was " Compton " , the twelfth track on the album , which serves as the standard edition 's closing track .
On August 15 , 2012 , Lady Gaga announced via Twitter , that she had collaborated with Lamar on a song called " Partynauseous " , for Good Kid , M.A.A.D City , and that it would be released on September 6 , 2012 . However , on August 23 , 2012 , Gaga announced that the song was no longer being released on that date and apologized to fans for the delay . Eventually , it was confirmed that Lady Gaga would not be featured on the album due to timing issues and creative differences . The song was later revealed to be re @-@ titled " Bitch , Don 't Kill My Vibe " . On November 8 , 2012 Gaga released the version she was featured on , which had her singing the chorus and a verse . Lamar expressed he was surprised and happy that Gaga released her version of the song , as it showed confidence in their work together .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Good Kid , M.A.A.D City has a low @-@ key , downbeat production , with atmospheric beats and subtle , indistinct hooks . It eschews contemporary hip hop tastes and generally features tight bass measures , subtle background vocals , and light piano . Writers draw comparisons of the music to Outkast 's 1998 album Aquemini . Andrew Nosnitsky of Spin cites the music 's " closest point of reference " as " the cold spaciousness of ATLiens @-@ era Outkast , but as the record progresses , that sound sinks slowly into the fusionist mud of those sprawling and solemn mid @-@ 2000s Roots albums . " Sasha Frere @-@ Jones of The New Yorker finds its use of " smooth " music as a backdrop for " rough " scenarios to be analogous to Dr. Dre 's G @-@ funk during the early 1990s , but adds that " Lamar often sounds like Drake ... whose various dreamy styles have very little to do with the legacy of the West . " Okayplayer 's Marcus Moore writes that its " expansive and brooding " instrumentals eschew " California 's glossy West Coast funk " for a " Dungeon Family aesthetic . "
Lyrically , the album chronicles Lamar 's experiences in his native Compton , California and its harsh realities , in a nonlinear narrative . The songs address issues such as economic disenfranchisement , retributive gang violence and downtrodden women , while analyzing their residual effects on individuals and families . Lamar introduces various characters and internal conflicts , including the contrast of his homesickness and love for Compton with the city 's plagued condition . Del F. Cowie of Exclaim ! observes a " transformation " by Lamar 's character " from a boisterous , impressionable , girl @-@ craving teenager to more spiritual , hard @-@ fought adulthood , irrevocably shaped by the neighbourhood and familial bonds of his precarious environment . " Slant Magazine 's Mark Collett writes that Lamar executes the character 's transition by " tempering the hedonistic urges of West Coast hip hop with the self @-@ reflective impulses of the East Coast . " David Amidon of PopMatters views that the album provides a " sort of semi @-@ autobiographical character arc " , while MSN Music 's Robert Christgau writes that Lamar " softspokenly " enacts a " rap @-@ versus @-@ real dichotomy " .
The album features naturalistic , vérité @-@ like skits that dramatize the characters ' limitations . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times finds them to be a part of the album 's " narrative strategy " , with " prayers and conversations and different voices and recollections and interludes , all in service of one overarching story : Mr. Lamar 's tale of ducking Compton 's rougher corners to find himself artistically . " Pitchfork Media 's Jayson Greene feels that they reinforce the album 's theme of " the grounding power of family " , interpreting " family and faith " to be " the fraying tethers holding Lamar back from the chasm of gang violence that threatens to consume him . "
Lamar exhibits a tempered delivery on the album and raps with dense narratives , internal rhyme , double and triple time flow and multiple voices for different characters . Music journalist Jody Rosen characterizes him as " a storyteller , not a braggart or punch @-@ line rapper , setting spiritual yearnings and moral dilemmas against a backdrop of gang violence and police brutality . "
= = Singles = =
The album 's first single , " The Recipe " , was released on April 3 , 2012 . The song features his mentor , record producer and fellow rapper Dr. Dre and was produced by Scoop DeVille . It peaked at number 38 on Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and at number 3 on Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles . Kendrick shot a video for it featuring Dr. Dre at a mansion in Los Angeles in May 2012 although it was never released . The album 's second single " Swimming Pools ( Drank ) " was released on July 31 , 2012 , as a digital download , while the music video premiered on August 3 , 2012 . The song became a hit , peaking at number 17 on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Swimming Pools ( Drank ) " was also certified gold in the United States by the RIAA .
The week of the album 's release , " Backseat Freestyle " debuted on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at number 106 . It was later revealed to be released as the third single in the United Kingdom on January 7 , 2013 . The music video was released on January 2 , 2013 . Lamar 's father appears in the video . The song peaked at number 29 on the US Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs .
" Poetic Justice " was released third single in North America , featuring Drake and production from Scoop DeVille . The song began to impact American rhythmic contemporary radio on January 15 , 2013 . The song has since peaked at number 26 on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Poetic Justice " was also certified gold in the United States by the RIAA .
On March 9 , 2013 , Kendrick told Rap @-@ Up that his next single off the album would probably be " Bitch , Don 't Kill My Vibe " . On March 13 , 2013 , Jay Z 's engineer Young Guru premiered a snippet of the song 's official remix , featuring rapper Jay Z. Lamar called it an accomplishment to have a song with Jay Z featured on it . Shortly after the remix premiered he would confirm that , " Bitch , Don 't Kill My Vibe " would be the next single . The full version of the remix was premiered by Funkmaster Flex on March 17 , 2013 . The remix was released as the album 's fourth single to rhythmic contemporary radio on April 9 , 2013 . The song has since peaked at number 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The music video for the original version of the single was released on May 13 , 2013 . Comedian Mike Epps makes a cameo appearance in the video . The same day an extended version of the music video was released featuring a cameo from Juicy J , and a bonus clip of a new song by Schoolboy Q from his own respective major label debut album , Oxymoron ( 2014 ) .
On March 10 , 2015 , Lamar unexpectedly released the Target exclusive edition bonus track , " County Building Blues " , to iTunes as a promotional single .
= = Promotion = =
Before and after the album 's release , Kendrick toured as a supporting act with other various artists such as Drake and Steve Aoki . On May 5 , 2013 , he begun his first headlining tour with the Good Kid , M.A.A.D City World Tour , in West Palm Beach , Florida . The tour consisted of 23 headlining shows , 22 international music festivals , and 15 United States music festivals . The tour ran through August 24 and also featured the other members of Black Hippy on all the US dates .
After titling the album " a short film " by Kendrick Lamar , in an interview with GQ he said " he plans on doing a short film to bring his story to life . " He also expressed interest in directing this short film too . Lamar also threw out names like Tristan Wilds to portray him , Taraji P. Henson ( as his mother ) and Rihanna ( as Sherane ) as potential names he 'd want to have if he could choose anybody to work with . On December 23 , 2013 , the music video for the song " Sing About Me " , was released . The video was directed by Darren Romanelli .
= = Critical reception = =
Good Kid , M.A.A.D City received widespread acclaim from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 91 , based on 36 reviews . Pitchfork 's Jayson Greene felt that " the miracle of this album is how it ties straightforward rap thrills " to its " weighty material " and narrative . David Amidon of PopMatters felt that the album is simultaneously accessible and substantial , as it can appeal to both underground and mainstream hip hop listeners . Fact magazine 's Joseph Morpurgo called it an autobiographical " triumph of breadth " and a " wide @-@ ranging , far @-@ reaching success " . Sputnikmusic found its reach comparable to Kanye West 's 2010 album My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy , " but with much subtler shades " . Jaeki Cho of XXL called it " one of the most cohesive bodies of work in recent rap memory " and wrote that each song is " both complexly arranged and sonically fitting , foregrounding Kendrick 's vivid lyricism and amazing control of cadence , and awarded it a " perfect XXL " rating . " Jim Carroll of The Irish Times viewed it as an important and entertaining album that is forward thinking , even though it echoes the past era of West Coast hip hop . AllMusic editor David Jeffries characterized the album as " some kind of elevated gangsta rap " and wrote of its subject matter :
Besides all the great ideas and life , this journey through the concrete jungle of Compton is worth taking because of the artistic richness , plus the attraction of a whip @-@ smart rapper flying high during his rookie season . Any hesitation about the horror of it all is quickly wiped away by Kendrick 's mix of true talk , open heart , open mind , and extended hand . Add it all up and subtract the hype , and this one is still potent enough to rise to the top of the pile .
In a mixed review , Hazel Sheffield of NME asserted that the album " might lack the raw appeal of " Section.80 , " but it 's a big @-@ budget reminder that [ Lamar ] hasn 't forgotten his roots . " Alex Macpherson of The Guardian criticized " Lamar 's depiction of downtrodden women " as " unnecessarily prurient and unconvincing " , but praised his " ability to pull the listener inside the action while retaining an alienated detachment " . Although he observed " some degree of self @-@ indulgence " , Andrew Nosnitsky of Spin found the album 's production " surprisingly cohesive " and commented that Lamar " manages to hold everything together in the midst of such chaos through sheer craftsmanship . " Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone felt that the album " warrants a place in that storied lineage " of " Seventies blaxploitation soundtracks and Nineties gangsta rap blaxploitation revivals " . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune commended Lamar for giving " gangsta tropes ... a twist , or sometimes upend [ ing ] them completely " , and wrote that the album " brims with comedy , complexity and the many voices in Kendrick Lamar 's head . " Robert Christgau from MSN Music felt that its " commitment to drama has musical drawbacks " , but stated , " the atmospheric beats Dr. Dre and his hirelings lay under the raps and choruses establish a musical continuity that shores up a nervous flow that 's just what Lamar 's rhymes need . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Good Kid , M.A.A.D City appeared on several year @-@ end top albums lists by music critics . It was named the best album of 2012 by BBC , Complex , Fact , New York and Pitchfork . The album was also ranked number two by Billboard , the Chicago Tribune , MTV , Spin and Time , number four by Filter , Jon Pareles of The New York Times and Ann Powers of NPR , number five by The Guardian , number six by Rolling Stone and number eight by Entertainment Weekly . In December 2012 , Complex also named Good Kid , M.A.A.D City one of the 25 classic hip hop albums of the previous 10 years . Complex also ranked its album cover as the best of 2012 , while Pitchfork included it on its list of the 20 best album covers of the year . In April 2013 , Vibe placed the album at number 19 on its " The Greatest 50 Albums Since ' 93 " list .
In October 2013 , Complex named it the second best hip hop album of the last five years . Also in 2013 , Rolling Stone placed the album at 86 on its " The 100 Best Debut Albums of All Time " list . The album was ranked number two of " The 100 Best Albums of the Decade So Far ( 2010 @-@ 2014 ) " , a list published by Pitchfork in August 2014 and number five of " The 20 Best Albums of the 2010s ( so far ) " , a list published by Billboard in January 2015 .
The album was nominated for Top Rap Album at the 2013 Billboard Music Awards and the 2013 American Music Awards . It won the award for Album of the Year at the 2013 BET Hip Hop Awards . Good Kid M.A.A.D City earned Lamar five Grammy Award nominations at the 56th Grammy Awards , for Album of The Year , Best Rap Album , Best New Artist , Best Rap / Sung Collaboration for Now Or Never with Mary J. Blige and Best Rap Performance for " Swimming Pools ( Drank ) " .
According to Acclaimed Music , a site which aggregates hundreds of critics ' lists from around the world into all @-@ time rankings , the album is the second @-@ most acclaimed of 2012 , and the third @-@ most acclaimed of the 2010s .
= = Commercial performance = =
The album debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 chart , with first @-@ week sales of 242 @,@ 000 copies . The album also entered the UK Albums Chart at number 16 on October 28 , 2012 , as well as entering at number two on the UK R & B Albums Chart . The album also peaked in the top ten of the album sales charts in Canada , New Zealand and the Netherlands . In its second week it sold 63 @,@ 000 more copies in the United States . Then over the following four weeks it sold 176 @,@ 000 more copies bringing its total sales to 481 @,@ 000 in the United States . On the chart dated November 24 , 2012 , the album peaked on the US Vinyl Albums chart at number three .
On August 21 , 2013 , the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , having shipped and sold one million copies in the United States . As of March 2015 , the album had sold 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan .
= = Controversy = =
On October 23 , 2012 , after receiving much critical acclaim from the hip hop community , outspoken rapper Shyne took to Twitter to run down on the album , calling it " trash " and the production horrible . West Coast rappers Nipsey Hussle , Schoolboy Q and Game quickly took offense to this , with Game calling Kendrick non @-@ confrontational in that he wouldn 't respond to Shyne . Kendrick responded to Shyne 's comments on October 26 , saying that he is not a sensitive person and was unfazed by his comments . In addition he said Good Kid , M.A.A.D City was not necessarily a " classic " as some have called it , but " classic worthy " if enough time passed . Kendrick also referred to Shyne in his song " The Jig Is Up " saying , " I pray to God this beat good enough for Shyne " . After this Shyne stood by his comments and called Game his " little son " . Game responded with a freestyle calling out Shyne , titled " Cough Up a Lung " . Shyne then responded with his own diss track , towards Game named " Psalms 68 ( Guns & Moses ) " .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ [ a ] signifies a co @-@ producer .
^ [ b ] signifies an additional producer .
" Bitch , Don 't Kill My Vibe " features background vocals by Anna Wise and additional vocals by JMSN .
" Money Trees " features background vocals by Anna Wise .
" good kid " features addditional vocals by Chad Hugo .
" m.A.A.d city " features uncredited vocals from Schoolboy Q.
" Sing About Me , I 'm Dying of Thirst " features additional vocals by JMSN , Anna Wise and Camille " ill Camille " Davis .
" Real " features background vocals by JMSN .
Sample credits
" Bitch , Don 't Kill My Vibe " contains a sample of " Tiden Flyver " as performed by Boom Clap Bachelors .
" Backseat Freestyle " contains a sample of " Yo Soy Cubano " by The Chakachas .
" The Art of Peer Pressure " contains a sample of " Helt Alene " as performed by Suspekt .
" Money Trees " contains a sample of " Silver Soul " as performed by Beach House .
" Poetic Justice " contains a sample of " Any Time , Any Place " as performed by Janet Jackson .
" m.A.A.d city " contains a sample of " Don 't Change Your Love " as performed by The Five Stairsteps , " Funky Worm " by Ohio Players and " A Bird In The Hand " by Ice Cube .
" Sing About Me , I 'm Dying of Thirst " contains a sample of " Maybe Tomorrow " as performed by Grant Green , " I 'm Glad You 're Mine " by Al Green and " Use Me " by Bill Withers .
" Compton " contains a sample of " What 's This World Coming To " as performed by Formula IV .
" The Recipe " contains a sample of " Meet the Frownies " as performed by Twin Sister .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Good Kid , M.A.A.D City adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Che Guevara =
Ernesto " Che " Guevara ( Spanish pronunciation : [ ˈtʃe ɣeˈβaɾa ] ; June 14 , 1928 – October 9 , 1967 ) , commonly known as El Che or simply Che , was an Argentine Marxist revolutionary , physician , author , guerrilla leader , diplomat , and military theorist . A major figure of the Cuban Revolution , his stylized visage has become a ubiquitous countercultural symbol of rebellion and global insignia in popular culture .
As a young medical student , Guevara traveled throughout South America and was radicalized by the poverty , hunger , and disease he witnessed . His burgeoning desire to help overturn what he saw as the capitalist exploitation of Latin America by the United States prompted his involvement in Guatemala 's social reforms under President Jacobo Árbenz , whose eventual CIA @-@ assisted overthrow at the behest of the United Fruit Company solidified Guevara 's political ideology . Later , in Mexico City , he met Raúl and Fidel Castro , joined their 26th of July Movement , and sailed to Cuba aboard the yacht Granma , with the intention of overthrowing U.S.-backed Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista . Guevara soon rose to prominence among the insurgents , was promoted to second @-@ in @-@ command , and played a pivotal role in the victorious two @-@ year guerrilla campaign that deposed the Batista regime .
Following the Cuban Revolution , Guevara performed a number of key roles in the new government . These included reviewing the appeals and firing squads for those convicted as war criminals during the revolutionary tribunals , instituting agrarian land reform as minister of industries , helping spearhead a successful nationwide literacy campaign , serving as both national bank president and instructional director for Cuba 's armed forces , and traversing the globe as a diplomat on behalf of Cuban socialism . Such positions also allowed him to play a central role in training the militia forces who repelled the Bay of Pigs Invasion and bringing the Soviet nuclear @-@ armed ballistic missiles to Cuba which precipitated the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis . Additionally , he was a prolific writer and diarist , composing a seminal manual on guerrilla warfare , along with a best @-@ selling memoir about his youthful continental motorcycle journey . His experiences and studying of Marxism – Leninism led him to posit that the Third World 's underdevelopment and dependence was an intrinsic result of imperialism , neocolonialism , and monopoly capitalism , with the only remedy being proletarian internationalism and world revolution . Guevara left Cuba in 1965 to foment revolution abroad , first unsuccessfully in Congo @-@ Kinshasa and later in Bolivia , where he was captured by CIA @-@ assisted Bolivian forces and summarily executed .
Guevara remains both a revered and reviled historical figure , polarized in the collective imagination in a multitude of biographies , memoirs , essays , documentaries , songs , and films . As a result of his perceived martyrdom , poetic invocations for class struggle , and desire to create the consciousness of a " new man " driven by moral rather than material incentives , he has evolved into a quintessential icon of various leftist @-@ inspired movements . Time magazine named him one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century , while an Alberto Korda photograph of him , titled Guerrillero Heroico ( shown ) , was cited by the Maryland Institute College of Art as " the most famous photograph in the world . "
= = Early life = =
Ernesto Guevara was born to Ernesto Guevara Lynch and his wife , Celia de la Serna y Llosa , on June 14 , 1928 in Rosario , Argentina , the eldest of five children in an aristocratic Argentine family of Spanish ( including Basque and Cantabrian ) and Irish descent . In accordance with the flexibility allowed in Spanish naming customs , his legal name ( Ernesto Guevara ) will sometimes appear with " de la Serna " and / or " Lynch " accompanying it . Referring to Che 's " restless " nature , his father declared " the first thing to note is that in my son 's veins flowed the blood of the Irish rebels " .
Very early on in life , Ernestito ( as he was then called ) developed an " affinity for the poor " . Growing up in a family with leftist leanings , Guevara was introduced to a wide spectrum of political perspectives even as a boy . His father , a staunch supporter of Republicans from the Spanish Civil War , often hosted many veterans from the conflict in the Guevara home .
Despite suffering crippling bouts of acute asthma that were to afflict him throughout his life , he excelled as an athlete , enjoying swimming , football , golf , and shooting ; while also becoming an " untiring " cyclist . He was an avid rugby union player , and played at fly @-@ half for Club Universitario de Buenos Aires . His rugby playing earned him the nickname " Fuser " — a contraction of El Furibundo ( raging ) and his mother 's surname , de la Serna — for his aggressive style of play .
= = = Intellectual and literary interests = = =
Guevara learned chess from his father and began participating in local tournaments by age 12 . During adolescence and throughout his life , he was passionate about poetry , especially that of Pablo Neruda , John Keats , Antonio Machado , Federico García Lorca , Gabriela Mistral , César Vallejo , and Walt Whitman . He could also recite Rudyard Kipling 's " If — " and José Hernández 's Martín Fierro from memory . The Guevara home contained more than 3 @,@ 000 books , which allowed Guevara to be an enthusiastic and eclectic reader , with interests including Karl Marx , William Faulkner , André Gide , Emilio Salgari and Jules Verne . Additionally , he enjoyed the works of Jawaharlal Nehru , Franz Kafka , Albert Camus , Vladimir Lenin , and Jean @-@ Paul Sartre ; as well as Anatole France , Friedrich Engels , H. G. Wells , and Robert Frost .
As he grew older , he developed an interest in the Latin American writers Horacio Quiroga , Ciro Alegría , Jorge Icaza , Rubén Darío , and Miguel Asturias . Many of these authors ' ideas he cataloged in his own handwritten notebooks of concepts , definitions , and philosophies of influential intellectuals . These included composing analytical sketches of Buddha and Aristotle , along with examining Bertrand Russell on love and patriotism , Jack London on society , and Nietzsche on the idea of death . Sigmund Freud 's ideas fascinated him as he quoted him on a variety of topics from dreams and libido to narcissism and the Oedipus complex . His favorite subjects in school included philosophy , mathematics , engineering , political science , sociology , history and archaeology .
Years later , a February 13 , 1958 , declassified CIA ' biographical and personality report ' would make note of Guevara 's wide range of academic interests and intellect , describing him as " quite well read " while adding that " Che is fairly intellectual for a Latino . "
= = = Motorcycle journey = = =
In 1948 , Guevara entered the University of Buenos Aires to study medicine . His " hunger to explore the world " led him to intersperse his collegiate pursuits with two long introspective journeys that would fundamentally change the way he viewed himself and the contemporary economic conditions in Latin America . The first expedition in 1950 was a 4 @,@ 500 @-@ kilometer ( 2 @,@ 800 mi ) solo trip through the rural provinces of northern Argentina on a bicycle on which he installed a small engine . This was followed in 1951 by a nine @-@ month , 8 @,@ 000 @-@ kilometer ( 5 @,@ 000 mi ) continental motorcycle trek through most of South America . For the latter , he took a year off from his studies to embark with his friend Alberto Granado , with the final goal of spending a few weeks volunteering at the San Pablo leper colony in Peru , on the banks of the Amazon River .
In Chile , Guevara found himself enraged by the working conditions of the miners in Anaconda 's Chuquicamata copper mine and moved by his overnight encounter in the Atacama Desert with a persecuted communist couple who did not even own a blanket , describing them as " the shivering flesh @-@ and @-@ blood victims of capitalist exploitation " . Additionally , on the way to Machu Picchu high in the Andes , he was struck by the crushing poverty of the remote rural areas , where peasant farmers worked small plots of land owned by wealthy landlords . Later on his journey , Guevara was especially impressed by the camaraderie among those living in a leper colony , stating " The highest forms of human solidarity and loyalty arise among such lonely and desperate people . " Guevara used notes taken during this trip to write an account , titled The Motorcycle Diaries , which later became a The New York Times best @-@ seller , and was adapted into a 2004 award @-@ winning film of the same name .
The journey took Guevara through Argentina , Chile , Peru , Ecuador , Colombia , Venezuela , Panama , and Miami , Florida , for 20 days , before returning home to Buenos Aires . By the end of the trip , he came to view Latin America not as collection of separate nations , but as a single entity requiring a continent @-@ wide liberation strategy . His conception of a borderless , united Hispanic America sharing a common Latino heritage was a theme that recurred prominently during his later revolutionary activities . Upon returning to Argentina , he completed his studies and received his medical degree in June 1953 , making him officially " Dr. Ernesto Guevara " .
Guevara later remarked that through his travels in Latin America , he came in " close contact with poverty , hunger and disease " along with the " inability to treat a child because of lack of money " and " stupefaction provoked by the continual hunger and punishment " that leads a father to " accept the loss of a son as an unimportant accident " . It was these experiences which Guevara cites as convincing him that in order to " help these people " , he needed to leave the realm of medicine , and consider the political arena of armed struggle .
= = Guatemala , Árbenz , and United Fruit = =
On July 7 , 1953 , Guevara set out again , this time to Bolivia , Peru , Ecuador , Panama , Costa Rica , Nicaragua , Honduras and El Salvador . On December 10 , 1953 , before leaving for Guatemala , Guevara sent an update to his Aunt Beatriz from San José , Costa Rica . In the letter Guevara speaks of traversing through the dominion of the United Fruit Company ; a journey which convinced him that Company 's capitalist system was a terrible one . This affirmed indignation carried the more aggressive tone he adopted in order to frighten his more Conservative relatives , and ends with Guevara swearing on an image of the then recently deceased Joseph Stalin , not to rest until these " octopuses have been vanquished " . Later that month , Guevara arrived in Guatemala where President Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán headed a democratically elected government that , through land reform and other initiatives , was attempting to end the latifundia system . To accomplish this , President Árbenz had enacted a major land reform program , where all uncultivated portions of large land holdings were to be expropriated and redistributed to landless peasants . The biggest land owner , and one most affected by the reforms , was the United Fruit Company , from which the Árbenz government had already taken more than 225 @,@ 000 acres ( 91 @,@ 000 ha ) of uncultivated land . Pleased with the road the nation was heading down , Guevara decided to settle down in Guatemala so as to " perfect himself and accomplish whatever may be necessary in order to become a true revolutionary . "
In Guatemala City , Guevara sought out Hilda Gadea Acosta , a Peruvian economist who was well @-@ connected politically as a member of the left @-@ leaning Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana ( APRA , American Popular Revolutionary Alliance ) . She introduced Guevara to a number of high @-@ level officials in the Arbenz government . Guevara then established contact with a group of Cuban exiles linked to Fidel Castro through the July 26 , 1953 , attack on the Moncada Barracks in Santiago de Cuba . During this period , he acquired his famous nickname , due to his frequent use of the Argentine diminutive interjection che , a vocative casual speech filler used to call attention or ascertain comprehension , similarly to both " bro " or the Canadian phrase " eh " . During his time in Guatemala , Guevara was helped by other Central American exiles , one of whom , Helena Leiva de Holst , provided him with food and lodging , discussed her travels to study Marxism in Russia and China , and to whom , Guevara dedicated a poem , " " Invitación al camino " .
On May 15 , 1954 , a shipment of Škoda infantry and light artillery weapons was dispatched from Communist Czechoslovakia for the Arbenz Government and arrived in Puerto Barrios . As a result , the United States government — which since 1953 had been tasked by President Eisenhower to remove Arbenz from power in the multifaceted CIA operation code named PBSUCCESS — responded by saturating Guatemala with anti @-@ Arbenz propaganda through radio and dropped leaflets , and began bombing raids using unmarked airplanes . The United States also sponsored a force of several hundred Guatemalan refugees and mercenaries who were headed by Castillo Armas to help remove the Arbenz government . Though the impact of the U.S. actions on subsequent events is debatable , by late June , Arbenz came to the conclusion that resistance against the " giant of the north " was futile and resigned . This allowed Armas and his CIA @-@ assisted forces to march into Guatemala City and establish a military junta , which would twelve days later on July 8 , elect him President . Consequently , the Armas regime then consolidated power by rounding up hundreds of suspected communists and executed hundreds of prisoners , while crushing the previously flourishing labor unions and restoring all of United Fruits previous land holdings .
Guevara himself was eager to fight on behalf of Arbenz and joined an armed militia organized by the Communist Youth for that purpose , but frustrated with the group 's inaction , he soon returned to medical duties . Following the coup , he again volunteered to fight , but soon after , Arbenz took refuge in the Mexican Embassy and told his foreign supporters to leave the country . Guevara 's repeated calls to resist were noted by supporters of the coup , and he was marked for murder . After Hilda Gadea was arrested , Guevara sought protection inside the Argentine consulate , where he remained until he received a safe @-@ conduct pass some weeks later and made his way to Mexico .
The overthrow of the Arbenz regime and establishment of the right @-@ wing Armas dictatorship cemented Guevara 's view of the United States as an imperialist power that would oppose and attempt to destroy any government that sought to redress the socioeconomic inequality endemic to Latin America and other developing countries . In speaking about the coup , Guevara stated :
The last Latin American revolutionary democracy – that of Jacobo Arbenz – failed as a result of the cold premeditated aggression carried out by the United States . Its visible head was the Secretary of State John Foster Dulles , a man who , through a rare coincidence , was also a stockholder and attorney for the United Fruit Company .
Guevara 's conviction that Marxism achieved through armed struggle and defended by an armed populace was the only way to rectify such conditions was thus strengthened . Gadea wrote later , " It was Guatemala which finally convinced him of the necessity for armed struggle and for taking the initiative against imperialism . By the time he left , he was sure of this . "
= = Mexico City and preparation = =
Guevara arrived in Mexico City on 21 September 1954 , and worked in the allergy section of the General Hospital and at the Hospital Infantil de Mexico . In addition he gave lectures on medicine at the Faculty of Medicine in the National Autonomous University of Mexico and worked as a news photographer for Latina News Agency . His first wife Hilda notes in her memoir My Life with Che , that for a while , Guevara considered going to work as a doctor in Africa and that he continued to be deeply troubled by the poverty around him . In one instance , Hilda describes Guevara 's obsession with an elderly washerwoman whom he was treating , remarking that he saw her as " representative of the most forgotten and exploited class " . Hilda later found a poem that Che had dedicated to the old woman , containing " a promise to fight for a better world , for a better life for all the poor and exploited . "
During this time he renewed his friendship with Ñico López and the other Cuban exiles whom he had met in Guatemala . In June 1955 , López introduced him to Raúl Castro who subsequently introduced him to his older brother , Fidel Castro , the revolutionary leader who had formed the 26th of July Movement and was now plotting to overthrow the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista . During a long conversation with Fidel on the night of their first meeting , Guevara concluded that the Cuban 's cause was the one for which he had been searching and before daybreak he had signed up as a member of the July 26 Movement . Despite their " contrasting personalities " , from this point on Che and Fidel began to foster what dual biographer Simon Reid @-@ Henry deems a " revolutionary friendship that would change the world " , as a result of their coinciding commitment to anti @-@ imperialism .
By this point in Guevara 's life , he deemed that U.S.-controlled conglomerates installed and supported repressive regimes around the world . In this vein , he considered Batista a " U.S. puppet whose strings needed cutting " . Although he planned to be the group 's combat medic , Guevara participated in the military training with the members of the Movement . The key portion of training involved learning hit and run tactics of guerrilla warfare . Guevara and the others underwent arduous 15 @-@ hour marches over mountains , across rivers , and through the dense undergrowth , learning and perfecting the procedures of ambush and quick retreat . From the start Guevara was Alberto Bayo 's " prize student " among those in training , scoring the highest on all of the tests given . At the end of the course , he was called " the best guerrilla of them all " by their instructor , General Bayo .
Guevara then married Gadea in Mexico in September 1955 , before embarking on his plan to assist in the liberation of Cuba .
= = Cuban Revolution = =
= = = Invasion , warfare , and Santa Clara = = =
The first step in Castro 's revolutionary plan was an assault on Cuba from Mexico via the Granma , an old , leaky cabin cruiser . They set out for Cuba on November 25 , 1956 . Attacked by Batista 's military soon after landing , many of the 82 men were either killed in the attack or executed upon capture ; only 22 found each other afterwards . During this initial bloody confrontation Guevara laid down his medical supplies and picked up a box of ammunition dropped by a fleeing comrade , proving to be a symbolic moment in Che 's life .
Only a small band of revolutionaries survived to re @-@ group as a bedraggled fighting force deep in the Sierra Maestra mountains , where they received support from the urban guerrilla network of Frank País , the 26th of July Movement , and local campesinos . With the group withdrawn to the Sierra , the world wondered whether Castro was alive or dead until early 1957 when the interview by Herbert Matthews appeared in The New York Times . The article presented a lasting , almost mythical image for Castro and the guerrillas . Guevara was not present for the interview , but in the coming months he began to realize the importance of the media in their struggle . Meanwhile , as supplies and morale diminished , and with an allergy to mosquito bites which resulted in agonizing walnut @-@ sized cysts on his body , Guevara considered these " the most painful days of the war " .
During Guevara 's time living hidden among the poor subsistence farmers of the Sierra Maestra mountains , he discovered that there were no schools , no electricity , minimal access to healthcare , and more than 40 percent of the adults were illiterate . As the war continued , Guevara became an integral part of the rebel army and " convinced Castro with competence , diplomacy and patience " . Guevara set up factories to make grenades , built ovens to bake bread , taught new recruits about tactics , and organized schools to teach illiterate campesinos to read and write . Moreover , Guevara established health clinics , workshops to teach military tactics , and a newspaper to disseminate information . The man who three years later would be dubbed by Time Magazine : " Castro 's brain " , at this point was promoted by Fidel Castro to Comandante ( commander ) of a second army column .
As second in command , Guevara was a harsh disciplinarian who sometimes shot defectors . Deserters were punished as traitors , and Guevara was known to send squads to track those seeking to go AWOL . As a result , Guevara became feared for his brutality and ruthlessness . During the guerrilla campaign , Guevara was also responsible for the sometimes summary execution of a number of men accused of being informers , deserters or spies . In his diaries , Guevara described the first such execution of Eutimio Guerra , a peasant army guide who admitted treason when it was discovered he accepted the promise of ten thousand pesos for repeatedly giving away the rebel 's position for attack by the Cuban air force . Such information also allowed Batista 's army to burn the homes of peasants sympathetic to the revolution . Upon Guerra 's request that they " end his life quickly " , Che stepped forward and shot him in the head , writing " The situation was uncomfortable for the people and for Eutimio so I ended the problem giving him a shot with a .32 pistol in the right side of the brain , with exit orifice in the right temporal [ lobe ] . " His scientific notations and matter @-@ of @-@ fact description , suggested to one biographer a " remarkable detachment to violence " by that point in the war . Later , Guevara published a literary account of the incident , titled " Death of a Traitor " , where he transfigured Eutimio 's betrayal and pre @-@ execution request that the revolution " take care of his children " , into a " revolutionary parable about redemption through sacrifice " .
Although he maintained a demanding and harsh disposition , Guevara also viewed his role of commander as one of a teacher , entertaining his men during breaks between engagements with readings from the likes of Robert Louis Stevenson , Cervantes , and Spanish lyric poets . Together with this role , and inspired by José Martí 's principle of " literacy without borders " , Guevara further ensured that his rebel fighters made daily time to teach the uneducated campesinos with whom they lived and fought to read and write , in what Guevara termed the " battle against ignorance " . Tomás Alba , who fought under Guevara 's command , later stated that " Che was loved , in spite of being stern and demanding . We would ( have ) given our life for him . "
His commanding officer Fidel Castro has described Guevara as intelligent , daring , and an exemplary leader who " had great moral authority over his troops " . Castro further remarked that Guevara took too many risks , even having a " tendency toward foolhardiness " . Guevara 's teenage lieutenant , Joel Iglesias , recounts such actions in his diary , noting that Guevara 's behavior in combat even brought admiration from the enemy . On one occasion Iglesias recounts the time he had been wounded in battle , stating " Che ran out to me , defying the bullets , threw me over his shoulder , and got me out of there . The guards didn 't dare fire at him ... later they told me he made a great impression on them when they saw him run out with his pistol stuck in his belt , ignoring the danger , they didn 't dare shoot . "
Guevara was instrumental in creating the clandestine radio station Radio Rebelde ( Rebel Radio ) in February 1958 , which broadcast news to the Cuban people with statements by the 26th of July movement , and provided radiotelephone communication between the growing number of rebel columns across the island . Guevara had apparently been inspired to create the station by observing the effectiveness of CIA supplied radio in Guatemala in ousting the government of Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán .
To quell the rebellion , Cuban government troops began executing rebel prisoners on the spot , and regularly rounded up , tortured , and shot civilians as a tactic of intimidation . By March 1958 , the continued atrocities carried out by Batista 's forces led the United States to announce it would stop selling arms to the Cuban government . Then in late July 1958 , Guevara played a critical role in the Battle of Las Mercedes by using his column to halt a force of 1 @,@ 500 men called up by Batista 's General Cantillo in a plan to encircle and destroy Castro 's forces . Years later , Major Larry Bockman of the United States Marine Corps would analyze and describe Che 's tactical appreciation of this battle as " brilliant " . During this time Guevara also became an " expert " at leading hit @-@ and @-@ run tactics against Batista 's army , and then fading back into the countryside before the army could counterattack .
As the war extended , Guevara led a new column of fighters dispatched westward for the final push towards Havana . Travelling by foot , Guevara embarked on a difficult 7 @-@ week march only travelling at night to avoid ambush , and often not eating for several days . In the closing days of December 1958 , Guevara 's task was to cut the island in half by taking Las Villas province . In a matter of days he executed a series of " brilliant tactical victories " that gave him control of all but the province 's capital city of Santa Clara . Guevara then directed his " suicide squad " in the attack on Santa Clara , that became the final decisive military victory of the revolution . In the six weeks leading up to the Battle of Santa Clara there were times when his men were completely surrounded , outgunned , and overrun . Che 's eventual victory despite being outnumbered 10 : 1 , remains in the view of some observers a " remarkable tour de force in modern warfare " .
Radio Rebelde broadcast the first reports that Guevara 's column had taken Santa Clara on New Year 's Eve 1958 . This contradicted reports by the heavily controlled national news media , which had at one stage reported Guevara 's death during the fighting . At 3 am on January 1 , 1959 , upon learning that his generals were negotiating a separate peace with Guevara , Fulgencio Batista boarded a plane in Havana and fled for the Dominican Republic , along with an amassed " fortune of more than $ 300 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 through graft and payoffs " . The following day on January 2 , Guevara entered Havana to take final control of the capital . Fidel Castro took 6 more days to arrive , as he stopped to rally support in several large cities on his way to rolling victoriously into Havana on January 8 , 1959 . The final death toll from the two years of revolutionary fighting was 2 @,@ 000 people .
In mid @-@ January 1959 , Guevara went to live at a summer villa in Tarara to recover from a violent asthma attack . While there he started the Tarara Group , a group that debated and formed the new plans for Cuba 's social , political , and economic development . In addition , Che began to write his book Guerrilla Warfare while resting at Tarara . In February , the revolutionary government proclaimed Guevara " a Cuban citizen by birth " in recognition of his role in the triumph . When Hilda Gadea arrived in Cuba in late January , Guevara told her that he was involved with another woman , and the two agreed on a divorce , which was finalized on May 22 . On June 2 , 1959 , he married Aleida March , a Cuban @-@ born member of the 26th of July movement with whom he had been living since late 1958 . Guevara returned to the seaside village of Tarara in June for his honeymoon with Aleida . In total , Guevara would ultimately have five children from his two marriages .
= = = La Cabaña , land reform , and literacy = = =
The first major political crisis arose over what to do with the captured Batista officials who had been responsible for the worst of the repression . During the rebellion against Batista 's dictatorship , the general command of the rebel army , led by Fidel Castro , introduced into the territories under its control the 19th century penal law commonly known as the Ley de la Sierra ( Law of the Sierra ) . This law included the death penalty for serious crimes , whether perpetrated by the Batista regime or by supporters of the revolution . In 1959 , the revolutionary government extended its application to the whole of the republic and to those it considered war criminals , captured and tried after the revolution . According to the Cuban Ministry of Justice , this latter extension was supported by the majority of the population , and followed the same procedure as those in the Nuremberg Trials held by the Allies after World War II .
To implement a portion of this plan , Castro named Guevara commander of the La Cabaña Fortress prison , for a five @-@ month tenure ( January 2 through June 12 , 1959 ) . Guevara was charged with purging the Batista army and consolidating victory by exacting " revolutionary justice " against those considered to be traitors , chivatos ( informants ) or war criminals . Serving in the post as commander of La Cabaña , Guevara reviewed the appeals of those convicted during the revolutionary tribunal process . The tribunals were conducted by 2 – 3 army officers , an assessor , and a respected local citizen . On some occasions the penalty delivered by the tribunal was death by firing squad . Raúl Gómez Treto , senior legal advisor to the Cuban Ministry of Justice , has argued that the death penalty was justified in order to prevent citizens themselves from taking justice into their own hands , as happened twenty years earlier in the anti @-@ Machado rebellion . Biographers note that in January 1959 , the Cuban public was in a " lynching mood " , and point to a survey at the time showing 93 % public approval for the tribunal process . Moreover , a January 22 , 1959 , Universal Newsreel broadcast in the United States and narrated by Ed Herlihy , featured Fidel Castro asking an estimated one million Cubans whether they approved of the executions , and was met with a roaring " ¡ Si ! " ( yes ) . With thousands of Cubans estimated to have been killed at the hands of Batista 's collaborators , and many of the war criminals sentenced to death accused of torture and physical atrocities , the newly empowered government carried out executions , punctuated by cries from the crowds of " ¡ paredón ! " ( [ to the ] wall ! ) , which biographer Jorge Castañeda describes as " without respect for due process " .
Although there are varying accounts , it is estimated that several hundred people were executed nationwide during this time , with Guevara 's jurisdictional death total at La Cabaña ranging from 55 to 105 ( see reference ) . Conflicting views exist of Guevara 's attitude towards the executions at La Cabaña . Some exiled opposition biographers report that he relished the rituals of the firing squad , and organized them with gusto , while others relate that Guevara pardoned as many prisoners as he could . What is acknowledged by all sides is that Guevara had become a " hardened " man , who had no qualms about the death penalty or summary and collective trials . If the only way to " defend the revolution was to execute its enemies , he would not be swayed by humanitarian or political arguments " . This is further confirmed by a February 5 , 1959 , letter to Luis Paredes López in Buenos Aires where Guevara states unequivocally " The executions by firing squads are not only a necessity for the people of Cuba , but also an imposition of the people . "
Along with ensuring " revolutionary justice " , the other key early platform of Guevara 's was establishing agrarian land reform . Almost immediately after the success of the revolution on January 27 , 1959 , Guevara made one of his most significant speeches where he talked about " the social ideas of the rebel army " . During this speech , he declared that the main concern of the new Cuban government was " the social justice that land redistribution brings about " . A few months later on May 17 , 1959 , the Agrarian Reform Law crafted by Guevara went into effect , limiting the size of all farms to 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 ha ) . Any holdings over these limits were expropriated by the government and either redistributed to peasants in 67 @-@ acre ( 270 @,@ 000 m2 ) parcels or held as state run communes . The law also stipulated that sugar plantations could not be owned by foreigners .
On June 12 , 1959 , Castro sent Guevara out on a three @-@ month tour of 14 mostly Bandung Pact countries ( Morocco , Sudan , Egypt , Syria , Pakistan , India , Sri Lanka , Burma , Thailand , Indonesia , Japan , Yugoslavia , Greece ) and the cities of Singapore and Hong Kong . Sending Guevara away from Havana allowed Castro to appear to be distancing himself from Guevara and his Marxist sympathies , which troubled both the United States and some of Castro 's July 26 Movement members . While in Jakarta , Guevara visited Indonesian president Sukarno to discuss the recent revolution in Indonesia and to establish trade relations between their two nations . Both men quickly bonded , as Sukarno was attracted to Guevara 's energy and his relaxed informal approach ; moreover they shared revolutionary leftist aspirations against western imperialism . Guevara next spent 12 days in Japan ( July 15 – 27 ) , participating in negotiations aimed at expanding Cuba 's trade relations with that nation . During the visit , he refused to visit and lay a wreath at Japan 's Tomb of the Unknown Soldier commemorating soldiers lost during World War II , remarking that the Japanese " imperialists " had " killed millions of Asians " . In its place , Guevara stated that he would instead visit Hiroshima , where the American military had detonated an atom @-@ bomb 14 years earlier . Despite his denunciation of Imperial Japan , Guevara also considered President Truman a " macabre clown " for the bombings , and after visiting Hiroshima and its Peace Memorial Museum , he sent back a postcard to Cuba stating " In order to fight better for peace , one must look at Hiroshima . "
Upon Guevara 's return to Cuba in September 1959 , it was evident that Castro now had more political power . The government had begun land seizures included in the agrarian reform law , but was hedging on compensation offers to landowners , instead offering low interest " bonds " , a step which put the United States on alert . At this point the affected wealthy cattlemen of Camagüey mounted a campaign against the land redistributions , and enlisted the newly disaffected rebel leader Huber Matos , who along with the anti @-@ Communist wing of the 26th of July Movement , joined them in denouncing the " Communist encroachment " . During this time Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo was offering assistance to the " Anti @-@ Communist Legion of the Caribbean " which was training in the Dominican Republic . This multi @-@ national force , composed mostly of Spaniards and Cubans , but also of Croatians , Germans , Greeks , and right @-@ wing mercenaries , was plotting to topple Castro 's new regime .
Such threats were heightened when , on March 4 , 1960 , two massive explosions ripped through the French freighter La Coubre , which was carrying Belgian munitions from the port of Antwerp , and was docked in Havana Harbor . The blasts killed at least 76 people and injured several hundred , with Guevara personally providing first aid to some of the victims . Cuban leader Fidel Castro immediately accused the CIA of " an act of terrorism " and held a state funeral the following day for the victims of the blast . It was at the memorial service that Alberto Korda took the famous photograph of Guevara , now known as Guerrillero Heroico .
These perceived threats prompted Castro to further eliminate " counter @-@ revolutionaries " , and to utilize Guevara to drastically increase the speed of land reform . To implement this plan , a new government agency , the National Institute of Agrarian Reform ( INRA ) , was established to administer the new Agrarian Reform law . INRA quickly became the most important governing body in the nation , with Guevara serving as its head in his capacity as minister of industries . Under Guevara 's command , INRA established its own 100 @,@ 000 person militia , used first to help the government seize control of the expropriated land and supervise its distribution , and later to set up cooperative farms . The land confiscated included 480 @,@ 000 acres ( 190 @,@ 000 ha ) owned by United States corporations . Months later , as retaliation , U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower sharply reduced United States imports of Cuban sugar ( Cuba 's main cash crop ) , thus leading Guevara on July 10 , 1960 , to address over 100 @,@ 000 workers in front of the Presidential Palace at a rally called to denounce United States " economic aggression " . Time magazine reporters who met with Guevara around this time , described him as " guid ( ing ) Cuba with icy calculation , vast competence , high intelligence , and a perceptive sense of humor . "
Along with land reform , one of the primary areas that Guevara stressed needed national improvement was in the area of literacy . Before 1959 the official literacy rate for Cuba was between 60 – 76 % , with educational access in rural areas and a lack of instructors the main determining factors . As a result , the Cuban government at Guevara 's behest dubbed 1961 the " year of education " , and mobilized over 100 @,@ 000 volunteers into " literacy brigades " , who were then sent out into the countryside to construct schools , train new educators , and teach the predominantly illiterate guajiros ( peasants ) to read and write . Unlike many of Guevara 's later economic initiatives , this campaign was " a remarkable success " . By the completion of the Cuban Literacy Campaign , 707 @,@ 212 adults had been taught to read and write , raising the national literacy rate to 96 % .
Accompanying literacy , Guevara was also concerned with establishing universal access to higher education . To accomplish this , the new regime introduced affirmative action to the universities . While announcing this new commitment , Guevara told the gathered faculty and students at the University of Las Villas that the days when education was " a privilege of the white middle class " had ended . " The University " he said , " must paint itself black , mulatto , worker , and peasant . " If it did not , he warned , the people would break down its doors " and paint the University the colors they like . "
= = = = Marxist ideological influence = = = =
The merit of Marx is that he suddenly produces a qualitative change in the history of social thought . He interprets history , understands its dynamic , predicts the future , but in addition to predicting it ( which would satisfy his scientific obligation ) , he expresses a revolutionary concept : the world must not only be interpreted , it must be transformed . Man ceases to be the slave and tool of his environment and converts himself into the architect of his own destiny .
When enacting and advocating Cuban policy , Guevara cited the political philosopher Karl Marx as his ideological inspiration . In defending his political stance , Guevara confidently remarked that " There are truths so evident , so much a part of people 's knowledge , that it is now useless to discuss them . One ought to be Marxist with the same naturalness with which one is ' Newtonian ' in physics , or ' Pasteurian ' in biology . " According to Guevara , the " practical revolutionaries " of the Cuban Revolution had the goal of " simply fulfill ( ing ) laws foreseen by Marx , the scientist . " Using Marx 's predictions and system of dialectical materialism , Guevara professed that " The laws of Marxism are present in the events of the Cuban Revolution , independently of what its leaders profess or fully know of those laws from a theoretical point of view . "
= = = The " New Man " , Bay of Pigs , and missile crisis = = =
Man truly achieves his full human condition when he produces without being compelled by the physical necessity of selling himself as a commodity .
At this stage , Guevara acquired the additional position of Finance Minister , as well as President of the National Bank . These appointments , combined with his existing position as Minister of Industries , placed Guevara at the zenith of his power , as the " virtual czar " of the Cuban economy . As a consequence of his position at the head of the central bank , it was now Guevara 's duty to sign the Cuban currency , which per custom would bear his signature . Instead of using his full name , he signed the bills solely " Che " . It was through this symbolic act , which horrified many in the Cuban financial sector , that Guevara signaled his distaste for money and the class distinctions it brought about . Guevara 's long time friend Ricardo Rojo later remarked that " the day he signed Che on the bills , ( he ) literally knocked the props from under the widespread belief that money was sacred . "
In an effort to eliminate social inequalities , Guevara and Cuba 's new leadership had moved to swiftly transform the political and economic base of the country through nationalizing factories , banks , and businesses , while attempting to ensure affordable housing , healthcare , and employment for all Cubans . However , in order for a genuine transformation of consciousness to take root , Guevara believed that such structural changes would have to be accompanied by a conversion in people 's social relations and values . Believing that the attitudes in Cuba towards race , women , individualism , and manual labor were the product of the island 's outdated past , Guevara urged all individuals to view each other as equals and take on the values of what he termed " el Hombre Nuevo " ( the New Man ) . Guevara hoped his " new man " would ultimately be " selfless and cooperative , obedient and hard working , gender @-@ blind , incorruptible , non @-@ materialistic , and anti @-@ imperialist . " To accomplish this , Guevara emphasized the tenets of Marxism @-@ Leninism , and wanted to use the state to emphasize qualities such as egalitarianism and self @-@ sacrifice , at the same time as " unity , equality , and freedom " became the new maxims . Guevara 's first desired economic goal of the new man , which coincided with his aversion for wealth condensation and economic inequality , was to see a nationwide elimination of material incentives in favor of moral ones . He negatively viewed capitalism as a " contest among wolves " where " one can only win at the cost of others " and thus desired to see the creation of a " new man and woman " . Guevara continually stressed that a socialist economy in itself is not " worth the effort , sacrifice , and risks of war and destruction " if it ends up encouraging " greed and individual ambition at the expense of collective spirit " . A primary goal of Guevara 's thus became to reform " individual consciousness " and values to produce better workers and citizens . In his view , Cuba 's " new man " would be able to overcome the " egotism " and " selfishness " that he loathed and discerned was uniquely characteristic of individuals in capitalist societies . To promote this concept of a " new man " , the government also created a series of party @-@ dominated institutions and mechanisms on all levels of society , which included organizations such as labor groups , youth leagues , women 's groups , community centers , and houses of culture to promote state @-@ sponsored art , music , and literature . In congruence with this , all educational , mass media , and artistic community based facilities were nationalized and utilized to instill the government 's official socialist ideology . In describing this new method of " development " , Guevara stated :
There is a great difference between free @-@ enterprise development and revolutionary development . In one of them , wealth is concentrated in the hands of a fortunate few , the friends of the government , the best wheeler @-@ dealers . In the other , wealth is the people 's patrimony .
A further integral part of fostering a sense of " unity between the individual and the mass " , Guevara believed , was volunteer work and will . To display this , Guevara " led by example " , working " endlessly at his ministry job , in construction , and even cutting sugar cane " on his day off . He was known for working 36 hours at a stretch , calling meetings after midnight , and eating on the run . Such behavior was emblematic of Guevara 's new program of moral incentives , where each worker was now required to meet a quota and produce a certain quantity of goods . As a replacement for the pay increases abolished by Guevara , workers who exceeded their quota now only received a certificate of commendation , while workers who failed to meet their quotas were given a pay cut . Guevara unapologetically defended his personal philosophy towards motivation and work , stating :
This is not a matter of how many pounds of meat one might be able to eat , or how many times a year someone can go to the beach , or how many ornaments from abroad one might be able to buy with his current salary . What really matters is that the individual feels more complete , with much more internal richness and much more responsibility .
In the face of a loss of commercial connections with Western states , Guevara tried to replace them with closer commercial relationships with Eastern Bloc states , visiting a number of Marxist states and signing trade agreements with them . At the end of 1960 he visited Czechoslovakia , the Soviet Union , North Korea , Hungary and East Germany and signed , for instance , a trade agreement in East Berlin on December 17 , 1960 . Such agreements helped Cuba 's economy to a certain degree but also had the disadvantage of a growing economic dependency on the Eastern Bloc . It was also in East Germany where Guevara met Tamara Bunke ( later known as " Tania " ) , who was assigned as his interpreter , and who would years later join him , and be killed with him in Bolivia .
Whatever the merits or demerits of Guevara 's economic principles , his programs were unsuccessful . Guevara 's program of " moral incentives " for workers caused a rapid drop in productivity and a rapid rise in absenteeism . Decades later , the director of Radio Martí Ernesto Betancourt , an early ally turned Castro @-@ critic and Che 's former deputy , would accuse Guevara of being " ignorant of the most elementary economic principles . " In reference to the collective failings of Guevara 's vision , reporter I.F. Stone who interviewed Guevara twice during this time , remarked that he was " Galahad not Robespierre " , while opining that " in a sense he was , like some early saint , taking refuge in the desert . Only there could the purity of the faith be safeguarded from the unregenerate revisionism of human nature . "
On April 17 , 1961 , 1 @,@ 400 U.S.-trained Cuban exiles invaded Cuba during the Bay of Pigs Invasion . Guevara did not play a key role in the fighting , as one day before the invasion a warship carrying Marines faked an invasion off the West Coast of Pinar del Río and drew forces commanded by Guevara to that region . However , historians give him a share of credit for the victory as he was director of instruction for Cuba 's armed forces at the time . Author Tad Szulc in his explanation of the Cuban victory , assigns Guevara partial credit , stating : " The revolutionaries won because Che Guevara , as the head of the Instruction Department of the Revolutionary Armed Forces in charge of the militia training program , had done so well in preparing 200 @,@ 000 men and women for war . " It was also during this deployment that he suffered a bullet grazing to the cheek when his pistol fell out of its holster and accidentally discharged .
In August 1961 , during an economic conference of the Organization of American States in Punta del Este , Uruguay , Che Guevara sent a note of " gratitude " to United States President John F. Kennedy through Richard N. Goodwin , Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Inter @-@ American Affairs . It read " Thanks for Playa Girón ( Bay of Pigs ) . Before the invasion , the revolution was shaky . Now it 's stronger than ever . " In response to United States Treasury Secretary Douglas Dillon presenting the Alliance for Progress for ratification by the meeting , Guevara antagonistically attacked the United States claim of being a " democracy " , stating that such a system was not compatible with " financial oligarchy , discrimination against blacks , and outrages by the Ku Klux Klan " . Guevara continued , speaking out against the " persecution " that in his view " drove scientists like Oppenheimer from their posts , deprived the world for years of the marvelous voice of Paul Robeson , and sent the Rosenbergs to their deaths against the protests of a shocked world . " Guevara ended his remarks by insinuating that the United States was not interested in real reforms , sardonically quipping that " U.S. experts never talk about agrarian reform ; they prefer a safe subject , like a better water supply . In short , they seem to prepare the revolution of the toilets . "
Guevara , who was practically the architect of the Soviet @-@ Cuban relationship , then played a key role in bringing to Cuba the Soviet nuclear @-@ armed ballistic missiles that precipitated the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962 and brought the world to the brink of nuclear war . A few weeks after the crisis , during an interview with the British communist newspaper the Daily Worker , Guevara was still fuming over the perceived Soviet betrayal and told correspondent Sam Russell that , if the missiles had been under Cuban control , they would have fired them off . While expounding on the incident later , Guevara reiterated that the cause of socialist liberation against global " imperialist aggression " would ultimately have been worth the possibility of " millions of atomic war victims " . The missile crisis further convinced Guevara that the world 's two superpowers ( the United States and the Soviet Union ) used Cuba as a pawn in their own global strategies . Afterward , he denounced the Soviets almost as frequently as he denounced the Americans .
= = International diplomacy = =
In December 1964 , Che Guevara had emerged as a " revolutionary statesman of world stature " and thus traveled to New York City as head of the Cuban delegation to speak at the United Nations . On December 11 , 1964 , during Guevara 's hour @-@ long , impassioned address at the UN , he criticized the United Nations ' inability to confront the " brutal policy of apartheid " in South Africa , asking " Can the United Nations do nothing to stop this ? " Guevara then denounced the United States policy towards their black population , stating :
Those who kill their own children and discriminate daily against them because of the color of their skin ; those who let the murderers of blacks remain free , protecting them , and furthermore punishing the black population because they demand their legitimate rights as free men — how can those who do this consider themselves guardians of freedom ?
An indignant Guevara ended his speech by reciting the Second Declaration of Havana , decreeing Latin America a " family of 200 million brothers who suffer the same miseries " . This " epic " , Guevara declared , would be written by the " hungry Indian masses , peasants without land , exploited workers , and progressive masses " . To Guevara the conflict was a struggle of masses and ideas , which would be carried forth by those " mistreated and scorned by imperialism " who were previously considered " a weak and submissive flock " . With this " flock " , Guevara now asserted , " Yankee monopoly capitalism " now terrifyingly saw their " gravediggers " . It would be during this " hour of vindication " , Guevara pronounced , that the " anonymous mass " would begin to write its own history " with its own blood " and reclaim those " rights that were laughed at by one and all for 500 years " . Guevara closed his remarks to the General Assembly by hypothesizing that this " wave of anger " would " sweep the lands of Latin America " and that the labor masses who " turn the wheel of history " were now , for the first time , " awakening from the long , brutalizing sleep to which they had been subjected " .
Guevara later learned there had been two failed attempts on his life by Cuban exiles during his stop at the UN complex . The first from Molly Gonzales , who tried to break through barricades upon his arrival with a seven @-@ inch hunting knife , and later during his address by Guillermo Novo , who fired a timer @-@ initiated bazooka from a boat in the East River at the United Nations Headquarters , but missed and was off target . Afterwards Guevara commented on both incidents , stating that " it is better to be killed by a woman with a knife than by a man with a gun " , while adding with a languid wave of his cigar that the explosion had " given the whole thing more flavor " .
While in New York , Guevara appeared on the CBS Sunday news program Face the Nation , and met with a wide range of people , from United States Senator Eugene McCarthy to associates of Malcolm X. The latter expressed his admiration , declaring Guevara " one of the most revolutionary men in this country right now " while reading a statement from him to a crowd at the Audubon Ballroom .
On December 17 , Guevara left New York for Paris , France , and from there embarked on a three @-@ month world tour that included visits to the People 's Republic of China , North Korea , the United Arab Republic , Algeria , Ghana , Guinea , Mali , Dahomey , Congo @-@ Brazzaville and Tanzania , with stops in Ireland and Prague . While in Ireland , Guevara embraced his own Irish heritage , celebrating Saint Patrick 's Day in Limerick city . He wrote to his father on this visit , humorously stating " I am in this green Ireland of your ancestors . When they found out , the television [ station ] came to ask me about the Lynch genealogy , but in case they were horse thieves or something like that , I didn 't say much . "
During this voyage , he wrote a letter to Carlos Quijano , editor of a Uruguayan weekly , which was later retitled Socialism and Man in Cuba . Outlined in the treatise was Guevara 's summons for the creation of a new consciousness , a new status of work , and a new role of the individual . He also laid out the reasoning behind his anti @-@ capitalist sentiments , stating :
The laws of capitalism , blind and invisible to the majority , act upon the individual without his thinking about it . He sees only the vastness of a seemingly infinite horizon before him . That is how it is painted by capitalist propagandists , who purport to draw a lesson from the example of Rockefeller — whether or not it is true — about the possibilities of success . The amount of poverty and suffering required for the emergence of a Rockefeller , and the amount of depravity that the accumulation of a fortune of such magnitude entails , are left out of the picture , and it is not always possible to make the people in general see this .
Guevara ended the essay by declaring that " the true revolutionary is guided by a great feeling of love " and beckoning on all revolutionaries to " strive every day so that this love of living humanity will be transformed into acts that serve as examples " , thus becoming " a moving force " . The genesis for Guevara 's assertions relied on the fact that he believed the example of the Cuban Revolution was " something spiritual that would transcend all borders " .
= = = Algiers , the Soviets , and China = = =
In Algiers , Algeria , on February 24 , 1965 , Guevara made what turned out to be his last public appearance on the international stage when he delivered a speech at an economic seminar on Afro @-@ Asian solidarity . He specified the moral duty of the socialist countries , accusing them of tacit complicity with the exploiting Western countries . He proceeded to outline a number of measures which he said the communist @-@ bloc countries must implement in order to accomplish the defeat of imperialism . Having criticized the Soviet Union ( the primary financial backer of Cuba ) in such a public manner , he returned to Cuba on March 14 to a solemn reception by Fidel and Raúl Castro , Osvaldo Dorticós and Carlos Rafael Rodríguez at the Havana airport .
As revealed in his last public speech in Algiers , Guevara had come to view the Northern Hemisphere , led by the U.S. in the West and the Soviet Union in the East , as the exploiter of the Southern Hemisphere . He strongly supported Communist North Vietnam in the Vietnam War , and urged the peoples of other developing countries to take up arms and create " many Vietnams " . Che 's denunciations of the Soviets made him popular among intellectuals and artists of the Western European left who had lost faith in the Soviet Union , while his condemnation of imperialism and call to revolution inspired young radical students in the United States , who were impatient for societal change .
Moreover , the coincidence of Guevara 's views with those expounded by the Chinese Communist leadership under Mao Zedong was increasingly problematic for Cuba as the nation 's economy became more and more dependent on the Soviet Union . Since the early days of the Cuban revolution , Guevara had been considered by many an advocate of Maoist strategy in Latin America and the originator of a plan for the rapid industrialization of Cuba that was often compared to China 's " Great Leap Forward " . Castro became weary of Guevara 's opposition to Soviet conditions and recommendations : measures that Castro saw as necessary , but which Guevara described as corrupt and " pre @-@ monopolist " .
In Guevara 's private writings from this time ( since released ) , he displays his growing criticism of the Soviet political economy , believing that the Soviets had " forgotten Marx " . This led Guevara to denounce a range of Soviet practices including what he saw as their attempt to " air @-@ brush the inherent violence of class struggle integral to the transition from capitalism to socialism " , their " dangerous " policy of peaceful co @-@ existence with the United States , their failure to push for a " change in consciousness " towards the idea of work , and their attempt to " liberalize " the socialist economy . Guevara wanted the complete elimination of money , interest , commodity production , the market economy , and " mercantile relationships " : all conditions that the Soviets argued would only disappear when world communism was achieved . Disagreeing with this incrementalist approach , Guevara criticized the Soviet Manual of Political Economy , correctly predicting that if USSR would not abolish the law of value ( as Guevara desired ) , it would eventually return to capitalism .
Two weeks after his Algiers speech and his return to Cuba , Guevara dropped out of public life and then vanished altogether . His whereabouts were a great mystery in Cuba , as he was generally regarded as second in power to Castro himself . His disappearance was variously attributed to the failure of the Cuban industrialization scheme he had advocated while minister of industries , to pressure exerted on Castro by Soviet officials disapproving of Guevara 's pro @-@ Chinese Communist stance on the Sino @-@ Soviet split , and to serious differences between Guevara and the pragmatic Castro regarding Cuba 's economic development and ideological line . Pressed by international speculation regarding Guevara 's fate , Castro stated on June 16 , 1965 , that the people would be informed when Guevara himself wished to let them know . Still , rumors spread both inside and outside Cuba to the missing Guevara 's whereabouts .
On October 3 , 1965 , Castro publicly revealed an undated letter purportedly written to him by Guevara around seven months earlier which was later titled Che Guevara 's " farewell letter " . In the letter , Guevara reaffirmed his enduring solidarity with the Cuban Revolution but declared his intention to leave Cuba to fight for the revolutionary cause abroad . Additionally , he resigned from all his positions in the Cuban government and communist party , and renounced his honorary Cuban citizenship .
= = Congo = =
In early 1965 , Guevara went to Africa to offer his knowledge and experience as a guerrilla to the ongoing conflict in the Congo . According to Algerian President Ahmed Ben Bella , Guevara thought that Africa was imperialism 's weak link and so had enormous revolutionary potential . Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser , who had fraternal relations with Che since his 1959 visit , saw Guevara 's plan to fight in Congo as " unwise " and warned that he would become a " Tarzan " figure , doomed to failure . Despite the warning , Guevara traveled to Congo using the alias Ramón Benítez . He led the Cuban operation in support of the Marxist Simba movement , which had emerged from the ongoing Congo crisis . Guevara , his second @-@ in @-@ command Victor Dreke , and 12 other Cuban expeditionaries arrived in Congo on April 24 , 1965 and a contingent of approximately 100 Afro @-@ Cubans joined them soon afterward . For a time , they collaborated with guerrilla leader Laurent @-@ Désiré Kabila , who had helped supporters of the overthrown president Patrice Lumumba to lead an unsuccessful revolt months earlier . As an admirer of the late Lumumba , Guevara declared that his " murder should be a lesson for all of us " . Guevara , with limited knowledge of Swahili and the local languages , was assigned a teenage interpreter , Freddy Ilanga . Over the course of seven months , Ilanga grew to " admire the hard @-@ working Guevara " , who " showed the same respect to black people as he did to whites " . However , Guevara soon became disillusioned with the poor discipline of Kabila 's troops and later dismissed him , stating " nothing leads me to believe he is the man of the hour " .
As an additional obstacle , white South African mercenaries , led by Mike Hoare in league with Cuban exiles and the CIA , worked with the Congo National Army to thwart Guevara 's movements from his base camp in the mountains near the village of Fizi on Lake Tanganyika in southeast Congo . They were able to monitor his communications and so pre @-@ empted his attacks and interdicted his supply lines . Although Guevara tried to conceal his presence in Congo , the United States government knew his location and activities . The National Security Agency was intercepting all of his incoming and outgoing transmissions via equipment aboard the USNS Private Jose F. Valdez ( T @-@ AG @-@ 169 ) , a floating listening post that continuously cruised the Indian Ocean off Dar es Salaam for that purpose .
Guevara 's aim was to export the revolution by instructing local anti @-@ Mobutu Simba fighters in Marxist ideology and foco theory strategies of guerrilla warfare . In his Congo Diary book , he cites the incompetence , intransigence and infighting among the Congolese rebels as key reasons for the revolt 's failure . Later that year on November 20 , 1965 , suffering from dysentery and acute asthma , and disheartened after seven months of frustration and inactivity , Guevara left Congo with the six Cuban survivors of his 12 @-@ man column . Guevara had planned to send the wounded back to Cuba and fight in Congo alone until his death , as a revolutionary example . But after being urged by his comrades , and two emissaries sent by Castro , at the last moment he reluctantly agreed to leave Africa . During that day and night , Guevara 's forces quietly took down their base camp , burned their huts , and destroyed or threw weapons into Lake Tanganyika that they could not take with them , before crossing the border into Tanzania at night and traveling by land to Dar es Salaam . In speaking about his experience in Congo months later , Guevara concluded that he left rather than fight to the death because : " The human element failed . There is no will to fight . The leaders are corrupt . In a word ... there was nothing to do . " Guevara also declared that " we can 't liberate by ourselves a country that does not want to fight . " A few weeks later , he wrote the preface to the diary he kept during the Congo venture , that began : " This is the history of a failure . "
Guevara was reluctant to return to Cuba , because Castro had made public Guevara 's " farewell letter " — a letter intended to only be revealed in the case of his death — wherein he severed all ties in order to devote himself to revolution throughout the world . As a result , Guevara spent the next six months living clandestinely in Dar es Salaam and Prague . During this time , he compiled his memoirs of the Congo experience and wrote drafts of two more books , one on philosophy and the other on economics . As Guevara prepared for Bolivia , he secretly traveled back to Cuba to visit Castro , as well as to see his wife and to write a last letter to his five children to be read upon his death , which ended with him instructing them :
Above all , always be capable of feeling deeply any injustice committed against anyone , anywhere in the world . This is the most beautiful quality in a revolutionary .
= = Bolivia = =
In late 1966 , Guevara 's location was still not public knowledge , although representatives of Mozambique 's independence movement , the FRELIMO , reported that they met with Guevara in late 1966 in Dar es Salaam regarding his offer to aid in their revolutionary project , an offer which they ultimately rejected . In a speech at the 1967 International Workers ' Day rally in Havana , the acting minister of the armed forces , Major Juan Almeida , announced that Guevara was " serving the revolution somewhere in Latin America " .
Before he departed for Bolivia , Guevara altered his appearance by shaving off his beard and much of his hair , also dying it grey so he would be unrecognizable as Che Guevara . On November 3 , 1966 , Guevara secretly arrived in La Paz on a flight from Montevideo under the false name Adolfo Mena González , posing as a middle @-@ aged Uruguayan businessman working for the Organization of American States .
Three days after his arrival in Bolivia , Guevara left La Paz for the rural south east region of the country to form his guerrilla army . Guevara 's first base camp was located in the montane dry forest in the remote Ñancahuazú region . Training at the camp in the Ñancahuazú valley proved to be hazardous , and little was accomplished in way of building a guerrilla army . The Argentine @-@ born East German operative Haydée Tamara Bunke Bider , better known by her nom de guerre " Tania " , had been installed as Che 's primary agent in La Paz .
Guevara 's guerrilla force , numbering about 50 men and operating as the ELN ( Ejército de Liberación Nacional de Bolivia ; " National Liberation Army of Bolivia " ) , was well equipped and scored a number of early successes against Bolivian army regulars in the difficult terrain of the mountainous Camiri region during the early months of 1967 . As a result of Guevara 's units ' winning several skirmishes against Bolivian troops in the spring and summer of 1967 , the Bolivian government began to overestimate the true size of the guerrilla force . But in August 1967 , the Bolivian Army managed to eliminate two guerrilla groups in a violent battle , reportedly killing one of the leaders .
Researchers hypothesize that Guevara 's plan for fomenting a revolution in Bolivia failed for an array of reasons :
He had expected to deal only with the Bolivian military , who were poorly trained and equipped , and was unaware that the United States government had sent a team of the CIA 's Special Activities Division commandos and other operatives into Bolivia to aid the anti @-@ insurrection effort . The Bolivian Army would also be trained , advised , and supplied by U.S. Army Special Forces , including a recently organized elite battalion of U.S. Rangers trained in jungle warfare that set up camp in La Esperanza , a small settlement close to the location of Guevara 's guerrillas .
Guevara had expected assistance and cooperation from the local dissidents that he did not receive , nor did he receive support from Bolivia 's Communist Party under the leadership of Mario Monje , which was oriented toward Moscow rather than Havana . In Guevara 's own diary captured after his death , he wrote about the Communist Party of Bolivia , which he characterized as " distrustful , disloyal and stupid " .
He had expected to remain in radio contact with Havana . The two shortwave radio transmitters provided to him by Cuba were faulty ; thus , the guerrillas were unable to communicate and be resupplied , leaving them isolated and stranded .
In addition , Guevara 's known preference for confrontation rather than compromise , which had previously surfaced during his guerrilla warfare campaign in Cuba , contributed to his inability to develop successful working relationships with local rebel leaders in Bolivia , just as it had in the Congo . This tendency had existed in Cuba , but had been kept in check by the timely interventions and guidance of Fidel Castro .
The end result was that Guevara was unable to attract inhabitants of the local area to join his militia during the eleven months he attempted recruitment . Many of the inhabitants willingly informed the Bolivian authorities and military about the guerrillas and their movements in the area . Near the end of the Bolivian venture , Guevara wrote in his diary that " the peasants do not give us any help , and they are turning into informers . "
= = = Capture and death = = =
Félix Rodríguez , a Cuban exile turned CIA Special Activities Division operative , advised Bolivian troops during the hunt for Guevara in Bolivia . In addition , the 2007 documentary My Enemy 's Enemy alleges that Nazi war criminal Klaus Barbie advised and possibly helped the CIA orchestrate Guevara 's eventual capture .
On October 7 , 1967 , an informant apprised the Bolivian Special Forces of the location of Guevara 's guerrilla encampment in the Yuro ravine . On the morning of October 8 , they encircled the area with two battalions numbering 1 @,@ 800 soldiers and advanced into the ravine triggering a battle where Guevara was wounded and taken prisoner while leading a detachment with Simeón Cuba Sarabia . Che biographer Jon Lee Anderson reports Bolivian Sergeant Bernardino Huanca 's account : that as the Bolivian Rangers approached , a twice @-@ wounded Guevara , his gun rendered useless , threw up his arms in surrender and shouted to the soldiers : " Do not shoot ! I am Che Guevara and I am worth more to you alive than dead . "
Guevara was tied up and taken to a dilapidated mud schoolhouse in the nearby village of La Higuera on the evening of October 8 . For the next half day , Guevara refused to be interrogated by Bolivian officers and would only speak quietly to Bolivian soldiers . One of those Bolivian soldiers , a helicopter pilot named Jaime Nino de Guzman , describes Che as looking " dreadful " . According to Guzman , Guevara was shot through the right calf , his hair was matted with dirt , his clothes were shredded , and his feet were covered in rough leather sheaths . Despite his haggard appearance , he recounts that " Che held his head high , looked everyone straight in the eyes and asked only for something to smoke . " De Guzman states that he " took pity " and gave him a small bag of tobacco for his pipe , and that Guevara then smiled and thanked him . Later on the night of October 8 , Guevara — despite having his hands tied — kicked a Bolivian army officer , named Captain Espinosa , against a wall after the officer entered the schoolhouse and tried to snatch Guevara 's pipe from his mouth as a souvenir while he was still smoking it . In another instance of defiance , Guevara spat in the face of Bolivian Rear Admiral Ugarteche , who attempted to question Guevara a few hours before his execution .
The following morning on October 9 , Guevara asked to see the school teacher of the village , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old woman named Julia Cortez . Cortez would later state that she found Guevara to be an " agreeable looking man with a soft and ironic glance " and that during their conversation she found herself " unable to look him in the eye " because his " gaze was unbearable , piercing , and so tranquil " . During their short conversation , Guevara pointed out to Cortez the poor condition of the schoolhouse , stating that it was " anti @-@ pedagogical " to expect campesino students to be educated there , while " government officials drive Mercedes cars " , and declaring " that 's what we are fighting against . "
Later that morning on October 9 , Bolivian President René Barrientos ordered that Guevara be killed . The order was relayed to the unit holding Guevara by Félix Rodríguez despite the United States government 's desire that Guevara be taken to Panama for further interrogation . The executioner who volunteered to kill Guevara was Mario Terán , an alcoholic 31 @-@ year @-@ old sergeant in the Bolivian army who had personally requested to shoot Guevara because three of his friends from B Company , all with the same first name of " Mario " , had been killed in an earlier firefight with Guevara 's band of guerrillas . To make the bullet wounds appear consistent with the story that the Bolivian government planned to release to the public , Félix Rodríguez ordered Terán not to shoot Guevara in the head , but to aim carefully to make it appear that Guevara had been killed in action during a clash with the Bolivian army . Gary Prado , the Bolivian captain in command of the army company that captured Guevara , said that the reasons Barrientos ordered the immediate execution of Guevara were so there would be no possibility for Guevara to escape from prison , and also so there would be no drama in regard to a public trial where adverse publicity might happen .
About 30 minutes before Guevara was killed , Félix Rodríguez attempted to question him about the whereabouts of other guerrilla fighters who were currently at large , but Guevara continued to remain silent . Rodríguez , assisted by a few Bolivian soldiers , helped Guevara to his feet and took him outside the hut to parade him before other Bolivian soldiers where he posed with Guevara for a photo opportunity where one soldier took a photograph of Rodríguez and other soldiers standing alongside Guevara . A little later , Guevara was asked by one of the Bolivian soldiers guarding him if he was thinking about his own immortality . " No , " he replied , " I 'm thinking about the immortality of the revolution . " A few minutes later , Sergeant Terán entered the hut to shoot him , whereupon Guevara reportedly said : " I know you 've come to kill me . Shoot , coward , you are only going to kill a man . " Terán hesitated , then pointed his self @-@ loading M2 Carbine at Guevara and opened fire , hitting him in the arms and legs . Then , as Guevara writhed on the ground , apparently biting one of his wrists to avoid crying out , Terán fired another burst , fatally wounding him in the chest . Guevara was pronounced dead at 1 : 10 pm local time according to Rodríguez . In all , Guevara was shot nine times by Terán . This included five times in his legs , once in the right shoulder and arm , and once in the chest and throat .
Months earlier , during his last public declaration to the Tricontinental Conference , Guevara wrote his own epitaph , stating " Wherever death may surprise us , let it be welcome , provided that this our battle cry may have reached some receptive ear and another hand may be extended to wield our weapons . "
= = Post @-@ execution and memorial = =
After his execution , Guevara 's body was lashed to the landing skids of a helicopter and flown to nearby Vallegrande , where photographs were taken of him lying on a concrete slab in the laundry room of the Nuestra Señora de Malta . Several witnesses were called to confirm his identity , key amongst them the British journalist Richard Gott , the only witness to have met Guevara when he was alive . Put on display , as hundreds of local residents filed past the body , Guevara 's corpse was considered by many to represent a " Christ @-@ like " visage , with some even surreptitiously clipping locks of his hair as divine relics . Such comparisons were further extended when English art critic John Berger , two weeks later upon seeing the post @-@ mortem photographs , observed that they resembled two famous paintings : Rembrandt 's The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp and Andrea Mantegna 's Lamentation over the Dead Christ . There were also four correspondents present when Guevara 's body arrived in Vallegrande , including Björn Kumm of the Swedish Aftonbladet , who described the scene in a November 11 , 1967 exclusive for The New Republic .
A declassified memorandum dated October 11 , 1967 to United States President Lyndon B. Johnson from his National Security Advisor Walt Whitman Rostow , called the decision to kill Guevara " stupid " but " understandable from a Bolivian standpoint " . After the execution Rodríguez took several of Guevara 's personal items — including a Rolex GMT Master wristwatch that he continued to wear many years later — often showing them to reporters during the ensuing years . After a military doctor amputated his hands , Bolivian army officers transferred Guevara 's body to an undisclosed location and refused to reveal whether his remains had been buried or cremated . The hands were preserved in formaldehyde to be sent to Buenos Aires for fingerprint identification . ( His fingerprints were on file with the Argentine police . ) They were later sent to Cuba .
On October 15 Fidel Castro publicly acknowledged that Guevara was dead and proclaimed three days of public mourning throughout Cuba . On October 18 Castro addressed a crowd of one million mourners in Havana 's Plaza de la Revolución and spoke about Guevara 's character as a revolutionary . Fidel Castro closed his impassioned eulogy thus :
If we wish to express what we want the men of future generations to be , we must say : Let them be like Che ! If we wish to say how we want our children to be educated , we must say without hesitation : We want them to be educated in Che 's spirit ! If we want the model of a man , who does not belong to our times but to the future , I say from the depths of my heart that such a model , without a single stain on his conduct , without a single stain on his action , is Che !
Also removed when Guevara was captured were his 30 @,@ 000 @-@ word , hand @-@ written diary , a collection of his personal poetry , and a short story he had authored about a young Communist guerrilla who learns to overcome his fears . His diary documented events of the guerrilla campaign in Bolivia , with the first entry on November 7 , 1966 , shortly after his arrival at the farm in Ñancahuazú , and the last dated October 7 , 1967 , the day before his capture . The diary tells how the guerrillas were forced to begin operations prematurely because of discovery by the Bolivian Army , explains Guevara 's decision to divide the column into two units that were subsequently unable to re @-@ establish contact , and describes their overall unsuccessful venture . It also records the rift between Guevara and the Communist Party of Bolivia that resulted in Guevara having significantly fewer soldiers than originally expected , and shows that Guevara had a great deal of difficulty recruiting from the local populace , partly because the guerrilla group had learned Quechua , unaware that the local language was actually a Tupí – Guaraní language . As the campaign drew to an unexpected close , Guevara became increasingly ill . He suffered from ever @-@ worsening bouts of asthma , and most of his last offensives were carried out in an attempt to obtain medicine . The Bolivian diary was quickly and crudely translated by Ramparts magazine and circulated around the world . There are at least four additional diaries in existence — those of Israel Reyes Zayas ( Alias " Braulio " ) , Harry Villegas Tamayo ( " Pombo " ) , Eliseo Reyes Rodriguez ( " Rolando " ) and Dariel Alarcón Ramírez ( " Benigno " ) — each of which reveals additional aspects of the events .
French intellectual Régis Debray , who was captured in April 1967 while with Guevara in Bolivia , gave an interview from prison in August 1968 , in which he enlarged on the circumstances of Guevara 's capture . Debray , who had lived with Guevara 's band of guerrillas for a short time , said that in his view they were " victims of the forest " and thus " eaten by the jungle " . Debray described a destitute situation where Guevara 's men suffered malnutrition , lack of water , absence of shoes , and only possessed six blankets for 22 men . Debray recounts that Guevara and the others had been suffering an " illness " which caused their hands and feet to swell into " mounds of flesh " to the point where you could not discern the fingers on their hands . Debray described Guevara as " optimistic about the future of Latin America " despite the futile situation , and remarked that Guevara was " resigned to die in the knowledge that his death would be a sort of renaissance " , noting that Guevara perceived death " as a promise of rebirth " and " ritual of renewal " .
To a certain extent , this belief by Guevara of a metaphorical resurrection came true . While pictures of the dead Guevara were being circulated and the circumstances of his death were being debated , Che 's legend began to spread . Demonstrations in protest against his " assassination " occurred throughout the world , and articles , tributes , and poems were written about his life and death . Rallies in support of Guevara were held from " Mexico to Santiago , Algiers to Angola , and Cairo to Calcutta . " The population of Budapest and Prague lit candles to honor Guevara 's passing ; and the picture of a smiling Che appeared in London and Paris . When a few months later riots broke out in Berlin , France , and Chicago , and the unrest spread to the American college campuses , young men and women wore Che Guevara T @-@ shirts and carried his pictures during their protest marches . In the view of military historian Erik Durschmied : " In those heady months of 1968 , Che Guevara was not dead . He was very much alive . "
= = = Retrieval of remains = = =
In late 1995 , the retired Bolivian General Mario Vargas revealed to Jon Lee Anderson , author of Che Guevara : A Revolutionary Life , that Guevara 's corpse lay near a Vallegrande airstrip . The result was a multi @-@ national search for the remains , which would last more than a year . In July 1997 a team of Cuban geologists and Argentine forensic anthropologists discovered the remnants of seven bodies in two mass graves , including one man with amputated hands ( like Guevara ) . Bolivian government officials with the Ministry of Interior later identified the body as Guevara when the excavated teeth " perfectly matched " a plaster mold of Che 's teeth made in Cuba prior to his Congolese expedition . The " clincher " then arrived when Argentine forensic anthropologist Alejandro Inchaurregui inspected the inside hidden pocket of a blue jacket dug up next to the handless cadaver and found a small bag of pipe tobacco . Nino de Guzman , the Bolivian helicopter pilot who had given Che a small bag of tobacco , later remarked that he " had serious doubts " at first and " thought the Cubans would just find any old bones and call it Che " ; but " after hearing about the tobacco pouch , I have no doubts . " On October 17 , 1997 , Guevara 's remains , with those of six of his fellow combatants , were laid to rest with military honors in a specially built mausoleum in the Cuban city of Santa Clara , where he had commanded over the decisive military victory of the Cuban Revolution .
In July 2008 , the Bolivian government of Evo Morales unveiled Guevara 's formerly @-@ sealed diaries composed in two frayed notebooks , along with a logbook and several black @-@ and @-@ white photographs . At this event Bolivia 's vice @-@ minister of culture , Pablo Groux , expressed that there were plans to publish photographs of every handwritten page later in the year . Meanwhile , in August 2009 anthropologists working for Bolivia 's Justice Ministry discovered and unearthed the bodies of five of Guevara 's fellow guerrillas near the Bolivian town of Teoponte .
= = Legacy = =
The discovery of Che 's remains metonymically activated a series of interlinked associations — rebel , martyr , rogue figure from a picaresque adventure , savior , renegade , extremist — in which there was no fixed divide among them . The current court of opinion places Che on a continuum that teeters between viewing him as a misguided rebel , a coruscatingly brilliant guerrilla philosopher , a poet @-@ warrior jousting at windmills , a brazen warrior who threw down the gauntlet to the bourgeoisie , the object of fervent paeans to his sainthood , or a mass murderer clothed in the guise of an avenging angel whose every action is imbricated in violence — the archetypal Fanatical Terrorist .
Guevara 's life and legacy remain contentious . The perceived contradictions of his ethos at various points in his life have created a complex character of duality , one who was " able to wield the pen and submachine gun with equal skill , " while prophesying that " the most important revolutionary ambition was to see man liberated from his alienation . " As undogmatic as he was committed , his vision of liberation was at once romantic , poetic , compassionate , and ruthless . Guevara 's paradoxical standing is further complicated by his array of seemingly diametrically opposed qualities . A secular humanist and sympathetic practitioner of medicine who did not hesitate to shoot his enemies , a celebrated internationalist leader who advocated violence to enforce a utopian philosophy of the collective good , an idealistic intellectual who loved literature but refused to allow dissent , an anti @-@ imperialist Marxist insurgent who was radically willing to forge a poverty @-@ less new world on the apocalyptic ashes of the old one , and finally , an outspoken anti @-@ capitalist whose image has been expropriated and commoditized ; Che 's history continues to be rewritten and re @-@ imagined . Sociologist Michael Löwy contends that the many facets of Guevara 's life ( i.e. doctor and economist , revolutionary and banker , military theoretician and ambassador , deep thinker and political agitator ) illuminated the rise of the " Che myth " , allowing him to be invariably crystallized in his many metanarrative roles as a " Red Robin Hood , Don Quixote of communism , new Garibaldi , Marxist Saint Just , Cid Campeador of the Wretched of the Earth , Sir Galahad of the beggars ... and Bolshevik devil who haunts the dreams of the rich , ( while ) kindling braziers of subversion all over the world . "
Various notable individuals have lauded Guevara as a hero ; for example , Nelson Mandela referred to him as " an inspiration for every human being who loves freedom " , while Jean @-@ Paul Sartre described him as " not only an intellectual but also the most complete human being of our age " . Others who have expressed their admiration include authors Graham Greene , who remarked that Guevara " represented the idea of gallantry , chivalry , and adventure " , and Susan Sontag , who supposed that " [ Che 's ] goal was nothing less than the cause of humanity itself . " In the black community , philosopher Frantz Fanon professed Guevara to be " the world symbol of the possibilities of one man " , while Black Power leader Stokely Carmichael eulogized that " Che Guevara is not dead , his ideas are with us . " Praise has been reflected throughout the political spectrum , with the libertarian theorist Murray Rothbard extolling Guevara as a " heroic figure " , lamenting after his death that " more than any man of our epoch or even of our century , [ Che ] was the living embodiment of the principle of revolution " , while journalist Christopher Hitchens commented that " [ Che 's ] death meant a lot to me and countless like me at the time , he was a role model , albeit an impossible one for us bourgeois romantics insofar as he went and did what revolutionaries were meant to do — fought and died for his beliefs . " British historian Hugh Thomas opines that Guevara was a " brave , sincere and determined man who was also obstinate , narrow , and dogmatic . " At the end of his life , according to Thomas , " he seems to have become convinced of the virtues of violence for its own sake " , while " his influence over Castro for good or evil " grew after his death , as Fidel took up many of his views . In Thomas ' assessment , " As in the case of Martí , or Lawrence of Arabia , failure has brightened , not dimmed the legend . " Similarly , the Cuban @-@ American sociologist Samuel Farber lauds Che Guevara as " an honest and committed revolutionary , " but also criticizes the fact that " he never embraced socialism in its most democratic essence . "
Conversely , Jacobo Machover , an exiled opposition author , dismisses all praise of Guevara and portrays him as a callous executioner . Exiled former Cuban prisoners have expressed similar opinions , among them Armando Valladares , who has declared Guevara " a man full of hatred " who executed dozens without trial , and Carlos Alberto Montaner , who has claimed that Guevara possessed " a Robespierre mentality " , wherein cruelty against the revolution 's enemies was a virtue . Alvaro Vargas Llosa of The Independent Institute has hypothesized that Guevara 's contemporary followers " delude themselves by clinging to a myth " , describing Guevara as a " Marxist Puritan " who employed his rigid power to suppress dissent , while also operating as a " cold @-@ blooded killing machine " . Llosa accused Guevara 's " fanatical disposition " as being the linchpin of the " Sovietization " of the Cuban revolution , speculating that he possessed a " total subordination of reality to blind ideological orthodoxy " . Moreover , detractors have attempted to demonstrate that Che @-@ inspired revolutions in much of Latin America had the practical result of reinforcing brutal militarism and internecine conflict for many years . Hoover Institution research fellow William Ratliff regards Guevara as a creation of his historical environment , referring to him as a " fearless " and " head @-@ strong Messiah @-@ like figure " , who was the product of a martyr @-@ enamored Latin culture which " inclined people to seek out and follow paternalistic miracle workers . " Ratliff has speculated that the economic conditions in the region suited Guevara 's commitment to " bring justice to the downtrodden by crushing centuries @-@ old tyrannies " ; describing Latin America as being plagued by what Moisés Naím referred to as the " legendary malignancies " of inequality , poverty , dysfunctional politics and malfunctioning institutions .
Meanwhile , Guevara remains a national hero in Cuba , where his image adorns the 3 peso banknote and school children begin each morning by pledging " We will be like Che . " In his homeland of Argentina , where high schools bear his name , numerous Che museums dot the country , which in 2008 unveiled a 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) bronze statue of him in the city of his birth , Rosario . Additionally , Guevara has been sanctified by some Bolivian campesinos as " Saint Ernesto " , who pray to him for assistance . In stark contrast , Guevara remains a hated figure amongst many in the Cuban exile and Cuban @-@ American community of the United States , who view him with animosity as " the butcher of La Cabaña " . Despite this polarized status , a high @-@ contrast monochrome graphic of Che 's face , created in 1968 by Irish artist Jim Fitzpatrick , became a universally merchandized and objectified image , found on an endless array of items , including T @-@ shirts , hats , posters , tattoos , and bikinis , ironically contributing to the consumer culture Guevara despised . Yet , he still remains a transcendent figure both in specifically political contexts and as a wide @-@ ranging popular icon of youthful rebellion .
= = Timeline = =
= = Archival media = =
= = = Video footage = = =
Guevara addressing the United Nations General Assembly on December 11 , 1964 , ( 6 : 21 ) , public domain footage uploaded by the UN , video clip
Guevara interviewed by Face the Nation on December 13 , 1964 , ( 29 : 11 ) , from CBS , video clip
Guevara interviewed in 1964 on a visit to Dublin , Ireland , ( 2 : 53 ) , English translation , from RTÉ Libraries and Archives , video clip
Guevara reciting a poem , ( 0 : 58 ) , English subtitles , from El Che : Investigating a Legend – Kultur Video 2001 , video clip
Guevara showing support for Fidel Castro , ( 0 : 22 ) , English subtitles , from El Che : Investigating a Legend – Kultur Video 2001 , video clip
Guevara speaking about labor , ( 0 : 28 ) , English subtitles , from El Che : Investigating a Legend – Kultur Video 2001 , video clip
Guevara speaking about the Bay of Pigs , ( 0 : 17 ) , English subtitles , from El Che : Investigating a Legend – Kultur Video 2001 , video clip
Guevara speaking against imperialism , ( 1 : 20 ) , English subtitles , from El Che : Investigating a Legend – Kultur Video 2001 , video clip
Guevara interviewed in Paris and speaking French in 1964 , ( 4 : 47 ) , English subtitles , interviewed by Jean Dumur , video clip
= = = Audio recording = = =
Guevara interviewed on ABC 's Issues and Answers , ( 22 : 27 ) , English translation , narrated by Lisa Howard , March 24 , 1964 , audio clip
= = List of English works = =
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= Over the Limit ( 2010 ) =
Over the Limit ( 2010 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) and presented by Axe Hair , which took place on May 23 , 2010 at the Joe Louis Arena in Detroit , Michigan . It was the first event promoted under the Over the Limit name .
Nine matches took place at the event , eight of which were broadcast live on pay @-@ per @-@ view . In the main event from the Raw brand , John Cena faced Batista for the WWE Championship , while The Big Show versus World Heavyweight Champion Jack Swagger was the main event from the SmackDown brand . Matches on the undercard included Randy Orton against Edge , CM Punk facing Rey Mysterio , and Drew McIntyre defending the WWE Intercontinental Championship against Kofi Kingston . Other championships defended at the event were the WWE Divas Championship and the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship .
The event drew 197 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , and was attended live by 11 @,@ 000 people . Reviews for the event were generally negative , with reviewers criticizing the endings of the matches , stoppages for blood , and predictable match results . Five wrestlers sustained legitimate injuries during the course of the show .
= = Background = =
Over the Limit involved different wrestlers from scripted feuds , plots , and storylines that played out on WWE 's television programs . Wrestlers portrayed a villain or a hero as they followed a series of events that built tension , and culminated into a wrestling match or series of matches .
The main feud from the Raw brand heading into Over the Limit was between John Cena and Batista over the WWE Championship , and had been going on for several months . Cena retained the WWE Championship against Batista at the Extreme Rules pay @-@ per @-@ view in a Last Man Standing match , by taping Batista 's ankles to the ringpost to ensure he could not stand up by the count of ten . The next night on Raw , Batista defeated Randy Orton and Sheamus to become the number one contender to the championship and earn a rematch against Cena . On the May 3 episode of Raw , they competed in a Beat the Clock challenge to determine the stipulation for their match . Batista defeated Daniel Bryan in 5 : 06 , but Cena defeated Wade Barrett in 4 : 32 to win the challenge and the right to name the stipulation . The following week , Cena announced that the match would be an " I Quit " match .
The predominant feud from the SmackDown brand was between Jack Swagger and Big Show , over Swagger 's World Heavyweight Championship . As part of the 2010 WWE Draft , Big Show was drafted to SmackDown , where he was named the number one contender upon his debut on April 30 . Over the next several weeks , Big Show chokeslammed Swagger through the announce table , and interrupted a promo on the May 14 episode of SmackDown , in which Swagger was boasting about his accomplishments . As part of the segment , Big Show destroyed Swagger 's trophies and memorabilia . The following week , Big Show mocked Swagger in promos throughout the show and distracted Swagger during Swagger 's match with Kofi Kingston , allowing Kingston to win .
As part of the 2010 WWE Draft on April 26 , Edge was drafted to the Raw brand . Later that night , Edge interfered in a match to determine the number one contender to the WWE Championship , spearing Randy Orton and preventing Orton from receiving a WWE Championship match . The following week , Edge hosted an edition of his talk show , The Cutting Edge , with Orton as his special guest . During the show , Edge justified his actions by saying he was trying to make an impact , and attempted to convince Orton to reform Rated @-@ RKO , their former tag team . Instead Orton attacked Edge . The following week , Orton defeated Edge and Ted DiBiase in a handicap match , which led to " Pick Your Poison " matches on the May 17 episode of Raw , where Edge and Orton picked each other 's opponents for the night . Edge faced The Undertaker , and lost intentionally by countout , while Orton faced Jack Swagger , and lost by disqualification when Edge interfered .
The rivalry between Rey Mysterio and CM Punk was continued from several previous pay @-@ per @-@ views . After months of feuding , Mysterio challenged Punk to a Straight Edge Society Pledge vs. Hair match at Over the Limit . Had Punk won , Mysterio would have joined the Straight Edge Society , Punk 's faction which promoted the straight edge lifestyle . Had Mysterio won however , Punk agreed to have his head shaved . On May 14 , Mysterio and Punk faced each other in a singles match , but the Straight Edge Society ( Luke Gallows , Serena , and a mystery masked man ) interfered and attacked Mysterio . The following week , Mysterio interrupted an initiation ceremony , in which Punk was shaving the heads of three men to induct them into the Straight Edge Society , and mocked Punk , claiming everyone would be laughing at Punk when he was shaved bald at Over the Limit . Later that night , Mysterio teamed with Montel Vontavious Porter to defeat Punk and Gallows in a tag team match .
Another feud was over the WWE Intercontinental Championship between the defending champion Drew McIntyre and Kofi Kingston . SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long stripped McIntyre of the championship and fired him for repeatedly attacking Matt Hardy . Long set up a tournament to determine the new champion , in which Christian and Kingston qualified for the final by defeating Cody Rhodes and Dolph Ziggler . The following week , on the May 14 episode of SmackDown , Kingston defeated Christian to win the tournament and the championship . Immediately following the match , however , McIntyre presented Long with a letter from the WWE Chairman Vince McMahon , which stated that McIntyre had been reinstated to the roster and was still recognized as the Intercontinental Champion . As a result , WWE 's official website announced that McIntyre would defend the championship against tournament winner Kingston .
The team of Chris Jericho and The Miz had begun feuding with The Hart Dynasty ( Tyson Kidd and David Hart Smith ) over the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship . The Miz 's feud with The Hart Dynasty had begun while The Miz was one @-@ half of the Unified Tag Team Champions with Big Show . During the Draft episode of Raw , The Hart Dynasty defeated The Miz and Big Show to win the championship , which led to Big Show turning on The Miz . The following week , The Miz and Jericho , another former tag team partner of Big Show , teamed up to attack The Hart Dynasty . Jericho went on to defeat Smith to earn a championship match for himself and The Miz at Over the Limit .
After WrestleMania XXVI , Ted DiBiase had debuted a new gimmick of an arrogant millionaire , similar to his father ( Ted DiBiase , Sr. ) ' s old gimmick . On the April 5 episode of Raw , DiBiase was given possession of the Million Dollar Championship and access to a trust fund by his father . DiBiase then began looking for a " Virgil " , a manservant like his father used to have . He offered the position to R @-@ Truth , who refused , leading to a feud between the two . After losing a match to John Morrison , DiBiase attacked him , prompting R @-@ Truth to interfere and save Morrison . In retaliation , DiBiase paid The Colóns to attack R @-@ Truth the following week .
In the only women 's match scheduled on the card , Eve defended the WWE Divas Championship against the former champion , Maryse . Eve had won the championship on the April 12 episode of Raw , and in the weeks that followed she was attacked by Maryse , who was attempting to get revenge .
= = Event = =
Prior to the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Montel Vontavious Porter defeated Chavo Guerrero in a dark match .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match that aired as part of the pay @-@ per @-@ view was Drew McIntyre defending his Intercontinental Championship against Kofi Kingston . Kingston took the early advantage , by performing a suicide dive to the outside of the ring on McIntyre . McIntyre threw Kingston in the ringpost , and went on the offense . Kingston was able to counter McIntyre 's " Future Shock " DDT , and perform his finishing move , the S.O.S , to pin McIntyre for the victory and the championship . Following the match , McIntyre demanded that Teddy Long go out to the ring and reverse the decision , but instead McIntyre was attacked by Matt Hardy , who McIntyre had attacked on several occasions in the prior weeks .
The next match was a singles match between Ted DiBiase , who was accompanied by Virgil , and R @-@ Truth . In the early stages of the match , Virgil caused a distraction , allowing DiBiase to take the advantage by performing a reverse neckbreaker and throwing R @-@ Truth into the barricade at ringside . R @-@ Truth was able to counter a move from the top rope , and went on to win the match by utilising his " Lie Detector " finishing move ( a corkscrew flying forearm smash ) .
The third match on the card was a Straight Edge Society pledge vs. hair match , between CM Punk and Rey Mysterio . For this match , the other Straight Edge Society members ( Serena and Luke Gallows ) were banned from ringside . Early on in the match , Punk threw Mysterio headfirst out of the ring into the barber chair at ringside . Punk had suffered a cut to the head prior to the exchange , and while Mysterio was on the floor , the match was halted so that the blood could be cleaned up . While Punk 's wound was being attended , he dropkicked Mysterio , who was on the ring apron , and began attacking him on the floor to restart the match . After Mysterio missed a splash from the top rope , Punk went to pin him , but Mysterio was able to perform a crucifix cradle on Punk for the victory . The other Straight Edge Society members attacked Mysterio after the match , but he was saved by Kane , which allowed Mysterio to handcuff Punk to the ring ropes and shave his head .
A tag team match for the Unified Tag Team Championship followed , between the champions The Hart Dynasty ( Tyson Kidd and David Hart Smith ) , who were accompanied by their manager Natalya , and the team of Chris Jericho and The Miz . The Hart Dynasty took the early advantage , but Jericho and The Miz were able to isolate both Smith and Kidd in the ring at different points in the match , wearing them down . Natalya interfered by tripping up Jericho while The Miz had the referee distracted . The Hart Dynasty were able to capitalise , and performed the Hart Attack on The Miz for the pinfall victory .
The fifth match was between Edge and Randy Orton . Edge took early control of the match by driving Orton into the barricade outside the ring . Orton was able to recover , and performed a rope hung DDT on Edge . While setting up for his finishing move , the RKO , Orton appeared to injure his arm , and went outside the ring in an attempt to recover . Edge followed him , trying to perform the spear , but Orton was able to avoid it , and Edge hit the barricade . Neither man was able to return to the ring before the count of ten , and as a result , the match ended in a double countout .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The first main event match of the night was between the World Heavyweight Champion Jack Swagger and his challenger , Big Show . Big Show dominated the match , with Swagger getting very little offense . As a result , Swagger got frustrated and hit Big Show with the World Heavyweight Championship title belt , and was disqualified . After the match , Swagger attacked Big Show with a steel chair , but Big Show was able to stop him with a chokeslam . Big Show then performed his knockout punch on Swagger , before leaving the area .
The penultimate match on the card saw Eve defend the WWE Divas Championship against Maryse . Maryse took the early advantage , but when she threw Eve outside the ring , and attempted to kick her , she kicked the ringpost instead , allowing Eve to take control with a series of dropkicks . Eve performed a standing moonsault and a sunset flip for a near @-@ fall . Maryse countered a rolling senton splash attempt by Eve and went for her finishing move , the French Kiss ; that was countered by Eve for the pin , who retained her championship .
The main event was John Cena versus Batista for the WWE Championship in an " I Quit " match , where the object of the match is to force an opponent to say " I Quit " . As the bell rang to signal the start of the match Batista gave Cena the chance to quit immediately , but Cena refused and hit Batista with the microphone . Despite this , Batista was able to take control , and locked in a submission hold , but Cena refused to say " I quit " . Cena eventually countered the move into his own submission hold , the STF , and Batista passed out . As he had not said the words " I Quit " however , he had to be revived so the match could continue . Batista fought back , and was able to powerslam Cena through the announce table . As Cena was bleeding , the match was briefly halted so his wound could receive attention . The two fought into the crowd before ending up near the entrance ramp , with Batista hitting Cena with a steel chair . On the entrance stage , Batista got into a car , which had been placed on the stage for decoration , and attempted to run over Cena . Cena avoided it , and was able to pull Batista out of the car and slam him onto it . Cena performed his Attitude Adjustment on Batista onto the car , but when Batista refused to quit , Cena went for the move again . Batista quit , making Cena the winner , but Cena performed the Attitude Adjustment again anyway , sending Batista through the stage to the floor . As Cena was celebrating retaining the championship , he was attacked by Sheamus to end the show .
= = Aftermath = =
During the event , five wrestlers suffered legitimate injuries . Randy Orton dislocated his shoulder while Ted DiBiase suffered a concussion , and although they both appeared on Raw the following night , they did not wrestle . CM Punk required 13 staples to close the wound in his forehead he sustained during his match with Mysterio . Batista suffered a back and tailbone injury during his match with John Cena , who himself suffered a laceration and lost a tooth .
On the episode of Raw following Over the Limit , Bret Hart was announced as the new Raw General Manager . During Batista 's promo at the beginning of the show , Hart interrupted and told him that if he wanted a rematch against Cena , he would have to qualify for the fatal four @-@ way match at the Fatal 4 @-@ Way pay @-@ per @-@ view in June . Batista refused to wrestle , citing his injuries , and as a result Hart awarded the match to his opponent Orton by forfeit . Following Hart 's decision , Batista quit WWE . This storyline was put in place as Batista was legitimately leaving WWE to pursue acting and a career in mixed martial arts .
Apart from Orton qualifying via forfeit , the other qualifying matches for the WWE Championship fatal four @-@ way match saw Sheamus defeat Mark Henry and Edge defeat Jericho and Cena in a triple threat match .
On the May 28 episode of SmackDown , SmackDown General Manager Teddy Long announced a fatal four @-@ way match for the World Heavyweight Championship would be taking place at the Fatal 4 @-@ Way pay @-@ per @-@ view . As the defending champion Jack Swagger automatically was part of the match , and as a result of his win by disqualification , Big Show received automatic entry . Later in the show , both The Undertaker and CM Punk qualified for the match as well , by defeating Rey Mysterio and Kane respectively . During his qualification match against Kane , Punk wore a mask to the ring in order to hide his newly @-@ shaven head . During his match with Mysterio , The Undertaker suffered a concussion , broken orbital bone and broken nose and the following week , was deemed unable to participate in the match . WWE replaced him in the match by devising a storyline in which The Undertaker was found in a " vegetative state " by his on @-@ screen half brother Kane on the following episode of SmackDown . That same broadcast , a battle royal to decide who would replace The Undertaker at the Fatal 4 @-@ Way pay @-@ per @-@ view was won by Rey Mysterio .
At the beginning of the May 28 episode of SmackDown , Drew McIntyre made Teddy Long read out a letter from the WWE Chairman Vince McMahon , which stated that as a result of attacking McIntyre at Over the Limit , Matt Hardy had been suspended without pay until further notice . On the same episode , McIntyre simultaneously continued his feud with Kofi Kingston by teaming with Jack Swagger in a loss to Kingston and The Big Show .
= = = Reception = = =
The event received generally negative reviews . Writing for Canadian Online Explorer 's wrestling section , Matt Bishop derided the show , calling it " one of the worst WWE pay @-@ per @-@ view events in a long time " and awarded the show 5 @.@ 5 out of ten . The Sun writer Rob McNichol called the show " one of the oddest WWE PPVs in recent history " and awarded the show six out of ten .
Most of the negative comments centered around the following World Heavyweight Championship match , which ended in disqualification immediately following a double countout in the preceding Orton @-@ Edge match due to injury . McNichol described it " a weak ending in a normal show " , but especially when the Orton @-@ Edge match " had ended in such circumstances " . Bishop agreed , only awarding the match 2 @.@ 5 out of ten and said that the match " hurt the show in a big , big way " . Kevin Eck of The Baltimore Sun also criticized the booking of the finish , remarking that " Swagger came off looking like anything but a credible champion " . Wrestling journalist Dave Meltzer also criticized the World Heavyweight Championship match , remarking that it was " almost an insult as a PPV main event " . Bishop stated that the show was " hampered by several stoppages for blood " and a predictable ending to the main event between Cena and Batista . McNichol also criticized the main event as " overbooked and excessive " , while Eck remarked that it had a " predictable result " .
Despite the generally negative reviews , the Mysterio @-@ Punk match was highly praised . McNichol touted it as " the highlight of the night " and praised the wrestlers involved for a " terrific closing sequence " . Bishop awarded the match 8 @.@ 5 out of ten , and stated it was one of two matches , along with the Tag Team Championship bout , that were not " underwhelming in every aspect " . Eck agreed , calling the Punk @-@ Mysterio match the " most compelling match on the card " and stated that the Tag Team Championship match was " well @-@ worked " .
11 @,@ 000 people attended Over the Limit at the Joe Louis Arena in Detroit , resulting in a gate of approximately $ 675 @,@ 000 . In August 2010 , WWE reported that the event had received 197 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . The DVD of the event contained extras including a match between Bret Hart and The Miz for the WWE United States Championship and several promos from the weeks preceding the event .
= = Results = =
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= Akhtala Monastery =
Akhtala ( Armenian : Ախթալայի վանք ; Georgian : ახტალის ტაძარი ) ; also known as Pghindzavank ( Armenian : Պղնձավանք , meaning Coppermine Monastery ) is a 10th @-@ century fortified Armenian Apostolic Church monastery located in the town of Akhtala in the marz of Lori , 185 kilometers ( 115 mi ) north of Yerevan . The monastery is currently inactive . The fortress played a major role in protecting the north @-@ western regions of Armenia ( Gugark ) and is among the most well preserved of all in modern Armenia . The main church at the compound is famous for its highly artistic frescoes , which cover the inside walls , the partitions , and the bearings of the building . The modern name of Akhtala was first recorded in a royal decree of 1438 . The etymology of the name Akhtala is believed to be of Turkic origin , meaning white glade . The original Armenian name of the settlement where the monastery is built is Pghindzahank , which means copper mine .
= = The fortress = =
Between 1887 and 1889 the French archaeologist Jacques de Morgan discovered 576 rectangular stone sepulchers , along with cultural items made of clay , bronze and iron near Akhtala dating back to the 8th century BC . The settlement of modern Akhtala was known as Agarak in the 5th century . The fortress was almost certainly built on top of Bronze and Iron Age foundations . It was built in the late tenth century by the Kyurikids , this branch of the Bagratunis originated from Gurgen ( the name was pronounced Kyurikeh in the local dialect of Gugark ) . He was the son of the patrons of Sanahin and Haghpat monasteries located not far from Akhtala , King Ashot III the Merciful and Queen Khosrovanush . Gurgen 's brothers were King Smbat II the Conqueror and Gagik I Bagratuni , under whom the Bagratuni Kingdom of Armenia reached the peak of its prosperity .
Ashot III established the Kingdom of Lori ( Tashir @-@ Dzoraget Kingdom ) in Gugark for strategic reasons and enthroned Gurgen in 982 . Gurgen along with his brother Smbat are depicted on the sculptures of the patrons in both Sanahin and Haghpat . When the Tashir @-@ Dzoraget kingdom fell as a result of Seljuk raids the Kyurikids migrated to Tavush and Metsnaberd yet they maintained ties with their ancestral fortress and compound in Akhtala . The fortress was built on an elevated rocky outcrop surrounded by deep canyons from three sides forming a natural protection . The somewhat accessible parts between the cliffs are reinforced by towers and walls . The only entrance to the compound is on the northern side protected by bell @-@ shaped towers and walls . The walls and towers of the fortress are built of bluish basalt and lime mortar . The Kyurikids gradually lost their influence under the Seljuk grasp by the end of the 12th century .
The monastic life was revived in Akhtala when the Zakarids heading the combined Georgian and Armenian forces liberated most of Armenia . The 13th @-@ century historians Kirakos Gandzaketsi and Vardan Areveltsi called the area Pghndzahank ( copper mine ) , because of rich copper deposits in the surroundings . Gandzaketsi writes the following : " Ivane , Zakare 's brother , also died [ that year ] and was buried at Pghndzahank ' near the church which he himself had built , taking it from the Armenians and making it into a Georgian monastery . "
Pghndzahank became the property of Ivane Zakarian in the 1180s . While Ivane 's brother Zakare was Armenian Apostolic , Ivane had accepted Greek Orthodoxy in the Georgian court . Several monasteries in northern Armenia were converted by the Zakarids to Greek Orthodoxy , a prominent example is the monastery of Kobayr . By doing so Ivane enhanced the benevolence of the Georgian court and gained influence among the Chalcedonian Armenians who mostly inhabited Northern and North @-@ Western Armenia . The Zakarids began to lose control starting in the 1220s during the disastrous Mongol invasions of Georgia and Armenia . The son of Ivane , Avak was forced to recognize his subordination to the Mongol leader Chormaqan . The Mongol rule continued until 1340 when it was interrupted by successive conquests of Turkic tribes . The Turkic tribe of Kara Koyunlu began attacking the Caucasus and took control of most of Armenia proper by 1400 . Their rule was interrupted by the conquests of Tamerlane . One of the cliffs that surrounds Akhtala is known as Lenktemur , named after Tamerlane who according to local tradition buried one of his wives under the cliff .
Since the late 18th century the monastery serviced ethnic Greeks who were settled in Akhtala in order to work in the gold and silver mines . Roughly 800 Greek families were moved from Gümüşhane in the Ottoman Empire to Akhtala in 1763 by the Georgian King Erekle II . The Greeks called the monastery " Meramani " . The Greek miners have left inscriptions on the monastery walls . In the 19th century Akhtala was taken over by the Armenian princely family of Melikovs . Currently the monastery has its pilgrimage days on September 20 – 21 . Armenians , Greeks and Georgians visit the monastery on this occasion . The Ambassador of Greece , Panayota Mavromichali visited the monastery on September 20 , 2006 . An ore mining and processing plant in Akhtala has been dumping copper mine tailings in the pit below the monastery . This has been classified as a threat to local residents .
= = Surp Astvatsatsin ( Holy Mother of God ) church = =
The main building of the monastic compound is Surp Astvatsatsin ( Holy Mother of God ) church . The exact date of the building of the church is unknown . It is generally regarded as an 11th @-@ 13th century complex , but the current church has been built on an earlier foundation . Kirakos Gandzaketsi mentions that Ivane Zakarian was buried in the church in 1227 . Stepanos Orbelian refers to the church in 1216 . Modern researchers date the murals within the church to 1205 – 1216 . Princess Mariam , the daughter of Gurgen II ( Kyurikeh II ) made a record in 1188 on the back of a khachkar found in a place called Ayor adjacent to Akhtala which refers to the construction of the Holy Mother of God church at Akhtala . The inscription on the khackar states the following : " I , the daughter if Kyurikeh , Mariam , erected Surp Astvatsatsin at Pghndzahank , those who honor us remember us in their prayers . " In 1185 Mariam had constructed the narthex of the main church in Haghpat . According to some local lore , the church was built in the 7th century by Byzantine emperor of Armenian extraction , Heraclius . Another legend assumes that the church was built in the 5th century by Georgian King Vakhtang I Gorgasali . There is no reasonable evidence to support either story .
The church used to contain the cross which according to folklore was used by John the Baptist to baptise Jesus Christ . Vasak , the father of Prince Prosh , is said to have given this relic to Ivane Zakarian who later sold it for a large sum to the monastery of Noravank in Syunik .
The church is situated in the middle of the fortress ' territory along the longitudinal axis . It belongs to the domed basilica type of churches , where the bearings join with the side @-@ chapels of the apse . Two pairs of arches divided the longitudinal stretched prayer hall into three naves , the central one of which ( with double side @-@ chapels ) on the eastern side ends with low staged , half @-@ rounded apse and the side @-@ chapels end with sacristies . They are characterized with stylish iconography , richness of theme and variety of different colors ( where blue is dominant ) . The vertical axis of the building was crowned by a massive dome . The pointed dome with the cylindrical drum has not survived . It was damaged during Tamerlane 's invasion and completely demolished in 1784 when the Avar Omar Khan invaded the Transcaucasus from Dagestan . In the 19th century , Viceroy of the Caucasus , Prince Mikhail Vorontsov built a semi @-@ spherical wooden dome covered with iron sheets in place of the original dome . The dome was renovated during Soviet years .
= = Murals of Surp Astvatsatsin = =
The murals are one of the best representations of Byzantine art outside the traditional borders of Byzantium . The majority of the murals bear scriptures in Greek . The murals were painted under the patronage of atabek Ivane Zakarian between 1205 and 1216 . Parallels have been drawn between the murals and the 11th century Armenian miniature paintings of the Mugni Gospels . The coloring of the murals is characteristic of typical Byzantine art while the thematic solutions are more Armenian . New and Old Testaments scenes as well as various saints including Saint Gregory the Illuminator are depicted on the murals . A large image of the Holy Virgin is depicted in the dome holding Jesus . The mural has been badly damaged and only parts of it survived . Below the Holy Virgin , the Communion is shown where Jesus is depicted twice , turning on the right and left sharing bread with the Apostles . The images of the Apostles Peter , John the Evangelist , Paul and Matthew have survived . The common Christians saints are depicted below the Communion scene , including Pope Sylvester , Saint James the son of Alpheus , Saint John Chrysostom , Basil the Great , Gregory the Illuminator , Jacob of Mtsbin , Clement of Rome , Gregory the Thaumaturgist , Cyril of Alexandria and Eusebius of Caesarea . The murals on the western wall depict the Kingdom of Heaven . The northern wall depicts the trial of Jesus by the high priest of Caiaphas and by the Roman Procurator Pontius Pilate . Some of the murals were renovated in 1979 . The arches , niches and columns are also covered by murals .
= = Other structures = =
The most prominent structure after the Holy Mother of God church is the rectangular edifice attached to the western wall of the church . The remaining section of the façade of the main church is situated immediately next to it with a ridge roof . Ivane Zakarian and his son Avak were buried inside in 1227 . A small structure with a lean @-@ to roof is attached to the northern wall of the main church . It was used to store ceremonial items . On the north @-@ western side of the monastery , a single nave and ridge @-@ roofed church is located detached from the main church . Another building that hasn 't survived used to be located next to it . Numerous dilapidated dwellings and auxiliary structures are scattered in the territory of the fortress such as a two @-@ story building believed to be a residence for guards . There are traditional networks of tunnels , crypts , water reservoirs and wine cellars , found among most monasteries of medieval Armenia . Not far from the monastery one can find other medieval monuments such as the Holy Trinity monastery , Saint George church , a 13th @-@ century spring monument , a 19th @-@ century Russian chapel , a Greek church as well as various khachkars and chapels .
= = Known residents = =
Inscriptions from nearby khachkars point out that the monastery was headed by Petreh in the 1240s . The most prominent figure who resided at the monastery was the translator and scribe Simon of Pghndzahank . His diaries have survived . He was born in 1188 and was a clergyman for several years at the monastery translating Byzantine theological literature . He collaborated with another Armenian of Chalcedonian faith , Minas Syunakyats of Trabzon . In 1227 Simon compiled a volume of works by Gregory of Nyssa . His diary reads :
In 1227 I completed the book by Bishop Gregory of Nyssa which was a preserved old copy translated by the sinful and undeserving clergyman Simon who lived in Armenia , near Lore town , at the Holy Mother of God monastery of Pghndzahank . The book was translated during the reign of atabek Ivane , the founder of the monastery , may God grant him and his sons long life .
Simon also translated into Armenian the Elements of Theology by Proclus Diadochos , The Fountain of Wisdom by John Damascene , The Ladder of Divine Ascent by John of Sinai , A History of Georgia ( Kartlis Tskhovreba ) and The Greek Prayer Book . Simon also noted in his diaries that he only translated works which previously had not been translated into Armenian . The prominent Armenian filmmaker of the 20th century Sergei Parajanov filmed two episodes of his film The Color of Pomegranates at the monastery .
= = Gallery = =
Akhtala Monastery
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= Apollo 8 =
Apollo 8 , the second human spaceflight mission in the United States Apollo space program , was launched on December 21 , 1968 , and became the first manned spacecraft to leave Earth orbit , reach the Earth 's Moon , orbit it and return safely to Earth . The three @-@ astronaut crew — Commander Frank Borman , Command Module Pilot James Lovell , and Lunar Module Pilot William Anders — became the first humans to travel beyond low Earth orbit , the first to see Earth as a whole planet , the first to directly see the far side of the Moon , and then the first to witness Earthrise . The 1968 mission , the third flight of the Saturn V rocket and that rocket 's first manned launch , was also the first human spaceflight launch from the Kennedy Space Center , Florida , located adjacent to Cape Canaveral Air Force Station .
The mission was originally planned as Apollo 9 , to be performed in early 1969 as the second test of the complete Apollo spacecraft , including the Lunar Module and the Command / Service Module in an elliptical medium Earth orbit . But when the Lunar Module proved unready to make its first test in a lower Earth orbit in December 1968 , it was decided in August to fly Apollo 8 in December as a more ambitious lunar orbital flight without the Lunar Module . This meant Borman 's crew was scheduled to fly two to three months sooner than originally planned , leaving them a shorter time for training and preparation , thus placing more demands than usual on their time and discipline .
Apollo 8 took three days to travel to the Moon . It orbited ten times over the course of 20 hours , during which the crew made a Christmas Eve television broadcast where they read the first 10 verses from the Book of Genesis . At the time , the broadcast was the most watched TV program ever . Apollo 8 's successful mission paved the way for Apollo 11 to fulfill U.S. President John F. Kennedy 's goal of landing a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s . The Apollo 8 astronauts returned to Earth on December 27 , 1968 , when their spacecraft splashed down in the Northern Pacific Ocean . The crew was named Time magazine 's " Men of the Year " for 1968 upon their return .
= = Crew = =
Lovell was originally the CMP on the back @-@ up crew , with Michael Collins as the prime crew 's CMP . However , Collins was replaced in July 1968 , after suffering a cervical disc herniation that required surgery to repair .
This crew was unique among pre @-@ shuttle era missions in that the commander was not the most experienced member of the crew , as Lovell had flown twice before , on Gemini VII and Gemini XII . This was also the first case of the rarity of an astronaut who had commanded a spaceflight mission subsequently flying as a non @-@ commander , as Lovell had previously commanded Gemini XII .
= = = Backup crew = = =
On a lunar mission , the Command Module Pilot ( CMP ) was assigned the role of navigator , while the Lunar Module Pilot ( LMP ) was assigned the role of flight engineer , responsible for monitoring all spacecraft systems , even if the flight didn 't include a Lunar Module .
Edwin " Buzz " Aldrin was originally the backup LMP . When Lovell was rotated to the prime crew , no one with experience on CSM @-@ 103 ( the specific spacecraft used for the mission ) was available , so Aldrin was moved to CMP and Fred Haise brought in as backup LMP . Neil Armstrong went on to command Apollo 11 , where Aldrin was returned to the LMP position and Collins was assigned as CMP . Haise was rotated out of the crew and onto the backup crew of Apollo 11 as LMP .
= = = Mission control = = =
The Earth @-@ based mission control teams for Apollo 8 consisted of astronauts assigned to the support crew , as well as non @-@ astronaut flight directors and their staffs . The support crew members were not trained to fly the mission , but were able to stand in for astronauts in meetings and be involved in the minutiae of mission planning , while the prime and backup crews trained . They also served as CAPCOMs during the mission . For Apollo 8 , these crew members included astronauts John S. Bull , Vance D. Brand , Gerald P. Carr , and Ken Mattingly . The mission control teams on Earth rotated in three shifts , each led by a flight director . The directors for Apollo 8 included Clifford E. Charlesworth ( Green team ) , Glynn Lunney ( Black team ) , and Milton Windler ( Maroon team ) .
= = = Mission insignia = = =
The triangular shape of the insignia symbolizes the shape of the Apollo Command Module ( CM ) . It shows a red figure @-@ 8 looping around the Earth and Moon representing the mission number as well as the circumlunar nature of the mission . On the red number 8 are the names of the three astronauts .
The initial design of the insignia was developed by Jim Lovell . Lovell reportedly sketched the initial design while riding in the backseat of a T @-@ 38 flight from California to Houston , shortly after learning of the re @-@ designation of the flight to become a lunar @-@ orbital mission . The graphic design of the insignia was done by Houston artist and animator William Bradley .
= = Planning = =
Apollo 4 and Apollo 6 had been " A " missions , unmanned tests of the Saturn V launch vehicle using an unmanned Block I production model of the Apollo Command and Service Module in Earth orbit . Apollo 7 , scheduled for October 1968 , would be a manned Earth @-@ orbit flight of the CSM , completing the objectives for Mission " C " .
Further missions depended on the readiness of the Lunar Module . Apollo 8 was planned as the " D " mission , to test the LM in a low Earth orbit in December 1968 by James McDivitt , David Scott and Russell Schweickart , while Borman 's crew would fly the " E " mission , a more rigorous LM test in an elliptical medium Earth orbit as Apollo 9 , in early 1969 .
But production of the LM fell behind schedule , and when Apollo 8 's LM arrived at the Kennedy Space Center in June 1968 , significant defects were discovered , leading Grumman , the lead contractor for the LM , to predict that the first mission @-@ ready LM would not be ready until at least February 1969 . This would mean delaying the " D " and subsequent missions , endangering the program 's goal of a lunar landing before the end of 1969 .
George Low , the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office , proposed a solution in August to keep the program on track despite the LM delay . Since the Command / Service Module ( CSM ) would be ready three months before the Lunar Module , a CSM @-@ only mission could be flown in December 1968 . Instead of just repeating the " C " mission flight of Apollo 7 , this CSM could be sent all the way to the Moon , with the possibility of entering a lunar orbit . The new mission would also allow NASA to test lunar landing procedures that would otherwise have to wait until Apollo 10 , the scheduled " F " mission . This also meant that the medium Earth orbit " E " mission could be dispensed with . The net result was that only the " D " mission had to be delayed .
Almost every senior manager at NASA agreed with this new mission , citing both confidence in the hardware and personnel , and the potential for a significant morale boost provided by a circumlunar flight . The only person who needed some convincing was James E. Webb , the NASA administrator . With the rest of his agency in support of the new mission , Webb eventually approved the mission change . The mission was officially changed from a " D " mission to a " C @-@ Prime " lunar @-@ orbit mission , but was still referred to in press releases as an Earth @-@ orbit mission at Webb 's direction . No public announcement was made about the change in mission until November 12 , three weeks after Apollo 7 's successful Earth @-@ orbit mission and less than 40 days before launch .
With the change in mission for Apollo 8 , Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton decided to swap the crews of the D and E missions . This swap also meant a swap of spacecraft , requiring Borman 's crew to use CSM @-@ 103 , while McDivitt 's crew would use CSM @-@ 104 .
On September 9 , the crew entered the simulators to begin their preparation for the flight . By the time the mission flew , the crew had spent seven hours training for every actual hour of flight . Although all crew members were trained in all aspects of the mission , it was necessary to specialize . Borman , as commander , was given training on controlling the spacecraft during the re @-@ entry . Lovell was trained on navigating the spacecraft in case communication was lost with the Earth . Anders was placed in charge of checking that the spacecraft was in working order .
Added pressure on the Apollo program to make its 1969 landing goal was provided by the Soviet Union 's flight of some living creatures , including Russian tortoises , in a cislunar loop around the Moon on Zond 5 and return to Earth on September 21 . There was speculation within NASA and the press that they might be preparing to launch cosmonauts on a similar circumlunar mission before the end of 1968 .
The Apollo 8 crew , now living in the crew quarters at Kennedy Space Center , received a visit from Charles Lindbergh and his wife , Anne Morrow Lindbergh , the night before the launch . They talked about how , before his 1927 flight , Lindbergh had used a piece of string to measure the distance from New York City to Paris on a globe and from that calculated the fuel needed for the flight . The total was a tenth of the amount that the Saturn V would burn every second . The next day , the Lindberghs watched the launch of Apollo 8 from a nearby dune .
= = Saturn V = =
The Saturn V rocket used by Apollo 8 was designated SA @-@ 503 , or the " 03rd " model of the Saturn V ( " 5 " ) Rocket to be used in the Saturn @-@ Apollo ( " SA " ) program . When it was erected in the Vertical Assembly Building on December 20 , 1967 , it was thought that the rocket would be used for an unmanned Earth @-@ orbit test flight carrying a boilerplate Command / Service Module . Apollo 6 had suffered several major problems during its April 1968 flight , including severe pogo oscillation during its first stage , two second stage engine failures , and a third stage that failed to reignite in orbit . Without assurances that these problems had been rectified , NASA administrators could not justify risking a manned mission until additional unmanned test flights proved that the Saturn V was ready .
Teams from the Marshall Space Flight Center ( MSFC ) went to work on the problems . Of primary concern was the pogo oscillation , which would not only hamper engine performance , but could exert significant g @-@ forces on a crew . A task force of contractors , NASA agency representatives , and MSFC researchers concluded that the engines vibrated at a frequency similar to the frequency at which the spacecraft itself vibrated , causing a resonance effect that induced oscillations in the rocket . A system using helium gas to absorb some of these vibrations was installed .
Of equal importance was the failure of three engines during flight . Researchers quickly determined that a leaking hydrogen fuel line ruptured when exposed to vacuum , causing a loss of fuel pressure in engine two . When an automatic shutoff attempted to close the liquid hydrogen valve and shut down engine two , it accidentally shut down engine three 's liquid oxygen due to a miswired connection . As a result , engine three failed within one second of engine two 's shutdown . Further investigation revealed the same problem for the third @-@ stage engine — a faulty igniter line . The team modified the igniter lines and fuel conduits , hoping to avoid similar problems on future launches .
The teams tested their solutions in August 1968 at the Marshall Space Flight Center . A Saturn stage IC was equipped with shock absorbing devices to demonstrate the team 's solution to the problem of pogo oscillation , while a Saturn Stage II was retrofitted with modified fuel lines to demonstrate their resistance to leaks and ruptures in vacuum conditions . Once NASA administrators were convinced that the problems were solved , they gave their approval for a manned mission using SA @-@ 503 .
The Apollo 8 spacecraft was placed on top of the rocket on September 21 and the rocket made the slow 3 @-@ mile ( 5 km ) journey to the launch pad on October 9 . Testing continued all through December until the day before launch , including various levels of readiness testing from December 5 through 11 . Final testing of modifications to address the problems of pogo oscillation , ruptured fuel lines , and bad igniter lines took place on December 18 , a mere three days before the scheduled launch .
= = Mission = =
= = = Parameter summary = = =
As the first manned spacecraft to orbit more than one celestial body , Apollo 8 's profile had two different sets of orbital parameters , separated by a translunar injection maneuver .
Apollo lunar missions would begin with a nominal 100 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 185 km ) circular Earth parking orbit . Apollo 8 was launched into an initial orbit with an apogee of 99 @.@ 99 nautical miles ( 185 @.@ 18 km ) and a perigee of 99 @.@ 57 nautical miles ( 184 @.@ 40 km ) , with an inclination of 32 @.@ 51 ° to the Equator , and an orbital period of 88 @.@ 19 minutes . Propellant venting increased the apogee by 6 @.@ 4 nautical miles ( 11 @.@ 9 km ) over the 2 hours , 44 minutes and 30 seconds spent in the parking orbit .
This was followed by a Trans @-@ Lunar Injection ( TLI ) burn of the S @-@ IVB third stage for 318 seconds , accelerating the 63 @,@ 531 lb ( 28 @,@ 817 kg ) spacecraft from an orbital velocity of 25 @,@ 567 feet per second ( 7 @,@ 793 m / s ) to the injection velocity of 35 @,@ 505 ft / s ( 10 @,@ 822 m / s ) , which set a record for the highest speed , relative to Earth , that humans had ever traveled . This speed was slightly less than the Earth 's escape velocity of 36 @,@ 747 feet per second ( 11 @,@ 200 m / s ) , but put Apollo 8 into an elongated elliptical Earth orbit , to a point where the Moon 's gravity would capture it .
The standard lunar orbit for Apollo missions was planned as a nominal 60 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 110 km ) circular orbit above the Moon 's surface . Initial lunar orbit insertion was an ellipse with a perilune of 60 @.@ 0 nautical miles ( 111 @.@ 1 km ) and an apolune of 168 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 312 @.@ 1 km ) , at an inclination of 12 ° from the lunar equator . This was then circularized at 60 @.@ 7 nautical miles ( 112 @.@ 4 km ) by 59 @.@ 7 nautical miles ( 110 @.@ 6 km ) , with an orbital period of 128 @.@ 7 minutes . The effect of lunar mass concentrations ( " masscons " ) on the orbit was found to be greater than initially predicted ; over the course of the twenty @-@ hour mission , the orbit was perturbated to 63 @.@ 6 nautical miles ( 117 @.@ 8 km ) by 58 @.@ 6 nautical miles ( 108 @.@ 5 km ) .
Apollo 8 achieved a maximum distance from Earth of 203 @,@ 752 nautical miles ( 234 @,@ 474 statute miles ; 377 @,@ 349 kilometers ) .
= = = Launch and trans @-@ lunar injection = = =
Apollo 8 launched at 7 : 51 : 00 a.m. Eastern Standard Time on December 21 , 1968 , using the Saturn V 's three stages to achieve Earth orbit . The S @-@ IC first stage impacted the Atlantic Ocean at 30 ° 12 ′ N 74 ° 7 ′ W and the S @-@ II second stage at 31 ° 50 ′ N 37 ° 17 ′ W. The S @-@ IVB third stage injected the craft into Earth orbit , but remained attached to later perform the trans @-@ lunar injection ( TLI ) burn that put the spacecraft on a trajectory to the Moon .
The Titan II launch vehicle used for the Gemini program had been notoriously rough @-@ riding , and technicians promised the astronauts that the Saturn V , which was designed for the Apollo program rather than adapted from a missile , would have a much smoother ride . Lovell and Borman , both Gemini veterans , found this promise did not disappoint . During liftoff , they reported feeling nothing but a dull , muted rumble in the distance .
Once the vehicle reached Earth orbit , both the crew and Houston flight controllers spent the next 2 hours and 38 minutes checking that the spacecraft was in proper working order and ready for TLI . The proper operation of the S @-@ IVB third stage of the rocket was crucial : in the last unmanned test , it had failed to re @-@ ignite for TLI .
During the flight , three fellow astronauts served on the ground as Capsule Communicators ( usually referred to as " CAPCOMs " ) on a rotating schedule . The CAPCOMs were the only people who regularly communicated with the crew . Michael Collins was the first CAPCOM on duty and at 2 hours , 27 minutes and 22 seconds after launch radioed , " Apollo 8 . You are Go for TLI . " This communication signified that Mission Control had given official permission for Apollo 8 to go to the Moon . Over the next 12 minutes before the TLI burn , the Apollo 8 crew continued to monitor the spacecraft and the S @-@ IVB . The engine ignited on time and performed the TLI burn perfectly .
After the S @-@ IVB had performed its required tasks , it was jettisoned . The crew then rotated the spacecraft to take some photographs of the spent stage and then practiced flying in formation with it . As the crew rotated the spacecraft , they had their first views of the Earth as they moved away from it . This marked the first time humans could view the whole Earth at once . Borman became worried that the S @-@ IVB was staying too close to the Command / Service Module and suggested to Mission Control that the crew perform a separation maneuver . Mission Control first suggested pointing the spacecraft towards Earth and using the Reaction Control System ( RCS ) thrusters on the Service Module ( SM ) to add 3 ft / s ( 0 @.@ 91 m / s ) away from the Earth , but Borman did not want to lose sight of the S @-@ IVB . After discussion , the crew and Mission Control decided to burn in this direction , but at 9 ft / s ( 2 @.@ 7 m / s ) instead . These discussions put the crew an hour behind their flight plan .
Five hours after launch , Mission Control sent a command to the S @-@ IVB booster to vent its remaining fuel through its engine bell to change the booster 's trajectory . This S @-@ IVB would then pass the Moon and enter into a solar orbit , posing no further hazard to Apollo 8 . The S @-@ IVB subsequently went into a 0 @.@ 99 @-@ by @-@ 0 @.@ 92 @-@ astronomical @-@ unit ( 148 by 138 Gm ) solar orbit with an inclination of 23 @.@ 47 ° from the plane of the ecliptic , and an orbital period of 340 @.@ 80 days . After the insertion into trans @-@ Lunar orbit , the Saturn IVB third stage became a derelict object . It will continue to orbit the Sun for many years .
The Apollo 8 crew were the first humans to pass through the Van Allen radiation belts , which extend up to 15 @,@ 000 miles ( 24 @,@ 000 km ) from Earth . Scientists predicted that passing through the belts quickly at the spacecraft 's high speed would cause a radiation dosage of no more than a chest X @-@ ray , or 1 milligray ( during a year , the average human receives a dose of 2 to 3 mGy ) . To record the actual radiation dosages , each crew member wore a Personal Radiation Dosimeter that transmitted data to Earth as well as three passive film dosimeters that showed the cumulative radiation experienced by the crew . By the end of the mission , the crew experienced an average radiation dose of 1 @.@ 6 mGy .
= = = Lunar trajectory = = =
Jim Lovell 's main job as Command Module Pilot was as navigator . Although Mission Control performed all the actual navigation calculations , it was necessary to have a crew member serving as navigator so that the crew could return to Earth in case of loss of communication with Mission Control . Lovell navigated by star sightings using a sextant built in to the spacecraft , measuring the angle between a star and the Earth 's ( or the Moon 's ) horizon . This task was difficult , because a large cloud of debris around the spacecraft , formed by the venting S @-@ IVB , made it hard to distinguish the stars .
By seven hours into the mission , the crew was about one hour and 40 minutes behind flight plan , because of the problems in moving away from the S @-@ IVB and Lovell 's obscured star sightings . The crew now placed the spacecraft into Passive Thermal Control ( PTC ) , also called " barbecue roll " , in which the spacecraft rotated about once per hour around its long axis to ensure even heat distribution across the surface of the spacecraft . In direct sunlight , the spacecraft could be heated to over 200 ° C ( 392 ° F ) while the parts in shadow would be − 100 ° C ( − 148 ° F ) . These temperatures could cause the heat shield to crack and propellant lines to burst . Because it was impossible to get a perfect roll , the spacecraft swept out a cone as it rotated . The crew had to make minor adjustments every half hour as the cone pattern got larger and larger .
The first mid @-@ course correction came 11 hours into the flight . Testing on the ground had shown that the Service Propulsion System ( SPS ) engine had a small chance of exploding when burned for long periods unless its combustion chamber was " coated " first . Burning the engine for a short period would accomplish coating . This first correction burn was only 2 @.@ 4 seconds and added about 20 @.@ 4 ft / s ( 6 @.@ 2 m / s ) velocity prograde ( in the direction of travel ) . This change was less than the planned 24 @.@ 8 ft / s ( 7 @.@ 6 m / s ) , because of a bubble of helium in the oxidizer lines , which caused unexpectedly low propellant pressure . The crew had to use the small RCS thrusters to make up the shortfall . Two later planned mid @-@ course corrections were canceled because the Apollo 8 trajectory was found to be perfect .
Eleven hours into the flight , the crew had been awake for more than 16 hours . Before launch , NASA had decided that at least one crew member should be awake at all times to deal with problems that might arise . Borman started the first sleep shift , but found sleeping difficult because of the constant radio chatter and mechanical noises .
About an hour after starting his sleep shift , Borman obtained permission from ground control to take a Seconal sleeping pill . The pill had little effect . Borman eventually fell asleep , and then awoke feeling ill . He vomited twice and had a bout of diarrhea ; this left the spacecraft full of small globules of vomit and feces , which the crew cleaned up as well as they could . Borman initially did not want everyone to know about his medical problems , but Lovell and Anders wanted to inform Mission Control . The crew decided to use the Data Storage Equipment ( DSE ) , which could tape voice recordings and telemetry and dump them to Mission Control at high speed . After recording a description of Borman 's illness they asked Mission Control to check the recording , stating that they " would like an evaluation of the voice comments " .
The Apollo 8 crew and Mission Control medical personnel held a conference using an unoccupied second @-@ floor control room ( there were two identical control rooms in Houston , on the second and third floors , only one of which was used during a mission ) . The conference participants concluded that there was little to worry about and that Borman 's illness was either a 24 @-@ hour flu , as Borman thought , or a reaction to the sleeping pill . Researchers now believe that he was suffering from space @-@ adaptation syndrome , which affects about a third of astronauts during their first day in space as their vestibular system adapts to weightlessness . Space @-@ adaptation syndrome had not occurred on previous spacecraft ( Mercury and Gemini ) , because those astronauts couldn 't move freely in the small cabins of those spacecraft . The increased cabin space in the Apollo Command Module afforded astronauts greater freedom of movement , contributing to symptoms of space sickness for Borman and , later , astronaut Russell Schweickart during Apollo 9 .
The cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight , except for the crew checking that the spacecraft was in working order and that they were on course . During this time , NASA scheduled a television broadcast at 31 hours after launch . The Apollo 8 crew used a 2 kg camera that broadcast in black @-@ and @-@ white only , using a Vidicon tube . The camera had two lenses , a very wide @-@ angle ( 160 ° ) lens , and a telephoto ( 9 ° ) lens .
During this first broadcast , the crew gave a tour of the spacecraft and attempted to show how the Earth appeared from space . However , difficulties aiming the narrow @-@ angle lens without the aid of a monitor to show what it was looking at made showing the Earth impossible . Additionally , the Earth image became saturated by any bright source without proper filters . In the end , all the crew could show the people watching back on Earth was a bright blob . After broadcasting for 17 minutes , the rotation of the spacecraft took the high @-@ gain antenna out of view of the receiving stations on Earth and they ended the transmission with Lovell wishing his mother a happy birthday .
By this time , the crew had completely abandoned the planned sleep shifts . Lovell went to sleep 32 ½ hours into the flight — 3 ½ hours before he had planned to . A short while later , Anders also went to sleep after taking a sleeping pill .
The crew was unable to see the Moon for much of the outward cruise . Two factors made the Moon almost impossible to see from inside the spacecraft : three of the five windows fogging up due to out @-@ gassed oils from the silicone sealant , and the attitude required for the PTC . It was not until the crew had gone behind the Moon that they would be able to see it for the first time .
The Apollo 8 made a second television broadcast at 55 hours into the flight . This time , the crew rigged up filters meant for the still cameras so they could acquire images of the Earth through the telephoto lens . Although difficult to aim , as they had to maneuver the entire spacecraft , the crew was able to broadcast back to Earth the first television pictures of the Earth . The crew spent the transmission describing the Earth and what was visible and the colors they could see . The transmission lasted 23 minutes .
= = = Lunar sphere of influence = = =
At about 55 hours and 40 minutes into the flight , the crew of Apollo 8 became the first humans to enter the gravitational sphere of influence of another celestial body . In other words , the effect of the Moon 's gravitational force on Apollo 8 became stronger than that of the Earth . At the time it happened , Apollo 8 was 38 @,@ 759 miles ( 62 @,@ 377 km ) from the Moon and had a speed of 3 @,@ 990 ft / s ( 1 @,@ 220 m / s ) relative to the Moon . This historic moment was of little interest to the crew since they were still calculating their trajectory with respect to the launch pad at Kennedy Space Center . They would continue to do so until they performed their last mid @-@ course correction , switching to a reference frame based on ideal orientation for the second engine burn they would make in lunar orbit . It was only 13 hours until they would be in lunar orbit .
The last major event before Lunar Orbit Insertion ( LOI ) was a second mid @-@ course correction . It was in retrograde ( against direction of travel ) and slowed the spacecraft down by 2 @.@ 0 ft / s ( 0 @.@ 61 m / s ) , effectively lowering the closest distance that the spacecraft would pass the moon . At exactly 61 hours after launch , about 24 @,@ 200 miles ( 38 @,@ 900 km ) from the Moon , the crew burned the RCS for 11 seconds . They would now pass 71 @.@ 7 miles ( 115 @.@ 4 km ) from the lunar surface .
At 64 hours into the flight , the crew began to prepare for Lunar Orbit Insertion @-@ 1 ( LOI @-@ 1 ) . This maneuver had to be performed perfectly , and due to orbital mechanics had to be on the far side of the Moon , out of contact with the Earth . After Mission Control was polled for a " go / no go " decision , the crew was told at 68 hours , they were Go and " riding the best bird we can find " . At 68 hours and 58 minutes , the spacecraft went behind the Moon and out of radio contact with the Earth .
With 10 minutes before the LOI @-@ 1 , the crew began one last check of the spacecraft systems and made sure that every switch was in the correct place . At that time , they finally got their first glimpses of the Moon . They had been flying over the unlit side , and it was Lovell who saw the first shafts of sunlight obliquely illuminating the lunar surface . The LOI burn was only two minutes away , so the crew had little time to appreciate the view .
= = = Lunar orbit = = =
The SPS ignited at 69 hours , 8 minutes , and 16 seconds after launch and burned for 4 minutes and 13 seconds , placing the Apollo 8 spacecraft in orbit around the Moon . The crew described the burn as being the longest four minutes of their lives . If the burn had not lasted exactly the correct amount of time , the spacecraft could have ended up in a highly elliptical lunar orbit or even flung off into space . If it lasted too long they could have struck the Moon . After making sure the spacecraft was working , they finally had a chance to look at the Moon , which they would orbit for the next 20 hours .
On Earth , Mission Control continued to wait . If the crew had not burned the engine or the burn had not lasted the planned length of time , the crew would appear early from behind the Moon . However , this time came and went without Apollo 8 reappearing . Exactly at the calculated moment , the signal was received from the spacecraft , indicating it was in a 193 @.@ 3 @-@ by @-@ 69 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 311 @.@ 1 by 111 @.@ 8 km ) orbit about the Moon .
After reporting on the status of the spacecraft , Lovell gave the first description of what the lunar surface looked like :
The Moon is essentially grey , no color ; looks like plaster of Paris or sort of a grayish beach sand . We can see quite a bit of detail . The Sea of Fertility doesn 't stand out as well here as it does back on Earth . There 's not as much contrast between that and the surrounding craters . The craters are all rounded off . There 's quite a few of them , some of them are newer . Many of them look like — especially the round ones — look like hit by meteorites or projectiles of some sort . Langrenus is quite a huge crater ; it 's got a central cone to it . The walls of the crater are terraced , about six or seven different terraces on the way down .
Lovell continued to describe the terrain they were passing over . One of the crew 's major tasks was reconnaissance of planned future landing sites on the Moon , especially one in Mare Tranquillitatis that would be the Apollo 11 landing site . The launch time of Apollo 8 had been chosen to give the best lighting conditions for examining the site . A film camera had been set up in one of the spacecraft windows to record a frame every second of the Moon below . Bill Anders spent much of the next 20 hours taking as many photographs as possible of targets of interest . By the end of the mission the crew had taken 700 photographs of the Moon and 150 of the Earth .
Throughout the hour that the spacecraft was in contact with Earth , Borman kept asking how the data for the SPS looked . He wanted to make sure that the engine was working and could be used to return early to the Earth if necessary . He also asked that they receive a " go / no go " decision before they passed behind the Moon on each orbit .
As they reappeared for their second pass in front of the Moon , the crew set up the equipment to broadcast a view of the lunar surface . Anders described the craters that they were passing over . At the end of this second orbit they performed the 11 @-@ second LOI @-@ 2 burn of the SPS to circularize the orbit to 70 @.@ 0 by 71 @.@ 3 miles ( 112 @.@ 7 by 114 @.@ 7 km ) .
Through the next two orbits , the crew continued to keep check of the spacecraft and to observe and photograph the Moon . During the third pass , Borman read a small prayer for his church . He had been scheduled to participate in a service at St. Christopher 's Episcopal Church near Seabrook , Texas , but due to the Apollo 8 flight he was unable to . A fellow parishioner and engineer at Mission Control , Rod Rose , suggested that Borman read the prayer which could be recorded and then replayed during the service .
= = = = Earthrise = = = =
When the spacecraft came out from behind the Moon for its fourth pass across the front , the crew witnessed " Earthrise " for the first time in human history ( NASA 's Lunar Orbiter 1 took the very first picture of an Earthrise from the vicinity of the Moon , on August 23 , 1966 ) . Borman saw the Earth emerging from behind the lunar horizon , and then called in excitement to the others , taking a black @-@ and @-@ white photograph as he did so . In the ensuing scramble Anders took Earthrise , a more famous color photo , later picked by Life magazine as one of its hundred photos of the century .
Due to the synchronous rotation of the Moon about the Earth , Earthrise is not generally visible from the lunar surface . Earthrise is generally only visible when orbiting the Moon , other than at selected places near the Moon 's limb , where libration carries the Earth slightly above and below the lunar horizon .
Anders continued to take photographs while Lovell assumed control of the spacecraft so Borman could rest . Despite the difficulty resting in the cramped and noisy spacecraft , Borman was able to sleep for two orbits , awakening periodically to ask questions about their status . Borman awoke fully , however , when he started to hear his fellow crew members make mistakes . They were beginning to not understand questions and would have to ask for the answers to be repeated . Borman realized that everyone was extremely tired having not had a good night 's sleep in over three days . Taking command , he ordered Anders and Lovell to get some sleep and that the rest of the flight plan regarding observing the Moon be scrubbed . At first Anders protested saying that he was fine , but Borman would not be swayed . At last Anders agreed as long as Borman would set up the camera to continue to take automatic shots of the Moon . Borman also remembered that there was a second television broadcast planned , and with so many people expected to be watching he wanted the crew to be alert . For the next two orbits Anders and Lovell slept while Borman sat at the helm . On subsequent Apollo missions , crews would avoid this situation by sleeping on the same schedule .
As they rounded the Moon for the ninth time , the second television transmission began . Borman introduced the crew , followed by each man giving his impression of the lunar surface and what it was like to be orbiting the Moon . Borman described it as being " a vast , lonely , forbidding expanse of nothing " . Then , after talking about what they were flying over , Anders said that the crew had a message for all those on Earth . Each man on board read a section from the Biblical creation story from the Book of Genesis . Borman finished the broadcast by wishing a Merry Christmas to everyone on Earth . His message appeared to sum up the feelings that all three crewmen had from their vantage point in lunar orbit . Borman said , " And from the crew of Apollo 8 , we close with good night , good luck , a Merry Christmas and God bless all of you — all of you on the good Earth . "
The only task left for the crew at this point was to perform the Trans @-@ Earth Injection ( TEI ) , which was scheduled for 2 ½ hours after the end of the television transmission . The TEI was the most critical burn of the flight , as any failure of the SPS to ignite would strand the crew in lunar orbit , with little hope of escape . As with the previous burn , the crew had to perform the maneuver above the far side of the Moon , out of contact with Earth .
The burn occurred exactly on time . The spacecraft telemetry was reacquired as it re @-@ emerged from behind the Moon at 89 hours , 28 minutes , and 39 seconds , the exact time calculated . When voice contact was regained , Lovell announced , " Please be informed , there is a Santa Claus " , to which Ken Mattingly , the current CAPCOM , replied , " That 's affirmative , you are the best ones to know . " The spacecraft began its journey back to Earth on December 25 , Christmas Day .
= = = Unplanned manual re @-@ alignment = = =
Later , Lovell used some otherwise idle time to do some navigational sightings , maneuvering the module to view various stars by using the computer keyboard . However , he accidentally erased some of the computer 's memory , which caused the Inertial Measurement Unit ( IMU ) to think the module was in the same relative position it had been in before lift @-@ off and fire the thrusters to " correct " the module 's attitude .
Once the crew realized why the computer had changed the module 's attitude , they realized they would have to re @-@ enter data that would tell the computer its real position . It took Lovell ten minutes to figure out the right numbers , using the thrusters to get the stars Rigel and Sirius aligned , and another 15 minutes to enter the corrected data into the computer .
Sixteen months later , Lovell would once again have to perform a similar manual re @-@ alignment , under more critical conditions , during the Apollo 13 mission , after that module 's IMU had to be turned off to conserve energy . In his 1994 book , Lost Moon : The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13 , Lovell wrote , " My training [ on Apollo 8 ] came in handy ! " In that book he dismissed the incident as a " planned experiment " , requested by the ground crew . In subsequent interviews Lovell has acknowledged that the incident was an accident , caused by his mistake .
= = = Cruise back to Earth and re @-@ entry = = =
The cruise back to Earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft . As long as the trajectory specialists had calculated everything correctly , the spacecraft would re @-@ enter two @-@ and @-@ half days after TEI and splashdown in the Pacific .
On Christmas afternoon , the crew made their fifth television broadcast . This time they gave a tour of the spacecraft , showing how an astronaut lived in space . When they finished broadcasting they found a small present from Deke Slayton in the food locker : a real turkey dinner with stuffing , in the same kind of pack that the troops in Vietnam received . Another Slayton surprise was a gift of three miniature bottles of brandy , that Borman ordered the crew to leave alone until after they landed . They remained unopened , even years after the flight . There were also small presents to the crew from their wives . The next day , at about 124 hours into the mission , the sixth and final TV transmission showed the mission 's best video images of the earth , in a four @-@ minute broadcast .
After two uneventful days the crew prepared for re @-@ entry . The computer would control the re @-@ entry and all the crew had to do was put the spacecraft in the correct attitude , blunt end forward . If the computer broke down , Borman would take over .
Once the Command Module was separated from the Service Module , the astronauts were committed to re @-@ entry . Six minutes before they hit the top of the atmosphere , the crew saw the Moon rising above the Earth 's horizon , just as had been predicted by the trajectory specialists . As they hit the thin outer atmosphere they noticed it was becoming hazy outside as glowing plasma formed around the spacecraft . The spacecraft started slowing down and the deceleration peaked at 6 g ( 59 m / s2 ) . With the computer controlling the descent by changing the attitude of the spacecraft , Apollo 8 rose briefly like a skipping stone before descending to the ocean . At 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 km ) the drogue parachute stabilized the spacecraft and was followed at 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 km ) by the three main parachutes . The spacecraft splashdown position was officially reported as 8 ° 8 ′ N 165 ° 1 ′ W in the North Pacific Ocean south of Hawaii .
When it hit the water , the parachutes dragged the spacecraft over and left it upside down , in what was termed Stable 2 position . About six minutes later the Command Module was righted into its normal apex @-@ up splashdown orientation by the inflatable bag uprighting system . As they were buffeted by a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) swell , Borman was sick , waiting for the three flotation balloons to right the spacecraft . It was 43 minutes after splashdown before the first frogman from USS Yorktown arrived , as the spacecraft had landed before sunrise . Forty @-@ five minutes later , the crew was safe on the deck of the aircraft carrier .
= = Historical importance = =
Apollo 8 came at the end of 1968 , a year that had seen much upheaval in the United States and most of the world . Even though the year saw political assassinations , political unrest in the streets of Europe and America , and the Prague Spring , Time magazine chose the crew of Apollo 8 as their Men of the Year for 1968 , recognizing them as the people who most influenced events in the preceding year . They had been the first people ever to leave the gravitational influence of the Earth and orbit another celestial body . They had survived a mission that even the crew themselves had rated as only having a fifty @-@ fifty chance of fully succeeding . The effect of Apollo 8 can be summed up by a telegram from a stranger , received by Borman after the mission , that simply stated , " Thank you Apollo 8 . You saved 1968 . "
One of the most famous aspects of the flight was the Earthrise picture that was taken as they came around for their fourth orbit of the Moon . This was the first time that humans had taken such a picture whilst actually behind the camera , and it has been credited with a role in inspiring the first Earth Day in 1970 . It was selected as the first of Life magazine 's 100 Photographs That Changed the World . Apollo 11 astronaut Michael Collins said , " Eight 's momentous historic significance was foremost " ; while many space historians , such as Robert K. Poole , see Apollo 8 as the most historically significant of all the Apollo missions .
The mission was the most widely covered by the media since the first American orbital flight , Mercury @-@ Atlas 6 by John Glenn in 1962 . There were 1200 journalists covering the mission , with the BBC coverage being broadcast in 54 countries in 15 different languages . The Soviet newspaper Pravda featured a quote from Boris Nikolaevich Petrov , Chairman of the Soviet Interkosmos program , who described the flight as an " outstanding achievement of American space sciences and technology " . It is estimated that a quarter of the people alive at the time saw — either live or delayed — the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the Moon . The Apollo 8 broadcasts won an Emmy Award , the highest honor given by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences .
Madalyn Murray O 'Hair , an atheist , later caused controversy by bringing a lawsuit against NASA over the reading from Genesis . O 'Hair wished the courts to ban American astronauts — who were all government employees — from public prayer in space . Though the case was rejected by the Supreme Court of the United States for lack of jurisdiction , it caused NASA to be skittish about the issue of religion throughout the rest of the Apollo program . Buzz Aldrin , on Apollo 11 , self @-@ communicated Presbyterian Communion on the surface of the Moon after landing ; he refrained from mentioning this publicly for several years , and only obliquely referred to it at the time .
In 1969 , the United States Postal Service issued a postage stamp ( Scott catalogue # 1371 ) commemorating the Apollo 8 flight around the Moon . The stamp featured a detail of the famous photograph of the Earthrise over the Moon taken by Anders on Christmas Eve , and the words , " In the beginning God ... " Just 18 days after the crew 's return to Earth , they were featured during the 1969 Super Bowl pre @-@ game show reciting the Pledge of Allegiance prior to the national anthem being performed by Anita Bryant .
= = Spacecraft location = =
In January 1970 , the spacecraft was delivered to Osaka , Japan , for display in the U.S. pavilion at Expo ' 70 . It is now displayed at the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry , along with a collection of personal items from the flight donated by Lovell and the space suit worn by Frank Borman . Jim Lovell 's Apollo 8 space suit is on public display in the Visitor Center at NASA 's Glenn Research Center . Bill Anders 's space suit is on display at the Science Museum in London , United Kingdom .
= = In film = =
Apollo 8 's historic mission has been shown and referred to in several forms , both documentary and fiction . The various television transmissions and 16 mm footage shot by the crew of Apollo 8 was compiled and released by NASA in the 1969 documentary , Debrief : Apollo 8 , which was hosted by Burgess Meredith . In addition , Spacecraft Films released , in 2003 , a three @-@ disc DVD set containing all of NASA 's TV and 16 mm film footage related to the mission including all TV transmissions from space , training and launch footage , and motion pictures taken in flight . Portions of the Apollo 8 Mission can be seen in the 1989 documentary For All Mankind , which won the Grand Jury Prize Documentary at the Sundance Film Festival . The Apollo 8 mission was well @-@ covered in the 2007 British documentary In the Shadow of the Moon .
Portions of the Apollo 8 mission are dramatized in the 1998 miniseries From the Earth to the Moon episode " 1968 " . The S @-@ IVB stage of Apollo 8 was also portrayed as the location of an alien device in the 1970 UFO episode " Conflict " .
At the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex 's Apollo / Saturn V Center , the history of the U.S. space program leading up to the launch of Apollo 8 is the subject of a multi @-@ screen multimedia presentation which also features the actual control panels used in the Firing Room for the launch .
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= Burger King Specialty Sandwiches =
The Burger King Specialty Sandwiches are a line of sandwiches developed by the international fast @-@ food restaurant chain Burger King in 1978 and introduced in 1979 as part of a new product line designed to expand Burger King 's menu with more sophisticated , adult oriented fare beyond hamburgers . Additionally , the new line was intended to differentiate the company from other fast food hamburger restaurants at the time . Since the line 's introduction , the other sandwiches have been discontinued , leaving the chicken offering , the Original Chicken Sandwich ( abbreviated as OCS ) , as the primary product left . Additionally , other sandwiches that utilize the same roll as the chicken sandwich have been introduced to the company 's menu both domestically and internationally since the original product line was introduced .
Burger King markets the Original Chicken Sandwich under several different names globally , including the Long Chicken , BK Chicken and Chicken Royal in the international markets it does business . The company also produces other variants that are specifically tailored to meet local taste preferences or customs of the various regions and countries in which it does business . To promote continuing interest in the product , Burger King occasionally releases limited @-@ time ( LTO ) variants in the line that have different toppings or ingredients such as ham , Italian sausage or pulled pork . Being one of the company 's major offerings , the Specialty Sandwiches are sometimes the center of product advertising for the company . Despite being a major product line in the company 's portfolio , Burger King has registered very few global trademarks to protect its investment in the products .
= = History = =
During the mid @-@ 1970s , Burger King was having issues with its operations , franchises and image . In 1978 , Donald N. Smith was hired from McDonald 's to help restructure the corporate operations of Burger King to better compete against his former company as well as the then up @-@ and @-@ coming chain , Wendy 's . As part of an operational overhaul he dubbed " Operation Phoenix " , Smith reorganized the corporate operations of Burger King . He also initiated a development plan for a new product line that would become the Specialty Sandwich line . Development began that year , and while the company found that the new product lines would add an approximate eight second delay to the production time of orders and would cost about $ 39 million in lost productivity , the product was introduced in 1979 . Despite these possible sales losses and time issues , the new products were successful and the company 's sales increased by 15 percent .
This line — with many non @-@ hamburger sandwiches , including chicken and fish — significantly expanded the breadth of the Burger King menu . The amount of new additions , several new sandwiches made with disparate ingredients was made possible due the design of Burger King 's kitchen . The chain 's kitchen is modeled around a more flexible concept that allows for a multiple work @-@ flow operations where preparation stations can be re @-@ tasked more easily . In comparison , McDonald 's kitchen at the time was a more rigidly designed assembly line concept intended to quickly produce a more uniform product and was not easily adapted to new products . This more rigid system prevented McDonald 's from broadening its menu to effectively competing with Burger King and other similar chains that were more flexible and were better positioned to expand their menu .
The introduction of the Specialty Sandwich line was one of the first attempts by a major fast food chain to target a specific demographic , in this case adults aged between 18 and 34 years , members of which were presumably willing to spend more on a higher quality product . Included in the new line was the Original Chicken Sandwich , a ham and cheese sandwich , a roast beef sandwich , a new fish sandwich called the Long Fish Sandwich , and a new burger called the Sirloin Steak Sandwich . The ham and cheese sandwich replaced an earlier version ham and cheese sandwich called the Yumbo that was served hot and was the size of a hamburger . In 1981 the chain tested a veal parmigiana sandwich in limited areas of the United States and took it national in 1982 . It was also sold in New England as part of limited time offering ( LTO ) in 1988 .
While most of the line has since been discontinued , the company 's Original Chicken Sandwich is still offered in North America , Europe and other markets . The ham and cheese sandwich was a regional offering , however it was reintroduced nationally in the United States as the Yumbo Sandwich in November 2014 . The Yumbo name refers to a smaller snack based sandwich from the 1970s and early 1980s which was a heated ham and cheese sandwich served on a smaller , hamburger roll . The Long Fish was discontinued and the Whaler fish sandwich was reintroduced in 1983 , while the Steak Burger sandwich was discontinued altogether .
= = Product description = =
= = = Original Chicken Sandwich = = =
The Original Chicken Sandwich consists of a breaded , deep @-@ fried white @-@ meat chicken patty with mayonnaise and lettuce on a sesame seed sub @-@ style bun . Burger King will also add any condiment it sells upon request based on its long standing slogan " Have It Your Way " . Additionally , Burger King has sold several different promotional varieties throughout the years as limited time offerings ( LTO ) , such as the Philly chicken sandwich with American cheese , peppers and onions or the Angry Chicken Sandwich served with pepper jack cheese , bacon , " Angry " sauce , jalapeño slices , mayonnaise , lettuce and tomato .
= = = = Notable variants = = = =
The International Chicken Sandwiches line was introduced in 1988 and is a group of three sandwiches with different toppings that are associated with cuisine from various international regions . The Italian Chicken Sandwich is a chicken parmigiana sandwich with marinara sauce and mozzarella , The French Chicken Sandwich is a Chicken Cordon Bleu sandwich with ham and Swiss cheese and the American Chicken Sandwich has mayonnaise , lettuce , tomato and American cheese . Similar regional inspired sandwiches included the Philly Chicken Sandwich which was a chicken version of a Philly cheesesteak sandwich made with red and green bell peppers , onions and cheese , and the Hawaiian BK Chicken with mayonnaise , lettuce , bacon , American cheese and pineapple sold in New Zealand .
= = = Burgers = = =
Besides the Original Chicken sandwich , Burger King has sold or sells several other sandwiches that are similar to the Specialty Sandwiches . Several burgers have been sold on this family of sandwiches , including a pair of triple cheeseburgers called the Limo Burger and the X @-@ Tra Long Cheeseburger , the Bull 's @-@ Eye Barbecue Burger which was a type of double cheeseburger that included two hamburger patties , American cheese , bacon and Kraft Bull 's @-@ eye brand barbecue sauce , and the BBQ Hero which was also another type of double cheeseburger with barbecue sauce , bacon , lettuce , tomato and onions . The company introduced another burger in this family called the Extra Long BBQ Cheeseburger in June 2014 . The sandwich consisted of two burger patties , BBQ sauce and onion rings . It is similar in composition to the chain 's Rodeo Cheeseburger .
= = = Other products = = =
A grilled Italian sausage sandwich was sold in 1992 and was served with onions & peppers or parmigiana style with mozzarella cheese & marinara sauce . As part of the company 's BK Dinner Baskets promotion in 1993 , the chain introduced a grilled meatloaf sandwich with ketchup and onions in the United States . In 2013 , Burger King sold a bratwurst sandwich in a regional limited time offering in the US states of Wisconsin and Illinois . The sandwich featured a bratwurst manufactured by Johnsonville Foods , raw onion and yellow mustard . Despite being discontinued , versions of the steak sandwich have been re @-@ released several times since the 1970s . The BK Dinner baskets featured a steak sandwich , and in 2003 Burger King New Zealand introduced the Big Bloke Steak Sandwich which was almost identical to the 1979 sandwich .
In a 2015 summer promotion , Burger King brought back its pulled pork sandwich , previously sold in 2012 and 2013 , in a new format linked to its new " XL " ( extra long ) sandwiches . The original sandwich was served on what the company called an " artisan " roll with pickles , onions , Sweet Baby Ray 's brand barbecue sauce , and a coleslaw sauce , while the 2015 XL Pulled Pork sandwich eliminated the coleslaw sauce and changed over to the 7 @-@ inch steak roll of the Specialty Sandwich .
= = Advertising = =
Burger King introduced the Specialty Sandwich line under its Burger King and I promotional campaign developed by the J. Walter Thompson ( JWT ) agency . The advertisements featured customers and employees praising the new sandwiches accompanied with a brief description of the products being sold . Actor Stuart Pankin played a doorman in one commercial in the series . Another one of the promotions used was a scratch card game called What 's my Specialty ? where the customer would receive a card with their purchase in which they would have to match famous people to said person 's profession . The commercial explained that if you expected to lose , you would be disappointed , as all cards were winners . Prizes included fries , sodas and sandwiches .
The veal Parmesan sandwich was introduced in a series of commercials from JWT centered around the new corporate ad slogan , Aren 't you hungry - for Burger King now ? targeting the 19- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old male demographic . The campaign was part of a back @-@ to @-@ basics program designed to put the company on a more competitive footing with main rival McDonald 's , who was outspending Burger King 's advertising budget by a factor of three . With the new program , the company hoped to establish itself as the higher quality alternative to McDonald 's .
The meatloaf sandwich was part of the company 's new BK Dinner Baskets product line and serving concept . To promote the product line and concept , Burger King commissioned New York based agency D 'Arcy Masius Benton & Bowles to create a series of ads featuring MTV VJ Dan Cortese . The tag line developed for the promotion was " BK , I love this place " . The advertising program was designed as part of a back to basics plan by Burger King after a series of disappointing advertising schemes including the failure of its 1980s Where 's Herb ? campaign . The Dinner Baskets were one of two main parts of the plan , as was a newly introduced value menu in response to similar offerings at McDonald 's , Taco Bell and Wendy 's .
In the autumn and winter of 2007 BK advertised the Italian Chicken sandwich with a commercial produced by Crispin Porter + Bogusky ( CP + B ) that played the " Have it your Way " theme on an accordion with a simple text insert that asked the consumer if they had a problem with the sandwich being sold only at BK . This insert played up the Italian " toughguy " stereotypes . Another advertisement in 2014 featured the sandwich as a featured part of the company 's 2 for $ 5 promotion , a discount promotion where customers could purchase two sandwiches for $ 5 @.@ 00 .
= = = Controversies = = =
The 1980 introduction of a veal @-@ based sandwich raised the ire of animal rights groups . By 1982 , several groups were alleging that the veal being sourced to Burger King was most likely kept in battery cages , unable to move , and fed a low iron diet designed to produce the lightly toned meat associated with veal . As a result of this protest , these groups lead a three @-@ country boycott of Burger King in April 1982 . Critics of the boycott claimed that the type of veal that was being used was more @-@ likely to be free range veal due to cost issues , claiming that there is simply no way a $ 2 @.@ 00 sandwich would use the higher quality $ 15 @.@ 00 / lb veal . The rights groups refused to back down despite the cost claims because Burger King would only release the name of the meat processor , not its veal suppliers . The chain eventually announced that it intended to pull the sandwich from the market , stating that it was not because of the boycotts but because there was a lack of consumer demand . In fact , the chain said the sandwich sold best in the markets where the majority of the protests were occurring .
A 2009 advertising campaign in Singapore for the company 's new BK Super Seven Incher cheeseburger , caused a notable controversy over the content of the ad . Originally and erroneously attributed to Burger King 's advertising firm at the time , Crispin Porter + Bogusky , which had generated controversy with some misogynistic and culturally insensitive American and European advertisements , it was later revealed that a local , unnamed Singaporean firm was responsible for the campaign . The print version of the advertisement ( pictured ) made an overt association with the sandwich and oral sex using imagery and less @-@ than subtle innuendo in the printed description in the advertisement . Critics across the globe complained that the ad was " disgusting " , and went " too far " .
Almost every aspect of the advertisement was criticized . Blogger Rein Bhagwandat noted that the its copy featured terms such as " blow " which she felt alluded to the slang term " blow job " . She also believed that the image of the woman in the advertisement had been overtly sexualized which she thought was objectifying of women in general . An article in Psychology Today echoed Bhagwandat concerns , adding that advertisement was openly displayed in public spaces , and could have troubling implications for parents having to explain the content to younger children .
= = Trademarks = =
In some markets the Original Chicken is called the " Chicken Royale " , " King de Pollo " ( King of Chicken ) , or the " BK Chicken " . Burger King currently does not have any trademarks on the Original Chicken Sandwich name or the line of Specialty sandwiches in the US , Canada and Europe . The alias Long Chicken is trademarked in Europe , King de Pollo in Central and South America , and Chicken Royale in Europe and the Middle East ; all are displayed with the " circle @-@ R " ( ® ) symbol in these markets .
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= The Binding of Isaac ( video game ) =
The Binding of Isaac is a independent roguelike video game designed by Edmund McMillen and Florian Himsl , initially released in 2011 for Microsoft Windows ; the game was later ported for OS X , and Linux operating systems . The game 's title and plot were inspired by the Biblical story of the Binding of Isaac . After his mother receives a message from God demanding the life of her son as proof of her faith , Isaac flees into the monster @-@ filled basement of their home , where he must fight to survive . Players control Isaac or one of six other unlockable characters through a procedurally generated dungeon in a roguelike manner , fashioned after those of The Legend of Zelda , defeating monsters in real @-@ time combat while collecting items and power @-@ ups to defeat bosses and eventually Isaac 's mom .
The game was the result of a week @-@ long game jam between McMillen and Himsl to develop a Zelda @-@ inspired roguelike that allowed McMillen to showcase his personal feelings about both positive and negative aspects of religion that he had come to discover from his Catholic and Christian family members while growing up . McMillen had considered the title a risk but one he could take after the financial success of Super Meat Boy , and released it without much fanfare to Steam in September 2011 , not expecting many sales . The game soon gained popularity partially as a result of various Let 's Play videos showcasing the title . McMillen and Himsl released an expansion " Wrath of the Lamb " in May 2012 , but were limited from further expansion due to limitations with the Flash platform . They had started working with Nintendo in 2012 to release a 3DS version , but Nintendo later backed out of the deal , stating controversy over the game 's religious themes .
Developer Nicalis worked with McMillen in 2014 to complete a remake of the game The Binding of Isaac : Rebirth bringing additional features that McMillen had planned that exceeded Flash 's limitation , as well as to improve the game 's graphics and enable ports for other systems . Rebirth was released in November 2014 for Windows , OS X , Linux , and the PlayStation 4 and Vita platforms , and later in July 2015 for Xbox One , Wii U , and Nintendo 3DS . Rebirth has since seen one expansion with a second planned expansion in development .
The Binding of Isaac has been well @-@ received , with critics praising the game 's roguelike nature to encourage repeated playthroughs . By July 2014 , McMillen reported over 3 million copies had been sold . The game has been said to contribute to renewed interest in the roguelike genre from both players and developers .
= = Gameplay = =
The Binding of Isaac is a top @-@ down dungeon crawler game , presented using two @-@ dimensional sprites , in which the player controls Isaac or another unlockable characters as they explore the dungeons located in Isaac 's basement . The characters differ in speed , amount of health , amount of damage they deal , and other attributes . The game 's mechanics and presentation is similar to the dungeons of The Legend of Zelda , while incorporating random , procedurally @-@ generated levels in the manner of a roguelike game . On each floor of the basement dungeon , the player must fight monsters in a room before continuing onto the next room . This is most commonly done by the character 's tears as bullets in the style of a twin @-@ stick shooter , but the player can also use a limited supply of bombs to damage enemies and clear out parts of the room . Other methods of defeating enemies become possible as the character gains power @-@ ups , items that are automatically worn by the player @-@ character when picked up that can alter the character 's core attributes , such as increasing health or the strength of each tear , or cause additional side effects , such as for allowing charged tear shots to be fired after holding down a controller button for a short while , or a means to fire tears behind the character . Power @-@ ups include passive items that improve the character 's attributes automatically , active power @-@ ups that can be used once before they are recharged by completing additional rooms in the dungeon , and single @-@ use power @-@ ups such as pills or Tarot cards that confer a one @-@ time benefit when used , such as regaining full health , or increasing or decreasing all attributes of the character . The effect of power @-@ ups stack , so that the player may come into highly @-@ beneficial power @-@ up combinations .
Once a room is cleared of monsters , it will remain clear , allowing the player to re @-@ trace their way through the level , though once they move onto the next level , they cannot return . Along the way , the player can collect money to buy power @-@ ups from shopkeepers , keys to unlock special treasure rooms , and new weapons and power @-@ ups to strengthen their chances against the enemies . The player 's health is tracked by a number of hearts ; if the character loses all their hearts , the game ends in permadeath and the player must start over from a freshly @-@ generated dungeon . Each floor of the dungeon includes a boss which the player must defeat before continuing to the next level . On the sixth of eight floors , the player fights Isaac 's mother ; after defeating her , Isaac crawls into her womb . Later levels are significantly harder , culminating in a fight against the heart of Isaac 's mother on the eighth floor . An optional ninth floor , Sheol contains the boss Satan . Winning the game with certain characters or by certain conditions unlocks new power @-@ ups that might appear in the dungeon or the ability to use one of the other characters . The game tracks the various power @-@ ups that the player has found over time which can be reviewed from the game 's menus .
= = Plot = =
The Binding of Isaac 's plot is loosely inspired by the biblical story of the same name . Isaac , a child , and his mother live in a small house on a hill , both happily keeping to themselves , with Isaac drawing pictures and playing with his toys , and his mother watching Christian broadcasts on television . Isaac 's mother then hears " a voice from above " , stating her son is corrupted with sin , and needs to be saved . It asks her to remove all that was evil from Isaac , in an attempt to save him . His mother obliges , taking away his toys , drawings , and even his clothes .
The voice once again speaks to Isaac 's mother , stating that Isaac must be cut off from all that is evil in the world . Once again , his mother obliges , and locks Isaac inside his room . Once more , the voice speaks to Isaac 's mother . It states she has done well , but it still questions her devotion , and tells her to sacrifice her son . She obliges , grabbing a butcher 's knife from the kitchen and walking to Isaac 's room . Isaac , watching through a sizable crack in his door , starts to panic . He finds a trapdoor hidden under his rug and jumps in , just before his mother opens his bedroom door . Isaac then puts the paper he was drawing onto his wall , which becomes the title screen .
During the game 's loading points , Isaac is shown curled up in a ball , crying . His thoughts are visible , ranging among rejection from his mother and humiliation from his peers to a scenario involving his own death . The game features 13 possible endings , one after each major boss fight .
= = Development and release = =
The Binding of Isaac was developed following the release of Super Meat Boy , which McMillen considered a significant risk and a large time effort . When Super Meat Boy was released to both critical praise and strong sales , he felt that he no longer had to worry about the consequences of taking risks with his finances supported by its sales . He also considered he could take further risk with the concept .
The Binding of Isaac 's main concept was the result of a weeklong game jam that McMillen had with Florian Himsl ; at the time , his co @-@ contributor on Super Meat Boy , Tommy Refenes , was on vacation . The concept McMillan had was two @-@ fold : to develop a roguelike title based on the first The Legend of Zelda game 's dungeon structure , and to develop a game that addressed McMillen 's thoughts on religion . McMillen had been inspired by Shigeru Miyamoto , the designer of the original Zelda games .
Random dungeons were created for each floor of the dungeon by selecting ten to twenty rooms from a pre @-@ built library of 200 layouts , adding in the monsters , items , and other features , and then including fixed rooms that would be found on each floor , such as a boss room and treasure room . In expanding the gameplay , McMillen used the structure of Zelda 's dungeons to design how the player would progress through the game . In a typical Zelda dungeon , according to McMillen , the player acquires a new item that helps them to progress farther in the game ; he took the same inspiration to assure that each level in Isaac included at least one item and one bonus item on defeating the boss that would boost the character 's attributes . McMillen also wanted encourage players to experiment to learn how things work within Isaac , mirroring how Miyamoto had done with the original Zelda game . He designed the level progression to become more difficult with the player 's progression in the game , as well as added additional content that became available after beating the game as to make it feel like the game was long . McMillen designed four of the selectable characters based on the main classes of Dungeons & Dragons — fighter , thief , cleric and wizard .
On the story side , McMillen explained that the religious tone is based on his own experiences with his family , split between Catholics and born @-@ again Christians . McMillen noted that while both sides born out faith from the same Bible , their attitudes were different ; he found some of the Catholic rituals his family performed inspiring , while other beliefs they had were condemning of several pastimes McMillen had participated in like Dungeons & Dragons . He took inspiration from that duality to create Isaac 's narrative , showing how religion can both instill harmful feelings while also bringing about dark creativity . McMillen also considered the scare tactics used by the Christian right to condemn popular media of the 1980s , such as heavy metal and video games . McMillen noted how many of the propaganda films from this period features satanic cults that would sacrifice children , and he noted how many Biblicial stories mirrored these concepts , subsequently building the story around that . He also stated that he also tended to like " really weird stuff " relating to toilet humor and similar types of off @-@ color humor that did not sit well with his family and which he had explored in previous games before Super Meat Boy . While Super Meat Boy helped to make his reputation ( including being one of the featured developers in Indie Game : The Movie ) , he felt it was a " safe " game considering his preferred type of humor , and used Isaac to return to this form , considering that the game could easily be " career suicide " but would make a statement about what he really wanted to do .
Within the week , they had a working game written in Adobe Flash 's ActionScript 2 . The two agreed to complete it out as a game they could release on Steam though with no expectations of sales . Completion of the game from the prototype to the finished state took about 3 months with part @-@ time development . During this time , they discovered there were several limitations on the size and scope of both Flash and ActionScript that limited how much they could do with the game , but continued to use the tools as to release the title . McMillen said that because they were not worried about sales , they were able to work with Valve to release the game without fears of censorship or having to seek an ESRB rating . Releasing through Steam also enabled them to update the game freely , several times on its initial release , an aspect that they could not do with other consoles without significant cost to themselves . They did release without significant end @-@ user testing , as it would have taken several hundreds of users to go through all the various combinations of items that a player could collect , and McMillen recognized they had released the title with their buyers being playtesters for them . A week after the Steam release , McMillen released a demo version via the website Newgrounds . Merge Games produced a physical edition that included the game , soundtrack , and a poster , for stores in the United Kingdom in 2012 .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
Danny Baranowsky , the game 's composer and who previously worked with McMillen on Super Meat Boy , was involved early on with the project shortly after the completion of the first prototype . McMillen and Baranowsky worked back and forth , with McMillen providing artwork from the game and allowing Baranowsky to develop the musical themes based on that ; this would often lead to McMillen creating more art to support the music as it progressed . Baranowsky had been drawn to The Binding of Isaac as though the game puts forth a dark tone , he stated it had rather silly undertones underneath and such that one could not take it too seriously . Some of the songs were inspired by classical choral music but modified to fit the theme of the game . Other works were inspired by boss fight songs composed by Nobuo Uematsu for the Final Fantasy series . Baranowsky also had additional time after finishing the main songs for the game to craft short additional tracks that were used for special rooms like shops and secret areas .
= = = Cancelled Nintendo 3DS port = = =
In January 2012 , as the game has surpassed 450 @,@ 000 units sold , McMillen stated that he was approached by a publisher that had interest in bringing the title to the Nintendo 3DS as a downloadable title through the Nintendo eShop , though McMillen had reservations given Nintendo 's reputation for less risque content . In late February , McMillen stated that Nintendo had rejected the game because of " questionable religious content " . He believed this stemmed from Germany 's classification board rating the existing Windows version of the game as " age 16 + " due to potentially blasphemous content , the first such time a game was rated in that manner in the country . McMillen noted that Nintendo executives he spoke to before this decision had noted some blasphemous content would have been acceptable , and were more concerned with overtly religious content . He also noted that he was approached about his willingness to make some changes to the game to make it more suitable for the 3DS , but never was given a list of specific changes . McMillen speculated that Nintendo was worried about its reputation ; because of the game 's resemblance to Zelda , an unknowing child may download the title and be shocked by what they see , which would have reflected poorly on Nintendo .
Several game websites were outraged at Nintendo 's decision . Though disappointed with Nintendo 's decision , McMillen did not think the loss of the 3DS port was a major issue , and saw a brief sales burst on Steam as the news was covered in gaming website . McMillen further praised the flexibility of the Steam platform , which does not require games to obtain ESRB ratings to be published on the service , and the freedom it gave to the publishers regardless of the game content .
Nintendo would later allow the Rebirth remake to be released on both the New Nintendo 3DS and the Wii U in 2015 ; this came in part for three executives within Nintendo — Steve Singer , the vice president of licensing ; Mark Griffin , a senior manager in licensing , and Dan Adelman , the head of indie development — that championed support for The Binding of Isaac .
= = = " Wrath of the Lamb " = = =
An expansion to the game , entitled " Wrath of the Lamb " , was released through Steam on May 28 , 2012 . McMillen was inspired to create the expansion not only due to the success of the base game , but because his wife Danielle had fully completed the base game , the first game he had written in which she had shown significant interest . The expansion adds 70 % more content to the original , and contains more than 10 bosses , over 100 items , over 40 unlocks , two additional endings , and two additional optional levels . This expansion added new " alternate " floors , which can replace the normal floors , creating an alternate route through the game . These floors contain harder enemies , and a different set of bosses . Other features include a new item type , Trinkets , which have a variety of passive or triggered effects when carried , as well as new room types . McMillen had plans to release a second expansion beyond " Wrath of the Lamb " , but was constrained by the limits of Flash at this point .
= = = The Binding of Isaac : Rebirth = = =
Sometime in 2012 after Isaac ' release , McMillen was approached by Tyrone Rodriguez of Nicalis who asked if McMillen was interested in bringing the game to consoles . McMillen was interested , but insisted that they would have to reprogram the game to get around the limitations of Flash as to include " Wrath of Lamb " and the second planned expansion , remaking the game 's graphics in 16 @-@ bit instead of 8 @-@ bit . Further , McMillen had wanted nothing to do with the business aspects of the game , having recounted the difficulties he had in handling this for Super Meat Boy . Nicalis agreed to these , and began work in 2012 on what would become The Binding of Isaac : Rebirth , an improved version of the title . It was released on November 4 , 2014 for Microsoft Windows , OS X , Linux , PlayStation 4 , and PlayStation Vita , with versions for the Wii U , New Nintendo 3DS , and Xbox One released on July 23 , 2015 . The game introduced numerous new playable characters , items , enemies , bosses , challenges , and room layout seeds for floors . A content pack , entitled " Afterbirth " was released for Rebirth starting October 2015 , adding new alternate chapters , characters and items , as well as wave @-@ based Greed mode . A second update , " Afterbirth † " , will add additional content and support for user @-@ created modifications , and is expected sometime in 2016 .
= = Reception = =
The Binding of Isaac received generally favorable reviews from game critics . On Metacritic , the game has an average of 84 out of 100 based on 30 reviews .
The Binding of Isaac has been received by reviewers as a game with high replayability with the extensive range and combinations of power @-@ ups that the player can encounter during a run @-@ through , while providing an accessible Zelda @-@ inspired framework that most video game players would recognize and easily come to understand . John Teti for Eurogamer praised the game for its replayability through the randomization aspects , calling it " the most accessible exploration of the roguelike idea " that he had seen . Edge 's similarly commented on the lure to replay the game due to its short playthrough time , calling it " an imaginative and quick @-@ witted arcade experience that manages to be both depraved and strangely sweet by turn " . GameSpot 's Maxwell McGee stated that the game smartly has removed extraneous features such that " what remains is a tightly focused game that continues to feel fresh even after multiple completions " . Though the game is considered to be accessible to new players , reviewers found the game to be a difficult challenge , often set by the randomness of what power @-@ ups the player happened to acquire during a single run . Writers for the A.V. Club rated the game an A on a grading scale , and favorably compared the title to McMillen 's Super Meat Boy , requiring the player to have " masochistic patience in the face of terrible odds " . This difficulty was considered mitigated by the large number of possible power @-@ ups that the game offers , most would not be seen by players until they have replayed the game many times . McGee noted that while players can review what items they have discovered prior to a run @-@ through , this feature does not explain what each item does , leaving the effect to be determined by the player while in game .
Game Informer 's Adam Biessener noted that while The Binding of Isaac had a number of software bugs on release that may briefly detract from the experience , " McMillen ’ s vision shines through " in the game 's playability , art style , and story . Neilie Johnson for IGN found that some players may be put off by the game 's crudeness but otherwise " it 's totally random , highly creative and brutally unforgiving " . Similarly , Nathan Muenier for GameSpy noted the game had some shock value that one must work past , but otherwise was " imaginative " and " utterly absorbing " . Alternatively , Jordan Devore for Destructoid considered the visual style of the game one of it 's " biggest selling points " , following from McMillen 's past style of dark comedy from Super Meat Boy . Baranowsky 's soundtrack was found by reviewers to well @-@ suit the themes of the game , and used appropriately to avoid extensive repetition during a playthrough . Kirk Hamilton of Kotaku called the soundtrack as the combination of several genres and the musical styles of Danny Elfman , Muse , and Final Fantasy that created something " dark and unique " .
The Binding of Isaac was nominated in the Best Independent Game category at the 2011 Spike Video Game Awards , but lost to Minecraft .
McMillen had only expected the game to sell a few hundred copies when he released it on Steam . For the first few months of its release , sales were roughly a few hundred per day , but shortly thereafter , McMillen found sales suddenly were boosted , a fact he attributed to numerous Let 's Play videos that had been published by players to showcase the game and drove sales . By November 2012 , the game sold over one million copies , with at least one quarter of those having purchased the " Wrath of the Lamb " extension . As of July 2014 , the game has sold over 3 million copies . By July 2015 , following the release of Rebirth , the combined games had over 5 million units sold . The Binding of Isaac is said to be a contributing factor towards the growth of the roguelike genre since around 2010 , with its success paving the way for later games that used the roguelike formula , such as FTL : Faster Than Light and Don 't Starve .
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= E = MC ² ( Mariah Carey album ) =
E = MC ² is the eleventh studio album by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey . It was released in the United States on April 15 , 2008 by Island Records . The singer began recording the album in 2007 in Anguilla , after writing and composing most of its material during and after her 2006 Adventures of Mimi Tour . Carey worked with several notable songwriters and producers during the course of the project , including Jermaine Dupri , Bryan @-@ Michael Cox , Stargate , The @-@ Dream , Tricky Stewart , Scott Storch and Danja .
The album revealed a more personal side of the singer , illustrated in its declarative theme of emancipation from her previous marriage , and from her personal and professional setbacks . Although it shared similar vocal production as well as an inclination to her signature pop and R & B ballads , the album also encompassed a variety of dance @-@ oriented and uptempo styles . It was meant to be a continuation , or a second part of her tenth studio album , The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) . Carey collaborated with a number of artists on the album , including T @-@ Pain , Damian Marley and Young Jeezy . Though considered by critics very similar to the formula its predecessor had been built on , E = MC ² included other genres she had never explored , such as reggae , and her continued recording of gospel @-@ influenced hymns .
E = MC ² was generally well received by music critics , with many complimenting the record 's broad genre influences , and musical and production styles . Some critics , however , felt that the album was too similar to The Emancipation of Mimi , and didn 't offer anything new from the formula . The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 with opening week sales of 463 @,@ 000 copies ; the highest first @-@ week sales of Carey 's career . It opened inside the top @-@ five on the albums chart in Australia , Canada , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . The album achieved worldwide sales of over 2 @.@ 5 million copies .
Four singles were commission in promotion of the album . The album 's lead single , " Touch My Body " , became Carey 's eighteenth chart topper on the Billboard Hot 100 , making her the solo artist with the most number one singles in United States history , surpassing the record held by Elvis Presley . Additionally , it gave Carey her 79th week atop the chart , tying Presley for most weeks at number one . It achieved strong worldwide charting , peaking within the top five of the singles charts in Italy , Japan , New Zealand , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . " Bye Bye " served as the album 's second release . Although hailed by critics , and expected to have achieved large commercial success , the song stalled at number nineteen on the Hot 100 , and managed to chart weakly internationally . Both the third and fourth singles , " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " and " I Stay in Love " failed to garner success in any prominent music market .
= = Background and recording = =
In 2005 , Carey signed a new record deal with Island Records and released her tenth studio album , The Emancipation of Mimi . It became the best @-@ selling album of 2005 the United States , and the second best @-@ seller around the world , with over 12 million units sold . It earned a myriad of music industry awards , and brought Carey back to the top of pop music following her commercial decline in 2001 . After completing The Adventures of Mimi Tour , she began working on material for her eleventh studio effort , the yet untitled E = MC ² . E = MC ² was hailed as one of the most anticipated albums of 2008 , with many critics weighing their opinions on whether Carey would be able to deliver significant success , following her achievements with The Emancipation of Mimi . Carey began writing and producing the music she saw fit , and not anything to please record executives . Throughout 2007 , Carey recorded the album in a studio built into her private villa in Anguilla , in the Caribbean . She describe E = MC ² as one of her most expressive albums , and one that she felt free on , and able to express herself through her music . In an interview with The Bryan Times , Carey spoke of her sentiments on the album " It 's hard for me to sit here and talk about it without sounding like if I 'm bragging if I 'm in love with it , but I am I love with this album . I think that having the success with the last record allowed me to have more freedom ... and just make records that I like . Its kind of a really fun record .
= = Delays and release = =
The album was supposed to be released in late 2007 , but Carey spoke about reason the album got delayed : " You can 't really put records out in December if you want the whole world to have a chance to actually hear it , [ and ] my fans all over the world are very important to me " , adding that she also wants to put out a pair of singles before the album drops . In a separate interview , she elaborated further : " This happened to me with The Emancipation of Mimi , I started writing more songs , I was like okay let me get these done , then I wrote four more songs and you know how it goes , so now I 'm like 22 songs in and clearly I have to cut some of those down " . It was then reported that the album will be released in February 2008 . However , the release was later pushed back yet again to April 2008 .
Prior to the its release , the album 's working title had been That Chick , taken from a song on the album with a similar name , " I 'm That Chick " . As the release date drew near , the title was changed to E = MC ² , in reference to Carey 's previous album , The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) . The title signifies " ( E ) Emancipation ( = ) of ( MC ) Mariah Carey ( ² ) to the second power " . It is a word play on Albert Einstein 's famous mass – energy equivalence formula and has been dubbed as the sequel and improved counterpart to The Emancipation of Mimi . In his review of the album , Alex Macpherson from The Guardian described his thoughts on its title , as well as its meaning :
It is worth pondering what the title of Mariah Carey 's eleventh studio album could refer to . Emancipation , maybe , in a nod to her 2005 comeback album , The Emancipation of Mimi ; or perhaps the energy of the original equation , a statement that Carey still has what it takes to party all night at the age of 37 , even as she describes herself as " eternally 12 " . Then again , she could just be identifying herself alongside Einstein as a fellow genius . Either way , ' E = MC ² ' finds Carey loopier than ever , embracing her own larger @-@ than @-@ life image with gusto : Mariah Carey Squared indeed .
Carey expressed how she considered Mimi the " main course " , and felt that the new album would be treated as " dessert " . In an interview with NME , the singer described her choice on the album 's title : " Basically , I 'm freer on this album than I 've ever been . Some of the songs on the last album were cool but maybe not quite as neat as this album . " When questioned if the title represented Carey 's interest in physics , she jokingly added " Einstein 's theory ? Physics ? Me ? Hello ! I even failed remedial math . I could not pass seventh grade math even in the lowest class with the worst kids . " The album 's similarity to its predecessor is not only found in the title and music , but also in its artwork . In the album 's cover art , she holds almost the exact pose as from her last album , only with different lighting and wardrobe . It features a black backdrop , with Carey completely naked , except for a large feathered shawl covering her body . Only her first name appears in large pink letters on the cover , with ' E = MC ² ' appearing in small white letters on the top . In describing the cover , Macpherson wrote " Carey is naked but for the world 's largest feather boa , an accessory for which flocks of birds have surely given their lives . "
= = Composition = =
= = = Style and structure = = =
Music critics compared E = MC ² heavily to Carey 's previous album , The Emancipation of Mimi , and felt it followed the same formula of ballads and dance @-@ able tracks . Freedom De Luc of The Washington Post felt that after experiencing strong success for the first time in the 2000s with Mimi , Carey tried to create E = MC ² with the same formula , although possibly a little improved : " Having found that winning formula of coquettish club bangers , emotional ballads and frisky , mid @-@ tempo coos , the diva with the golden tone has eschewed radical experimentalism here for stasis . ' E = MC ² ' is mostly more of the same , then , with the ' 2' representing something sequential rather than exponential . Meet the new Mariah , almost exactly the same as the old . . . ' Mimi ' ! "
= = = Songs and lyrics = = =
The first song on the album 's track @-@ list is " Migrate " , a song Carey wrote and co @-@ produced alongside Danja , and featuring a rap verse from T @-@ Pain . Its melody is built on a heavy electronic beat , and incorporates whistle registers and several studio @-@ created synthesizers into its melody . Additionally , the song features the inclusion of Auto @-@ Tune and several vocal manipulators , which are used heavily on both Carey and T @-@ Pain 's vocals . Lyrically , the song finds the singer during a night out , migrating from several locations : from the car to the club , from the bar to the V.I.P , from the party to the after @-@ party , and finally to the hotel . According to Brian Hiatt from VH1 , she " hops from my car into the club ... from the bar to VIP ... from the party to the afterparty ... afterparty to hotel " with T @-@ Pain , who urges her to " bounce , bounce , bounce . "
The album 's lead single , " Touch My Body " , was written and produced by Carey , Tricky Stewart and Terius " The Dream " Nash . The song 's hook is built around a piano melody and " circular keyboard line " , and features " a stuttering mid @-@ tempo beat that 's accented by finger snaps and electronic synthesizers " as its instrumentation . Lyrically , the song describes the protagonist revealing several bedroom fantasies in which she would like to engage in , asking her lover playfully to " touch her body " . According to Ben Ratliff from The New York Times , it 's a " questionably sexy striptease : a goofy @-@ sleazy tryst vignette " , with Carey singing " If there 's a camera up in here then I best not catch this flick on YouTube . "
" Cruise Control " , featuring reggae artist Damian Marley , is influenced by R & B and Reggae , and finds her adapting to the genre by imitating Jamaican phrases , accents and styles of singing . " I Stay in Love " was released as the fourth and final single from the album , and places fourth on its track @-@ listing . Written by Carey and Bryan @-@ Michael Cox , is a mid @-@ tempo " beat @-@ driven " and " piano @-@ laced " ballad , that is influenced by pop and R & B music genres . The song 's instrumentation is derived from a piano melody , and is backed by a strong computerized drum @-@ beat . Its lyrics find Carey as her most vulnerable ; she describes old times she shared with her lover , and that even though " we said let go " , and " inside she knows its over " , she still " stays in love with him " . Featuring American rapper Young Jeezy , " Side Effects " describes Carey 's abusive relationship with Tommy Mottola , her ex @-@ husband . During the first verse , she discusses the pair 's background , and how she was young and naive , and believed everything he preached to her . The lyrics read " Keepin ' me there , under your thumb / Cause you were scared that I 'd become much / More than you could handle , " she confesses , and refers to herself as " Shining like a chandelier / That decorated every room inside / The private hell we built / And I dealt with it / Like a kid I wished / I could fly away . " According to Freedom De Luc of The Washington Post , on the song Carey uploads on Mottola , " ' sleeping with the enemy , aware that he was smothering every last part of me . ' She finally walked away , she sings , ' but I still live with the side effects . ' Sarah Rodman from The Boston Globe described it as " another look at her fractious marriage to Mottola " , and wrote " Although the union ended in 1998 , Carey is still suffering , including dreams of the ' violent times ' and ' sleeping with the enemy ' . Interestingly , her vocal approach here is almost emo , as she hits her rock @-@ solid middle register and refuses to be held captive by the demons of her past . " MTV News writer Jennifer Vineyard described the song in detail :
[ It ] finally reveals a side of Mariah we don 't see that often — her true self . The Mariah we usually see and hear is a glossy one . Psychologists might say her affect is ' off ' — meaning her gestures and facial expressions don 't match her mood . There 's a reason for that , as she explains on ' Side Effects ' , which is the emotional abuse she says she suffered during her marriage to music mogul Tommy Mottola . Mariah , who is usually quite guarded , has alluded to the subject in songs like ' Petals ' , but never has she gone into such detail as she does on ' Side Effects ' , in which she refers to the marriage as a ' private hell that we built ' . Even though it 's been 11 years since they split up , she sings in a lower register that she 's still ' wakin ' up scared some nights ... dreaming about the violent times ' . Her emotional scars left her ' a little protective ... a little defensive ... a little depressed ' , which makes her ' fake a smile ' as she ' deal [ s ] with the side effects ' . Even though it features Young Jeezy , it sounds like a rock power ballad .
" I 'm That Chick " is a song Carey wrote alongside Norwegian duo , Stargate . Its a fast @-@ paced song , which features a " care @-@ free feel " , and is influenced by soul , pop and disco music genres . The song incorporates a sample from Michael Jackson 's " Off the Wall " , and features a strong thumping bass @-@ line and hand claps . Evan Sawdey of PopMatters described it as a " late @-@ night disco @-@ bass groove " , and highlighted its production as the album 's finest . " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " , the albums ' eventual third single , was written and produced by Carey and DJ Toomp . The song was described as a " mid @-@ tempo " , " party jam " , that is influenced by pop , R & B and soul music genres . Critics elaborated on the song 's " soul " influence , with Melissa Ruggieri from The News & Advance described it as a " soul @-@ thumper " , while Digital Spy 's Nick Levine called it a " nod towards classic soul " . The song 's title is derived from the popular line , " me love you long time " , from the 1987 war film , Full Metal Jacket . Additionally , its hook and instrumentation is derived from sampling Mark DeBarge 's Stay With Me . Critics also noted how " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " " recalls " the melody riff and chord progression of the Hill Street Blues 's theme song . The song 's main source of production comes from its " lush keyboard work " , and her usage of the " double voice " , which she uses throughout the song 's bridge . Carey described the effect as " layering her voice " , so that the bridge would sound like a " swooning bank of a hundred Mariahs " .
" Bye Bye " served as the album 's thirteenth track , and also composed by Carey and Stargate . An " inspirational power ballad " , it is influenced by R & B and pop music genres . The song is built on an understated and simple piano @-@ driven melody , that is decorated with a soft bass @-@ line . Lyrically , the song was described by critics as a " larger than life anthem " , and an " inspirational lighter @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air ballad " , and finds Carey remembering both her father , as well as any lost loved ones . While the verses are dedicated to him , the chorus was written in a third @-@ person point of view , for her fans : " This is for my peoples who just lost somebody / Your best friend , your baby , your man or your lady / Put your hand way up high / We will never say bye / Mamas , daddies , sisters , brothers , friends and cousins / This is for my peoples who lost their grandmothers / Lift your hands to the sky / Because we won 't ever say bye bye " . While listing several forms of loss , Carey encourages to never let go , and always live with their memory , and put their hands if they ever lost someone , ' cause we won 't ever say bye bye ' . Serving as the album 's closing number , " I Wish You Well " was compared to the closing number on Mimi , " Fly Like a Bird " . Similarly , " I Wish You Well " incorporates gospel influence into its melody of " rousing piano waltz " , that " extends forgiveness to those who have wronged her in the past and is pretty much interchangeable with its predecessors . " Extensively making use of the whistle register , she references Mottola in another light than " Side Effects " : " ' I Wish You Well 's ' message to Mottola is similarly striking . Accompanied by a piano and some multi @-@ tracked backing vocals , Carey sings : " Still bruised , still walk on eggshells / Same frightened child , hide to protect myself / But you can 't manipulate me like before . " She then prescribes Bible study and says , " I wish you well . "
= = Critical reception = =
E = MC ² received a 63 / 100 ( indicating " generally positive reviews " ) on the website Metacritic , which averages professional reviews into a numerical score . Stephen Thomas Erlewine , senior editor of Allmusic , rated the album three out of five stars , and wrote " it 's misleading to judge Mariah based on her new record of possessing the most number one singles , as she 's not about longevity , she 's about being permanently transient , a characteristic ' E = MC ² ' captures all too well . " Billboard 's Gary Trust felt that on the album , Carey was in " pristine form " , stating , " She 's proclaimed emancipation before , but Mariah Carey 's never sounded as free as she does on her 10th album . Carey 's made a pop album with equal parts levity and gravity . " Writing fir Entertainment Weekly , Margeaux Watson graded E = MC ² an ' A- ' , and described how the album 's goal was to prove " her comeback was no fluke " . She continued complimenting the album 's several collaborations , and wrote " the result is a largely enjoyable mix of flirtatious club jams , midtempo love songs , and emotional ballads anchored by hip @-@ hop beats that handsomely showcase the singer 's powerful vocal chops . " Though Carey 's voice had been criticized since her 2002 release , Charmbracelet , for not being able to deliver the " gravity defying vocals " from the 1990s , Roger Friedman from Fox News wrote " Her infamous eight @-@ octave range has suffered a little wear and tear over the years , but Carey still can flutter from great highs to mellow lows like no one else . " Alex Macpherson from The Guardian gave the album four out of five stars , heavily describing the singer 's vocal state throughout the album : " Carey 's voice has been mocked , bizarrely , as being a triumph of technique over soul - an argument that fails to comprehend that technique and soul are intertwined , that technique primarily exists as a means to convey emotion - but she is on fine vocal form throughout ' E = MC ² ' , whether belting out massive ballads , or layering her voice into a swooning bank of a hundred Mariahs . " Macpherson concluded his review with , " When she sings elsewhere , " Them other regularities , they can 't compare with MC , " " it is hard not to agree " , referencing a lyric on " For the Record " .
The Houston Chronicle 's Joey Guerra felt all of the album 's tracks were strong , and wrote " Every track plays like a potential hit single , and that 's exactly what fans will love about ' E = MC ² ' . Expect it to soundtrack much of the summer and beyond . " Los Angeles Times staff writer , Richard Cromelin , gave the album two out of four stars , noting its " alternatives to the glass @-@ shattering flamboyance of her early ' 90s youth . " He concluded in his mixed review of the album , " Of course , consistency isn 't so important when an album is assembled as a series of singles rather than a cohesive work . Fortunately for Carey , the tabloid @-@ tailored real @-@ life back story on one side and the producer 's craft on the other matter more than the art of singing in this particular fairy tale . " Ben Ratliff of The New York Times felt the album didn 't level up to par with Carey 's previous release , writing " Much of the record sounds like urban @-@ radio imitations , without the peculiarities and effective hooks of ' Mimi ' . Maybe emancipation isn 't a continuing procedure ; maybe it only comes once . " Writing for PopMatters , Evan Sawdey rated E = MC ² four out of ten discs , describing it as a " shallow imitation of its predecessor " . Sawdey concluded his review on a mixed note , stating " the second act of Mariah 's comeback doesn 't wisely expand her sound : it instead succumbs to the blueprint so carefully laid out by its predecessor , a pointless remake that exists only because it has to . If you ever had a doubt as to its formulaic nature , you need to look no further than its title . Long live the Diva . " Caryn Ganz from Rolling Stone questioned why she limited her vocal abilities throughout the record , " nearly every song confines Carey to four @-@ note verses , offering little room for her glorious range . " Journalist Eric Henderson , writing for Slant Magazine , graded the album three out of five stars , and concluding with , " Such are the rewards of an album like ' E = MC ² ' , in which one does reach a solution , but not before Mariah bends over backward to show her work . " The album finished in the top @-@ ten of several " best of 2008 " lists , ending at number four on an official poll held by Billboard , eight by The Detroit News , and number ten by The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune . Robert Christgau picked out one song from the album , " Touch My Body " , as a " choice cut " ( ) .
= = Commercial performance = =
E = MC ² debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 with 463 @,@ 000 copies sold , making it the biggest opening week sales of Carey 's career , and also the biggest opening album in 2008 for a female artist , before matched by Taylor Swift 's Fearless in November . With six number one albums , Carey is now tied with Britney Spears and Janet Jackson and Beyoncé in the United States for the third most number one albums for a female artist , behind Madonna with eight and Barbra Streisand 's nine chart toppers . In its second week , the album remained at number one on the albums chart , with 182 @,@ 000 copies sold . E = MC ² became Carey 's first album to spend two straight weeks at number one since 1995 's Daydream , although The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) spent two non @-@ consecutive weeks at the top spot . On Billboard 's Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart , E = MC ² debuted at number one , and spent forty @-@ seven weeks fluctuating within the top 100 . The album was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on July 8 , 2008 , denoting shipments of one million units . According to Nielsen SoundScan , stateside sales of the album stand at 1 @,@ 289 @,@ 000 copies as of April 2013 . In total , E = MC ² spent twenty @-@ seven weeks within the Billboard 200 , and finished at number twenty @-@ two on the Year @-@ End chart . On the same day the album was released , Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa proclaimed April 15 officially as " Mariah Carey day " in Los Angeles . It was in part of celebrating her eighteenth number one single , " Touch My Body " . Also , from April 25 through April 27 , 2008 , the Empire State Building was lit up in Carey 's motif colors — lavender , pink , and white — in celebration of her achievements in the world of music . On the Canadian Albums Chart , during the week dated May 3 , 2008 , E = MC ² debuted at number one , with first @-@ week sales of 19 @,@ 000 copies . It became her first number one album in Canada since before 1999 , as Rainbow and The Emancipation of Mimi both opened at number two . The album spent seven weeks within the album 's chart , and was eventually certified Platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) , denoting shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units .
E = MC ² entered the Australian Albums Chart on April 5 , 2008 , at number two . The album spent eight weeks in the albums chart , and was certified Gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 35 @,@ 000 units . In France , the album debuted at its peak position of number six during the week dated April 19 , 2008 . E = MC ² spent twenty weeks on the albums chart , and ended its run on August 30 , 2008 . On the Dutch Albums Chart , it debuted at its peak position of number eleven on April 19 , 2008 . The album ended its eight @-@ week chart run on June 7 , 2008 . During the week dated April 28 , 2008 , E = MC ² debuted at number ten on the New Zealand Albums Chart , starting a ten @-@ week run on the chart . The album peaked within the top ten in several European countries , such as number five in Switzerland , seven in Germany and Ireland , eight in Austria and number nine in Italy . On the UK Albums Chart , the album debuted at number three , selling 34 @,@ 800 copies . This was her highest peak position in the United Kingdom since Butterfly ( 1997 ) , which peaked at number two . After thirteen weeks on the chart , the album was certified Gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies . In Japan , the album peaked at number seven on the Oricon Overall Chart , and was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies . After only eight days of release , E = MC ² was certified Gold in the Philippines , denoting shipments of 15 @,@ 000 units . The album was the 26th best @-@ selling album worldwide in 2008 , according to International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) . As of September 19 , 2009 , the album has sold 2 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide .
= = Singles = =
" Touch My Body " was released as the lead single from the album on February 12 , 2008 . The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , who complimented its hook and production , as well as its playful lyrics . " Touch My Body " reached the top position on the Hot 100 in its fourth week , and became Carey 's eighteenth chart topper , selling 286 @,@ 000 digital downloads . The song 's opening week broke several records , making her the solo artist with the most number one singles in United States history , surpassing the record held by Elvis Presley . Additionally , it gave Carey her 79th week atop the Hot 100 , tying her with Presley as the artist with the most weeks at number one in the Billboard chart history . " The song also sold the highest amount of digital records in one week , surpassing Rihanna 's " Umbrella " ( 2007 ) , which sold 277 @,@ 000 units . Internationally , the song achieved strong chart success , peaking within the top five on the charts in Italy , Japan , New Zealand , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . The song 's music video was directed by film @-@ maker Brett Ratner , who had previously worked with the singer on five other music videos . It follows around a story revolving around a computer employees fantasy as he visits Carey 's home . As he fixes her computer , he enters a fantasy in which the pair perform several activities together , including a pillow fight , playing laser tag , Guitar Hero and slot cars , and throw a frisbee , all while showing off Carey 's figure in several revealing outfits .
" Bye Bye " was announced as the second single from the album on April 15 , 2008 . The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , and was heavily speculated to have become her 19th number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot 100 . Many reviewers complimented its simple and understated musical arrangement and personalized lyrics , while some felt the song was too simple for an artist of Carey 's stature . The track only managed to reach a peak position of number nineteen on the Billboard Hot 100 . Throughout other countries where it found release , the song achieved relatively weak charting , peaking within the top ten in New Zealand , and in the top @-@ fifty in Canada , Ireland , Slovakia , and the United Kingdom . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Justin Francis on the island of Antigua in the Caribbean . Notably , Carey and Cannon began dating during their trip to the island , and later wed on April 30 , 2008 . The video features behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of the couple , Carey promoting the album in the United Kingdom , as well as photos of several of Carey 's close friends , family and past collaborators such as Luciano Pavarotti and Luther Vandross .
The album 's third single , " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " , was released on June 1 , 2008 . Many complimented the song 's production and incorporation of the " Stay With me " sample , while others were unimpressed with the chorus in general . Chuck Taylor of Billboard assured the song would endure strong success and radio appeal , and complimented its overall production , as well as Carey 's voice : " [ It 's ] a playful , beach @-@ befitting groove , featuring a bright sample from DeBarge 's " Stay With Me , " lushly woven vocals and Carey 's highs doting on fans with her sonic signature . " In the United States , the song peaked at number fifty @-@ eight , and at number twenty @-@ seven in Japan . On the UK Singles Chart , " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " peaked at number eighty @-@ four , and spent only one week in the chart . The song was featured on the final scene of You Don 't Mess with the Zohan ( 2008 ) , a film in which Carey made a cameo appearance . Its accompanying music video was shot over a three @-@ day interval in Hawaii , and makes usage of the islands scenery , as well as shots of Carey in several bikinis , while swimming with a dolphin .
" I Stay in Love " was released as the fourth and final single from the album on October 28 , 2008 . The song failed to chart on the Hot 100 , though became Carey 's fourteenth chart topper on the Hot Dance Club Play . Additionally , it peaked at number ninety @-@ five on the UK Singles Chart . The song 's accompanying music video was filmed by Carey 's husband , Nick Cannon , and features Carey as a dancer in a Las Vegas show at the The Bellagio Hotel and Casino Resort . Additionally , during the show and its preparations , Carey realizes that her ex @-@ lover has found love with one of her fellow dancers , leading her to blow up the car he gave her , as well as its accompaniments in the Mojave Desert .
Other notable songs
Though not released as singles , three of the album 's songs managed to chart on Billboard 's Hot 100 and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart due to high sales . " Migrate " peaked at number ninety @-@ two on the Hot 100 , and ninety @-@ five on the R & B chart , while both " I 'm That Chick " and " Side Effects " peaked at numbers eighty @-@ two and ninety @-@ three on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .
= = Promotion = =
Following the song 's digital release , Carey promoted the song on several live televised appearances and programs throughout the world . Only days prior to being released digitally , the singer was announced as the musical guest on an episode of Saturday Night Live , taking over for Janet Jackson who caught the flu and was unable to perform . Hosted by Jonah Hill , Carey performed both " Touch My Body " , as well as live rendition of " Migrate " alongside T @-@ Pain . Following the set , Carey and her manager at the time , Benny Medina , met with Lee Daniels , who then offered her a role in his film adaptation of Precious ( 2008 ) , in which Carey would later star and earn acclaim for her acting . After reaching the top of the Billboard charts , the Empire State Building was lit up in Carey 's motif colors , white , pink and lavender , for the entire week . On March 25 , 2008 , Carey was featured as the special guest performer at The Hills season premiere party , an event marking the start of a span of ten episodes airing in between season three and four . Carey performed " Touch My Body " , " I 'm That Chick " and " We Belong Together " , before exiting the stage to a standing ovation . After the performance , Carey received strong praise from the program 's cast members , with Lauren Conrad saying " I 've always been a huge Mariah fan , and she 's just so beautiful and talented ' . Whitney Port and Audrina Patridge referred to Carey as " an amazing singer " , while claiming to have listened to her music from a young age . On April 12 , 2008 , Carey made an appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show . Winfrey interviewed the singer on her weight loss , E = MC ² , and even showed footage of Carey in her New York apartment , showing off her lingerie closet . Following the interview , Carey performed a live rendition of " Bye Bye " for the audience , with three background vocalists assisting her . Kevin Johnson from St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch described the performance as " touching " , and complimented the song 's appeal .
On the seventh season of the talent competition American Idol , Carey was featured as a mentor for the top @-@ seven week . Titled " Mariah Carey Week " and airing live on April 14 , 2008 , the contestants were to perform a song from the singer 's catalog . After all seven contestants sang their individual songs , they all came together for a live rendition of Carey 's 1996 collaboration with Boyz II Men , " One Sweet Day " . Overall , critics noted how a Carey themed week would be extremely difficult for the performers , due to their vocally strenuous nature . Following their joint performance , Carey emerged onto the stage and performed " Bye Bye " live , while backed by a trio of supporting vocalists . Tamara Jones of The Washington Post jokingly commented on Carey 's flailing hand movements during the performance , writing how she was " waving like a malevolent homecoming queen " . Gil Kaufman from MTV News complimented Carey 's performance , commenting on her " barely there micro @-@ dress " and writing how she " serenaded the audience with her homage to lost ones . " The Calgary Sun 's Lindsey Ward described it as a " less @-@ than @-@ fab performance " , although complimenting on Carey 's leaner figure , " Oh , who am I kidding ? She would look hot in a paper bag . " On April 25 , 2008 , Carey opened the Good Morning America " Summer Concert Series " with a live performance in Times Square . Carey , wearing a pink mini @-@ skirt , began the set with " Touch My Body " in front of thousands of fans . During the song , her backing vocals began to malfunction , causing it to repeat phrases and play during her main vocal moments . In order to let the sound engineer know of the problem , she substituted part of the lyrics for " stop singing my part now baby " , and completed the final chorus . She continued on with " I 'm That Chick " , and completed the three @-@ song set @-@ list with her follow @-@ up single , " Bye Bye " . After marking the album 's stateside launch with her appearance on Good Morning America , Carey took to Europe to perform on several programs . She began with an interview on the British radio station , BBC Radio 1 , and continued onto a live rendition of " Touch My Body " on both The Sunday Night Project and The Paul O 'Grady Show .
Similarly , Carey performed the song live on the German talent show , Deutschland sucht den Superstar ( Germany searches for the superstar ) , in April 2008 . On August 8 , 2008 , Carey performed a mash @-@ up of the song at the 2008 Teen Choice Awards . She began with her single at the time , " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " , and worked into the bridge of " Touch My Body " , before reverting to the former song . At the Fashion Rocks ceremony in 2009 , Carey performed " Touch My Body " and her current single , " Obsessed " , as well as the remix to her 1995 song " Fantasy " . During the set @-@ list , Carey was accompanied by six men in black ties , who hoisted her into the air in front of over 6 @,@ 000 people during " Obsessed " , and rigorous dance routines throughout " Touch My Body " . In promotion for E = MC ² and the single , Carey was featured as a guest judge and musical act on the fifth season of the British talent competition , The X Factor . During that week , all the contestants would have to sing songs from Carey 's catalog . Prior to her arrival , one of the show 's judges Dannii Minogue said " Could it get any more nerve @-@ wracking for the contestants ? " , due to the general strenuous nature of Carey 's songs . After several performances by the finalists , Carey performed " I Stay in Love " , accompanied by three background vocalists . She received a standing ovation from the audience and judges , and continued backstage for a taped session with the contestants . At the end of the program , she performed her classic " Hero " ( 1993 ) , and was eventually joined by the finalists for the finale of the song . " Hero " was re @-@ recorded by the 2008 UK X Factor finalists and released as a single , becoming the best @-@ selling single of 2008 . According to reports , the episode gained a large increase in viewers due to Carey 's presence , and was able to surpass its long @-@ time rival program , Strictly Come Dancing , in the ratings . Carey made an appearance at the American Music Awards , held on November 23 , 2008 at the Nokia Theatre . Wearing a long black gown , she performed the song after receiving an honorary award for her achievements in music . Chris Harris from MTV News described it as a " riveting performance " .
= = = Tour = = =
Since the album 's release in early April , Carey had said publicly that she planned on embarking on a large worldwide tour in support of E = MC ² . In an interview with Billboard on March 28 , 2008 , Carey explained " It 's come up , and I 'm probably going to do it , but I don 't know exactly how we 're going to do it or when . I 'm thinking probably September . But I think it 's important to tour with this album , because there are so many songs that I really want to sing live , that I really enjoy . " Months later , in an interview with MTV News in July , Carey further addressed her plans of a tour : " We 're looking at November right now . Please don 't hold me accountable if it turns out to be December 5 or December 7 or January 18 ! " When asked to describe the tour 's theme , Carey explained " I 'm thinking elaborate . I like elaborate . We only do substantial . That 's what my jeweler says . I haven 't gotten the looks in mind just yet , but we 're going to figure it out soon enough . " Despite continued plans for a tour , and announcements made on The X Factor in United Kingdom in November , the tour was suddenly cancelled by early December . Tabloids and critics began heavily speculating that Carey had become pregnant , and had abandoned plans for a tour as a result . Many claimed to have seen Carey visiting a famed gynecologist 's office in Los Angeles . Additionally , Carey 's newly slimmed figure began to change , as she stopped her exercise routines and gained weight . Though Carey had eventually announced that she was pregnant with twins on November 28 , 2010 , over two years later , she admitted she had indeed been pregnant during that time period , and suffered a miscarriage . For that reason , she cancelled the tour , and lost the child only two months later .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits for E = MC ² adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Hurricane Tara ( 1961 ) =
Hurricane Tara , also known as Cyclone Tara , was one of the deadliest Pacific hurricanes on record . The final tropical cyclone of the 1961 Pacific hurricane season , Tara formed on November 10 about 230 mi ( 365 km ) off the coast of Mexico . It strengthened to reach maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) before making landfall in the Mexican state of Guerrero near Zihuatanejo . Hurricane Tara dissipated on November 12 , bringing heavy rainfall and strong winds to locations inundated by 10 days of precipitation . Damage was light in the major port city of Acapulco , though further west along the coast , the effects of Tara were much worse . The city of Nuxco in Tecpán de Galeana municipality received the most damage and deaths from the hurricane . Throughout Mexico , at least 436 fatalities were reported , and damage exceeded $ 16 million ( 1961 USD , $ 115 million 2009 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
On November 9 , a weak circulation remained nearly stationary off the coast of Acapulco , Mexico . It did not have significant convection , although it organized enough to be considered a tropical cyclone at 0000 UTC on November 10 , about 230 mi ( 365 km ) off the coast of Mexico . By the afternoon of the 10th , it was a tropical depression moving northeastward toward the coastline . Tara intensified , reaching hurricane status and its peak intensity of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) late on November 11 . Early on November 12 , Hurricane Tara made landfall near Zihuatanejo , Guerrero , between Acapulco and Manzanillo , near where Hurricane Iva moved ashore five months earlier . Continuing inland , it was last observed at 1200 UTC on November 12 . At the time , it was known as Cyclone Tara , as the term cyclone was the more common equivalent for hurricane in the region .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Hurricane Tara caused severe damage in southern Guerrero where it moved ashore , wrecking at least 10 communities . Heavy rainfall from Tara exacerbated flooding in the area , which was caused by ten days of precipitation preceding the hurricane ; the heavy rainfall contaminated drinking water . Strong waves killed a surfer in the Acapulco area . In the city , low @-@ lying areas were inundated with water , causing in excess of $ 1 million in damage ( 1961 USD ) . In nearby Tecpán de Galeana , the hurricane killed 116 people , and dozens more were killed in other close villages . Elsewhere in Guerrero , the coastal highway between Acapulco and Zihuatanejo received heavy damage , which later hampered relief efforts ; the highway was a priority for storm repairs , with crews working continuously for several days to restore the vital link . Many deaths were reported in coastal towns of Guerrero , although exact death tolls were initially unknown , with many of the towns covered in mud . People received little warning of the hurricane , and many people died while sleeping . In addition , thousands were left homeless by the storm . According to radio reports , a hurricane @-@ related waterspout wrecked the city of Nuxco , although the damage was later described as flooding from a lagoon ; 225 deaths were reported in Nuxco . Food supplies were depleted in some coastal communities , forcing residents to rely on coconuts that were downed during the hurricane . Overall crop damage in Mexico was unofficially estimated at $ 16 million ( 1961 USD , $ 115 million 2009 USD ) . By two days after the storm , the government of Mexico sent two airplanes to Acapulco , where the food , clothing , and medicine were distributed by truck or helicopter to the affected areas . The Mexican government arranged plans to drop food and medical aid into isolated villages , although food supplies were initially insufficient for the great number of people affected by the storm . Five army units and three helicopters were sent to the region to assist in the aftermath , although planes encountered difficulties in landing due to flooded runways . Army soldiers were responsible for rescue operations , while paratroopers were sent to the most affected areas to distribute aid . Despite fears of the spread of disease in the aftermath , prompt work by medical officials prevented any epidemics due to the storm .
The exact death toll was unknown , but believed to be several hundred . About two days after the storm , the official death toll was more than 80 . By three days after the storm , the toll rose to 190 , and by four days after it made landfall , the official total was 290 deaths ; officials estimated the toll could have exceeded 500 . Due to downed communications , reports of storm fatalities were slow to spread , though news became more rapid as links were repaired . On November 19 , a week after the storm struck , the Mexican Army set the final death toll at 436 deaths , with 300 missing ; the death toll was later reported by the United States Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance in 1993 . Overall , Hurricane Tara was the deadliest disaster in 1961 , as well as the third deadliest Mexico Pacific hurricane on record , after a hurricane in 1959 and Hurricane Liza in 1976 .
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= Orion Nebula =
The Orion Nebula ( also known as Messier 42 , M42 , or NGC 1976 ) is a diffuse nebula situated in the Milky Way , being south of Orion 's Belt in the constellation of Orion . It is one of the brightest nebulae , and is visible to the naked eye in the night sky . M42 is located at a distance of 1 @,@ 344 ± 20 light years and is the closest region of massive star formation to Earth . The M42 nebula is estimated to be 24 light years across . It has a mass of about 2000 times the mass of the Sun . Older texts frequently refer to the Orion Nebula as the Great Nebula in Orion or the Great Orion Nebula .
The Orion Nebula is one of the most scrutinized and photographed objects in the night sky , and is among the most intensely studied celestial features . The nebula has revealed much about the process of how stars and planetary systems are formed from collapsing clouds of gas and dust . Astronomers have directly observed protoplanetary disks , brown dwarfs , intense and turbulent motions of the gas , and the photo @-@ ionizing effects of massive nearby stars in the nebula .
= = Physical characteristics = =
The nebula is visible with the naked eye even from areas affected by some light pollution . It is seen as the middle " star " in the " sword " of Orion , which are the three stars located south of Orion 's Belt . The star appears fuzzy to sharp @-@ eyed observers , and the nebulosity is obvious through binoculars or a small telescope . The peak surface brightness of the central region is about 17 Mag / arcsec2 ( about 14 millinits ) and the outer bluish glow has a peak surface brightness of 21 @.@ 3 Mag / arcsec2 ( about 0 @.@ 27 millinits ) . ( In the photos shown here the brightness , or luminance , is enhanced by a large factor . )
The Orion Nebula contains a very young open cluster , known as the Trapezium due to the asterism of its primary four stars . Two of these can be resolved into their component binary systems on nights with good seeing , giving a total of six stars . The stars of the Trapezium , along with many other stars , are still in their early years . The Trapezium is a component of the much larger Orion Nebula Cluster , an association of about 2 @,@ 800 stars within a diameter of 20 light years . Two million years ago this cluster may have been the home of the runaway stars AE Aurigae , 53 Arietis , and Mu Columbae , which are currently moving away from the nebula at velocities greater than 100 km / s .
= = = Coloration = = =
Observers have long noted a distinctive greenish tint to the nebula , in addition to regions of red and of blue @-@ violet . The red hue is a result of the Hα recombination line radiation at a wavelength of 656 @.@ 3 nm . The blue @-@ violet coloration is the reflected radiation from the massive O @-@ class stars at the core of the nebula .
The green hue was a puzzle for astronomers in the early part of the 20th century because none of the known spectral lines at that time could explain it . There was some speculation that the lines were caused by a new element , and the name nebulium was coined for this mysterious material . With better understanding of atomic physics , however , it was later determined that the green spectrum was caused by a low @-@ probability electron transition in doubly ionized oxygen , a so @-@ called " forbidden transition " . This radiation was all but impossible to reproduce in the laboratory at the time , because it depended on the quiescent and nearly collision @-@ free environment found in the high vacuum of deep space .
= = History = =
There has been speculation that the Mayans of Central America may have described the nebula within their " Three Hearthstones " creation myth ; if so , the three would correspond to two stars at the base of Orion , Rigel and Saiph , and another , Alnitak at the tip of the " belt " of the imagined hunter , the vertices of a nearly perfect equilateral triangle with Orion 's Sword ( including the Orion Nebula ) in the middle of the triangle seen as the smudge of smoke from copal incense in a modern myth , or , in ( the translation it suggests of ) an ancient one , the literal or figurative embers of a fiery creation .
Neither Ptolemy 's Almagest nor Al Sufi 's Book of Fixed Stars noted this nebula , even though they both listed patches of nebulosity elsewhere in the night sky ; nor did Galileo mention it , even though he also made telescopic observations surrounding it in 1610 and 1617 . This has led to some speculation that a flare @-@ up of the illuminating stars may have increased the brightness of the nebula .
The first discovery of the diffuse nebulous nature of the Orion Nebula is generally credited to French astronomer Nicolas @-@ Claude Fabri de Peiresc , on 26 November 1610 when he made a record of observing it with a refracting telescope purchased by his patron Guillaume du Vair .
The first published observation of the nebula was by the Jesuit mathematician and astronomer Johann Baptist Cysat of Lucerne in his 1619 monograph on the comets ( describing observations of the nebula that may date back to 1611 ) . He made comparisons between it and a bright comet seen in 1618 and described how the nebula appeared through his telescope as :
" one sees how in like manner some stars are compressed into a very narrow space and how round about and between the stars a white light like that of a white cloud is poured out "
His description of the center stars as different from a comet 's head in that they were a " rectangle " may have been an early description of the Trapezium Cluster ( The first detection of three of the four stars of this cluster is credited to Galileo Galilei in a February 4 , 1617 although he did not notice the surrounding nebula — possibly due to the narrow field of vision of his early telescope . )
The nebula was independently discovered by several other prominent astronomers in the following years , including by Giovanni Battista Hodierna ( whose sketch was the first published in De systemate orbis cometici , deque admirandis coeli characteribus ) .
Charles Messier first noted the nebula on March 4 , 1769 , and he also noted three of the stars in Trapezium . Messier published the first edition of his catalog of deep sky objects in 1774 ( completed in 1771 ) . As the Orion Nebula was the 42nd object in his list , it became identified as M42 .
In 1865 English amateur astronomer William Huggins used his visual spectroscopy method to examine the nebula showing it , like other nebulae he had examined , was made up of " luminous gas " . On September 30 , 1880 Henry Draper used the new dry plate photographic process with an 11 @-@ inch ( 28 cm ) refracting telescope to make a 51 @-@ minute exposure of the Orion Nebula , the first instance of astrophotography of a nebula in history . Another set of photographs of the nebula in 1883 saw breakthrough in astronomical photography when amateur astronomer Andrew Ainslie Common used the dry plate process to record several images in exposures up to 60 minutes with a 36 @-@ inch ( 91 cm ) reflecting telescope that he constructed in the backyard of his home in Ealing , outside London . These images for the first time showed stars and nebula detail too faint to be seen by the human eye .
In 1902 , Vogel and Eberhard discovered differing velocities within the nebula and by 1914 astronomers at Marseilles had used the interferometer to detect rotation and irregular motions . Campbell and Moore confirmed these results using the spectrograph , demonstrating turbulence within the nebula .
In 1931 , Robert J. Trumpler noted that the fainter stars near the Trapezium formed a cluster , and he was the first to name them the Trapezium cluster . Based on their magnitudes and spectral types , he derived a distance estimate of 1 @,@ 800 light years . This was three times farther than the commonly accepted distance estimate of the period but was much closer to the modern value .
In 1993 , the Hubble Space Telescope first observed the Orion Nebula . Since then , the nebula has been a frequent target for HST studies . The images have been used to build a detailed model of the nebula in three dimensions . Protoplanetary disks have been observed around most of the newly formed stars in the nebula , and the destructive effects of high levels of ultraviolet energy from the most massive stars have been studied .
In 2005 , the Advanced Camera for Surveys instrument of the Hubble Space Telescope finished capturing the most detailed image of the nebula yet taken . The image was taken through 104 orbits of the telescope , capturing over 3 @,@ 000 stars down to the 23rd magnitude , including infant brown dwarfs and possible brown dwarf binary stars . A year later , scientists working with the HST announced the first ever masses of a pair of eclipsing binary brown dwarfs , 2MASS J05352184 – 0546085 . The pair are located in the Orion Nebula and have approximate masses of 0 @.@ 054 M ☉ and 0 @.@ 034 M ☉ respectively , with an orbital period of 9 @.@ 8 days . Surprisingly , the more massive of the two also turned out to be the less luminous .
= = Structure = =
The entirety of the Orion Nebula extends across a 1 ° region of the sky , and includes neutral clouds of gas and dust , associations of stars , ionized volumes of gas , and reflection nebulae .
The Nebula is part of a much larger nebula that is known as the Orion Molecular Cloud Complex . The Orion Molecular Cloud Complex extends throughout the constellation of Orion and includes Barnard 's Loop , the Horsehead Nebula , M43 , M78 , and the Flame Nebula . Stars are forming throughout the entire Cloud Complex , but most of the young stars are concentrated in dense clusters like the one illuminating the Orion Nebula .
The current astronomical model for the nebula consists of an ionized ( H II ) region , roughly centered on Theta1 Orionis C , which lies on the side of an elongated molecular cloud in a cavity formed by the massive young stars . ( Theta1 Orionis C emits 3 @-@ 4 times as much photoionizing light as the next brightest star , Theta2 Orionis A. ) The H II region has a temperature ranging up to 10 @,@ 000 K , but this temperature falls dramatically near the edge of the nebula . The nebulous emission comes primarily from photoionized gas on the back surface of the cavity . The H II region is surrounded by an irregular , concave bay of more neutral , high @-@ density cloud , with clumps of neutral gas lying outside the bay area . This in turn lies on the perimeter of the Orion Molecular Cloud . The gas in the molecular cloud displays a range of velocities and turbulence , particularly around the core region . Relative movements are up to 10 km / s ( 22 @,@ 000 mi / h ) , with local variations of up to 50 km / s and possibly more .
Observers have given names to various features in the Orion Nebula . The dark lane that extends from the north toward the bright region is called the " Fish 's Mouth " . The illuminated regions to both sides are called the " Wings " . Other features include " The Sword " , " The Thrust " , and " The Sail " .
= = Star formation = =
The Orion Nebula is an example of a stellar nursery where new stars are being born . Observations of the nebula have revealed approximately 700 stars in various stages of formation within the nebula .
Recent observations with the Hubble Space Telescope have yielded the major discovery of protoplanetary disks within the Orion Nebula , which have been dubbed proplyds . HST has revealed more than 150 of these within the nebula , and they are considered to be systems in the earliest stages of solar system formation . The sheer numbers of them have been used as evidence that the formation of star systems is fairly common in our universe .
Stars form when clumps of hydrogen and other gases in an H II region contract under their own gravity . As the gas collapses , the central clump grows stronger and the gas heats to extreme temperatures by converting gravitational potential energy to thermal energy . If the temperature gets high enough , nuclear fusion will ignite and form a protostar . The protostar is ' born ' when it begins to emit enough radiative energy to balance out its gravity and halt gravitational collapse .
Typically , a cloud of material remains a substantial distance from the star before the fusion reaction ignites . This remnant cloud is the protostar 's protoplanetary disk , where planets may form . Recent infrared observations show that dust grains in these protoplanetary disks are growing , beginning on the path towards forming planetesimals .
Once the protostar enters into its main sequence phase , it is classified as a star . Even though most planetary disks can form planets , observations show that intense stellar radiation should have destroyed any proplyds that formed near the Trapezium group , if the group is as old as the low mass stars in the cluster . Since proplyds are found very close to the Trapezium group , it can be argued that those stars are much younger than the rest of the cluster members .
= = = Stellar wind and effects = = =
Once formed , the stars within the nebula emit a stream of charged particles known as a stellar wind . Massive stars and young stars have much stronger stellar winds than the Sun . The wind forms shock waves or hydrodynamical instabilities when it encounters the gas in the nebula , which then shapes the gas clouds . The shock waves from stellar wind also play a large part in stellar formation by compacting the gas clouds , creating density inhomogeneities that lead to gravitational collapse of the cloud .
There are three different kinds of shocks in the Orion Nebula . Many are featured in Herbig – Haro objects :
Bow shocks are stationary and are formed when two particle streams collide with each other . They are present near the hottest stars in the nebula where the stellar wind speed is estimated to be thousands of kilometers per second and in the outer parts of the nebula where the speeds are tens of kilometers per second . Bow shocks can also form at the front end of stellar jets when the jet hits interstellar particles .
Jet @-@ driven shocks are formed from jets of material sprouting off newborn T Tauri stars . These narrow streams are traveling at hundreds of kilometers per second , and become shocks when they encounter relatively stationary gases .
Warped shocks appear bow @-@ like to an observer . They are produced when a jet @-@ driven shock encounters gas moving in a cross @-@ current .
The interaction of the stellar wind with the surrounding cloud also forms " waves " which are believed to be due to the hydrodynamical Kelvin @-@ Helmholtz instability .
The dynamic gas motions in M42 are complex , but are trending out through the opening in the bay and toward the Earth . The large neutral area behind the ionized region is currently contracting under its own gravity .
There are also supersonic " bullets " of gas piercing the hydrogen clouds of the Orion Nebula . Each bullet is ten times the diameter of Pluto 's orbit and tipped with iron atoms glowing in the infra @-@ red . They were probably formed one thousand years ago from an unknown violent event .
= = Evolution = =
Interstellar clouds like the Orion Nebula are found throughout galaxies such as the Milky Way . They begin as gravitationally bound blobs of cold , neutral hydrogen , intermixed with traces of other elements . The cloud can contain hundreds of thousands of solar masses and extend for hundreds of light years . The tiny force of gravity that could compel the cloud to collapse is counterbalanced by the very faint pressure of the gas in the cloud .
Whether due to collisions with a spiral arm , or through the shock wave emitted from supernovae , the atoms are precipitated into heavier molecules and the result is a molecular cloud . This presages the formation of stars within the cloud , usually thought to be within a period of 10 @-@ 30 million years , as regions pass the Jeans mass and the destabilized volumes collapse into disks . The disk concentrates at the core to form a star , which may be surrounded by a protoplanetary disk . This is the current stage of evolution of the nebula , with additional stars still forming from the collapsing molecular cloud . The youngest and brightest stars we now see in the Orion Nebula are thought to be less than 300 @,@ 000 years old , and the brightest may be only 10 @,@ 000 years in age .
Some of these collapsing stars can be particularly massive , and can emit large quantities of ionizing ultraviolet radiation . An example of this is seen with the Trapezium cluster . Over time the ultraviolet light from the massive stars at the center of the nebula will push away the surrounding gas and dust in a process called photo evaporation . This process is responsible for creating the interior cavity of the nebula , allowing the stars at the core to be viewed from Earth . The largest of these stars have short life spans and will evolve to become supernovae .
Within about 100 @,@ 000 years , most of the gas and dust will be ejected . The remains will form a young open cluster , a cluster of bright , young stars surrounded by wispy filaments from the former cloud .
= = Image gallery = =
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= The Boat Race 1931 =
The 83rd Boat Race took place on 21 March 1931 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In a race umpired by the former rower John Houghton Gibbon , Cambridge won by two and a half lengths in a time of 19 minutes 26 seconds . The victory took the overall record to 42 – 40 in their favour . It was the first race for which John Snagge provided a radio commentary for the BBC .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1930 race by two lengths , and led overall with 41 victories to Oxford 's 40 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by R. W. M. Arbuthnot ( who had rowed for Cambridge four times between 1909 and 1912 ) , J. A. MacNabb ( who had rowed in the 1924 race ) and P. H. Thomas ( a four @-@ time Blue between 1902 and 1905 ) . Oxford 's coaches were A. V. Campbell ( who took part in the 1922 and 1925 races ) , Stanley Garton ( who had rowed three times between 1909 and 1911 ) and P. C. Mallam ( a Dark Blue from 1921 to 1924 inclusive ) . The race was umpired by former Cambridge rower John Houghton Gibbon who had participated in the 1899 and 1900 races .
The rowing correspondent for The Times stated that the crews were " well @-@ matched " , while The Manchester Guardian 's correspondent predicted a " gruelling struggle " . It was the first time John Snagge provided a radio commentary for the BBC . He would go on to commentate for the corporation every year up to and including the 1980 race .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 4 @.@ 625 lb ( 78 @.@ 1 kg ) , 1 @.@ 125 pounds ( 0 @.@ 5 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford saw three rowers return to their crew with Boat Race experience , including D. E. Tinne who was making his third consecutive appearance . Cambridge 's crew included five rowers who had participated in the event prior to this year , including their stroke T. A. Brocklebank who was also rowing for the third year in a row . All of the participants in the race were registered as British .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Camridge . In wind gusting from the south @-@ west , the umpire Gibbons started the race . Cambridge took an early lead , although they were out @-@ rated by the Dark Blues . The boats were close , with oars nearly touching , for the first two minutes of the race , before the Light Blue cox steered to avoid a collision . By the end of Fulham Wall , Cambridge held a half @-@ length lead although Oxford kept in touch , and even reduced the deficit to a quarter of a length by the time the crews passed the Mile Post .
By the Crab Tree pub , Cambridge 's stroke Brocklebank made his first push for ten strokes to which Oxford responded in kind . A second push from the Light Blues however saw them pull away and lead by one and a quarter lengths as they passed below Hammersmith Bridge . As both crews enountered a headwind , they dropped to 29 strokes per minute , but their styles were markedly different : Cambridge were lively while Oxford laboured . By Chiswick Steps the lead was two and a half lengths and three by Barnes Bridge . The Dark Blues pushed hard in the final stretches and slowly reduced Cambridge 's lead until Brocklebank put one final spurt in at Mortlake Brewery to secure the victory .
Cambridge won by two and a half lengths in a time of 19 minutes 26 seconds , their eighth consecutive win in the event and the narrowest margin of victory since the 1923 race . The win took the overall record in the event to 42 – 40 in their favour .
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= Portia labiata =
Portia labiata is a jumping spider ( family Salticidae ) found in Sri Lanka , India , Burma ( Myanmar ) , Malaysia , Singapore , Java , Sumatra and the Philippines . In this medium @-@ sized jumping spider , the front part is orange @-@ brown and the back part is brownish . The conspicuous main eyes provide vision more acute than a cat 's during the day and 10 times more acute than a dragonfly 's , and this is essential in P. labiata ′ s navigation , hunting and mating .
The genus Portia has been called " Eight @-@ legged Cats " , as their hunting tactics are as versatile and adaptable as a lion 's . All members of Portia have instinctive hunting tactics for their most common prey , but often can improvise by trial and error against unfamiliar prey or in unfamiliar situations , and then remember the new approach . While most jumping spiders prey mainly on insects and by active hunting , females of Portia also build webs to catch prey directly and sometimes join their own webs on to those of web @-@ based spiders . Both females and males prefer web spiders as prey , followed by other jumping spiders , and finally insects . In all cases females are more effective predators than males .
Populations from Los Baños and from Sagada , both in the Philippines , have slightly different hunting tactics . In laboratory tests , Los Baños P. labiatas rely more on trial and error than Sagada P. labiatas in finding ways to vibrate the prey 's web and thus lure or distract the prey . Around Los Baños the web @-@ building Scytodes pallida , which preys on jumping spiders , is very abundant , and spits a sticky gum on prey and potential threats . A P. labiata from Los Baños instinctively detours round the back of S. pallida while with plucking the web in a way that makes the prey believe the threat is in front of it . In areas where S. pallida is absent , the local members of P. labiata do not use this combination of deception and detouring for a stab in the back . In a test to explore P. labiata ′ s ability to solve a novel problem , a miniature lagoon was set up , and the spiders had to find the best way to cross it . Specimens from Sagada , in the mountains , almost always repeated the first option they tried , even when that was unsuccessful . When specimens from Los Baños , beside a lake , were unsuccessful the first time , about three quarters switched to another option .
Adult P. labiatas sometimes uses " propulsive displays " , in which an individual threatens a rival of the same sex , and unreceptive females also threaten males in this way . P. labiata females are extremely aggressive to other females , trying to invade and take over each other 's webs , which often results in cannibalism . A test showed that they minimise the risk of confrontations by using silk draglines as territory marks . Another test showed that females can recognise the draglines of the most powerful fighters and prefer to move near the draglines of less powerful ones . Females try to kill and eat their mates during or after copulation , while males use tactics to survive copulation , but sometimes females outwit them . Before being mature enough to mate , juvenile females mimic adult females to attract males as prey . When hunting , P. labiata mature females emit olfactory signals that reduce the risk that any other females , males or juveniles of the same species may contend for the same prey .
= = Body structure and appearance = =
As in most species of the genus , the bodies of female Portia labiatas are 7 to 10 millimetres long : 433 and their carapaces are 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 8 millimetres long . : 103 @-@ 105 Males ' bodies are 5 to 7 @.@ 5 millimetres long , : 433 with carapaces 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 3 millimetres long . : 103 @-@ 105 The carapaces of females are orange @-@ brown , slightly lighter around the eyes , where there are sooty streaks and sometimes a violet to green sheen in certain lights . : 103 @-@ 105 There is a broad white moustache along the bottom of the carapace , and running back from each main eye is ridge that looks like a horn . Females ' chelicerae are dark orange @-@ brown and decorated with sparse white hairs , which form bands near the carapaces . The abdomens of females are mottled brown and black , and bear hairs of gold , white and black , and there are tufts consisting of brown hairs tipped with white . The carapaces of males are orange @-@ brown , slightly lighter around the eyes , and have brown @-@ black hairs lying on the surface but with a white wedge @-@ shape stripe from the highest point down to the back , and white bands just above the legs . Males ' chelicerae are also orange @-@ brown with brown @-@ black markings . The abdomens of males are brown with lighter markings and with brown @-@ black hairs lying on the surface , and a short band of white hairs . The legs of both sexes are dark brown , with light markings in the femora ( the sections of the legs nearest the body ) . : 103 @-@ 105 All species of the genus Portia have elastic abdomens , so that those of both sexes can become almost spherical when well fed , and females ' can stretch as much when producing eggs . : 495
= = Senses = =
Although other spiders can also jump , salticids including Portia fimbriata have significantly better vision than other spiders , : 521 and their main eyes are more acute in daylight than a cat 's and 10 times more acute than a dragonfly 's . Jumping spiders have eight eyes , the two large ones in the center @-@ and @-@ front position ( the anterior @-@ median eyes , also called " principal eyes " : 51 ) housed in tubes in the head and providing acute vision . The other six are secondary eyes , positioned along the sides of the carapace and acting mainly as movement detectors . : 16 In most jumping spiders , the middle pair of secondary eyes are very small and have no known function , but those of Portias are relatively large , and function as well as those of the other secondary eyes . : 424 : 232 The main eyes focus accurately on an object at distances from approximately 2 centimetres to infinity , : 51 and in practice can see up to about 75 centimetres . : 53 Like all jumping spiders , P. labiata can take in only a small visual field at one time , as the most acute part of a main eye can see all of a circle up to 12 millimetres wide at 20 centimetres away , or up to 18 millimetres wide at 30 centimetres away . Jumping spider 's main eyes can see from red to ultraviolet .
Generally the jumping spider subfamily Spartaeinae , which includes the genus Portia , cannot discriminate objects at such long distances as the members of subfamilies Salticinae or Lyssomaninae can . However , members of Portia have vision about as acute as the best of the jumping spiders , for example : the salticine Mogrus neglectus can distinguish prey and conspecifics up to 320 millimetres away ( 42 times its own body length ) , while P. fimbriata can distinguish these up to 280 millimetres ( 47 times its own body length ) . The main eyes of a Portia can also identify features of the scenery up to 85 times its own body length , which helps the spider to find detours . : 21
However , a Portia takes a relatively long time to see objects , possibly because getting a good image out of such tiny eyes is a complex process and needs a lot of scanning . This makes a Portia vulnerable to much larger predators such as birds , frogs and mantises , which a Portia often cannot identify because of the other predator 's size .
Spiders , like other arthropods , have sensors , often modified setae ( bristles ) , for smell , taste , touch and vibration protruding through their cuticle ( " skin " ) . : 532 – 533 Unlike insects , spiders and other chelicerates do not have antennae . A Portia can sense vibrations from surfaces , and use these for mating and for hunting other spiders in total darkness . It can use air- and surface " smells " to detect prey which it often meets , to identify members of the same species , to recognise familiar members , and to determine the sex of other member of the same species . : 13
= = Hunting tactics = =
= = = Tactics used by most jumping spiders and by most of genus Portia = = =
Almost all jumping spiders are predators , mostly preying on insects , on other spiders , and on other arthropods . The most common procedure is sighting the prey , stalking , fastening a silk safety line to the surface , using the two pairs of back legs to jump on the victim , and finally biting the prey . Most jumping spiders walk throughout the day , so that they maximize their chances of a catch .
Members of the genus Portia have hunting tactics as versatile and adaptable as a lion 's . All members of Portia have instinctive tactics for their most common prey , but can improvise by trial and error against unfamiliar prey or in unfamiliar situations , and then remember the new approach . They can also make detours to find the best attack angle against dangerous prey , even when the best detour takes a Portia out of visual contact with the prey , and sometimes the planned route leads to abseiling down a silk thread and biting the prey from behind . Such detours may take up to an hour , and a Portia usually picks the best route even if it needs to walk past an incorrect route . : 422 If a Portia makes a mistake while hunting another spider , it may itself be killed .
While most jumping spiders prey mainly on insects and by active hunting , : 340 females of Portia also build webs to catch prey directly . These capture webs are funnel @-@ shaped and widest at the top : 513 and are about 4 @,@ 000 cubic centimetres in volume . : 429 – 431 The web is initially built in about 2 hours , and then gradually made stronger . : 239 A Portia often joins her own web on to one of a web @-@ based non @-@ salticid spider . : 432 When not joined to another spiders ' , a P. labiata female 's capture web may be suspended from rigid foundations such as boughs and rocks , or from pliant bases such as stems of shrubs . : 432
A web spider 's web is an extension of the web spider 's senses , informing the spider of vibrations that signal the arrival of prey and predators . If the intruder is another web spider , these vibrations vary widely depending on the new web spider 's species , sex and experience . A Portia can pluck another spider 's web with a virtually unlimited range of signals , either to lure the prey out into the open or calming the prey by monotonously repeating the same signal while the Portia walks slowly close enough to bite it . : 340 – 341 Such tactics enable Portias to take web spiders from 10 % to 200 % of a Portia ′ s size , and Portias hunt in all types of webs . : 491 In contrast , other cursorial spiders generally have difficulty moving on webs , and web @-@ building spiders find it difficult to move in webs unlike those they build : sticky webs adhere to cursorial spiders and to web @-@ builders of non @-@ sticky webs ; builders of cribellate webs have difficulty with non @-@ cribellate webs , and vice versa . : 424 Where the web is sparse , a Portia will use " rotary probing " , in which it moves a free leg around until it meets a thread . : 433 – 434 When hunting in another spider 's web , a Portia ′ s slow , choppy movement and the flaps on its legs make it resemble leaf detritus caught in the web and blown in a breeze . : 514 P. labiata and some other Portias use breezes and other disturbances as " smokescreens " in which these predators can approach web spiders more quickly , and revert to a more cautious approach when the disturbance disappears . : 313 A few web spiders run far away when they sense the un @-@ rhythmical gait of a Portia entering the web – a reaction Wilcox and Jackson call " Portia panic " . : 418
If a large insect is struggling in a web , Portia does not usually take the insect , but waits for up to a day until the insect stops struggling , even if the prey is thoroughly stuck . : 448 When an insect stuck in a web owned by P. labiata , P. schultzi or any regional variant of P. fimbriata , and next to a web spider 's web , the web spider sometimes enters the Portia ′ s web , and the Portia pursues and catches the web spider . : 440 – 441 , 444
When catching an insect outside a web , a Portia sometimes lunges and sometimes uses a " pick up " , : 441 in which it moves its fangs slowly into contact with the prey . In some pick ups , Portia first slowly uses its forelegs to manipulate the prey before biting . : 441 P. labiata and P. schultzi also occasionally jump on an insect . : 448 However , Portias are not very good at catching moving insects : 516 and often ignore them , while some other salticid genera , especially the quick , agile Brettus and Cyrba , perform well against small insects . : 516
When a Portia stalks another jumping spider , the prey generally faces the Portia and then either runs away or displays as it does to another member of its own species . : 444
The webs of spiders on which Portias prey sometimes contain dead insects and other arthropods which are uneaten or partly eaten . P. labiata and some other Portias such as P. fimbriata ( in Queensland ) and P. schultzi sometimes scavenge these corpses if the corpses are not obviously decayed . : 448
A Portia typically takes 3 to 5 minutes to pursue prey , but some pursuits can take much longer , and in extreme cases close to 10 hours when pursuing a web @-@ based spider . : 439
All Portias eat eggs of other spiders , including eggs of their own species and of other cursorial spiders , and can extract eggs from cases ranging from the flimsy ones of Pholcus to the tough papery ones of Philoponella . While only P. fimbriata ( in Queensland ) captures cursorial spiders in their nests , all Portias steal eggs from empty nests of cursorial spiders . : 448
Portias ' venom is unusually powerful against spiders . : 491 When a Portia stabs a small to medium spider ( up to the Portia ′ s weight : 428 ) , including another Portia , the prey usually runs away for about 100 to 200 millimetres , enters convulsions , becomes paralysed after 10 to 30 seconds , and continues convulsing for 10 seconds to 4 minutes . Portia slowly approaches the prey and takes it . : 441 – 443 Portia usually needs to inflict up to 15 stabbings to completely immobilise a larger spider ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 times to the Portia ′ s weight : 428 ) , and then Portia may wait about 20 to 200 millimetres away for 15 to 30 minutes from seizing the prey . : 441 – 443 Insects are usually not immobilised so quickly but continue to struggle , sometimes for several minutes . If Portia cannot make further contact , all types of prey usually recover , making sluggish movements several minutes after the stabbing but often starting normal movement only after an hour . : 441 – 443
Spiders have a narrow gut that can only cope with liquid food , and have two sets of filters to keep solids out . Some spiders pump digestive enzymes from the midgut into the prey and then suck the liquified tissues of the prey into the gut , eventually leaving behind the empty husk of the prey . Others grind the prey to pulp using the fangs and the bases of the pedipalps , while flooding it with enzymes ; in these species the fangs and the bases of the pedipalps form a preoral cavity that holds the food they are processing . : 576
Occasionally a Portia is killed or injured while pursuing prey up to twice Portia ′ s size . P. labiata is killed in 2 @.@ 1 % of pursuits and injured but not killed in 3 @.@ 9 % , P. schultzi is killed in 1 @.@ 7 % and injured but not killed in 5 @.@ 3 % , and P. fimbriata in Queensland is killed in 0 @.@ 06 % of its pursuits and injured but not killed in another 0 @.@ 06 % . A Portia ′ s especially tough skin often prevents injury , even when its body is caught in the other spider 's fangs . When injured , Portia bleeds and may lose one or more legs . Spiders ' palps and legs break off easily when attacked , Portia ′ s palps and legs break off exceptionally easily , which may be a defence mechanism , and Portias are often seen with missing legs or palps , while other salticids in the same habitat are not seen with missing legs or palps . : 440 – 450
= = = Tactics used by Portia labiata = = =
All performance statistics summarise result of tests in a laboratory , using captive specimens . : 429 – 430 The following table shows the hunting performance of adult females . In addition to P. labiata , the table shows for comparison the hunting performances of P. africana , P. schultzi and three regional variants of P. fimbriata . : 424 , 432 , 434
A female P. labiata often hangs a capture web from pliant stems and leaves of shrubs and lower branches of trees , rather than from rocks and tree trunks . : 432 Males of Portia do not build capture webs . : 429
A female P. labiata more often pursues small jumping spiders and web spiders than larger prey . While it more often catches small jumping spiders than larger ones , it is about equally effective with all sizes of web spiders up to twice P. labiata ′ s size . : 437 – 439 A female P. labiata is effective against insects up to twice P. labiata ′ s size when the insect is stuck in a non @-@ salticid 's web , and against insects not in webs and up to P. labiata ′ s size , while P. labiata seldom pursues or catches a larger insect in the open . A female P. labiata very seldom pursues or catches a larger insect in her own web , and is slightly less effective against smaller insects in P. labiata ′ s web than in other situations . : 439 Males are less efficient in all cases . : 436
A test in 1997 showed that P. labiata from the Philippines and from Sri Lanka have similar preferences for different types of prey , and that the order of preference is : web spiders ; jumping spiders ; and insects . : 337 – 339 These preferences apply to both live prey and motionless lures , and to P. labiata specimens without prey for 7 days ( " well @-@ fed " : 335 ) and without prey for 14 days ( " starved " : 335 ) . P. labiata specimens without prey for 21 days ( " extra @-@ starved " ) showed no preference for different types of prey . : 339 The test included as prey several species of web spiders and jumping spiders , and the selection of the prey species showed no evidence of affecting the results . : 337 – 339 Insects were represented by the house fly Musca domestica . : 335
Unlike the Queensland variant of P. frimbriata , P. labiata has no special tactics when hunting other jumping spiders . : 343
P. labiata does not prey on ants , : 45 – 46 but is preyed on by the ants Oecophylla smaragdina and Odontomachus sp . ( species uncertain ) . : 47
P. labiata sometimes approaches a translucent nest contain a spider . Usually P. labiata waits faces the prey for up to several hours . Occasionally P. labiata leaps at the prey in the nest , but this is ineffective . : 447
Populations from Los Baños and from Sagada , both in the Philippines , have slightly different hunting tactics , and Los Baños has some very dangerous prey spiders . In laboratory tests , Los Baños P. labiatas rely more on trial and error than Sagada P. labiatas in finding ways to vibrate the prey 's web and thus lure or distract the prey . : 283 – 284 Around Los Baños the web @-@ building Scytodes pallida , which preys on jumping spiders , is very abundant . All members of the genus Scytodes spit a sticky gum on prey and potential threats , and this can immobilise a Portia long enough for the Scytodes to wrap the Portia in silk and then bite it . Around Los Baños , P. labiata instinctively detours round the back of S. pallida that is not carrying eggs while with plucking the web in a way that makes S. pallida believe the threat is in front of it . P. labiata prefers to stalk a female S. pallida carrying eggs , as then S. pallida is reluctant to drop the eggs in order to spit , and in this case P. labiata sometimes uses a direct attack . In areas where S. pallida is absent , the local members of P. labiata do not use this combination of plucking other spiders ' webs to deceive the prey and detouring for a stab in the back .
A test in 2001 showed that four jumping species take nectar , either by sucking it from the surface of flowers or biting the flowers with their fangs . The spiders fed in cycles of two to four minutes , then groomed , especially their chelicerae , before another cycle . A more formal part of the test showed that 90 juvenile jumping spiders , including P. labiata , generally prefer to suck from blotting soaked with a 30 % solution of sugar in water rather than paper soaked with pure water . The authors suggest that , in the wild , nectar may be a frequent , convenient way to get some nutrients , as it would avoid the work , risks and costs ( such as making venom ) . Jumping spiders can benefit from amino acids , lipids , vitamins and minerals normally found in nectar .
A test in a deliberately artificial environment explored P. labiata ′ s ability to solve a novel problem by trial and error . A little island was set up in the middle of a miniature atoll , and the space between with them was filled with water . The gap was too wide for the spiders to jump all the way , and the spiders ' options were to leap and then swim or to swim only . The testers encouraged some specimens by using a small scoop to make waves toward the atoll when the spiders chose the option the testers preferred ( leap and then swim for some spiders , and swim only for others ) , and discouraged some specimens by making waves back toward the island when the spiders chose the option the testers did not want – in other words , the testers " rewarded " one group for " successful " behaviour and " penalised " the other group for " unwanted " behaviour . : 284 – 286 Specimens from Sagada almost always repeated the first option they tried , even when that was unsuccessful . When specimens from Los Baños were unsuccessful the first time , about three quarters switched to the other option , irrespective of whether the first attempt was by leaping and then swimming or by swimming only . : 287 – 288
= = Reproduction and lifecycle = =
Before courtship , a male Portia spins a small web between boughs or twigs , and he hangs under that and ejaculates on to it . : 467 He then soaks the semen into reservoirs on his pedipalps , : 581 – 583 which are larger than those of females . : 572 – 573
Females of many spider species , including P. labiata , : 33 : 517 emit volatile pheromones into the air , and these generally attract males from a distance . : 36 The silk draglines of female jumping spiders also contain pheromones , which stimulate males to court females and may give information about each female 's status , for example whether the female is juvenile , subadult or mature . : 43 Pheromones may help to find jumping spiders ' nests , which are usually hidden under rocks or in rolled leaves , making them difficult to be seen . : 36
Portias sometimes use " propulsive displays " , with which a member threatens a rival of the same species and sex , and unreceptive females also threaten males in this way . : 343 A propulsive display is a series of sudden , quick movements including striking , charging , ramming and leaps . : 455
A laboratory test showed how males of P. labiata minimise the risk of meeting each other , by recognising fresh pieces with blotting paper , some containing their own silk draglines and some containing another male 's . Males also were attracted by fresh blotting paper containing females ' draglines , while females do not response to fresh blotting paper containing males ' draglines . This suggested that the males usually search for females , rather than vice versa . Neither sex responded to one week @-@ old blotting paper , irrespective of whether it contained males ' or females ' draglines . A similar series of tests showed that P. fimbriata from Queensland showed the same patterns of responses between the sexes .
Among P. labiata and some other Portias , when adults of the same species but opposite sexes recognise each other , they display at 10 to 30 centimetres . Males usually wait for 2 to 15 minutes before starting a display , but sometimes a female starts a display first . : 461
A female P. labiata that sees a male may approach slowly or wait . The male then walks with erect and displaying by waving his legs and palps . If the female does not run away , she gives a propulsive display first . If the male stands his ground and she does not ran away or repeat the propulsive display , he approaches and , if she is mature , they copulate . : 461 – 464 If the female is sub @-@ adult ( one moult from maturity ) , a male may cohabit in the female 's capture web . : 467 Portias usually mate on a web or on a dragline made by the female . : 518 P. labiata typically copulates for about 100 seconds , : 465 while other genera can take several minutes or even several hours . : 518 : 465
Females of P. labiata and P. schultzi try to kill and eat their mates during or after copulation , by twisting and lunging . The males wait until the females have hunched their legs , making this attack less likely . Males also try to abseil from a silk thread to approach from above , but females may manoeuvre to get the higher position . If the female moves at all , the male leaps and runs away . : 343
Before being mature enough to mate , females of P. labiata and also P. schultzi mimic adult females to attract males as prey .
P. labiata females are extremely aggressive to other females , trying to invade and take over each other 's webs , which often results in cannibalism . A laboratory test showed how they minimise the risk of meeting each other , by recognising pieces with blotting paper containing their own silk draglines and pieces contain other P. labiata females ' draglines . If obstacles make it impossible to see whether the other is physically present , she avoids blotting paper containing the other 's draglines , but moves with no constraint if she can see that the other female is not around . Draglines seem to act as territory marks , much as many mammals identify conspecifics by scent marking . P. labiata females also avoid rival females of higher fighting ability and spend more time around less powerful fighters . A laboratory test collected samples of the draglines of equal @-@ sized females and then pitted some of them in contests . Other females avoided the draglines of the victors , and spent the majority of their time on draglines of the losers . Similar tests showed that females of P. fimbriata from Australia and P. schultzi from Kenya do not avoid draglines of a powerful fighter . : 753
In P. labiata and in some other species , contests between males usually last only 5 to 10 seconds , and only their legs make contact . : 466 Contests between Portia females are violent : 518 and embraces in P. labiata typically take 20 to 60 seconds . These occasionally include grappling that sometimes breaks a leg , but more usually one female lunges at the other . Sometimes one knocks the other on her back and the other may be killed and eaten if she does not right herself quickly and run way . If the loser has a nest , the winner takes over and eats any eggs there . : 466 – 467
When hunting , mature females of P. labiata , P. africana , P. fimbriata and P. schultzi emit olfactory signals that reduce the risk that any other females , males or juveniles of the same species may contend for the same prey . The effect inhibits aggressive mimicry against a prey spider even if the prey spider is visible , and also if the prey is inhabiting any part of a web . If a female of one of these Portias smells a male of the same species , the female stimulates the males to court . These Portia species do not show this behaviour when they receive olfactory signals from members of other Portia species .
P. labiata usually lays eggs on dead , brown leaves about 20 millimetres long , suspended near the top of its capture web , and then cover the eggs with a sheet of silk . If there is no dead leaf available , the female will make a small horizontal silk platform in the capture web , lay the eggs on it , and then cover the eggs . : 434 – 435
Portia females have never been seen eating their own eggs , but in nature females with eggs of their own have been seen eating eggs of other females of the same species . In a test , P. labiata females did not eat their eggs if the testers put them in other female 's nests , showing that the test females could identify their own eggs , possibly by chemical means . When the test females and their eggs were restored to their own nests and other females ' eggs were also placed in the same nest , the test females ate neither their own eggs nor the " foreign " ones . In nature a female is unlikely to find foreign eggs in her nest , and it might be safest for females to avoid any eggs in their own nests .
For moulting , all Portias spin a horizontal web whose diameter is about twice the spider 's body length and is suspended only 1 to 4 millimetres below a leaf . The spider lies head down , and often slides down 20 to 30 millimetres during moulting . : 496 Portias spin a similar temporary web for resting . : 513
= = Ecology = =
P. labiata is found in Sri Lanka , India , Burma ( Myanmar ) , Malaysia , Singapore , Java , Sumatra and the Philippines . : 425 : 103 @-@ 105
The populations of P. labiata in Los Baños and in Sagada , both in the Philippines , have different environments : Los Baños is a low @-@ lying tropical rainforest where there are many species of spiders , some of which are especially dangerous to P. labiata ; and Sagada is at higher altitude , with pine @-@ forest and fewer species of spiders , none of which are as dangerous to P. labiata . The Los Baños variant has a slightly wider repertoire of tactics . : 283 – 284
In the Philippines , P. labiata does not prey on ants , : 45 – 46 but is preyed on by the ants Oecophylla smaragdina and Odontomachus sp . ( species uncertain ) , : 47 and a solitary Odontomachus has been seen attacking a P. labiata . : 50 In a test the ant Diacamma vagans usually killed single @-@ handed a P. labiata . : 52
= = Taxonomy = =
P. labiata is one of 17 species in the genus Portia as of May 2011 . This species has been named Sinis fimbriatus ( Hasselt , 1882 ; misidentification ) , Linus labiatus ( Thorell , 1887 ) , Linus dentipalpis ( Thorell , 1890 ) , Erasinus dentipalpis ( Thorell , 1892 ) , Erasinus labiatus ( Simon , 1903 ) and Portia labiata ( Wanless , 1978 ) , and the last name has been used since then .
Portia is in the subfamily Spartaeinae , which is thought to be primitive . : 491 Molecular phylogeny , a technique that compares the DNA of organisms to reconstruct the tree of life , indicates that Portia is a member of the clade Spartaeinae , that Spartaeinae is basal ( quite similar to the ancestors of all jumping spiders ) , that Portia ′ s closest relative is the genus Spartaeus , and that the next closest are Phaeacius and Holcolaetis . : 53
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= Strange Overtones =
" Strange Overtones " is a song recorded by David Byrne and Brian Eno , written by the duo with Leo Abrahams . It was released on August 4 , 2008 by means of free download as the lead single from Byrne 's and Eno 's second collaborative studio album Everything That Happens Will Happen Today ( 2008 ) . " Strange Overtones " is an uptempo electronic gospel song , and its lyrics explore the themes of humanity overcoming technology that are central to the album . " Strange Overtones " was well received by critics , and was downloaded 40 @,@ 000 times in its first three days of release .
= = Recording and release = =
While discussing the 2006 remix of My Life in the Bush of Ghosts at a dinner party , Eno suggested finishing some songs that he had written but that did not have lyrics . Byrne visited Eno 's studio to listen to the demos and the two decided to collaborate to finish writing the songs . They continued working on the tracks in New York City and London , with regular e @-@ mail correspondence to finish the composition . Multi @-@ instrumentalist and previous Eno collaborator Leo Abrahams performed guitar , percussion instruments , and piano in his London home studio and played guitar with Byrne on one occasion . Abrahams would continue working on the tracks in his home studio through May 2008 , with all collaborations being carried on via e @-@ mail .
" Strange Overtones " is the first single off the album Everything That Happens Will Happen Today . The track was released for free on August 4 , 2008 , as a DRM @-@ free MP3 available only through the album 's website . This is part of the unorthodox Internet @-@ based marketing scheme the two used to promote the album , inspired by the success of Radiohead 's 2007 album In Rainbows and the self @-@ promotional strategies of Nine Inch Nails for the albums Year Zero , Ghosts I – IV , and The Slip . In September 2008 , Jon Yeo created a music video for the track featuring the paintings of Eno .
A live recording of the song also appeared on Everything That Happens Will Happen on This Tour – David Byrne on Tour : Songs of David Byrne and Brian Eno , released on May 11 , 2009 . The song was also featured on the soundtrack album to Wall Street : Money Never Sleeps , along with several other David Byrne compositions .
= = Composition = =
Eno has also said the album is about " paint [ ing ] a picture of the human trying to survive in an increasingly digital world ; " themes that are explored in this song . " Strange Overtones " has been described as " a song about writing a song " — the subject of the song struggles to write innovative music , but is overheard by a neighbor using beats that are " twenty years old . " In terms of the genre of music , both Byrne and Eno have called it " electronic Gospel " — the backing tracks are the kind of electronic music for which Eno is known , paired with hopeful and inspiring lyrics from Byrne — this song in particular features an uptempo backing track . Eno had been thinking about Gospel for several years , but couldn 't write lyrics to hopeful songs .
Eno considers the album " [ S ] omething that combines something very human and fallible and personal , with something very electronic and mathematical sometimes . " And they tried to " make that picture of the human still trying to survive in an increasingly complicated digital world ... It 's quite easy to make just digital music and it 's quite easy to make just human music , but to try and make a combination is sort of , exciting , I think . " Byrne considered his job as lyricist to " bring more humanity " to Eno 's instrumentals , which can be " cold and academic . "
= = Reception = =
The song was downloaded over 40 @,@ 000 times in its first three days of availability . One of the earliest reviews for " Strange Overtones " was on the August 11 , 2008 , episode of NPR 's All Songs Considered . The Los Angeles Times called the track " intimate " and Stereogum echoed this by labeling it " warm " ; it also received a positive review from Rolling Stone .
Pitchfork Media gave the song several adulations , including a positive review in their discussion of Everything That Happens Will Happen Today and naming the song number 11 track of 2008 — including appearances on eight editors ' end of the year lists — and placing number 297 on the Top 500 Tracks of the 2000s . Pitchfork also solicited the opinions of musicians for their favorite albums and songs of the year and The Watson Twins proclaimed " Strange Overtones " one of the best songs of 2008 . KCMP 's Top 89 of 2009 featured the song on two editor 's lists . Mark Wheat of NPR named it one of the top 10 songs of 2009 .
Ranking 60th for the year , this song was one of several from Everything That Happens Will Happen Today which appeared on The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop singles poll for 2008 — " Life Is Long " placed 337 , " My Big Nurse " was 350 , " Everything That Happens " ended up at 748 , and " I Feel My Stuff " reached 942 . In addition , a vote was cast for " Strange Undertones " .
= = Personnel = =
Leo Abrahams – guitars , bass guitar , Dubreq Stylophone , programming , co @-@ production
David Byrne – vocals , rhythm guitar , production , composition
Brian Eno – backing vocals , organ solo , Omnichord piano , keyboards , programming , production , composition
Steve Jones – delay guitar
Mauro Refosco – bongo , conga , tambourine
Seb Rochford – live drums
Robert Wyatt – frame drum solo
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= Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter =
Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter ( Japanese : マーヴルスーパーヒーローズ VS . ストリートファイター , Hepburn : Māvuru Sūpā Hīrōzu bāsasu Sutorīto Faitā ) is a crossover fighting video game developed and published by Capcom . It is the sequel to X @-@ Men vs. Street Fighter and the second installment in the Marvel vs. Capcom series . The game was first released as an arcade game in 1997 . It then received ports to the Sega Saturn in 1998 and the PlayStation in 1999 .
The gameplay and aesthetics of Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter remain similar to X @-@ Men vs. Street Fighter . Each player selects two characters to compete in a one @-@ on @-@ one tag team fight , attempting to defeat the opposing team . The game replaces most of the X @-@ Men cast from the previous installment with characters from other Marvel properties . In addition , it introduces a new gameplay mechanic known as the " Variable Assist " , which would be used in future Marvel vs. Capcom titles .
Much like its predecessor , the game received generally positive reviews for its gameplay , sprite animations , and character roster . The Sega Saturn version , utilizing the 4MB RAM expansion cartridge , was praised for being an arcade @-@ perfect conversion . Due to the memory limitations of the PlayStation , tag team battles were , once again , removed from its port , resulting in more mixed critical reception . A sequel , Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes , was released in 1998 .
= = Gameplay = =
Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter is the second installment in the Marvel vs. Capcom series of 2D fighting games . It utilizes the same one @-@ on @-@ one tag team format previously employed in X @-@ Men vs. Street Fighter . The player chooses a team of two fighters , each sporting their own life gauge ; at the start of the match , the first selected character is controlled by the player , while the second character remains off @-@ screen and acts as support . Using a combination of joystick movements and button presses , the player must execute various moves to deplete the opposing team 's life gauges . The first player to completely drain the opponent 's health is declared the winner . If the timer reaches zero , the player that possesses the most health wins .
The most notable gameplay change in Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter is the addition of the " Variable Assist " . With the Variable Assist , the player can summon their off @-@ screen character to perform a special move without changing their currently @-@ controlled character , opening new possibilities for combos during battle and greatly expanding the role of the secondary character . The ability to use assists would later become a signature gameplay element used in several future installments of the Marvel vs. Capcom series .
= = = Modes = = =
The arcade , Sega Saturn , and PlayStation versions of Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter share Arcade Mode and Versus Mode . In Arcade Mode , the player fights waves of artificial intelligence @-@ controlled teams , culminating in a final battle against the boss character , Apocalypse , who previously appeared in X @-@ Men vs. Street Fighter . Upon defeating Apocalypse in the console versions , the player must win against a second boss character , Cyber @-@ Akuma . The PlayStation version includes three exclusive game modes : Training , Hero Battle , and Cross Over . Hero Battle is an endurance mode which pits the player against the characters that they did not select . In Cross Over , the player and the computer opponent fight with the same team of characters ; if the player is victorious , then the computer swaps one character from both teams . The PlayStation port also features a Gallery Mode containing promotional and character artwork , which are unlocked by completing various goals .
= = = Playable characters = = =
Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter features a roster of 17 playable fighters , with nine characters from the Street Fighter universe and eight characters from the Marvel Universe . All of the X @-@ Men characters featured in X @-@ Men vs. Street Fighter , with the exception of Cyclops and Wolverine , are replaced with characters from other Marvel Comics properties , such as Captain America , Spider @-@ Man , and the Hulk . Most of the Street Fighter characters from the previous game also return , with the exception of Cammy and Charlie ( although Charlie is actually still in the game as a palette swapped secret character named " Shadow " ) , who are replaced by Dan and Sakura . The Japanese arcade and console versions of Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter include an exclusive character named Norimaro ( 憲磨呂 ( ノリマロ ) ) . Norimaro is an original character created and owned by Japanese comedian Noritake Kinashi , who represents neither Marvel nor Capcom . Due to licensing issues involving the character , Norimaro is not available in international releases of the game . In addition to the 17 immediately playable characters , the roster also contains six secret characters . The secret characters are palette swaps of existing fighters with different moveset properties , such as " Dark Sakura " and " Mecha @-@ Zangief " , as well as recreations of U.S. Agent and Mephisto , based on Captain America 's and Blackheart 's sprites and moves , respectively .
= = Development and release = =
As with X @-@ Men vs. Street Fighter , Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter was initially developed for the CP System II arcade system board , which debuted in Japanese arcades in 1997 . The game received a port to the Sega Saturn , exclusive to Japan , on October 22 , 1998 . The Sega Saturn port supported the 4MB RAM expansion peripheral , allowing the developers to create a conversion which retained the original frame rates and tag team system . The game was then ported to the PlayStation in February 1999 . Due to the console 's limited RAM capacity , the tag team format was switched to the more traditional round format used in other fighting game series , such as Street Fighter . To compensate for the removal of tag team gameplay , several new game modes , such as Hero Battle and Cross Over , were implemented .
According to former Capcom USA community manager and fighting game advisor Seth Killian , one of the primary goals for Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter was to " tone down the insanity " that occurred onscreen when compared to X @-@ Men vs. Street Fighter . The developers also sought to achieve balance within the character roster ; the previous title had gained a reputation for being " broken " , with characters having access to one or more infinite combos . These changes , however , were met with negative reception from fans , who criticized the game for offering less freedom . This ultimately led to Capcom recognizing the theme of insanity as the hallmark of the series and using it as a focus for future Marvel vs. Capcom installments .
= = Reception = =
The critical reception of Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter was generally positive to mixed . Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot praised the Sega Saturn port for its gameplay , character roster , graphics , sprite animations , and additional RAM support , labeling it an " arcade @-@ perfect conversion " . However , Gerstmann faulted the game for being a " near @-@ carbon copy " of X @-@ Men vs. Street Fighter . While the PlayStation port also received praise for its gameplay and character roster , it attracted numerous criticisms , many of which stemmed from issues related to the console 's memory restrictions . GameSpot , IGN , and Game Revolution all reprimanded the game for removing the original version 's tag team @-@ based gameplay . Randy Nelson of IGN stated that the lack of tag team fights negated one of the major elements that made Capcom 's Vs. series stand apart , resulting in a game that was " nothing truly special or different " . Ryan Mac Donald of GameSpot expressed disappointment over the port 's lower graphical quality and cut animation frames . Game Informer also complained about experiencing instances of slowdown . However , despite the criticisms , reviewers claimed the game as an improvement over the critically panned PlayStation port of X @-@ Men vs. Street Fighter .
= = Sequel = =
A sequel to Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter , titled Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes , was released for arcades in Japan on January 23 , 1998 . The game expands its character roster beyond the Street Fighter series to include other Capcom video game franchises , such as Darkstalkers and Mega Man . While its gameplay remains similar , Clash of Super Heroes removes the " Variable Assist " feature in favor of a new system . It was ported to the Dreamcast and PlayStation , which were released from 1999 through 2000 . A high @-@ definition version of the game was also released in 2012 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 as part of the Marvel vs. Capcom Origins compilation .
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= Four Corners Monument =
The Four Corners Monument marks the quadripoint in the Southwestern United States where the states of Arizona , Colorado , New Mexico , and Utah meet . It is the only point in the United States shared by four states , leading to this area 's being called the Four Corners region . The monument also marks the boundary between two semi @-@ autonomous Native American governments , the Navajo Nation , which maintains the monument as a tourist attraction , and the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe Reservation .
The origins of the state boundaries marked by the monument occurred just prior to , and during , the American Civil War , when the United States Congress acted to form governments in the area to combat the spread of slavery to the region . When the early territories were formed , their boundaries were designated along meridian and parallel lines . Beginning in the 1860s , these lines were surveyed and marked . These early surveys included some errors , but even so , the markers placed became the legal boundaries , superseding the written descriptions of geographical meridians and parallels . This includes the Four Corners Monument , which has been legally established as the corner of the four states .
= = Monument = =
The monument where " visitors can simultaneously straddle the territory of four states " is maintained as a tourist attraction by the Navajo Nation Parks and Recreation Department . Unlike many other attractions based on what are primarily political boundaries , such as the Berlin Wall , Four Corners Monument is an example of a political boundary that is a tourist destination in its own right . The monument consists of a granite disk embedded with a smaller bronze disk around the point , surrounded by smaller , appropriately located state seals and flags representing both the states and tribal nations of the area . Circling the point , starting from north , the disk reads with two words in each state " Here meet in freedom under God four states " . Around the monument , local Navajo and Ute artisans sell souvenirs and food . An admission fee is required to view and photograph the monument . The monument is a popular tourist attraction despite its remote and isolated location . As early as 1908 , people traveled long distances to take pictures of family and friends at the monument in Twister @-@ like poses , sitting on the disk , in a circle of friends or family around the disk , or for couples to kiss directly over the disk .
= = Location = =
The monument is located on the Colorado Plateau west of U.S. Highway 160 , approximately 40 miles ( 64 km ) southwest of Cortez , Colorado . The monument is centered at 36 ° 59 ′ 56 @.@ 31 ″ N 109 ° 02 ′ 42 @.@ 62 ″ W. In addition to the four states , two semi @-@ autonomous American Indian tribal governments have boundaries at the monument , the Navajo Nation and the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe Reservation , with the Ute Mountain tribal boundaries coinciding with Colorado 's boundaries at the monument .
= = Climate = =
The nearby community of Teec Nos Pos receives 8 @.@ 46 inches of rain and 2 inches of snow annually .
= = History = =
The area now called Four Corners was initially American Indian land and beginning in the 16th century it was claimed by Spain as part of New Spain . Following Mexico 's independence from Spain , the area was governed by Mexico until being ceded to the United States by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 following the United States ' victory in the Mexican – American War . The first boundary which would become part of the monument was set as part of the Compromise of 1850 , which created the New Mexico Territory and Utah Territory . The border between the two territories was congressionally defined as the 37th parallel north by the 31st United States Congress . In 1861 , the 36th United States Congress transferred land previously allocated to the Utah Territory , to the newly created Colorado Territory . The Colorado Territory 's southern border would remain as the 37th parallel north , but a new border — between the Colorado and Utah Territories — was declared to be the 32nd meridian west from Washington . This line was derived from the reference used at the time , the Washington meridian .
In 1860 , just prior to the outbreak of the American Civil War , a group of people in the southern portion of New Mexico Territory passed a resolution condemning the United States for creating such a vast territory with only a single , small government in place at Santa Fe . They claimed by doing so the U.S. had ignored the needs of the southern portion , left them without a functional system of law and order , and allowed the situation to deteriorate into a state of chaos and near anarchy . The group declared secession from the United States and announced their intent to join the Confederate States of America under the name of the Arizona Territory . The U.S. Congress responded in 1863 by creating another Arizona Territory with different , but partially overlapping boundaries . The Confederate boundaries split New Mexico along an east – west line , the 34th parallel north , allowing for a single state connection from Texas to the Colorado River . This would give the Confederacy access to California and the Pacific coast . The Union definition split New Mexico along a north – south line , the 32nd meridian west from Washington , which simply extended the boundary between Colorado and Utah southward . The Union plan eventually became reality , and this created the quadripoint at the modern Four Corners . After the split , New Mexico resembled its modern form , with only slight differences .
= = = Surveying the boundaries = = =
After the Civil War , efforts began to survey and mark the actual borders . In 1868 , the General Land Office ( GLO ) had Ehud N. Darling survey and set markers along the border between the Colorado and New Mexico Territories ( the 37th parallel north ) ; this border has become known as the " Darling Line " . In 1875 , another GLO surveyor , Chandler Robbins , surveyed and marked the border between the Arizona and New Mexico Territories ( the 32nd meridian west of Washington ) . Robbins began near the Mexico – United States border , and worked his way north marking the border every so often . Near the 37th parallel north he intersected the Darling Line , and here he erected a sandstone shaft . This sandstone shaft marked today 's location of the Four Corners Monument .
In 1878 , Rollin J. Reeves surveyed and marked the border between the newly created State of Colorado and the Utah Territory . Reeves located the sandstone shaft marker placed by Robbins at today 's Four Corners Monument . He then began to survey and mark the border between Colorado and Utah from this point northward . In 1901 , Howard B. Carpenter surveyed and marked the border between Arizona and Utah , completing the survey of borders making up the Four Corners Monument .
The results of these surveys and the markers placed were later accepted as the legal boundaries between the various states .
= = = The marker 's transformation into a monument = = =
By 1899 , the sandstone shaft marker placed by Chandler Robbins in 1875 had been disturbed and broken , so it was replaced with a new stone by two U.S. Surveyors , Hubert D. Page and James M. Lentz . In 1912 , a simple cement pad was poured around the marker . The first modern Navajo government convened in 1923 in an effort to organize and regulate an increasing amount of oil exploration activities on Navajo lands , and they would play a big role in the monument 's further development . In 1931 , Everett H. Kimmell , another U.S. Surveyor , found this newer stone had broken too and he replaced it with a brass disc marker set in cement . In 1962 , the Bureau of Land Management and the Bureau of Indian Affairs poured an elevated cement pad around the 1931 brass marker ; this pad included the state border lines and names in tile . The monument was completely rebuilt in 1992 , and the 1931 brass marker was replaced with a disc shaped aluminum @-@ bronze plate set in granite . The monument was again rebuilt in 2010 , although the disc shaped plate from 1992 remained in place .
= = = Misplacement controversy = = =
Since the early 20th century , controversies have arisen regarding the accuracy of the monument 's placement . After the initial surveys , it was found that the borders did not always exactly follow the lines of meridian and parallel as had been intended . This is due to the primitive surveying technology available at the time . This discrepancy left the four states asking if the correct borders were the exact lines of meridian and parallel ( and if new , more accurate , surveys needed to be done ) , or if the markers placed during the initial surveys were now the actual border . This issue was resolved when New Mexico sued Colorado in 1919 , and in 1925 the Supreme Court ruled that the markers placed during the initial surveys were the actual borders , even if the markers were off in some locations ( this includes the Four Corners Monument ) . Today 's legal description of these border lines are based on the original markers , and not the written description of the borders created when the territories were formed . Because of this , the borders between these states are not perfectly straight and often zigzag . One example is the border between Colorado and Utah , where in one area the border jogs west about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from where it was intended to be placed . Because this error occurred in the original survey — which superseded the written description ( being simply the 32nd meridian west of Washington ) , the border set out by the markers remains the border between the two states . ( 38 ° 16 ′ 34 ″ N 109 ° 03 ′ 38 ″ W )
In 2009 this issue was again brought to the forefront due to American media reports that the monument was placed 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) west of its intended location . These reports were quickly corrected after it was discovered that sources had forgotten that when the initial surveys were conducted that the Washington meridian was used . This meridian has an offset from the modern reference , the Prime Meridian , which has been used in the United States since 1912 . This offset is often missed by those not familiar with the history of American surveying .
Even after the mistakes in the reports were discovered , a spokesperson for the U.S. National Geodetic Survey admitted the monument is placed 1 @,@ 807 feet ( 551 m ) east of where modern surveyors would mark the point . However , he defended the accuracy of the original survey , stating surveyors " nailed it " considering the primitive tools of the day . Pointing out the achievement given the conditions , he further stated , " Their ability to replicate that exact point — what they did was phenomenal , what they did was spot on . " He concluded by stating that any claims of errors in the location of the monument are irrelevant . Once a survey commissioned to establish a boundary has been accepted by the involved parties , the survey markers are legally binding , regardless of any error that is later discovered . Similar statements were issued by the Navajo Nation , defending their work in maintaining and promoting the monument . In addition , general U.S. land principles , law , and the Supreme Court have established that the location of the monument is the legal corner of the four states .
= = = Similar places = = =
Canadian four corners
No Man 's Heath
Tres Fronteras
Triple Frontier
Treriksröset
Vaalserberg
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= SM UB @-@ 42 =
SM UB @-@ 42 was a Type UB II submarine or U @-@ boat for the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. UB @-@ 42 operated in the Mediterranean and the Black Seas during the war . She was broken up at Malta in 1920 .
UB @-@ 42 was ordered in July 1915 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in September . UB @-@ 42 was 36 @.@ 90 m ( 121 ft 1 in ) in length and displaced between 270 and 305 tonnes ( 266 and 300 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She was equipped to carry a complement of four torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and had an 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 97 in ) deck gun . As part of a group of six submarines selected for Mediterranean service , UB @-@ 42 was broken into railcar sized components and shipped to Pola where she was assembled , launched and commissioned in March 1916 .
In 21 patrols during the war , UB @-@ 42 sank ten ships of 15 @,@ 925 gross register tons ( GRT ) , captured one 97 @-@ ton vessel as a prize , and damaged Veronica a British Acacia @-@ class sloop . In October 1916 , UB @-@ 42 delivered five Georgians who had gold to help finance a Georgian independence movement . After the surrender of the Ottoman Empire in late October 1918 , UB @-@ 42 fled to Sevastopol , where she was surrendered in November . UB @-@ 42 was taken to Malta , where she was broken up in 1920 .
= = Design and construction = =
The German UB II design improved upon the design of the UB I boats , which had been ordered in September 1914 . In service , the UB I boats were found to be too small and too slow . A major problem was that , because they had a single propeller shaft / engine combo , if either component failed , the U @-@ boat became almost totally disabled . To rectify this flaw , the UB II boats featured twin propeller shafts and twin engines ( one shaft for each engine ) , which also increased the U @-@ boat 's top speed . The new design also included more powerful batteries , larger torpedo tubes , and a deck gun . As a UB II boat , U @-@ 47 could also carry twice the torpedo load of her UB I counterparts , and nearly ten times as much fuel . To contain all of these changes the hull was larger , and the surface and submerged displacement was more than double that of the UB I boats .
The German Imperial Navy ordered UB @-@ 42 from AG Weser of Bremen on 31 July 1915 as one of a series of six UB II boats ( numbered from UB @-@ 42 to UB @-@ 47 ) . UB @-@ 42 was 36 @.@ 90 metres ( 121 ft 1 in ) long and 4 @.@ 37 metres ( 14 ft 4 in ) abeam . She had a single hull with saddle tanks and had a draught of 3 @.@ 75 metres ( 12 ft 4 in ) when surfaced . She displaced 305 tonnes ( 300 long tons ) while submerged but only 272 tonnes ( 268 long tons ) on the surface .
The submarine was equipped with twin Daimler diesel engines and twin electric motors — for surfaced and submerged running , respectively — that drove one propeller shaft . UB @-@ 42 had a surface speed of up to 9 @.@ 06 knots ( 16 @.@ 78 km / h ; 10 @.@ 43 mph ) and could go as fast as 5 @.@ 71 knots ( 10 @.@ 57 km / h ; 6 @.@ 57 mph ) while underwater . The U @-@ boat could carry up to 28 tonnes ( 28 long tons ) of diesel fuel , giving her a range of 7 @,@ 030 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 020 km ; 8 @,@ 090 mi ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) . Her electric motors and batteries provided a range of 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) while submerged .
UB @-@ 42 was equipped with two 50 @-@ centimeter ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and could carry four torpedoes . The U @-@ boat was also armed with one 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) Uk L / 30 deck gun .
UB @-@ 42 was laid down on 3 September 1915 . As one of six U @-@ boats selected for service in the Mediterranean while under construction , UB @-@ 42 was broken into railcar @-@ sized components and shipped overland to the Austro @-@ Hungarian port of Pola . Shipyard workers from Weser assembled the boat and her five sisters at Pola , where she was launched on 4 March 1916 .
= = Service career = =
SM UB @-@ 42 was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy on 23 March 1916 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Fritz Wernicke . UB @-@ 42 , Wernicke 's first U @-@ boat command , was assigned to the Navy 's Pola Flotilla ( German : Deutsche U @-@ Halbflotille Pola ) . Although the flotilla was based in Pola , the site of the main Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy base , boats of the flotilla operated out of the Austro @-@ Hungarian base at Cattaro which was located farther south and closer to the Mediterranean . German U @-@ boats typically returned to Pola only for repairs . The first months of service for UB @-@ 42 proved unsuccessful ; the U @-@ boat sank no ships while in the Pola Flotilla .
After Germany 's conquest of Romania ( see Romania during World War I ) , the German Imperial Navy had sufficient fuel oil for submarines located in the Black Sea . UB @-@ 42 and three of her sister ships in the Pola Flotilla were ordered to Constantinople and , en route , had to navigate through the Dardanelles , which had been heavily mined by the Allies in the middle of 1916 . UB @-@ 42 joined the Constantinople Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote der Mittelmeerdivision in Konstantinopal ) on 16 August .
The German submarines in the Black Sea accomplished little , sinking only six ships between August 1916 and the end of the year . UB @-@ 42 sank half of the six in September and October . On 3 September , Wernicke and UB @-@ 42 achieved their first success when they sank the Russian transport Peter Darcy in the Black Sea . The 731 @-@ ton ship was headed from Constantza to Odessa when torpedoed by UB @-@ 42 . The 150 @-@ ton Russian vessel St. Nikolei was sunk at the entrance to Karkinit Bay on 5 October , and the 2 @,@ 891 @-@ ton Czarita was sunk two weeks later off Cape Midia .
In April 1917 , UB @-@ 42 was operating in the Mediterranean when she made attacks on three ships . On 14 April , Wernicke torpedoed the British Acacia @-@ class sloop HMS Veronica 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) off Alexandria , damaging the 1 @,@ 200 t vessel . Two days later , UB @-@ 42 sank the 86 @-@ ton Egyptian sailing ship off Gaza and , a week after that , sank a 15 @-@ ton Italian sailing vessel , Boro , east of Rhodes in the Aegean Sea .
On 14 May , Wernicke was succeeded by Kapitänleutnant Kurt Schwarz as commander of UB @-@ 42 . The 27 @-@ year @-@ old Schwarz , who had previously commanded the Type UB I boat UB @-@ 14 , led UB @-@ 42 to sink her largest ship , Cestrian , on 24 June . The 8 @,@ 912 @-@ ton former Leyland Line steamer was in use as a troopship , carrying 800 troops and horses when Schwarz sent her down 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ; 4 @.@ 6 mi ) southeast of Skyros in the Aegean . Three of Cestrian 's crewmen died in the attack and , according to R. H. Gibson and Maurice Prendergast , " splendid discipline " among the embarked troops was the sole reason that none were lost .
In early October , UB @-@ 42 had returned to the Black Sea , when she was ordered to deliver five Georgians with gold to finance a Georgian independence movement . While remaining in the Black Sea , UB @-@ 42 sank the sailing ships Agios Georgios on 10 October , and Francesco Patrino in November . On 22 November , she torpedoed the 1 @,@ 086 @-@ ton Siracusy while the latter was at anchor off the Georgian coast . UB @-@ 46 also shelled Tuapse while in the northern Black Sea .
Kapitänleutnant Erich von Rohrscheidt assumed command of UB @-@ 42 on 6 April 1918 , and six week later , led the U @-@ boat in capturing the motor sailing vessel Sergij as a prize six weeks later off Novorossisk . In September , Kapitänleutnant Hans Georg Lübbe ( who had succeeded Herbert Nolde after his two @-@ month stint as commander of UB @-@ 42 ) led the U @-@ boat in sinking her final ship . On the night of 7 / 8 September , the 1 @,@ 833 @-@ ton Italian steamer Vicenza was sent down south of Salonica . UB @-@ 42 's commanding officer was changed twice more before the end of the war , but the submarine sank no more ships .
After the signing of the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October ended the war for the Ottoman Empire , the four remaining U @-@ boats of the Constantinople Flotilla — UB @-@ 14 , UB @-@ 42 , UC @-@ 23 , and UC @-@ 37 — fled to Sevastopol . There they were surrendered on 26 November . UB @-@ 42 was broken up at Malta in 1920 .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
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= John Emilius Fauquier =
Air Commodore John Emilius " Johnny " Fauquier DSO & Two Bars , DFC ( March 19 , 1909 – April 3 , 1981 ) was a Canadian aviator and Second World War Bomber Command leader . He commanded No. 405 Squadron RCAF and later No. 617 Squadron RAF ( the Dambusters ) over the course of the war . A bush pilot , prior to the war , he joined the Royal Canadian Air Force as a flight instructor in 1939 . He then joined 405 Squadron in 1941 and would fly operationally for the rest of the war , taking a drop in rank on one occasion to return to active command . During his three tours of operation he participated in Operation Hydra and dozens of other sorties over Europe .
= = Early years = =
John Emilius " Johnny " Fauquier was born at Ottawa , Ontario on March 19 , 1909 , educated at Ashbury College and then entered the investment business at Montreal , Quebec where he joined a flying club . After earning his commercial pilot 's licence he formed Commercial Airways at Noranda , Quebec and prior to the Second World War had flown some 3 @,@ 000 hours as pilot in command on bush operations .
= = Second World War = =
He joined the Royal Canadian Air Force in 1939 as a flight lieutenant , completed an advanced course and served until mid @-@ 1941 as instructor of British Commonwealth Air Training Plan instructors . After a short period in England at a glider and paratrooper training center , he was posted to No. 405 Squadron RCAF . On returning in difficult weather conditions after bombing Berlin with the squadron on the night of November 7 , 1941 , he was forced to land his aircraft on a non @-@ operational airfield , and as a result was temporarily suspected of being a spy by the Home Guard .
By February 1942 , Fauquier had been promoted to acting wing commander and given command of the squadron . He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) for gallantry . Shortly afterwards he was transferred from operations to the RCAF 's Overseas Headquarters for staff duties . He then served a short term with No. 6 Group before once more taking command of No. 405 Squadron in February 1942 .
During Operation Hydra in August 1943 , a bombing raid on a German military research facility at Peenemünde , he acted as deputy master bomber , making 17 passes over the target . He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) in September 1943 , in part for his leadership during the raid . Soon after that raid he was promoted to acting group captain of that squadron , which had become a member of No. 8 ( Pathfinder ) Group .
During January 1944 , he flew 38 sorties , completing his second tour of operations with No. 405 Squadron . He was then awarded a Bar to his DSO .
After promotion to acting air commodore — a rank precluded from operational flying — he was Mentioned in Despatches in December 1944 . He then voluntarily reverted to group captain so that he might begin a third tour of operations , this time as commanding officer of No. 617 Squadron RAF ( the Dambusters squadron ) , which he led from December until the end of the war . Under his command the Dambusters conducted raids against submarine pens , viaducts and other targets .
With the end of the war in Europe , he was awarded a second Bar to his DSO for his command of 617 Squadron . Spencer Dunmore , a historian and novelist , remembers Fauquier in his history of Canada 's Air Force during World War II :
There is no doubt that Fauquier was one of the toughest of commanders . He saw his job as getting every available aircraft on the target on every night of operations and had no patience with any incompetence or inefficiency that might compromise that goal . ... The ground crews thought the world of him , because he thought the world of them and never took them for granted , always remembering to take them bottles of beer or other treats if they had worked particularly hard . Many considered him Canada 's greatest bomber pilot .
= = Postwar = =
After the war Fauquier returned to private business . He was inducted into Canada 's Aviation Hall of Fame in 1974 .
On July 4 , 1964 Fauquier traveled to Calgary , Alberta with the Minister of Defence Paul Hellyer , to observe the last official RCAF flight of an Avro Lancaster . This Lancaster , KB @-@ 976 , was captained by F / L Lynn Garrison with F / L Ralph Langemann as his co @-@ pilot . Other crew members were Captain E.J. McGoldrick , F / O Brian B. McKay , and Jimmy Sutherland , a wartime Lancaster flight engineer .
John Fauquier died on Friday April 3 , 1981 .
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= September 1948 Florida hurricane =
The September 1948 Florida hurricane was the most intense tropical cyclone to make landfall in the state since the 1935 Labor Day hurricane . The fourth hurricane and third major hurricane of the season , this storm developed from a tropical wave over the Caribbean Sea on September 18 . Early the next day , the system strengthened into a hurricane while moving westward . Thereafter , it curved northwestward and continued to deepen . By September 20 , the system turned northward and later that day made landfall in Zapata Peninsula , Cuba as a Category 3 hurricane on the modern day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Another landfall occurred in Cuba early the next day to the south of Güines . Severe destruction was reported on the island , with winds up to 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) observed in Havana . Over 700 buildings were destroyed . Ten deaths occurred and damage totaled at least $ 2 million ( 1948 USD ) , while other sources estimate " several million dollars . "
After emerging into the Straits of Florida on September 21 , the storm resumed intensification , before striking near Boca Chica Key , Florida with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . By early on September 22 , the system peaked as a Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) . Shortly thereafter , another landfall occurred near Chokoloskee , Florida at the same intensity . Severe damage was reported in the state due to strong winds . The storm was considered the worst in Key West since the 1919 Florida Keys hurricane . Throughout the state , 1 @,@ 200 homes were severely damage or destroyed , while 40 businesses were demolished and 237 suffered impact . Throughout Florida , there were three fatalities and approximately $ 12 million ( 1948 USD ) in damage , over half of which was inflicted on crops . The storm rapidly weakened while crossing the state and emerged into the Atlantic Ocean as only a Category 1 hurricane later on September 22 . Slight fluctuations in intensity occurred before the hurricane became extratropical early on September 24 , while located northwest of Bermuda .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave – an elongated trough of low pressure – was detected moving through the Leeward Islands on September 14 . The system acquired a circulation while situated between Grand Cayman and Jamaica on September 18 . Thus , a tropical storm developed at 06 : 00 UTC . With initial sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) , the storm quickly intensified while heading westward , and became a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale early on September 19 . Later that day , the storm strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane and then a Category 3 hurricane only six hours after . The hurricane turned northward on September 20 and made landfall on the Zapata Peninsula of Cuba with winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) at 22 : 00 UTC . With the storm continuing to move northward , it made another landfall in Cuba at 01 : 00 UTC the following day near Güines , Mayabeque Province . Emerging into the Straits of Florida early on September 21 , the hurricane weakened somewhat to a minimal Category 3 hurricane while moving across Cuba .
The hurricane restrengthened slightly on September 21 , before making landfall near Boca Chica Key , Florida at 17 : 00 UTC , with sustained winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . Around that time , the storm 's eye was only 10 mi ( 16 km ) in diameter . However , it deepened further and became a Category 4 hurricane early on September 22 . At 05 : 00 UTC , the system attained its peak intensity with a maximum sustained wind speed of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 940 mbar ( 28 inHg ) . Simultaneously , it struck near Chokoloskee , Florida . Due to the storm 's barometric pressure at the time , it was the most intense tropical cyclone landfall in Florida since the 1935 Labor Day hurricane . Several locations reported an " eye " , leading some meteorologists at the time to suggest that the storm had multiple circulations , though others theorized that dry air pockets existed between the rainbands . The hurricane rapidly weakened while moving northeastward across the state and was only a Category 1 hurricane upon emerging into the Atlantic Ocean near Jensen Beach late on September 22 . Slight re @-@ intensification occurred the following day , with the storm becoming a moderate Category 2 hurricane by 12 : 00 UTC . Nonetheless , it began losing tropical characteristics and transitioning into an extratropical cyclone early on September 24 , while located about 330 miles ( 530 km ) northwest of Bermuda . The remnants accelerated to the east @-@ northeastward and continued to weaken , before dissipating hundreds of miles east of Newfoundland on September 26 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Offshore Grand Cayman , the British steamer Lochmonar , with 72 people aboard , encountered the hurricane on September 19 . The ship ran aground in seas that were " as rough as hell " . They were safely rescued by a United States Coast Guard tugboat on September 20 .
Strong winds were reported on Cuba , with sustained winds up to 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) observed in Havana . Damage was particularly severe in that city and Matanzas . Almost 700 buildings were destroyed . Damage on the island totaled " several million dollars " , with some sources reporting at least $ 2 million . There were ten deaths and at least 200 injuries in Cuba .
In preparation for the storm , the American Red Cross opened 213 shelters , which were collectively occupied by 38 @,@ 323 people . Officials prepared two trains at Fort Pierce to evacuate residents living along Lake Okeechobee . Many residents in the area sought higher ground , but most refused to evacuate via the trains . Strong winds lashed Florida , with a sustained wind speed of 122 mph ( 196 km / h ) observed at the Naval Air Station Key West , before the anemometer blew away . There , 30 commercial and private aircraft were destroyed . Winds de @-@ roofed some homes and businesses nearby . Tides reached about 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) above mean low water . The hurricane was considered the worst in Key West since 1919 . About 3 – 5 in ( 76 – 127 mm ) of rain fell on the Florida Keys .
In Homestead , a tornado destroyed a farmhouse and overturned a 3 @,@ 000 lb ( 1 @,@ 400 kg ) truck . Two deaths occurred in Miami ; a woman was electrocuted by a broken wire , while a man was presumably blown off a 5 @-@ story building . Tides in the city reached 4 @.@ 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) above mean low water , causing inundation of the bayfront and smashing large breakers and small crafts against the shore and piers . In the neighborhood of Coconut Grove , docking facilities , piers , and houseboats were severely damaged . Strong winds downed palm trees , which littered the streets of Lummus Park . The road to the Haulover Bridge in Miami Beach was washed away . Additionally , heavy rainfall caused flooding , with 10 to 11 in ( 250 to 280 mm ) of precipitation in some areas . Around Lake Okeechobee , an average of 8 in ( 200 mm ) of rainfall was observed . Clewiston was inundated with 2 to 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water , while LaBelle was submerged for several days . Pasture lands were flooded , drowning some cattle and prompting a massive evacuation of herds to higher ground . Widespread damage to crops , particularly citrus and tropical fruits , was also reported along east coast of Florida as far north as the Indian River .
Throughout Florida , a total of 39 homes were destroyed , while 1 @,@ 161 others were severely damaged . Further , 40 buildings were demolished and 237 suffered impact . Three deaths were reported in Florida . Additionally , there were 45 injuries requiring hospitalization . Overall , damage in the state totaled about $ 12 million , with $ 5 million inflicted to property , $ 6 @.@ 5 million to crops , $ 300 @,@ 000 million to electrical services , and $ 200 @,@ 000 to roadway infrastructure , including bridges .
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= Momentum Deferred =
" Momentum Deferred " is the fourth episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . Screenwriters Zack Stentz and Ashley Edward Miller wrote the episode , and co @-@ executive producer Joe Chappelle directed it .
The episode followed the theft of cryogenically @-@ frozen heads by shapeshifters from the parallel universe in their search for a specific head , while the Fringe team attempts to prevent this . Meanwhile , Olivia struggles to remember her conversation with William Bell ( guest actor Leonard Nimoy ) that took place in the season one finale . " Momentum Deferred " marked the first appearances of guest actors Theresa Russell , Sebastian Roché , and Ryan McDonald .
It first aired on October 8 , 2009 in the United States , and was watched by more than 6 @.@ 02 million viewers . The episode received generally positive reviews , with many critics praising the new revelations about the shapeshifters , the parallel universe , as well as the much @-@ anticipated conversation between Olivia and William Bell . In January 2013 , IGN ranked it as the third best episode of the series .
= = Plot = =
A shipment of heads stored in cryogenic storage is hijacked , though one of the hijackers is killed by a guard , and bleeds a mix of blood and mercury , identifying him as a shapeshifter from the parallel universe . The Fringe division discovers an undamaged device they believe is used by the shapeshifters to take another 's identity . Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) gives the device to Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) at Massive Dynamic ; with the intact device , they can use it to examine the device of the first shapeshifter that tried to kill Olivia in the episode " A New Day in the Old Town " . They are unaware that this shapeshifter has taken the form of Olivia 's partner , Charlie ( Kirk Acevedo ) , ordered to find out what she learned from William Bell ( Leonard Nimoy ) when she was temporarily taken to the parallel universe .
Walter ( John Noble ) remembers that one of his former patients Rebecca Kibner ( Theresa Russell ) , while under a heavy dose of mind @-@ altering drugs , had witnessed events in the parallel universe including the presence of the shapeshifters . To try to learn more , they approach Rebecca and ask for her help , who is happy to participate . After outfitting her with electrodes and injecting her with more drugs , Walter starts the process by clanging a bell ; to everyone 's surprise , this causes Olivia to pass out .
The bell has caused Olivia to recall her conversation with Bell in the parallel universe . There , Bell warned Olivia of a " great storm " that was coming , and that she must stop a man who is trying to open a gateway between the two universes , providing Olivia with an icon symbol and a hand @-@ written name to remember . Walter and Peter help revive Olivia who immediately demands to see Nina . As Olivia leaves , Walter returns with Rebecca to her home .
Nina , initially doubtful that Olivia met Bell , recognizes the " great storm " phrase , and attempts to help Olivia in any way possible . As Olivia recounts the name of another cryogenics facility from Bell 's note , she receives a text message from Charlie warning her that Nina is the shapeshifter . She leaves and regroups with Charlie , but in a side alley , is alerted by her phone that Massive Dynamic 's analysis of the first device was completed , and reveals Charlie as the shapeshifter . Too late , Olivia realizes she has told Charlie the location of the cryogenics facility , and Charlie relays this to another agent . After a brief fight for her life , Olivia shoots and kills the shapeshifter . Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) helps to comfort Olivia that she had to kill the man she thought was Charlie . At the episode 's conclusion , the head with Bell 's symbol is reattached to the body of a shapeshifter .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and filming = = =
" Momentum Deferred " was written by screenwriters Zack Stentz and Ashley Edward Miller . In the first several drafts of the episode , it was initially called " This is the Night Mail , " which was based on a poem by W.H. Auden . The episode completed the " gun arc " storyline , which began with Olivia hurtling out of her SUV in the season premiere and being too weak to control her gun during her physical recovery , and ended with the killing of the shapeshifter posing as Charlie Francis . Miller and Stentz elaborated , " I think it 's Jeff Pinkner who described the first several episodes as the gun arc . Because really the gun played out until Olivia was whole again . Her actions with the gun in all of those episodes symbolized where she was on the journey . And it culminates in her being able to use it to kill someone who looks exactly like her best friend . "
Co @-@ executive producer Joe Chappelle worked as the episode director . He commented , " I was so looking forward to directing 2x04 because it was a payoff of a full season and three episodes of work . You 've been laying all this groundwork of information for all the characters and the backstory . The actors loved doing it because they 're earned moments . "
The episode was shot in Vancouver during the summer , where temperatures were over 100 degrees Fahrenheit . Executive producer Jeff Pinkner commented that despite the heat , guest actor Leonard Nimoy " was doing pages and pages of dialogue , and he handled it like a pro , " while co @-@ star Joshua Jackson joked that " [ Nimoy 's ] wife said he practices biofeedback , so he knows how to control his body temperature " . Chappelle called the episode " intriguing because it 's a summation of everything that came before it , so we 're resolving a lot of issues and a lot of questions . But it 's also a springboard into the rest of the season " . Actor John Noble , who played Walter Bishop , called it " probably one of our strongest and densest episodes " because it " changes the whole direction of the show " .
Not knowing when his next billed episode would be , Nimoy said in an interview before " Momentum Deferred " aired that he 's " waiting to see what these terribly imaginative writers come up with for the future . I ’ m expecting that I probably will be going back to work for them before too much longer . I 'm looking forward to what they send me on the page " . After shooting the episode , Pinkner said " We want him back as much as he wants to come back " . Nimoy 's next appearance occurred six episodes later , in " Grey Matters " . As a reference to a brief appearance by Nimoy 's character William Bell , sound editor Bruce Tanis was instructed to create bells as a recurring motif in the scene when Bell encounters Olivia and gives her vital information about the parallel universe . Tanis explained that because he couldn 't put the sound of bells in everything , he " took some dry ice recordings and pitched them down considerably and reverbed them to become ringing tones that I played underneath the whole scene " . Tanis also used some " reversed " ship 's bells as well as crystal glass rubs in order to make Bell 's office sound like multiple layers of glass and bell sounds ; he referred to the scene as " a little ominous " but not " too cliche " .
Prop master Rob Smith joined the series during its second season , and had to quickly learn about all the gadgets featured in Fringe 's debut season . Smith was asked to create a " neural stimulator " in the script to " Momentum Deferred " , but " didn ’ t really know the episodes well enough to say , ‘ Oh , ok , that ’ s exactly what it is . ’ So I talked to the director , who had been on season 1 , and he goes , ‘ Oh , I don ’ t know , it ’ s just something that goes on the guy ’ s head ' . " Smith discovered that the headpiece in question had been rented during the first season , causing him to recreate the prop over one weekend . He called this process " a little bit stressful . " The gadget , Smith explained , was important because it " defined the way that Walter works . He ’ s this mad scientist who takes conventional science and then puts his own twist on it , as it were . And then the thing that struck me about that one was that it made me uncomfortable to look at it . " Smith added , " It ’ s one of those things that people love and hate about Fringe , it puts your [ sic ] out of your comfort zone . That ’ s sort of what I was trying to say about Walter … there ’ s kind of a bird ’ s nest of wires everywhere , and then they end up on the guy ’ s head , and from that he can tell what the guy ’ s thinking . It ’ s quite cool . "
= = = Casting = = =
" Momentum Deferred " marked the first appearance of guest actor Sebastian Roché as Thomas Jerome Newton , a new recurring villain from the parallel universe often referred to as the " Omega Man " . Newton was named in honor of English musician David Bowie , who played a character with the same name in the film The Man Who Fell to Earth . German actor Thomas Kretschmann was originally cast for the part , but was unable to be a recurring character due to a scheduling conflict . Though uncredited , Kretschmann briefly did some shooting on the set of " Momentum Deferred " ; Kretschmann was originally in Newton 's one scene in the episode , at the end when they show a sewn @-@ up head , but Roché 's head instead appears .
Near the end of the first season in late May 2009 , actor Kirk Acevedo announced he was " fired " off of the show from his Facebook page . Executive producer Jeff Pinkner denied it soon after , explaining that " like all things on Fringe , there is more to this story than meets the eye " and reminded viewers that an alternate version of his character had already appeared in a first season episode . Later that summer at Comic @-@ Con in July he reiterated that " rumors of Charlie 's demise are premature , " and at the August Television Critics Association press tour he commented about Charlie possibly showing up in the previously visited parallel universe . " Momentum Deferred " marked the actor 's last appearance in the prime universe . In response to why the character was killed off , Entertainment Weekly 's Michael Ausiello reported that the " storyline dictated . Charlie wasn 't going to have much to do this season , and rather than waste Kirk 's time , they cut him loose " . The character 's doppelganger from the parallel universe returned in the season finale " Over There " .
Despite initial reports stating guest actress Theresa Russell would be playing a recurring character , the episode marked her only appearance as an adult version of the character . Russell plays Rebecca Kibner , a former test subject and love interest of Walter 's ; a younger version played by actress Tegan Moss is seen in the season premiere " A New Day in the Old Town " . In the DVD audio commentary , the writers explained that when they were looking for an actress to play the character , the casting director April Webster , acting on Jeff Pinkner 's instructions , called Kibner both " a blessing and a curse , " because the writers wanted to explore the burden of what it meant to be special . One writer explained Kibner and Walter 's past relationship had not been a long term affair , but instead more of a " little fling " . The episode also marked the first appearance of Canadian actor Ryan McDonald as recurring character Brandon Fayette , a Massive Dynamic scientist . According to the episode 's writers , the character is based on a man who works at the production company Bad Robot .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Momentum Deferred " aired to an estimated 6 @.@ 02 million viewers in the United States , with a 2 @.@ 1 / 6 rating for adults 18 – 49 . This rating helped Fox increase 39 % in the rating share from the previous year on their Thursday night shows .
= = = Reviews = = =
Josh Wigler from MTV loved the revelations from the conversation with William Bell , along with the appearance of shapeshifters . He thought the episode was Fringe " at its absolute finest , " as the " mystery @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week and the overarching plot worked in complete harmony with one another , proving that Fringe is entirely capable of delivering on both a serialized and episodic basis " . Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker praised guest actor Leonard Nimoy 's " terrific , coolly @-@ controlled performance , " and wrote that he continued " to admire the way Fringe can mind @-@ meld its scientific fiction with workplace @-@ family drama and light comedy , juggling an increasing number of characters and subplots , while still maintaining a strong narrative through @-@ line " . The A.V. Club 's Noel Murray graded the episode a B + , explaining that the episode was much better than the previous week and also praising the introduction of two new characters and the long awaited meeting between Olivia and William Bell . Murray concluded his review somewhat negatively , " If the whole episode had maintained the " yes we 're aware this is kinda nutsy " tone of that one great line , I 'd have bumped it up one more notch to the A @-@ level . I 'm holding back only because " Momentum Deferred " was such an info @-@ dump , and played a fraction too soberly " .
Writing for Mania.com , Stephen Lackey thought the alternate universe plotline was risky because it had the potential to cause Fringe to " mak [ e ] a complex plot convoluted by taking off in flights of fancy with the writing and forgetting what has been written before , " but he does not believe that point has been reached yet . He also thought the meeting between Olivia and Bell " wasn 't as epic as it has been teased , " but enjoyed the " fascinating " cliffhanger at the end , ultimately calling it a " good " episode . Website blogger io9 listed " Momentum Deferred " as one of the " crucial " episodes new viewers must watch to get into the show . In January 2013 , IGN ranked the episode as the third best of the series , explaining that " the early seasons of Fringe specialized in putting Olivia in dire circumstances and letting her fight her way out like a she @-@ boss . ' Momentum Deferred ' was one of those episodes , and it brought more exciting moments than most series get in a whole season . "
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= 2008 Giro d 'Italia =
The 2008 Giro d 'Italia was the 91st running of the Giro d 'Italia , one of cycling 's Grand Tours . It began in Palermo on 10 May and ended in Milan on 1 June . Twenty @-@ two teams entered the race , which was won by Spaniard Alberto Contador of the Astana cycling team . Second and third respectively were Italians Riccardo Riccò and Marzio Bruseghin .
Contador first took the race lead after the second mountain stage , to Marmolada , by finishing nearly fifteen minutes ahead of previous race leader Gabriele Bosisio . The race 's overall classification had been headed for several days beforehand by Giovanni Visconti , who participated in a breakaway in the sixth stage which won him sufficient time to hold the race leader 's pink jersey for more than a week . In the race 's final week , Contador faced stern challenges from Riccò and defending Giro champion Danilo Di Luca . Though Contador did not win any stage , his performances were consistently strong enough to remain ahead through to the conclusion of the race .
Team CSF Group – Navigare appeared to perform quite well in the race , coming away with four stage wins and victory in the mountains classification and the Trofeo Fast Team . In August 2008 , mountains classification winner Emanuele Sella was announced to have tested positive for methoxy polyethylene glycol @-@ epoetin beta ( better known as Mircera , an erythropoietin derivative ) at an out @-@ of @-@ competition control held by the Union Cycliste Internationale ( UCI ) . He subsequently admitted his doping , and named teammate Matteo Priamo as his supplier . Both riders were subsequently suspended . Though as of April 2010 no definitive positive results have come to light from samples taken during the Giro , retesting of those samples has reportedly revealed six to seven presumptive positives for Mircera . Riccò , who tested positive for the drug at the 2008 Tour de France , is among those suspected of having given positive tests in the Giro , as is Sella .
= = Teams = =
Twenty @-@ two teams participated in the 2008 Giro . These included 16 UCI ProTour teams , and six UCI Professional Continental teams . Of the 18 ProTour teams , the two left out were Bouygues Télécom and Crédit Agricole . Two other ProTour teams , Astana and Team High Road , were left off the first list of teams announced by RCS Sport , the organizers of the Giro . This list also included a further Professional Continental team , NGC Medical – OTC Industria Porte , which was later excluded . Astana and Team High Road were both later added , with Astana 's invitation coming just six days before the event began .
The 22 teams who took part in the race were :
= = Race previews and favorites = =
The 2008 Giro featured an assortment of contenders for the overall victory . Defending champion Danilo Di Luca had faced potential bans which would have kept him out of the race , after investigations into his involvement with the Oil for Drugs scandal and an irregular doping test given after stage 17 of the 2007 Giro d 'Italia , either of which could have resulted in a two @-@ year suspension . Though he was suspended for three months because of Oil for Drugs , he was cleared by the Italian National Olympic Committee of any wrongdoing in the 2007 Giro , and was thus permitted to start .
The late invitation of Astana to the race provided three potential contenders : 2007 Tour de France winner Alberto Contador , third @-@ place finisher from that race Levi Leipheimer , and Andreas Klöden . One analysis of pre @-@ race favorites considered Klöden to be the strongest of them , while another considered Contador to be the race 's biggest favorite after his wins at the recently run Vuelta al País Vasco and Vuelta a Castilla y León . Both Di Luca and Contador had strong domestiques ( support riders ) by their sides , with Di Luca joined by two @-@ time Giro d 'Italia champion Paolo Savoldelli , Gabriele Bosisio , and Alessandro Spezialetti , and Contador by Leipheimer and Klöden . Other riders named as overall contenders included Denis Menchov , Gilberto Simoni , Vincenzo Nibali , Riccardo Riccò , Mauricio Soler , Marzio Bruseghin , Emanuele Sella , Evgeni Petrov , Franco Pellizotti , and Juan Manuel Gárate . Unibet.com 's odds @-@ on favorite was Klöden . 2004 Giro d 'Italia winner Damiano Cunego chose to skip the race to better prepare for the Tour de France , adding to speculation that this would be the first Giro since 1996 to feature a non @-@ Italian winner .
Six stages were classified as flat and likely to be contested by sprinters . Italian sprinter Alessandro Petacchi , who had notably won nine stages in the 2004 race , did not plan to enter this Giro because of bouts with influenza and bronchitis which hindered his training . He was later suspended from the sport , and his contract with Team Milram terminated , as a result of his controversial doping case from the 2007 Giro . Sprinters identified as being favorites in the bunch finishes that the Giro would offer included Alexandre Usov , Dimitry Muravyev , Enrico Gasparotto , Maximiliano Richeze , Robert Förster , Mark Cavendish , André Greipel , Daniele Bennati , Paolo Bettini , Graeme Brown , Robbie McEwen , Julian Dean , Erik Zabel , and Alberto Loddo . Richeze was withdrawn by his team CSF Group – Navigare the day before the race began after a positive doping test , though he would later be cleared of any wrongdoing . His name remained on the start list , and he was not replaced , meaning CSF Group – Navigare entered the race with only eight riders instead of the customary nine .
= = Route and stages = =
The race began for the second year in succession with a team time trial on one of Italy 's islands , in this case Sicily ( in 2007 it had been Sardinia ) . The route contained only four stages that were officially deemed mountain stages , but several of the seven intermediate stages contained selective climbs . The Giro had four time trials , three of which were individual and one a team event . Six stages were classified as flat .
The sixth stage was originally scheduled to be 265 km ( 165 mi ) in length , but it was shortened the day before it was to be run . This decision was made because many riders in the race had become upset over the lengths of transfers from the end of one stage to the beginning of the next and that this afforded them little rest to prepare for such long stages . The 34 km ( 21 mi ) Circuito del Gargano was eliminated .
Of the four official mountain stages , three ended with climbs : stage 14 to Alpe di Pampeago , stage 15 to Passo Fedaia , and stage 19 to Presolana . Stage 20 earned its mountain designation by way of the Passo di Gavia and the Passo del Mortirolo , respectively the highest point reached and the steepest climb of this year 's Giro . Two other stages had summit arrivals , stage 7 to Pescocostanzo and the demanding stage 16 climbing time trial to Plan de Corones , the summit of which the Giro had never before visited . It was hoped that the number of time trials , including one on the race 's last day , would keep the race hotly contested to the end .
= = Race overview = =
The Giro started with a team time trial in Sicily . There was pre @-@ race speculation that this stage would result in an American rider wearing the pink jersey for the first time in twenty years , as Slipstream – Chipotle , Team CSC , and Astana were among the biggest favorites to win and all had strong American time trialists on their squads . The victory went to Slipstream – Chipotle , which put their team leader , American Christian Vande Velde , in the first pink jersey . With a hilly stage ahead on day two of the Giro , Vande Velde 's race lead was far from secure . He lost it to Franco Pellizotti , who finished sufficiently ahead of Vande Velde on the stage to take a lead of a single second in the overall classification . Pellizotti retained the race lead for the next three days , as those stages were flat and were contested by sprinters , with the overall favorites finishing together with the peloton in each .
The sixth stage was shortened from its original length of 265 km ( 165 mi ) to 231 @.@ 6 km ( 143 @.@ 9 mi ) . This was still the race 's second @-@ longest stage , and it featured a breakaway which shook up the race standings . Eleven riders finished nearly twelve minutes in front of the peloton , and reigning Italian national road race champion Giovanni Visconti assumed the race lead , by a margin of less than one second over fellow breakaway member Matthias Russ . Russ had begun the stage 13 seconds ahead of Visconti in the overall classification , but with Visconti gaining seven seconds on Russ at the finish line and six in bonification on the stage 's intermediate sprint , the young Italian became the next to wear the pink jersey . Visconti and his team Quick @-@ Step ably defended the jersey for nine days , keeping it through the hilly seventh and eighth stages , as well as in the individual time trial in stage 11 and in three flat stages . Visconti eventually lost the lead on stage 14 , the Giro 's first stage categorized as high mountain , as he finished more than eighteen minutes behind stage winner Emanuele Sella . The race lead passed to Gabriele Bosisio after that stage , but he was unable to hold it the next day , finishing fifteen minutes behind Sella , again the stage winner . It was on this stage that Alberto Contador took the lead that he would never relinquish .
Contador faced repeated challenges from Riccardo Riccò and Danilo Di Luca in the race 's final week . They were separated by less than a minute after stage 15 , and though Di Luca would falter slightly in the Giro 's second individual time trial , the time gap among the three of them was just 21 seconds heading in to the Giro 's final mountain stage . Di Luca faltered further in that last mountain stage , losing almost five minutes and any chance to repeat as Giro champion , but Contador and Riccò finished together and were separated by only four seconds going into the Giro 's final stage , another individual time trial . Contador 's superior time trial skills provided the difference in the Giro 's finale . Though he finished 11th on the stage , he gained more than two minutes over Riccò , winning the Giro overall without taking any individual stage .
Emanuele Sella of CSF Group – Navigare won three stages in the race 's final week and took a convincing victory in the mountains classification , leading it for the entire race . His subsequent positive tests and confessions to the use of performance @-@ enhancing drugs outside the Giro cast serious doubt on the legitimacy of these results , however . Daniele Bennati was nearly as dominant in winning the points classification , taking three stage wins and six other top @-@ ten finishes . He led the classification after every stage except the second and eighth , which were both won by Riccò , who thereby gained the mauve jersey for one day on two separate occasions . Though Riccò was never able to take the overall race lead , he was the winner of the youth classification , taking the white jersey from Visconti when he lost the overall lead and holding it through the conclusion of the race . That jersey had also previously passed over the shoulders of Chris Anker Sørensen and Morris Possoni .
Five teams repeated as stage winners . Four individual riders won multiple stages . In addition to Sella 's three victories in the final week , the riders who won more than once were Riccardo Riccò in stages 2 and 8 , Daniele Bennati in stages 3 , 9 , and 12 , and Mark Cavendish in stages 4 and 13 . Tinkoff Credit Systems also won multiple stages , with Pavel Brutt in stage 5 and Vasil Kiryienka in stage 19 , after both figured into early morning breakaway groups .
Slipstream – Chipotle , Lampre , LPR Brakes – Ballan , Diquigiovanni – Androni , and Team CSC all won one stage apiece . Slipstream – Chipotle won the opening team time trial , Lampre rider Marzio Bruseghin won the Giro 's first individual time trial , LPR Brakes – Ballan rider Gabriele Bosisio won stage 7 from a morning escape , Diquigiovanni – Androni 's Alessandro Bertolini took stage 11 from a breakaway , and Team CSC veteran Jens Voigt was the winner of stage 18 .
Success was achieved by only a handful of teams , meaning that other teams did not achieve much in the race . Though they nearly took the race lead with Matthias Russ in stage 6 , Gerolsteiner had just two riders finish the race , and were never otherwise close to a notable result . Euskaltel – Euskadi had only four riders finish the race . Two other ProTour teams , Cofidis and Française des Jeux , similarly failed to be at all competitive in the Giro . None of them would return to the Giro in 2009 ; Gerolsteiner folded in 2008 after being unable to locate a new sponsor while Euskaltel – Euskadi , Cofidis , and Française des Jeux all made it known that they did not wish to participate and were thus declined invitations .
= = = Doping = = =
Several notable riders in the Giro were announced to have tested positive for banned performance @-@ enhancing drugs after the race concluded . Prominent amongst them was CSF Group – Navigare rider Emanuele Sella , a triple stage winner , winner of the mountains classification , and a key rider to CSF Group – Navigare 's victory in the teams classification . It was announced on 5 August that Sella had tested positive for Methoxy polyethylene glycol @-@ epoetin beta , better known as Mircera , a third @-@ generation form of the banned blood booster erythropoietin . At the time the Giro was run , the test for Mircera was still in development . An out @-@ of @-@ competition control was taken on 23 July , just days after positives from the 2008 Tour de France had come to light , and samples were sent to labs in Paris for analysis . UCI President Pat McQuaid said that Sella had been targeted in the control and that " [ i ] t wasn 't rocket science " to conclude that Sella 's performances in the Giro could have been artificially enhanced .
Sella confessed his doping to the Italian National Olympic Committee ( CONI ) and named teammate Matteo Priamo , also a stage winner in this Giro , as his supplier . Though Priamo never tested positive for anything , and though the Italian National Anti @-@ Doping tribunal originally exonerated him , the Court of Arbitration for Sport ruled , upon appeal by CONI , that he should be suspended for four years .
Riccardo Riccò , a double stage winner and the best young rider , tested positive for Mircera during the Tour de France , and was subsequently expelled with his team Saunier Duval – Scott . This control was taken just days before the one at which Sella gave his positive . Since it took place during the Tour de France , Riccò 's results from that race have been removed , but the results for Sella , Priamo , and Riccò all still stand as no positive tests from controls taken during the Giro have come to light . Riccò claims to have only taken the drug before the Tour , but there has been speculation that his performances in the Giro were not legitimate . Sella has similarly confessed to taking the drug while not confessing to have used it during the Giro .
After repeated positives over the summer , including tests from Leonardo Piepoli and Bernhard Kohl at the Tour de France , and Davide Rebellin and Stefan Schumacher from the 2008 Olympic Games , the UCI has sought to have samples taken during the Giro retested . In October 2009 , it was announced that six to seven riders from this Giro had presumptive positives , while further untestable doping involving ozone was also suspected . In total , 82 samples were retested , and the presumptive positives have been compared to values stored at an anti @-@ doping lab in Lausanne , Switzerland . The identities of those riders who tested positive have not yet been revealed . It is believed that Rebellin and Sella are among the riders to have presumptive positives .
= = Classification leadership = =
In the 2008 Giro d 'Italia , four different jerseys were awarded . For the general classification , calculated by adding each cyclist 's finishing times on each stage , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass start stages , the leader received a pink jersey . This classification is considered the most important of the Giro d 'Italia , and the winner is considered the winner of the Giro .
Additionally , there was a points classification , which awarded a mauve jersey . In the points classification , cyclists got points for finishing in the top 15 in a stage . The stage win awarded 25 points , second place awarded 20 points , third 16 , fourth 14 , fifth 12 , sixth 10 , and one point less per place down the line , to a single point for 15th . In addition , some points could be won in intermediate sprints .
There was also a mountains classification , which awarded a green jersey . In the mountains classifications , points were won by reaching the top of a mountain before other cyclists . Each climb was categorized , either first , second , or third category , with more points available for the higher @-@ categorized climbs . The highest point in the Giro ( called the Cima Coppi ) , which in 2008 was the Passo di Gavia in Stage 20 , afforded still more points than the other first @-@ category climbs .
The fourth was the young rider classification which awarded a white jersey . This was decided the same way as the general classification , but only riders born after 1 January 1983 were eligible .
There were also two classifications for teams . The first is the Trofeo Fast Team . In this classification , the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage are added , and the team with the lowest time is leading team . The Trofeo Super Team is a team points classification , with the top 20 placed riders on each stage earning points ( 20 for first place , 19 for second place and so on , down to a single point for 20th ) for their team .
The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run .
= = Final standings = =
= = = Minor classifications = = =
Other less well @-@ known classifications were awarded during the Giro , whose leaders did not receive a special jersey . These awards were based on points earned throughout the three weeks of the tour . Each mass start stage had one intermediate sprint , awarding points to the Expo Milano 2015 classification . These sprints gave bonus seconds towards the general classification , points towards the regular points classification , and also points towards the Expo Milano 2015 classification . This award was known in previous years as the Intergiro , and was previously time @-@ based , awarding a blue jersey . CSF Group – Navigare rider Fortunato Baliani won this classification .
Additional minor classifications included the combativity classification , which was a compilation of points gained for position on crossing intermediate sprints , mountain passes and stage finishes . Mountains classification winner Emanuele Sella took this award . The Azzurri d 'Italia classification was based on finishing order , but points were only awarded to the top three finishers in each stage . Like the overall points classification , it was Liquigas ' Daniele Bennati who won this . Also , the Trofeo Fuga Cervelo rewarded riders who took part in a breakaway at the head of the field , each rider in an escape of ten or fewer riders getting one point for each kilometre that the group stays clear . Along with the Expo Milano 2015 , Fortunato Baliani also finished first in this classification . Additionally , teams were on occasion given penalty points for technical infringements . Lampre avoided any penalties , and so was the winner of the Fair Play classification .
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= The Albums 2000 – 2010 =
The Albums 2000 – 2010 is a box set by Australian recording artist Kylie Minogue . It was released by Parlophone Records on 12 July 2011 . The five @-@ disc box set was released in Europe , and Australasia , and included all of Minogue 's studio albums from the years 2000 to 2010 ; Light Years ( 2000 ) , Fever ( 2001 ) , Body Language ( 2003 ) , X ( 2007 ) , and Aphrodite ( 2010 ) . The cover sleeve for the album consisted of fragments from the original artworks inserted into Minogue 's silhouette from her cover for Fever ( 2002 ) . The Albums 2000 – 2010 marked Minogue 's first box set collection until her October 2012 release , K25 : Time Capsule .
Upon its release , The Albums 2000 @-@ 2010 received positive reception from most of the reviewers , who complimented the overall packaging of the box set and her releases through Parlophone . Some of the critics were unimpressed with the exclusion of her work from the PWL and Deconstruction period . The box set charted on the UK Albums Chart at number 37 , and on the Scottish Albums Chart at number 40 .
= = Background and packaging = =
It was first announced on Minogue 's official website in May 2011 that EMI would be releasing a five @-@ CD box set . The set includes every previous studio album Minogue had released from 2000 up until 2010 ; the original versions of Light Years ( 2000 ) , Fever ( 2001 ) , Body Language ( 2003 ) , X ( 2007 ) , and Aphrodite ( 2010 ) , with each disc housed in a cardboard sleeve . The cardboard sleeves contain the original album artwork and one image from each album photo shoot imprinted inside the cardboard sleeve , without the album or Minogue 's logo imprinted . Each box set features a 15 " x 10 " poster that features the credits and album artworks of the original albums . Inside the box , each of the albums represent a significant colour to which is displays on the front : Light Years is light blue , Fever is white , Body Language is black , X is red , and Aphrodite is navy blue .
The box set carries out the original first press releases of each album , meaning that the hidden track from Light Years , " Password " , is featured on the box set , and all released singles from each album use their single edit , and not the album edit . The only song to be absent is the bilingually @-@ altered tracks for Minogue 's single , " Your Disco Needs You " , which appeared as a bonus track on Light Years in different regions . It was her first greatest hits box set to be released ; in October 2012 , to commemorate her twenty @-@ fifth year in music business , she released her second , all @-@ singles box set , K25 : Time Capsule .
= = Reception = =
The Albums 2000 – 2010 received positive reviews from most reviewers . A writer from The Sun awarded the box set a perfect five star rating , stating " Whether you like hot @-@ pant Kylie , indie Kylie , girl @-@ next @-@ door Kylie or dark Kylie , there 's something for every Kylie fan in this special box @-@ set . Made up of five albums and celebrating ten years of tunes , we challenge you to get them out of your head . " Scott Harrah from Stagezine awarded the album four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , but did not review the box set ; instead , he reviewed each album individually because " all [ albums ] are so different in both sound and concept . " Jon O 'Brien from AllMusic awarded the album three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars , labelling her earlier work as " infectious " . Despite being critical towards the lack of inclusion of her 1994 – 1998 Deconstruction work , and the inclusion of her albums , X , and Aphrodite , he concluded " Kylie has yet to make that one essential album , and the going @-@ through @-@ the @-@ motions nature of her later releases suggests her time may have passed , but this box set still contains plenty of moments to justify her position as one of the all @-@ time premier pop princesses . "
Writing in retrospect for Daily Express , reviewer Simon Gage was critical of Minogue 's lack of musical progression , charisma , and thought that she lacked a " great voice " . He stated " There are dodgy tracks and the “ voice ” , more processed than a tinned pea , does start to grate but it ’ s still pretty good . " He awarded the box set three stars . British journalist Paul Du Noyer reviewed the box set , and complimented Minogue 's Parlophone work as " ambiguous pop " . However , he stated " There ’ s a lot of ambitious pop in here , but no conceptual overreach . Not even her experience of breast cancer was allowed to surface in Kylie ’ s subsequent material : lyrically , it was straight back to business . It seems unlikely such a 20 @-@ year lucky streak could be sustained without a lot of shrewd decisions by Minogue herself . So it seems that everyone is right after all : Kylie is A Good Thing , and here is just enough of it . "
In the United Kingdom , the box set debuted at number thirty @-@ seven on the UK Albums Chart , becoming Minogue 's nineteenth album entry since her debut album , Kylie ( 1987 ) . The box set stayed in for one week on the top 100 chart . The Albums 2000 @-@ 2010 also debuted at number forty on the Scottish Albums Chart for a sole week .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Ketogenic diet =
The ketogenic diet is a high @-@ fat , adequate @-@ protein , low @-@ carbohydrate diet that in medicine is used primarily to treat difficult @-@ to @-@ control ( refractory ) epilepsy in children . The diet forces the body to burn fats rather than carbohydrates . Normally , the carbohydrates contained in food are converted into glucose , which is then transported around the body and is particularly important in fueling brain @-@ function . However , if there is very little carbohydrate in the diet , the liver converts fat into fatty acids and ketone bodies . The ketone bodies pass into the brain and replace glucose as an energy source . An elevated level of ketone bodies in the blood , a state known as ketosis , leads to a reduction in the frequency of epileptic seizures .
The original therapeutic diet for paediatric epilepsy provides just enough protein for body growth and repair , and sufficient calories to maintain the correct weight for age and height . This classic ketogenic diet contains a 4 : 1 ratio by weight of fat to combined protein and carbohydrate . This is achieved by excluding high @-@ carbohydrate foods such as starchy fruits and vegetables , bread , pasta , grains and sugar , while increasing the consumption of foods high in fat such as nuts , cream and butter . Most dietary fat is made of molecules called long @-@ chain triglycerides ( LCTs ) . However , medium @-@ chain triglycerides ( MCTs ) — made from fatty acids with shorter carbon chains than LCTs — are more ketogenic . A variant of the classic diet known as the MCT ketogenic diet uses a form of coconut oil , which is rich in MCTs , to provide around half the calories . As less overall fat is needed in this variant of the diet , a greater proportion of carbohydrate and protein can be consumed , allowing a greater variety of food choices .
The classic therapeutic ketogenic diet was developed for treatment of paediatric epilepsy in the 1920s and was widely used into the next decade , but its popularity waned with the introduction of effective anticonvulsant drugs . In the mid @-@ 1990s , Hollywood producer Jim Abrahams , whose son 's severe epilepsy was effectively controlled by the diet , created the Charlie Foundation to promote it . Publicity included an appearance on NBC 's Dateline programme and ... First Do No Harm ( 1997 ) , a made @-@ for @-@ television film starring Meryl Streep . The foundation sponsored a multicentre research study , the results of which — announced in 1996 — marked the beginning of renewed scientific interest in the diet .
Almost half of children and young people with epilepsy who have tried some form of this diet saw the number of seizures drop by at least half , and the effect persists even after discontinuing the diet . The most common adverse effect is constipation , affecting about 30 % of patients — this was due to fluid restriction , which was once a feature of the diet , but this led to increased risk of kidney stones , and is no longer considered beneficial . There is some evidence that adults with epilepsy may benefit from the diet , and that a less strict regimen , such as a modified Atkins diet , is similarly effective . Clinical trials and studies in animal models ( including C. elegans ) suggest that ketogenic diets provide neuroprotective and disease @-@ modifying benefits for a number of adult neurodegenerative disorders . As of 2012 , there is limited clinical trial data in these areas , and , outside of paediatric epilepsy , use of the ketogenic diet remains at the research stage .
= = Epilepsy = =
Epilepsy is one of the most common neurological disorders after stroke , and affects at least 50 million people worldwide . It is diagnosed in a person having recurrent unprovoked seizures . These occur when cortical neurons fire excessively , hypersynchronously , or both , leading to temporary disruption of normal brain function . This might affect , for example , the muscles , the senses , consciousness , or a combination . A seizure can be focal ( confined to one part of the brain ) or generalised ( spread widely throughout the brain and leading to a loss of consciousness ) . Epilepsy may occur for a variety of reasons ; some forms have been classified into epileptic syndromes , most of which begin in childhood . Epilepsy is considered refractory ( not yielding to treatment ) when two or three anticonvulsant drugs have failed to control it . About 60 % of patients will achieve control of their epilepsy with the first drug they use , whereas about 30 % do not achieve control with drugs . When drugs fail , other options include epilepsy surgery , vagus nerve stimulation and the ketogenic diet .
= = History = =
The ketogenic diet is a mainstream therapy that does not use pharmaceutical drugs , which was developed to reproduce the success and remove the limitations of the non @-@ mainstream use of fasting to treat epilepsy . Although popular in the 1920s and 30s , it was largely abandoned in favour of new anticonvulsant drugs . Most individuals with epilepsy can successfully control their seizures with medication . However , 20 – 30 % fail to achieve such control despite trying a number of different drugs . For this group , and for children in particular , the diet has once again found a role in epilepsy management .
= = = Fasting = = =
Physicians of ancient Greece treated diseases , including epilepsy , by altering their patients ' diet . An early treatise in the Hippocratic Corpus , On the Sacred Disease , covers the disease ; it dates from c . 400 BC . Its author argued against the prevailing view that epilepsy was supernatural in origin and cure , and proposed that dietary therapy had a rational and physical basis . In the same collection , the author of Epidemics describes the case of a man whose epilepsy is cured as quickly as it had appeared , through complete abstinence of food and drink . The royal physician Erasistratus declared , " One inclining to epilepsy should be made to fast without mercy and be put on short rations . " Galen believed an " attenuating diet " might afford a cure in mild cases and be helpful in others .
The first modern study of fasting as a treatment for epilepsy was in France in 1911 . Twenty epilepsy patients of all ages were " detoxified " by consuming a low @-@ calorie vegetarian diet , combined with periods of fasting and purging . Two benefited enormously , but most failed to maintain compliance with the imposed restrictions . The diet improved the patients ' mental capabilities , in contrast to their medication , potassium bromide , which dulled the mind .
Around this time , Bernarr Macfadden , an American exponent of physical culture , popularised the use of fasting to restore health . His disciple , the osteopathic physician Hugh Conklin , of Battle Creek , Michigan , began to treat his epilepsy patients by recommending fasting . Conklin conjectured that epileptic seizures were caused when a toxin , secreted from the Peyer 's patches in the intestines , was discharged into the bloodstream . He recommended a fast lasting 18 to 25 days to allow this toxin to dissipate . Conklin probably treated hundreds of epilepsy patients with his " water diet " and boasted of a 90 % cure rate in children , falling to 50 % in adults . Later analysis of Conklin 's case records showed 20 % of his patients achieved freedom from seizures and 50 % had some improvement .
Conklin 's fasting therapy was adopted by neurologists in mainstream practice . In 1916 , a Dr McMurray wrote to the New York Medical Journal claiming to have successfully treated epilepsy patients with a fast , followed by a starch- and sugar @-@ free diet , since 1912 . In 1921 , prominent endocrinologist H. Rawle Geyelin reported his experiences to the American Medical Association convention . He had seen Conklin 's success first @-@ hand and had attempted to reproduce the results in 36 of his own patients . He achieved similar results despite only having studied the patients for a short time . Further studies in the 1920s indicated that seizures generally returned after the fast . Charles Howland , the parent of one of Conklin 's successful patients and a wealthy New York corporate lawyer , gave his brother John a gift of $ 5 @,@ 000 to study " the ketosis of starvation " . As professor of paediatrics at Johns Hopkins Hospital , John Howland used the money to fund research undertaken by neurologist Stanley Cobb and his assistant William G. Lennox .
= = = Diet = = =
In 1921 , Rollin Woodyatt reviewed the research on diet and diabetes . He reported that three water @-@ soluble compounds , β @-@ hydroxybutyrate , acetoacetate and acetone ( known collectively as ketone bodies ) , were produced by the liver in otherwise healthy people when they were starved or if they consumed a very low @-@ carbohydrate , high @-@ fat diet . Russel Wilder , at the Mayo Clinic , built on this research and coined the term ketogenic diet to describe a diet that produced a high level of ketone bodies in the blood ( ketonemia ) through an excess of fat and lack of carbohydrate . Wilder hoped to obtain the benefits of fasting in a dietary therapy that could be maintained indefinitely . His trial on a few epilepsy patients in 1921 was the first use of the ketogenic diet as a treatment for epilepsy .
Wilder 's colleague , paediatrician Mynie Peterman , later formulated the classic diet , with a ratio of one gram of protein per kilogram of body weight in children , 10 – 15 g of carbohydrate per day , and the remainder of calories from fat . Peterman 's work in the 1920s established the techniques for induction and maintenance of the diet . Peterman documented positive effects ( improved alertness , behaviour and sleep ) and adverse effects ( nausea and vomiting due to excess ketosis ) . The diet proved to be very successful in children : Peterman reported in 1925 that 95 % of 37 young patients had improved seizure control on the diet and 60 % became seizure @-@ free . By 1930 , the diet had also been studied in 100 teenagers and adults . Clifford Barborka , also from the Mayo Clinic , reported that 56 % of those older patients improved on the diet and 12 % became seizure @-@ free . Although the adult results are similar to modern studies of children , they did not compare as well to contemporary studies . Barborka concluded that adults were least likely to benefit from the diet , and the use of the ketogenic diet in adults was not studied again until 1999 .
= = = Anticonvulsants and decline = = =
During the 1920s and 1930s , when the only anticonvulsant drugs were the sedative bromides ( discovered 1857 ) and phenobarbital ( 1912 ) , the ketogenic diet was widely used and studied . This changed in 1938 when H. Houston Merritt and Tracy Putnam discovered phenytoin ( Dilantin ) , and the focus of research shifted to discovering new drugs . With the introduction of sodium valproate in the 1970s , drugs were available to neurologists that were effective across a broad range of epileptic syndromes and seizure types . The use of the ketogenic diet , by this time restricted to difficult cases such as Lennox – Gastaut syndrome , declined further .
= = = MCT diet = = =
In the 1960s , it was discovered that medium @-@ chain triglycerides ( MCTs ) produce more ketone bodies per unit of energy than normal dietary fats ( which are mostly long @-@ chain triglycerides ) . MCTs are more efficiently absorbed and are rapidly transported to the liver via the hepatic portal system rather than the lymphatic system . The severe carbohydrate restrictions of the classic ketogenic diet made it difficult for parents to produce palatable meals that their children would tolerate . In 1971 , Peter Huttenlocher devised a ketogenic diet where about 60 % of the calories came from the MCT oil , and this allowed more protein and up to three times as much carbohydrate as the classic ketogenic diet . The oil was mixed with at least twice its volume of skimmed milk , chilled , and sipped during the meal or incorporated into food . He tested it on twelve children and adolescents with intractable seizures . Most children improved in both seizure control and alertness , results that were similar to the classic ketogenic diet . Gastrointestinal upset was a problem , which led one patient to abandon the diet , but meals were easier to prepare and better accepted by the children . The MCT diet replaced the classic ketogenic diet in many hospitals , though some devised diets that were a combination of the two .
= = = Revival = = =
The ketogenic diet achieved national media exposure in the US in October 1994 , when NBC 's Dateline television programme reported the case of Charlie Abrahams , son of Hollywood producer Jim Abrahams . The two @-@ year @-@ old suffered from epilepsy that had remained uncontrolled by mainstream and alternative therapies . Abrahams discovered a reference to the ketogenic diet in an epilepsy guide for parents and brought Charlie to John Freeman at Johns Hopkins Hospital , which had continued to offer the therapy . Under the diet , Charlie 's epilepsy was rapidly controlled and his developmental progress resumed . This inspired Abrahams to create the Charlie Foundation to promote the diet and fund research . A multicentre prospective study began in 1994 , the results were presented to the American Epilepsy Society in 1996 and were published in 1998 . There followed an explosion of scientific interest in the diet . In 1997 , Abrahams produced a TV movie , ... First Do No Harm , starring Meryl Streep , in which a young boy 's intractable epilepsy is successfully treated by the ketogenic diet .
By 2007 , the ketogenic diet was available from around 75 centres in 45 countries , and less restrictive variants , such as the modified Atkins diet , were in use , particularly among older children and adults . The ketogenic diet was also under investigation for the treatment of a wide variety of disorders other than epilepsy .
= = Efficacy = =
The ketogenic diet reduces seizure frequency by more than 50 % in half of the patients who try it and by more than 90 % in a third of patients . Three @-@ quarters of children who respond do so within two weeks , though experts recommend a trial of at least three months before assuming it has been ineffective . Children with refractory epilepsy are more likely to benefit from the ketogenic diet than from trying another anticonvulsant drug . There is some evidence that adolescents and adults may also benefit from the diet .
= = = Trial design = = =
Early studies reported high success rates : in one study in 1925 , 60 % of patients became seizure @-@ free , and another 35 % of patients had a 50 % reduction in seizure frequency . These studies generally examined a cohort of patients recently treated by the physician ( what is known as a retrospective study ) and selected patients who had successfully maintained the dietary restrictions . However , these studies are difficult to compare to modern trials . One reason is that these older trials suffered from selection bias , as they excluded patients who were unable to start or maintain the diet and thereby selected from patients who would generate better results . In an attempt to control for this bias , modern study design prefers a prospective cohort ( the patients in the study are chosen before therapy begins ) in which the results are presented for all patients regardless of whether they started or completed the treatment ( known as intent @-@ to @-@ treat analysis ) .
Another difference between older and newer studies is that the type of patients treated with the ketogenic diet has changed over time . When first developed and used , the ketogenic diet was not a treatment of last resort ; in contrast , the children in modern studies have already tried and failed a number of anticonvulsant drugs , so may be assumed to have more difficult @-@ to @-@ treat epilepsy . Early and modern studies also differ because the treatment protocol has changed . In older protocols , the diet was initiated with a prolonged fast , designed to lose 5 – 10 % body weight , and heavily restricted the calorie intake . Concerns over child health and growth led to a relaxation of the diet 's restrictions . Fluid restriction was once a feature of the diet , but this led to increased risk of constipation and kidney stones , and is no longer considered beneficial .
= = = Outcomes = = =
A study with an intent @-@ to @-@ treat prospective design was published in 1998 by a team from the Johns Hopkins Hospital and followed @-@ up by a report published in 2001 . As with most studies of the ketogenic diet , there was no control group ( patients who did not receive the treatment ) . The study enrolled 150 children . After three months , 83 % of them were still on the diet , 26 % had experienced a good reduction in seizures , 31 % had had an excellent reduction and 3 % were seizure @-@ free . At twelve months , 55 % were still on the diet , 23 % had a good response , 20 % had an excellent response and 7 % were seizure @-@ free . Those who had discontinued the diet by this stage did so because it was ineffective , too restrictive or due to illness , and most of those who remained were benefiting from it . The percentage of those still on the diet at two , three and four years was 39 % , 20 % and 12 % respectively . During this period the most common reason for discontinuing the diet was because the children had become seizure @-@ free or significantly better . At four years , 16 % of the original 150 children had a good reduction in seizure frequency , 14 % had an excellent reduction and 13 % were seizure @-@ free , though these figures include many who were no longer on the diet . Those remaining on the diet after this duration were typically not seizure @-@ free but had had an excellent response .
It is possible to combine the results of several small studies to produce evidence that is stronger than that available from each study alone — a statistical method known as meta @-@ analysis . One of four such analyses , conducted in 2006 , looked at 19 studies on a total of 1 @,@ 084 patients . It concluded that half the patients achieved a 50 % reduction in seizures and a third achieved a 90 % reduction .
A systematic review in 2012 found and analysed four randomized controlled trials of ketogenic diet in children and young people with epilepsy , as well as six prospective and five retrospective studies . The trials were done among children and young people for whom drugs failed to control their seizures , and only one of the trials compared a group assigned to ketogenic diet with a group not assigned to one . The other trials compared types of diets or ways of introducing them to make them more tolerable . Nearly 40 % of the children and young people had half or fewer seizures with the diet compared with the group not assigned to the diet . Only about 10 % were still on the diet after a few years . Adverse effects such as hunger and loss of energy in that trial were common , with about 30 % experiencing constipation .
= = Indications and contra @-@ indications = =
The ketogenic diet is indicated as an adjunctive ( additional ) treatment in children with drug @-@ resistant epilepsy . It is approved by national clinical guidelines in Scotland , England and Wales and reimbursed by nearly all US insurance companies . Children with a focal lesion ( a single point of brain abnormality causing the epilepsy ) who would make suitable candidates for surgery are more likely to become seizure @-@ free with surgery than with the ketogenic diet . In the UK , the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence advises that the diet should not be recommended for adults with epilepsy . About a third of epilepsy centres that offer the ketogenic diet also offer a dietary therapy to adults . Some clinicians consider the two less restrictive dietary variants — the low glycemic index treatment and the modified Atkins diet — to be more appropriate for adolescents and adults . A liquid form of the ketogenic diet is particularly easy to prepare for , and well tolerated by , infants on formula and children who are tube @-@ fed .
Advocates for the diet recommend that it be seriously considered after two medications have failed , as the chance of other drugs succeeding is only 10 % . The diet can be considered earlier for some epilepsy and genetic syndromes where it has shown particular usefulness . These include Dravet syndrome , infantile spasms , myoclonic @-@ astatic epilepsy and tuberous sclerosis complex .
A survey in 2005 of 88 paediatric neurologists in the US found that 36 % regularly prescribed the diet after three or more drugs had failed ; 24 % occasionally prescribed the diet as a last resort ; 24 % had only prescribed the diet in a few rare cases ; and 16 % had never prescribed the diet . There are several possible explanations for this gap between evidence and clinical practice . One major factor may be the lack of adequately trained dietitians , who are needed to administer a ketogenic diet programme .
Because the ketogenic diet alters the body 's metabolism , it is a first @-@ line therapy in children with certain congenital metabolic diseases such as pyruvate dehydrogenase ( E1 ) deficiency and glucose transporter 1 deficiency syndrome , which prevent the body from using carbohydrates as fuel , leading to a dependency on ketone bodies . The ketogenic diet is beneficial in treating the seizures and some other symptoms in these diseases and is an absolute indication . On the other hand , it is absolutely contraindicated in the treatment of other diseases such as pyruvate carboxylase deficiency , porphyria and other rare genetic disorders of fat metabolism . A person with a disorder of fatty acid oxidation is unable to metabolise fatty acids , which replace carbohydrates as the major energy source on the diet . On the ketogenic diet , their body would consume its own protein stores for fuel , leading to ketoacidosis , and eventually coma and death .
= = Interactions = =
The ketogenic diet is usually initiated in combination with the patient 's existing anticonvulsant regimen , though patients may be weaned off anticonvulsants if the diet is successful . There is some evidence of synergistic benefits when the diet is combined with the vagus nerve stimulator or with the drug zonisamide , and that the diet may be less successful in children receiving phenobarbital .
= = Adverse effects = =
The ketogenic diet is not a benign , holistic or natural treatment for epilepsy ; as with any serious medical therapy , there may be complications . These are generally less severe and less frequent than with anticonvulsant medication or surgery . Common but easily treatable short @-@ term side effects include constipation , low @-@ grade acidosis and hypoglycaemia if there is an initial fast . Raised levels of lipids in the blood affect up to 60 % of children and cholesterol levels may increase by around 30 % . This can be treated by changes to the fat content of the diet , such as from saturated fats towards polyunsaturated fats , and , if persistent , by lowering the ketogenic ratio . Supplements are necessary to counter the dietary deficiency of many micronutrients .
Long @-@ term use of the ketogenic diet in children increases the risk of slowed or stunted growth , bone fractures and kidney stones . The diet reduces levels of insulin @-@ like growth factor 1 , which is important for childhood growth . Like many anticonvulsant drugs , the ketogenic diet has an adverse effect on bone health . Many factors may be involved such as acidosis and suppressed growth hormone . About 1 in 20 children on the ketogenic diet will develop kidney stones ( compared with one in several thousand for the general population ) . A class of anticonvulsants known as carbonic anhydrase inhibitors ( topiramate , zonisamide ) are known to increase the risk of kidney stones , but the combination of these anticonvulsants and the ketogenic diet does not appear to elevate the risk above that of the diet alone . The stones are treatable and do not justify discontinuation of the diet . Johns Hopkins Hospital now gives oral potassium citrate supplements to all ketogenic diet patients , resulting in a sevenfold decrease in the incidence of kidney stones . However , this empiric usage has not been tested in a prospective controlled trial . Kidney stone formation ( nephrolithiasis ) is associated with the diet for four reasons :
Excess calcium in the urine ( hypercalciuria ) occurs due to increased bone demineralisation with acidosis . Bones are mainly composed of calcium phosphate . The phosphate reacts with the acid , and the calcium is excreted by the kidneys .
Hypocitraturia : the urine has an abnormally low concentration of citrate , which normally helps to dissolve free calcium .
The urine has a low pH , which stops uric acid from dissolving , leading to crystals that act as a nidus for calcium stone formation .
Many institutions traditionally restricted the water intake of patients on the diet to 80 % of normal daily needs ; this practice is no longer encouraged .
In adults , common side effects include weight loss , constipation , raised cholesterol levels and , in women , menstrual irregularities including amenorrhoea .
= = Implementation = =
The ketogenic diet is a medical nutrition therapy that involves participants from various disciplines . Team members include a registered paediatric dietitian who coordinates the diet programme ; a paediatric neurologist who is experienced in offering the ketogenic diet ; and a registered nurse who is familiar with childhood epilepsy . Additional help may come from a medical social worker who works with the family and a pharmacist who can advise on the carbohydrate content of medicines . Lastly , the parents and other caregivers must be educated in many aspects of the diet for it to be safely implemented .
Implementing the diet can present difficulties for caregivers and the patient due to the time commitment involved in measuring and planning meals . Since any unplanned eating can potentially break the nutritional balance required , some people find the discipline needed to maintain the diet challenging and unpleasant . Some people terminate the diet or switch to a less demanding diet , like the modified Atkins diet ( MAD ) or the low @-@ glycemic index treatment ( LGIT ) diet , because they find the difficulties too great .
= = = Initiation = = =
The Johns Hopkins Hospital protocol for initiating the ketogenic diet has been widely adopted . It involves a consultation with the patient and their caregivers and , later , a short hospital admission . Because of the risk of complications during ketogenic diet initiation , most centres begin the diet under close medical supervision in hospital .
At the initial consultation , patients are screened for conditions that may contraindicate the diet . A dietary history is obtained and the parameters of the diet selected : the ketogenic ratio of fat to combined protein and carbohydrate , the calorie requirements and the fluid intake .
The day before admission to hospital , the proportion of carbohydrate in the diet may be decreased and the patient begins fasting after his or her evening meal . On admission , only calorie- and caffeine @-@ free fluids are allowed until dinner , which consists of " eggnog " restricted to one @-@ third of the typical calories for a meal . The following breakfast and lunch are similar , and on the second day , the " eggnog " dinner is increased to two @-@ thirds of a typical meal 's caloric content . By the third day , dinner contains the full calorie quota and is a standard ketogenic meal ( not " eggnog " ) . After a ketogenic breakfast on the fourth day , the patient is discharged . Where possible , the patient 's current medicines are changed to carbohydrate @-@ free formulations .
When in the hospital , glucose levels are checked several times daily and the patient is monitored for signs of symptomatic ketosis ( which can be treated with a small quantity of orange juice ) . Lack of energy and lethargy are common but disappear within two weeks . The parents attend classes over the first three full days , which cover nutrition , managing the diet , preparing meals , avoiding sugar and handling illness . The level of parental education and commitment required is higher than with medication .
Variations on the Johns Hopkins protocol are common . The initiation can be performed using outpatient clinics rather than requiring a stay in hospital . Often there is no initial fast ( fasting increases the risk of acidosis and hypoglycaemia and weight loss ) . Rather than increasing meal sizes over the three @-@ day initiation , some institutions maintain meal size but alter the ketogenic ratio from 2 : 1 to 4 : 1 .
For patients who benefit , half achieve a seizure reduction within five days ( if the diet starts with an initial fast of one to two days ) , three @-@ quarters achieve a reduction within two weeks , and 90 % achieve a reduction within 23 days . If the diet does not begin with a fast , the time for half of the patients to achieve an improvement is longer ( two weeks ) but the long @-@ term seizure reduction rates are unaffected . Parents are encouraged to persist with the diet for at least three months before any final consideration is made regarding efficacy .
= = = Maintenance = = =
After initiation , the child regularly visits the hospital outpatient clinic where he or she is seen by the dietitian and neurologist , and various tests and examinations are performed . These are held every three months for the first year and then every six months thereafter . Infants under one year old are seen more frequently , with the initial visit held after just two to four weeks . A period of minor adjustments is necessary to ensure consistent ketosis is maintained and to better adapt the meal plans to the patient . This fine @-@ tuning is typically done over the telephone with the hospital dietitian and includes changing the number of calories , altering the ketogenic ratio , or adding some MCT or coconut oils to a classic diet . Urinary ketone levels are checked daily to detect whether ketosis has been achieved and to confirm that the patient is following the diet , though the level of ketones does not correlate with an anticonvulsant effect . This is performed using ketone test strips containing nitroprusside , which change colour from buff @-@ pink to maroon in the presence of acetoacetate ( one of the three ketone bodies ) .
A short @-@ lived increase in seizure frequency may occur during illness or if ketone levels fluctuate . The diet may be modified if seizure frequency remains high , or the child is losing weight . Loss of seizure @-@ control may come from unexpected sources . Even " sugar @-@ free " food can contain carbohydrates such as maltodextrin , sorbitol , starch and fructose . The sorbitol content of suntan lotion and other skincare products may be high enough for some to be absorbed through the skin and thus negate ketosis .
= = = Discontinuation = = =
About 20 % of children on the ketogenic diet achieve freedom from seizures , and many are able to reduce the use of anticonvulsant drugs or eliminate them altogether . Commonly , at around two years on the diet , or after six months of being seizure @-@ free , the diet may be gradually discontinued over two or three months . This is done by lowering the ketogenic ratio until urinary ketosis is no longer detected , and then lifting all calorie restrictions . This timing and method of discontinuation mimics that of anticonvulsant drug therapy in children , where the child has become seizure free . When the diet is required to treat certain metabolic diseases , the duration will be longer . The total diet duration is up to the treating ketogenic diet team and parents ; durations up to 12 years have been studied and found beneficial .
Children who discontinue the diet after achieving seizure freedom have about a 20 % risk of seizures returning . The length of time until recurrence is highly variable but averages two years . This risk of recurrence compares with 10 % for resective surgery ( where part of the brain is removed ) and 30 – 50 % for anticonvulsant therapy . Of those that have a recurrence , just over half can regain freedom from seizures either with anticonvulsants or by returning to the ketogenic diet . Recurrence is more likely if , despite seizure freedom , an electroencephalogram ( EEG ) shows epileptiform spikes , which indicate epileptic activity in the brain but are below the level that will cause a seizure . Recurrence is also likely if an MRI scan shows focal abnormalities ( for example , as in children with tuberous sclerosis ) . Such children may remain on the diet longer than average , and it has been suggested that children with tuberous sclerosis who achieve seizure freedom could remain on the ketogenic diet indefinitely .
= = Variants = =
= = = Classic = = =
The ketogenic diet is calculated by a dietitian for each child . Age , weight , activity levels , culture and food preferences all affect the meal plan . First , the energy requirements are set at 80 – 90 % of the recommended daily amounts ( RDA ) for the child 's age ( the high @-@ fat diet requires less energy to process than a typical high @-@ carbohydrate diet ) . Highly active children or those with muscle spasticity require more calories than this ; immobile children require less . The ketogenic ratio of the diet compares the weight of fat to the combined weight of carbohydrate and protein . This is typically 4 : 1 , but children who are younger than 18 months , older than 12 years , or who are obese may be started on a 3 : 1 ratio . Fat is energy @-@ rich , with 9 kcal / g ( 38 kJ / g ) compared to 4 kcal / g ( 17 kJ / g ) for carbohydrate or protein , so portions on the ketogenic diet are smaller than normal . The quantity of fat in the diet can be calculated from the overall energy requirements and the chosen ketogenic ratio . Next , the protein levels are set to allow for growth and body maintenance , and are around 1 g protein for each kg of body weight . Lastly , the amount of carbohydrate is set according to what allowance is left while maintaining the chosen ratio . Any carbohydrate in medications or supplements must be subtracted from this allowance . The total daily amount of fat , protein and carbohydrate is then evenly divided across the meals .
A computer program such as KetoCalculator may be used to help generate recipes . The meals often have four components : heavy whipping cream , a protein @-@ rich food ( typically meat ) , a fruit or vegetable and a fat such as butter , vegetable oil or mayonnaise . Only low @-@ carbohydrate fruits and vegetables are allowed , which excludes bananas , potatoes , peas and corn . Suitable fruits are divided into two groups based on the amount of carbohydrate they contain , and vegetables are similarly divided into two groups . Foods within each of these four groups may be freely substituted to allow for variation without needing to recalculate portion sizes . For example , cooked broccoli , Brussels sprouts , cauliflower and green beans are all equivalent . Fresh , canned or frozen foods are equivalent , but raw and cooked vegetables differ , and processed foods are an additional complication . Parents are required to be precise when measuring food quantities on an electronic scale accurate to 1 g . The child must eat the whole meal and cannot have extra portions ; any snacks must be incorporated into the meal plan . A small amount of MCT oil may be used to help with constipation or to increase ketosis .
The classic ketogenic diet is not a balanced diet and only contains tiny portions of fresh fruit and vegetables , fortified cereals and calcium @-@ rich foods . In particular , the B vitamins , calcium and vitamin D must be artificially supplemented . This is achieved by taking two sugar @-@ free supplements designed for the patient 's age : a multivitamin with minerals and calcium with vitamin D. A typical day of food for a child on a 4 : 1 ratio , 1 @,@ 500 kcal ( 6 @,@ 300 kJ ) ketogenic diet comprises :
Breakfast : egg with bacon
28 g egg , 11 g bacon , 37 g of 36 % heavy whipping cream , 23 g butter and 9 g apple .
Snack : peanut butter ball
6 g peanut butter and 9 g butter .
Lunch : tuna salad
28 g tuna fish , 30 g mayonnaise , 10 g celery , 36 g of 36 % heavy whipping cream and 15 g lettuce .
Snack : keto yogurt
18 g of 36 % heavy whipping cream , 17 g sour cream , 4 g strawberries and artificial sweetener .
Dinner : cheeseburger ( no bun )
22 g minced ( ground ) beef , 10 g American cheese , 26 g butter , 38 g cream , 10 g lettuce and 11 g green beans .
Snack : keto custard
25 g of 36 % heavy whipping cream , 9 g egg and pure vanilla flavouring .
= = = MCT oil = = =
Normal dietary fat contains mostly long @-@ chain triglycerides ( LCT ) . Medium @-@ chain triglycerides are more ketogenic than LCTs because they generate more ketones per unit of energy when metabolised . Their use allows for a diet with a lower proportion of fat and a greater proportion of protein and carbohydrate , leading to more food choices and larger portion sizes . The original MCT diet developed by Peter Huttenlocher in the 1970s derived 60 % of its calories from MCT oil . Consuming that quantity of MCT oil caused abdominal cramps , diarrhoea and vomiting in some children . A figure of 45 % is regarded as a balance between achieving good ketosis and minimising gastrointestinal complaints . The classical and modified MCT ketogenic diets are equally effective and differences in tolerability are not statistically significant . The MCT diet is less popular in the United States ; MCT oil is more expensive than other dietary fats and is not covered by insurance companies .
= = = Modified Atkins = = =
First reported in 2003 , the idea of using a form of the Atkins diet to treat epilepsy came about after parents and patients discovered that the induction phase of the Atkins diet controlled seizures . The ketogenic diet team at Johns Hopkins Hospital modified the Atkins diet by removing the aim of achieving weight loss , extending the induction phase indefinitely , and specifically encouraging fat consumption . Compared with the ketogenic diet , the modified Atkins diet ( MAD ) places no limit on calories or protein , and the lower overall ketogenic ratio ( approximately 1 : 1 ) does not need to be consistently maintained by all meals of the day . The MAD does not begin with a fast or with a stay in hospital and requires less dietitian support than the ketogenic diet . Carbohydrates are initially limited to 10 g per day in children or 20 g per day in adults , and are increased to 20 – 30 g per day after a month or so , depending on the effect on seizure control or tolerance of the restrictions . Like the ketogenic diet , the MAD requires vitamin and mineral supplements and children are carefully and periodically monitored at outpatient clinics .
The modified Atkins diet reduces seizure frequency by more than 50 % in 43 % of patients who try it and by more than 90 % in 27 % of patients . Few adverse effects have been reported , though cholesterol is increased and the diet has not been studied long term . Although based on a smaller data set ( 126 adults and children from 11 studies over five centres ) , these results from 2009 compare favourably with the traditional ketogenic diet .
= = = Low glycemic index treatment = = =
The low glycemic index treatment ( LGIT ) is an attempt to achieve the stable blood glucose levels seen in children on the classic ketogenic diet while using a much less restrictive regimen . The hypothesis is that stable blood glucose may be one of the mechanisms of action involved in the ketogenic diet , which occurs because the absorption of the limited carbohydrates is slowed by the high fat content . Although it is also a high @-@ fat diet ( with approximately 60 % calories from fat ) , the LGIT allows more carbohydrate than either the classic ketogenic diet or the modified Atkins diet , approximately 40 – 60 g per day . However , the types of carbohydrates consumed are restricted to those that have a glycemic index lower than 50 . Like the modified Atkins diet , the LGIT is initiated and maintained at outpatient clinics and does not require precise weighing of food or intensive dietitian support . Both are offered at most centres that run ketogenic diet programmes , and in some centres they are often the primary dietary therapy for adolescents .
Short @-@ term results for the LGIT indicate that at one month approximately half of the patients experience a greater than 50 % reduction in seizure frequency , with overall figures approaching that of the ketogenic diet . The data ( coming from one centre 's experience with 76 children up to the year 2009 ) also indicate fewer side effects than the ketogenic diet and that it is better tolerated , with more palatable meals .
= = = Prescribed formulations = = =
Infants and patients fed via a gastrostomy tube can also be given a ketogenic diet . Parents make up a prescribed powdered formula , such as KetoCal , into a liquid feed . Gastrostomy feeding avoids any issues with palatability , and bottle @-@ fed infants readily accept the ketogenic formula . Some studies have found this liquid feed to be more efficacious and associated with lower total cholesterol than a solid ketogenic diet . KetoCal is a nutritionally complete food containing milk protein and is supplemented with amino acids , fat , carbohydrate , vitamins , minerals and trace elements . It is used to administer the 4 : 1 ratio classic ketogenic diet in children over one year . The formula is available in both 3 : 1 and 4 : 1 ratios , either unflavoured or in an artificially sweetened vanilla flavour and is suitable for tube or oral feeding . Other formula products include KetoVolve and Ketonia . Alternatively , a liquid ketogenic diet may be produced by combining Ross Carbohydrate Free soy formula with Microlipid and Polycose .
= = = Worldwide = = =
There are theoretically no restrictions on where the ketogenic diet might be used , and it can cost less than modern anticonvulsants . However , fasting and dietary changes are affected by religious and cultural issues . A culture where food is often prepared by grandparents or hired help means more people must be educated about the diet . When families dine together , sharing the same meal , it can be difficult to separate the child 's meal . In many countries , food labelling is not mandatory so calculating the proportions of fat , protein and carbohydrate is difficult . In some countries , it may be hard to find sugar @-@ free forms of medicines and supplements , to purchase an accurate electronic scale , or to afford MCT oils .
Jewish dietary laws prevent mixing meat and milk in one dish . In Asia , the normal diet includes rice and noodles as the main energy source , making their elimination difficult . Therefore , the MCT @-@ oil form of the diet , which allows more carbohydrate , has proved useful . In India , religious beliefs commonly affect the diet : some patients are vegetarians , will not eat root vegetables or avoid beef . The Indian ketogenic diet is started without a fast due to cultural opposition towards fasting in children . The low @-@ fat , high @-@ carbohydrate nature of the normal Indian and Asian diet means that their ketogenic diets typically have a lower ketogenic ratio ( 1 : 1 ) than in America and Europe . However , they appear to be just as effective .
In many developing countries , the ketogenic diet is expensive because dairy fats and meat are more expensive than grain , fruit and vegetables . The modified Atkins diet has been proposed as a lower @-@ cost alternative for those countries ; the slightly more expensive food bill can be offset by a reduction in pharmaceutical costs if the diet is successful . The modified Atkins diet is less complex to explain and prepare and requires less support from a dietitian .
= = Mechanism of action = =
= = = Seizure pathology = = =
The brain is composed of a network of neurons that transmit signals by propagating nerve impulses . The propagation of this impulse from one neuron 's synapse to another is typically controlled by neurotransmitters , though there are also electrical pathways between some neurons . Neurotransmitters can inhibit impulse firing ( primarily done by γ @-@ aminobutyric acid , or GABA ) or they can excite the neuron into firing ( primarily done by glutamate ) . A neuron that releases inhibitory neurotransmitters from its terminals is called an inhibitory neuron , while one that releases excitatory neurotransmitters is an excitatory neuron . When the normal balance between inhibition and excitation is significantly disrupted in all or part of the brain , a seizure can occur . The GABA system is an important target for anticonvulsant drugs , since seizures may be discouraged by increasing GABA synthesis , decreasing its breakdown , or enhancing its effect on neurons .
The nerve impulse is characterised by a great influx of sodium ions through channels in the neuron 's cell membrane followed by an efflux of potassium ions through other channels . The neuron is unable to fire again for a short time ( known as the refractory period ) , which is mediated by another potassium channel . The flow through these ion channels is governed by a " gate " which is opened by either a voltage change or a chemical messenger known as a ligand ( such as a neurotransmitter ) . These channels are another target for anticonvulsant drugs .
There are many ways in which epilepsy occurs . Examples of pathological physiology include : unusual excitatory connections within the neuronal network of the brain ; abnormal neuron structure leading to altered current flow ; decreased inhibitory neurotransmitter synthesis ; ineffective receptors for inhibitory neurotransmitters ; insufficient breakdown of excitatory neurotransmitters leading to excess ; immature synapse development ; and impaired function of ionic channels .
= = = Seizure control = = =
Although many hypotheses have been put forward to explain how the ketogenic diet works , it remains a mystery . Disproven hypotheses include systemic acidosis ( high levels of acid in the blood ) , electrolyte changes and hypoglycaemia ( low blood glucose ) . Although many biochemical changes are known to occur in the brain of a patient on the ketogenic diet , it is not known which of these has an anticonvulsant effect . The lack of understanding in this area is similar to the situation with many anticonvulsant drugs .
On the ketogenic diet , carbohydrates are restricted and so cannot provide for all the metabolic needs of the body . Instead , fatty acids are used as the major source of fuel . These are used through fatty @-@ acid oxidation in the cell 's mitochondria ( the energy @-@ producing parts of the cell ) . Humans can convert some amino acids into glucose by a process called gluconeogenesis , but cannot do this for fatty acids . Since amino acids are needed to make proteins , which are essential for growth and repair of body tissues , these cannot be used only to produce glucose . This could pose a problem for the brain , since it is normally fuelled solely by glucose , and most fatty acids do not cross the blood – brain barrier . Fortunately , the liver can use long @-@ chain fatty acids to synthesise the three ketone bodies β @-@ hydroxybutyrate , acetoacetate and acetone . These ketone bodies enter the brain and substitute for glucose . Medium @-@ chain fatty acids octonoic and heptanoic acids can cross the barrier and be used by the brain .
The ketone bodies are possibly anticonvulsant in themselves ; in animal models , acetoacetate and acetone protect against seizures . The ketogenic diet results in adaptive changes to brain energy metabolism that increase the energy reserves ; ketone bodies are a more efficient fuel than glucose , and the number of mitochondria is increased . This may help the neurons to remain stable in the face of increased energy demand during a seizure , and may confer a neuroprotective effect .
The ketogenic diet has been studied in at least 14 rodent animal models of seizures . It is protective in many of these models and has a different protection profile than any known anticonvulsant . Conversely , fenofibrate , not used clinically as an antiepileptic , exhibits experimental anticonvulsant properties in adult rats comparable to the ketogenic diet . This , together with studies showing its efficacy in patients who have failed to achieve seizure control on half a dozen drugs , suggests a unique mechanism of action .
Anticonvulsants suppress epileptic seizures , but they neither cure nor prevent the development of seizure susceptibility . The development of epilepsy ( epileptogenesis ) is a process that is poorly understood . A few anticonvulsants ( valproate , levetiracetam and benzodiazepines ) have shown antiepileptogenic properties in animal models of epileptogenesis . However , no anticonvulsant has ever achieved this in a clinical trial in humans . The ketogenic diet has been found to have antiepileptogenic properties in rats .
Recently , a saturated medium @-@ chain fatty acid called decanoic acid ( C10 ) has shown promise in both the control of seizures and of neurodegeneration . Decanoic acid is a major constituent of the MCT ketogenic diet , and the authors suggest its action may be through inducing mitochondrial biogenesis and helping provide more ATP to maintain the resting membrane potential of the neuron .
= = Other applications = =
The ketogenic diet may be a successful treatment for several rare metabolic diseases . Case reports of two children indicate that it may be a possible treatment for astrocytomas , a type of brain tumour . Autism , depression , migraine headaches , polycystic ovary syndrome and diabetes mellitus type 2 have also been shown to improve in small case studies . There is evidence from uncontrolled clinical trials and studies in animal models that the ketogenic diet can provide symptomatic and disease @-@ modifying activity in a broad range of neurodegenerative disorders including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis , Alzheimer 's disease and Parkinson 's disease , and may be protective in traumatic brain injury and stroke .
Because tumor cells are inefficient in processing ketone bodies for energy , the ketogenic diet has also been suggested as a treatment for cancer , including glioma , as well as multiple sclerosis and other neurological disorders .
A 2013 review said that there is enough suggestion of potential benefit from ketogenic diets in cancer therapy that establishing clinical trials is probably warranted . At present the only evidence of benefit is anecdotal , but designing effective trials to measure the effect of adopting a ketogenic diet could prove challenging .
In March 2009 , Axona was approved as a medical food by the US Food and Drug Administration for the " dietary management of the metabolic processes and nutritional requirements associated with mild to moderate Alzheimer 's disease " . Glucose metabolism by the brain is impaired in Alzheimer 's disease , and it is proposed that ketone bodies may provide an alternative energy source . Caprylidene is a powdered form of a medium @-@ chain triglyceride , specifically caprylic triglyceride .
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= 1993 Independence Bowl =
The 1993 Independence Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Indiana Hoosiers at Independence Stadium in Shreveport , Louisiana on December 31 , 1993 . The 18th edition of the Independence Bowl was the final contest of the 1993 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season for both teams , and ended in a 45 – 20 victory for Virginia Tech . The game was the first bowl victory for Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer and began a record streak of 23 consecutive bowl appearances for Virginia Tech .
The 1993 Independence Bowl kicked off at 12 : 30 p.m. EST on December 31 amid sunny skies and 62 ° F ( 17 ° C ) temperatures . Indiana took an early 7 – 0 lead , but Virginia Tech responded , taking a 14 – 7 lead with two touchdowns — one late in the first quarter , and the other early in the second . Indiana closed the gap to 14 – 13 with two field goals in the second . In the final 23 seconds of the first half , however , Virginia Tech scored an additional 14 points . Tech 's defense recovered and returned a fumble 20 yards for a touchdown , then blocked a 51 @-@ yard field goal attempt and returned the ball 80 yards for the first blocked @-@ kick touchdown in Virginia Tech history . After a scoreless third quarter , Virginia Tech scored 17 points in the fourth quarter to secure an insurmountable lead . Indiana scored one more touchdown and brought the game 's final score to 45 – 20 .
The game paid $ 700 @,@ 000 to each team in exchange for their participation . The official attendance for the game was 33 @,@ 819 . Maurice DeShazo of Virginia Tech was named the game 's offensive most valuable player ( MVP ) , while Antonio Banks , also of Virginia Tech , was named the game 's defensive MVP .
Several Independence Bowl records were set during the game , some of which still stand . Indiana 's Thomas Lewis returned eight punts in the game and earned 177 receiving yards , including the third @-@ longest pass in Independence Bowl History — a 75 @-@ yard reception from quarterback John Paci . Hokie Kicker Ryan Williams set the record for the most extra points in an Independence Bowl game with six , a mark that was tied during the 1995 Independence Bowl .
= = Team selection = =
= = = Indiana = = =
Indiana was coached by Bill Mallory , who would go on to accumulate the winningest record in IU football history . The Indiana Hoosiers football team ended the 1992 college football season with a record of 5 – 6 , and prior to the 1993 season was picked to finish no better than eighth in the 11 @-@ team Big Ten conference during the regular season . From the start , however , Indiana set out to upset those expectations . Indiana raced out to a 3 – 0 record in the first three games of the season , with the third win coming against Southeastern Conference opponent Kentucky .
In the fourth week of the season , however , Indiana suffered its first loss : a 27 – 15 conference defeat at the hands of No. 22 Wisconsin . The Hoosiers recovered from the setback , however , and won their next four games — all of which were against Big Ten opponents . The fourth of those victories came against the Michigan State Spartans , who had replaced Wisconsin at the No. 22 spot in the country . Indiana held the Spartans scoreless in a tough defensive battle , earning a 10 – 0 victory . With a 7 – 1 record , Indiana appeared to be in position to compete for the Big Ten championship , but consecutive losses to highly ranked Penn State and Ohio State put an end to any thoughts of a championship . The Hoosiers ended the season with a 24 – 17 win over traditional rival Purdue and accepted a bid to the Independence Bowl .
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
The Virginia Tech Hokies football team ended the 1992 college football season with a record of 2 – 8 – 1 . Some Tech fans called for Tech head coach Frank Beamer 's firing after the worst Tech football season since 1987 , but Tech athletic director Dave Braine refused to do so . After a shakeup that saw several assistant coaches replaced and new defensive and offensive formations implemented , Tech players and coaches promised a " complete turnaround " for the 1993 season .
In the first two games of the season , Tech followed through on that promise , winning 33 – 16 and 63 – 21 against Bowling Green and Pittsburgh , respectively . A loss to No. 3 Miami followed , but a victory over Maryland in the game that followed gave Tech a 3 – 1 record , already better than its 1992 win total . After a close loss at No. 14 West Virginia that was determined by a missed last @-@ second field goal by Tech placekicker Ryan Williams , the Hokies won five of their last six regular @-@ season games . These wins included victories over Big East opponent Syracuse and No. 23 Virginia , Tech 's traditional rival . With an 8 – 3 regular @-@ season record and ranked No. 22 in the country by the Associated Press , Tech was extended an invitation to the Independence Bowl , its first bowl bid since the 1986 Peach Bowl .
= = Pregame buildup = =
The matchup of No. 21 Indiana and No. 22 Virginia Tech was the first matchup of ranked teams in Independence Bowl history . Despite that fact , the bowl had difficulty selling tickets for the game . Slightly more than 33 @,@ 000 tickets were sold by the day of the game , far less than the stadium 's 50 @,@ 459 @-@ seat capacity . In exchange for their participation in the game , each team received $ 700 @,@ 000 , the minimum payout required by the NCAA at that time . Spread bettors favored Virginia Tech to win by three points . The matchup was Indiana 's first time playing Virginia Tech , and was the first time Virginia Tech played any team from the Big Ten .
Virginia Tech 's turnaround from a 2 – 8 – 1 season in 1992 was the largest single @-@ season turnaround in school history and was the second @-@ best in the country that year . Tech hoped to improve upon a 1 – 4 all @-@ time record in bowl games , while Indiana hoped to do likewise for its 3 – 4 historical bowl @-@ game record . In the week prior to the game , bad weather in Virginia caused travel delays that prevented many fans and the Virginia Tech marching band from arriving at the game early . Two days prior to the Independence Bowl , Tech was shocked by the death of Dr. Richard Bullock , who served as the team 's physician from 1971 to 1988 . Bullock designed a special football neck protector worn by players during the 1980s and 1990s before being phased out in favor of more advanced padding .
= = = Indiana offense = = =
Indiana 's offense averaged 21 @.@ 6 points and 320 total yards per game during the regular season , good enough for ninth in the Big Ten . As a whole , the Hoosiers accumulated 3 @,@ 818 yards of offense before the Independence Bowl . 2 @,@ 156 yards of this total were passing yards and came through the air , while the remaining 1 @,@ 662 yards were gained by Indiana 's running backs and fullbacks on the ground .
Indiana quarterback John Paci was the cornerstone of Indiana 's offense , and completed 133 of 258 passes for 1 @,@ 796 yards and eight touchdowns during the regular season . During the team 's regular @-@ season game against Penn State , Paci completed the longest passing play in Indiana history , completing a 99 @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Thomas Lewis for a touchdown . That play in part helped make Paci 's performance against Penn State the fourth @-@ highest single @-@ game passing total for an Indiana quarterback in school history . Paci suffered a separated shoulder during the regular season , but despite the injury , he was predicted to start at quarterback against Virginia Tech and undergo surgery following the Independence Bowl .
Paci 's favorite passing target was wide receiver Thomas Lewis , who completed the regular season having caught 55 passes for 1 @,@ 058 yards and seven touchdowns . Lewis ' 1 @,@ 058 receiving yards were the second most ever accumulated by an Indiana player , and his 285 receiving yards in the Hoosiers ' game against Penn State were the most in a single game by an Indiana player in school history . On the ground , Indiana 's offense was led by running back Jermaine Chaney , who finished the regular season with 186 carries for 716 yards and six touchdowns .
= = = Virginia Tech offense = = =
Virginia Tech 's offense was ranked 11th nationally in scoring , averaging 36 @.@ 4 points per game , and 10th in rushing offense , averaging 242 @.@ 8 yards per game . The totals were the most recorded to that point by a Virginia Tech offense . That high @-@ ranking rushing attack was led by Dwayne Thomas , who accumulated 1 @,@ 130 yards and 11 touchdowns during the regular season . Thomas ' 11 touchdowns were the most for a Tech running back since 1969 . Thomas was ably assisted by a capable offensive line anchored by center Jim Pyne , who earned consensus All @-@ America honors in recognition of his performance . By being named to every All @-@ America team in the country , Pyne became the first consensus All @-@ American in Virginia Tech history .
Tech quarterback Maurice DeShazo was also a major part of the record @-@ breaking Tech offense . DeShazo threw 22 touchdown passes during the regular season , setting what was then a school record . He completed 129 of 230 passes for 2 @,@ 080 yards and seven interceptions in addition to the touchdown record . DeShazo 's favorite target passing the ball was wide receiver Antonio Freeman , who set a Tech record with nine touchdown receptions during the regular season . Freeman caught 32 passes for 644 yards in addition to the touchdown mark .
= = = Indiana defense = = =
The Hoosiers ' defense was ranked seventh in scoring defense , allowing an average of just 13 @.@ 8 points per game . In overall defense , Indiana was ranked 10th , allowing just 303 @.@ 3 yards per game . In total , the Hoosiers allowed 3 @,@ 654 yards ; 1 @,@ 997 of these were passing yards , while the remaining 1 @,@ 657 were rushing yards .
One of the stars of that IU defense was defensive tackle Hurvin McCormack , who led the Hoosiers in sacks with seven . Another important defensive player was linebacker Alfonzo Thurman , whose 108 tackles during the regular season were the most of any Indiana player .
= = = Virginia Tech defense = = =
Virginia Tech 's defense allowed a Big East @-@ worst 2 @,@ 761 passing yards and permitted an average of 388 total yards per game , fifth @-@ worst in the conference . Linebacker Ken Brown had the most tackles of any Tech defender , accumulating 113 during the course of the regular season . Two Tech players tied for the most interceptions on the team . Torrian Gray and Antonio Banks each had three interceptions during the regular season .
= = Game summary = =
The 1993 Independence Bowl kicked off at 12 : 30 p.m. EST on December 31 , 1993 , at Independence Stadium in Shreveport , Louisiana . Official attendance estimates indicate a crowd of 33 @,@ 819 , but many seats in the 50 @,@ 459 @-@ seat stadium were empty , indicating a smaller @-@ than @-@ official crowd . The game was broadcast on ESPN in the United States , and Joel Meyers , Rick Walker , and Mike Mayock were the broadcasters . Weather at kickoff was sunny and 62 ° F ( 17 ° C ) .
= = = First quarter = = =
Indiana received the Virginia Tech kickoff in the end zone for a touchback and began the first drive of the game at their 20 @-@ yard line . On the first play of the game , Indiana rushed up the middle for a six @-@ yard gain . After Paci threw an incomplete pass , he attempted to scramble for the first down but was tackled one yard short . Indiana punted the ball , and after a block @-@ in @-@ the @-@ back penalty against Virginia Tech , the Hokies began their first possession at their 15 @-@ yard line . After a five @-@ yard false start penalty on Tech 's first play , Hokie running back Dwayne Thomas rushed the ball for a 10 @-@ yard gain , making up twice the yardage lost to the penalty . Tech 's second play was another rush by Thomas , who ran to the Tech 27 @-@ yard line for the game 's first first down . Once there , DeShazo completed two consecutive passes , pushing Tech to their 45 @-@ yard line . Tech was able to continue the advance across midfield and into Indiana territory , but the Hoosiers ' defense stiffened and denied Tech another first down . After a Hokie punt , Indiana began its second offensive drive at its 15 @-@ yard line .
Indiana 's first play on the new drive was stopped for a loss , and the Hoosiers were forced to punt after a short gain was nullified by a Paci sack on third down . The kick was a short one , and Tech began its second drive from IU 's 49 @-@ yard line . The first play was stopped for no gain , DeShazo threw two incomplete passes , and Virginia Tech punted after going three and out . Indiana recovered the ball at its 23 @-@ yard line , where their offense began work . A five @-@ yard false start penalty against the Hoosiers pushed them back , and Indiana was stopped for little gain on the first two plays of its drive . On the third play , however , Paci connected on a 75 @-@ yard pass to Thomas Lewis , who ran into the end zone for a touchdown and the game 's first points . Following the extra point kick , Indiana had a 7 – 0 lead with 5 : 36 remaining in the first quarter .
Virginia Tech returned Indiana 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff to its 27 @-@ yard line , and Tech 's offense returned to the field hoping to answer the Hoosiers ' score . Two rushes by Thomas gave Tech a first down near the 40 @-@ yard line . Aided by a penalty against Indiana , Tech gained another first down in the Hoosiers ' side of the field with a pass by DeShazo . A 15 @-@ yard late @-@ hit penalty against Indiana gave Tech another first down and pushed the Hokies to the Indiana 31 @-@ yard line . Tech continued to drive with runs from DeShazo , Thomas , and fullback Joe Swarm . Inside the Indiana 10 @-@ yard line , Tech was stopped for losses on consecutive plays before DeShazo connected on a 14 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Thomas . The extra point was good , and with nine seconds remaining in the first quarter , Virginia Tech tied the game at 7 – 7 .
Indiana fielded Virginia Tech 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff and returned it to their 25 @-@ yard line . The Hoosiers attempted a long pass , but the throw fell incomplete and the quarter came to an end with the score still tied at 7 – 7 .
= = = Second quarter = = =
Indiana began the second quarter in possession of the ball and facing a second down at its 25 @-@ yard line . After a rushing play was stopped for a loss and Paci was forced to throw the ball away to avoid a sack , Indiana punted for the first time in the second quarter . Tech resumed offense at its 41 @-@ yard line . DeShazo completed a pass to the Indiana 47 @-@ yard line , then a 25 @-@ yard toss to Cornelius Wright , who carried it to the Indiana 22 . Swarm carried the ball for a first down inside the Indiana 10 @-@ yard line , and two plays later , he carried it across the goal line for Virginia Tech 's second touchdown of the game . Following the extra point , Tech took a 14 – 7 lead with 11 : 14 remaining in the first half .
Indiana 's Jermaine Chaney fielded the post @-@ score kickoff and returned it 51 yards , setting up Indiana inside Tech territory . On the Hoosiers ' first play , Paci completed a 34 @-@ yard pass to tight end Ross Hales for Indiana 's second first down of the game . Just outside the Tech 10 @-@ yard line , Indiana was stopped short and prevented from scoring a touchdown . Indiana 's head coach sent in placekicker Bill Manolopolous , whose 26 @-@ yard kick soared through the uprights and cut Virginia Tech 's lead to 14 – 10 with 8 : 47 remaining before halftime .
Tech returned Indiana 's post @-@ score kickoff to the 22 @-@ yard line , where the Hokie offense returned to action . Tech picked up nine yards on a pass from DeShazo , but two plays later , DeShazo threw his first interception of the game as Indiana 's Mose Richardson jumped in front of a Tech pass . Following the turnover , Indiana 's offense began work from the Virginia Tech 31 @-@ yard line . The Hoosiers picked up a first down rushing the ball , but a holding call on first down pushed Indiana away from the end zone . Following the penalty , Virginia Tech 's defense prevented the Hoosiers gaining another first down , and IU was forced to attempt another field goal . As before , Manopolous ' kick — this one a 40 @-@ yard attempt — was good , and Indiana sliced Tech 's lead to a single point , 14 – 13 , with 5 : 25 remaining in the first half .
The Hokies returned the post @-@ score kickoff to their 20 @-@ yard line , and Tech 's offense began work . Thomas gained a first down with three consecutive runs , then the Hokies fumbled when a backwards pass from DeShazo fell incomplete . Indiana recovered the ball , and the turnover allowed the Hoosiers ' offense to start work from the Tech 25 @-@ yard line . On Indiana 's first play , however , Virginia Tech cornerback Tyronne Drakeford intercepted Paci 's pass . Following the turnover , Tech 's offense started work at its 20 @-@ yard line . The Hokies picked up a first down through the air , then DeShazo scrambled for another . A 10 @-@ yard holding penalty pushed Tech backward , and the Hokies were forced to punt the ball away .
Indiana 's offense began play from the Hoosiers ' 34 @-@ yard line following the kick . Paci scrambled for several yards , then completed a pass for a first down at the 50 @-@ yard line . On the next play , however , Paci fumbled the ball , which bounced into the hands of Tech defensive end Lawrence Lewis , who returned it 20 yards for a touchdown . The score and extra point gave Tech a 21 – 13 lead with 23 seconds remaining before halftime . Virginia Tech 's post @-@ score kickoff was returned to the Tech 42 @-@ yard line , potentially setting up an Indiana field goal try before halftime . Paci completed a pass to the 36 @-@ yard line , and the few seconds remaining in the first half apparently ran off the clock before Indiana could use its final timeout to stop the clock .
Virginia Tech players and coaches attempted to leave the field , only to be informed that Indiana called a timeout with one second remaining . Despite Tech head coach Frank Beamer 's protests , Indiana 's Manolopoulos was able to return to the field to attempt a 51 @-@ yard goal . The kick was blocked and the ball recovered by Tech 's Antonio Banks , who returned it 80 yards for a touchdown . The score , which came with no time remaining on the clock , gave Tech a 28 – 13 lead at halftime .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Virginia Tech kicked off to Indiana to begin the game , Indiana kicked off to Virginia Tech to begin the second half . In response to the celebration following the 80 @-@ yard touchdown prior to halftime , Virginia Tech was assessed two 15 @-@ yard unsportsmanlike conduct penalties . Indiana kicked off from the Tech 40 @-@ yard line , and the ball was downed at the Virginia Tech 11 @-@ yard line . A false @-@ start penalty against the Hokies didn 't prevent them from gaining a first down on a pass from DeShazo to Swarm . Swarm picked up another first down on his own , advancing the ball to the Tech 38 @-@ yard line with a rush up the middle . Tech continued to advance the ball with Thomas , Swarm and DeShazo rushing the ball and picking up first downs . Now on the Indiana side of the field , DeShazo attempted a deep pass , but the ball was intercepted by Indiana cornerback Jason Orton .
Following the turnover , Indiana 's offense began work at its 32 @-@ yard line . Despite the opportunity presented by the interception , the Hoosiers were unable to gain a first down and punted back to Virginia Tech . Tech 's Steve Sanders returned the kick to the Tech 27 @-@ yard line , and Tech 's offense returned to the field . The Hokie offense was no more successful than Indiana 's had been , and Tech punted after going three and out . Following the kick and a short return , the Hoosiers began work at their 41 @-@ yard line . After being stopped for no gain on two consecutive plays , Paci completed a long pass to Tech 's 40 @-@ yard line for the Hoosiers ' first first down of the second half . Indiana continued advancing the ball via short passes , but came up one yard short of a first down . Instead of punting on fourth down , Indiana attempted to gain the first down via a rush up the middle . Tech 's defense held fast , and Indiana turned the ball over after failing to gain the needed yard .
Indiana 's defense also held fast on the next possession , and Tech was unable to gain a first down following the turnover . Tech 's punt was returned to the Indiana 38 @-@ yard line , where the Hoosier offense returned to the field . At first , the Hoosiers were successful moving the ball as they picked up a first down in Tech territory via a pass from Paci . The success was short @-@ lived , however , as the Hoosiers were unable to gain a first down once on the Tech side of the field and had to punt . Sanders returned the kick to the Tech 21 @-@ yard line , where Tech began its third possession of the second half . Tech picked up a first down via two DeShazo passes , but couldn 't gain another . Tech 's punt was downed at the Indiana 20 @-@ yard line , and Indiana 's offense began work with 3 : 02 remaining in the quarter .
Indiana earned a first down with two rushes , but as before , Tech 's defense stiffened and refused to allow a second as Tech 's Bernard Basham sacked Paci for a loss . Indiana 's punt was fair caught at the Tech 30 @-@ yard line as the quarter came to an end . With one quarter remaining in the game and neither team having scored in the third quarter , the score remained 28 – 13 .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
Virginia Tech began the fourth quarter in possession of the ball with a first down at its 30 @-@ yard line . The Hokie drive fizzled , as had most of the offense in the third quarter , after DeShazo was sacked for a big loss on third down . Indiana returned the Tech punt to its 43 @-@ yard line , and Indiana brought in its backup quarterback , Chris Dittoe , to lead the offense . After being sacked on his first play , Dittoe completed a pass to near midfield , making up the yardage that had been lost on the sack . Despite that gain , Indiana couldn 't make up the yardage lost to the sack and appeared to be ready to punt the ball . Instead , the Hoosiers faked the punt and threw a pass to an undefended Indiana player who dropped the ball . Following the turnover , Virginia Tech 's offense started work at the Indiana 49 @-@ yard line . After being stopped short on two rushes , DeShazo completed a 42 @-@ yard pass to Antonio Freeman , who raced down the field and into the end zone . The extra point was good , and with 9 : 37 remaining in the game , Tech took a 35 – 13 lead .
Tech 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff was downed in the end zone for a touchback , and Indiana 's offense started work at its 10 @-@ yard line after a Hoosier penalty . On the first play of Indiana 's drive , Dittoe was sacked and fumbled the ball , which rolled into the arms of a Virginia Tech defender . The Hokie offense quickly returned to the field and Tech 's Tommy Edwards scored on the first play after being set up at the Indiana five @-@ yard line after the turnover . The extra point gave Tech a 42 – 13 lead with 9 : 21 remaining .
Indiana 's offense started at its 20 @-@ yard line after a touchback on the kickoff . Dittoe threw two incomplete passes , was sacked , and the Hoosiers punted after going three and out . The Indiana punt was a poor one , flying out of bounds at the Indiana 28 @-@ yard line and giving Tech excellent field position . With a large lead secured , Virginia Tech backup quarterback Jim Druckenmiller came into the game for the Hokies , who were unable to gain a first down . Despite failing to advance the ball 10 yards , the excellent starting field position allowed Tech kicker Ryan Williams to attempt a 42 @-@ yard field goal , his longest kick of the season . The kick sailed through the uprights , and Tech extended its lead to 45 – 13 with exactly six minutes remaining in the game .
Following a touchback , Indiana 's offense started from its 20 @-@ yard line . The Hoosiers picked up a first down with two short rushes , then Dittoe completed a first @-@ down pass to Lewis and advanced the ball into Tech territory . On his second play in Tech territory , Dittoe completed a long pass to Lewis for Indiana 's first touchdown of the second half . The score cut Virginia Tech 's lead to 45 – 20 , but with only 4 : 26 remaining in the game , the odds were long against Indiana challenging Tech 's lead in a serious fashion . The Hoosier kickoff went out of bounds , and the Hokie offense began a drive from its 35 @-@ yard line . Virginia Tech began running out the clock , executing rushing plays and staying in bounds to maximize the amount of time run off the game clock . Tech was unable to get a first down , and the Hokie punt was returned to the Indiana 29 @-@ yard line . Indiana was stopped on three consecutive plays and appeared to be punting the ball . As they had earlier in the game , however , the Hoosiers executed a trick play , snapping the ball to linebacker Alfonzo Thurman instead of the punter . Thurman ran forward for 37 yards — the Hoosiers ' longest run of the game — and a first down . Despite the gain and a 15 @-@ yard pass interference penalty against Tech , Indiana was unable to score . Time ran out in the fourth quarter , and Virginia Tech earned the 45 – 20 victory .
= = Statistical summary = =
In recognition of his performance during the game , Virginia Tech quarterback Maurice DeShazo was named the game 's offensive most valuable player . DeShazo completed 19 of his 33 pass attempts for two touchdowns , 193 yards , and two interceptions . DeShazo 's favorite passing target , wide receiver Antonio Freeman , finished the game with five catches for 66 yards and a touchdown . Running back Dwayne Thomas , Tech 's second @-@ leading receiver , had four catches for 27 yards and a touchdown . He also led Tech 's offense on the ground , carrying the ball 24 times for 65 yards . Fullback Joe Swarm was the second @-@ leading rusher for the Hokies , accumulating 40 yards on nine carries .
Indiana 's offense outgained the Hokies through the air and finished with 276 passing yards , its second @-@ highest total that season . Starting quarterback John Paci completed 10 of 22 passes for 171 yards and a touchdown , while backup quarterback completed 7 of 14 passes for 105 yards and a touchdown . Both players ' favorite target was Thomas Lewis , who finished the game leading all receivers with six catches for 177 yards and two touchdowns . On the ground , the Hoosiers were led by linebacker Alfonzo Thurman , who , although a defensive player , ran for 37 yards on a fake punt .
Virginia Tech 's defense performed well overall against the Hoosiers . The 20 rushing yards allowed by the Tech defense were the fewest permitted all season . In addition , the Hokie defense accumulated seven sacks and four tackles for loss . The seven sacks were the most for Tech that season , and Indiana 's 11 first downs also were the fewest Tech allowed that season . The Hokie defense also performed well on an individual level . Antonio Banks and Torrian Gray each had nine tackles , tying for the most of any player in the game . Banks also had a fumble recovery for a touchdown , an interception , and a pass breakup . For these accomplishments , he was named the game 's defensive MVP . Tech linebacker Ken Brown finished with eight tackles .
The Hoosiers ' defense had some success stopping Tech behind the line of scrimmage , accumulating seven tackles for loss during the course of the game . Indiana cornerback Mose Richardson had nine tackles and one interception , leading the Hoosiers in tackles , and teammate Chris Dyer came in second for IU with seven .
The block of Bill Manolopolous ' 51 @-@ yard field goal attempt by Tech defensive lineman Jeff Holland prior to halftime was the 36th blocked kick in Frank Beamer 's seven years as Tech head coach . The 80 @-@ yard touchdown return of the blocked kick by Antonio Banks was the first such touchdown in Virginia Tech history .
Virginia Tech set several then @-@ records during the game . Its 21 second @-@ quarter points were the most ever scored in that quarter , and tied the record for most points in any quarter . It set the Independence Bowl record for most points scored , and tied the record for fewest first downs allowed . Some records set during the game still stand . Indiana 's Thomas Lewis returned a record eight punts in the game and earned 177 receiving yards , including the third @-@ longest pass in Independence Bowl History — a 75 @-@ yard reception from quarterback John Paci . Hokie Kicker Ryan Williams set the record for the most extra points in an Independence Bowl game with six , a mark that was tied during the 1995 Independence Bowl .
= = Postgame effects = =
Virginia Tech 's victory was just its second bowl win in school history and brought the Hokies to a final 1993 record of 9 – 3 . Indiana 's loss took it to 8 – 4 , one win short of tying a nine @-@ win season in 1967 that featured an appearance in the Rose Bowl . Tech 's win was also its first televised victory since 1990 . Despite those accolades , the victory failed to move the Hokies up in the AP poll , which kept Tech at No. 22 in the final ranking of the season .
At the time , Tech officials viewed the victory as a turning point for the program . Virginia Tech president Paul Torgersen said , " Incredible . ... A very fine job . We 've turned it around . No question , we 've turned it around . " Later observers also concurred , pointing to the game as the start of Virginia Tech 's 23 @-@ season bowl appearance streak , which included a trip to the national championship game .
Indiana , which had appeared in bowl games six times in the eight years prior to the Independence Bowl , suffered after the loss . Indiana went 6 – 5 in the 1994 season , and head coach Bill Mallory was fired after two consecutive losing seasons in 1995 and 1996 . The Hoosiers would not appear in a bowl again until the 2007 season , when they played in the 2007 Insight Bowl .
Several players from each team later went on to play in the National Football League . Tech center Jim Pyne played for nine years in the NFL before becoming an assistant coach in the league . He subsequently had his number retired by Virginia Tech , becoming just the fourth player in Tech history to be honored in that fashion .
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= Denis Smith ( footballer ) =
Denis Smith ( born 19 November 1947 ) is an English former professional footballer and manager . He made 531 appearances in all competitions in 15 seasons as a player in the Football League , and as a manager took charge for 1 @,@ 195 competitive matches .
Born in Meir , Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent , he joined local club Stoke City as an amateur in 1964 , making his first team debut in September 1968 . A hard @-@ tackling defender , he soon established himself in the first team , playing in a centre @-@ back partnership with Alan Bloor for much of his career . Stoke enjoyed one of the most successful periods of their history during his time at the club , as he helped Stoke to win the League Cup in 1972 , featuring in successive FA Cup semi @-@ finals in 1971 and 1972 and helping the club to successive fifth @-@ place finishes in the First Division in 1973 – 74 and 1974 – 75 . His bravery as a player meant that he also entered the Guinness Book of Records as the most injured man in football , although he was never able to fully recover after breaking his leg for the fifth time in his career in March 1975 . He did manage to continue to play competitive football , and helped Stoke to win promotion from the Second Division in 1978 – 79 . He missed the entire 1980 – 81 season due to injury , and left the club in May 1982 .
He began his management career at York City in May 1982 , having played for the club on loan the previous season . He led the club to the Fourth Division title in 1983 – 84 , totalling five seasons at the club . He took charge of Sunderland in May 1987 , and took the club to the Third Division title in 1987 – 88 , before getting the club promoted from the Second Division in 1989 – 90 . Sacked by Sunderland in December 1991 , he took charge at Bristol City three months later . He steered the club away from relegation in 1992 – 93 , but was sacked in January 1993 after falling out with the club 's directors . He was appointed manager of Oxford United in September 1993 , and though he was unable to avoid relegation in 1993 – 94 , he led the club to promotion from the Second Division in 1995 – 96 . He switched clubs to West Bromwich Albion in December 1997 , remaining in charge for two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons before he was sacked in July 1999 .
He returned to manage Oxford in February 2000 , and steered the club away from relegation in 1999 – 2000 before resigning in October 2000 . In October 2001 he was appointed manager of Wrexham , but was unable to steer the club away from relegation in 2001 – 02 . He won promotion from the Third Division at the first attempt in 2002 – 03 , but Wrexham entered administration in December 2004 and the resulting points deduction saw them relegated once more . Despite the financial problems he managed the club to the Football League Trophy title in 2005 , in addition to two successive FAW Premier Cup wins in 2002 and 2003 . He was sacked in January 2007 , months after the club exited administration . He married in October 1967 and has three children .
= = Early life = =
Denis Smith was born in Meir , Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent , the second youngest of seven siblings . At just three years old he formed his own gang , stating in his autobiography that " if we wanted to play in the sandpit we played in the sandpit " , and continued to lead his gang through junior and senior years at Sandon Road Junior School . Despite being involved with gangs since his early childhood he grew out of the culture by the age of ten , and as a teenager formed friendships outside of his local council estate . He turned down the chance to sit the eleven plus exam as local grammar school Longton High was a rugby @-@ playing school , and so instead attended Queensbury Road School , with whom he won the Stoke Schools Trophy ; he also played for the Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent Schoolboys ( who were coached by former England international Dennis Wilshaw ) . At the age of 15 he became Staffordshire County boxing champion .
He was only 5 ft 2 in ( 1 @.@ 57 m ) at the age of 14 , but a late growth spurt took him to just under six foot , and was therefore tall enough to play centre @-@ back as a professional footballer . He was offered an apprenticeship by Portsmouth , but turned it down as he wanted to sign for his local club Stoke City , who initially were not willing to take him on as an apprentice . They only allowed him to train with the ' A ' team twice a week as an amateur whilst he initially worked as a plumber 's mate , and later as a factory worker at Stone Lotus .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Stoke City = = =
Smith signed for Stoke City in September 1966 after telling manager Tony Waddington that he was going to sign a contract at another club ; though Waddington was not keen on Smith 's hard @-@ tackling style , he did not want to lose the young player . At the age of 18 he faced Leeds United 's FWA Footballer of the Year Bobby Collins in a reserve game , and despite Collins going as far as to punch him in the face Smith managed to last the entire match without backing down in an extremely physical contest . However , for a period Waddington banned Smith from playing against first team players in training as he feared Smith would injure one of his players . He made his first team debut in the Football League against Arsenal in September 1968 , and was given the task of man @-@ marking Bobby Gould . He gave away a penalty after fouling Jon Sammels , which Terry Neill converted for the only goal of the game , but otherwise made a solid debut . However , in his second game he gave away two penalties in a 3 – 1 defeat away to Ipswich Town , and had to wait five months for another first team appearance . In March 1969 , Alan Bloor picked up a knock and Smith returned to the starting line @-@ up in a 5 – 1 defeat to Leeds , failing in his task to man mark Mick Jones , who claimed a hat @-@ trick . Despite the poor start to his senior career , he managed to finish the 1968 – 69 season with 14 First Division appearances to his name , and was occasionally used as an emergency striker .
Smith established himself in the Stoke defence in 1969 – 70 , forming a centre @-@ back partnership with Alan Bloor in between full @-@ backs Jackie Marsh and Mike Pejic . Smith was the aggressive and highly physical defender , complimented by Bloor who tended to stay further back and use his intelligence to read the game and clean up any mistakes Smith made . Smith claimed his first goal for the club on 17 September 1969 , in a 3 – 1 win over West Bromwich Albion ( West Brom ) at the Hawthorns . Stoke reached the semi @-@ final of the FA Cup in 1970 – 71 , and Smith played in the fourth round victory over Huddersfield Town despite suffering from a fractured ankle . He scored the only goal of the game in the fifth round replay away to Ipswich . He also scored a " freak goal " from a deflected Peter Storey clearance in the semi @-@ final against Arsenal on 27 March 1971 , but Stoke lost the replay four days later .
Stoke reached the FA Cup semi @-@ final for a second successive season in 1971 – 72 , again being knocked out by Arsenal in a replay . He had scored in the quarter @-@ final victory over Manchester United and pressured Arsenal 's Peter Simpson into scoring an own goal in the original semi @-@ final game . However , John Radford was the hero of the tie as he played as an emergency goalkeeper in the first game following an injury to Bob Wilson , and then scored the winning goal in the replay . Stoke found greater success in the League Cup , beating Southport , Oxford United ( after a replay ) , Manchester United ( after two replays ) , Bristol Rovers and West Ham United ( after three replays ) to reach the 1972 League Cup Final against Chelsea . He scored two goals during the run , but was knocked out whilst scoring against Bristol Rovers in the quarter @-@ final , and missed some weeks with concussion . He returned to play in the final , man @-@ marking Peter Osgood in a game which Stoke won 2 – 1 to win their first major trophy .
Despite the cup success and arrival of new signing Geoff Hurst , Stoke laboured to a 15th @-@ place finish in 1972 – 73 . Smith blamed the car crash and subsequent injury to Gordon Banks in October 1972 as the cause for the club 's mid @-@ season slump , which compounded an already poor start to the season . Any concerns over relegation disappeared though with six victories in the final eight league games . After a poor start to 1973 – 74 , Waddington signed Alan Hudson in January 1974 to help revive the club 's fortunes . The defence also improved , as Smith helped to ensure only two goals were conceded in the last nine games of the season as Stoke finished fifth . On 23 February 1974 , Smith scored the winning goal against Leeds to end their opponent 's 29 @-@ game unbeaten run . Leeds went on to have a £ 250 @,@ 000 bid for Smith turned down by Stoke in the summer .
Stoke made a push for the title in 1974 – 75 . They also competed in the UEFA Cup against Dutch side Ajax , and Smith scored in a 1 – 1 draw at the Victoria Ground , though Stoke would lose the tie on away goals . Smith scored the only goal of the game against Leicester City on 30 November 1974 to take Stoke top of the table . However , Smith broke his leg for the fifth time in his career making a red @-@ card challenge on Mick Lambert in a 2 – 1 defeat to Ipswich on 18 March 1975 ; he was the fourth Stoke player to break a leg that season . Stoke ended the season again in fifth place , picking up just two points from their final three games to finish four points behind champions Derby County .
He underwent an operation to remove cartilage in his knee in November 1975 , and his recovery was not entirely successful . He later admitted that after returning to match fitness from the injury he was only ever able to play at " half pace " . His long @-@ term replacement was young defender Alan Dodd . The club also faced a major decline following a gale which severely damaged the Victoria Ground 's Butler Street stand , and a lack of adequate insurance cover left a significant repair bill meaning the club had to sell Alan Hudson , Jimmy Greenhoff , Mike Pejic , Sean Haslegrave and Ian Moores to fund the repair ; Eric Skeels and John Ritchie also retired . Waddington filled in the gaps left by these players with youngsters , and it also meant that Smith could continue to be a regular for the club despite his reduced mobility . Waddington was sacked in March 1976 , and new manager George Eastham failed to prevent Stoke from being relegated at the end of 1976 – 77 . Following relegation he formed another good partnership , this time with Mike Doyle , which helped Stoke gain promotion in 1978 – 79 under new manager Alan Durban . Smith claimed his two seasons in the Second Division were " boring " , as even with his reduced mobility few attackers in the division posed too much of a threat for him .
A pre @-@ season injury kept him out of the entire 1980 – 81 season , during which time he coached the reserves . In this time he converted Steve Bould from a striker into a centre @-@ back . Smith returned from injury in 1981 – 82 , and featured regularly early in the season , and by the time another injury forced him out of the team , Stoke were sitting in 18th @-@ place . He joined York City , who were struggling in the Fourth Division , on a one @-@ month loan in March 1982 . He debuted in a 3 – 1 home defeat to Hull City on 16 March 1982 , and scored once for York , in a 4 – 2 loss away to Wigan Athletic on 2 April . Smith made seven appearances while on loan at York , and exerted his influence on the team by organising the defence ; he commented that " They had been crying out for an older head like me " . He was recalled by Stoke manager Richie Barker as the defence struggled in his absence , and Smith re @-@ established himself in the team as they avoided relegation . He was handed a free transfer to York in May 1982 . He said that if he had been offered a coaching role at Stoke he would have stayed , but that Barker wanted him gone as he saw him as a threat to his position . In total , Smith made 493 appearances for Stoke , a club record for a centre @-@ back .
= = = Style of play = = =
During Smith 's 14 seasons with Stoke , he became known for his fearless mentality which led to him sustaining a large number of injuries . These included five broken legs , breaking his nose four times , a cracked ankle , broken collar bone , chipped spine , breaking most of his fingers and toes and needing more than 200 stitches . The sequence saw him named in the Guinness Book of Records as the most injured man in football . Early into his career Smith soon developed a reputation as a " hard player " , who would launch himself at opponents determined to either block a shot and win the ball , which is how he picked up most of his injuries . He was known as Stoke 's " hitman " , and relished going toe to toe with the biggest and most feared opposition players .
He would generally man @-@ mark the opposition 's playmaker or major goalscoring threat . He was a highly effective tackler , able to either flatten opposition players or to quickly take the ball off their toes . After the tackle from behind was outlawed he adapted to the rule change by making hard challenges from the side . Manager Tony Waddington said that " His qualities were his tackling strength and his courage . On the ball he just did what he could do , but he also had a tremendous ability to read the game . "
= = Managerial career = =
= = = York City = = =
He moved into management with York as player @-@ manager ahead of 1982 – 83 , accepting the position on 12 May 1982 . He described the set up at Bootham Crescent on his arrival as a " shambles " , as training consisted entirely of running and was devoid of any actual coaching . He signed veteran players Roger Jones ( goalkeeper ) , Alan Hay ( defender ) and Ricky Sbragia ( defender ) , as well as young Stoke defender Chris Evans , which including Smith himself meant a complete change in the club 's back line . He brought in striker Viv Busby as a player @-@ coach . He then made 6 ft 1 in ( 1 @.@ 85 m ) 26 @-@ year @-@ old striker Keith Walwyn his priority , and encouraged Walwyn to use his natural physical presence to become a greater threat in front of goal and unlock his potential . Smith retired from playing after steering York to a seventh @-@ place in 1982 – 83 , in which he made 36 appearances and scored 4 goals . He signed Sheffield United 's John MacPhail on a free transfer as a replacement for himself .
In his second season as York manager , 1983 – 84 , he signed another former teammate , energetic midfielder Sean Haslegrave . Smith was named as the division 's Manager of the Month for March 1984 after York won five and drew one of their six league games . He guided York to the Fourth Division title and promotion into the Third Division , with Walwyn scoring 25 goals and earning a place in the PFA Team of the Year alongside strike partner John Byrne , who scored 27 goals . York finished with 101 points , 16 points ahead of runners @-@ up Doncaster Rovers .
Early in 1984 – 85 York were beaten by Queens Park Rangers ( QPR ) in the League Cup , but Byrne impressed QPR manager Alan Mullery enough to earn a £ 100 @,@ 000 move to Loftus Road . Smith spent half of this sum ( a club record ) on Aldershot forward Dale Banton , who went on to score 49 goals in 138 games for the club . He also released winger Brian Pollard , but found that the man he signed in his place , Gary Nicholson , was not able to replicate Pollard 's form . York started the season well and another of his signings , Keith Houchen ( £ 15 @,@ 000 ) , scored a hat @-@ trick in a 7 – 1 win over Gillingham in November 1984 . On 26 January 1975 , he guided York to victory over Arsenal in the FA Cup fourth round . In the next round York came from behind to draw 1 – 1 at home with Liverpool , before losing 7 – 0 away at Anfield .
York again drew Liverpool in the FA Cup fifth round in 1985 – 86 , and took the lead through Gary Ford only to concede a stoppage time equaliser . Tony Canham scored at Anfield and York had a second goal disallowed before York succymbed to a 3 – 1 defeat in extra time . York lost only three home league games all season , but missed out on promotion after finishing seventh . In the summer of 1986 he sold MacPhail to Bristol City for £ 15 @,@ 000 , whilst many of the veteran players he signed when he first came to the club were coming to the end of their careers . The 1986 – 87 season was disappointing for York as they were knocked out of the FA Cup by non @-@ League team Caernarfon Town and ended the season in 20th @-@ place . They did though manage to beat Chelsea 1 – 0 in the League Cup , but lost the return fixture at Stamford Bridge 3 – 0 . Smith ended up falling out with the club 's directors , who invested money in the club 's facilities rather than on players , and released goalkeeper Andy Leaning against his wishes .
= = = Sunderland = = =
In May 1987 , Smith was appointed manager at Sunderland , who had just been relegated into the Third Division for the first time in their history . York were unwilling to release him from his contract for less than £ 20 @,@ 000 compensation , and Sunderland would only go as far as pay £ 10 @,@ 000 . Smith agreed to a £ 40 @,@ 000 @-@ a @-@ year contract that meant if he failed to win promotion with Sunderland in his first season he would pay the extra £ 10 @,@ 000 compensation himself . He brought his York coaching staff with him : Viv Busby , Malcolm Crosby , and Roger Jones . He also signed former York player John MacPhail to shore up the defence , who captained the side and scored 16 goals ( including 10 penalties ) in his maiden season at Roker Park . He signed right @-@ back John Kay , whilst remaining satisfied with existing left @-@ back Reuben Agboola , centre @-@ back Gary Bennett and goalkeeper Iain Hesford . In midfield he played a youthful combination of Gordon Armstrong , Paul Lemon , Gary Owers and Paul Atkinson , alongside the more experienced defensive midfielder Steve Doyle . He sold Mark Proctor to Sheffield Wednesday for £ 275 @,@ 000 . He signed young and pacey York striker Marco Gabbiadini for £ 80 @,@ 000 and played him alongside the experienced Eric Gates ; the pair scored 42 goals between them in 1987 – 88 . A 7 – 0 win over Southend United started a run of 15 league games unbeaten , though in the second half of the campaign a run of just 2 wins in 10 games set them back . Smith bought Swansea City winger Colin Pascoe in March 1988 , and oversaw a run of seven wins in the final eight games to secure the Third Division championship and promotion with a record 101 points .
Injuries to Kay and Lemon hindered Sunderland at the start of 1988 – 89 , and they took until 1 October 1988 to register their first win back in the Second Division . He signed burly striker Billy Whitehurst to act as a " battering @-@ ram " , who proved to be an effective player despite being a heavy binge drinker . He spent a club record £ 500 @,@ 000 on goalkeeper Tony Norman , though Hesford and Whitehurst were traded as part @-@ exchange on the fee . Sunderland improved and ended the season in 11th @-@ place .
He signed experienced forward Paul Bracewell for 1989 – 90 , who partnered an increasingly effective Gabbiadini , and spent £ 130 @,@ 000 on Portsmouth left @-@ back Paul Hardyman . He introduced the exceptionally talented teenage winger Kieron Brady to the first team , but was unable to discipline the precocious teenager , and Brady never realised his full potential . Sunderland reached the play @-@ offs , and faced rivals Newcastle United in the semi @-@ final , securing passage into the final with a 2 – 0 victory at St James ' Park . They lost 1 – 0 to Swindon Town in the play @-@ off final at Wembley Stadium . However , Swindon were found guilty of financial irregularities and remained in the Second Division , whilst Sunderland took their place in the First Division .
Having been promoted weeks after the end of the previous season and not being granted an increased wage budget , Smith felt he had a tough job in keeping Sunderland in the top @-@ flight in 1990 – 91 . He allowed Gates and MacPhail to leave on free transfers in order to free up money to bring in new players . He spent £ 350 @,@ 000 on Portsmouth defender Kevin Ball and took midfielder Peter Davenport from rivals Middlesbrough ; Ball would prove to be a success , though Smith admitted in his autobiography that signing Davenport had been a mistake that left him unable to bring in any further players , as his small budget was spent . He was given further funds in February 1991 as Sunderland were engaged in a relegation battle , and Smith spent £ 225 @,@ 000 on midfielder Brian Mooney , who had a limited impact due to injuries . On the final day of the season Sunderland had to better Luton Town 's result at home to Derby in their game against Manchester City at Maine Road , but they lost 3 – 2 and were relegated back into the Second Division .
In the summer of 1991 , Stoke chairman Peter Coates offered Smith the vacant management position at the club , but Smith decided that potentially being sacked by his hometown club would be too intense an experience emotionally , and chose to stay loyal to Sunderland . This was despite finances being tight at Sunderland as the club saved the money to build the Stadium of Light . However , after just 4 wins in the opening 14 games of 1991 – 92 , Smith decided to sell star striker Gabbiadini to Crystal Palace for £ 1 @.@ 8 million in order to raise funds to improve the squad . He then spent £ 350 @,@ 000 on Celtic left @-@ back Anton Rogan and brought in strikers Don Goodman ( £ 900 @,@ 000 from West Bromwich Albion ) and John Byrne ( £ 225 @,@ 000 from Brighton & Hove Albion ) . Smith was sacked on 30 December 1991 , with Sunderland lying 17th in the Second Division . His former assistant Malcolm Crosby took Sunderland to the 1992 FA Cup Final , in which they were beaten by Liverpool .
= = = Bristol City = = =
Smith was only out of work for nine weeks before being appointed manager of Bristol City on 9 March 1992 . He succeeded Jimmy Lumsden , who left the club second @-@ from @-@ bottom in the Second Division . Smith felt the team lacked pace , so signed 20 @-@ year @-@ old striker Andy Cole on loan from Arsenal . Dariusz Dziekanowski scored both goals against Wolverhampton Wanderers ( Wolves ) in Smith 's second game in charge to provide City with their first win in three months . They then won 3 – 1 against Smith 's former club Sunderland , with Cole scoring the first of his 8 goals in 12 appearances during his loan spell . Smith successfully steered the club out of the relegation zone at the end of 1992 – 93 with a run of eight games unbeaten , and paid a club record £ 500 @,@ 000 to secure Cole 's services on a permanent basis . He further paid £ 250 @,@ 000 for Everton midfielder Raymond Atteveld and signed West Ham United striker Leroy Rosenior .
Smith rebuilt the defence for 1993 – 94 , signing right @-@ back Brian Mitchell and centre @-@ back David Thompson , and oversaw a mixed start to the season . City won four straight home games but also lost 5 – 1 to West Ham , 5 – 0 at Newcastle , and most significantly 4 – 0 to local rivals Bristol Rovers at Twerton Park . He found it difficult to control the club 's talented and popular players , as Dziekanowski regularly got into trouble in his social life and skilled left @-@ winger Junior Bent was unwilling to deliver crosses as regularly as Smith demanded . He tried to sell Bent but was unable to have the deal sanctioned by the club 's directors . His relationship with the board was poor and he found himself regularly undermined and sensitive boardroom discussions were leaked . He also tried to sell Cole in order to provide funds to restructure the first team but again the board refused to sanction the deal . He was sacked on 21 January 1993 following a run of 10 matches without a victory , and his assistant Russell Osman was appointed as his successor .
= = = Oxford United = = =
Smith made a return to management with Oxford on 10 September 1993 , and the following day led them to a 4 – 2 victory over his former club Bristol City . A victory over another former club , Stoke , took Oxford off the bottom of the Second Division , but a sequence of just 2 wins in 17 games left them in great danger of relegation . He signed goalkeeper Phil Whitehead on loan from Barnsley , signed striker John Byrne ( £ 50 @,@ 000 from Millwall ) for the third time in his career , and then made what he later said was the best signing of his career by bringing in defender Matt Elliott from Scunthorpe United for £ 170 @,@ 000 . Oxford were boosted by these arrivals and briefly exited the relegation zone , also claiming an FA Cup giant @-@ killing over Leeds at Elland Road after Jim Magilton scored the winning goal in extra time . However , after the game Magilton moved to Southampton for a £ 600 @,@ 000 fee . Oxford had struggled in the league during their FA Cup run and were 15 points short of safety with 16 games to play , but were aided by £ 60 @,@ 000 signing Paul Moody , who , despite arriving in February 1994 , managed to finish as the club 's top @-@ scorer with 12 goals in 15 games . His arrival kick @-@ started the club 's fightback , and Oxford closed the 15 points gap in just 9 games . However , a difficult run @-@ in left Oxford needing to beat Notts County on the last day of the season and hope results elsewhere went their way , and though they beat County their relegation rivals also claimed victories and Oxford were relegated .
The sale of star midfielder Joey Beauchamp to West Ham for a club record £ 1 million allowed Smith money to spend in the transfer market , and he spent £ 100 @,@ 000 each on Norwich City midfielder David Smith and Sunderland striker David Rush . Oxford formed a strong promotion push in 1994 – 95 , but were knocked out of the FA Cup in the first round by non @-@ League Marlow . In February 1995 , he spent £ 60 @,@ 000 on Hartlepool United 's Phil Gilchrist , who would form a highly effective centre @-@ back partnership with Elliott . Oxford finished the season in seventh place , six points outside the play @-@ offs . In November 1995 , Smith re @-@ signed Beauchamp for £ 300 @,@ 000 , who continued his excellent form after returning to his native Oxfordshire . The next month he brought in striker Martin Aldridge on a free transfer . The club were 14th in January 1996 , but lost only once in their last 17 games of 1995 – 96 in a tremendous second half of the season that saw them climb 12 places to win promotion as runners @-@ up . At the end of the season , Smith became a director of the club .
In order to strengthen for 1996 – 97 , Smith signed striker Nigel Jemson and spent £ 100 @,@ 000 on Leyton Orient defender Darren Purse . In order to finance these deals he sold Chris Allen to Nottingham Forest for £ 450 @,@ 000 . Oxford knocked Premier League side Sheffield Wednesday out of the League Cup en route to a fourth round exit . Oxford were fifth in the table in December 1996 , but chairman Robin Herd resigned amidst financial problems at the club , and work on the new stadium came to a halt as the club debt reached £ 13 million . Smith raised funds by selling Elliott to Leicester for £ 1 @.@ 7 million , and signed veteran defender Chris Whyte on a free transfer as a short @-@ term replacement . Oxford finished the season in 17th place , but the club 's financial situation became ever bleaker . Numerous players were sold , though Smith was allowed to spend £ 170 @,@ 000 on defender Phil Whelan . Smith left the Manor Ground mid @-@ way through 1997 – 98 with Oxford 16th in the league , and his assistant Crosby managed to maintain the club 's mid @-@ table position at the end of the season .
= = = West Bromwich Albion = = =
Smith was appointed manager of West Brom on a three @-@ year contract on 24 December 1997 , with Oxford receiving around £ 100 @,@ 000 in compensation . He had a mixed start to his time at the Hawthorns as Albion fell from promotion contenders to a tenth @-@ place finish in 1997 – 98 , but recorded victories over local rivals Wolves and Stoke .
In preparation for 1998 – 99 , he signed athletic Derby centre @-@ back Matt Carbon for £ 800 @,@ 000 , Blackpool striker James Quinn for £ 500 @,@ 000 , and Manchester City defender Jason van Blerk for £ 50 @,@ 000 . He also brought in winger Mark Angel , midfielders Mario Bortolazzi and Enzo Maresca , and striker Fabian de Freitas . However , the player who had the greatest impact for West Brom was young striker Lee Hughes , who had been signed before Smith 's arrival but only made his first start under Smith . Aside from Maresca , many of Smith 's signings had little impact , and supporters criticised him for allowing popular goalkeeper Alan Miller and strikers Andy Hunt and Bob Taylor to leave the club . West Broom started the season well with Hughes in tremendous form , but a slump in form in March 1999 left them ending up in 12th place . Smith was sacked on 27 July 1999 , just a week before the start of 1999 – 2000 .
= = = Return to Oxford = = =
On 3 February 2000 , Smith was appointed manager of Oxford for the second time in his career , with the club 21st in the Second Division . He re @-@ signed striker Nigel Jemson from Ayr United , and kept Oxford in the division as they ended 1999 – 2000 in 20th place , one place and one point above the relegation zone . He signed a one @-@ year contract extension in the summer of 2000 , but fell out with chairman Firoz Kassam . He later admitted that the signings he made on a limited budget , which included Ian McGuckin , Andy Scott and Rob Quinn , were not good enough . Smith resigned on 2 October 2000 after a terrible start to 2000 – 01 , a season which ended in Oxford being relegated in last place . He continued to work as a scout for the club under David Kemp and then Mark Wright .
= = = Wrexham = = =
Smith returned to management on 8 October 2001 with Wrexham on a two @-@ year contract , replacing Brian Flynn who had resigned after 12 years in charge , with the club 23rd in the Second Division . He was tasked with keeping the club steady whilst it struggled with financial problems . He decided to cut back on the club 's youth coaching spending , and as a result Wrexham 's youth structure was downgraded from an Academy to a Centre of Excellence . He signed goalkeeper Marius Røvde , midfielder Jim Whitley , and gave striker Hector Sam his debut , but failed to keep Wrexham away from the relegation zone . With relegation confirmed , new signing Lee Jones scored all five goals in a 5 – 0 win over Cambridge United , leaving cause for optimism at the Racecourse Ground .
He signed wing @-@ back Paul Edwards and held on to most of his key players for the 2002 – 03 season . Wrexham had a good start to the season and Smith won the Manager of the Month award for September 2002 after a sequence of four wins and two draws . A slump followed but Wrexham recovered from a poor October 2002 after coming from behind to beat Bournemouth on 9 November , as strikers Andy Morrell and Lee Trundle formed a good partnership , with Jones an impact substitute . Wrexham dropped out of the play @-@ off places following a sequence of draws in March 2003 , but new signing Scott Green scored both goals in a 2 – 0 win over Hartlepool United on 18 March , the first of a sequence of eight victories that took Wrexham into the third automatic promotion place with four games to go . They held on to the position to secure promotion from the Third Division at the first attempt . Wrexham also beat Newport County 6 – 1 in the final of the FAW Premier Cup to secure an important £ 100 @,@ 000 in prize money . Smith was named as the Manager of the Month for April and 2003 , before winning the League Managers Association 's Third Division Manager of the Season award .
Smith lost Morrell and Trundle on free transfers , and replaced them with Chris Armstrong and Chris Llewellyn . The club 's financial problems meant that players went unpaid at the start of 2003 – 04 , although they remained in the play @-@ off places in December 2003 . However , a hairline fracture to Shaun Pejic left Smith short of defenders and the promotion challenge ebbed away to a mid @-@ table finish . Wrexham retained the FAW Premier Cup though with a 4 – 1 victory over Rhyl . However , Smith made himself unpopular with supporters after refusing to endorse their campaign to oust controversial chairman Alex Hamilton .
Writing in his autobiography , Smith described 2004 – 05 " the most harrowing , distressing footballing time of my life " as the club entered administration with debts of £ 2 @.@ 6 million . Wrexham became the first club to be deducted 10 points for entering administration and were subsequently relegated from League One , eight points short of safety despite new signing Juan Ugarte scoring 23 goals . Despite the financial trouble Wrexham managed to win the Football League Trophy , knocking out Notts County , Stockport County , Chester City , Hereford United and Oldham Athletic en route to the final against Southend United at the Millennium Stadium . The final was settled in extra time , with Ugarte and Darren Ferguson securing a 2 – 0 victory . The club earned £ 250 @,@ 000 in prize money and the first national trophy in Wrexham 's history .
Smith turned down the managerial role at Blackpool to remain in place at Wrexham for 2005 – 06 . He signed goalkeeper Michael Ingham , defenders David Bayliss and Lee Roche , and strikers Lee McEvilly and Jonathan Walters , whilst blooding brothers Marc and Mike Williams . However , Wrexham struggled in the league , despite on loan striker Matt Derbyshire scoring 10 goals in 16 appearances . They finished the season 13th in League Two , having won only one of their last nine games . The last game of the season was a 1 – 1 draw with former club Oxford , which sent Oxford out of the Football League .
Wrexham exited 18 @-@ months of administration at the start of 2006 – 07 , and started the season with an eight @-@ match unbeaten run , including a 4 – 1 win over Championship club Sheffield Wednesday in the League Cup . However , a 5 – 0 defeat at Accrington Stanley triggered a run of bad results that Smith was unable to turn around . With Wrexham hovering above the relegation zone in 18th @-@ place , Smith was sacked on 11 January 2007 . He is one of only 24 people to have managed over 1 @,@ 000 professional matches in English football .
= = Personal life = =
He married childhood sweetheart Kate in October 1967 . Their first child Paul was born in April 1969 , and was named after teammate Paul Shardlow , who had died six months earlier . They had two further children : Becky , and Tom ( born 1978 ) . Smith released his autobiography , Just One Of Seven , in November 2008 . He writes a weekly column for The Sentinel and is occasionally a commentator on Stoke matches for BBC Radio Stoke . In July 2011 , he re @-@ joined Stoke on a part @-@ time basis as a mentor for young Academy players needing guidance off the pitch .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = As a player = = =
= = = As a manager = = =
= = Honours = =
= = = As a player = = =
Stoke City
Football League Second Division third @-@ place promotion : 1978 – 79
Football League Cup winner : 1972
Watney Cup winner : 1973 – 74
= = = As a manager = = =
York City
Football League Fourth Division champion : 1983 – 84
Sunderland
Football League Third Division champion : 1987 – 88
Football League Second Division promotion : 1989 – 90
Oxford United
Football League Second Division promotion : 1995 – 96
Wrexham
FAW Premier Cup winner : 2003 , 2004
Football League Third Division third @-@ place promotion : 2002 – 03
Football League Trophy winner : 2005
Individual
Football League Fourth Division Manager of the Month : March 1984
Football League Third Division Manager of the Month : September 2002 , April 2003
Football League Third Division Manager of the Season : 2002 – 03
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= British Open Championship Golf =
British Open Championship Golf is a 1997 sports video game developed and published by Looking Glass Technologies . A simulation of The Open Championship , it allows the player to engage in multiple forms of golf , including stroke play and fourball . The player competes at reproductions of the Royal Troon Golf Club and the Old Course at St. Andrews as and against famous golfers of the time . Announcer commentary is provided by actor Michael Bradshaw and Wide World of Sports host Jim McKay .
British Open Championship Golf was the third self @-@ published game released by Looking Glass Technologies . It was directed by Rex Bradford , designer of the early golf title Mean 18 . The team sought to create an accurate simulation of tournament golf play , which they felt was missing in the genre . To achieve this goal , they focused on recreating the atmosphere of a tournament , and included reactive crowds and announcers . The game was placed in competition with popular golf series such as Links and PGA Tour .
The game was a major commercial failure , and Looking Glass ceased its self @-@ publishing operations after its release . Despite this , it was generally well reviewed by critics , who praised Jim McKay 's commentary and the game 's graphics and atmosphere . Criticism was leveled against its lack of multiplayer or course creation functionality , and some reviewers found fault with its brevity .
= = Gameplay = =
British Open Championship Golf is a three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) video game that simulates golf , a sport in which players attempt to hit a ball into a hole with as few strokes as possible . In particular , the game is based on The Open Championship , the oldest tournament in golf . The player may compete as a pre- or self @-@ created amateur golfer or as one of eight celebrity athletes , including Sandy Lyle , Vijay Singh and Ian Baker @-@ Finch . Three modes of play — Practice , Match and Tournament — are available . Practice and Match are non @-@ binding preparatory modes : the former allows the player to practice each hole of a course , and the latter engages the player in a pre @-@ tournament match of stroke play , match play or fourball . In the Tournament mode , the player competes in The Open Championship , which consists of four 18 @-@ hole matches .
Before making a shot , the player may select a club and adjust the general direction of the swing . As with other golf games , a " swing meter " is used to simulate the act of swinging the club . The player clicks three times : first to initiate the backswing , which causes a timing indicator to move along the meter ; second to begin the downswing ; and third to " snap " the shot , which determines accuracy . Changes in the timing of these clicks alter the shot . A red section on the far end of the swing meter represents overswinging , which negatively affects shots . The crowd reacts to the player 's shots , and Tournament mode features announcer commentary that analyzes the match overall ; it can frame the player 's current performance in the light of past shots .
The player may choose one of two courses : the Royal Troon Golf Club and the Old Course at St. Andrews . The player 's caddie provides information about the pitfalls and idiosyncrasies of each course . The game simulates the strong wind and weather typical of the courses ' real @-@ world counterparts , which lie near the seaside . The player may adjust environmental aspects such as weather , wind speed and the wetness of the soil . During a match , the player uses information on the heads @-@ up display to determine such factors as wind speed and direction , the ball 's distance from the flag and the height difference between the ball and the hole .
= = Development = =
Looking Glass Technologies began developing British Open Championship Golf in 1995 . The project was led by Rex Bradford , designer of the influential 1986 golf title Mean 18 . He had also worked on earlier Looking Glass games , such as Terra Nova : Strike Force Centauri . Bradford decided to revisit the golf genre because he felt that other games did not recreate the structure or capture the atmosphere of golf tournaments ; he complained that golf titles took place on " The Lonely Planet of Golf " . The team sought to fill this perceived void by more accurately simulating the tournament experience , with a particular focus on crowds , commentary , atmosphere and the caddie . Bradford believed that these elements recreated " the television @-@ style ambiance of being in that moment . " Graphically , a focus was placed on buildings and animated objects , in order to make up for the less spectacular nature of links courses . The game 's environments were generated with the same stereophotogrammetry techniques used to create the landscapes in the company 's earlier Flight Unlimited . The team 's reproduction of the Old Course at St. Andrews was the first ever authorized for a video game .
Looking Glass officially announced British Open Championship Golf on July 18 , 1996 . Coinciding with this news , the company launched a website to cover The Open Championship of 1996 ; it detailed both current events and the history of the tournament and its courses . According to Bradford , the company was " hoping to make a splash " with the game , which was placed in competition with popular series such as Links and PGA Tour . He noted the quality of these titles , and stated that , had the team not been trying to innovate , they would not have attempted to compete in the genre . Looking Glass revealed in November 1996 that Jim McKay , host of the Wide World of Sports , would provide color commentary for the game . Actor Michael Bradshaw was hired as the play @-@ by @-@ play announcer . The pair recorded more than 5 @,@ 000 lines of dialogue in total . In January 1997 , Looking Glass and Eidos Interactive announced a four @-@ year partnership . As a result , British Open Championship Golf was distributed and marketed in North America and published in Europe by Eidos . However , like Flight Unlimited and Terra Nova , the game was self @-@ published in North America by Looking Glass . In March 1997 , near the end of the game 's development , part of the team moved to Thief : The Dark Project ; this included Mark Lizotte , who became that game 's lead artist . British Open Championship Golf was released on April 30 , 1997 . That May , Looking Glass collaborated with golf website GolfWeb to host a " Virtual British Open " tournament . Players competed in the game to win a trip to The Open Championship in Scotland , complete with " air fare , hotel accommodations and spending money . "
= = Reception = =
British Open Championship Golf was a commercial failure . Following its release , Looking Glass ceased self @-@ publishing operations and closed a division of the company , laying off a group of employees that included Warren Spector . Writing for Maximum PC , T. Liam McDonald called the game " a costly bomb that bled the company . " Looking Glass employee Tim Stellmach later characterized it as " a disaster " . However , it was generally well received by critics . A reviewer for Next Generation Magazine hailed it as " one of the best golf games in years " , praising the atmosphere and calling the graphics " among the best ... around . " The writer cited the game 's lack of a course editor as its main downside , and summarized , " If you are looking for a golf simulation , this one delivers . " PC Magazine 's Shane Mooney cited it as the best of eight golf titles reviewed in the magazine 's September 1997 issue — a group that included Jack Nicklaus 4 , Links LS 1998 and PGA Tour Pro . He highlighted its " outstanding graphics " and detailed course reproductions , and noted that it " [ immerses ] players in a realistic tournament atmosphere . " The writer considered the inclusion of only two courses to be the game 's " one major drawback " .
Jeff Guinn of the Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram called its graphics " exceptional " , and considered the game to be " far from the traditional aim / swing links pseudo @-@ challenge . " However , he found the game extremely difficult , thanks to its faithful reproductions of the challenging Old Course and Royal Troon . As a result , he considered the game to be ultimately " too much of a good thing . " A writer for the Telegraph @-@ Herald praised its courses , and stated that its gameplay was a " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art simulation " . The reviewer believed that the tournament atmosphere had been " re @-@ created faithfully . " Gary Whitta of PC Gamer US praised the game 's graphics and atmosphere . While he liked its gameplay , he noted that it lacked the genre refinements seen in Links LS , a decision he believed would appeal to genre novices but not to veterans . He disliked Michael Bradshaw 's commentary , but praised Jim McKay 's for " adding much to the overall feel . " Ending his review , Whitta summarized it as " one of the most user @-@ friendly , accessible , atmospheric and attractive golf games out there " .
Peter Smith of Computer Games Magazine found the game 's swinging mechanics challenging , and noted that " making a dead @-@ on accurate shot much more difficult than in any of the other golf games out there . " He found the mechanics of the putting green to be badly designed , which he cited as " an incredibly serious flaw that takes British Open Championship Golf out of contention for the gold cup . " Ultimately , he recommended Links LS and Jack Nicklaus 4 over the game , but suggested that future installments or patches might fix the issues . Computer Gaming World 's Scott A. May wrote that " the game is solid , but ... somewhat unspectacular " compared to Jack Nicklaus 4 and Links LS . He stated that the links courses gave the game " a somewhat desolate look and feel " , and that , " Historic or not , the scenery is downright dull " . The reviewer considered Jim McKay 's commentary and the simulated physics to be the game 's high points , and he believed that , " More so than any other golf sim , the reactive crowd and interactive caddie are ... totally integrated into play . " He summarized the game as " a very good simulation " that was somewhat deflated by its lack of multiplayer , course editing and match replays .
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= Dragon 's Egg =
Dragon 's Egg is a hard science fiction novel written by Robert L. Forward and published in 1980 . In the story , Dragon 's Egg is a neutron star with a surface gravity 67 billion times that of Earth , and inhabited by cheela , intelligent creatures the size of a sesame seed who live , think and develop a million times faster than humans . Most of the novel , from May to June 2050 , chronicles the cheela civilization beginning with its discovery of agriculture to advanced technology and its first face @-@ to @-@ face contact with humans , who are observing the hyper @-@ rapid evolution of the cheela civilization from orbit around Dragon 's Egg .
The novel is regarded as a landmark in hard science fiction . As is typical of the genre , Dragon 's Egg attempts to communicate unfamiliar ideas and imaginative scenes while giving adequate attention to the known scientific principles involved .
= = Plot summary = =
= = = The neutron star = = =
Half a million years ago and 50 light @-@ years from Earth , a star in the constellation Draco turns supernova , and the star 's remnant becomes a neutron star . The radiation from the explosion causes mutations in many Earth organisms , including a group of hominina that become the ancestors of Homo sapiens . The star 's short @-@ lived plasma jets are lop @-@ sided because of anomalies in its magnetic field , and set it on a course passing within 250 astronomical units of the Sun . In 2020 CE , human astronomers detect the neutron star , call it " Dragon 's Egg " , and in 2050 they send an expedition to explore it .
The star contains about half of a solar mass of matter , compressed into a diameter of about 20 kilometers ( 12 miles ) , making its surface gravity 67 billion times that of Earth . Its outer crust , compressed to about 7 @,@ 000 kg per cubic centimeter , is mainly iron nuclei with a high concentration of neutrons , overlaid with about 1 millimeter ( 0 @.@ 039 inches ) of white dwarf star material . The atmosphere , mostly iron vapor , is about 5 centimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 inches ) thick . The star shrinks slightly as it cools , causes the crust to crack and produce mountains 5 to 100 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 20 to 3 @.@ 94 inches ) high . Large volcanos , formed by liquid material oozing from deep cracks , can be many centimeters high and hundred meters in diameters , and will eventually collapse , causing starquakes .
Around 3000 BC Dragon 's Egg cools enough to allow a stable equivalent of " chemistry " , in which " compounds " are constructed of nuclei bound by the strong force , rather than of Earth 's atoms bound by the electromagnetic force . As the star 's chemical processes are about one million times faster than Earth 's , self @-@ replicating " molecules " appear shortly and life begins on the star . As the star continues to cool , more complex life evolves , until plant @-@ like organisms appear around 1000 BC . One lineage of these later became the first " animals " , the earliest of these stealing seedpods from sessile organisms and some later lineages becoming predators .
The adults of the star 's most intelligent species , called cheela ( no flexion for gender or number ) , have about the same mass as an adult human . However , the extreme gravity of Dragon 's Egg compresses the cheela to the volume of a sesame seed , but with a flattened shape about 0 @.@ 5 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 020 inches ) high and about 5 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 20 inches ) in diameter . Their eyes are 0 @.@ 1 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 0039 inches ) wide . Such minute eyes can see clearly only in ultraviolet and , in good light , the longest wavelengths of the X @-@ ray band .
= = = Growth of civilization = = =
In 2032 , a cheela develops the race 's first weapon and tactics while overcoming a dangerous predator . In November 2049 a human expedition to Dragon 's Egg starts building orbital facilities . The rest of the story , including almost the whole history of cheela civilization , spans from 22 May 2050 to 21 June 2050 . By humans ' standards , a " day " on Dragon 's Egg is about 0 @.@ 2 seconds , and a typical cheela 's lifetime is about 40 minutes .
One clan organizes the first cheela agriculture , which brings predictable food supply but provokes grumbling about the repetitive work . Shortly after , a volcano emerges in the area , and the clan invents the first sledge to carry food from more distant sources . However , within a few generations the volcano pollutes the soil . One clan leads its population on a long , arduous journey to new territory that is fertile and uninhabited . Although one genius invents mathematics to calculate and measure the band 's food supply , the situation is desperate and the clan 's survival depends on the self @-@ sacrifice of the oldest members .
Over the course of generations , the cheela come to worship the humans ' spacecraft as a god , and their records of its satellites ' movements cause them to develop writing . Several generations later , the cheela build an arena to accommodate thousands of worshippers . The humans notice this novel and very regular feature , conclude that intelligent beings inhabit the star , and use a laser to send simple messages . Cheela astronomers gradually realize that these are diagrams of the spaceships , its satellites and its crew – impossibly spindly creatures , who communicate with frustrating slowness , and are apparently almost 10 % as long as the cheela 's great arena . A cheela engineer proposes to send messages to the humans . As her attempts to transmit from the civilization 's territory are ineffective , she travels to a mountain range to transmit directly under the spacecraft – conquering the fear of heights that is instinctive for flattened creatures living in 67 billion g . The humans recognize her message and realize that the cheela live a million times faster than humans .
Since real time conversations are impossible , the humans send sections of the expedition 's library . After reading an astronomy article , a cheela realizes that the supernova half a million human years ago created both their races . Many cheela generations later , but only a few hours for humans , cheelas develop gravity manipulation . A few generations later , a cheela spacecraft visits the human one . Although they still need extreme gravity fields to survive , the cheela can now control them precisely enough for both races to see each other face @-@ to @-@ face in safety . The cheela have decided that transferring their technologies , now far advanced of humans ' , would stunt humanity 's development . However the cheela leave clues in several challenging locations , before going their separate ways .
= = Development history = =
Writer Robert L. Forward described being inspired by astronomer Frank Drake 's suggestion in 1973 that intelligent life could inhabit neutron stars . Physical models in 1973 implied that Drake 's creatures would be microscopic . By the time Forward was outlining the book , newer models indicated that the cheela would be about the size of sesame seeds . Later Forward found an earlier letter in which he discussed the idea of high @-@ gravity life in the Sun with science fiction novelist Hal Clement .
Forward was the scientist and Larry Niven the author in a tutorial on science fiction writing , and later that evening Forward and Niven agreed to collaborate on a novel on aliens on a neutron star . However , Niven soon found himself too busy with Lucifer 's Hammer , on which he was already co @-@ writing with Jerry Pournelle . Forward wrote the first draft himself , but several publishers suggested the story should be rewritten by Niven or Pournelle – who were still busy . Finally editor Lester del Rey provided comments that guided Forward through two rewrites , and del Rey then bought the novel . Forward described the work as " a textbook on neutron star physics disguised as a novel " .
= = = Publication history = = =
In English :
In other languages :
= = Literary significance and reception = =
Science fiction critic John Clute wrote that the novel " generates a sense of wonder that is positively joyous " , saying it was " a romance of science " . Chris Aylott described it as " a minor classic of science fiction – one that shows off both the best and worst elements of hard SF . ... the ideas definitely come first . " He found the writing of the human cast dull , but appreciated Forward 's ability to share his fascination with the cheela and to create communications between races that lived at vastly different speeds .
Lambourne , Shallis and Shortland consider that the research and detailed construction of the scenario make Dragon 's Egg an excellent example of hard science fiction . Scientist Seth Shostak described the book 's science as " fanciful but impossible to dismiss " .
John Pierce also regarded Dragon 's Egg as hard science fiction at its best , while Forward 's later novel Martian Rainbow ( 1991 ) was the genre at its worst . Both novels have cardboard human characters , but this does not matter in Dragon 's Egg , where the focus is on the deeper personalities of the cheela characters . The novel even makes readers care about the fate of an unsympathetic cheela ruler , whose rejuvenation treatment fails catastrophically . Pierce wrote that the best works of this genre create a literary experience , but one of an unusual kind . Instead of offering a metaphor for a reality the reader already recognizes , they create new realities in which the reader is caught up .
Robert Lambourne regards Forward , especially in Dragon 's Egg , as the successor of Hal Clement , whose Mission of Gravity exemplifies the most strongly science @-@ based science fiction . In Lambourne 's opinion hard science fiction authors like Clement , Forward and their successors have been relatively few but have strongly influenced both the genre 's evolution and the public 's perception of the genre .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Dragon 's Egg won the 1981 Locus Award for First Novel and placed 14th in Locus ' SF Novel category .
= = Sequel = =
In 1985 Forward published Starquake , a sequel to Dragon 's Egg . Lambourne , Shallis and Shortland consider Starquake ’ s scientific background as rigorous as Dragon 's Egg 's . In this novel , a starquake disrupts cheela civilization , while humans aboard the spacecraft Dragon Slayer deal with their own problems .
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= Project Stormfury =
Project Stormfury was an attempt to weaken tropical cyclones by flying aircraft into them and seeding with silver iodide . The project was run by the United States Government from 1962 to 1983 .
The hypothesis was that the silver iodide would cause supercooled water in the storm to freeze , disrupting the inner structure of the hurricane . This led to the seeding of several Atlantic hurricanes . However , it was later shown that this hypothesis was incorrect . It was determined most hurricanes do not contain enough supercooled water for cloud seeding to be effective . Additionally , researchers found that unseeded hurricanes often undergo the same structural changes that were expected from seeded hurricanes . This finding called Stormfury 's successes into question , as the changes reported now had a natural explanation .
The last experimental flight was flown in 1971 , due to a lack of candidate storms and a changeover in NOAA 's fleet . More than a decade after the last modification experiment , Project Stormfury was officially canceled . Although a failure in its goal of reducing the destructiveness of hurricanes , Project Stormfury was not without merit . The observational data and storm lifecycle research generated by Stormfury helped improve meteorologists ' ability to forecast the movement and intensity of future hurricanes .
= = Hypothesis = =
Cloud seeding was first attempted by Vincent Schaefer and Irving Langmuir . After witnessing the artificial creation of ice crystals , Langmuir became an enthusiastic proponent of weather modification . Schaefer found that when he dumped crushed dry ice into a cloud , precipitation in the form of snow resulted .
With regard to hurricanes , it was hypothesized that by seeding the area around the eyewall with silver iodide , latent heat would be released . This would promote the formation of a new eyewall . As this new eyewall was larger than the old eyewall , the winds of the tropical cyclone would be weaker due to a reduced pressure gradient . Even a small reduction in the speed of a hurricane 's winds would be beneficial : since the damage potential of a hurricane increased as the square of the wind speed , a slight lowering of wind speed would have a large reduction in destructiveness .
Due to Langmuir 's efforts , and the research of Schaefer at General Electric , the concept of using cloud seeding to weaken hurricanes gathered momentum . Indeed , Schaefer had caused a major snowstorm on December 20 , 1946 by seeding a cloud . This caused GE to drop out for legal reasons . Schaefer and Langmuir assisted the U.S. military as advisors for Project Cirrus , the first large study of cloud physics and weather modification . Its most important goal was to try to weaken hurricanes .
= = Project Cirrus = =
Project Cirrus was the first attempt to modify a hurricane . It was a collaboration of the General Electric Corporation , the US Army Signal Corps , the Office of Naval Research , and the US Air Force . After several preparations , and initial skepticism by government scientists , the first attempt to modify a hurricane began on October 13 , 1947 on a hurricane that was heading west to east and out to sea .
An airplane flew along the rainbands of the hurricane , and dropped nearly 180 pounds ( 82 kilograms ) of crushed dry ice into the clouds . The crew reported " Pronounced modification of the cloud deck seeded " . It is not known if that was due to the seeding . Next , the hurricane changed direction and made landfall near Savannah , Georgia . The public blamed the seeding , and Irving Langmuir claimed that the reversal had been caused by human intervention . Cirrus was canceled , and lawsuits were threatened . Only the fact that a system in 1906 had taken a similar path , as well as evidence showing that the storm had already begun to turn when seeding began , ended the litigation . This disaster set back the cause of seeding hurricanes for eleven years .
= = Between the projects = =
The United States Weather Bureau 's National Hurricane Research Project , founded in 1955 , had as one of its objectives to investigate the scientific validity of hurricane modification methods . To this end , silver iodide dispensers were tested in Hurricane Daisy in August 1958 . The flares were deployed outside of the hurricane eyewall , so this was an equipment test rather than a modification experiment . The equipment malfunctioned in all but one of the flights , and no conclusive data was acquired .
The first seeding experiment since the Cirrus disaster was attempted on September 16 , 1961 , into Hurricane Esther by NHRP and the United States Navy aircraft . Eight cylinders of silver iodide were dropped into Esther 's eyewall , and winds were recorded as weakening by 10 percent . The next day , more seeding flights were made . This time , the silver iodide did not fall into the eyewall , and no reduction in windspeed was observed . These two results were interpreted as making the experiment a " success " .
The seedings into Hurricane Esther led to the establishment of Project Stormfury in 1962 . Project Stormfury was a joint venture of the United States Department of Commerce and the United States Navy .
= = Project BATON = =
The objective of Project BATON was the analysis of the life history of thunderstorms . A Department of Defense research activity supported by the Advanced Research Project Agency , Project BATON sought to expand understanding of storm physics as an aid to weather forecasting , fire prevention , and , possibly , for artificially controlling the weather . Dr. Helmut Weickmann , as an employee of the U.S , Army Signal Research and Development Laboratory , and Dr. Paul McReady of Meteorology Research , Inc . , were joint leaders of the Project BATON team .
During the 1962 July – August storm season in Flagstaff , Arizona , the scientists , selected " guinea pig " storms , and seeded them with chemicals . Effects were thoroughly analyzed from the ground and from the air with time @-@ lapse motion picture cameras , stereo still cameras , storm radar , lightning detectors , and airborne heat sensors . Among the agents inserted in selected clouds were " condensation nuclei " which temporarily increased the number of water droplets in the cloud , and pulverized dry ice , which turns a portion of the cloud to fine snow crystals that remain aloft . The utilization of these agents facilitated study of a storm 's characteristics .
= = Project STORMFURY begins = =
Robert Simpson became its first director , serving in this capacity until 1965 . There were several guidelines used in selecting which storms to seed . The hurricane had to have a less than 10 percent chance of approaching inhabited land within a day ; it had to be within range of the seeding aircraft ; and it had to be a fairly intense storm with a well @-@ formed eye . The primary effect of these criteria was to make possible seeding targets extremely rare .
No suitable storms formed in the 1962 season . Next year , Stormfury began by conducting experiments on cumulus clouds . From August 17 to 20 of that year , experiments were conducted in 11 clouds , of which six were seeded and five were controls . In five of the six seeded clouds , changes consistent with the working hypothesis were observed .
On August 23 , 1963 , Hurricane Beulah was the site of the next seeding attempt . It had an indistinct eyewall . In addition , mistakes were made , as the seedings of silver iodide were dropped in the wrong places . As a consequence , nothing happened . The next day , another attempt was made , and the seeders hit their targets . The eyewall was observed to fall apart and be replaced by another eyewall with a larger radius . The sustained winds also fell by twenty percent . All in all , the results of the experiments on Beulah were " encouraging but inconclusive . "
In the six years after Beulah , no seedings were conducted for several different reasons . In 1964 , measurement and observation equipment was not ready to be used . The year after that , all flights were used for additional experimentation in non @-@ hurricane clouds .
Joanne Simpson became its director beginning in 1965 . While out to sea in August of the 1965 Atlantic hurricane season , Stormfury meteorologists decided that Hurricane Betsy was a good candidate for seeding . However , the storm immediately swung towards land , and on September 1 , the planned flights were canceled . For some reason , the press was not notified that there were no seedings , and several newspapers reported that it had begun . As Betsy passed close to the Bahamas and smashed into southern Florida , the public and Congress thought that seeding was underway and blamed Stormfury . It took two months for Stormfury officials to convince Congress that Betsy was not seeded , and the project was allowed to continue . A second candidate , Hurricane Elena , stayed too far out to sea .
After Betsy , two other hurricanes came close to being seeded . Hurricane Faith was considered a likely candidate , but it stayed out of range of the seeding planes . That same year , recon flights were conducted into Hurricane Inez , but there were no seedings . Both the 1967 and 1968 seasons were inactive . Because of that , there were no suitable seeding targets in either of those two seasons .
Dr. R. Cecil Gentry became the director of Stormfury in 1968 . There were no more near @-@ seedings until 1969 . In the interim , equipment was improved . What once was the primitive method of hand @-@ dumping dry ice was replaced with rocket canisters loaded with silver iodide , and then gun @-@ like devices mounted on the wings of the airplanes that fired silver iodide into the clouds . Observation equipment was improved . Additional reconnaissance data was utilized to modify the working hypothesis . The new theory took cumulus towers outside the eyewall into account . According to the revised theory , by seeding the towers , latent heat would be released . This would trigger the start of new convection , which would then cause a new eyewall . Since the new eyewall was outside the original one , the first eyewall would be choked of energy and fall apart . In addition , since the new eyewall was broader than the old one , the winds would be lower due to a less sharp pressure difference .
Hurricane Debbie in 1969 provided the best opportunity to test the underpinnings of Project Stormfury . In many ways it was the perfect storm for seeding : it did not threaten any land ; it passed within range of seeding aircraft ; and was intense with a distinct eye . On August 18 and again on August 20 , thirteen planes flew out to the storm to monitor and seed it . On the first day , windspeeds fell by 31 % . On the second day , windspeeds fell by 18 % . Both changes were consistent with Stormfury 's working hypothesis . Indeed , the results were so encouraging that " a greatly expanded research program was planned . " Among other conclusions was the need for frequent seeding at close to hourly intervals .
The 1970 and 1971 seasons provided no suitable seeding candidates . Despite this , flights were conducted into Hurricane Ginger . Ginger was not a suitable storm for seeding , due to its diffuse , indistinct nature . The seeding had no effect . Ginger was the last seeding done by Project Stormfury .
= = After the seedings = =
Atlantic hurricanes meeting all of the criteria were extremely rare , which made duplication of the " success " reached with Hurricane Debbie extremely difficult . Meanwhile , developments outside of meteorology hindered the cause of hurricane modification .
In the early 1970s , the Navy withdrew from the project . Stormfury began to refocus its efforts on understanding , rather than modifying , tropical cyclones . At the same time , the Project 's aircraft were nearing the end of their operational lifetimes . At the cost of $ 30 million ( year unknown ) two Lockheed P @-@ 3 's were acquired . Due to the rarity of Atlantic hurricanes meeting the safety requirements , plans were made to move Stormfury to the Pacific and experiment on the large number of typhoons there . This action required many of the same safety requirements as in the Atlantic , but had the advantage of a much higher number of potential subjects .
The plan was to begin again in 1976 , and seed typhoons by flying out of Guam . However , political issues blocked the plan . The People 's Republic of China announced that it would not be happy if a seeded typhoon changed course and made landfall on its shores , while Japan declared itself willing to put up with difficulties caused by typhoons because that country got more than half of its rainfall from tropical cyclones .
Similar plans to operate Stormfury in the eastern north Pacific or in the Australian region also collapsed .
= = Failure of the working hypothesis = =
Multiple eyewalls had been detected in very strong hurricanes before , including Typhoon Sarah and Hurricane Donna , although the double eyes were usually seen in very intense systems . Double eyewalls were also seen post @-@ seeding in some of the seeded storms . At the time however , the only known times that rapid changes in eyewall diameter , other than during presumably successful seedings , was during rapid changes in intensity . It remained controversial whether the seedings caused the secondary eyewalls or whether it was just a natural cycle . Basically , if eyewall changes similar to those observed in seeded hurricanes were rare in unseeded tropical cyclones , it would provide powerful evidence that Project Stormfury was successful . Conversely , if such changes were common in unseeded systems , it would throw doubt on the very hypothesis and assumptions driving Project Stormfury .
Data and observations began to accumulate that debunked Stormfury 's working hypothesis . Beginning with Hurricanes Anita and David , flights by Hurricane Hunter aircraft encountered events similar to what happened in " successfully " seeded storms . Anita itself had a weak example of a concentric eyewall cycle , and David a more dramatic one . In August 1980 , Hurricane Allen passed through the Atlantic , Caribbean , and Gulf of Mexico . It also underwent changes in the diameter of its eye and developed multiple eyewalls . All this was consistent with the behavior that would have been expected of Allen had it been seeded . Thus , what Stormfury was accomplishing by seeding was also happening on its own .
Other observations in Hurricanes Anita , David , Frederic , and Allen also discovered that tropical cyclones have very little supercooled water and a great deal of ice crystals . The reason that tropical cyclones have little supercooled water is that the updrafts within such a system are too weak to prevent water from either falling as rain or freezing . As cloud seeding needed supercooled water to function , the lack of supercooled water meant that seeding would have no effect .
Those observations called the basis for Project Stormfury into question . In the middle of 1983 , Stormfury was finally canceled after the hypothesis guiding its efforts was invalidated .
= = Legacy = =
In the sense of weakening hurricanes to reduce their destructiveness , Project Stormfury was a complete failure because it did not distinguish between natural phenomena in tropical cyclones and the impact of human intervention . Millions of dollars had been spent trying to do the impossible . In the end , " [ Project ] STORMFURY had two fatal flaws : it was neither microphysically nor statistically feasible . "
In addition , Stormfury had been a primary generator of funding for the Hurricane Research Division . While the project was operational , the HRD 's budget had been around $ 4 million ( 1975 USD ; $ 16 million 2008 USD ) , with a staff of approximately 100 people . Today , the HRD employs 30 people and has a budget of roughly $ 2 @.@ 6 million each year .
However , Project Stormfury had positive results as well . Knowledge gained during flights proved invaluable in debunking its hypotheses . Other science resulted in a greater understanding of tropical cyclones . In addition , the Lockheed P @-@ 3 's were perfectly suitable for gathering data on tropical cyclones , allowing improved forecasting of these monstrous storms . Those planes are still used by the NOAA today .
Cuban president Fidel Castro has alleged that Project Stormfury was an attempt to weaponize hurricanes .
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= Ramón Ramírez ( Dominican pitcher ) =
Ramón Santo Ramírez ( born August 31 , 1981 ) is a Dominican relief pitcher for the Tigres de Quintana Roo of the Mexican Baseball League . He stands 5 feet 11 inches ( 1 @.@ 80 m ) and weighs 200 pounds ( 91 kg ) . He pitched for the Hiroshima Toyo Carp in Nippon Professional Baseball ( NPB ) , and the Colorado Rockies , Kansas City Royals , Boston Red Sox , San Francisco Giants , New York Mets and Baltimore Orioles in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He bats and throws right @-@ handed . He throws a fastball , a changeup , and a slider .
Ramírez was signed by the Texas Rangers in 1996 , as an infielder . After one season in their minor leagues , he was released . He spent the next three years learning how to pitch before joining the Hiroshima Toyo Carp 's Dominican academy in 2000 . He pitched in two games with the Carp in 2002 and was signed by the New York Yankees in 2003 . He spent 2 @.@ 5 years in their minor leagues before getting traded to the Colorado Rockies in the middle of the 2005 season . Shortly after the 2006 season started , Ramírez was called up by the Rockies , and he went on to have a successful rookie season for them . In 2007 , he had an 8 @.@ 31 ERA with the Rockies and spent time on the disabled list and in the minor leagues . Before the 2008 season , he was traded to the Kansas City Royals . After one season with the Royals , he was traded to the Boston Red Sox . In 2009 , his seven wins were tied for third among relief pitchers in the American League . After an inconsistent start to the 2010 season , Ramírez was traded to the San Francisco Giants . He posted a 0 @.@ 67 ERA with the Giants , helping them reach the playoffs . He gave up runs in 4 of the 5 playoff games he pitched in , but the Giants won their first World Series since 1954 . In 2011 , Ramírez posted a career @-@ best 2 @.@ 62 ERA and was traded to the New York Mets after the season .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Texas Rangers = = =
On December 27 , 1996 , the Texas Rangers signed Ramírez as an infielder , believing him to be 16 instead of 15 . After one season with their Dominican affiliate , he was released on June 4 , 1998 .
= = = Hiroshima Toyo Carp = = =
After being released by the Rangers , Ramírez got a job at a Coca @-@ Cola bottling plant while learning how to pitch . In 2000 , he attended the Hiroshima Toyo Carp 's academy in the Dominican Republic , and he appeared in two games for the Carp in 2002 . He gave up one run in three innings while striking out three batters and walking two , and he was posted in 2003 . The winning bid was placed by the New York Yankees , who signed him on March 5 , 2003 , and assigned him to their minor league system .
= = = New York Yankees = = =
Ramírez began his minor league career in 2003 with the Tampa Yankees of the single @-@ A advanced Florida State League . After he had a 2 – 8 record , a 5 @.@ 21 earned run average ( ERA ) , 21 strikeouts , and 21 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 14 starts , he was promoted to the Trenton Thunder of the Double @-@ A Eastern League . With the Thunder , he had a 1 – 1 record , a 1 @.@ 69 ERA , 21 strikeouts , and 21 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in four games ( three starts ) , and this earned him a promotion to the Columbus Clippers of the triple @-@ A International League . In two games ( one start ) with Columbus , he had an 0 – 1 record , a 4 @.@ 50 ERA , five strikeouts , and six innings pitched . He finished his first minor league season with a 3 – 10 record , a 4 @.@ 43 ERA , 96 strikeouts , and 101 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 20 games ( 18 starts ) .
In 2004 , Ramírez began the year with Columbus . After he had an 0 – 3 record , an 8 @.@ 50 ERA , 17 strikeouts , and 18 innings pitched in four starts , he was demoted to Trenton on May 1 . On August 17 , he allowed just two hits in a 4 – 1 complete game victory over the Norwich Navigators while setting a team record by retiring the last 24 hitters he faced . With Trenton , Ramírez had a 4 – 6 record , a 4 @.@ 62 ERA , two complete games , 128 strikeouts , and 115 innings pitched in 18 starts . His combined minor league totals were a 4 – 9 record , a 5 @.@ 14 ERA , two complete games , 145 strikeouts , and 133 innings pitched in 22 starts .
Ramírez began the 2005 season with Columbus again . After he had a 1 – 3 record , a 5 @.@ 33 ERA , 23 strikeouts , and 25 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in six starts for the Clippers , he was demoted to Trenton for the second year in a row . At Trenton , he had a 6 – 5 record , a 3 @.@ 84 ERA , 82 strikeouts , and 89 innings pitched in 15 starts . On July 28 , the Yankees traded Ramírez and Eduardo Sierra to the Colorado Rockies for Shawn Chacón .
= = = Colorado Rockies = = =
After being acquired by the Rockies , Ramírez was assigned to the Tulsa Drillers of the double @-@ A Texas League . He made three starts with the Drillers before getting moved to the bullpen . In 9 games ( 3 starts ) with Tulsa , Ramírez had a 2 – 1 record , a 5 @.@ 33 ERA , 23 strikeouts , and 25 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . His combined minor league totals were a 9 – 9 record , a 4 @.@ 39 ERA , 131 strikeouts , and 141 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .
Ramírez began 2006 with the Colorado Springs Sky Sox of the triple @-@ A Pacific Coast League . After throwing a scoreless inning for Colorado Springs , he was called up by the Rockies on April 12 when Mike DeJean was placed on the disabled list . He made his debut on April 14 , pitching two scoreless innings in a 10 – 8 loss to the Philadelphia Phillies . Five days later , he singled against Chan Ho Park in his first major league at bat in a 13 – 4 loss to the San Diego Padres . On April 25 , he pitched 2 1 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings and got his first major league win in a 7 – 6 victory over the Phillies . Ramírez began his career with 15 1 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings in 11 games , which set a Rockies record for longest streak by a reliever to begin a career . It was the longest streak by a reliever to start a career since Jeremy Fikac threw 16 scoreless innings to start his career in 2001 . Ramírez 's streak ended on May 15 , when he allowed three runs in 1 ⁄ 3 of an inning and got his first career loss against the Los Angeles Dodgers , who won 5 – 4 . On August 15 , he set a career high with four innings pitched in the longest game in Rockies history , an 18 @-@ inning game against the Arizona Diamondbacks . He gave up a run in the 18th and suffered a loss in the 2 – 1 defeat . He had a 2 @.@ 88 ERA in his first 47 games , but he posted a 5 @.@ 09 ERA over his final 14 games , raising his season ERA to 3 @.@ 46 . On September 30 , in his final game of the season , he pitched 1 2 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings and got the win in a 14 @-@ inning , 11 – 9 victory over the Chicago Cubs . Ramírez finished the season with a 4 – 3 record , a 3 @.@ 46 ERA , 61 strikeouts , and 67 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 61 games . His 61 games were the third @-@ most by a Rockies ' rookie pitcher , behind Steve Reed ( 64 in 1993 ) and Javier López ( 75 in 2003 ) .
Ramírez began the 2007 season with seven straight scoreless appearances for the Rockies . On April 21 , he was placed on the disabled list ( DL ) ( retroactive to May 18 ) with a sprained right elbow . He returned from the DL on May 15 . After stretching his scoreless start to eight games , he posted a 22 @.@ 24 ERA over his next seven games . On May 20 , he gave up a career @-@ high five runs in 2 ⁄ 3 innings and got the loss in a 10 – 5 defeat to the Kansas City Royals . On June 7 , he was optioned to Colorado Springs as Josh Fogg came off the disabled list . Ramírez was recalled on July 20 to replace Tom Martin , who was designated for assignment . After six games , he was returned to Colorado Springs as Ryan Speier was called up . A week later , he was recalled when Willy Taveras was placed on the disabled list , but he was returned to the minors two days later after appearing in one game . On September 8 , he was called up and placed on the 60 @-@ day disabled list with elbow inflammation so the Rockies could put Josh Newman on their roster . Ramírez finished the season with a 2 – 2 record , an 8 @.@ 31 ERA , 15 strikeouts , and 17 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 22 games . He did not allow an earned run in 11 road games , but he had a 17 @.@ 28 ERA in 11 games at Coors Field . Although he did not pitch in the playoffs for the Rockies at all ( since he was injured ) , he was still presented with an NL Championship ring . At Colorado Springs , Ramírez had a 4 – 0 record , a 2 @.@ 28 ERA , 35 strikeouts , and 27 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 25 games .
= = = Kansas City Royals = = =
Ramírez was traded to the Kansas City Royals on March 26 , 2008 , for a player to be named later ( Jorge de la Rosa ) . He posted a 0 @.@ 66 ERA through his first 13 games with the Royals , but his ERA rose to 3 @.@ 49 after he posted a 6 @.@ 14 ERA in his next 13 games . Over his final 45 games , he had a 2 @.@ 08 ERA . On June 25 , in a 7 – 3 victory over Colorado ( his former team ) , Ramírez threw two pitches behind Yorvit Torrealba of the Rockies . Ramírez said he was not trying to hit Torrealba , and he was not ejected from the game or disciplined , but some of the Rockies players claimed that Ramírez had thrown at Torrealba intentionally . On July 20 , he got his first win since May 21 of the previous year in an 8 – 7 victory over the Chicago White Sox , despite blowing the lead by giving up two runs in 1 1 ⁄ 3 innings . Ten days later , he pitched 1 1 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings and was charged with the win in a 4 – 3 victory over the Oakland Athletics , helping the Royals sweep the Athletics in Oakland for the first time since 1988 . By September , he had replaced Ron Mahay as Joakim Soria 's setup man . He pitched in 71 games for the Royals with a 2 @.@ 64 ERA . On September 4 , in the second game of a doubleheader , Ramírez notched his first career save against the Athletics in a 9 – 6 victory . Ramírez finished the year with a 3 – 2 record , a 2 @.@ 64 ERA , one save , 70 strikeouts , and 71 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 71 games . He was one of three major league pitchers to give up two or fewer home runs in over 70 innings ( along with Roy Corcoran and Jason Grilli ) , and he was one of the American League ( AL ) pitchers to have an ERA under 3 @.@ 00 with at least 70 innings pitched and 70 strikeouts ( along with Francisco Rodríguez and Matt Thornton ) .
= = = Boston Red Sox = = =
On November 19 , Ramírez was traded to the Boston Red Sox for outfielder Coco Crisp . On April 24 , 2009 , he pitched a scoreless inning for the Red Sox and earned the win in an 11 @-@ inning 5 – 4 victory over the New York Yankees . He began his Red Sox tenure with 15 straight scoreless innings spanning 13 games from April 8 to May 3 . On May 14 , he pitched a season @-@ high 2 2 ⁄ 3 innings , giving up no runs in a 12 @-@ inning , 5 – 4 loss to the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim . He struck out a season @-@ high four batters and allowed a run in 1 2 ⁄ 3 innings on July 9 in an 8 – 6 loss to the Royals . Ramírez finished the season with a 7 – 4 record , a 2 @.@ 84 ERA , 52 strikeouts , and 69 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . His seven wins were tied for third among AL relief pitchers and trailed only Alfredo Aceves ( 10 ) and Craig Breslow ( 8 ) . Ramírez reached the playoffs for the first time in his career , as the Red Sox won the Wild Card . In Game 1 of the American League Division Series ( ALDS ) , he gave up two runs without recording an out in his only playoff appearance , a 5 – 0 loss to the Angels . The Angels went on to sweep the Red Sox in three games .
On April 27 , 2010 , Ramírez got his first save since 2008 in a 2 – 1 win over the Baltimore Orioles , since Red Sox manager Terry Francona wanted to rest closer Jonathan Papelbon . He was charged with a loss on July 20 after pitching 1 1 ⁄ 3 innings when Michael Bowden allowed an inherited runner to score in the 10th inning of a 5 – 4 loss to the Athletics . Two days later , he got a save in a 13 @-@ inning , 8 – 6 win over the Seattle Mariners . Ramírez had an 0 – 3 record , a 4 @.@ 46 ERA , 2 saves , 31 strikeouts , and 41 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched with the Red Sox through July 31 , the trade deadline . That day , he was traded to the San Francisco Giants for Dan Turpen .
= = = San Francisco Giants = = =
Ramírez got his only win of the year by pitching a scoreless inning on September 21 in a 1 – 0 victory over the Cubs . He got a save against the Diamondbacks on September 30 , since Giants ' manager Bruce Bochy wanted to rest closer Brian Wilson , in a 4 – 1 victory . Ramírez posted a 1 – 0 record , an 0 @.@ 67 ERA , 15 strikeouts , and 27 innings pitched in 25 games for the Giants as they won the National League ( NL ) West and reached the playoffs for the first time since 2003 . For the entire season , Ramírez had a 1 – 3 record , a 2 @.@ 99 ERA , 46 strikeouts , and 69 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 69 games . Ramírez 's only appearance in the NLDS against the Atlanta Braves came in Game 2 on October 8 , when he gave up a home run to Rick Ankiel in the 11th inning and was charged with a loss ( the Giants ' only loss of the series ) in the 5 – 4 defeat . In Game 2 of the NL Championship Series , Ramírez gave up two runs in 1 ⁄ 3 of an inning as the Giants lost 6 – 1 to the Phillies . In Game 5 , the Giants ' other loss in the series , he gave up a run in 2 ⁄ 3 innings as the Giants lost 4 – 2 . On October 27 , in Game 1 of the World Series , he gave up two runs in 1 ⁄ 3 inning , but the Giants defeated the Rangers 11 – 7 . He pitched 2 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings in Game 3 on October 30 , but the Giants lost 4 – 2 . However , that was the Giants ' only loss of the series , as they defeated Texas in five games and won their first World Series since 1954 .
Ramírez earned a save on April 6 , 2011 , by pitching 1 ⁄ 3 of an inning to escape a bases @-@ loaded situation in the Giants ' 8 – 4 win over the Padres . On June 18 , he pitched a season @-@ high 2 1 ⁄ 3 innings , allowing no runs in a 4 – 2 loss to Oakland . He allowed a season @-@ high four runs in 2 ⁄ 3 innings and took the loss on June 30 in an 11 @-@ inning , 5 – 2 defeat to the Cubs . On August 5 , in an eventual 9 – 2 loss to Philadelphia , Ramírez hit Shane Victorino with a pitch , and a brawl started . Ramírez was subsequently ejected from the game . Afterwards , Philadelphia talk @-@ show host Tony Bruno sparked controversy by posting on his Twitter account that Ramírez was an illegal alien , although he later removed the post . On September 4 , Ramírez struck out four batters but gave up a run in 1 2 ⁄ 3 innings in a 4 – 1 loss to the Diamondbacks . Two days later , he got his final save of the year when he threw a scoreless 1 ⁄ 3 of an inning in a 6 – 4 victory over San Diego . In 66 games that season , Ramírez had a 3 – 3 record , a 2 @.@ 62 ERA , four saves , 66 strikeouts , and 68 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .
= = = New York Mets = = =
On December 7 , the Giants traded Ramírez and Andrés Torres to the New York Mets for Ángel Pagán . Ramírez avoided arbitration with the Mets by signing a one @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 65 million contract with them on January 17 , 2012 .
= = = San Francisco Giants ( second stint ) = = =
Ramírez signed a minor league contract with the Giants in 2013 , but he was released on March 22 after posting an 11 @.@ 25 ERA in spring training . He was re @-@ signed and appeared in 6 games for the Giants before being designated for assignment .
= = = Tampa Bay Rays = = =
On July 1 , 2013 Ramirez signed a minor league deal with the Tampa Bay Rays organization .
= = = Seattle Mariners = = =
On January 2 , 2014 , Ramirez signed a minor league deal with the Seattle Mariners . On April 29 , he was released after allowing 5 runs in less than 5 innings in AAA .
= = = Baltimore Orioles = = =
On May 30 , 2014 , Ramirez signed a minor league deal with the Baltimore Orioles .
On June 30 , 2014 , Ramirez made his Orioles debut in the ninth inning against the Texas Rangers , relieving Ubaldo Jiménez after pitching 8 innings only allowing 1 run pass . This was not a save opportunity since the Orioles were winning 7 @-@ 1 in Baltimore . He allowed one walk and had two strikeouts . He helped Jimenez get his first win at Camden Yards of the 2014 Major League Baseball season . Ramírez had never met the Orioles manager Buck Showalter before his debut with the Orioles which has never happened to Buck in his Career . He was designated for assignment on July 6 , 2014 .
= = = Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim = = =
On December 13 , 2015 , Ramirez signed a minor league deal with the Angels .
= = Pitching style = =
Ramírez throws three pitches : a fastball , a changeup , and a slider . His fastball ranges from 92 to 94 mph , and Ramírez considers it his best pitch . His changeup and slider have been described as " above @-@ average " on scouting reports .
= = Personal = =
Ramírez is friends with José Mesa . Mesa helped teach Ramírez English , helped teach him how to pitch , and translated for him in 2006 while both were with the Rockies . After Mesa signed with the Detroit Tigers in 2007 , Ramírez still remained in contact with him . Ramírez enjoys Christian music , and he sings it at his house . He often donates baseball equipment to children who need it , and in 2006 the Rockies recognized him for this by making him their Roberto Clemente Award nominee .
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= Marge Simpson in : " Screaming Yellow Honkers " =
" Marge Simpson in : " Screaming Yellow Honkers " " is the fifteenth episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 21 , 1999 . After Homer purchases a Canyonero , he discovers he bought the model intended for women , so he gives the vehicle to Marge . Despite disliking it at first , Marge grows fond of it , and quickly develops clear road rage against other motorists . The episode was written by David M. Stern and directed by Mark Kirkland .
= = Plot = =
After the Simpson family watch a poor talent show display by the teachers , they are in a hurry to leave . Homer sees Krusty driving a Canyonero and decides to purchase one . Homer purchases the sport utility vehicle , but is soon disappointed after discovering he bought the " F @-@ series " , intended for women . Embarrassed to drive it , he gives the vehicle to Marge . Marge dislikes it at first due to its size and features , but quickly becomes fond of it , and develops road rage . Later , when traveling around town , Marge is given a traffic ticket by Chief Wiggum and is ordered to take a defensive driving course . While driving away from the class , she accidentally drives the Canyonero into the prison and loses her driving privileges .
Homer , Bart , and Lisa take a trip to the zoo . Homer accidentally causes the rhinoceroses to go berserk and escape . The police request Marge to use the large SUV to stop the rhinoceroses who have escaped the zoo . Marge first declines , until she sees her family in danger . Marge agrees to assist the police and succeeds in rounding up the animals , but learns there is one missing and sees Homer being carried off by the rhinoceros . She chases the angry rhino into a construction site and deliberately crashes the vehicle , making it burst into flames . The rhino instinctively attempts to stamp out the fire , and Homer escapes and the Rhino is returned to the zoo . Marge credits her success to Stone Phillips and the whole family praises NBC . During the end credits , Homer praises FOX at gunpoint and he is shot when he praises CBS .
= = Production = =
The idea behind the episode came from a study performed that showed women had more cases of road rage than men . The names of the other car salesmen on the board in the car garage are friends of Mike Scully from high school . The road rage film which Chief Wiggum shows during the road rage class was originally titled " Screaming Yellow Honkers " . The road rage film was originally to have been presented by Troy McClure , but voice actor Phil Hartman died the previous year . The group of people running out of the zoo , before Homer , Bart , and Lisa , are caricatures of Mike Scully , his wife , and his children , who are also seen running behind Kent Brockman 's news report . The Fox Broadcasting Company executives were displeased with the positive references to NBC made near the end of the episode . As a compromise , the writers added in the sequence during the end credits where Homer reads a statement that disparages NBC and praises FOX ( and briefly praises CBS ) .
= = Cultural references = =
In an attempt to stop the rhinos , Homer shouts " Jumanji ! " , a reference to the film Jumanji . Marge mentions Dateline NBC and former anchor Stone Phillips . Ms. Krabappel does a balloon dance singing " Fever " , a 1958 hit for Peggy Lee . The other teachers parody songs from Fame . Singer Courtney Love is advertised on a box of Wheaties breakfast cereal .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Marge Simpson in : " Screaming Yellow Honkers " " finished 43rd in ratings for the week of February 15 – 21 , 1999 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 7 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 6 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Ally McBeal and The X @-@ Files .
Peter Brown of If notes in his review of The Simpsons ' tenth season that " Marge Simpson in : " Screaming Yellow Honkers " , alongside " Lard of the Dance " , " Wild Barts Can 't Be Broken " , and " Homer Simpson in : " Kidney Trouble " " as " some of the best episodes of the season " . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote in their review of the episode : " very clever , very dry humour and showcasing the last person you might expect to suffer road rage . Some lovely moments ( Marge losing patience with Agnes and Kearney is great ) , especially her drive across the cornfield . Sadly the Canyonero doesn 't survive the experience of this episode , which would have been nice , if only to see Marge regularly at the wheel rather than Homer . "
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= Lower limbs venous ultrasonography =
Ultrasonography of leg veins is a risk @-@ free , non @-@ invasive procedure that uses ultrasound technology to give information about the anatomy , physiology and pathology of both the superficial and the deep venous systems , ( SVS ) and ( DVS ) . It is indicated mainly on the study of two pathologies : venous thrombosis and venous insufficiency . As with heart ultrasound ( echocardiography ) studies , venous ultrasonography requires an understanding of hemodynamics in order to give useful examination reports . In chronic venous insufficiency ( CVI ) , sonographic examination is of most benefit ; in confirming varicose disease , making an assessment of the hemodynamics , and charting the progression of the disease and its response to treatment . It has become the reference standard for examining the condition and hemodynamics of the lower limb veins .
Particular veins of the ( DVS ) and the ( SVS ) are looked at . The great saphenous vein ( GSV ) is a superficial vein which connects with the small saphenous vein ( SSV ) to drain into the common femoral vein ( CFV ) . Perforator veins drain superficial veins into the deep veins . Three anatomic compartments are described ( as networks ) , ( N1 ) containing the deep veins , ( N2 ) containing the perforator veins , and ( N3 ) containing the superficial veins , known as the saphenous compartment , . This compartmentalisation makes it easier for the examiner to systematize and map . The GSV can be located in the saphenous compartment where together with the Giacomini vein and the accessory saphenous vein ( ASV ) an image resembling an eye , known as the ' eye sign ' can be seen . The ASV which is often responsible for varicose veins , can be located at the ' alignment sign ' , where it is seen to align with the femoral vessels . Together with the GSV and the CFV these three veins create an image called the ' Mickey Mouse ' sign . The examination report will include details of the deep and the superficial vein systems , and their mapping . The mapping is drawn on paper and then drawn on the patient before surgery .
The use of ultrasonography in a medical application was first used in the late 1940s in the United States . This use was soon followed in other countries with further research and development being carried out . The first report on Doppler ultrasound as a diagnostic tool for vascular disease was published in 1967 @-@ 1968 . Rapid advances since then in electronics , has greatly improved ultrasound transmission tomography .
= = Indications = =
The purpose of this examination is focused mainly on the study of two pathologies ; venous thrombosis and venous insufficiency . It allows the examiner to evaluate the gross anatomy of the superficial and deep venous networks as well as the blood flow direction , which is crucial in determining vein pathology . It has become the reference standard used in the assessment of the condition and hemodynamics of the veins of the lower limbs . The normal physiological blood flow is anterograde , flowing from the periphery towards the heart , so that the evidence of an opposite , retrograde flow might indicate a pathology . The presence of a reflux is likewise of note ; a reflux when not isolated in a vein ( as simply retrograde ) , means that the blood flow is bi @-@ directional where once the flow had been only anterograde .
The procedure should not be used without a medical indication , such as with a reason to expect that a person is at heightened risk of having deep vein thrombosis . This screening is not effective at diagnosing DVT in the absence of other indications that the patient may have this condition . A common example of overuse of this procedure is the practice of performing ultrasonography routinely on patients without indication after knee replacement or hip replacement .
= = Risks = =
There are no contraindications for this examination . Ultrasonography does not involve the use of ionizing radiation , and the procedure is harmless and can be safely used on anybody of any age . A World Health Organization ( WHO ) report published in 1998 supports this .
= = Preparation = =
No preparation is normally necessary for this examination , but if a complementary study of abdominal veins is also required , the patient will be asked to fast for 12 hours beforehand . The sensitivity and specificity measurements are around 90 % .
= = Equipment = =
The ultrasound equipment must be of sufficiently high quality in order to give a correct image processing result , which can then provide invaluable information , mainly at the superficial level . It must be able to provide both color and Doppler imaging ; technologies that developed alongside the development of ultrasound . The use of Doppler measurements which trace the echoes of the generated soundwaves received by the probe , enable the direction and the velocity of the blood flow , to be depicted . The overlay of color onto the Doppler information lets these images be seen more clearly . The choice of a probe will depend on the depth needed to be studied . For example , the superficial venous system ( SVS ) can be very well examined using a high frequency probe of 12 MHz . For patients who have thick adipose tissue a probe of 7 @.@ 5 MHz will be required . Deep veins require probes of around 6 MHz whilst the abdominal vessels are better studied with probes of between 4 and 6 MHz . In summary , three probes are needed together with a top level scanner . Also , the proper use of the scanner calls for a high level of expertise , so that the examiner must be well qualified and experienced in order to give effective results . In contrast to arterial ultrasonography the wall of the vein is not relevant and importance is given to the hemodynamic conclusions that the examiner can obtain in order to provide a valuable report . ( Hemodynamics is the study of blood flow and of the laws that govern the circulation of blood in the blood vessels ) . It follows that the examiner knowledge of venous hemodynamics is crucial , which can be a real barrier to a radiologist untrained in this field , who might wish to carry out these examinations . Specialized training in venous ultrasonography is not undertaken in some countries , which undermines best practice , mainly when varicose veins need to be examined .
= = Mechanism = =
Ultrasonography is based on the principle that sound can pass through human body tissues and is reflected by the tissue interfaces in the same way that light can reflect back on itself , from a mirror . Tissue in the body will offer varying degrees of resistance , known as acoustic impedance , to the path of the ultrasound beam . When there is a high impedance difference between two tissues , the interface between them will strongly reflect the sound . When the ultrasound beam meets air , or solid tissue such as bone , their impedance difference is so great that most of the acoustic energy is reflected making it impossible to see any underlying structures . The examiner will see just a shadow , instead of the image expected . Air will impede sound waves which is why a gel is used . The gel prevents air bubbles from forming between the probe , and the patient 's skin and so helps the conduction of the sound waves from the transducer into the body . The watery medium also helps to conduct the sound waves . Liquids , including blood have a low impedance , which means that little energy will be reflected and no visualization possible . One of the important exceptions is that when the blood flow is very slow it can in fact be seen , in what is termed " spontaneous contrast " .
This technology is widely used in confirming venous pathology diagnoses . The imaging capability needed , was made possible with the developments of Doppler and color Doppler . Doppler measurements using Doppler effect can show the direction of the blood flow and its relative velocity and color Doppler is the provision of color to help interpret the image , showing for example , the blood flow towards the probe in one color and that flowing away another . Whilst the equipment itself is costly , the procedure is not . Apart from the scanner , different probes are required according to the depth to be studied . A gel is used with the probe to make a good acoustic impedance contact . The training and expertise of the examiner is important because of the many technical complications that can present . Venous anatomy for example , is not constant , for example a patient 's vein layout of the right limb is not identical to that of the left limb .
The probe is an ultrasonic sensor , generally known as a transducer , which functions to send and receive acoustic energy . The emission is generated on piezoelectric crystals by the piezoelectric effect . The reflected ultrasound is received by the probe , transformed into an electric impulse as voltage and sent to the engine for signal processing and conversion to an image on the screen . The depth reached by the ultrasound beam is dependent on the frequency of the probe used . The higher the frequency the lesser the depth reached .
= = Procedure = =
Where either superficial or deep thrombosis is suspected , this examination can be performed with the patient lying down . For an evaluation of varicose veins , the patient will need to be in an upright position to enable a proper study of blood flow direction
= = = Deep vein thrombosis = = =
Unlike arterial ultrasonography , venous ultrasonography is carried out with the probe in a transversal position , ( perpendicular to the vein axis ) . All collateral veins are better detected this way , including perforator veins , but of most importance is the detection of venous thrombosis . The most reliable sign of thrombosis ( even when a good image and color is present ) is the absence of compressibility . However , if the probe is parallel to the vein axis , when the examiner compresses it , the probe can slide to the right or to the left giving a false negative for thrombosis as the probe has moved away and the vein will not then be evident . Nevertheless , when the examiner needs to show the head thrombus in a printout , the probe will be presented parallel to the vein axis .
A very recently formed thrombus is not very solid , it will have a low echogenicity , and will be seen as a black area in the gray @-@ scale image and will be hardly visible . When the examiner uses color , the imaging is not much improved . A thrombus may not be evident in the scan . Also a vein lumen may show echoes without the presence of a thrombus . The location of the thrombus and its detail will inform of the seriousness of the condition . In a deep vein thrombosis ( DVT ) , or in a superficial vein thrombosis where the thrombus is floating , an emergency situation will be indicated . If the thrombus is near to the sapheno @-@ femoral junction there will be a high risk of a pulmonary embolism occurring .
The inability to compress the vein is one of the more reliable indications of venous thrombosis . There is a simplified technique called " compression ultrasonography " which can be used for quick DVT diagnosis , but this is limited to the common femoral vein and the popliteal vein . It is invaluable in an emergency situation and is performed just by vein compression using transducer pressure .
Compression ultrasonography has both high sensitivity and specificity for detecting proximal DVT but only in symptomatic patients . Results are not reliable when the patient is symptomless and must be checked carefully . For example , in high risk post @-@ operative patients , mainly after orthopedic surgery where there is already lower limb pain and edema following surgery , thrombi can be localized in the calf veins and often these are not completely occlusive .
= = = Venous insufficiency = = =
Venous insufficiency results when the normal functioning of the valves , which serve to keep blood flowing to the heart and to prevent reflux , become damaged and incompetent . This incompetence will result in an insufficient bloodflow through the affected vein or veins . In varicose veins the valves are damaged or missing and the insufficiency will be chronic . When the valves are damaged blood leaks and pools in the legs and feet .
The procedure requested , for an investigation into the hemodynamic changes in a patient with chronic venous insufficiency ( CVI ) , which results in chronic venous disease , is quite different from an examination request made for suspected deep vein thrombosis . For a DVT investigation there is a need for guidance as to what to look for and to the intended treatment . An investigation performed with the intention of treating the patient by vein stripping or laser therapy for example is very different from the examination performed with the intention of executing a CHIVA . This French originated procedure is also spelt out as conservative hemodynamic treatment for chronic venous insufficiency . A CHIVA is an ultrasound guided , minimally invasive surgery strategic for the treatment of varicose veins , performed under local anaesthetic .
Unlike the arterial ultrasound study , when the sonographer studies venous insufficiency , the vein wall itself has no relevance and attention will be focused on the direction of blood flow . The objective of the examination is to see how the veins drain . In this way , venous ultrasonography has at times become a hemodynamic examination which is reserved for experienced sonographers who have completed hemodynamic studies and training and have acquired a deep knowledge of this subject .
Also , unlike the arterial ultrasound examination , blood velocity in veins has no diagnostic meaning . Veins are a draining system similar to a low pressure hydraulic system , with a laminar flow and a low velocity . This low velocity is responsible for the fact that we can only detect it spontaneously with the Doppler effect on the proximal and larger femoral and iliac veins . Here the flow is either modulated by the respiratory rhythm or is continuous in cases where the flow is high . The thinner veins do not have a spontaneous flow . However , in some circumstances the blood flow is so slow that we can see some echogenic material moving within the vein , in " spontaneous contrast " . This material can easily be mistaken for a thrombus , but can also easily be discounted by testing the vein 's compressibility .
To evidence the blood flow velocity there are some techniques that the examiner can use to accelerate blood flow and show valvular function :
Manual squeezing and releasing - the examiner can compress the vein below the probe which will push the blood in its normal anterograde direction . On releasing the pressure if the valves are incompetent the flow will appear as a retrograde flow or reflux , greater than 0 @.@ 5 sec .
Paraná maneuver , makes use of a proprioceptive reflex to test venous muscle pump induced flow . ( Proprioceptive refers to a response to a perceived stimulus especially with regard to movement and position of the body ) . A slight push to the waist , triggers a muscle contraction in the leg , in order to maintain posture . This maneuver is very useful for studying deep vein flow and detecting valvular incompetence , mainly at the popliteal vein level , ( above the back of the knee ) . It is used when legs are painful or very edematous ( swollen with fluid ) .
Flexing the toes and feet and extending on tiptoes , can all be very useful in detecting perforator vein incompetence . These movements unleash a muscle contraction which compresses deep veins . If a perforator valve is incompetent then a reflux from the deep to the superficial through the perforator vein will be registered .
Valsalva maneuver - when the patient performs this maneuver , he or she , increases intra @-@ abdominal venous pressure . If the great saphenous valve at the sapheno @-@ femoral junction is incompetent , a reflux will appear .
Normal blood flow is anterograde ( going to the heart ) , and from superficial to deep veins via perforator veins . However , there are two exceptions : firstly , the great saphenous vein ( GSV ) collaterals , ( the veins that run parallel ) , drain the abdominal wall and have a flow from top to bottom so that when an examiner tests the sapheno @-@ femoral junction , a false positive diagnosis might be made ; secondly , in the flow from the sole of the foot venous network around 10 % drains to the dorsal venous arch of the foot , going therefore against the norm , from deep to superficial veins .
Attention will be focused on the direction of the blood flow in both of the venous systems , and in the perforator veins , as well as being focused on shunt detection . A shunting of blood from the thigh veins back into the lower leg veins will give a reflux situation . The veins most often found to be incompetent are the saphenous veins and the perforators communicating with the deep veins of the thigh .
= = = Technical difficulties = = =
Venous ultrasonography of the lower limbs is the most demanding of the medical complementary examinations . It is dependent on the examiner 's expertise and training , and the interpretation of the results is subjective and reliant on an understanding of venous hemodynamics . ( A mapping does help the reproducibility and the inter @-@ observer agreement of this examination ) . The examination is made even more difficult because there can be dilated veins without insufficiency , ( by hyper @-@ debit ) , and non dilated but incompetent veins . Moreover , veins can be discretely incompetent in summer but then be normal in winter . Also , by definition of insufficiency , ( insufficient blood flow ) blood may be seen to flow freely in both directions , anterograde and retrograde between two valves . Another problem when dealing with the superficial venous system , is that venous anatomy is not constant ; the position of veins can vary in different patients ; also in the same patient the right lower limb is not identical to the left lower limb . As a further complication to the examination , where venous insufficiency is evidenced , the examination needs to be done with the probe in the transversal position but the mapping must be done showing the veins in their longitudinal aspect . This demands a rapid extrapolation by the physician from the transversal images seen to the longitudinal drawing needed . The dynamic maneuvers also need to be well executed . The need of a specialized training is mandatory which is a huge problem for many countries today .
= = Particular details = =
= = = Great saphenous vein = = =
The great saphenous vein , ( GSV ) a superficial vein , is the longest vein in the body . It has its origin in the dorsal venous arch of the foot , a superficial vein which connects the small saphenous vein with the GSV . It travels up the leg and medial side of the thigh to reach the groin , where it drains into the common femoral vein . Along the length of the GSV , it receives numerous tributaries , ( from the subcutaneous layer ) and drains into the deep veins via the perforator veins . When seen in a scan , the GSV and the Giacomini vein , together with the accessory saphenous vein ( ASV ) , form an image resembling an eye which is referred to as the " eye sign " or " eye image " . . All veins which are between the skin and the superficial fascia are tributaries and all veins which cross the deep fascia to join the deep venous system are perforator veins .
Three anatomic compartments can be described , as networks :
NI contains the deep veins , also known as the deep compartment .
N2 contains the perforator veins .
N3 contains the superficial veins also known as the saphenous compartment .
Some authors describe one more compartment N4 , containing collaterals which form a bypass between two distinct points of the same vein . This compartmentalization is useful in an ultrasonographic examination because it makes systematization , mapping execution , and any surgery strategic , easier .
Being protected between two fascias , the superficial veins belonging to compartment N3 very rarely become sinuous . So that when a sinuous vein is detected , the sonographer will suspect that it is a tributary . The sapheno @-@ femoral junction is tested by the Valsalva maneuver with the use of color Doppler being helpful at this stage .
= = = Accessory saphenous vein = = =
The accessory saphenous vein ( ASV ) , either anterior or posterior , is an important GSV collateral frequently responsible for varicose veins located on the anterior and lateral aspect of the thigh . The anterior ASV is more anterior than the ASV and is outside the femoral vessels plan . The two veins terminate in a common trunk near the groin , the sapheno @-@ femoral junction . Here , the ASV can be located aligned with the femoral vessels at the " alignment sign " . Also , at the groin it can be seen at the outside of the great saphenous vein , and together with the common femoral vein ( CFV ) these three create an image , the so @-@ called " Mickey Mouse sign " . Some authors , inspired by this sign ( presented for the first time at CHIVA 's 2002 meeting in Berlin ) , described a " Mickey Mouse view " at the groin , an image formed by the common femoral vein , the GSV and the superficial femoral artery . When the ASV is incompetent , its flow becomes retrograde and tries to drain in the superior fibular perforator , at the side of the knee , or sometimes it runs down towards the ankle to drain in the inferior fibular perforator .
= = = Small saphenous vein = = =
The small saphenous vein ( SSV ) , runs along the posterior aspect of the leg as far as the popliteal region , in the upper calf . Here it enters the popliteal space which is located between the two heads of the gastrocnemius muscle where it usually drains above the knee joint in the popliteal vein or a little less often in the great saphenous vein ( GSV ) or other deep muscular veins of the thigh . The use of ultrasonography has allowed a number of variations to be shown at this level ; when no contact is made with the popliteal vein it might be seen to drain in the GSV , at a variable level ; or , it may merge with the Giacomini vein and drain in the GSV at the superior 1 / 3 of the thigh . It can also but rarely , drain in the vein of the semimembranosus ( thigh muscle ) ( shown below ) . Usually though , it connects with a perforator vein at its middle 1 / 3 . To check for insufficiency , the Paraná maneuver is very useful .
= = = Giacomini vein = = =
The Giacomini vein mostly acts as a bypass between the GSV and SSV territories . Usually its flow is in the normal anterograde direction , from bottom to top . However it can become retrograde without pathology . For example , after a GSV stripping , laser ablation or after its ligation at the sapheno @-@ femoral junction , the Giacomini vein will drain into the SSV , with a retrograde flow . When there is a GSV thrombosis or other cause of insufficiency , the Giacomini vein can divert the blood flow to the SSV and from there to the popliteal vein . Where surgery , other than stripping or laser ablation is intended , the examiner will make reference to the blood flow direction in this vein , as it will be of importance .
= = = Perforator veins = = =
Perforator veins play a very special role in the venous system , carrying blood from superficial to deep veins . During the muscular systole their valves close and stop any blood flow coming from the deep to the superficial veins . When their valves become insufficient , they are responsible for a rapid deterioration in existing varicose disease and for the development of venous ulcers . Detection of insufficient perforators is important because they need to be ligatured . However , the detection of competent ones is as important because they may be used strategically in new techniques of conservative surgery , for example a minimally invasive CHIVA . The ultrasonography report will include insufficient and continent perforators , which will also be shown on venous mapping . To test these veins properly , the examiner will need to use some techniques like the Paraná maneuver , toe and foot flexion , and hyper @-@ extension on tip toes .
= = Examination report = =
After performing this examination , the physician writes a report in which some points are crucial :
The condition of the deep vein system ( DVS ) , its permeability and compressibility , and whether it is continent or insufficient ;
The permeability and compressibility of the superficial vein system ( SVS ) , the presence or absence of superficial insufficiency , and in which veins or vein segments ;
Which perforator veins are continent or insufficient ;
The presence or absence of shunts ;
Mapping the insufficient veins , flux direction , shunts , and perforators .
This enables surgeons to plan interventions , in a stage known as virtual dissection . Drawn on paper , after the examination , it will be drawn over the patient 's skin before surgery .
= = History = =
The Doppler effect was first described by Christian Doppler in 1843 . Nearly forty years later in 1880 , the piezoelectric effect was discovered and confirmed by Pierre and Jacques Curie . Both of these findings were used in the development of ultrasonography . The first ultrasound was applied to the human body for medical purposes by Dr. George Ludwig , University of Pennsylvania , in the late 1940s .
The use of ultrasonography in medicine soon followed in different locations around the world . In the mid @-@ 1950s more research was undertaken by Professor Ian Donald et al . , in Glasgow , which advanced the practical technology and applications of ultrasound . In 1963 , in France , L. Pourcelot started on his thesis , which was presented in 1964 , and used pulsed Doppler for blood flow calculation as its subject . This was followed up by Peronneau in 1969 . Dr. Gene Strandness and the bio @-@ engineering group at the University of Washington who conducted research on Doppler ultrasound as a diagnostic tool for vascular disease , published their first work in 1967 . The first report published about the venous system appeared around 1967 @-@ 1968 .
From the 1960s commercially available systems were introduced . Soon , other advances in electronics and piezoelectric materials enabled further improvements which meant that ultrasound was quickly adopted for use in medicine due to its rapid , accurate diagnostic capabilities which offered the possibility of prompt treatment . Alongside the improving imaging technology , acoustic Doppler velocimetry and medical ultrasonography color Doppler were developed , which have had a significant impact on many specialties , including radiology , obstetrics , gynecology , angiology and cardiology , and have provided even greater scope for ultrasound investigations . Since 1970 , real @-@ time scanners and pulsed Doppler , have enabled the use of ultrasound to study the function of the venous system . The first demonstration of color Doppler was achieved by Geoff Stevenson . Further progress in the 1970s was made with the arrival of the microchip , and the ensuing exponential increase in processing power has meant the development of fast and powerful systems . These systems involving digital beamforming and greater signal enhancement , have introduced new methods of interpreting and displaying data .
Rapid technical advancements in transmission tomography made possible the very good specificity and sensitivity capability of this technique , enabling the possibility of properly seeing the superficial tissues . Hemodynamic study began in France in 1985 , when C. Franceschi , first described the conservative treatment for venous insufficiency , known as CHIVA .
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= Battle of the Ch 'ongch 'on River =
The Battle of the Ch 'ongch 'on River , also known as the Battle of the Ch 'ongch 'on or the Second Phase Campaign Western Sector ( Chinese : 第二次战役西线 ; pinyin : Dì Èr Cì Zhàn Yì Xī Xiàn ) , was a decisive battle in the Korean War , and it took place from November 25 to December 2 in 1950 , along the Ch 'ongch 'on River Valley in the northwestern part of North Korea . In response to the successful Chinese First Phase Campaign against the United Nations forces , General Douglas MacArthur launched the Home @-@ by @-@ Christmas Offensive to evict the Chinese forces from Korea and to end the war . Anticipating this reaction , the Chinese People 's Volunteer Army Commander Peng Dehuai planned a counteroffensive , dubbed the " Second Phase Campaign " , against the advancing UN forces .
Hoping to repeat the success of the earlier First Phase Campaign , the Chinese 13th Army first launched a series of surprise attacks along the Ch 'ongch 'on River Valley on the night of November 25 , 1950 , effectively destroying the Eighth United States Army 's right flank while allowing Chinese forces to move rapidly into UN rear areas . In the subsequent battles and withdrawals during the period of November 26 to December 2 , 1950 , although the US Eighth Army managed to avoid being surrounded by Chinese forces , the Chinese 13th Army were still able to inflict heavy losses onto the retreating UN forces which had lost all cohesion . In the aftermath of the battle , the US Eighth Army 's heavy losses forced all UN forces to evacuate North Korea and to withdraw to the 38th parallel .
= = Background = =
Well , if they go fast enough , maybe some of them can be home by Christmas .
In the wake of the United Nations ( UN ) forces ' successful landing at Inchon and the subsequent destruction of the Korean People 's Army ( KPA ) by mid @-@ 1950 , the Eighth United States Army crossed the 38th parallel and advanced rapidly towards the Sino @-@ Korean border . Alarmed by this development , China 's Chairman Mao Zedong ordered the Chinese People 's Volunteer Army ( PVA ) to intervene in Korea and to launch the First Phase Campaign against the UN forces . Between October 25 and November 4 , 1950 , the PVA 13th Army surprised and defeated the Republic of Korea ( ROK ) II Corps and the US 1st Cavalry Division in a series of battles around Onjong and Unsan , destroying the right flank of the US Eighth Army while forcing the UN forces to retreat back to the Ch 'ongch 'on River . Although Chinese forces were able to break through the UN line , logistics difficulties forced the Chinese to withdraw on November 5 , 1950 .
Despite the success of the Chinese First Phase Campaign , the UN planners still believed that China had not intervened in Korea on a large scale . The suddenness of the Chinese withdrawal in the face of a victory further reinforced this belief . Working on the assumption that only 30 @,@ 000 Chinese troops could remain hidden in the hills , General Douglas MacArthur ordered the bombing of the bridges over the Yalu River in an effort to cut off Chinese reinforcements . Confident that the UN air force could detect and disrupt any troop movements across the Yalu River , MacArthur launched the Home @-@ by @-@ Christmas Offensive on November 24 to rout the remaining Chinese and North Korean forces and to end the Korean War .
Unknown to the UN planners , however , there were already 180 @,@ 000 Chinese troops stationed in Korea , with more reinforcements infiltrating across the border . Although the PVA was ordered to maintain a defensive posture in North Korea until Soviet weapons could arrive in the spring of 1951 , its earlier successes convinced the Chinese leadership that the PVA was capable of turning the tide of UN advance . Encouraged by the fact that the UN did not know their true numbers , PVA Commander Peng Dehuai outlined the Second Phase Campaign , a counteroffensive aimed at pushing the UN forces back to a line half way between Ch 'ongch 'on River and Pyongyang . As a part of a deception plan to further reinforce the weak appearance of Chinese forces , Peng ordered all units to rapidly retreat north while releasing POWs along the way . With 230 @,@ 000 troops at his disposal and another 150 @,@ 000 heading to the Chosin Reservoir , Peng authorized the start of the Second Phase Campaign on November 22 , 1950 .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Location , terrain and weather = = =
The battle was fought along the UN front line around the Ch 'ongch 'on River and its tributaries , which is located 50 mi ( 80 km ) south of the Sino @-@ Korean border . The UN front line stretched horizontally from the Korean west coast to the Taebaek Mountains in central Korea , while the Ch 'ongch 'on River crosses into the north of the UN line at the town of Kujang @-@ dong . From west to east , a series of towns , such as Chongju , Yongsan @-@ dong , Ipsok , Kujang @-@ dong , Tokchon , and Yongwon dot the front line , and connecting those towns are a series of road junctions located at Sinanju , Anju , Kunu @-@ ri and Pukchang @-@ ni . A road runs south from Kunu @-@ ri into Sunchon and eventually into Pyongyang , and it would later become the main retreat route for the UN forces stationed at the center of the front line . The hilly terrains on the northern bank of the Ch 'ongch 'on River formed a defensive barrier that allowed the Chinese to hide their presence while dispersing the advancing UN forces . The battle was also fought over one of the coldest Korean winters in 100 years , with temperatures dropped to as low as − 30 ° F ( − 34 ° C ) .
= = = Forces and strategies = = =
Acting on MacArthur 's instructions , General Walton Walker of the Eighth Army started the Home @-@ by @-@ Christmas Offensive at 10 a.m. on November 24 , 1950 . With a reconstituted ROK II Corps placed on the Eighth Army 's right flank , the advance was led by the US I Corps to the west , US IX Corps in the center , and the ROK II Corps to the east . The three UN Corps advanced cautiously in a continuous front line in order to prevent more ambushes similar to the Chinese First Phase Campaign , but the lack of manpower stretched the UN forces to the limit . Except for the strong Chinese resistances against the ROK II Corps , the Eighth Army met little opposition , and the line between Chongju to Yongwon was occupied on the night of the November 25 .
Despite the lack of manpower , the US Eighth Army had three and half times the firepower of the opposing Chinese forces . The US Fifth Air Force , which was responsible for the air support , also had little opposition due to the lack of anti @-@ aircraft weapons by the Chinese . Boosted by a Thanksgiving feast with roasted turkeys on the eve of the advance , the morale was high among the UN ranks , and home by Christmas and Germany by spring was in everyone 's mind . The high morale , however , caused a degradation of troop discipline , and most of the soldiers had discarded their equipment and ammunition supply before the battle . A rifle company from the US IX Corps , for example , started its advance with most of the helmets and bayonets thrown away , and there were on average less than one grenade and 50 rounds of ammunition carried per man . Because the UN planners did not foresee that the war would be dragged into a winter campaign , all elements of the Eighth Army started the offensive with a shortage of winter clothing .
While the Eighth Army was advancing , the PVA 13th Army was hiding in the mountains with the 50th and 66th Corps to the west , the 39th and the 40th Corps in the center and the 38th and 42nd Corps to the east . Anticipating the UN advances , the Chinese planned a series of counterattacks to catch the Eighth Army off guard . Hoping to repeat the success of the earlier First Phase Campaign , the 38th and 42nd Corps would first attack the ROK II Corps and to destroy the UN right flank , then cut behind the UN lines . At the same time , the 39th and 40th Corps would hold the US IX Corps in place while preventing any reinforcements to the ROK II Corps . The 50th and 66th Corps would stay behind and check the advances of the US I Corps .
Although the PVA 13th Army had a nominal strength of 230 @,@ 000 men , its actual strength during the battle could be as low as 150 @,@ 000 men . The PVA 66th Corps , for example , had only 6 @,@ 600 men per division at the start of the battle , as opposed to the expected 10 @,@ 000 men per division . There were also only one firearm available for every three Chinese soldiers , and the rest were employed as grenade throwers . Because most of the Chinese howitzers and guns were left behind in Manchuria , mortars were the only artillery support available for the Chinese . For the counteroffensive , the average Chinese soldier were issued with only five days worth of rations and ammunition , and resupply could only be obtained by scavenging on the battlefield . To compensate for its shortcomings , the Chinese relied extensively on night attacks and infiltrations in order to avoid the UN firepower . The primitive logistics system had also allowed the Chinese to maneuver over the rough hilly terrains , thus enabled them to by @-@ pass the UN defenses and to surround the isolated UN positions . Because the Chinese had captured large numbers of Nationalist weapons during the Chinese Civil War , most of the Chinese weapons were composed of US made small arms such as the Thompson submachine gun , the M1 Garand rifle , the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle , the bazooka and the M2 mortar .
= = Battle = =
As the US Eighth Army stopped its advance on the afternoon of November 25 , 1950 , the PVA 13th Army commenced the Second Phase Campaign . A massive frontal attack was launched against the entire UN line from Yongsan @-@ dong to Yongwon . To the west , the ROK 1st Infantry Division of the US I Corps was attacked by the PVA 66th Corps at Yongsan @-@ dong . In the center , strong probing actions by the PVA 39th and 40th Corps were carried out against the US IX Corps at Ipsok and Kujang @-@ dong . In the east , the PVA 38th and 42nd Corps broke through ROK II Corps ' line at Tokchon and Yongwon . The Home @-@ by @-@ Christmas Offensive was completely stalled on the morning of November 26 .
= = = Actions at Tokchon and Yongwon = = =
In the aftermath of the Battle of Onjong , the Chinese recognized the ROK II Corps as the most vulnerable unit of the Eighth Army . Besides lacking the firepower of their US counterpart , the ROK II Corps also held the most difficult terrain on the UN right flank . At 10 a.m. on November 24 , the ROK 7th Infantry Division on the II Corps ' left flank attacked north from Tokchon . At the same time , the ROK 8th Infantry Division on the II Corps ' right flank advanced north from Yongwon . The stubborn defenses by the PVA 38th and 42nd Corps soon ground the Korean advances to a halt , and the continuous fighting for the next two days failed to create any gains for the Koreans . During the advances , the Chinese defenses managed to create a wedge in the center of the ROK 7th Infantry Division , forcing the division to commit most of its reserves on the front line . Meanwhile , the ROK 6th Infantry Division in the II Corps ' rear could only offer its 2nd Infantry Regiment as the corps ' reserve due to the earlier losses at Onjong .
As the Koreans were preparing their defensive positions on the dusk of November 25 , the two Chinese corps were mobilizing for a decisive counterattack against the Eighth Army 's right flank . The PVA 38th Corps planned to attack in full force against the ROK 7th Infantry Division 's center and right flank , while two divisions from the 42nd Corps started to march through the hills in order to bypass the ROK 8th Infantry Division 's right flank . Given the importance of this assault , Han Xianchu , one of Peng 's deputies , personally commanded the 38th and 42nd Corps for the rest of the battle .
The PVA 38th Corps landed the first blow against the ROK II Corps at 5 p.m. on November 25 . Aided by total surprise , the PVA 113th Division of the 38th Corps first shattered the ROK 7th Infantry Division 's Reconnaissance Company on the division 's right flank , creating a 0 @.@ 5 mi ( 800 m ) gap between the ROK 7th and 8th Infantry Division . Simultaneously , the PVA 114th Division of the 38th Corps attacked the center @-@ right of the ROK 7th Infantry Division , pushing the ROK 5th and 8th Infantry Regiment back in the process . When the ROK 7th Infantry Division 's center and right were in complete chaos , the PVA 112th and the 113th Division of the 38th Corps slipped past the UN lines and advanced towards Tokchon . With only one battalion in reserve to check the Chinese divisions , the Tokchon garrison and the ROK 7th Infantry Division headquarters were soon surrounded and attacked by the two Chinese divisions at 4 a.m. on November 26 . Under heavy pressures from the PVA 114th Division , the ROK 5th and 8th Infantry Regiment tried to fall back to Tokchon , but the Chinese ambushes in the rear scattered the unsuspecting Koreans . On the afternoon of November 26 , Tokchon was captured by the Chinese , and the ROK 3rd Infantry Regiment on the ROK 7th Infantry Division 's left flank drifted westward and joined the US 2nd Infantry Division .
While the ROK 7th Infantry Division was being annihilated at Tokchon by the PVA 38th Corps , the ROK 8th Infantry Division was also being routed , at Yongwon by the PVA 42nd Corps . With the PVA 125th Division tying down the ROK 10th and 21st Infantry Regiment at Yongwon , the 124th and the 126th Division tried to infiltrate the ROK 8th Infantry Division 's rear by marching through the hills east of Yongwon . At 1 p.m. on November 25 , the ROK 16th Infantry Regiment to the ROK 8th Infantry Division 's rear spotted the two Chinese divisions at Maengsan , 20 km ( 12 mi ) south of the Yongwon . Surprised by this development , the ROK 8th Infantry Division ordered the 16th Infantry Regiment to block the Chinese advance while the ROK 10th and 21st Infantry Regiment were retreating from Yongwon . But before the order could be carried out , the Chinese struck first after learning their trap had been discovered . As the ROK 10th and 21st Infantry Regiment were retreating from Yongwon early in the morning of November 26 , the PVA 125th Division ambushed both ROK regiments , forcing the Koreans to abandon their heavy equipment and to scatter into the hills . Meanwhile , following the bonfires made by the Koreans for the cold weather , the PVA 124th Division overran a battalion from the ROK 16th Infantry Regiment and attacked the ROK 8th Infantry Division 's command post at Maengsan . With the entire division dispersed , the ROK 8th Infantry Division headquarters and the ROK 16th Infantry Regiment broke out of Maengsan on November 27 and retreated from the battlefield .
During the chaos of the battle , Major General Yu Jai Hung of the ROK II Corps did not receive news from the front line until midnight of November 25 — five hours after the Chinese had entered the Korean rear . Responding to the crisis , Hung committed the ROK 2nd Infantry Regiment of the 6th Infantry Division to block the Chinese divisions . As the 2nd Infantry Regiment marched towards the front on the morning of November 26 , the PVA 113th Division intercepted the regiment and destroyed its command post , scattering the ROK II Corps ' entire reserve in the process . With most the ROK II Corps ' units destroyed by November 27 , the UN right flank had fallen to the Chinese .
Although the UN aerial reconnaissance observed on November 27 that the Chinese forces on the UN right flank were moving rapidly into the Eighth Army 's rear , Walker still ordered the rest of the Eighth Army to continue the offensive north . Convinced that the collapse of the ROK II Corps was merely a small counterattack by the Chinese , Walker ordered the US I and IX Corps to shift eastward in order to cover the ROK II Corps ' sector . By that time , however , the US I and IX Corps had already suffered heavy losses from the Chinese counteroffensive at Kujang @-@ dong , Ipsok and Yongsan @-@ dong .
= = = Actions at Kujang @-@ dong = = =
On the left of the ROK 7th Infantry Division , ROK II Corps , the US 2nd Infantry Division of the IX Corps was placed in the path of a major Chinese supply line . During the Home @-@ by @-@ Christmas Offensive , US 9th Infantry Regiment led the division 's advance northward along the Ch 'ongch 'on River , while the US 38th Infantry Regiment was placed on the division 's right flank . The offensive started with little resistance against the US 2nd Infantry Division , although the 9th Infantry Regiment was stalled by Chinese defenses at Hill 219 , north of Kujang @-@ dong on November 25 . In order to renew the offensive on the next day , the 23rd Infantry Regiment of the US 2nd Infantry Division was moved into the rear of the 9th Infantry Regiment . At the same time , the 38th Infantry Regiment had arrived at Somin @-@ dong , a town on the road between Kujang @-@ dong and Tokchon . When the aerial reconnaissance detected an increase in Chinese activities , the 38th Infantry Regiment 's A Company was sent on a patrol into Chinese territory .
To ensure the success of the Chinese counterattack against ROK II Corps , the PVA 40th Corps was assigned the mission of protecting the PVA 38th Corps ' flank against the US 2nd Infantry Division . To accomplish this mission , the PVA 119th Division of the 40th Corps would first attack Somin @-@ dong and to prevent the Americans from reinforcing the Koreans . The 120th Division would then fight its way across the Ch 'ongch 'on River and tie down the bulk of the US 2nd Infantry Division . Finally , the 118th Division would flank the Americans from the west and capture Kujang @-@ dong from the rear .
On the night of the Chinese counteroffensive , the PVA 120th Division first accidentally stumbled upon the US 9th Infantry Regiment on the northern bank of the Ch 'ongch 'on River . The surprise encounter between the two sides soon left the 9th Infantry Regiment with only three rifle companies combat effective . Unaware that the 1st Battalion of the US 23rd Infantry Regiment had pulled up behind the US 61st Field Artillery Battalion , four Sharp Sword Companies from the PVA 359th Regiment of the 120th Division proceeded to cross the river and attacked the US artillery positions . Although the 61st Battalion was routed by surprise , the US 23rd Infantry Regiment quickly knocked out two of the unsuspecting Chinese companies . The surviving Chinese troops drifted eastward and occupied a hill named Chinaman 's Hat , enabling the Chinese to overlook the entire 23rd Infantry Regiment 's positions .
While the PVA 120th Division commenced its attack on the US 2nd Infantry Division 's center , the PVA 119th Division was also trying to drive a wedge between Kujang @-@ dong and Tokchon . In a series of confusing battles between the PVA 119th Division and the US 38th Infantry Regiment , the patrolling A Company of the 38th Infantry Regiment was first splintered under Chinese attacks . Adding to the confusion , Chinese reconnaissance teams resorted to sweet musics and dancing to lure the Americans into exposing their positions , and the resulting Chinese counter fire caused the loss of the G Company on the 38th Infantry Regiment 's center . The Chinese had also penetrated the 38th Infantry Regiment 's left flank , blocking the regiment 's retreat route in the process . By the morning of November 26 , Chinese troops were spotted all around the 38th Infantry Regiment .
The Chinese promptly withdrew as the morning came on November 26 , and a counterattack by the 38th Infantry Regiment later reopened the road to the rear . When the ROK 3rd Infantry Regiment of the ROK 7th Infantry Division suddenly appeared in the 38th Infantry Regiment 's sector , Colonel George B. Peploe of the 38th Infantry Regiment realized the right flank of the US 2nd Infantry Division and the entire Eighth Army had collapsed . Under orders from Major General Laurence B. Keiser , commander of the US 2nd Infantry Division , Colonel Peploe immediately took command of the ROK 3rd Infantry Regiment while trying to refuse his right flank . At the same time , Colonel Paul L. Freeman of the 23rd Infantry Regiment had also tried to lead his regiment to capture Chinaman 's Hat , but without much success .
The Chinese immediately renewed their attacks on the night of November 26 . A counterattack from Chinaman 's Hat soon captured the 23rd Infantry Regiment 's command post . On the 23rd Infantry Regiment 's left , the 9th Infantry Regiment 's G Company was also overran by the attacking Chinese forces , forcing Colonel Charles C. Sloane Jr. to withdraw the remnants of his regiment across the river . Chinese ambushes in the rear then decimated the rest of the 9th Infantry Regiment . To the US 2nd Infantry Division 's right , Commander Wen Yuchen of the PVA 40th Corps ordered the 119th Division to destroy the 38th Infantry Regiment in order to protect the Chinese breakthrough on the UN right flank . The ferocious fighting soon forced the 38th Infantry Regiment to fight its way back to Kujang @-@ dong in order to rejoin the division .
Although Walker did not cancel the Home @-@ by @-@ Christmas Offensive on November 27 , Keiser ordered his division to withdraw to Kujang @-@ dong . Before Keiser 's order was complete on November 28 , Walker instructed Major General John B. Coulter of the IX Corps to set up a new defensive line at Kunu @-@ ri — 20 mi ( 32 km ) south of the US 2nd Infantry Division . Full scale retreat of the US 2nd Infantry Division started on the night of November 27 , with the Chinese attacking everywhere against the Americans . As the division 's convoy tried to move south , they were met with machine gun and mortar fire from numerous Chinese roadblocks in the rear . Chinese bazooka teams had also knocked out several vehicles while others were trying to swarm the tanks and to lob grenades into the hatch . With some losses , the US 2nd Infantry Division broke through the PVA 118th Division 's blockade and arrived at Kunu @-@ ri on the night of November 28 .
= = = Actions at Ipsok = = =
For the Home @-@ by @-@ Christmas Offensive , US 25th Infantry Division of the IX Corps advanced on the left of the US 2nd Infantry Division along the Kuryong River , one of the northern tributaries of the Ch 'ongch 'on River . On November 24 , the 25th Infantry Division started its offensive at the city of Yongbyon , south of Ipsok . To lead the offensive , five companies of infantry , armor and artillery were drawn from the 25th Infantry Division to form a special task force named " Task Force Dolvin " . With Task Force Dolvin leading the offensive on the eastern bank of the Kuryong River , the US 24th Infantry Regiment of the 25th Infantry Division was placed on division 's right to maintain contact with the 2nd Division , while the US 35th Infantry Regiment of the 25th Infantry Division was on the western bank of the river advancing from Yongsan @-@ dong to Unsan . The 27th Infantry Regiment of the 25th Infantry Division was located in the division 's rear as reserves .
Because of the earlier UN defeat at the Battle of Unsan , the US 25th Infantry Division expected to encounter heavy Chinese resistance during its advance . But the Chinese screening forces withdrew with the American advance . Aside from the harassing fire , the US 25th Infantry Division did not encounter strong resistance along the way . Ipsok was captured by Task Force Dolvin on November 24 , and several American POWs from the Unsan battle were also recovered at the town . When Task Force Dolvin proceeded to capture a series of hills north of Ipsok on the next day , Chinese resistance started to stiffen . During the hill battles on the afternoon of November 25 , the Eighth Army Ranger Company of Task Force Dolvin suffered heavy losses against the Chinese defenses , and the task force stopped its advance at dusk .
While the US 25th Infantry Division was advancing , the opposing PVA 39th Corps was waiting for instructions from the PVA High Command . But the Chinese still conducted a series of probing actions against the American positions on the night of November 25 . The Chinese patrols soon destroyed the rest of the Ranger Company , while numerous Chinese reconnaissance teams disguised as Americans infiltrated Task Force Dolvin 's positions . On the right of Task Force Dolvin , the mountainous terrains scattered US 24th Infantry Regiment while blocking most of its radio transmissions . Upon learning the destruction of the Ranger Company , Major General William B. Kean of the US 25th Infantry Division sent the 2nd Battalion of the 27th Infantry Regiment to reinforce Task Force Dolvin . He also sent the assistant division commander Brigadier General Vennard Wilson to command of the task force , renaming the task force " Task Force Wilson " .
After the successful attack against the Eighth Army 's right flank , the PVA High Command gave the go ahead for the 39th Corps to attack the US 25th Infantry Division on November 26 . The PVA 115th Division of the 39th Corps was immediately mobilized for an assault against Task Force Wilson and the US 24th Infantry Regiment , while the 116th and 117th Division were moving to attack Ipsok and to cut the American retreat route . The crushing attack soon left the task force decimated and reeling . The PVA 347th Regiment of the 115th Division first met the C Company on the task force 's center , and after the sharp encounter most of the C Company 's men were missing in action . On the right flank , the 115th Division attacked the task force 's B Company . Met with waves of Chinese suicide bombers , the B Company was reduced to 26 soldiers out of the original 200 . Some Chinese snipers and infiltrators even managed to reach Task Force Wilson 's command post , resulting in the death of the task force 's executive officer . As the entire task force 's line collapsing , the E Company sleeping at the task force 's rear was pushed to the front line . Although the tank fire from the E Company stopped the Chinese advance , the company was reduced to just one platoon after the battle . Chinese forces in the rear had also attacked the task force 's artillery at Ipsok , preventing fire support during the night . In the aftermath of the night battle , the task force found itself surrounded , and the Chinese troops were chanting in all directions against the Americans . When Wilson tried to evacuate the wounded , Chinese roadblocks ambushed the medical convoy just south of the 2nd Battalion 's perimeter .
With only the 2nd Battalion of Task Force Wilson remaining combat effective on the morning of November 27 , Wilson ordered the task force to withdraw to Ipsok . Under heavy air cover , the 2nd Battalion broke through PVA 348th Regiment 's roadblock and reached Iposk on the afternoon . Meanwhile , the US 24th Infantry Regiment had lost contact with most of its units , and the regiment commander Colonel John T. Corley could only collect one battalion from his regiment on the morning of November 27 . On November 28 , Walker shifted the US I Corps eastward by attaching the US 25th Infantry Division to the US I Corps , while ordering the 25th Infantry Division to withdraw to the Ch 'ongch 'on River . With the US 35th Infantry Regiment rejoining the 25th Infantry Division after the battle at Yongsan @-@ dong , the 25th Infantry Division withdrew south and Task Force Wilson was dissolved by Kean on November 28 .
= = = Actions at Yongsan @-@ dong = = =
After an extensive refit in the aftermath of the Unsan battle , ROK 1st Infantry Division was placed on the US I Corps right flank at Yongsan @-@ dong on November 20 . As part of the Home @-@ by @-@ Christmas Offensive , the ROK 1st Infantry Division was to advance north and to capture the town of Taechon while the US 35th Infantry Regiment of the US 25th Infantry Division was advancing north from Yongsan @-@ dong on the Korean right flank . At the same time , the US 24th Infantry Division of the US I Corps would advance towards Chongju on the ROK 1st Infantry Division 's left flank .
On the morning of November 24 , the ROK 1st Infantry Division advanced towards the town of Taechon with its 11th and 12th Infantry Regiment on point . Although Chinese booby traps and mortar fire tried to delay the Koreans along the way , the 1st Infantry Division still managed to envelope the town by the dusk of November 24 . But unknown to the Koreans , the 1st Infantry Division was marching into a Chinese assembly area , and the resistance around Taechon immediately increased as the result . On the night of November 24 , the defending PVA 66th Corps counterattacked the Koreans with infantry and cavalry charges , and the Chinese and Korean troops were soon locked in a seesaw battle from November 25 to 26 .
As the battle around Taechon dragged into the night of November 26 , the ROK 11th Infantry Regiment on the division 's right became disorganized . Brigadier General Paik Sun Yup of the ROK 1st Infantry Division soon brought up the 15th Infantry Regiment from his reserve to relieve the 11th Infantry Regiment . After receiving news on the Chinese attack against the 25th Division across the Kuryong River , Paik had also directed his division to defend against the upcoming Chinese counteroffensive . As the morning came on November 27 , the Chinese troops around Taechon did not stop their assault even under punishing UN air strikes , and some of the attacks spilled into US 24th Infantry Division 's area . Upon noticing their flank was buckling , the US 24th Infantry Division and the US 35th Infantry Regiment started the retreat southward to the Ch 'ongch 'on River .
At 1 p.m. on November 27 , Peng ordered the PVA 66th Corps to destroy the ROK 1st Infantry Division before the Koreans could retreat to the Ch 'ongch 'on River . On the evening of November 27 , the PVA 66th Corps launched a massive attack against the ROK 1st Infantry Division , the US 5th Regimental Combat Team of the 24th Infantry Division and the US 35th Infantry Regiment . After midnight , the Chinese attacks broke through the Korean lines and captured Yongsan @-@ dong , resulting in the loss of the ROK 11th , 15th and US 35th Infantry Regiment 's command posts . The ROK 11th and 15th Infantry Regiment were soon scattered while the retreating US 35th Infantry Regiment was blocked at Yongsan @-@ dong with Chinese forces attacking from behind . Under heavy pressure , the US 35th Infantry Regiment fought its way through the town and rejoined the US 25th Division on the afternoon of November 28 . At the same time , Paik rallied the broken ROK regiments and recaptured Yongsan @-@ dong . The ROK 1st Infantry Division held the town against the subsequent Chinese attacks until it withdrew from the battle on November 29 .
= = = Actions at Kunu @-@ ri = = =
Kunu @-@ ri is a crossroad village on the northern bank of the Kaechon River , one of Ch 'ongch 'on River 's southern tributaries . As the Chinese counteroffensive grew in strength against the Eighth Army 's center , Kunu @-@ ri had become a major bottleneck for the US IX Corps ' retreat . In an effort to stabilize the front on November 28 , Walker ordered the US 2nd Infantry Division to retreat from Kujang @-@ dong and to set up a new defensive line at Kunu @-@ ri . The importance of Kunu @-@ ri was also noted by the Chinese , and on November 27 , Peng instructed the PVA 38th Corps to cut the US IX Corps retreat route . The PVA 114th Division of the 38th Corps would capture Kunu @-@ ri by marching westward on the road from Tokchon , while the PVA 112th Division would follow on a parallel route through the hills north of the road .
With the US 2nd Infantry Division still at engaged at Kujang @-@ dong , Coulter ordered the Turkish Brigade in the IX Corps reserve to block the Chinese advance . On the night of November 27 , the Turks took up defensive position at Wawon to the east of Kunu @-@ ri . They were soon met with the PVA 342nd Regiment from the 114th Division . The ensuing battle between the Chinese regiment and the brigade 's advance battalion continued for much of the November 28 , resulting 400 Turkish casualties . As dusk came on November 28 , the Turkish Brigade tried to retreat 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) west to Sinim @-@ ri to set up stronger defensive positions , but the PVA 342nd Regiment caught up with the brigade and attacked its rear , completely surrounding the brigade . With communications cut between the brigade and the Turkish headquarters , the PVA 340th and the 342nd Regiment from the 114th Division then fragmented the brigade during the night battle . The trapped Turks broke out of the Chinese encirclement on the morning of November 29 and the brigade was attached to the US 2nd Infantry Division .
Although the Turkish Brigade was crippled by the Chinese , its delaying action allowed the US 2nd Infantry Division to secure Kunu @-@ ri on the night of November 28 . With the US 23rd Infantry Regiment setting up defensive positions to the north of Kunu @-@ ri on the morning of November 29 , the US 38th Infantry Regiment tried to occupy the hills to the northeast of Kunu @-@ ri . But the American soon found the PVA 112th Division had already occupied the hills . The 38th Infantry Regiment was then forced to occupy a lower position at 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) away from the Chinese . At the same time , the remnants of the Turkish Brigade joined up with the US 38th Infantry Regiment , covering the regiment 's right flank on the northern bank of the Kaechon River .
On the afternoon of November 28 , MacArthur started to recognize that a crisis was growing in Korea . With the start of the Battle of Chosin Reservoir on November 27 , MacArthur gathered his field commanders , including Walker , for a conference in Tokyo . During the conference , MacArthur learned about the situation on the Eighth Army 's right flank and judged that the Eighth Army was in great danger . He instructed Walker to withdraw from the battle before the Chinese could surround the Eighth Army . After the conference at November 29 , Walker ordered all Eighth Army units to retreat to a new line around Sunchon , 30 mi ( 48 km ) south of Kunu @-@ ri .
Following Walker 's orders , most of the Eighth Army 's major units promptly broke contact with the Chinese and withdrew , but the US 2nd Infantry Division was forced to stay at Kunu @-@ ri in order to hold off the Chinese forces on the Eighth Army 's right flank . By the time the 2nd Infantry Division tried to withdraw on the night of November 29 , the two Chinese divisions attacked the US 38th Infantry Regiment . The PVA 112th Division first struck the 38th Infantry Regiment on the left flank , but the American defenses held firm , forcing the Chinese to go on the defensive . Meanwhile , the PVA 114th Division attacked the Turkish Brigade and the right flank of the 38th Infantry Regiment . The Chinese outflanked the Turks by attacking along the southern bank of the Kaechon River , then crossed the river in the UN rear areas . Upon noticing this development , Brigadier General Tahsin Yazıcı of the Turkish Brigade ordered a withdrawal , leaving the right flank of the 38th Infantry Regiment completely uncovered . By the dusk of November 29 , Chinese had cut the road between the 38th Infantry Regiment and Kunu @-@ ri , and the Americans had to retreat by infiltrating the Chinese lines . At 4 a.m. on November 30 , the 38th Infantry Regiment crossed the Kaechon River under the cover of the 23rd Infantry Regiment and Kunu @-@ ri was under Chinese control .
= = = The Gauntlet = = =
In the aftermath of the ROK II Corps ' collapse on November 27 , Peng immediately ordered the PVA 38th Corps to cut the road between Kunu @-@ ri and Sunchon in the US IX Corps rear , while the PVA 42nd Corps would surround the entire Eighth Army by rushing south through Pukchang @-@ ni and capture Sunchon . At the same day , Walker shifted the Eighth Army 's line eastward by attaching the US 1st Cavalry Division and the Anglo @-@ Australian 27th Commonwealth Infantry Brigade to the US IX Corps . The US 1st Cavalry Division would contain the Chinese breakthrough at Pukchang @-@ ni , while the 27th Commonwealth Brigade secured the road between Kunu @-@ ri and Sunchon .
With the new orders on November 28 , the US 5th Cavalry Regiment of the 1st Cavalry Division left Kunu @-@ ri to rejoin the division to the northeast of Sunchon . With the US 5th Cavalry Regiment absent and the 8th Cavalry Regiment still recovering from the earlier losses from the battle at Unsan , Major General Hobart Gay of the US 1st Cavalry Division placed the US 7th Cavalry Regiment to the south of Pukchang @-@ ni , behind the remnants of the ROK 6th Infantry Division . Lacking reinforcements , the ROK 6th Infantry Division was quickly routed by the PVA 42nd Corps on the night of November 28 . Chinese forces then attacked the 7th Cavalry Regiment under the cover of the fleeing Korean soldiers and refugees pouring into the American front . Under Gay 's order , the 7th Cavalry Regiment withdrew southwest to the town of Sinchang @-@ ni on the morning of November 29 , and the Chinese resumed the drive southward . A fierce battle between the PVA 125th Division and the 7th Cavalry Regiment broke out during the night of November 29 , but by the morning of November 30 the PVA 42nd Corps ' advance was halted .
The PVA 38th Corps , on the other hand , was marching towards the Kunu @-@ ri — Sunchon road virtually unopposed . On 7 a.m. at November 28 , the PVA 113th Division of the 38th Corps occupied the town of Samo @-@ ri , placing it right in the path of the 5th Cavalry Regiment and besides the Kunu @-@ ri — Sunchon road . An hour and half later , the advance platoon from the 5th Cavalry Regiment was ambushed and destroyed . With its advance blocked , the 5th Cavalry Regiment tried to dislodge the Chinese garrison , but it was forced to turn back by the afternoon . The 113th Division then occupied the valley containing the Kunu @-@ ri — Sunchon road at that night and blocked the retreat route of the US 2nd Infantry Division . Upon receiving the news on November 29 , 1st Battalion , Middlesex Regiment , part of 27th Brigade , tried to clear the valley from the south , but the attack was halted due to the lack of heavy weapons .
One of the first victims of the new Chinese roadblock was a convoy from the Turkish Brigade , and it was ambushed on the night of November 28 . A military police patrol was sent to investigate , but most of its members were killed by the morning . With the battle still raging at Kunu @-@ ri , the news of the Chinese roadblock reached the US 2nd Infantry Division on November 29 . Keiser sent the Reconnaissance Company and the remnants of the 9th Infantry Regiment to dislodge the Chinese , but the roadblock held firm even with a platoon of tanks attacking it . With the battle at Kunu @-@ ri ended by the night of November 29 , the PVA 112th Division joined the 113th Division and the roadblock grew to 6 mi ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) in depth .
The 2nd Infantry Division , however , did not know the strength of the roadblock on the night of November 29 . At the same time , the US 25th Infantry Division Military Police mistakenly reported that the alternative retreat route from Kunu @-@ ri to Anju was also blocked by Chinese . Later , Coulter ordered Keiser to withdraw by breaking the roadblock with the 27th Commonwealth Brigade . On the early morning of November 30 , Keiser made the decision to withdraw through the valley .
On the morning of November 30 , the 9th Infantry Regiment led the withdrawal by attacking the roadblock . Four tanks were first sent down the road and the Chinese held their fire . Encouraged by this development , Colonel Sloane ordered the 9th Infantry Regiment to press forward , but Chinese machine gun and mortar fire immediately stopped the advance at 9 a.m. The ROK 3rd Infantry Regiment attached to the 2nd Infantry Division was sent to reinforce the US 9th Infantry Regiment , but it was routed by friendly fire . With no contacts between the American commands and the British units , the Middlesex Regiment advanced to the south end of the valley without attacking the roadblock . Believing that the roadblock was short and the British were attacking up the road , Keiser ordered the 2nd Infantry Division to run through the blockade at 10 a.m.
As the 2nd Infantry Division entered the valley , later known as the " Gauntlet " , the Chinese machine guns delivered punishing fire while mortar shells saturated the road . The length of the roadblock caught the 2nd Infantry Division by surprise , and the road was soon filled with wrecked vehicles and wounded and dead soldiers . Those who tried to take cover in the ditches were promptly left behind by the convoy rushing south , and unit cohesion instantly evaporated . During the day , the air cover tried to suppress the Chinese positions with some success , but with no air cover at night , the Chinese attack intensified . Finally , the Chinese blocked the road completely by destroying the US 38th and 503rd Artillery Battalion of the 2nd Infantry Division , and the immobilized artillery pieces forced the rest of the division to abandon all vehicles and to retreat by hiking through the hills . At the rear of the division , Colonel Freeman attempted to save his 23rd Infantry Regiment by retreating through the Kunu @-@ ri — Anju road . In one of the last acts of the battle , the 23rd Infantry Regiment fired off its stock of 3 @,@ 206 artillery shells within 20 minutes , and the massive barrage shocked the Chinese troops from following the regiment . The last stragglers from the US 2nd Infantry Division finally arrived at Sunchon on December 1 , and by December 2 the Eighth Army had completely lost contact with the Chinese .
= = Aftermath = =
In the aftermath of the battle , US Eighth Army 's casualty number exceeded 11 @,@ 000 in the first count . A large number of documents , including all records from the US 2nd Infantry Division and the US 24th Infantry Regiment , were lost during the battle , and this made it difficult for historians to either analyze the events in detail or to assess the exact battle damage and losses incurred . However , it was later approximated that the US 2nd Infantry Division had suffered 4 @,@ 037 casualties , and most of its artillery pieces , 40 percent of its signal equipment , 45 percent of its crew @-@ served weapons , 30 percent of its vehicles were lost during the battle . Thus , the US 2nd Infantry Division was deemed to be crippled , and Keiser was relieved from command by the end of the battle . The other US unit that had reported significant losses was the US 25th Infantry Division with 1 @,@ 313 casualties . The Turkish Brigade had also reported 936 casualties with 90 percent equipment , 90 percent vehicle and 50 percent artillery losses , and the brigade was rendered combat ineffective . The South Korean casualties could not be estimated due to the complete absence of South Korean records during the first half of the Korean War , but according to Paik , the ROK II Corps ' headquarters was forced to disband in the aftermath of the battle . As for Chinese losses , Peng estimated 45 @,@ 000 casualties by the end of the battle , and the official Chinese history attributed 20 @,@ 000 casualties to combat , while the rest were attributed to the lack of adequate winter clothing and the lack of food . For its role in setting up the Gauntlet against the US 2nd Infantry Division , the PVA 38th Corps was awarded the title " Ten Thousand Years Corps " by Peng on December 1 , 1950 .
With the US 2nd Infantry Division , the Turkish Brigade and the ROK II Corps out of action , the US Eighth Army was reduced to just two corps , composed of four divisions and two brigades . Meanwhile , the over @-@ extended Chinese logistics system had also left the victorious 13th Army half @-@ starved and incapable of any further offensive operations . But during the chaotic UN retreats , no reconnaissance was conducted to determine the state of the Chinese forces . As the result , Walker ordered the Eighth Army to abandon North Korea on December 3 , much to the surprise of the Chinese commanders . The following 120 mi ( 190 km ) withdrawal to the 38th parallel is often referred to as " the longest retreat in US military history . " Aside from extremely low morale after the battle , the entire Eighth Army was also gripped with " bug out fever " during the retreat , and a song called the " Bugout Boogie " was composed to commemorate the Eighth Army 's defeat . Walker died two days before the Christmas of 1950 , and Lieutenant General Matthew B. Ridgway assumed the command of the US Eighth Army . At the UN , all hopes for a unified Korea were abandoned , and a ceasefire at the 38th parallel was proposed to China on December 11 , 1950 .
Having decisively won the battle and once again turned the tide of the war in favor of the Communists , the Battle of the Ch 'ongch 'on River represented the peak of the Chinese military 's performance in Korea . However , Mao interpreted the UN ceasefire as a weakness that China should further exploit . Against advice from Peng and other senior military leaders , Mao ordered the PVA to invade South Korea — a mission that was beyond the Chinese military 's abilities while breaking the fragile Chinese supply lines . Recognizing the Chinese difficulties , Ridgway then led the Eighth Army to inflict severe losses on the PVA during the Chinese offensives of 1951 .
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= Winter War =
The Winter War ( Finnish : Talvisota , Swedish : Vinterkriget , Russian : Зи ́ мняя война ́ , tr . Zimnyaya voyna ) was a military conflict between the Soviet Union and Finland in 1939 – 1940 . It began with the Soviet invasion of Finland on 30 November 1939 ( three months after the outbreak of World War II ) , and ended with the Moscow Peace Treaty on 13 March 1940 . The League of Nations deemed the attack illegal and expelled the Soviet Union from the League on 14 December 1939 .
The Soviet Union ostensibly sought to claim parts of Finnish territory , demanding — amongst other concessions — that Finland cede substantial border territories in exchange for land elsewhere , claiming security reasons , primarily the protection of Leningrad , which was only 32 km ( 20 mi ) from the Finnish border . ( Though the border that was " only 32 km ( 20 mi ) " from Leningrad was the end of a narrow finger of coastline about 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) long by 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) wide ; most of the Finnish border was more than 50 km ( 31 mi ) from Leningrad . ) Finland refused and the USSR invaded the country . Many sources conclude that the Soviet Union had intended to conquer all of Finland , and use the establishment of the puppet Finnish Communist government and the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact 's secret protocols as proof of this , while other sources argue against the idea of a full Soviet conquest .
The Soviets possessed more than three times as many soldiers as the Finns , thirty times as many aircraft , and a hundred times as many tanks . The Red Army , however , had been crippled by Soviet leader Joseph Stalin 's Great Purge of 1937 . With more than 30 @,@ 000 of its officers executed or imprisoned , including most of those of the highest ranks , the Red Army in 1939 had many inexperienced senior and mid @-@ level officers . Because of these factors , and high morale in the Finnish forces , Finland repelled Soviet attacks for several months , much longer than the Soviets expected .
However , after reorganization and adoption of different tactics , the renewed Soviet offensive overcame Finnish defenses at the borders . Finland then agreed to cede more territory than originally demanded by the Soviet Union in 1939 ; the Soviets , having conquered the areas they demanded from Finland but at a cost of heavier losses in troops than anticipated , accepted this offer .
Hostilities ceased in March 1940 with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty . Finland ceded territory representing 11 % of its land area and 30 % of its economy to the Soviet Union . Soviet losses were heavy , and the country 's international reputation suffered . While the Soviet Union did not conquer all Finland , Soviet gains exceeded their pre @-@ war demands . They gained substantial territory along Lake Ladoga , providing a buffer for Leningrad , and territory in northern Finland . Finland retained its sovereignty and enhanced its international reputation .
The end of the war cancelled the Franco @-@ British plan to send troops to Finland through northern Scandinavia . Some authors would suggest that the official statement by Sweden , Norway and Denmark of February 1940 , declaring they would not allow British troops to use their territories on their way to Finland , was a factor in Finland 's decision of starting peace talks with Russia . One of the major goals of the projected Franco @-@ British operation had been to take control of northern Sweden 's iron ore and cut its deliveries to Germany . For this reason it was also a major factor in the launching of Operation Weserübung , Nazi Germany 's invasion of Denmark and Norway .
= = Background = =
= = = Politics of Finland = = =
Until the beginning of the 19th century , Finland constituted the eastern part of the Kingdom of Sweden . In 1809 , to protect their imperial capital , Saint Petersburg , the Russians conquered Finland and converted it into an autonomous buffer state within the Russian Empire . The Grand Duchy of Finland enjoyed wide autonomy within the Empire until the end of the 19th century , when Russia began attempts to assimilate Finland as part of a general policy to strengthen the central government and unify the Empire through Russification . While abortive because of Russia 's internal strife , these attempts ruined Russia 's relations with the Finns and increased support for Finnish self @-@ determination movements .
The outbreak of the First World War and the collapse of the Russian Empire during the Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War of 1917 – 1920 gave Finland a window of opportunity ; on 6 December 1917 , the Senate of Finland declared the nation 's independence . The new Bolshevik Russian government was weak , and with the threat of civil war looming Soviet Russia recognized the new Finnish government just three weeks after the declaration of independence . Sovereignty was fully achieved in May 1918 after a short civil war and the expulsion of Bolshevik troops .
Finland joined the League of Nations in 1920 , from which it sought security guarantees , but Finland 's primary goal was cooperation with the Scandinavian countries . The Finnish and Swedish militaries engaged in wide @-@ ranging cooperation , but were more focused on the exchange of information and defence planning for the Åland islands than on military exercises , or the stockpiling and deployment of materiel . Nevertheless , the government of Sweden carefully avoided committing itself to Finnish foreign policy . Another Finnish military policy was the top secret military cooperation between Finland and Estonia .
The 1920s and early 1930s were a politically unstable time in Finland . The Communist Party of Finland was declared illegal in 1931 , and the Lapua Movement organised anti @-@ communist violence , which culminated in a failed uprising in 1932 . Thereafter the ultra @-@ nationalist Patriotic People 's Movement ( IKL ) had a minor presence — at most 14 seats out of 200 in the Finnish parliament . By the late 1930s , the export @-@ oriented Finnish economy was growing and the nation had almost solved its problems with extreme political movements .
= = = Soviet – Finnish relations and politics = = =
After the Soviet involvement in the Finnish Civil War in 1918 , no formal peace treaty was signed . In 1918 and 1919 , Finnish volunteer forces conducted two unsuccessful military incursions across the Russian border : the Viena and Aunus expeditions . In 1920 , Finnish communists based in Soviet Russia attempted to assassinate the former Finnish White Guards Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief General CGE Mannerheim . On 14 October 1920 , Finland and Soviet Russia signed the Treaty of Tartu , confirming the new Finnish – Soviet border as the old border between the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland and Imperial Russia proper . In addition , Finland received Petsamo , with its ice @-@ free harbour on the Arctic Ocean . Despite the signing of the treaty , relations between the two countries remained strained . The Finnish government allowed volunteers to cross the border to support the East Karelian Uprising in 1921 , and Finnish communists in the Soviet Union continued to prepare for a revanche and staged a cross @-@ border raid into Finland , called the " Pork mutiny " , in 1922 .
In 1932 the Soviet Union signed a non @-@ aggression pact with Finland , which was reaffirmed for a ten @-@ year period in 1934 . However , relations between the two countries remained largely de minimis . While foreign trade in Finland was booming , less than 1 % of Finnish trade was with the Soviet Union . In 1934 , the Soviet Union joined the League of Nations .
During Joseph Stalin 's rule , Soviet propaganda painted Finland 's leadership as a " vicious and reactionary Fascist clique " . Marshal C. G. E. Mannerheim and Väinö Tanner , the leader of the Finnish Social Democratic Party , were targeted for particular scorn . With Stalin gaining absolute power through the Great Purge of 1938 , the Soviet Union changed its foreign policy toward Finland in the late 1930s . The Soviet Union began pursuing the reconquest of the provinces of Tsarist Russia lost during the chaos of the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War . The Soviet leadership believed that the old empire had ideal security and territorial possessions , and wanted the newly christened city of Leningrad to enjoy a similar security .
= = = Negotiations = = =
In April 1938 , an NKVD agent , Boris Yartsev contacted the Finnish foreign minister Rudolf Holsti and Prime Minister Aimo Cajander , stating that the Soviet Union did not trust Germany and that war was considered possible between the two countries . The Red Army would not wait passively behind the border but would rather " advance to meet the enemy " . Finnish representatives assured Yartsev that Finland was committed to a policy of neutrality and that the country would resist any armed incursion . Yartsev suggested that Finland cede or lease some islands in the Gulf of Finland along the seaward approaches to Leningrad ; Finland refused .
Negotiations continued throughout 1938 without results . Finnish reception of Soviet entreaties was decidedly cool , as the violent collectivisation and purges in Stalin 's Soviet Union resulted in a poor opinion of the country . In addition , most of the Finnish communist elite in the Soviet Union had been executed during the Great Purge , further tarnishing the Soviet Union 's image in Finland . At the same time , Finland was trying to negotiate a military cooperation plan with Sweden , hoping to jointly defend the Åland Islands .
The Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact in August 1939 . The pact was nominally a non @-@ aggression treaty , but it included a secret protocol in which the Eastern European countries were divided into spheres of interest . Finland fell into the Soviet sphere . On 1 September 1939 , Germany began its invasion of Poland and two days later Great Britain and France declared war against Germany . Shortly afterwards ( 17 September 1939 ) , the Soviets invaded eastern Poland . The Baltic states were later forced to accept treaties allowing the Soviets to establish military bases and to station troops on their soil . The government of Estonia accepted the ultimatum , signing the corresponding agreement in September . Latvia and Lithuania followed in October . Unlike the Baltic states , Finland started a gradual mobilisation under the guise of " additional refresher training . "
The Soviets had already started an intensive mobilisation near the Finnish border in 1938 – 1939 . However , assault troops thought necessary for the invasion did not begin deployment until October 1939 . Operational plans made in September called for the invasion to start in November .
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= = = War preparations = = =
On 5 October 1939 , the Soviet Union invited a Finnish delegation to Moscow for negotiations . J.K. Paasikivi , the Finnish ambassador to Sweden , was sent to Moscow to represent the Finnish government . The Soviets demanded that the border between the USSR and Finland on the Karelian Isthmus be moved westward to a point only 30 km ( 19 mi ) east of Viipuri and that the Finns destroy all existing fortifications on the Karelian Isthmus . They also demanded the cession of islands in the Gulf of Finland as well as the Kalastajansaarento peninsula . Furthermore , the Finns would have to lease the Hanko Peninsula for thirty years and permit the Soviets to establish a military base there . In exchange , the Soviet Union would cede two municipalities with twice the territory demanded from Finland . Accepting Soviet demands would have forced the Finns to dismantle their defences in Finnish Karelia .
The Soviet offer divided the Finnish government , but it was eventually rejected . On 31 October , in the assembly of the Supreme Soviet , Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov announced Soviet demands in public . The Finns made two counteroffers whereby Finland would cede the Terijoki area to the Soviet Union , which would double the distance between Leningrad and the Finnish border , far less than the Soviets had demanded , as well as the islands in the Gulf of Finland . From the Soviet point of view the negotiations were finished .
= = = Shelling of Mainila = = =
On 26 November 1939 , a border incident was reported near the village of Mainila . A Soviet border guard post had been shelled by an unknown party resulting , according to Soviet reports , in the deaths of four and injuries of nine border guards . Research conducted by several Finnish and Russian historians later concluded that the shelling was carried out from the Soviet side of the border by an NKVD unit with the purpose of providing the Soviet Union with a casus belli and a pretext to withdraw from the non @-@ aggression pact .
Molotov claimed that it was a Finnish artillery attack and demanded that Finland apologise for the incident and move its forces beyond a line 20 – 25 km ( 12 – 16 mi ) away from the border . Finland denied responsibility for the attack , rejected the demands , and called for a joint Finnish – Soviet commission to examine the incident . The Soviet Union then claimed that the Finnish response was hostile , renounced the non @-@ aggression pact and severed diplomatic relations with Finland on 28 November . In the following years , Soviet historiography described the incident as a Finnish provocation . Doubt on the official Soviet version was cast only in the late 1980s , in the times of glasnost . However , the issue continued to divide Russian historiography even after the collapse of the Soviet Union .
Russian President Vladimir Putin said on 14 March 2013 at a meeting with military historians that Stalin launched the war to " correct mistakes " made in drawing the border with Finland after the 1917 Bolshevik revolution .
= = = Soviet political and military offensive = = =
On 30 November 1939 , Soviet forces invaded Finland with 21 divisions , totaling some 450 @,@ 000 men , and bombed Helsinki . Later the Finnish statesman J. K. Paasikivi commented that the Soviet attack without a declaration of war violated three different non @-@ aggression pacts : the Treaty of Tartu signed in 1920 , the non @-@ aggression pact between Finland and the Soviet Union signed in 1932 and again in 1934 , and also the Covenant of the League of Nations , which the Soviet Union signed in 1934 . C.G.E. Mannerheim was appointed Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Finnish Defence Forces after the Soviet attack . In further reshuffling , the Finnish government named Risto Ryti as the new prime minister and Väinö Tanner as foreign minister .
On 1 December 1939 , the Soviet Union formed a puppet government called the Finnish Democratic Republic , which was headed by O. W. Kuusinen . The government was also called " The Terijoki Government , " after the village of Terijoki , which was the first settlement captured by the advancing Soviet army . After the war , the puppet government was disbanded . From the very outset of the war , working @-@ class Finns stood behind the legal government in Helsinki . Finnish national unity against the Soviet invasion was later called the spirit of the Winter War .
At the start of the Winter War , Finland brought up the matter of the Soviet invasion before the League of Nations . The League expelled the Soviet Union on 14 December 1939 and exhorted its members to aid Finland .
= = Soviet advance to the Mannerheim Line = =
= = = Soviet military plan = = =
At the beginning of the war , total victory over Finland was expected within a few weeks . The Red Army had just finished the invasion of eastern Poland at a cost of fewer than 1 @,@ 000 casualties , due to Poland having been attacked by Germany from the west just two weeks prior . Stalin 's expectations of a quick Soviet triumph were backed up by the politician Andrei Zhdanov and military strategist Kliment Voroshilov , but other generals had their doubts . The chief of staff of the Red Army , Boris Shaposhnikov , advocated a serious buildup , extensive logistical and fire support preparations , and a rational order of battle , deploying the army 's best units . Zhdanov 's military commander Kirill Meretskov reported at the start of the hostilities : " The terrain of coming operations is split by lakes , rivers , swamps , and is almost entirely covered by forests ... The proper use of our forces will be difficult " . However , these doubts were not reflected in his troop deployments . Meretskov announced publicly that the Finnish campaign would take at the most two weeks . Soviet soldiers had even been warned not to cross the border into Sweden by mistake .
Stalin 's purges had devastated the officer corps of the Red Army ; those purged included three of its five marshals , 220 of its 264 division @-@ level commanders or higher , and 36 @,@ 761 officers of all ranks . Fewer than half of the officers remained in total . They were commonly replaced by soldiers who were less competent but more loyal to their superiors . Furthermore , unit commanders were superseded by a political commissar , who ratified military decisions on their political merits , further complicating the Soviet chain of command . This system of dual command destroyed the independence of commanding officers .
After the Battles of Khalkhin Gol , the Soviet high command had divided into two factions . One side was represented by Spanish Civil War veterans General Pavel Rychagov representing the Red Air Force , Soviet tank expert General Dmitry Pavlov , and Stalin 's favorite general , Marshal Grigory Kulik , chief of artillery . The other side was led by Khalkhin Gol veterans General Georgy Zhukov ( Red Army ) and General G. P. Kravchenko ( Red Air Force ) . Under this divided command structure , the lessons of the Soviet Union 's " first real war on a massive scale using tanks , artillery , and aircraft " at Nomonhan went unheeded . As a result , during the Winter War , Russian BT tanks were less successful and it took the Soviet Union three months and over a million men to do what Zhukov did at Khalkhin Gol in ten days .
= = = Soviet order of battle = = =
Soviet generals were impressed by the success of the German Blitzkrieg tactics . However , the Blitzkrieg had been tailored to central European conditions with a dense , well @-@ mapped network of paved roads . Armies fighting in central Europe had recognised supply and communications centres , which could be easily targeted by armoured vehicle regiments . Finnish army centres , by contrast , were deep inside the country . There were no paved roads , and even gravel or dirt roads were scarce ; most of the terrain consisted of trackless forests and swamps . Waging a Blitzkrieg in Finland was a highly difficult proposition , and the Red Army failed to meet the level of tactical coordination and local initiative required to execute Blitzkrieg tactics in the Finnish theatre .
The Soviet forces were positioned as follows :
The 7th Army , comprising nine divisions , a tank corps and three tank brigades , was located on the Karelian Isthmus . Its objective was the city of Viipuri . The force was later divided into the Seventh and 13th armies .
The 8th Army , comprising six divisions and a tank brigade , was located north of Lake Ladoga . Its mission was to execute a flanking manoeuvre around the northern shore of Lake Ladoga to strike at the rear of the Mannerheim Line .
The 9th Army was positioned to strike into central Finland . It was composed of three divisions with one additional division on its way . Its mission was to thrust westward to cut Finland in half .
The 14th Army , comprising three divisions , was based in Murmansk . Its objective was to capture the Arctic port of Petsamo and then advance to the town of Rovaniemi .
= = = Finnish order of battle = = =
The Finnish strategy was dictated by geography . The frontier with the Soviet Union was more than 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) long but was mostly impassable except along a handful of unpaved roads . In pre @-@ war calculations , the Finnish General Staff , which had established its wartime headquarters at Mikkeli , estimated seven Soviet divisions on the Isthmus and no more than five along the whole border north of Lake Ladoga . In that case , the manpower ratio would favour the attacker by three to one . The true ratio was much higher ; for example , 12 Soviet divisions were deployed to the north of Lake Ladoga .
An even greater problem than lack of soldiers was the lack of materiel ; foreign shipments of anti @-@ tank weapons and aircraft were arriving in small quantities . The ammunition situation was alarming , as stockpiles had cartridges , shells , and fuel only to last 19 – 60 days . The ammunition situation was alleviated somewhat because many Finns were armed with Mosin – Nagant rifles dating from the Finnish Civil War and updated infantry weapons capable of chambering the 7 @.@ 62 × 54mmR cartridges used by Soviet forces . Some Finnish soldiers maintained their ammunition supply by looting the bodies of dead Soviet soldiers . The ammunition shortage meant the Finns could seldom afford counterbattery or saturation fire . Finnish tank forces were operationally non @-@ existent .
The Finnish forces were positioned as follows :
The Army of the Isthmus was composed of six divisions under the command of Hugo Österman . The II . Army Corps was positioned on its right flank and the III . Army Corps was positioned on its left flank .
The IV . Army Corps was located north of Lake Ladoga . It was composed of two divisions under Juho Heiskanen , who was soon replaced by Woldemar Hägglund .
The North Finland Group was a collection of Civic Guards , border guards , and drafted reservist units under Wiljo Tuompo .
= = = Weapons = = =
= = = First battles = = =
The Mannerheim Line , an array of Finnish defence structures , was located on the Karelian Isthmus about 30 to 75 km ( 19 to 47 mi ) from the Soviet border . The Red Army soldiers on the Isthmus numbered 250 @,@ 000 facing 130 @,@ 000 Finns . The Finnish command deployed a covering force of about 21 @,@ 000 men in the area in front of the Mannerheim Line in order to delay and damage the Red Army before it reached the line .
In combat , the biggest cause of confusion among Finnish soldiers were Soviet tanks . The Finns had few anti @-@ tank weapons and insufficient training in modern anti @-@ tank tactics . However , the favoured Soviet armoured tactic was a simple frontal charge , the weaknesses of which could be exploited . The Finns learned that at close range , tanks could be dealt with in many ways ; for example , logs and crowbars jammed into the bogie wheels would often immobilise a tank . Soon , Finns fielded a better ad hoc weapon , the Molotov cocktail . It was a glass bottle filled with flammable liquids , with a simple hand @-@ lit fuse . Molotov cocktails were eventually mass @-@ produced by the Finnish Alko corporation and bundled with matches with which to light them . Eighty Soviet tanks were destroyed in the border @-@ zone fighting .
By 6 December , all the Finnish covering forces had withdrawn to the Mannerheim Line . The Red Army began its first major attack against the Line in Taipale — the area between the shore of Lake Ladoga , the Taipale river and the Suvanto waterway . Along the Suvanto sector , the Finns had a slight advantage of elevation and dry ground to dig into . The Finnish artillery had scouted the area and made fire plans in advance , anticipating a Soviet assault . The Battle of Taipale began with a forty @-@ hour Soviet artillery preparation . After the barrage , the Soviet infantry attacked across open ground but was repulsed with heavy casualties . From 6 December to 12 December , the Red Army continued trying to engage using only one division . The Red Army next strengthened its artillery and brought tanks and the 10th Rifle Division to the Taipale front . On 14 December , the bolstered Soviet forces launched a new attack but were pushed back again . A third Soviet division entered the fight but performed poorly and panicked under shell fire . The assaults continued without success , and the Red Army suffered heavy losses . One typical Soviet attack during the battle lasted just an hour but left 1 @,@ 000 dead and 27 tanks strewn on the ice .
North of Lake Ladoga on the Ladoga Karelia front , the defending Finnish units relied on the terrain . Ladoga Karelia , as a large forest wilderness , did not have road networks for the modern Red Army . However , the Soviet 8th Army had extended a new railroad line to the border , which could double the supply capability on the front . But on 12 December , the advancing Soviet 139th Rifle Division , supported by the 56th Rifle Division , was defeated by a much smaller Finnish force under Paavo Talvela in Tolvajärvi , the first Finnish victory of the war .
In central and northern Finland , roads were few and the terrain hostile . The Finns did not expect large @-@ scale Soviet attacks , but the Soviets sent eight divisions , heavily supported by armour and artillery . The 155th Rifle Division attacked at Lieksa , and further north the 44th attacked at Kuhmo . The 163rd Rifle Division was deployed at Suomussalmi and charged with cutting Finland in half by marching the Raate Road . In Finnish Lapland , the Soviet 88th and 122nd Rifle Divisions attacked at Salla . The Arctic port of Petsamo was attacked by the 104th Mountain Rifle Division by sea and land , supported by naval gunfire .
= = Defence of Finland = =
= = = Weather conditions = = =
The winter of 1939 – 1940 was exceptionally cold . One location on the Karelian Isthmus experienced a record low temperature of − 43 ° C ( − 45 ° F ) on 16 January 1940 . At the beginning of the war , only those Finnish soldiers who were in active service had uniforms and weapons . The rest had to make do with their own clothing , which for many soldiers was their normal winter clothing with semblance of an insignia added . Finnish soldiers were skilled in cross @-@ country skiing .
The cold , snow , forest , and long hours of darkness were factors that the Finns could use to their advantage . The Finns dressed in layers , and the ski troopers wore a lightweight white snow cape . This snow @-@ camouflage made the ski troopers almost invisible as the Finns executed guerrilla attacks against Soviet columns . At the beginning of the war , Soviet tanks were painted in standard olive drab and men dressed in regular khaki uniforms . Not until late January 1940 did the Soviets paint their equipment white and issue snowsuits to their infantry .
Most Soviet soldiers had proper winter clothes , but this was not the case with every unit . In the battle of Suomussalmi , many Soviet soldiers died of frostbite . The Soviet troops also lacked skill in skiing , so soldiers were restricted to movement by road and were forced to move in long columns . Furthermore , the Red Army lacked proper winter tents , and men had to sleep in improvised shelters . Some Soviet units had frostbite casualties as high as 10 % even before crossing the Finnish border . The cold weather did confer one advantage : Soviet tanks were able to move more easily over frozen terrain and bodies of water , rather than being immobilised in swamps and mud .
= = = Finnish tactics = = =
In battles from Ladoga Karelia all the way north to the Arctic port of Petsamo , the Finns used guerrilla tactics . The Red Army was superior in numbers and materiel , but the Finns used the advantages of speed , tactics , and economy of force . Particularly on the Ladoga Karelia front and during the battle of Raate road , the Finns isolated smaller portions of numerically superior Soviet forces . With Soviet forces divided into smaller pieces , the Finns could deal with them individually and attack from all sides .
For many of the encircled Soviet troops in a pocket ( called a motti in Finnish , meaning a bundle of wood ) , just staying alive was an ordeal comparable to combat . The men were freezing and starving and endured poor sanitary conditions . Historian William R. Trotter describes these conditions thus : " The Soviet soldier had no choice . If he refused to fight , he would be shot . If he tried to sneak through the forest , he would freeze to death . And surrender was no option for him ; Soviet propaganda had told him how the Finns would torture prisoners to death . "
= = = Defense of the Mannerheim Line = = =
The terrain on the Karelian Isthmus did not allow the exercise of guerilla tactics , so the Finns were forced to resort to the more conventional Mannerheim Line , with its flanks protected by large bodies of water . Soviet propaganda claimed that it was as strong as or even stronger than the Maginot Line . Finnish historians , for their part , have belittled the line 's strength , insisting that it was mostly conventional trenches and log @-@ covered dugouts .
The Finns had built 221 strong @-@ points along the Karelian Isthmus , mostly in the early 1920s . Many were extended in the late 1930s . Despite these defensive preparations , even the most fortified section of the Mannerheim Line had only one reinforced concrete bunker per kilometre . Overall , the line was weaker than similar lines in mainland Europe . According to the Finns , the real strength of the line were the " stubborn defenders with a lot of sisu " – a Finnish idiom roughly translated as " guts , fighting spirit . "
On the eastern side of the isthmus , the Red Army attempted to break through the Mannerheim Line in the battle of Taipale . On the western side , Soviet units faced the Finnish line at Summa , near the city of Viipuri , on 16 December . The Finns had built 41 reinforced concrete bunkers in the Summa area , making the defensive line in this area stronger than anywhere else on the Karelian Isthmus . However , because of a mistake in planning , the nearby Munasuo swamp had a 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) -wide gap in the line . During the first battle of Summa , a number of Soviet tanks broke through the thin line on 19 December , but the Soviets could not benefit from the situation because of insufficient cooperation between branches of service . The Finns remained in their trenches , allowing the Soviet tanks to move freely behind the Finnish line , as the Finns had no proper anti @-@ tank weapons . However , the Finns succeeded in repelling the main Soviet assault . The tanks , stranded behind enemy lines , attacked the strongpoints at random until they were eventually destroyed , 20 in all . By 22 December , the battle ended in a Finnish victory .
The Soviet advance was stopped at the Mannerheim Line . Red Army troops suffered from poor morale and a shortage of supplies , eventually refusing to participate in more suicidal frontal attacks . The Finns , led by General Harald Öhquist , decided to launch a counterattack and encircle three Soviet divisions into a motti near Viipuri on 23 December . Öhquist 's plan was bold , and it failed . The Finns lost 1 @,@ 300 men , and the Soviets were later estimated to have lost a similar number .
= = = Battles in Ladoga Karelia = = =
The strength of the Red Army north of Lake Ladoga ( in Ladoga Karelia ) surprised the Finnish General Staff . Two Finnish divisions were deployed there : the 12th Division led by Lauri Tiainen and the 13th Division led by Hannu Hannuksela . They also had a support group of three brigades , bringing their total strength to over 30 @,@ 000 . The Soviets deployed a division for almost every road leading west to the Finnish border . The Eighth Army was led by Ivan Khabarov , who was replaced by Grigori Shtern on 13 December . The Soviets ' mission was to destroy the Finnish troops in the area of Ladoga Karelia and advance into the area between Sortavala and Joensuu within 10 days . The Soviets had a 3 : 1 advantage in manpower and a 5 : 1 advantage in artillery , as well as air supremacy .
Finnish forces panicked and retreated in front of the overwhelming Red Army . The commander of the Finnish IV Army Corps was replaced by Woldemar Hägglund on 4 December . On 7 December , in the middle of the Ladoga Karelian front , Finnish units retreated near the small stream of Kollaa . The waterway itself did not offer protection , but alongside there were ridges up to 10 m ( 33 ft ) high . The battle of Kollaa lasted until the end of the war . A memorable quote , " Kollaa holds " ( Finnish : Kollaa kestää ) became a legendary motto among the Finns . Further contributing to the legend of Kollaa was the sniper Simo Häyhä , dubbed " the White Death " by Soviets , who served in the Kollaa front . To the north , the Finns retreated from Ägläjärvi to Tolvajärvi on 5 December and then repelled a Soviet offensive in the battle of Tolvajärvi on 11 December .
In the south , two Soviet divisions were united on the northern side of the Lake Ladoga coastal road . As before , these divisions were trapped as the more mobile Finnish units were able to counterattack from the north to flank the Soviet columns . On 19 December , the Finns temporarily ceased their assaults , as the soldiers were exhausted . It was not until the period 6 – 16 January 1940 that the Finns went on the offensive again , cutting Soviet division into smaller groups of different @-@ sized mottis .
Contrary to Finnish expectations , the encircled Soviet divisions did not try to break through to the east but instead entrenched . They were expecting reinforcements and supplies to arrive by air . As the Finns lacked the necessary heavy artillery equipment and were short of men , they often did not directly attack mottis they had created ; instead , they worked to eliminate only the most dangerous threats . Often the motti tactic was not applied as part of planned doctrine but as a Finnish adaptation to the behaviour of Soviet troops under fire .
In spite of the cold and hunger , the Soviet troops did not surrender easily but fought bravely , often entrenching their tanks to be used as pillboxes and building timber dugouts . Some specialist Finnish soldiers were called in to attack the mottis ; the most famous of them was Major Matti Aarnio , or " Motti @-@ Matti , " as he became known .
In northern Karelia , Soviet forces were outmanoeuvred at Ilomantsi and Lieksa . The Finns used effective guerrilla tactics , taking special advantage of superior skiing skills and snow @-@ white layered clothing and executing many surprise ambushes and raids . By the end of December , the Soviets decided to retreat and transfer resources to more critical fronts .
= = = Suomussalmi – Raate double operation = = =
The Suomussalmi – Raate was a double operation , which would later be used by military academics as a classic example of what well @-@ led troops and innovative tactics can do against a much larger adversary . Suomussalmi was a small provincial town of 4 @,@ 000 . The area has long lakes , many wild forests and few roads . The Finnish command believed that the Soviets would not attack here , but the Red Army committed two divisions to the area with orders to cross the wilderness , capture the city of Oulu and effectively cut Finland in two . There were two roads leading to Suomussalmi from the frontier : the northern Juntusranta road and the southern Raate road .
The battle of Raate road , which occurred during the month @-@ long battle of Suomussalmi , resulted in one of the largest losses in the Winter War . The Soviet 44th and parts of the 163rd Rifle Divisions , comprising about 14 @,@ 000 troops , were almost completely destroyed by a Finnish ambush as they marched along the forest road . A small unit blocked the Soviet advance while Finnish Colonel Hjalmar Siilasvuo and his 9th Division cut off the retreat route , split the enemy force into smaller fragments , and then proceeded to destroy the remnants in detail as they retreated . The Soviets suffered 7 @,@ 000 – 9 @,@ 000 casualties , while the Finnish units lost only 400 men . In addition , the Finnish troops captured dozens of tanks , artillery pieces , anti @-@ tank guns , hundreds of trucks , almost 2 @,@ 000 horses , thousands of rifles , and much @-@ needed ammunition and medical supplies .
= = = Finnish Lapland = = =
In Finnish Lapland , the forests gradually thin out until in the north there are no trees at all . Thus , the area offers more room for tank deployment , but it is vastly underpopulated and experiences copious snowfall . The Finns expected nothing more than raiding parties and reconnaissance patrols , but instead the Soviets sent full divisions . On 11 December , the Finns rearranged the defence of Lapland and detached the Lapland Group from the North Finland Group . The group was placed under the command of Kurt Wallenius .
In southern Lapland , near the tiny rural village of Salla , the Soviet force advanced with two divisions , the 88th and 112th , totalling 35 @,@ 000 men . In the battle of Salla the Soviets advanced easily to Salla , where the road forked . The northern branch moved toward Pelkosenniemi while the rest pushed on toward Kemijärvi . On 17 December , the Soviet northern group , comprising an infantry regiment , a battalion , and a company of tanks , was outflanked by a Finnish battalion . The 112th retreated , leaving much of its heavy equipment and vehicles behind . Following this success , the Finns shuttled reinforcements down to the defensive line in front of Kemijärvi . The Soviets hammered the defensive line without success . The Finns counterattacked , and the Soviets were pushed back to a new defensive line where they stayed for the rest of the war .
To the north was Finland 's only ice @-@ free port in the Arctic , Petsamo . The Finns did not have the manpower to defend it fully as the main front was down the Karelian Isthmus . In the battle of Petsamo , the Soviet 104th division attacked the Finnish 104th Independent Cover Company . The Finns gave up Petsamo easily and concentrated on delaying actions . The area was treeless , windy , and relatively low , offering little defensible terrain . However , during the winter , the Finns in Lapland had the advantage of almost constant darkness and extreme temperatures . The Finns executed guerrilla attacks against Soviet supply lines and patrols . As a result , the Soviet movements were halted by the efforts of one @-@ fifth as many Finns .
= = Soviet breakthrough of the Mannerheim Line = =
= = = Red Army reforms and offensive preparations = = =
Joseph Stalin was not pleased with the results of the first month of the Finnish campaign . The Red Army had been humiliated . By the third week of the war , Soviet propaganda was working hard to explain the failures of the Soviet army to the populace : blaming bad terrain and harsh climate , and falsely claiming that the Mannerheim Line was stronger than the Maginot Line , and that the Americans had sent 1 @,@ 000 of their best pilots to Finland . Chief of Staff Boris Shaposhnikov was given full authority over operations in the Finnish theatre , and he ordered the suspension of frontal assaults in late December . Kliment Voroshilov was replaced with Semyon Timoshenko as the commander of the Soviet forces in the war on 7 January .
The main focus of the Soviet attack was switched to the Karelian Isthmus . Timoshenko and Zhdanov reorganised and tightened control between different branches of service in the Red Army . They also changed tactical doctrines to meet the realities of the situation . All Soviet forces on the Karelian Isthmus were divided into two armies : the 7th and the 13th Armies . The 7th Army , now under Kirill Meretskov , would concentrate 75 % of its strength against the 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) stretch of the Mannerheim Line between Taipale and the Munasuo swamp . Tactics would be basic : an armoured wedge for the initial breakthrough , followed by the main infantry and vehicle assault force . The Red Army would prepare by pinpointing the Finnish frontline fortifications . The 123rd Assault Division then rehearsed the assault on life @-@ size mockups . The Soviets shipped massive numbers of new tanks and artillery pieces to the theatre . Troops were increased from ten divisions to 25 – 26 divisions , six or seven tank brigades and several independent tank platoons , totalling 600 @,@ 000 men . On 1 February , the Red Army began a massive offensive , firing 300 @,@ 000 shells into the Finnish line in the first 24 hours of the bombardment .
= = = Soviet offensive on the Karelian Isthmus = = =
Although the Karelian Isthmus front was less active in January than in December , the Soviets began increasing bombardments , wearing down the defenders and softening their fortifications . During daylight hours , the Finns took shelter inside their fortifications from the bombardments and repaired damage during the night . The situation led quickly to war exhaustion among the Finns , who lost over 3 @,@ 000 men in trench warfare . The Soviets also made occasional small infantry assaults with one or two companies . Because of the shortage of ammunition , Finnish artillery emplacements were under orders to fire only against directly threatening ground attacks . On 1 February , the Soviets further escalated their artillery and air bombardments .
Although the Soviets refined their tactics and morale improved , the generals were still willing to accept massive losses in order to reach their objectives . Attacks were screened by smoke , heavy artillery , and armour support , but the infantry charged in the open and in dense formations . Unlike their tactics in December , Soviet tanks advanced in smaller numbers . The Finns could not easily eliminate tanks if infantry troops protected them . After 10 days of round @-@ the @-@ clock artillery barrages , the Soviets achieved a breakthrough on the western Karelian Isthmus in the second battle of Summa .
On 11 February , the Soviets had about 460 @,@ 000 men , over 3 @,@ 350 artillery pieces , about 3 @,@ 000 tanks and about 1 @,@ 300 aircraft deployed on the Karelian Isthmus . The Red Army was constantly receiving new recruits after the breakthrough . Opposing them the Finns had eight divisions , totalling about 150 @,@ 000 men . One by one , the defenders ' strongholds crumbled under the Soviet attacks and the Finns were forced to retreat . On 15 February , Mannerheim authorised a general retreat of the Second Corps to the Intermediate Line . On the eastern side of the isthmus , the Finns continued to resist Soviet assaults , repelling them in the battle of Taipale .
= = = Peace negotiations = = =
Although the Finns attempted to re ‑ open negotiations with Moscow by every means during the war , the Soviets did not respond . In early January , Finnish communist Hella Wuolijoki contacted the Finnish government . She offered to contact Moscow through the Soviet Union 's ambassador to Sweden , Alexandra Kollontai . Wuolijoki departed for Stockholm and met Kollontai secretly at a hotel . Soon Molotov decided to extend recognition to the Ryti – Tanner government as the legal government of Finland and put an end to the puppet Terijoki Government of Kuusinen that the Soviets had set up .
By mid @-@ February , it became clear that the Finnish forces were rapidly approaching exhaustion . For the Soviets , casualties were high , the situation was a source of political embarrassment to the Soviet regime , and there was a risk of Franco @-@ British intervention . Furthermore , with the spring thaw approaching , the Soviet forces risked becoming bogged down in the forests . The Finnish foreign minister Väinö Tanner arrived in Stockholm on 12 February and negotiated the peace terms with the Soviets through the Swedes . German representatives , not aware that the negotiations were underway , suggested on 17 February that Finland negotiate with the Soviet Union .
Both Germany and Sweden were keen to see an end to the Winter War . The Germans feared losing iron ore fields in northern Sweden and threatened to attack at once if the Swedes granted the Allied forces right of passage . The Germans even had a theoretical invasion plan called the Studie Nord against Scandinavian countries , which later became the full @-@ blown Operation Weserübung . As the Finnish Cabinet hesitated in the face of the harsh Soviet conditions , Sweden 's King Gustav V made a public statement on 19 February in which he confirmed having declined Finnish pleas for support from Swedish troops . On 25 February , the Soviet peace terms were spelled out in detail . On 29 February , the Finnish government accepted the Soviet terms in principle and was willing to enter into negotiations .
= = = Last days of war = = =
On 5 March , the Red Army advanced 10 to 15 km ( 6 @.@ 2 to 9 @.@ 3 mi ) past the Mannerheim Line and entered the suburbs of Viipuri . That same day , the Red Army established a beachhead on the western Gulf of Viipuri . The Finns proposed an armistice on that day , but the Soviets , wanting to keep the pressure on the Finnish government , declined the offer the next day . The Finnish peace delegation went to Moscow via Stockholm and arrived on 7 March . The Soviets made further demands as their military position was strong and improving . On 9 March , the Finnish military situation on the Karelian Isthmus was dire as troops were experiencing heavy casualties . In addition , artillery ammunition supplies were exhausted and weapons were wearing out . The Finnish government , noting that the hoped @-@ for Franco @-@ British military expedition would not arrive in time , as Norway and Sweden had not given the Allies right of passage , had little choice but to accept the Soviet terms . The formal peace treaty was signed in Moscow on 12 March . A cease @-@ fire took effect the next day at noon Leningrad time , 11 a.m. Helsinki time .
= = Aerial warfare = =
= = = Soviet Air Force = = =
The Soviet Union enjoyed air superiority throughout the war . The Soviet Air Force , supporting the Red Army 's invasion with about 2 @,@ 500 aircraft ( the most common of which was the Tupolev SB ) was not as effective as the Soviets might have hoped . The material damage by the bomb raids was slight as Finland did not offer many valuable targets for strategic bombing . Very often , targets were small village depots with little value . The country had only a few modern highways in the interior , therefore making railway systems the main targets for bombers . The rail tracks were cut thousands of times , but they were easy to repair and the Finns usually had trains running again in a matter of hours . The Soviet air force learned from its early mistakes , and by late February they instituted more effective tactics .
The largest bombing raid against the capital of Finland , Helsinki , occurred on the first day of the war . The capital was bombed only a few times thereafter . All in all , Finland lost only 5 % of total man @-@ hour production time because of Soviet bombings . Nevertheless , Soviet air attacks affected thousands of civilians , killing 957 , as the Soviets recorded 2 @,@ 075 bombing attacks in 516 localities . The city of Viipuri , a major Soviet objective close to the Karelian Isthmus front , was almost levelled by nearly 12 @,@ 000 bombs . No attacks on civilian targets were mentioned in Soviet radio or newspaper reports . In January 1940 , the Pravda continued to stress that no civilian targets in Finland had been struck , even by accident .
= = = Finnish Air Force = = =
At the beginning of the war , Finland had a very small air force , with only 114 combat planes fit for duty . Missions were very limited , and fighter aircraft were mainly used to repel Soviet bombers . Strategic bombings could also double as opportunities for military reconnaissance . Old @-@ fashioned and few in number , aircraft could not offer support for Finnish ground troops . In spite of losses , the number of planes in the Finnish Air Force had risen by over 50 % by the end of the war . The Finns received shipments of British , French , Italian , Swedish and American aircraft .
Finnish fighter pilots would often fly their motley collection of planes into Soviet formations that outnumbered them 10 or even 20 times . Finnish fighters shot down a confirmed 200 Soviet aircraft , losing 62 of their own . In addition , Finnish anti @-@ aircraft guns brought down more than 300 enemy aircraft . Many times , a Finnish forward air base consisted of a frozen lake , a windsock , a telephone set and some tents . Air @-@ raid warnings were given by Finnish women organised by the Lotta Svärd . In addition to combat , it is estimated that the Soviet air force lost about 400 aircraft because of inclement weather , lack of fuel and tools , and during transportation to the front . The Soviet Air Force flew approximately 44 @,@ 000 sorties during the war .
= = Naval warfare = =
= = = Naval activity = = =
Naval activity during the Winter War was low . The Baltic Sea began to freeze over by the end of December , which made the movement of warships very difficult ; by mid @-@ winter , only ice breakers and submarines could still move . The other reason for low naval activity was the nature of Soviet Navy forces in the area . The Baltic Fleet was a coastal defence force which did not have the training , logistical structure , or landing craft to undertake large @-@ scale operations . The Baltic Fleet possessed two battleships , one heavy cruiser , almost 20 destroyers , 50 motor torpedo boats , 52 submarines , and other miscellaneous vessels . The Soviets used naval bases in Paldiski , Tallinn and Liepāja for their operations .
The Finnish Navy was a coastal defence force with two coastal defence ships , five submarines , four gunboats , seven motor torpedo boats , one minelayer and six minesweepers . The two coastal defence ships , Ilmarinen and Väinämöinen , were moved to the harbour in Turku where they were used to bolster the air defences . Their anti @-@ aircraft guns shot down one or two planes over the city , and the ships remained there for the rest of the war . In addition to its role in coastal defence , the Finnish Navy protected the Åland islands and Finnish merchant vessels in the Baltic Sea .
Soviet aircraft bombed Finnish vessels and harbours and dropped mines into Finnish seaways . Still , the Finnish merchant ship losses were low ; only five ships were lost to Soviet action . World War II , which had started before the Winter War , proved more costly for the Finnish merchant vessels , with 26 lost due to hostile action in 1939 and 1940 .
= = = Coastal artillery = = =
In addition to its navy , Finland had coastal artillery batteries to defend important harbors and naval bases along its coast . Most batteries were left over from the Imperial Russian period , with 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) guns being the most numerous . However , Finland attempted to modernize its old guns and installed a number of new batteries , the largest of which featured a 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) gun battery originally intended to block the Gulf of Finland to Soviet ships with the help of batteries on the Estonian side .
The first naval battle took place on 1 December , near the island of Russarö , 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) south of Hanko . That day , the weather was fair and the visibility excellent . The Finns spotted the Soviet cruiser Kirov and two destroyers . After the ships were at a range of 24 km ( 13 nmi ; 15 mi ) , the Finns opened fire with 234 mm ( 9 @.@ 2 in ) coastal guns . After five minutes of firing by four coastal guns , the cruiser had been damaged by near misses and retreated . The destroyers remained undamaged , but Kirov suffered 17 dead and 30 wounded . The Soviets already knew the locations of the Finnish coastal batteries , but were surprised by their range .
The coastal artillery had a greater effect upon the land war by helping to reinforce the defence in conjunction with army artillery . Two sets of fortress artillery made significant contributions to the early battles on the Karelian Isthmus and in Ladoga Karelia . These were located at Kaarnajoki on the eastern isthmus and at Mantsi on the northeastern shore of Lake Ladoga . The fortress of Koivisto provided similar support from the southwestern coast of the isthmus . Coastal artillery had the ability to fire high @-@ explosive shells of 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) calibre to a range of 25 km ( 13 nmi ; 16 mi ) .
= = Propaganda = =
On the first day of war Soviet aircraft bombed Helsinki , inflicting substantial damage and casualties . In response to international criticism , Vyacheslav Molotov stated that the Soviet Air Force was not bombing Finnish cities , but rather dropping humanitarian aid to the starving Finnish population . The Finns , who were not starving , soon ironically dubbed the bombs " Molotov 's bread baskets " , and named the improvised incendiary device that they used to counter Soviet tanks the " Molotov cocktail " , as " a drink to go with the food " .
= = Foreign support = =
= = = Foreign volunteers = = =
World opinion largely supported the Finnish cause , and the Soviet aggression was generally deemed unjustified . The World War had not yet directly affected France , the UK or the United States ; the Winter War was the only real fighting in Europe at that time and thus held major world interest . Several foreign organisations sent material aid , and many countries granted credit and military materiel to Finland . Nazi Germany allowed arms to pass through Sweden to Finland , but after a Swedish newspaper made this fact public , Adolf Hitler initiated a policy of silence towards Finland , as part of improved German – Soviet relations following the signing of the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact .
Volunteers arrived from various countries . By far the largest foreign contingent came from neighbouring Sweden , which provided nearly 8 @,@ 760 volunteers during the war . The Swedish Volunteer Corps ( Svenska Frivilligkåren ) , formed from the Swedes , the Norwegians ( 727 men ) and the Danes ( 1 @,@ 010 men ) , fought on the northern front at Salla during the last weeks of the war . A Swedish unit of Gloster Gladiators , named " the Flight Regiment 19 " ( Lentorykmentti 19 , LeR19 ; 19 @.@ flygflottilj , F19 ) also participated . Swedish AA @-@ batteries with Bofors 40mm @-@ guns were responsible for the air defence of northern Finland and the city of Turku . Volunteers arrived from Estonia , Italy and Hungary . Also , 350 American nationals of Finnish background volunteered , and 210 volunteers of other nationalities made it to Finland before the war ended . Max Manus , a Norwegian , fought in the Winter War before returning to Norway and achieving fame as a resistance fighter against the Nazi occupation of Norway . In total , Finland received 12 @,@ 000 volunteers , 50 of whom died during the war .
= = = Franco @-@ British intervention plans = = =
France had been one of the earliest supporters of Finland during the Winter War . The French saw an opportunity to weaken Germany 's major ally if the Finns were to attack the Soviet Union . France had other motives as well , because it preferred to have a major war in a remote part of Europe over one on French soil . France planned to re ‑ arm the Polish exile units and transport them to the Finnish Arctic port of Petsamo . Another scheme was to execute a massive air strike with Turkish cooperation against the Caucasus oil fields .
The British , for their part , wanted to block the flow of iron ore from Swedish mines to Germany because the Swedes supplied up to 40 % of Germany 's need . The matter was raised by the British Admiral Reginald Plunkett on 18 September 1939 , and the next day Winston Churchill brought up the subject in the Cabinet . On 11 December , Churchill opined that the British should gain a foothold in Scandinavia with the objective of helping the Finns but without a war on the Soviet Union . Because of the heavy German reliance on Swedish iron , Hitler had made it clear to the Swedish government in December that any Allied troops on Swedish soil would immediately provoke a German invasion .
On 19 December , French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier introduced his plan to the General Staff and the British War Cabinet . In his plan , Daladier created linkage between the war in Finland and the iron ore in Sweden . There was a danger of Finland 's collapse under Soviet hegemony . In turn , Nazi Germany could occupy both Norway and Sweden . These two dictatorships could divide Scandinavia between them , as they had already done with Poland . The main motivation of the French and the British was to reduce the German war @-@ making ability .
The Military Coordination Committee met the next day in London , and two days later the French plan was put forward . The Supreme War Council elected to send notes to Norway and Sweden on 27 December in which they urged the Norwegians and Swedes to help Finland and offer the Allies their support . Norway and Sweden rejected the offer on 5 January 1940 . The Allies then came up with a new plan , in which they would demand that Norway and Sweden give them right of passage by citing the League of Nations resolution as justification . The expedition troops would disembark at the Norwegian port of Narvik and proceed by rail toward Finland , passing through the Swedish ore fields on the way . This demand was sent to Norway and Sweden on 6 January , but it too was rejected six days later .
Stymied but not yet dissuaded from the possibility of action , the Allies formulated a new plan on 29 January . First , the Finns would make a formal request for assistance . Then the Allies would ask Norway and Sweden for permission to move the " volunteers " across their territory . Finally , in order to protect the supply line from German actions , the Allies would send additional units ashore at Namsos , Bergen , and Trondheim . The operation would require 100 @,@ 000 British and 35 @,@ 000 French soldiers with naval and air support . The supply convoys would sail on 12 March and the landings would begin on 20 March .
= = Peace of Moscow = =
The Moscow Peace Treaty was signed on 12 March 1940 and went into effect the following day . Finland ceded a portion of Karelia — the entire Karelian Isthmus as well as a large swath of land north of Lake Ladoga . The area included Finland 's second largest city of Viipuri , much of Finland 's industrialised territory , and significant parts still held by Finland 's army — all in all , 11 % of the territory and 30 % of the economic assets of pre @-@ war Finland . Twelve percent of Finland 's population , some 422 @,@ 000 Karelians , were evacuated and lost their homes .
Finland also had to cede a part of the region of Salla , the Kalastajansaarento peninsula in the Barents Sea , and four islands in the Gulf of Finland . The Hanko Peninsula was leased to the Soviet Union as a military base for 30 years . The region of Petsamo , captured by the Red Army during the war , was returned to Finland according to the treaty .
Finnish concessions and territorial losses exceeded those demanded by the Soviets pre @-@ war . Before the war , the Soviet Union demanded that the frontier between the USSR and Finland on the Karelian Isthmus be moved westward to a point only 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) east of Viipuri , Finland 's second @-@ largest city , to the line between Koivisto and Lipola . In addition , the Finns would have to destroy all existing fortifications on the Karelian Isthmus . Finland should also cede to the Soviet Union the islands of Suursaari , Tytärsaari , and Koivisto in the Gulf of Finland . In the north , the Soviets demanded the Kalastajansaarento peninsula . Furthermore , the Finns should lease the Hanko Peninsula to the Soviets for thirty years , and permit the Soviets to establish a military base there . In exchange the Soviet Union would cede Repola and Porajärvi from Eastern Karelia , an area twice as large as the territories demanded from the Finns .
In addition to obtaining all of their pre @-@ war demands , the Soviets acquired the entire Karelian Isthmus as well as a large swath of land north of Lake Ladoga . The Soviets also obtained part of the Salla region , while retaining possession of Repola and Porajärvi .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Finnish views = = =
The 105 @-@ day war had a profound and depressing effect in Finland . Meaningful international support was minimal and arrived late , and the German blockade had prevented most armament shipments . The 15 @-@ month period between the Winter War and the Continuation War was later called the Interim Peace .
After the end of the war , the situation of the Finnish army on the Karelian Isthmus had been the subject of debate in Finland . Orders were already issued to prepare a retreat to the next line of defence in the Taipale sector . Estimates of how long the Red Army could have been held in these kinds of retreat @-@ and @-@ stand operations varied from a few days to a few weeks , or to a couple of months at most .
The Karelian evacuees established an interest group Karjalan Liitto . The group was to defend Karelian rights and interests and to find a way to return ceded regions of Karelia to Finland .
= = = Soviet views = = =
During the period between the war and the perestroika in the late 1980s , Soviet historiography leaned solely on Vyacheslav Molotov 's speeches on the Winter War . In his radio speech of 29 November 1939 , Molotov argued that the Soviet Union had tried to negotiate guarantees of security for Leningrad for two months . However , the Finns had taken a hostile stance to " please foreign imperialists " . Finland had undertaken military provocation , and the Soviet Union could no longer hold to non @-@ aggression pacts . According to Molotov , the Soviet Union did not want to occupy or annex Finland ; the goal was purely to secure Leningrad .
Another source later used widely in Soviet historiography was Molotov 's speech in front of the Supreme Soviet on 29 March 1940 , in which he blamed Western countries for starting the war and argued that they had used Finland as a proxy to fight the Soviet Union . The Western Allies had furthermore tried to take neutral Sweden and Norway along with them . Thus , the " masterminds " behind the war were the UK and France , but also Sweden , the United States , and Italy , who had issued massive amounts of materiel , money , and men to Finland . According to Molotov , the Soviet Union was merciful in peace terms , as the problem of Leningrad security had been solved .
= = = Military consequences = = =
The Supreme Military Soviet command met in April 1940 , reviewed the lessons of the Finnish campaign , and recommended reforms . The role of frontline political commissars was reduced and old @-@ fashioned ranks and forms of discipline were reintroduced . Clothing , equipment , and tactics for winter operations were improved . However , not all of these reforms had been completed when the Germans began Operation Barbarossa 15 months later .
The same year , Finland and Sweden negotiated a military alliance , but the negotiations ended once it became clear that both Germany and the Soviet Union opposed such an alliance .
= = = Germany = = =
The Winter War was a political success for the Germans . Both the Red Army and the League of Nations were humiliated , and the Allied Supreme War Council had been revealed to be chaotic and powerless . However , the German policy of neutrality was not popular in the homeland , and relations with Italy had suffered badly . After the Peace of Moscow , Germany did not hesitate to move to improve ties with Finland , and within two weeks Finno @-@ German relations were at the top of the agenda .
Perhaps more importantly , the very poor performance of the Red Army encouraged Hitler to think that an attack on the Soviet Union would be successful .
During the Interim Peace , Finland established close ties with Germany in hopes of a chance to reclaim areas ceded to the Soviet Union . Three days after the beginning of Operation Barbarossa , the Continuation War began .
= = = Western Allies = = =
The Winter War put in question the organisation and effectiveness of the Red Army as well as the Western Allies . The Supreme War Council was unable to formulate a workable plan , revealing its total unsuitability to make effective war in either Britain or France . This failure led to the collapse of the Daladier government in France .
= = = In Finnish and Russian = = =
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= April 6 – 8 , 2006 tornado outbreak =
The April 6 – 8 , 2006 , tornado outbreak was a major tornado outbreak in the central and parts of the southern United States that began on April 6 , 2006 , in the Great Plains and continued until April 8 in South Carolina , with most of the activity on April 7 . The hardest @-@ hit area was Middle Tennessee where several strong tornadoes devastated entire neighborhoods and left ten people dead . The worst damage took place in Gallatin , Tennessee . Other communities north of Nashville were also hard hit .
There were 73 tornadoes confirmed across 13 states , with the bulk of them coming on the afternoon and evening of April 7 across the South , particularly in Tennessee . In total , 10 deaths were reported as a result of the tornadoes , and over $ 650 million in damage was reported , of which over $ 630 million was in Middle Tennessee . It was the third major outbreak of 2006 , occurring just days after another major outbreak on April 2 . It was also considered to be the worst disaster event in Middle Tennessee since the Nashville Tornadoes of 1998 on April 16 , 1998 .
= = Meteorological synopsis = =
The outbreak took place as a result of a powerful low pressure system over the Midwest that produced a powerful cold front that tracked eastward across the South , which combined with warm , humid air from the Gulf of Mexico to allow severe thunderstorms to form , particularly on April 7 .
The Storm Prediction Center issued a high risk for severe weather for both April 6 and 7 in the areas likely to be affected . Conditions were favorable for an extremely strong tornado outbreak on both days .
Activity was not as great as expected on April 6 , with only 13 tornadoes confirmed , mostly in Kansas . Several of the tornadoes were damaging , but no fatalities and only a few injuries were reported . The reason for the relatively modest activity was due to the more stable than expected air mass that day over the region , with lower dewpoints and less wind shear despite the absence of a cap which would have otherwise allowed a massive outbreak . ,
Things changed the next day in the South as the system moved eastward , with the cold front entering a more conducive environment . The increased wind shear , combined with the high heat and humidity , allowed tornadoes to begin forming in the late morning and continued throughout the afternoon , evening and even into the overnight hours . By the end of the day , a total of 48 tornadoes developed . Several of them caused significant damage , and even loss of life . The worst tornadoes hit Middle Tennessee , where 12 people were killed . In addition to the tornadoes , there have been many reports of hail as large as softballs and reports of powerful microbursts and straight @-@ line winds , as well as local flooding . Extensive damage was also reported in the northern suburbs of Atlanta , Georgia as the storms reached that area overnight into the early morning of April 8 .
Despite a lower risk of activity on April 8 , the severe weather continued in Alabama , South Carolina and Georgia ( mostly in the early morning hours ) with another 13 tornadoes reported before the outbreak finally ended as the system moved offshore into the Atlantic Ocean .
Over the three @-@ day period , 73 tornadoes were confirmed . The high number of overall tornadoes is exaggerated , however , by the fact that most were weak F0 or F1 tornadoes .
= = Confirmed tornadoes = =
= = = Aftermath = = =
On the night after the tornado hit Gallatin , there were many reports of looting in the devastated community . A nightly curfew was required to combat the looting and maintain order in the community . There were a total of 23 arrests made . The United States National Guard was called in after the tornado hit to help with security and the removal of the excessive debris . It would take 10 days for Volunteer State Community College to re @-@ open after the tornado hit .
The City of Hendersonville did not have tornado sirens at the time of the tornado , but the city installed some soon after the storm .
On September 26 , the Greater Nashville Regional Council awarded the authorities involved in the recovery ( including the municipalities of Sumner County ) the Marshall S. Stuart Memorial Award for outstanding intergovernmental cooperation after the tornado . The quick response by other local authorities , counties and cities was congratulated .
In early October , an episode of Extreme Makeover : Home Edition featured a family from Hendersonville that had their home being rebuilt after it was destroyed by the tornado . However , insurance issues plus personal injuries held back the recovery for many , and some neighborhoods have been slow to recover . Nonetheless , many homes have been rebuilt in the area .
= = = Images = = =
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= Suillus sibiricus =
Suillus sibiricus is a fungus of the genus Suillus in the Suillaceae family . It is found in mountains of Europe , North America and Siberia , strictly associated with several species of pine tree . Due to its specific habitat and rarity in Europe , it has been selected for inclusion in several regional Red Lists . Its fruit bodies are characterised by having slimy caps in wet weather , which can reach diameters of up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . On the underside of the cap are yellow angular pores that bruise a pinkish to cinnamon colour . The stem is up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) tall and 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) wide and typically has a ring , a remnant of the partial veil that covers the fruit body in its early development . In North America , it is commonly called the Siberian slippery jack . Phylogenetic analysis has shown that S. sibiricus is closely related to S. umbonatus and S. americanus , and may in fact be conspecific with the latter species .
= = Taxonomy , naming , and phylogeny = =
The species was first described scientifically under the name Ixocomus sibiricus by American mycologist Rolf Singer in 1938 , based on material that was collected under Pinus cembra var. sibirica in the Altai Mountains of central Asia . In 1945 , he transferred it to Suillus . Alexander H. Smith called the species Boletus sibiricus in 1949 , but this is today considered a synonym . Singer named the subspecies S. sibiricus subsp. helveticus in 1951 , based on material collected by Jules Favre from Switzerland in 1945 . Roy Watling later considered this a nomen nudum — not published with an adequate description , and therefore failing to qualify as a formal scientific name .
According to Singer 's 1986 arrangement , S. sibiricus is classified in the subsection Latiporini of section Suillus in the genus Suillus . Section Suillus includes species with glandular dots on the stem , and a partial veil which becomes appendiculate on the cap edge . Characteristics of species in subsection Latiporini include cinnamon @-@ coloured spore prints without an olive tinge , and wide pores on the underside of the cap ( wider than 1 mm when mature ) . Other species in the subsection include S. flavidus , S. umbonatus , S. punctatipes , and S. americanus .
A phylogenetic analysis of various eastern Asian and eastern North American disjunct Suillus species revealed that S. sibiricus forms a well @-@ supported clade with S. americanus and S. umbonatus ; these relationships are corroborated by a previous analysis ( 1996 ) , which used a larger sampling of Suillus species to determine taxonomic relationships in the genus . Within this clade , S. umbonatus and U.S. S. sibiricus can be separated from the rest of the group . However , the phylogenetic relationships among the tested isolates determined from different methods of analysis are not always consistent and could not be established with confidence . In general , there is little phylogenetic divergence detected in this clade .
= = Description = =
The fruit body of Suillus sibiricus is a medium @-@ sized bolete . The cap is at first hemispherical and straw yellow , but expands with maturity and finally flattens out becoming darker with reddish brown spots or fibrils . The cap diameter is up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . The cap cuticle is mucilaginous especially when moist and can be peeled off . A partial veil extends from the stem to the cap periphery in immature specimens . In mature specimens , it is obliterated leaving a felty ring around the stem and fragments hanging from the cap periphery . The tubes are initially yellow but become brown , adnate or slightly decurrent . The pores are angular , wider than 1 mm in diameter and the same colour as the tubes but stain dirty pink or vinaceous when bruised . The tubes that make up the pores are 7 to 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) long . Droplets can be present and these leave dark brown spots after drying out .
The stem is cylindrical , up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) tall and 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) wide . It is yellow , becoming pink to red towards the base and covered throughout with granules which become darker as the fruit body matures . The partial veil , and later ring , is cottony , off @-@ white and attached to the top third stem . Because the ring is fugacious ( short @-@ lived ) it is not always present ; it is thought that fruit bodies that develop in dry conditions are less likely to have a ring . The flesh is pale yellow and stains red @-@ brown when bruised . At first firm , with maturity it becomes increasingly soft . The spore deposit is coloured brown . The spores are ellipsoid , sized 9 – 12 by 3 @.@ 8 – 4 @.@ 5 μm , thin @-@ walled , and smooth when seen through a microscope . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 22 – 34 by 5 – 8 μm . The flesh reddens and then blackens when potassium hydroxide solution is applied . With iron ( II ) sulphate solution , the flesh slowly discolours to grey .
Suillus sibiricus is reportedly edible , but it is without any commercial or culinary value . It is one of over 200 species of mushrooms frequently collected for consumption in Nepal . Its taste has been described variously by authors as sour ( Europe ) and not distinctive or slightly bitter ( North America ) . Its odour is not distinctive .
= = = Similar species = = =
In North America , Suillus americanus has a similar appearance , but a more easterly distribution . It is associated with eastern white pine . Although some authors have tried to distinguish between the two with by using width of the stem , or by differences in fruit body colouration , it is acknowledged that these characteristics are variable , and depend on environmental factors . The phylogenetic analysis of Wu and colleagues ( 2000 ) suggests that the two taxa may be the same , although more samples from different geographical areas will be needed to verify this .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Suillus sibiricus has been recorded in parts of Europe , North America and Siberia . The fungus forms strict ectomycorrhizal associations with pines of the subgenus Strobus . These include Swiss pine ( Pinus cembra ) in the Alps and Tatras of central Europe , Macedonian pine ( P. peuce ) in the Balkans , western white pine ( P. monticola ) and limber pine ( P. flexilis ) in the Pacific Northwest of North America , P. banksiana in Quebec , Canada , and Siberian pine ( P. sibirica ) and Siberian dwarf pine ( P. pumila ) in Siberia and the Russian Far East . The range of the fungus is hence limited by the distribution of the host tree . S. sibiricus has also been shown to be able to form ectomycorrhizae with the Himalayan species P. wallichiana in pure culture conditions in the laboratory .
The fungus is rare in Europe and its distribution typically corresponds with high elevations at or near the alpine tree line . It is found in at least 11 countries , and has been included in the Red List of 8 countries . It is considered critically endangered in the Czech Republic . The European Council for Conservation of Fungi ( ECCF ) has suggested Suillus sibiricus be listed in Appendix II of the Bern Convention . Factors that threaten the habitat of S. sibiricus include deforestation and construction of skiing pistes and other infrastructure for winter sports .
The fungus fruits in summer and autumn in Europe , and in western North America where it often occurs abundantly . The North American distribution extends south to Nuevo Leon , Mexico .
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= Marilena from P7 =
Marilena from P7 ( Romanian : Marilena de la P7 ) is a medium @-@ length Romanian film , directed by Cristian Nemescu . First released in 2006 , it was also nominated the same year for the Semaine de la critique section of the 59th Cannes Film Festival .
Being Cristian Nemescu 's last completed project , the film stars Mădălina Ghiţescu as Marilena and Gabriel Huian as Andrei . Originally , the film was intended to be used as an exercise , and was not supposed to be longer than seven minutes . In the end , the project evolved to an unusual length of 45 minutes ; the film 's approach also turned from comedy to teenage love . Reception from the public was favorable – it impressed through its unitary view and the way the screenplay , picture and sound combine together into a new and organic way , by using innovative , unusual techniques .
= = Plot = =
In a suburb of Bucharest , a 13 @-@ year @-@ old boy , Andrei ( Gabriel Huian ) , together with some of his friends , watches the prostitutes ' show every night from a rooftop and how they are being taken by drivers . The boy falls in love with one of the girls , called Marilena ( Mădălina Ghiţescu ) , and finds out that he needs a decent sum of money in order to approach her . Thus , he steals his father 's ( Gabriel Spahiu ) salary and goes to the prostitutes ' meeting place . Marilena 's pimp ( Andi Vasluianu ) is also present , and only agrees to send Marilena and another prostitute with the boy to a nearby pub , where the Rom Elvis is singing ( played by the singer Elvis Romano , who translated Elvis Presley 's lyrics into his own language ) . The prostitutes play with Andrei , telling him that he needs a car in order to date them , then they leave . The boy asks Marilena for her phone number , and she writes something in his hand .
Andrei sends a dedication for " Marilena from P7 " , to the local radio station . The prostitute is in an old man 's house , listening to the radio , and the song is Are You Lonesome Tonight ? , sung by Elvis Presley .
Among her clients , Marilena falls in love with a man , nicknamed Giani ( Cătălin Paraschiv ) . One night , however , she spots Giani in his car in front of a store , accompanied by another woman , and becomes very discouraged .
Andrei finds a way to get hold of a car and plans to steal his father 's trolleybus . He manages to do so , together with his friends . His father sees him and starts following the boys with another driver , his colleague . Arriving at the prostitutes ' meeting place , the boys cannot find Marilena . Andrei recognizes Giani 's car parked in front of block P7 , so he goes in .
Marilena and Giani were in fact in her apartment ; the girl goes to the restroom for a minute . Andrei manages to sneak into the apartment , and watches how , while still talking to Giani , Marilena cuts her jugular vein . After realizing what had happened , Giani becomes frightened and runs away ; the pimp sees him leaving in a rush , so he goes to the apartment to see what happened . Meanwhile , Andrei goes into the room and looks down at Marilena who is lying down , with blood spilled over her . The news about Marilena 's suicide spread fast around the neighborhood .
= = Cast = =
= = = Lead roles = = =
Marilena is played by the Romanian actress Mădălina Ghiţescu ( born July 29 , 1978 ) , became known to the Bucharest public for the roles she played at the Casandra Theater Studio ( Romanian : Studioul de teatru " Casandra " ) and The Very Small Theater ( Romanian : Teatrul Foarte Mic ) .
Andrei was played by Gabriel Huian ( untrained actor , previously appearing in a video clip that caught the director 's attention ) . He was Cristian Nemescu 's preferred choice from the beginning , however a rigorous casting still took place . Apparently attracted to Mădălina Ghiţescu , Huian showed a different attitude than that of other candidates , which only convinced the director further .
= = = Other roles = = =
Mihai , Andrei 's brother played by Cristi Olesher
Andrei 's mother played by Aura Călăraşu
Andrei 's father played by Gabriel Spahiu
The pimp played byAndi Vasluianu
Giani played by Cătălin Paraschiv
= = Production = =
= = = From project to production = = =
The film 's idea resulted from a small scale exercise between Nemescu and Liviu Marghidan when they were in university in 2003 . The original idea belonged to Cătălin Mitulescu and Andreei Vălean ; the only part of the original story that was kept is that of a group of boys trying to steal a trolleybus in order to get to some prostitutes .
Initially the film was planned as a short fiction , the project evolving during 2005 . At the time , Nemescu also had planned what would later become the feature film California Dreamin ' , impossible to film at that moment , deciding that Marilena from P7 could prove a useful exercise for both director and actors . Thus the screenplay was rewritten and filming started with a very reduced budget of only US $ 14 @,@ 000 , which was collected by Nemescu by participating at various film festivals , with older short fictions . During development , however , the film received new funds , though still modest ones , thus the actors and a part of the team accepted to work for free .
Filming also took place in 2005 , near the marketplace of the Bucharest neighborhood Rahova . The chosen area raised a few difficulties related to safety . However , the production benefited from its picturesque view , rendering the scenography and the original music unnecessary . The omnipresent manele also found their way into the movie , as background music .
In order for the story to go as it should , we needed a ' low @-@ income ' area . At the same time , the place also needed to be visually pleasant , and to meet our needs from the technical point of view – meaning it should be large enough for a trolleybus to fit in , and it should also look plausible . For almost a full week we looked around the whole Bucharest . Being in Rahova , we arrived in a place where there were some blocks painted by Mayor Marian Vanghelie , and behind those there was a ghetto – yes , that 's the term – but it was a very picturesque place , which was good for what we wanted .
For a long period of time the project was entitled Trolley Blues ; Cristian Nemescu gave up this title , worrying that there might be a large discrepancy between the equivocal name and the actual , very direct content of the movie .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
The entire filmmaking process was much more complex than that of most Romanian movies made after 1948 . The picture stands out through the use of various effects , such as split @-@ screen , and the use of hand @-@ held filming .
The film 's music and sound was also thoroughly post @-@ processed by the project 's sound designer , Andrei Toncu , to improve the quality of the recordings , because the budget did not allow for complex equipment to be used , and for creative interest . The movie 's background music has reduced volume , following the emotional evolution of the characters — Toncu combining the background music ( recorded with , or without intention ) and a series of effects characteristic to electronic music and musique concrète . However , a few distinct moments can be observed in the film 's music , either composed by Andrei Toncu ( Andrei imagining stealing the trolleybus ) , or already existing recordings , edited so that they would integrate into the movie 's atmosphere ( Elvis Presley 's dedication is dynamically equalized to suggest the shift from one radio to another ) . Another scene in which multiple layers of sound were used was the radio show heard in Giani 's car about the breeding of Memestra brassicae butterflies .
= = Reception = =
= = = Public reception = = =
Marilena from P7 participated at the 59th Cannes Film Festival , along with two other Romanian films ( Cătălin Mitulescu 's The Way I Spent the End of the World and Corneliu Porumboiu 's 12 : 08 East of Bucharest ) and was nominated for the Semaine de la critique section of the French festival .
Very well received by the different categories of the public , from critics to publishers , and simple spectators , Corneliu Porumboiu 's film ' 12 : 08 East of Bucharest ' [ ... ] Just as well was received , especially by young people , Cristian Nemescu 's movie , ' Marilena from P7 ' ( a melancholic ghetto tragedy , with a stolen trolleybus ... for reaching the girl 's heart , who is a gentle and honest mistress , the story of initiation and the price to pay for wanting to find out faster , what comes with age ) .
Cristian Nemescu 's ' Marilena from P7 ' is a medium @-@ length film , which at Cannes was viewed by a hall full of people , and which was intensely applauded . It was also said that it is movie without mistake . A shocking story about a ghetto from the outskirts of Bucharest ( where , for example , an old man , scourged by life , slick and misogynist , plants his little garden on the rooftop of a block ) , with a kid that would do anything - steal his parents ' whole salary or even a trolleybus , for his beloved - and a lively prostitute from P7 . Children actors with an ingenuous talent , and dialogs that fit together perfectly and sound natural , a splendid picture , a big hearted pimp played by Andi Vasluianu , all in one a portion of highest quality cinematography .
The Romanian premiere took place on June 4 , 2006 at the Transylvania International Film Festival , in Cluj @-@ Napoca . In Bucharest , a first display of the movie was organized on September 8 , 2006 , in a square established for this purpose on Calea Rahovei Street . The public , as well as the critics from the country , received the movie very well , but the difficulty caused by the movie 's unusual duration only allowed for the movie to be on display on a few other occasions . The same problem was encountered when the movie was sent to film festivals outside Romania , being either rejected due to the impossibly of being included in any of the standard categories or included as a short fiction ( for example , at Brooklyn ) .
In the summer of 2006 , Nemescu also started the production of California Dreamin ' . The filming took place in the June – August interval . By the end of August , the film was nearing its completion ; on August 24 , 2006 , however , Nemescu and Andrei Toncu ( sound engineer for the new project as well ) died in a car accident in Bucharest . Following the accident , the Romanian public , as well as those from abroad , offered wider attention to the productions of the two cineasts , including Marilena from P7 , their first notable success . One year after the accident , the event was commemorated in the country through various displays , public meetings and debates . On August 24 , 2007 , Marilena from P7 had its premiere at Stockholm during the second Romanian Film Days . Romanian people , from the diaspora , as well as Swedish spectators , were present .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Marilena from P7 was seen by journalists as an attempt to attract attention to various social phenomena ( prostitution , the living conditions in low @-@ income Bucharest neighborhoods , etc . ) , and being presented as a documentary in some scenes . In reality , Nemescu wanted for the public to concentrate on the love story of Andrei :
All the scripts I get involved with have an essential story , and give birth to emotions that reach a lot of people 's hearts . So , in this case , the thing that motivated me was the subject itself , the thoughts and emotions of a 13 year old kid who falls in love . I never had any interest to describe a social reality - like prostitution , for example - and the screenplay does not concentrate at all at ' scanning ' the problems of our society . The new , innovating element consists of the child 's emotions , what he feels and the human relations between the two characters . The reality of Romania is there only for decorative purposes , and I am against people struggling to present the ' Romanian dirt ' through movies .
I have had roles as a prostitute before . For example , the role I had to play for my graduation exam was from the play ' My Name is Isbjorg . I Am a Lioness ' , directed by Gianina Cărbunariu , where it was about a prostitute murdering her client . The characters should not be looked at , at a global level , thinking ' They 're just prostitutes , what 's the big deal ? They 're all the same ' . No , first of all they 're humans , and they have a soul . This also is the case of Marilena : if you were to popularize the subject , who is she ? A prostitute and just . But the important thing is who she truly is : how she thinks , what her feelings are . [ ... ] She is a very sensible person , just that the environment in which she lives in stops her from showing this side of her , and hide the fact that she is in love with a certain client . The unusual thing about her is that , despite of the life she has , she trusts people .
Marilena from P7 also attracted the critics ' attention due to its use of explicit verbal and visual content . Cristian Nemescu said that this kind of scenes were a necessarily element for the realism of the movie , declaring himself a partisan of explicit content .
The film continues to be appreciated for its experimental nature , its camera angles and montage elements being treated in an unusual manner , while the fiction elements of the screenplay hint of magic realism . In this sense , it is important to mention that the days in the film are separated by Andrei 's erotic dreams . In his dreams , the differences between him and Marilena are partially removed , either by lowering the rooftop on which the boy stands to ground level or by debarking the girl from a breast @-@ shaped UFO that scares the neighbors away . Another fictional element is Marilena 's capacity of provoking short circuits , in moments in which she is very emotionally active ( e.g. , when Andrei touches her in the bar 's restroom , or when the whole neighborhood is cut from electricity when she cries near the high voltage electrical box ) .
Visually , this is how I thought this moment should have been , the split @-@ screen being mentioned in the script . I felt the need to see everyone at the same time . If they were each at a time , it would not have had the same impact . It was a lot funnier to see all the bitches at the same time , and all the kids ( masturbating ) simultaneously , I like this moment .
= = Awards and nominations = =
The following list includes the most notable nominations and awards the film received .
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= Blue iguana =
The blue iguana ( Cyclura lewisi ) , also known as the Grand Cayman iguana , Grand Cayman blue iguana or Cayman Island blue iguana , is an endangered species of lizard endemic to the island of Grand Cayman . Previously listed as a subspecies of the Cuban iguana ( Cyclura nubila ) , it was reclassified as a separate species in 2004 because of genetic differences discovered four years earlier . The blue iguana is one of the longest @-@ living species of lizard ( possibly up to 69 years ) . The record is 67 years .
The preferred habitat for the blue iguana is rocky , sunlit , open areas in dry forests or near the shore , as the females must dig holes in the sand to lay eggs in June and July . A possible second clutch is laid in September . The blue iguana 's herbivorous diet includes plants , fruits , and flowers . Its coloration is tan to gray with a bluish cast that is more pronounced during the breeding season and more so in males . It is large and heavy @-@ bodied with a dorsal crest of short spines running from the base of the neck to the end of the tail .
The fossil record indicates that the blue iguana was abundant before European colonization ; but fewer than 15 animals remained in the wild by 2003 , and this wild population was predicted to become extinct within the first decade of the 21st century . The species ' decline is mainly being driven by predation by feral pets ( cats and dogs ) and indirectly by the destruction of their natural habitat as fruit farms are converted to pasture for cattle grazing . Since 2004 , hundreds of captive @-@ bred animals have been released into a preserve on Grand Cayman run by a partnership headed by the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust , in an attempt to save the species . At least five non @-@ profit organizations are working with the government of the Cayman Islands to ensure the survival of the blue iguana . According to the November 9 , 2013 episode of Ocean Mysteries with Jeff Corwin , the conservancy program has released over 700 captive bred Grand Cayman blue iguanas since the 2004 nadir of only 12 remaining animals .
= = Taxonomy = =
The blue iguana ( Cyclura lewisi ) is endemic to the island of Grand Cayman . The Lesser Caymans iguana has been introduced to Grand Cayman , where it has interbred with that island 's native blue iguana .
Its generic name ( Cyclura ) is derived from the Ancient Greek words cyclos ( κύκλος ) meaning " circular " and ourá ( οὐρά ) meaning " tail " , after the thick @-@ ringed tail characteristic of all Cyclura . Its specific name ( lewisi ) is a Latinized form of the name of the scientist who collected the holotype of this species , Bernard C. Lewis .
Its closest relatives are the Cuban iguana ( Cyclura nubila ) and the Northern Bahamian rock iguana ( Cyclura cychlura ) , the three species having diverged from a common ancestor some three million years ago . The species has a low genetic diversity but does not seem to suffer the same lack of vitality that afflicts other such species of rock iguana . One theory is that the species evolved from a single female Cuban iguana ( C. nubila nubila ) with eggs inside her who drifted across the sea , perhaps during a storm . It is distinct from the subspecies found on Little Cayman and Cayman Brac known as C. nubila caymanensis , although it can breed with this subspecies and produce fertile offspring .
In 1938 , Bernard C. Lewis of the Institute of Jamaica joined an Oxford University biological expedition to the Cayman Islands . Lewis was able to obtain two blue iguanas , a male and a female , which were later lodged with the British Museum of Natural History . Chapman Grant , in a monograph published in 1940 , formally described the blue iguana for the first time as Cyclura macleayi lewisi . Schwartz and Carey established the trinomial ( Cyclura nubila lewisi ) in 1977 . They held that the blue iguana was a strongly distinct subspecies of the Cuban iguana ( C. nubila ) , the species which it evolved from and can breed with . They emphasized its overall bright blue coloration , and noted that further study could reveal it to be a distinct species . Frederick Burton reclassified the blue iguana as a distinct species in 2004 , after years of research comparing scale counts on the heads of Caribbean iguanas , including those found on Little Cayman , Cayman Brac , Cuba , and the Bahamas , as well as mitochondrial DNA analysis performed by Dr. Catherine Malone , to re @-@ examine the phylogeography of the different species .
= = Description = =
The blue iguana is the largest native land animal on Grand Cayman with a total nose @-@ to @-@ tail length of 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) and weighing as much as 30 lb ( 14 kg ) . It may be the heaviest species of iguana and most massive lizard in the Western Hemisphere . Its body length is 20 – 30 inches ( 51 – 76 cm ) with a tail equal in length . The blue iguana 's toes are articulated to be efficient in digging and climbing trees . Although not known to be arboreal , the blue iguana has been observed climbing trees 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) and higher . The male is larger than the female by one third of his body size . The mature male 's skin color ranges from dark grey to turquoise blue , whereas the female is more olive green to pale blue . Young animals tend to be uniformly dark brown or green with faint darker banding . When they first emerge from the nest the neonates have an intricate pattern of eight dark dorsal chevrons from the crest of their necks to their pelvic area . These markings fade by the time the animal is one year old , changing to mottled gray and cream and eventually giving way to blue as adults . The adult blue iguana is typically dark gray matching the karst rock of its landscape . The animal changes its color to blue when it is in the presence of other iguanas to signal and establish territory . The blue color is more pronounced in males of the species . Their distinctive black feet stand in contrast to their lighter overall body color .
Blue iguanas are sexually dimorphic ; males are larger and have more prominent dorsal crests as well as larger femoral pores on their thighs , which are used to release pheromones .
= = = Eyes and vision = = =
The blue iguana 's eyes have a golden iris and red sclera . They have excellent vision , which allows them to detect shapes and motions at long distances . As blue iguanas have only a few rod cells , they have poor vision in low @-@ light conditions . At the same time , they have cells called " double cones " which give them sharp color vision and enable them to see ultraviolet wavelengths . This ability is useful when basking so the animal can ensure that it absorbs enough sunlight in the forms of UVA and UVB to produce vitamin D.
Blue iguanas have evolved a white photosensory organ on the top of their heads called the parietal eye ( also known as the third eye , pineal eye or pineal gland ) . This " eye " does not work the same way as a normal eye as it has only a rudimentary retina and lens and thus , cannot form images . It is however sensitive to changes in light and dark and can detect movement .
The blue iguana is found only on the island of Grand Cayman . Comparison with other Cyclura species in the region strongly suggests that there was once a coastal population of blue iguanas which was gradually displaced or extirpated by human settlements and the construction of roads.The blue iguana now only occurs inland in natural xerophytic shrubland and along the interfaces between farm clearings , roads , and gardens and closed @-@ canopy dry forest or shrubland.The interior population is believed to have been attracted to agricultural clearings and fruit farms which provide thermoregulatory opportunities , herbaceous browse , fallen fruit , and nesting soil , but this brought the blue iguana into contact with humans and feral animals . Females often migrate to coastal areas to nest . Blue iguanas released into the Queen Elizabeth II Botanic Park on Grand Cayman were radiotracked in 2004 to determine ranges for each animal . Females were found to occupy territories of 0 @.@ 6 acres ( 2 @,@ 400 m2 ) and males an average of 1 @.@ 4 acres ( 5 @,@ 700 m2 ) with overlap in common territories , indicating that they choose to maintain a population density of four to five animals per hectare . The blue iguanas occupy rock holes and tree cavities , and as adults are primarily terrestrial . Younger individuals tend to be more arboreal . Hatchlings are preyed upon by the native snake Alsophis cantherigerus . The adults have no natural predators but can fall victim to feral dogs . They typically reach sexual maturity at three to four years of age .
= = Diet and longevity = =
Like all Cyclura species , the blue iguana is primarily herbivorous , consuming leaves , flowers , and fruits from over 45 species of plant . This diet is very rarely supplemented with insect larvae , crabs , slugs , dead birds , and fungi . The iguanas are presented with a special problem for osmoregulation : plant matter contains more potassium and as it has less nutritional content per gram , more must be eaten to meet the lizard 's metabolic needs . As they are not capable of creating urine more concentrated than their bodily fluids , they excrete nitrogenous wastes as uric acid salts through a salt gland in the same manner as birds . As a result , they have developed this lateral nasal gland to supplement renal salt secretion by expelling excess potassium and sodium chloride .
Longevity in the wild is unknown but is presumed to be many decades . A blue iguana named " Godzilla " captured on Grand Cayman in 1950 by naturalist Ira Thompson was imported to the United States in 1985 by Ramon Noegel and sold to reptile importer and breeder , Tom Crutchfield in 1990 . Crutchfield donated Godzilla to the Gladys Porter Zoo in Brownsville , Texas in 1997 and the lizard remained there until its death in 2004 . Thompson estimated Godzilla to be 15 years of age at the time of his capture . At an estimated 69 years of age ( 54 of which were spent in captivity ) , Godzilla may be the world 's longest @-@ living lizard for which there is reliable record . A closely related Lesser Caymans iguana ( C. nubila caymanensis ) has been documented as living 33 years in captivity .
= = Reproduction = =
Mating occurs from May through June . Copulation is preceded by numerous head @-@ bobs on the part of the male , who then circles around behind the female and grasps the nape of her neck . He then attempts to restrain the female in order to maneuver his tail under hers to position himself for intromission . Copulation generally lasts from 30 to 90 seconds , and a pair is rarely observed mating more than once or twice a day . A clutch of anywhere from 1 to 21 eggs are usually laid in June or July depending on the size and age of the female , in nests excavated in pockets of earth exposed to the sun . Several exploratory nests are begun before one is completed . These burrows can range from 16 inches ( 0 @.@ 41 m ) to over 60 inches ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) in length , with an enlarged chamber at its terminal portion to allow the female to turn around . The temperature within nests that have been monitored by researchers remained a constant 32 ° C ( 90 ° F ) throughout the incubation period which ranges from 65 – 90 days . The blue iguana 's eggs are among the largest laid by any lizard .
Individuals are aggressively territorial from the age of about three months onward . Females occupy overlapping areas of the order of 0 @.@ 6 acres ( 2 @,@ 400 m2 ) seemingly regardless of age , while males occupy progressively larger and more extensively overlapping territories as they age and grow .
= = Conservation = =
= = = Endangered status = = =
The blue iguana is listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List . The population is restricted to the eastern interior of Grand Cayman , where it had been reduced to a critically low level , only three animals having been observed before the survey in 1988 . The range of the blue iguana has contracted significantly over the past 25 years , with many sites once populated now showing no signs of iguanas . Surveys in 2003 indicated a total population in the range of 5 – 15 individuals . By 2005 the unmanaged wild population was considered to be functionally extinct . The species is one of the most endangered animals on Earth . A further blow to the dwindling population came in May 2008 when six individuals were found butchered in a nature preserve .
As the blue iguana consumes a variety of plant material , favoring fruits and flowers over leaves and stems when available , it is valuable on Grand Cayman as a seed disperser throughout its range . A study in 2000 by Dr Allison Alberts revealed that seeds passing through the digestive tracts of Cycluras germinate more rapidly than those that do not . These seeds in the fruits consumed by the blue iguana have an adaptive advantage by sprouting before the end of very short rainy seasons . The blue iguana is an important means of distributing seeds to new areas and , as the largest native herbivore of Grand Cayman 's ecosystems , it is essential for maintaining the delicate balance between climate and vegetation necessary to survive under harsh conditions .
Restored free @-@ roaming subpopulations in the Queen Elizabeth II Botanic Park and the Salina Reserve numbered approximately 125 individuals in total after an initial release in December 2005 . The restored subpopulation in the Queen Elizabeth II Botanic Park has been breeding since 2001 , and the subpopulation in the Salina Reserve was deemed to be breeding in 2006 after a nest of three hatched eggs was discovered in the wild . As of April 2007 , after another large @-@ scale release , there were 299 blue iguanas living in the wild , with hundreds more being raised in captivity on Grand Cayman . In late 2012 , the blue iguana Recovery Program estimated that the wild population had risen to approximately 750 individuals , and the IUCN subsequently downlisted the species from critically endangered to endangered .
= = = Causes of decline = = =
Habitat destruction is the main factor threatening imminent extinction for this iguana . Land clearance within remnant habitat is occurring for agriculture , road construction , and real estate development and speculation . The conversion of traditional crop lands to cattle pasture is eliminating secondary blue iguana habitat .
Predation and injury to hatchlings by rats , to hatchlings and sub @-@ adults by feral cats , and killing of adults by roaming dogs are all placing severe pressure on the remaining wild population . Automobiles and motorscooters are an increasing cause of mortality as the iguanas rarely survive the collisions . Trapping and shooting is a comparatively minor concern , but occasional trapping continues despite legal protection and sustained efforts to increase public awareness .
The common Green Iguana , ( Iguana iguana ) , has been introduced from Honduras and is well @-@ established on Grand Cayman as an invasive species . It far outnumbers the endemic blue iguana . No direct negative consequences of this introduction on the blue iguana are known , but the mere presence of the Green Iguana confuses public attitudes and understanding . For example , the people of the island are told that blue iguanas are endangered and rare , and when they subsequently see large numbers of the introduced Green Iguana , they do not understand the difference .
Blue iguanas used to regularly be sold to tourists as pets , as their rarity made them appealing to exotic @-@ animal collectors , despite this being illegal under the CITES treaty . In 1999 a World Wildlife Fund international conservation officer , Stuart Chapman , said , " The British government has turned a blind eye for over 20 years to these overseas territories which are home to many rare and endangered species . Many of these face extinction if Britain fails to honour its treaty obligations . The British Caribbean islands are extremely rich in biodiversity with many critically endangered species that are unique to the islands — yet there is virtually zero enforcement or implementation of CITES " .
In May 2008 , six blue iguanas were found dead in the preserve within Queen Elizabeth II Botanic Park on Grand Cayman . The iguanas were apparently killed by human vandals armed with knives and two of the slaughtered animals were gravid females about to lay eggs .
The wild population of blue iguanas had been reduced from a near island @-@ wide distribution to a non @-@ viable , fragmented remnant . By 2001 , no young hatched in the unmanaged wild population were surviving to breeding age , meaning the population was functionally extinct , with only five animals remaining in the wild .
= = = Recovery efforts = = =
In 1990 , the American Zoo and Aquarium Association ( AZA ) designated the genus Cyclura as their highest priority for conservation . Their first project was an in situ captive breeding program for the blue iguana , which at the time was the most critically endangered of all the species of Cyclura .
One of the early difficulties encountered was that the captive stock of the early 1990s was found not to be pure . It was discovered through DNA analysis that the captive population contained a number of animals that were hybrids with C. nubila caymanensis . The program contains only pure specimens , as these hybrids were sterilized by means of hemipenectomies and hence excluded . This program was created to determine the exact genealogies of the limited gene pool of the remaining animals and DNA analysis revealed that the entire North American captive population was descended from a single pair of animals . After five years of research two captive breeding populations were established and are managed as a single unit , with cross @-@ breeding between the populations to promote genetic diversity .
As a hedge against disaster striking the blue iguana population on Grand Cayman , an off @-@ island captive population was established in 25 zoos in the USA . A minimum of 20 founder lines represented by at least 225 individuals is being maintained by captive breeding and recorded in a studbook for the species by Tandora Grant of the San Diego Zoo 's Center for Conservation and Research for Endangered Species ( CRES ) . The Indianapolis Zoo has had success with breeding the blue iguana in captivity twice since the year 2000 .
In October 2006 , hatchlings were released into the wild for the first time to boost the species and help bring them back from the brink of extinction . Each released blue iguana wears a string of colored beads through its nuchal crest for visual identification at a distance , backed up by an implanted microchip and a high @-@ resolution photograph of its head scales . ( Head scale patterns are as unique among blue iguanas as fingerprints are among humans . )
The blue iguana is established in captivity , both in public and private collections . As there are very few pure @-@ bred animals in private collections , private individuals have established these animals in captive breeding programs as hybrids with the Lesser Caymans Iguana ( C.nubila caymanensis ) and occasional hybrids with the Cuban Iguana ( C.n.nubila ) minimizing the demand for wild @-@ caught specimens for the pet trade .
= = = = Blue Iguana Recovery Programme = = = =
The Blue Iguana Recovery Programme grew from a small project started in 1990 within the National Trust for the Cayman Islands . It is now a partnership , linking the Trust with the Cayman Islands Department of Environment , National Trust Cayman Islands , Queen Elizabeth II Botanic Park , Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust , International Reptile Conservation Foundation , IRCF , and the European Commission . This program operates under a special exemption from provisions in the Animals Law of the Cayman Islands , which normally would make it illegal for anyone to kill , capture , or keep iguanas . BIRP 's conservation strategy involves generating large numbers of genetically diverse hatchlings , head @-@ starting them for two years so that their chance of survival in the wild is high , and using these animals to rebuild a series of wild sub @-@ populations in protected , managed natural areas . This is accompanied by field research , nest site protection , and monitoring of the released animals . A rapid numerical increase from a maximum possible number of founding stock is sought to minimize loss of genetic diversity caused by the " population bottleneck " .
Restored sub @-@ populations are already present in two non @-@ contiguous areas — the Salina Reserve and the Queen Elizabeth II Botanic Park . Habitat protection is still vital , as the Salina Reserve has only 88 acres ( 360 @,@ 000 m2 ) of dry shrubland , which is not enough to sustain the 1 @,@ 000 blue iguanas that must be restored to the wild to remove this species from the Critically Endangered List . Additional separate sub @-@ populations will be restored in one or more other areas . The overall captive population is likely to remain genetically fragmented in the long term . Individuals will be translocated between sub @-@ populations to maintain gene flow so that the entire population remains a single genetic management unit . When the wild sub @-@ populations have reached the carrying capacity of their respective protected areas , release of head @-@ started animals will be phased out , and they will be left to reproduce naturally . In addition , guided by research and monitoring , control or eradication of non @-@ native predators will be implemented to the degree necessary to allow young blue iguanas to survive to maturity in sufficient numbers to maintain these sub @-@ populations .
Maintenance of blue iguanas in the wild requires active management into the indefinite future . To sustain this activity , a range of commercial activities generates the funding required , while an ongoing education and awareness effort ensures continued involvement and support by the local community .
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= Middle @-@ earth : Shadow of Mordor =
Middle @-@ earth : Shadow of Mordor is an open world action @-@ adventure video game set within Tolkien 's legendarium , developed by Monolith Productions and published by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment . Officially announced in November 2013 , it was released for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 4 , and Xbox One in September 2014 and released for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in November 2014 .
The story of the game takes place between the events of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings . The players control Talion , a ranger who was killed by the Black Hand of Sauron . Talion 's spirit merged with the wraith of the Elf Lord Celebrimbor , and together they try to avenge the death of their loved ones . Players can engage in melee combat , and utilize some of the wraith abilities to fight against enemies . The game uses the Nemesis System , which allows the artificial intelligence of non @-@ playable characters to remember the death of the game 's protagonist and react accordingly .
The game 's development began in 2011 . In order to create an accurate environment and be consistent with the books written by Tolkien , the developer consulted several people from Warner Bros. , and Peter Jackson , the director of The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit film series . In addition , the team received assistance from Weta Workshop , who gave advice to the team in creating special effects . Monolith focused on the development of the PC , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions , while the development of the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions was outsourced to Behaviour Interactive . The port to Linux and OS X was done by Feral Interactive .
Middle @-@ earth : Shadow of Mordor received critical acclaim upon release . Most praise directed at its combat , open @-@ world design , the game 's lore , and the Nemesis System , which most critics agreed was the best part of the game . Some criticism was aimed at the game 's story and boss battles . The game marked the biggest launch for a game based upon The Lord of the Rings universe , and would go on to win several awards from video gaming publications . Two post @-@ release downloadable content , Lord of the Hunt and The Bright Lord , were released in December 2014 and February 2015 respectively .
= = Gameplay = =
Middle @-@ earth : Shadow of Mordor is a third @-@ person open world video game , where the player controls a ranger by the name of Talion who seeks revenge on the forces of Sauron after his family , including his wife , are killed . Players can travel across locations in the game through parkour , riding monsters , or accessing Forge Towers , which serve as fast travel points . Though Talion is mortally felled in the game 's introduction , the wraith of the Elven Lord Celebrimbor is able to use his power to keep Talion alive , along with gifting him wraith @-@ like abilities to exact his revenge . Missions in the game feature main story missions that follow Talion 's quest for revenge , side missions that involve following Gollum as to find artifacts that are tied to Celebrimbor 's past , missions to free the human slaves that have been captured by the Uruk armies and forced to work for Sauron , and additional quests to help forge new abilities for Talion 's sword , bow , and dagger . The player also has the freedom to pursue side quests and roam around Mordor , with special activities to collect specific flora or to hunt certain creatures , or to find old artifacts or Elvish seals . Completing quests earns the player a number of rewards : experience points that are used to unlock new abilities for the player from both Talion 's ranger and Celebrimbor 's wraith skills , a Power value that allows the player to access more powerful abilities to unlock , and an in @-@ game currency called " Mirian " that the player can use to improve Talion 's health , wraith skill capacity , or forge new slots on his weapons to add additional runes ( as described in the Nemesis System below ) .
In completing missions , the player can have Talion engage in melee , ranged combat , and stealth approaches , with some missions rewarding the player more for completing the mission in a specific manner . Talion 's ranger abilities are enhanced through Celebrimbor , allowing the player to mix combat with special focus @-@ based attacks ; these latter attacks can be used to slow time down while aiming with the bow , drain focus out of an enemy foe , or , later in the game , brand the foe to become an ally of Talion . The combat system uses an attack @-@ chain system that enables the player to perform special moves after building the chain to a large enough value , such as instantly draining a foe of focus or performing an area focus attack . With the combat system , they can also counter and dodge attacks . Stealth is a critical element in some missions ; several areas are considered Strongholds and should Talion 's presence be discovered , an alarm will sound and more Uruks will arrive to try to kill him .
= = = Nemesis system = = =
A core feature of Shadow of Mordor is the Nemesis system . The game tracks a number of specially tagged Uruks as part of Sauron 's armies , who will lead the other Uruks in battle . Defeating these leaders will help to weaken Sauron 's army , and these leaders will drop a rune which the player can install on Talion 's weapons to provide additional buffs in battle . Alternatively , being killed by a leader will cause the current mission to be cancelled and the player returned to a safe point to continue exploring , and the leader will gain additional power , making him more difficult to defeat in the next encounter . If the procedurally generated Orcs survive an encounter with Talion , they will also be promoted . Further , such deaths are tracked through online servers , and the player 's friends on the various network services will be notified of this death and be offered the chance to accept the Vendetta mission , and carry out exact revenge on the Uruk . If the mission is successful the game will give rewards to both the original player and the victorious friend .
The leader Uruk will have a range of strengths and weaknesses , the latter that can be exploited in combat to quickly weaken and defeat the leader . The player can gain knowledge of these through finding intelligence mostly by draining and interrogating marked Uruks for this . Being able to exploit such weaknesses in defeating the leader will gain a better quality rune and more experience points in this manner . Once the player gains the ability to brand Uruks , they can brand these leaders and convert portions of Sauron 's army to their side . At this point , the player can use the Nemesis system to trigger infighting within the Uruk forces which they can then directly participate in , helping to weaken the army further . Uruks that survive their encounter with Talion will remember this when Talion combats them again ; for example , an Uruk who was thrown into a fire by Talion might want revenge on him for being disfigured .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
The game takes place in the 60 @-@ year gap between the events of J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Hobbit and The Lord of The Rings . The family of Talion ( voiced and motion captured by Troy Baker ) , a ranger of Gondor responsible for guarding the Black Gate of Mordor , is killed by the armies of Sauron , but Talion is revived with " wraith @-@ like abilities " and heads into Mordor to exact his revenge . Mordor is not yet a barren wasteland in this story . The player will encounter Gollum ( voiced by Liam O 'Brien ) . Talion discovers that the wraith who revived him is Celebrimbor ( voiced by Alastair Duncan ) , the greatest Elven smith master of the Second Age , who also seeks revenge against Sauron .
= = = Plot = = =
Talion , a captain , serves within a garrison stationed at the Black Gate of Mordor . The garrison is attacked by Sauron 's Orc forces led by three Black Númenórean captains ; the Hammer of Sauron ( John DiMaggio ) , the Tower of Sauron ( J. B. Blanc ) , and their leader , the Black Hand of Sauron ( Nolan North ) . Talion , his wife Loreth ( Laura Bailey ) , and his adult son , Dirhael , are captured and ritually sacrificed by the Black Hand in an attempt to summon the wraith of the Elf Lord Celebrimbor . However , Celebrimbor ( who suffers from amnesia due to his centuries as a wraith ) instead merges with Talion , preventing him from dying alongside his family . Talion and Celebrimbor then depart to both uncover Celebrimbor 's identity — increasing his / their power — and avenge the death of Talion 's family .
Over the course of their travels , Talion and Celebrimbor encounter Gollum multiple times , who is wandering Mordor in search of his " Precious " ( The one ring ) . Gollum possesses the ability to see and speak with Celebrimbor due to his prior contact with the One Ring , and pledges to serve the " Bright Master " . Hoping that Celebrimbor might lead him to the One Ring , Gollum leads Celebrimbor to relics of his past , each of which restore parts of his lost memories . Celebrimbor gradually recalls how Sauron , disguised as Annatar , the Lord of Gifts , deceived him into forging the Rings of Power . Celebrimbor ultimately assisted Sauron in forging the One Ring , but was able to steal it from him . Celebrimbor proclaimed himself the Bright Lord of Mordor and raised an army of Orcs against Sauron . However , the Ring ultimately betrayed Celebrimbor and returned to Sauron . A victorious Sauron then punished Celebrimbor by executing his wife and daughter before finally killing him with his own smithing hammer .
In his search for the Black Hand , Talion allies himself with Hirgon , a ranger deserter who leads a community of Gondorian outcasts choosing to settle in Mordor , and Ratbag the Coward ( Phil LaMarr ) , an Orc who offers to bring Talion closer to the Black Hand in exchange for his assistance in climbing Mordor 's military hierarchy . Talion helps Ratbag ascend the ranks to the level of warchief by killing each of his immediate superiors , finally becoming Warchief himself . Talion then goes after the other Warchiefs in Udun , weakening Sauron 's forces in that area . Soon enough , Hirgon has a plan to draw out the Black Captains . Using acquired grog and blasting powder , Talion helps the Outcasts destroy a statue dedicated to Sauron . Instead of the Black Hand answering the " message " , the Hammer of Sauron is sent , promptly executing Ratbag for not answering his duties to kill the ranger . Talion and The Hammer then face off , with packs of Uruk joining the fight . Eventually , Talion manages to kill The Hammer .
Talion is then sought out by the warrior Lithariel , the daughter of Queen Marwen ( Claudia Black ) , who claims to be able to assist Celebrimbor with his mission . Marwen is the ruler of Núrn , a kingdom of sea raiders located in the south of Mordor . She uses prophetic powers to guide Talion and Celebrimbor to another of Celebrimbor 's relics . Talion also gets help from a Dwarf hunter named Torvin , teaching Talion the ways of the hunt to dominate Caragors and Graugs ( beasts native to Mordor ) , eventually fighting a massive Graug from Torvin 's past who killed Torvin 's hunting partner , later revealed to be his brother . Later , Marwen advises them to use Celebrimbor 's powers to take control of an army of orcs and other beasts , using them to lead an assault against Sauron . Talion eventually realizes that the wizard Saruman is possessing Marwen , and assists Lithariel in freeing her from his control . Talion , however , still carries out Saruman 's plan , leading an army of mind @-@ controlled orcs in an assault against the Black Hand 's stronghold at Ered Glamhoth . However , rather than the Black Hand , Talion finds the Tower of Sauron waiting for him . The Tower mockingly taunts Talion that Celebrimbor chose him as a host and can free him at any time and offers the elf a place at Sauron 's side . Refusing the offer , the two battle and Talion emerges victorious after viciously stabbing the Tower to death with his son 's sword . Afterwards , Celebrimbor confesses that the Tower told the truth and promises to let Talion join his family in death if he wishes , once the Black Hand is slain .
Talion then travels to the Black Gate for a final confrontation with the Black Hand . The Black Hand quickly incapacitates him with a spell that also restores the last of Celebrimbor 's memories . He then kills himself as part of a ritual that forces Celebrimbor to depart from Talion and merge with himself . This allows Sauron to possess the Black Hand 's body and incarnate in physical form . However , Celebrimbor is able to briefly paralyze Sauron from within , allowing Talion to destroy Sauron 's physical form . With the Black Hand dead , Celebrimbor wishes to depart for Valinor . Talion instead convinces him to stay and attempt to overthrow Sauron . Gazing at Mount Doom , Talion declares his intention to forge a new Ring of Power .
= = Development = =
Development of Middle @-@ earth : Shadow of Mordor , which took about three years , began in late 2011 . The game 's lead developer was Monolith Productions , who had experience on a Middle @-@ earth game with Guardians of Middle @-@ earth ( a multiplayer online battle arena game released in 2012 ) . According to design director Michael de Plater , Shadow of Mordor was developed in parallel with Guardians of Middle @-@ earth but handled by a separate team . It was published by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment , who had published the Batman : Arkham game series . The game was designed by de Plater , who had worked with Creative Assembly on Rome : Total War and Ubisoft on Tom Clancy 's EndWar and Tom Clancy 's Ghost Recon : Future Soldier .
Shadow of Mordor was Monolith 's first third @-@ person open world video game for the eighth generation consoles PlayStation 4 and Xbox One , and de Plater considered its development an educational experience for the studio . In Monolith 's introduction to the genre , many core mechanics were built from scratch and the studio were inspired by successful video games such as the Batman : Arkham series created by Rocksteady Studios ; those games inspired Shadow of Mordor 's stealth and free @-@ flow combat mechanics . The studio considered Rocksteady 's games good examples of how to handle a licensed title .
The game 's signature feature is its Nemesis system . The Monolith team considered themselves experts in artificial intelligence , and wanted to push its boundaries . Allowing players to choose their story ( a sandbox @-@ game pillar ) and " leverage the new generation hardware through innovation " , the team wanted to create a system allowing non @-@ playable characters to respond to player actions ; this later became the Nemesis system . The system 's idea was frameworked three months after development began , and to best present it everyone in the studio was involved . The developers hoped that with the system , orcs could be memorable for players . It was made more complex during the game 's early development , incorporating personal relationships among orcs , but was later pared down when the studio considered it too complicated . The Nemesis system was also inspired by pen @-@ and @-@ paper role @-@ playing games . Although most orcs are similar , some were designed with distinctive behavior patterns . These orcs have dialogue written by Dan Abnett , and the team hoped the special orcs would surprise players . The team also hoped that the system would provide tension and competition , similar to a multiplayer game . The studio was inspired by sports games , where the narrative continues when players lose a match . This can prevent immersion and narrative from breaking when players die in the game . According to Rob Roberts , the system is designed so players can emotionally attach to the protagonist through gameplay drama . They also hoped that through the system , players can create their own villain , leading to an organic story .
Shadow of Mordor bridges the gap between The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings , with the team wanting to show iconic elements of the universe in an original way . The team had to draw notes on Tolkien 's notes and appendices to ensure that their vision for the game would not change the franchise 's timeline . Although the game 's environment is inspired by the books and films , several places ( such as Udûn and the Sea of Nurnen ) were re @-@ imagined . Art director Phil Straub considered consistency with the lore and presenting " something visually new " and realistic the most important elements of creating the game , and the team did not incorporate many fantasy elements in its world . To depict volcanic activity , the studio sent a team to Eastern Washington and the Columbia River plateau to photograph a volcano ; to create other parts of the game environment , they studied photos of Iceland and New Zealand and yellow stone found worldwide . Since Shadow of Mordor is set before The Lord of the Rings , its landscape is less post @-@ apocalyptic ; environments also vary by weather , lighting and atmosphere .
The game has a standalone plot . Early in development the team consulted Peter Jackson , director of The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit trilogies , who advised them against a film tie @-@ in . According to de Plater , the story is character @-@ driven to be " authentic " relative to Tolkien 's themes . The game was written by Christian Cantamessa , who was lead writer and lead designer for Rockstar San Diego 's Red Dead Redemption . According to Roberts , the story is designed for accessibility by all players ( regardless of their familiarity with the franchise ) by creating natural interactions and believable relationships among the characters . Its protagonist is Talion , a half @-@ human , half @-@ wraith inspired by Boromir . Although Torvin was originally proposed as the game 's playable character , the idea was scrapped , as the team wanted to follow the philosophy of featuring standalone characters . The wraith is later revealed as Celebrimbor , creator of the Rings of Power . The development team picked Celebrimbor because they considered his backstory sufficiently interesting to expand the canon 's authenticity , allowing the team to write a story around power ( a major theme of the game ) . Another important component was Mordor 's tone . The team created a dark atmosphere with humor , reflected in dialogue and voice acting . This was handled by Dan Abnett , who previously worked on books related to Warhammer 's " dark and gritty " universe . The team hired David Salo , a linguist who worked on the Tolkien 's languages for the Lord of the Rings film trilogy , to develop the Orcs ' Black Speech . The game 's narrative was also inspired by BioShock , which according to de Plater , has successfully incorporated systemic stories with players ' choices .
To prevent inaccuracies , Monolith consulted several Tolkien scholars from Warner Bros. and collaborated with Weta Workshop ( Jackson 's design company ) on the game 's special effects and scenery . To depict well @-@ known characters the company partnered with Middle @-@ earth Enterprises , the franchise @-@ rights holder , to prevent misuse and contradiction between the game 's story and Tolkien 's .
Monolith focused on developing the game 's PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions , with development of the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions outsourced to Behaviour Interactive . Although the game 's core gameplay mechanics , story and narrative are unchanged in the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 ports , some features ( such as the Nemesis system ) are less complex than the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions . According to the game 's developer , the Nemesis system was too large for older consoles .
The music for Middle @-@ earth : Shadow of Mordor was composed by Garry Schyman and Nathan Grigg , and a soundtrack album was released digitally by WaterTower Music on September 30 , 2014 . In designing the game 's music , the team used a number of sonic tools which synchronize with other aspects of the game ( such as player actions and enemy movements ) ; combat music included waterphones and spring drums .
In August 2013 an artist mentioned that Monolith Productions was working on a AAA title separate from Guardians of Middle @-@ earth , and on November 12 its title was announced . Although the game was originally scheduled for release on October 7 , 2014 , according to Warner Bros. its release was moved up to September 30 in North America and October 3 in the United Kingdom due to " fans ' excitement " . The PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions were released on November 18 in North America and November 21 in Europe .
On December 16 , 2014 , the downloadable content ( DLC ) Lord of the Hunt was released . Its storyline revolved around Torvin , and it included new runes , skins and bosses . Lord of the Hunt received mixed reviews from critics .
The final DLC for Shadow of Mordor ( The Bright Lord ) is set 3 @,@ 000 years before the main campaign and allows players to control Talion 's companion , Celebrimbor . It adds a chapter to Shadow of Mordor in which players can complete ten more missions and fight Sauron . The content was released on February 24 , 2015 for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One .
A Game of the Year edition with DLC was announced on April 29 , 2015 and released on May 5 for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One . A special edition , with in @-@ game items and a steelbook , was introduced on August 1 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Middle @-@ earth : Shadow of Mordor was critically acclaimed . The review aggregator websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the Microsoft Windows version scores of 86 @.@ 67 percent ( based on nine reviews ) and 84 out of 100 ( based on 17 reviews ) ; the PlayStation 4 version scored 86 @.@ 55 percent ( based on 57 reviews ) and 84 out of 100 ( based on 85 reviews ) , and the Xbox One version scored 85 @.@ 82 percent ( based on 11 reviews ) and 87 out of 100 ( based on 12 reviews ) .
The game 's core feature , its Nemesis system , was praised . According to Lucas Sullivan of GamesRadar , the system elevated Shadow of Mordor to excellence by making its villains memorable and adding personality to its protagonist . Brad Shoemaker of Giant Bomb agreed , writing that the system created many distinctive characters and its side content extended the game 's longevity . Joystiq 's Alexander Sliwinski said that the system made each playthrough unique and made the game stand out from other action games . Chris Carter of Destructoid found the system gimmicky , since it failed to create unique villains ; it added different appearances and weaknesses to villains without adding personality .
Shadow of Mordor 's combat was considered excellent by most critics . Shoemaker and Sliwinski compared it to the rhythm @-@ based combat system of the Batman : Arkham game series ; both found it engaging and fluid . Shoemaker praised the game 's combat variety ; the combination of the combat and nemesis systems created " a specific kind of chaotic , emergent nonsense " desirable in an open world game . According to Sliwinski and Shoemaker , even without the Nemesis system the combat system would make the game compelling . Although Matt Miller of Game Informer found the game 's focus on killing made it repetitive , failing to capture the charm of its inspirations Assassin 's Creed and Batman : Arkham , Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot called Shadow of Mordor 's combat an improvement of the Assassin 's Creed formula .
Reception of the game 's storyline was mixed . Although Shoemaker and Sliwinski praised its " dark " tone , Shoemaker found some story elements ( such as Gollum 's introduction ) forced and designed to appeal to a particular audience . According to Game Informer 's Matt Miller , Shadow of Mordor fails to successfully tie together all of its various plot threads in the game 's conclusion . Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot also found the storyline erratic , dragged down by anti @-@ climactic fights and scenes . Dan Stapleton of IGN wrote that the story introduced memorable characters but would not make sense to fans of the series , and his interest in the game waned towards its end . Destructoid 's Chris Carter was disappointed in a plot he considered generic ( " Go here , kill this , draw out this big bad , then kill him for your family " ) ; the game failed to add anything new to the universe , and its side missions were more interesting than the main campaign .
Other aspects of Shadow of Mordor were praised . Sullivan enjoyed its Lord of the Rings ' lore , and found the number of collectibles in the game " staggering " . Miller also admired Monolith 's extensive use of lore in the game , and praised its soundtrack and voice @-@ acting ; Stapleton agreed , particularly about the voice acting .
Elements of the game were criticized . Sullivan found some side missions repetitive , and Sliwinski was disappointed with some of the boss battles . Miller wrote that some Shadow of Mordor features are too complex and inaccessible for new players or those unwilling to use strategy . Critics disagreed about the Nemesis system . Miller wrote that the system fell flat in the game 's final hours ; according to VanOrd , the system was unappealing until the game 's second half . Carter found the unskippable cutscenes after a player died annoying .
Unlike Shadow of Mordor 's current @-@ generation versions , the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions received mixed @-@ to @-@ negative reviews and many technical problems were noted . According to Thomas Morgan of Eurogamer its frame rate was substandard , and Yannick LeJacq of Kotaku cited " many technical hiccups and glitches " . Morgan believed that the game developers spent little effort on the port , and LeJacq questioned the need to release the game for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 at all . Shadow of Mordor was well received by BioShock series creator Ken Levine , who called it the first open world game with a non @-@ linear story and narrative and said he would bring some of its elements to his upcoming science @-@ fiction project .
= = = Sales = = =
Shadow of Mordor 's release was the most successful for a Lord of the Rings @-@ based game . The game debuted at number two in the UK retail software sales chart in its first week ( behind FIFA 15 ) , and was the ninth @-@ bestselling game in the United States in October 2014 .
= = = Controversy = = =
When Shadow of Mordor was introduced , Monolith was accused by former Ubisoft employee Charles Randall of using assets ( such as the protagonist @-@ animation code ) from Assassin 's Creed II . Monolith responded that all their project 's assets were developed from scratch ; they had confidence in their originality , and the game was based upon the Nemesis system .
In October 2014 , after the usual video @-@ game review outlets were unable to obtain early access to Shadow of Mordor , John Bain ( known as TotalBiscuit ) said that YouTube video creators had been offered early access in exchange for agreeing to a contract requiring them to describe it positively . Jim Sterling of The Escapist obtained a copy of one of the contracts and analyzed it in detail . The Federal Trade Commission began an investigation and announced that Warner Brothers Home Entertainment had violated the Federal Trade Commission Act , and that the company must declare sponsored advertising in the future in July 2016 .
= = = Awards = = =
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= Brownhills =
Brownhills is a town in the West Midlands , England . Located on the edge of Cannock Chase near the large artificial lake Chasewater , it is 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north @-@ east of Walsall and a similar distance south @-@ west of Lichfield . It is part of the Metropolitan Borough of Walsall and the Aldridge @-@ Brownhills parliamentary constituency and neighbours the ancient villages of Pelsall and Stonnall . Before boundary changes in 1974 , it was in the county of Staffordshire .
The town lies on the ancient Watling Street , but is not recorded before the 17th century , although Ogley Hay , which in modern times is a district of the town , is recorded as a settlement in the Domesday Book . Brownhills quickly grew around the coal mining industry , especially after it became linked to the canal and railway networks in the mid @-@ 19th century , and by the end of the century had grown from a hamlet of only 300 inhabitants to a town with a population of over 13 @,@ 000 , of whom the vast majority were employed in the coal industry . Mining remained the town 's principal industry until the 1950s , but the subsequent closure of the area 's pits led to a severe economic decline which has continued until the present day . The local authority has instituted a regeneration programme which it is hoped will revive the town 's fortunes , providing better transport and leisure facilities .
= = History = =
Brownhills is situated on the ancient Watling Street and there is evidence of early settlement in the area , including an ancient burial mound and a guard post believed to date from Roman times and later dubbed Knaves Castle . The name Brownhills , however , is not recorded before the 17th century . The most popular suggestion for the origin of the name is that it refers to the early mining spoil heaps which dotted the area .
The settlement is first recorded ( as " Brownhill " ) on Robert Plot 's 1680 map of Staffordshire , at which time it was a hamlet within the manor of Ogley Hay , which in turn was part of the parish of Norton Canes . Ogley Hay itself had existed since at least the 11th century and is mentioned in the Domesday Book , although the 1801 census lists it as having a population of only 8 people . Beyond Ogley Hay lay Catshill , another hamlet which pre @-@ dated Brownhills and which lay within the parish of Shenstone .
During the 17th century , shallow mine workings began to develop in the area and in 1759 a turnpike was erected in the Catshill area . A local legend claims that Dick Turpin once vaulted the barricade on his horse to avoid paying the toll , although this is demonstrably false as Turpin was executed in 1739 , twenty years before the turnpike 's construction . In 1794 Brownhills ( now in the plural ) was included in a list of local settlements mentioned in an Act of Parliament concerning canals in Staffordshire , and three years later the Wyrley & Essington Canal , nicknamed the " Curly Wyrley " by the locals due to its winding course , was opened . In 1799 Norton Pool , later to be renamed Chasewater , was created to serve as a reservoir for the canals .
Early in the 19th century , a horse @-@ drawn tram system connected the mines to the wharves on the canal . In response to the growing population of the area open land in Ogley Hay , up until then merely heathland , was enclosed and converted to farmland in 1838 , the same year in which the area was first declared a parish , although no church was built for another 13 years . Charles Foster Cotterill , a former mayor of Walsall who had purchased the manor of Ogley Hay in 1836 upon the death of former lord Phineas Hussey , saw the potential of the area and sold off large tracts of his land for private farming and the construction of a flour mill and a foundry . The remaining land of the former manor was progressively sold off through a series of indentures of questionable legality until 1846 when Cotterill sold the last 135 acres ( 0 @.@ 55 km2 ) and moved to London .
The South Staffordshire Railway reached Brownhills in 1850 and led to a huge expansion of the local mining operation and with it a population explosion in the area , with the population increasing from 305 in 1801 to over 13 @,@ 000 in 1891 . In 1858 a branch line was constructed through the heart of what was then the hamlet of Brownhills , which led to a migration of the population eastwards , leading to the formation of mining slums in the Ogley Hay area . Eventually a new town centre developed , complete with library and theatre . This led to the gradual amalgamation of Brownhills , Ogley Hay and Catshill into one town .
Mining was to remain the principal industry of Brownhills until the last pit closed in the 1950s . During the 18th and 19th centuries the area known as Coppice Side was the hub of the mining industry , and the census of 1841 showed that over 80 % of the population of the area which makes up modern Brownhills lived and worked there , with up to ten pits active in the area at any one time . As in other mining areas , several men lost their lives in the Brownhills pits . Seven miners , including a boy aged 11 , died in an accident in 1861 , and in October 1930 an explosion at the Grove Colliery killed fourteen miners , ten of them from Brownhills .
In 1877 the town of Brownhills was officially recognised for the first time after a new Act authorised the amalgamation of rural districts into larger local government areas . An order was issued on 29 September stating :
After the First World War , the Urban District Council , which had replaced the District Board in 1894 , began a programme of urban improvement . Large areas of open farmland were purchased for the building of council houses , and a notorious slum area , Ogley Square , which had been declared unfit for human habitation , was demolished after a long legal dispute and the tenants rehoused . The final farmland within the boundaries of Brownhills was sold for redevelopment in 1952 .
By the time of the Second World War the mines of Brownhills , being amongst the oldest in the area , were largely exhausted , and following the nationalisation of the mining industry the final pit on the Common was closed in the 1950s . Following the demise of the coalfield the town experienced a severe economic slump , with many high street shops closing down . A wave of new development in the 1960s and 1970s saw a new shopping precinct planned , which it was claimed would incorporate a cinema , bowling alley , hotel and bus station and would completely revitalise the town . Despite the developers ' grandiose claims , the project was not a success and ultimately consisted solely of shopping units , many of which stood empty for up to five years . There was little further development in the 1980s and 1990s , and the feeling of the local council is that the town centre is in need of improvement . To this end the council has created a " Townscape Masterplan " for the redevelopment of the town .
= = Governance = =
Brownhills is represented by three tiers of government , Walsall Borough Council ( " local " ) , UK Parliament ( " national " ) , and European Parliament ( " Europe " ) .
The Brownhills District established in 1877 remained in existence until 1894 when it was superseded by Brownhills Urban District . In 1966 the Urban District merged with that of Aldridge to form the Aldridge @-@ Brownhills Urban District , in accordance with a recommendation of the Local Government Commission for England . This in turn was amalgamated in 1974 , under the Local Government Act 1972 , into the newly formed Metropolitan Borough of Walsall , under whose jurisdiction the area remains to this day . As a result of this amalgamation Brownhills also became part of the West Midlands county , having previously been part of Staffordshire . Today Brownhills constitutes a ward within the Borough of Walsall and has three seats on the Borough Council . As at the 2008 local elections two of these seats were held by the Conservative Party and one by Labour .
Wendy Morton , representing the Conservative Party , has been the Member of Parliament for the constituency of Aldridge @-@ Brownhills since 2015 . Before the creation of the Aldridge @-@ Brownhills seat in 1974 , the town had been part of the Walsall North constituency since 1955 , when it had been transferred from the now @-@ defunct Cannock constituency .
Brownhills is part of the Walsall council counting area of the West Midlands European Parliament constituency , which elects six MEPs . In the 2009 election the Conservatives gained 26 @.@ 8 % of the vote in this counting area , ahead of UKIP 24 @.@ 5 % and Labour with 18 @.@ 9 % .
= = Geography = =
Brownhills is located at 52 ° 38 ′ 49 @.@ 20 ″ N 1 ° 55 ′ 58 @.@ 80 ″ W on the edge of Cannock Chase and lies mostly at a height of approximately 150 metres ( 492 ft ) above sea level , although there is a sharp incline to nearly 180 metres ( 590 ft ) at the eastern end of the town . The highest point of Cannock Chase , standing at 244 metres ( 801 ft ) above sea level , lies approximately 4 miles ( 6 km ) from the town . Although a small river called Crane Brook flows slightly to the east of Brownhills , the only significant bodies of water in the area are human @-@ made , namely the canal and the 3 km2 ( 1 @.@ 2 sq mi ) reservoir Chasewater , which lies to the north , between Brownhills and Cannock Chase . The reservoir was constructed in the 18th century and reshaped by reclamation schemes as recently as the 1970s .
Immediately to the west of the town is Brownhills Common , a 100 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 40 km2 ) heathland which once formed part of Cannock Forest ( also known as " Canke Wood " ) . Although the forest was felled in the 15th and 16th centuries , the spread of heather and the grazing of sheep led to the creation of a huge area of heathland . The area was affected by mine workings but has now returned to a more natural state and lizards and dragonflies may be observed . The area now supports various habitat types , with the heathland mixing with marshy grassland , with scattered scrub and pools . In 1926 , when ownership of the Common was transferred to the local Council , a large area of barren land at the eastern end , closest to the town , was landscaped , with new trees planted . Lying south of the Common , Birch Coppice is a large area of predominantly oak and birch woodland , which , although crossed by a now @-@ dismantled railway line , mostly escaped the destruction caused to other wooded areas by mining and other industry .
To the south , Brownhills is separated from the nearby village of Clayhanger by Clayhanger Common , which is designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest and considered " one of the best wetland sites in the county " . In 2007 , a new £ 445 @,@ 000 bridge was erected across the canal at Brownhills , providing pedestrian , disabled and cycling access to the Common and to the village of Clayhanger beyond . To the east lies the village of Stonnall and a large area of green belt land .
The geology of Brownhills comprises mainly red clay marl overlying Triassic sandstone and deposits of coal . The town is on several fault lines , the main one being the Vigo Fault , a branch of the larger Eastern Boundary Fault , which runs from Birmingham to Rugeley . On the western side of the fault , in the area of Brownhills Common , the marl is over 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 305 m ) thinner than on the eastern side , bringing the coal seams significantly closer to the surface . The presence of the faults and the effects of mining mean that subsidence has been a major problem in the area for many years .
The land within the town is made up of approximately 62 % greenspace , 18 % domestic gardens , 7 % roads , 4 % domestic buildings , 3 % non @-@ domestic buildings and 6 % other uses . Since the 19th century , trade in Brownhills has been centred on the High Street . As the canal and Clayhanger Common lie immediately to the south of the High Street , the town 's housing areas are mainly to the north and at the eastern and western ends of the town . Brownhills has 5 @,@ 152 residential dwellings , of which 47 % are semi @-@ detached houses . Selling prices for all types of property within the town have risen significantly since 2000 ; in August 2007 the average selling price was £ 137 @,@ 600 , compared to £ 59 @,@ 596 in 2000 , a rise of 131 % . The Aldridge and Brownhills Housing Trust owns and manages those properties formerly owned as council houses by Walsall Council .
In the West Midlands , the warmest time of the year is July and August , when maximum temperatures average around 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) ; the coolest months are January and February , when minimum temperatures average around 1 ° C ( 39 ° F ) . The area 's average maximum and minimum temperatures are almost exactly in line with the national average . The average annual rainfall is about 676 millimetres ( 27 in ) , the wettest months being September to January . This is lower than the national average annual rainfall of 838 mm ( 33 inches ) .
See Penkridge weather station for details of average temperature and rainfall figures taken between 1971 and 2000 at the Met Office weather station in Penkridge ( around 11 miles ( 18 km ) from Brownhills ) .
= = Demography = =
At the 2001 UK census , Brownhills ward had a population of 12 @,@ 637 , and a population density of 17 @.@ 45 persons per hectare .
Of the town 's 5 @,@ 151 households , 40 @.@ 7 % were married couples living together , 10 @.@ 4 % were cohabiting couples and 10 @.@ 2 % were lone parents . 25 @.@ 9 % of all households were made up of individuals and 12 @.@ 8 % had someone living alone at pensionable age . 31 @.@ 8 % of households included children aged under 16 or a person aged 16 to 18 who was in full @-@ time education . The average household size was 2 @.@ 5 .
The ethnicity of the town was 97 @.@ 4 % white , 0 @.@ 6 % mixed race , 1 @.@ 2 % Asian , 0 @.@ 5 % black and 0 @.@ 3 % Chinese or other . The country of birth of residents was 97 @.@ 8 % United Kingdom , 0 @.@ 4 % Republic of Ireland , 0 @.@ 2 % Germany , 0 @.@ 2 % other Western European countries , 0 @.@ 2 % Eastern Europe , 0 @.@ 2 % Africa , 0 @.@ 3 % Far East , 0 @.@ 4 % South Asia , < 0 @.@ 1 % Middle East , 0 @.@ 2 % North America and < 0 @.@ 1 % Oceania . Religion was recorded as 79 @.@ 6 % Christian , 0 @.@ 6 % Muslim , 0 @.@ 2 % Hindu , 0 @.@ 1 % Buddhist , 0 @.@ 1 % Jewish and 0 @.@ 3 % Sikh . 12 @.@ 5 % were recorded as having no religion , 0 @.@ 1 % had an alternative religion and 6 @.@ 5 % did not state their religion .
For every 100 females , there were 98 @.@ 04 males . The age distribution was 6 @.@ 6 % aged 0 – 4 years , 15 @.@ 0 % aged 5 – 15 years , 4 @.@ 2 % aged 16 – 19 years , 36 @.@ 3 % aged 20 – 44 years , 23 @.@ 6 % aged 45 – 64 years and 14 @.@ 1 % aged 65 years and over . The mean population age was 37 @.@ 5 , lower than the national average of 38 @.@ 6 .
The economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 was 43 @.@ 2 % in full @-@ time employment , 12 @.@ 3 % in part @-@ time employment , 6 @.@ 1 % self @-@ employed , 3 @.@ 8 % unemployed , 1 @.@ 3 % students with jobs , 2 @.@ 3 % students without jobs , 13 @.@ 5 % retired , 7 @.@ 3 % looking after home or family , 6 @.@ 9 % permanently sick or disabled and 3 @.@ 3 % economically inactive for other reasons . The percentage of people in full @-@ time employment was significantly higher than the 39 @.@ 1 % average for the whole of the Walsall district . Of the town 's residents aged 16 – 74 , 8 @.@ 5 % had a higher education qualification or the equivalent , compared with 19 @.@ 9 % nationwide . According to Office for National Statistics estimates , during the period of April 2001 to March 2002 the average gross weekly income of households in the Brownhills area was £ 460 ( £ 23 @,@ 920 per year ) .
= = Economy = =
The decline of the mining industry in the 1950s caused a severe economic slump in Brownhills , which continues to this day . The local authority has created a " Townscape Masterplan " for the regeneration of Brownhills , which involves increased leisure provision , the improvement of the town centre 's shopping facilities , a new transport interchange incorporating Park and Ride facilities and cycle links to the town centre and the National Cycle Route , and the refurbishment of run @-@ down properties . The plan also involves the potential construction of a bypass to relieve the heavily congested High Street . In addition to these developments , a grant of over £ 350 @,@ 000 was obtained to fund the creation of a new " mini town square " , and the demolition of blocks of high @-@ rise flats in the town has begun .
At the 2001 census , Brownhills had 5 @,@ 768 people in employment , of which the largest percentage ( 28 @.@ 85 % ) worked in manufacturing , followed by retail ( 19 @.@ 35 % ) and construction ( 8 @.@ 93 % ) . Compared to the national average , the town had a relatively high percentage of workers in the construction industry and a relatively low number in real estate and financial intermediation . The average distance travelled to work by Brownhills residents was 10 @.@ 36 km ; the vast majority ( 62 % ) travelled to work by car .
One of the town 's largest employers is T & S Stores , a subsidiary of Tesco plc , whose depot in the town employs approximately 1 @,@ 000 people . Brownhills was also formerly home to the wirings manufacturer Electrium 's last UK @-@ based factory , but this has closed , with manufacturing shifted overseas and commercial staff moved to a new site in Cannock . In 2006 , the site was converted into a mixed @-@ use facility dubbed Toll Point , with Walsall Council among those moving to the site . Many people are also employed at the town 's large branch of Tesco which is open 24 hours a day on weekdays and is large enough to have its own petrol station . Before being taken over by Tesco , the store was a branch of Hillards , and an earlier Tesco store in the town had been forced to close as it could not compete with Hillards .
The High Street retains various independent shops , including a cobbler and a butcher , but is seen as in need of improvement . Walsall Council 's regeneration programme includes extensive redevelopment of the High Street ; the council 's view is that retail investment should be focussed on the existing shopping area rather than encouraging new developments outside this area as , based on consultants ' studies , the council believes that the town could not support large @-@ scale retail development . Specific development opportunities within the vicinity of the High Street have been identified , with particular focus on land on Silver Street , adjacent to the canal .
= = Transport = =
= = = Road network = = =
Brownhills is served by the A5 and lies close to a junction of the M6 Toll motorway . National Express West Midlands bus services connect the town with Walsall , Arriva links to both Cannock and Walsall , and Diamond Bus to Aldridge and Birmingham . Choice Travel and ATZ Travel did link services to Brownhills before being taken over by the present Diamond Bus . The nearest National Express coach stops are in Walsall , Bloxwich and Cannock . See also Bus Routes 10 & 10A and Diamond Bus .
= = = Canal network = = =
The Birmingham Canal Navigations ' Wyrley and Essington Canal passes through Brownhills and meets the Daw End Branch Canal at Catshill Junction . The Lichfield and Hatherton Canals Restoration Trust is in the process of restoring the Lichfield Canal from Ogley Junction , Brownhills , to Lichfield .
= = = Rail network = = =
Brownhills formerly had two railway stations . The first , on the South Staffordshire Line ( later part of the London , Midland and Scottish Railway ) , opened in 1849 but was closed as part of the Beeching Axe in 1965 . The line remained open for freight until 1983 , but the track was lifted in 1985 . The other , on the Midland Railway , was open for passengers between 1884 and 1930 and for freight until 1960 , when the track was lifted . The local authority ultimately aims to create a new station and re @-@ open passenger rail links to Brownhills as part of its " Townscape Masterplan " . Within a 6 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) radius of Brownhills there are six Network Rail stations , at Walsall , Lichfield , Cannock , Bloxwich , Great Wyrley , and Shenstone ; of which Shenstone ( about 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) away ) is the closest .
= = Education = =
The town 's main secondary school is Brownhills School ( formerly Brownhills Sports College , Brownhills Community Technology College , Brownhills Community School and Brownhills Comprehensive ) , a mixed @-@ gender school with approximately 1 @,@ 000 pupils . In 2002 the school was designated a technology college and since 2005 has been affiliated to the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust . In 2006 , only 28 % of the school 's pupils gained at least five GCSEs at grades A * – C including English and maths , ranking it 12th out of Walsall 's 19 secondary schools .
Although officially located slightly outside the town 's boundaries in Walsall Wood , Shire Oak School ( the former Shire Oak Grammar School ) takes many pupils from Brownhills . Approximately 6 % of children from the town attend selective schools elsewhere in the borough of Walsall .
Watling Street Primary School , situated on the A5 at the western end of town , has approximately 200 students between the ages of 3 and 11 . In 2006 Watling Street 's Key Stage 2 results were the best in the Walsall LEA . There are four other primary schools in the town , St James ' Primary School , St Bernadette 's Catholic Primary School , Brownhills West Primary School , Millfield Primary School and one in Clayhanger , Holy Trinity Church of England Primary School .
= = Religious sites = =
Brownhills has a Church of England church ( St James ) , a Roman Catholic church ( St Bernadette ) , three Methodist churches ( including one in Clayhanger ) , two Spiritualist Churches , and a Pentecostal church .
Brownhills has had strong links with the Methodist faith since the 19th century . The current Silver Street Methodist church was built in the 1960s when two other churches were compulsorily purchased and demolished due to their sites being identified as prime locations for additional town centre car parking under a council redevelopment scheme .
= = Culture = =
= = = Attractions and landmarks = = =
One of Brownhills ' most prominent landmarks is a 46 feet ( 14 m ) stainless steel sculpture of a coal miner , erected in May 2006 on a roundabout at one end of the High Street , where the A4124 Pelsall Road and High Street A452 cross . The colossal sculpture , by John McKenna ARBS , commemorates the town 's mining tradition . A competition was organised to choose an official nickname for the statue . The winning name was Jigger after Jack " Jigger " Taylor who died when the roof of Walsall Wood pit collapsed in 1951 .
Chasewater in Staffordshire lies on the edge of Brownhills , with the area surrounding it , which is designated as a country park , officially falling within the Brownhills postal area . The reservoir supports a variety of activities including water @-@ skiing , sailing , angling and bird watching . The Chasewater Railway , operates a heritage rail service on the line of the former mineral railway around Chasewater between Brownhills and Chasetown , north of the former Brownhills Watling Street station . The railway 's main station is designated Brownhills West .
On the opposite side of the A5 , Brownhills Common , where a wide variety of birds can be observed , is a designated nature reserve , as is Shire Oak Park , approximately 0 @.@ 9 miles ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) from the town centre . Holland Park , on the edge of the Common , has a skate park and multi @-@ sports area , which were created as part of a £ 95 @,@ 000 environmental regeneration project and opened in 2002 . The final stage of the project will see the building of a new " youth shelter " .
The town is home to what is reputed to be the oldest fingerpost in the United Kingdom .
= = = Cultural events and venues = = =
One of the major concerns of the local council is that the town is " particularly lacking in leisure provision " . At one time the town had two cinemas , but the last of these closed in the 1960s and a plan to build a new one never came to fruition . Although the town 's theatre also closed down many years ago , the Brownhills Community School 's theatre stages productions by local groups such as the Aldridge Musical Comedy Society and the Walsall Gilbert and Sullivan Society .
Brownhills holds an annual canal festival in June with stalls , entertainment and boat trips , and there is an active Community Association which organises a range of events , including a weekend @-@ long military display event in 2006 . The town has a weekly market which is popular but suffers from a reputation for the sale of counterfeit goods . In 2005 Trading Standards officers seized over £ 40 @,@ 000 worth of fake goods in a raid on the market .
Brownhills has several public houses . Although some older ones , such as the Victorian @-@ era Jolly Collier in Coppice Side , were demolished in the 1980s , several dating from the 19th century still stand comparatively unchanged , including the Shoulder of Mutton , which still bears windows etched with the emblem of the brewery which owned it in the 1850s . The Station Hotel in the High Street hosted concerts , including an appearance by Black Sabbath in 1968 .
= = = Sport = = =
Brownhills does not currently have a Saturday men 's football ( soccer ) team , the nearest being Pelsall Villa F.C. , Heath Hayes F.C. and Walsall Wood F.C. of the Midland Football Combination . In the 1990s Brownhills Town F.C. competed in the Combination but folded during the 2003 – 04 season . During the 1950s Ogley Hay F.C. were a strong local team , reaching the final of the Walsall Senior Cup on three occasions . Currently , the main football club in the town is Brownhills Community Colts , a youth club which has existed since the 1970s and fields teams in various age groups , as well as teams for children with disabilities .
The Brownhills Canoe and Outdoor Centre opened in 2006 , funded by British Waterways with the assistance of partners such as Sport England , the European Regional Development Fund and Walsall Council , and offers canoeing and kayaking lessons on the canal , close to the centre of town . Nearby Chasewater is a prominent watersports site , with the Watersports Centre offering a variety of water skiing facilities , including the largest children 's coaching scheme in the UK , and the sailing club providing year @-@ round windsurfing and dinghy sailing .
The local community association organises a range of sporting activities for members of the public , including activities as diverse as yoga , badminton and kickboxing .
= = = Media = = =
Brownhills has no dedicated local newspaper of its own , but is covered by newspapers published in Wolverhampton and Walsall . The most popular paid @-@ for local newspaper is the Express & Star . Free newspapers with significant circulation in the town include the Walsall Chronicle , Walsall Advertiser , and Walsall Observer . Similarly , the town has no dedicated local radio station but receives the stations broadcast from the Sutton Coldfield transmitting station , including BRMB and Kerrang ! 105 @.@ 2 .
= = Notable people = =
Three members of the Dorsett family from Brownhills played professional football . George Dorsett ( 1881 – 1942 ) and his brother Joe ( 1888 – 1951 ) both played for West Bromwich Albion and Manchester City in the early years of the 20th century . Their nephew Dicky Dorsett ( born 3 December 1919 , died 1999 ) played over 250 times for Aston Villa between 1946 and 1952 and also played for Wolverhampton Wanderers in the 1939 FA Cup Final .
Supermodel Erin O 'Connor ( born 9 February 1978 ) grew up in Brownhills .
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= 21st Century Breakdown =
21st Century Breakdown is the eighth studio album by the American punk rock band Green Day . It is the band 's second rock opera , following American Idiot ( 2004 ) , and their first album to be produced by Butch Vig . Green Day commenced work on the record in January 2006 and forty @-@ five songs were written by vocalist / guitarist Billie Joe Armstrong by October 2007 , but the band members did not enter studio work until January 2008 .
The album was released May 15 , 2009 through Reprise Records . Armstrong has described the album as a " snapshot of the era in which we live as we question and try to make sense of the selfish manipulation going on around us , whether it be the government , religion , media or frankly any form of authority " . The singles " Know Your Enemy " and " 21 Guns " exemplify the themes of alienation and politically motivated anger present in the record .
Critical response to 21st Century Breakdown was generally positive . The record achieved Green Day 's best chart performance to date , reaching number one on the album charts of various countries , including the United States Billboard 200 , the European Top 100 Albums , and the United Kingdom Albums Chart . It was awarded the Grammy Award for Best Rock Album at the 52nd Grammy Awards held on January 31 , 2010 . As of December 2010 , 21st Century Breakdown has sold 1 @,@ 005 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and more than 4 million worldwide .
= = Writing and recording = =
Green Day began to write new songs for what would become 21st Century Breakdown in January 2006 after touring extensively in 2005 in support of their seventh studio album American Idiot . At the time , frontman Billie Joe Armstrong stated : " We 'll start with silence , and that 's how we 'll be able to find the inspiration to find another record . " The band did not release any details of the writing and recording process until October 2007 , when Armstrong said in an interview with Rolling Stone that he had written " something like 45 songs " . The band members worked on the primitive conceptual stages of the album at their rehearsal studio in Oakland , California . Little was revealed on the themes or musical style of the album , but Armstrong stated : " I want to dig into who I am and what I 'm feeling at this moment – which is middle @-@ aged . " He added that many of the 45 songs were written on piano rather than guitar .
Green Day began the recording process for 21st Century Breakdown in January 2008 . Later that year , it was confirmed that the band worked with producer Butch Vig . The album was recorded with Vig throughout 2008 and into early 2009 at four locations in California : Ocean Way Recording in Hollywood , Studio 880 in Oakland , Jel Studios in Newport Beach , and Costa Mesa Studios in Costa Mesa . While recording in Hollywood , the band members bought cheap turntables from Amoeba Music and listened to many vinyl records for inspiration , including albums by The Beat and The Plimsouls . Armstrong cited as inspiration the music of The Kinks ' Ray Davies , The Pretty Things ' S.F. Sorrow , The Doors ' The Doors and Strange Days , and Meat Loaf 's Bat Out of Hell . Drummer Tré Cool noted the influence of Eddie Cochran and The Creation on Armstrong 's writing .
While writing at his home studio , Armstrong worked on a cover of The Who 's 1966 mini @-@ opera " A Quick One , While He 's Away " ; Green Day recorded a full @-@ band version of the song during the album sessions . Vig noted that frustrations would sometimes cause delays in the recording process for 21st Century Breakdown . Armstrong kept his lyrics closely guarded and intentionally mixed his demos so that the vocals were low in the mix and thus unintelligible to the other band members . It was not until late 2008 that he chose to share his words with Cool , Vig , and bassist Mike Dirnt by sitting down with them and reading the entire album 's lyrics aloud in order . The band members made the finishing touches on the album in early April 2009 and claimed that its release would lead to a " kind of ... post @-@ partum depression " .
= = Themes and composition = =
21st Century Breakdown continues the rock opera style of its predecessor , American Idiot . The album is set in Detroit , Michigan and is divided into three acts : " Heroes and Cons " , " Charlatans and Saints " , and " Horseshoes and Handgrenades " . Its loose narrative follows a young couple named Christian and Gloria through the challenges present in the U.S. following the presidency of George W. Bush . Bassist Mike Dirnt has compared the relationships between the songs to those in Bruce Springsteen 's Born to Run , saying that the themes are not as tightly interwoven as in a concept album , but that they are still connected . Many of the record 's themes and lyrics are drawn from Armstrong 's personal life and he sings in the first @-@ person narrative style about abandonment and vengeance in " Before the Lobotomy " , " Christian 's Inferno " , and " Peacemaker " . Rolling Stone noted that the album is " the most personal , emotionally convulsive record Armstrong has ever written " .
The title track 's opening lyric " Born into Nixon , I was raised in hell " references Armstrong 's birth year of 1972 , while " We are the class of ' 13 " references the fact that his eldest son , Joseph , will graduate from high school in 2013 . Dirnt has expressed his belief that " Last of the American Girls " was written about Armstrong 's wife Adrienne , who he claimed is steadfast in her beliefs and assertively defends them . Armstrong has cited his " disconnected " childhood — he was raised by his five older siblings after their father 's death , while their mother worked graveyard shifts as a waitress — as the roots of the discontent expressed on 21st Century Breakdown . " East Jesus Nowhere " rebukes fundamentalist religion and was written after Armstrong attended a church service where a friend 's baby was baptized .
Musically , 21st Century Breakdown is similar to the punk rock style of American Idiot , but many critics have claimed that Green Day 's traditional sound has evolved in the five years since their last release to incorporate new influences such as heavier , louder pop rock and stadium rock on an epic scale . Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone indicated that the album sports ballads that are Green Day 's most polished ; he claimed that the band " combine punk thrash with their newfound love of classic @-@ rock grandiosity " . MTV compared the material to that of classic rockers like The Who , while Spin called the title track " Green Day 's most epic song yet " . Cool has remarked : " It 's important to us that we 're still looked at as a punk band . It was our religion , our higher education " . However , he also noted that Armstrong had delved into the past in writing 21st Century Breakdown , gleaning inspiration from the artists who shaped rock music . Armstrong himself has stated : " Ground zero for me is still punk rock . I like painting an ugly picture . I get something uplifting out of singing some of the most horrifying shit you can sing about . It 's just my DNA . "
= = Promotion and release = =
Green Day commenced work on the record in January 2006 . The writing and recording process spanned three years and four California recording studios , and it was finished in April 2009 . On February 9 , 2009 , Green Day announced the album title and that the record would be split into three acts : " Heroes and Cons " , " Charlatans and Saints " , and " Horseshoes and Handgrenades " . On March 17 , a teaser trailer for 21st Century Breakdown was posted on the band 's website . The international release date of May 15 was announced on March 25 . In early April 2009 , Green Day premiered " Know Your Enemy " on television ; a portion of the song was used as introductory music to the 2009 NCAA Men 's Basketball Tournament Championship game . The band first performed 21st Century Breakdown in full during a string of California club shows in April 2009 . At each show , concertgoers were given programs containing all of the album 's lyrics . The first single , " Know Your Enemy " , was released on April 16 , 2009 , and soon after the world premiere of the song 's music video occurred on April 24 on the MTV UK website .
21st Century Breakdown was released internationally on May 15 , 2009 , through Reprise Records . The special edition vinyl version was limited to 3 @,@ 000 copies and consisted of three 10 " records , one for each of the album 's " acts " , a CD copy of the album , a 60 @-@ page art booklet , and a code for the digital download of the full album . The album artwork process was led by Chris Bilheimer and is based on a work from artist Sixten , who confirmed that the couple on the cover were " just friends of a friend at a party in Eskilstuna , Sweden " and explained that a mutual friend snapped a picture of the pair kissing . He added : " I love their passion , and just had to make a stencil out of it to spread the love . " The cover art was noted for a marked similarity with that of Blur 's 2003 album Think Tank , itself a stencil by artist Banksy . Green Day showcased a collection of similarly themed art , called " The Art of Rock " , at an art exhibition in London between October 23 and November 1 , 2009 .
The record reached number one on the Billboard 200 in the U.S. , where it sold 215 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , which was a shortened three days . The album remained at number one on the Billboard Top Rock Albums chart for three weeks . In Canada , the album debuted at # 1 on the Canadian Albums Chart , selling 30 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The album debuted at the top of sales charts in twenty four total countries , including a peak of number one on the European Top 100 Albums . 21st Century Breakdown was only released in a Parental Advisory version containing explicit lyrics and content ; Wal @-@ Mart refuses to sell albums with a Parental Advisory sticker and requested that Green Day release a censored edition . The band members responded by stating : " There 's nothing dirty about our record ... They want artists to censor their records in order to be carried in there . We just said no . We 've never done it before . You feel like you 're in 1953 or something . " The second single , " 21 Guns " , was released to radio stations on May 25 . The band embarked on a world tour in July 2009 ; the North American leg lasted through September and the European leg ended in November . " East Jesus Nowhere " was released as the album 's third single on October 19 , 2009 .
= = Critical reception = =
Reception to 21st Century Breakdown has been generally favorable , according to aggregating website Metacritic , which reported a rating of 70 / 100 based on 30 critical reviews . Dan Silver of The Observer awarded the record four stars out of five and likened it to both Bruce Springsteen 's music and the avant @-@ garde writing of Chuck Palahniuk . Rolling Stone 's David Fricke called 21st Century Breakdown " a compound bomb of classic @-@ rock ecstasy , no @-@ mercy punk assault and pop @-@ song wiles ; it 's like The Clash 's London Calling , The Who 's Quadrophenia and Hüsker Dü 's Zen Arcade all compressed into 18 songs " . Dan Cairns of The Times concluded : " Lyrically , it may succeed in capturing the contradictions , vulnerabilities and longing for harmony that thrum through Armstrong , Dirnt and Cool , their country , and humanity as a whole . But its real triumph , in an age of trimming , of market testing , of self @-@ censorship and lowest common denominators , is not simply to aim insanely high , but to make it to the summit . "
Criticism centered on the concept of the record ; BBC 's Chris Jones said that it is " griping vaguely against ' authority ' " and that " too many buzz words obscure incisive meaning " . Steve Kandell of Spin wrote that the humor of American Idiot was " sorely missed " and that the energy of the album seemed " directionless " . The Guardian 's Alexis Petridis indicated that " the storyline becomes impossible to follow " . Adam Downer of Sputnikmusic was the most critical professional reviewer of the album ; he questioned the clarity of the lyrics by calling 21st Century Breakdown " more conceptually vague / ridiculous than American Idiot " , and he went on to say that it " spirals out of control in its own heroic glory and never regains focus , thus ending with a product that Green Day couldn 't afford to produce : an average record " . Slant Magazine claims that " ... an uncanny sense of familiarity hangs over too much of the album . The melodies of several tracks suggest ghosts of older Green Day songs . " Kyle Ryan at The A.V. Club gave the album a B + , noting it as " going [ even ] bolder " than American Idiot . Ryan also declared " 21st Century Breakdown reinforces what American Idiot first revealed : Green Day should never be underestimated . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = Album awards = = =
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Billie Joe Armstrong , all music composed by Green Day .
= = = Bonus tracks = = =
All lyrics written by Billie Joe Armstrong , all music composed by Green Day , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
= = Release history = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= 2009 Samsung 500 =
The 2009 Samsung 500 was the seventh stock car race of the 2009 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series . It was held on April 5 , 2009 at Texas Motor Speedway in Fort Worth , Texas before a crowd of 176 @,@ 300 people . The 334 @-@ lap race was won by Jeff Gordon of the Hendrick Motorsports team after starting from second position . His teammate Jimmie Johnson finished second and Greg Biffle came in third .
David Reutimann won the pole position , and maintained his lead going into the first corner to begin the race , but Gordon took over the lead before the first lap was over . Afterward , Reutimann took back the lead , holding it until Matt Kenseth passed him on lap 47 . Gordon led after the final pit stops . In the final laps , Johnson was gaining on Gordon , but Gordon maintained his position to win . There were six cautions and twenty @-@ eight lead changes among thirteen different drivers during the race .
The race was Gordon 's first win of the 2009 season , and the eighty @-@ second of his career . The result kept Gordon in the lead of the Drivers ' Championship , one @-@ hundred and sixty @-@ two ahead of Johnson , and one @-@ hundred and eighty ahead of Kurt Busch . Chevrolet increased its lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship , ten points ahead of Ford , who bumped Toyota to third place , with twenty @-@ nine races remaining in the season remaining . The race attracted 7 @.@ 4 million television viewers .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Texas Motor Speedway is one of ten intermediate to hold NASCAR races , the others being Atlanta Motor Speedway , Kansas Speedway , Chicagoland Speedway , Darlington Raceway , Homestead Miami Speedway , New Hampshire Motor Speedway , Kentucky Speedway , Las Vegas Motor Speedway , and Charlotte Motor Speedway . The standard track at Texas Motor Speedway is a four @-@ turn quad @-@ oval track that is 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long . The track 's turns are banked at twenty @-@ four degrees , and both the front stretch ( the location of the finish line ) and the back stretch have a five degree banking .
Before the race , Jeff Gordon led the Drivers ' Championship with 959 points , followed by Clint Bowyer with 870 . Kurt Busch was third with 827 points , Jimmie Johnson was fourth with 817 and Denny Hamlin was fifth with 811 points . Kurt 's younger brother Kyle Busch , along with Tony Stewart , Carl Edwards , Kasey Kahne and Kevin Harvick rounded out the top ten . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet was leading with 39 points , five points ahead of their rival Toyota . Ford , with 32 points , was five points ahead of Dodge in the battle for third place . Edwards was the race 's defending champion .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were before the Sunday race — one on Friday , and two on Saturday . The first session lasted 90 minutes , while the second session lasted 45 minutes . The third and final practice session lasted 60 minutes . During the first practice session , Mark Martin was fastest , placing ahead of David Reutimann in second and Kurt Busch in third . Greg Biffle was scored fourth , and Johnson placed fifth . Jeff Gordon , Edwards , Dale Earnhardt , Jr . , David Stremme and David Ragan rounded out the top ten fastest drivers in the session .
Although forty @-@ eight drivers were entered in the qualifier ; according to NASCAR 's qualifying procedure , only forty @-@ three could race . Each driver ran two laps , with the starting order determined by the competitor 's fastest times . Reutimann clinched his second pole position in the Sprint Cup Series , with a time of 28 @.@ 344 . He was joined on the grid 's front row by Jeff Gordon . Matt Kenseth qualified third , Ragan took fourth , and Paul Menard started fifth . Kahne , Tony Stewart , Kyle Busch , Johnson and Joey Logano rounded out the top ten qualifiers . The five drivers who failed to qualify were Joe Nemechek , Scott Speed , Jeremy Mayfield , Todd Bodine and Scott Riggs . After the qualifier Reutimann said , " We had a great car all day , right off the truck . This pole reminds me of how much things have changed for me in the past few years . I didn 't make the field here two years ago , during a bad time in my racing career . "
On Saturday morning , Reuitmann was fastest in the second practice session , ahead of Johnson in second , and Hamlin in third . Edwards was fourth quickest , and Jeff Gordon took fifth . Stewart , Kurt Busch , Kenseth , Bobby Labonte and Jeff Burton rounded out the top ten . Later that day , Johnson paced the final practice session , with Hamlin and Kyle Busch followed in second and third respectively . Jamie McMurray was fourth fastest , ahead of David Gilliland and Burton . Martin placed seventh , Edwards eighth , Juan Pablo Montoya ninth , and Martin Truex , Jr. tenth .
= = = Race = = =
Television coverage for the race , the seventh of a total of thirty @-@ six in the 2009 season , began at 1 : 30 p.m. EDT live in the United States on Fox . Roger Marsh of Texas Alliance Raceway Ministries began pre @-@ race ceremonies with the invocation . Pianist Lewis Warren , Jr. performed the national anthem , and Contest Winner Mark Fredde commanded the drivers to start their engines . No driver had to move to the rear of the grid at the start of the race .
The race began at 2 : 17 p.m. Jeff Gordon passed Reuitmann almost immediately by the end of the first lap . Three laps later , Kurt Busch collided with Robby Gordon , with the latter sustaining minor damage and both drivers managed to continue . On lap 8 , Reutimann took back the lead from Jeff Gordon . One lap later , Jeff Gordon dropped a further position when he was passed by Kenseth . By lap 20 , Reuitmann had a lead of about 1 @.@ 6 seconds over Kenseth . Kurt Busch , who began the race in twenty @-@ sixth , had moved up seven positions to nineteenth by lap 24 . On lap 29 , Stewart claimed fifth from Menard .
By lap 30 , Earnhardt had moved up eight positions to twelfth . Ten laps later , Reutimann had maintained a lead of 1 @.@ 7 seconds over Kenseth . On lap 42 , Marcos Ambrose moved into seventh . Five laps later , Kenseth claimed the lead off Reutimann who was blocked by Casey Mears . On lap 51 , green flag pit stops began , as Kenseth made a pit stop handling the lead to Stewart . On lap 54 , Kyle Busch became the new race leader after Stewart came into pit road . Kyle Busch made a pit stop one lap later , handing the lead back to Kenseth . By lap 60 , Kenseth had built up his lead over Reutimann by over two seconds . Eight laps later , Stewart passed Reutimann for second .
On lap 79 , Biffle passed Reutimann for third . Seven laps later , Stewart claimed the lead from Kenseth . During the 97th lap , debris was spotted on the track , prompting the first caution of the race . During the caution , all of the drivers on the lead lap made pit stops . Kenseth reclaimed the lead and maintained it at the restart . On the 109th lap , Kyle Busch 's car suffered a cut left front tire from contact with John Andretti , forcing Kyle Busch to come to pit road . Seven laps later , Biffle passed Kenseth for the lead , while Jeff Gordon passed Reuitmann for fourth thirteen laps later . By the 135th lap , Biffle had built a lead over Kenseth to three seconds .
Green flag pit stops began on the 152nd lap ; Kenseth made his pit stop on the same lap . Johnson and Biffle made a pit stop the next lap , handing the lead to Jeff Gordon . After pit stops , Biffle reclaimed the first position . On lap 157 , Elliott Sadler spun out , causing the second caution . None of the leaders elected to pit under the caution . The race restarted on lap 162 with Biffle in the lead , ahead of Kenseth and Jeff Gordon . By the 190th lap , Biffle 's lead was three seconds .
Another round of green flag pit stops began on lap 203 when Truex made a pit stop ; Kenseth was the first of the leaders to pit the following lap . On lap 208 , Jeff Gordon became the new race leader after Biffle came into pit road . After pit stops , Biffle reclaimed the top position . On lap 220 , the third caution was given as Ambrose 's car suffered an engine failure . Jeff Gordon and Martin stayed out , while some of the leaders came to pit road .
Jeff Gordon led the field back up to speed on the restart . On lap 226 , Sam Hornish , Jr. spun and Labonte collided with the wall. prompting the fourth caution ; During the caution , Johnson , Earnhardt and Hamlin made pit stops . Jeff Gordon stayed out of pit road and the led the field to restart on lap 237 . Four laps later , Logano collided with the wall , but escaped with minor damage . On lap 247 , Edwards moved into sixth . Four laps later , a fifth caution came out when Robby Gordon 's car suffered an engine failure . All of the leaders elected to pit under caution , giving the lead to Earnhardt The race restarted on lap 259 . On lap 260 , Jeff Gordon moved back into the lead , while Earnhardt fell back to the seventh position . Three laps later , Edwards passed Brian Vickers to move into ninth .
On lap 290 , Earnhardt Jr was forced onto pit road after colliding with the wall at turn two . One lap later , Ragan drove to pit road because of overheating issues . On the 294th lap , Edwards reclaimed the lead off Gordon , while Ragan drove to the garage , three laps later . On lap 298 , Stewart moved into second after passing Jeff Gordon . Four laps later , a sixth and final caution came out , after Stremme collided with the wall and spun going into turn 3 . Jeff Gordon led on the restart . On lap 309 , Johnson passed Stewart for the second position , while Jeff Gordon built up a 1 @.@ 4 second lead four laps later . On the 314th lap , Biffle moved into the fourth position after passing Johnson . By lap 323 , Jeff Gordon had increased his lead to 1 @.@ 7 seconds over Johnson . Jeff Gordon maintained the lead to win his first race of the 2009 season . Johnson finished second , ahead of Biffle in third , Stewart in fourth , and Kenseth in fifth . Martin , Montoya , Kurt Busch , Burton and Edwards rounded out the top ten finishers .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Jeff Gordon appeared in victory lane to celebrate his first win of the 2009 season in front of 176 @,@ 300 who attended the race . He also earned $ 541 @,@ 874 in race winnings . Gordon was delighted with his victory : " Incredible team effort . This whole year has been amazing . What a great car . I 've never had a car like this at Texas . We finally had one and put it in position . " Johnson was happy with his second @-@ place result , saying , " It was nice to get our car up front and get some clean air on it . We had to work really hard all day long to keep the car right . I 'm very proud of the team . " Third @-@ place finisher Biffle was candid with his performance : " We worked our way all the way back to fourth , third -- 15 more laps , would 've passed [ runner @-@ up Jimmie Johnson ] and then a little while longer we could 've gotten [ Gordon ] . But , I just ran out of time , lost track position and weren 't able to capitalize on it . "
The race results kept Jeff Gordon in the lead of the Drivers ' Championship with 1154 points . Johnson , who finished behind Gordon , moved to second on 992 , eighteen points ahead of Kurt Busch and twenty @-@ five ahead of Bowyer . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet increased their points total to 48 , while Ford advanced to second with 38 and Toyota was bumped to third with 37 . 7 @.@ 4 million people watched the race on television . The race took three hours , twenty @-@ five minutes and twenty @-@ two seconds to complete , and the margin of victory was 0 @.@ 378 seconds .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race results = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
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= Dodo =
The dodo ( Raphus cucullatus ) is an extinct flightless bird that was endemic to the island of Mauritius , east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean . The species died out before 1700 , less than a hundred years after encountering men . The dodo 's closest genetic relative was the also extinct Rodrigues solitaire , the two forming the subfamily Raphinae of the family of pigeons and doves . The closest living relative of the dodo is the Nicobar pigeon . A white dodo was once thought to have existed on the nearby island of Réunion , but this is now thought to have been confusion based on the Réunion ibis and paintings of white dodos .
Subfossil remains show the dodo was about 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) tall and may have weighed 10 @.@ 6 – 21 @.@ 1 kg ( 23 – 47 lb ) in the wild . The dodo 's appearance in life is evidenced only by drawings , paintings , and written accounts from the 17th century . Because these vary considerably , and because only some illustrations are known to have been drawn from live specimens , its exact appearance in life remains unresolved . Similarly , little is known with certainty about its habitat and behaviour . It has been depicted with brownish @-@ grey plumage , yellow feet , a tuft of tail feathers , a grey , naked head , and a black , yellow , and green beak . It used gizzard stones to help digest its food , which is thought to have included fruits , and its main habitat is believed to have been the woods in the drier coastal areas of Mauritius . One account states its clutch consisted of a single egg . It is presumed that the dodo became flightless because of the ready availability of abundant food sources and a relative absence of predators on Mauritius .
The first recorded mention of the dodo was by Dutch sailors in 1598 . In the following years , the bird was hunted by sailors and invasive species , while its habitat was being destroyed . The last widely accepted sighting of a dodo was in 1662 . Its extinction was not immediately noticed , and some considered it to be a mythical creature . In the 19th century , research was conducted on a small quantity of remains of four specimens that had been brought to Europe in the early 17th century . Among these is a dried head , the only soft tissue of the dodo that remains today . Since then , a large amount of subfossil material has been collected on Mauritius , mostly from the Mare aux Songes swamp . The extinction of the dodo within less than a century of its discovery called attention to the previously unrecognised problem of human involvement in the disappearance of entire species . The dodo achieved widespread recognition from its role in the story of Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland , and it has since become a fixture in popular culture , often as a symbol of extinction and obsolescence . It is frequently used as a mascot on Mauritius .
= = Taxonomy = =
The dodo was variously declared a small ostrich , a rail , an albatross , or a vulture , by early scientists . In 1842 , Danish zoologist Johannes Theodor Reinhardt proposed that dodos were ground pigeons , based on studies of a dodo skull he had discovered in the collection of the Natural History Museum of Denmark . This view was met with ridicule , but was later supported by English naturalists Hugh Edwin Strickland and Alexander Gordon Melville in their 1848 monograph The Dodo and Its Kindred , which attempted to separate myth from reality . After dissecting the preserved head and foot of the specimen at the Oxford University Museum and comparing it with the few remains then available of the extinct Rodrigues solitaire ( Pezophaps solitaria ) they concluded that the two were closely related . Strickland stated that although not identical , these birds shared many distinguishing features of the leg bones , otherwise known only in pigeons .
Strickland and Melville established that the dodo was anatomically similar to pigeons in many features . They pointed to the very short keratinous portion of the beak , with its long , slender , naked basal part . Other pigeons also have bare skin around their eyes , almost reaching their beak , as in dodos . The forehead was high in relation to the beak , and the nostril was located low on the middle of the beak and surrounded by skin , a combination of features shared only with pigeons . The legs of the dodo were generally more similar to those of terrestrial pigeons than of other birds , both in their scales and in their skeletal features . Depictions of the large crop hinted at a relationship with pigeons , in which this feature is more developed than in other birds . Pigeons generally have very small clutches , and the dodo is said to have laid a single egg . Like pigeons , the dodo lacked the vomer and septum of the nostrils , and it shared details in the mandible , the zygomatic bone , the palate , and the hallux . The dodo differed from other pigeons mainly in the small size of the wings and the large size of the beak in proportion to the rest of the cranium .
Throughout the 19th century , several species were classified as congeneric with the dodo , including the Rodrigues solitaire and the Réunion solitaire , as Didus solitarius and Raphus solitarius , respectively ( Didus and Raphus being names for the dodo genus used by different authors of the time ) . An atypical 17th @-@ century description of a dodo and bones found on Rodrigues , now known to have belonged to the Rodrigues solitaire , led Abraham Dee Bartlett to name a new species , Didus nazarenus , in 1852 . Based on solitaire remains , it is now a synonym of that species . Crude drawings of the red rail of Mauritius were also misinterpreted as dodo species ; Didus broeckii and Didus herberti .
For many years the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire were placed in a family of their own , the Raphidae ( formerly Dididae ) , because their exact relationships with other pigeons were unresolved . Each was also placed in its own monotypic family ( Raphidae and Pezophapidae , respectively ) , as it was thought that they had evolved their similarities independently . Osteological and DNA analysis has since led to the dissolution of the family Raphidae , and the dodo and solitaire are now placed in their own subfamily , Raphinae , within the family Columbidae .
= = = Etymology = = =
One of the original names for the dodo was the Dutch " Walghvogel " , first used in the journal of Vice Admiral Wybrand van Warwijck , who visited Mauritius during the Second Dutch Expedition to Indonesia in 1598 . Walghe means " tasteless " , " insipid " , or " sickly " , and vogel means " bird " . The name was translated into German as Walchstök or Walchvögel , by Jakob Friedlib . The original Dutch report titled Waarachtige Beschryving was lost , but the English translation survived :
On their left hand was a little island which they named Heemskirk Island , and the bay it selve they called Warwick Bay ... Here they taried 12 @.@ daies to refresh themselues , finding in this place great quantity of foules twice as bigge as swans , which they call Walghstocks or Wallowbirdes being very good meat . But finding an abundance of pigeons & popinnayes [ parrots ] , they disdained any more to eat those great foules calling them Wallowbirds , that is to say lothsome or fulsome birdes .
Another account from that voyage , perhaps the first to mention the dodo , states that the Portuguese referred to them as penguins . The meaning may not have been derived from penguin ( the Portuguese referred to them as " fotilicaios " at the time ) , but from pinion , a reference to the small wings . The crew of the Dutch ship Gelderland referred to the bird as " Dronte " ( meaning " swollen " ) in 1602 , a name that is still used in some languages . This crew also called them " griff @-@ eendt " and " kermisgans " , in reference to fowl fattened for the Kermesse festival in Amsterdam , which was held the day after they anchored on Mauritius .
The etymology of the word dodo is unclear . Some ascribe it to the Dutch word dodoor for " sluggard " , but it is more probably related to Dodaars , which means either " fat @-@ arse " or " knot @-@ arse " , referring to the knot of feathers on the hind end . The first record of the word Dodaars is in Captain Willem Van West @-@ Zanen 's journal in 1602 . The English writer Sir Thomas Herbert was the first to use the word dodo in print in his 1634 travelogue , claiming it was referred to as such by the Portuguese , who had visited Mauritius in 1507 . Another Englishman , Emmanuel Altham , had used the word in a 1628 letter , in which he also claimed the origin was Portuguese . The name " dodar " was introduced into English at the same time as dodo , but was only used until the 18th century . As far as is known , the Portuguese never mentioned the bird . Nevertheless , some sources still state that the word dodo derives from the Portuguese word doudo ( currently doido ) , meaning " fool " or " crazy " . It has also been suggested that dodo was an onomatopoeic approximation of the bird 's call , a two @-@ note pigeon @-@ like sound resembling " doo @-@ doo " .
The Latin name cucullatus ( " hooded " ) was first used by Juan Eusebio Nieremberg in 1635 as Cygnus cucullatus , in reference to Carolus Clusius 's 1605 depiction of a dodo . In his 18th @-@ century classic work Systema Naturae , Carl Linnaeus used cucullatus as the specific name , but combined it with the genus name Struthio ( ostrich ) . Mathurin Jacques Brisson coined the genus name Raphus ( referring to the bustards ) in 1760 , resulting in the current name Raphus cucullatus . In 1766 , Linnaeus coined the new binomial Didus ineptus ( meaning " inept dodo " ) . This has become a synonym of the earlier name because of nomenclatural priority .
= = = Evolution = = =
In 2002 , American geneticist Beth Shapiro and colleagues analysed the DNA of the dodo for the first time . Comparison of mitochondrial cytochrome b and 12S rRNA sequences isolated from a tarsal of the Oxford specimen and a femur of a Rodrigues solitaire confirmed their close relationship and their placement within the Columbidae . The genetic evidence was interpreted as showing the Southeast Asian Nicobar pigeon ( Caloenas nicobarica ) to be their closest living relative , followed by the crowned pigeons ( Goura ) of New Guinea , and the superficially dodo @-@ like tooth @-@ billed pigeon ( Didunculus strigirostris ) from Samoa ( its scientific name refers to its dodo @-@ like beak ) . This clade consists of generally ground @-@ dwelling island endemic pigeons . The following cladogram shows the dodo 's closest relationships within the Columbidae , based on Shapiro et al . , 2002 :
A similar cladogram was published in 2007 , inverting the placement of Goura and Dicunculus and including the pheasant pigeon ( Otidiphaps nobilis ) and the thick @-@ billed ground pigeon ( Trugon terrestris ) at the base of the clade . The DNA used in these studies was obtained from the Oxford specimen , and since this material is degraded , and no usable DNA has been extracted from subfossil remains , these findings still need to be independently verified . Based on behavioural and morphological evidence , Jolyon C. Parish proposed that the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire should be placed in the Gourinae subfamily along with the Groura pigeons and others , in agreement with the genetic evidence . In 2014 , DNA of the only known specimen of the recently extinct spotted green pigeon ( Caloenas maculata ) was analysed , and it was found to be a close relative of the Nicobar pigeon , and thus also the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire .
The 2002 study indicated that the ancestors of the dodo and the solitaire diverged around the Paleogene @-@ Neogene boundary . The Mascarene Islands ( Mauritius , Réunion , and Rodrigues ) , are of volcanic origin and are less than 10 million years old . Therefore , the ancestors of both birds probably remained capable of flight for a considerable time after the separation of their lineage . The Nicobar and spotted green pigeon were placed at the base of a lineage leading to the Raphinae , which indicates the flightless raphines had ancestors that were able to fly , were semi @-@ terrestrial , and inhabited islands . This in turn supports the hypothesis that the ancestors of those birds reached the Mascarene islands by island hopping from South Asia . The lack of mammalian herbivores competing for resources on these islands allowed the solitaire and the dodo to attain very large sizes and flightlessness . Despite its divergent skull morphology and adaptations for larger size , many features of its skeleton remained similar to those of smaller , flying pigeons . Another large , flightless pigeon , the Viti Levu giant pigeon ( Natunaornis gigoura ) , was described in 2001 from subfossil material from Fiji . It was only slightly smaller than the dodo and the solitaire , and it too is thought to have been related to the crowned pigeons .
= = Description = =
As no complete dodo specimens exist , its external appearance , such as plumage and colouration , is hard to determine . Illustrations and written accounts of encounters with the dodo between its discovery and its extinction ( 1598 – 1662 ) are the primary evidence for its external appearance . According to most representations , the dodo had greyish or brownish plumage , with lighter primary feathers and a tuft of curly light feathers high on its rear end . The head was grey and naked , the beak green , black and yellow , and the legs were stout and yellowish , with black claws . A study of the few remaining feathers on the Oxford specimen head showed that they were pennaceous rather than plumaceous ( downy ) and most similar to those of other pigeons .
The bird was sexually dimorphic : males were larger and had proportionally longer beaks . The beak was up to 23 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) in length and had a hooked point . The upper bill was nearly twice as long as the cranium , which was short compared to those of its closest pigeon relatives . The openings of the bony nostrils were elongated along the length of the beak , and they contained no bony septum . The cranium ( excluding the beak ) was wider than it was long , and the frontal bone formed a dome , with the highest point above the hind part of the eye sockets . The skull sloped downwards at the back . The eye sockets occupied much of the hind part of the skull . The sclerotic rings inside the eye were formed by eleven ossicles ( small bones ) , similar to the amount in other pigeons . The mandible was slightly curved , and the hind part was expanded to the side .
Subfossil remains and remnants of the birds that were brought to Europe in the 17th century show that they were very large birds , up to 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) tall , and possibly weighing up to 23 kilograms ( 51 lb ) . The higher weights have been attributed to birds in captivity ; weights in the wild were estimated to have been in the range 10 @.@ 6 – 21 @.@ 1 kg ( 23 – 47 lb ) . A later estimate gives an average weight as low as 10 @.@ 2 kg ( 22 lb ) . This has been questioned , and there is still some controversy . A 2016 study estimated the weight at 10 @.@ 6 to 14 @.@ 3 kg ( 23 to 32 lb ) , based on CT scans of composite skeletons . It has been suggested that the weight depended on the season , and that individuals were fat during cool seasons , but less so during hot .
Many of the skeletal features that distinguish the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire , its closest relative , from pigeons have been attributed to their flightlessness . The pelvic elements were thicker than those of flighted pigeons to support the higher weight , and the pectoral region and the small wings were paedomorphic , meaning that they were underdeveloped and retained juvenile features . The skull , trunk and pelvic limbs were peramorphic , meaning that they changed considerably with age . The dodo shared several other traits with the Rodrigues solitaire , such as features of the skull , pelvis , and sternum , as well as their large size . It differed in other aspects , such as being more robust and shorter than the solitaire , having a larger skull and beak , a rounded skull roof , and smaller orbits . The dodo 's neck and legs were proportionally shorter , and it did not possess an equivalent to the knob present on the solitaire 's wrists .
= = = Contemporary descriptions = = =
Most contemporary descriptions of the dodo are found in ship 's logs and journals of the Dutch East India Company vessels that docked in Mauritius when the Dutch Empire ruled the island . These records were used as guides for future voyages . Few contemporary accounts are reliable , as many seem to be based on earlier accounts , and none were written by scientists . One of the earliest accounts , from van Warwijck 's 1598 journal , describes the bird as follows :
Blue parrots are very numerous there , as well as other birds ; among which are a kind , conspicuous for their size , larger than our swans , with huge heads only half covered with skin as if clothed with a hood . These birds lack wings , in the place of which 3 or 4 blackish feathers protrude . The tail consists of a few soft incurved feathers , which are ash coloured . These we used to call ' Walghvogel ' , for the reason that the longer and oftener they were cooked , the less soft and more insipid eating they became . Nevertheless their belly and breast were of a pleasant flavour and easily masticated .
One of the most detailed descriptions is by Sir Thomas Herbert in A Relation of Some Yeares Travaille into Afrique and the Greater Asia from 1634 :
First here only and in Dygarrois [ Rodrigues , likely referring to the solitaire ] is generated the Dodo , which for shape and rareness may antagonize the Phoenix of Arabia : her body is round and fat , few weigh less than fifty pound . It is reputed more for wonder than for food , greasie stomackes may seeke after them , but to the delicate they are offensive and of no nourishment . Her visage darts forth melancholy , as sensible of Nature 's injurie in framing so great a body to be guided with complementall wings , so small and impotent , that they serve only to prove her bird . The halfe of her head is naked seeming couered with a fine vaile , her bill is crooked downwards , in midst is the trill [ nostril ] , from which part to the end tis a light green , mixed with pale yellow tincture ; her eyes are small and like to Diamonds , round and rowling ; her clothing downy feathers , her train three small plumes , short and inproportionable , her legs suiting her body , her pounces sharpe , her appetite strong and greedy . Stones and iron are digested , which description will better be conceived in her representation .
= = = Contemporary depictions = = =
The travel journal of the Dutch ship Gelderland ( 1601 – 1603 ) , rediscovered in the 1860s , contains the only known sketches of living or recently killed specimens drawn on Mauritius . They have been attributed to the professional artist Joris Joostensz Laerle , who also drew other now @-@ extinct Mauritian birds , and to a second , less refined artist . Apart from these sketches , it is unknown how many of the twenty or so 17th @-@ century illustrations of the dodos were drawn from life or from stuffed specimens , which affects their reliability .
All post @-@ 1638 depictions appear to be based on earlier images , around the time reports mentioning dodos became rarer . Differences in the depictions led authors such as Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans and Masauji Hachisuka to speculate about sexual dimorphism , ontogenic traits , seasonal variation , and even the existence of different species , but these theories are not accepted today . Because details such as markings of the beak , the form of the tail feathers , and colouration vary from account to account , it is impossible to determine the exact morphology of these features , whether they signal age or sex , or if they even reflect reality . Dodo specialist Julian Hume argued that the nostrils of the living dodo would have been slits , as seen in the Gelderland , Cornelis Saftleven , Crocker Art Gallery , and Ustad Mansur images . According to this claim , the gaping nostrils often seen in paintings indicate that taxidermy specimens were used as models .
The traditional image of the dodo is of a very fat and clumsy bird , but this view may be exaggerated . The general opinion of scientists today is that many old European depictions were based on overfed captive birds or crudely stuffed specimens . It has also been suggested that the images might show dodos with puffed feathers , as part of display behaviour . The Dutch painter Roelant Savery was the most prolific and influential illustrator of the dodo , having made at least ten depictions , often showing it in the lower corners . A famous painting of his from 1626 , now called Edwards 's Dodo as it was once owned by the ornithologist George Edwards , has since become the standard image of a dodo . It is housed in the Natural History Museum , London . The image shows a particularly fat bird and is the source for many other dodo illustrations .
An Indian Mughal painting rediscovered in St. Petersburg in the 1950s shows a dodo along with native Indian birds . It depicts a slimmer , brownish bird , and its discoverer A. Iwanow and dodo specialist Julian Hume regard it as one of the most accurate depictions of the living dodo ; the surrounding birds are clearly identifiable and depicted with appropriate colouring . It is believed to be from the 17th century and has been attributed to artist Ustad Mansur . The bird depicted probably lived in the menagerie of Mughal Emperor Jahangir , located in Surat , where English traveller Peter Mundy also claimed to have seen dodos . In 2014 , another Indian illustration of a dodo was reported , but it was found to be derivative of an 1836 German illustration .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Little is known of the behaviour of the dodo , as most contemporary descriptions are very brief . Based on weight estimates , it has been suggested the male could reach the age of 21 , and the female 17 . Studies of the cantilever strength of its leg bones indicate that it could run quite fast . The legs were robust and strong to support the bulk of the bird , and also made it agile and manoeuvrable in the dense , pre @-@ human landscape . Though the wings were small , muscle insertions show that they may have been used for display behaviour and balance , and were therefore not completely vestigial . Unlike the Rodrigues solitaire , there is no evidence that the dodo used its wings in intraspecific combat . Though some dodo bones have been found with healed fractures , it had weak pectoral muscles and more reduced wings in comparison . The dodo may instead have used its large , hooked beak in territorial disputes . Since Mauritius receives more rainfall and has less seasonal variation than Rodrigues , which would have affected the availability of resources on the island , the dodo would have less reason to evolve aggressive territorial behaviour . The Rodrigues solitaire was therefore probably the more aggressive of the two .
The preferred habitat of the dodo is unknown , but old descriptions suggest that it inhabited the woods on the drier coastal areas of south and west Mauritius . This view is supported by the fact that the Mare aux Songes swamp is close to the sea in south @-@ eastern Mauritius . Such a limited distribution across the island could well have contributed to its extinction . A 1601 map from the Gelderland journal shows a small island off the coast of Mauritius where dodos were caught . Julian Hume has suggested this island was in Tamarin Bay , on the west coast of Mauritius . Subfossil bones have also been found inside caves in highland areas , indicating that it once occurred on mountains . Work at the Mare aux Songes swamp has shown that its habitat was dominated by tambalacoque and Pandanus trees and endemic palms . The near @-@ coastal placement and wetness of the Mare aux Songes led to a high diversity of plant species , whereas the surrounding areas were drier .
Many endemic species of Mauritius became extinct after the arrival of humans , so the ecosystem of the island is badly damaged and hard to reconstruct . Before humans arrived , Mauritius was entirely covered in forests , but very little remains of them today , because of deforestation . The surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened . The dodo lived alongside other recently extinct Mauritian birds such as the flightless red rail , the broad @-@ billed parrot , the Mascarene grey parakeet , the Mauritius blue pigeon , the Mauritius owl , the Mascarene coot , the Mauritian shelduck , the Mauritian duck , and the Mauritius night heron . Extinct Mauritian reptiles include the saddle @-@ backed Mauritius giant tortoise , the domed Mauritius giant tortoise , the Mauritian giant skink , and the Round Island burrowing boa . The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail Tropidophora carinata lived on Mauritius and Réunion , but vanished from both islands . Some plants , such as Casearia tinifolia and the palm orchid , have also become extinct .
= = = Diet = = =
A 1631 Dutch document , rediscovered in 1887 but now lost , is the only account of the dodo 's diet and also mentions that it used its beak for defence :
These mayors are superb and proud . They displayed themselves to us with stiff and stern faces , and wide @-@ open mouths . Jaunty and audacious of gait , they would scarcely move a foot before us . Their war weapon was their mouth , with which they could bite fiercely ; their food was fruit ; they were not well feathered but abundantly covered with fat . Many of them were brought onboard to the delight of us all .
In addition to fallen fruits , the dodo probably subsisted on nuts , seeds , bulbs , and roots . It has also been suggested that the dodo might have eaten crabs and shellfish , like their relatives the crowned pigeons . Its feeding habits must have been versatile , since captive specimens were probably given a wide range of food on the long sea journeys . Anthonie Oudemans suggested that as Mauritius has marked dry and wet seasons , the dodo probably fattened itself on ripe fruits at the end of the wet season to survive the dry season , when food was scarce ; contemporary reports describe the bird 's " greedy " appetite . France Staub suggested that they mainly fed on palm fruits , and he attempted to correlate the fat @-@ cycle of the dodo with the fruiting regime of the palms . Skeletal elements of the upper jaw appear to have been rhynchokinetic ( movable in relation to each other ) , which must have affected its feeding behaviour . In extant birds , such as frugivorous ( fruit @-@ eating ) pigeons , kinetic premaxillae help with consuming large food items . In 2016 , the first 3D endocast was made from the brain of the dodo ; examination found that though the brain was similar to that of other pigeons in most respects , the dodo had a comparatively large olfactory bulb . This gave the dodo a good sense of smell , which may have aided in locating fruit and small prey .
Several contemporary sources state that the dodo used Gastroliths ( gizzard stones ) to aid digestion . The English writer Sir Hamon L 'Estrange witnessed a live bird in London and described it as follows :
About 1638 , as I walked London streets , I saw the picture of a strange looking fowle hung out upon a clothe and myselfe with one or two more in company went in to see it . It was kept in a chamber , and was a great fowle somewhat bigger than the largest Turkey cock , and so legged and footed , but stouter and thicker and of more erect shape , coloured before like the breast of a young cock fesan , and on the back of a dunn or dearc colour . The keeper called it a Dodo , and in the ende of a chymney in the chamber there lay a heape of large pebble stones , whereof hee gave it many in our sight , some as big as nutmegs , and the keeper told us that she eats them ( conducing to digestion ) , and though I remember not how far the keeper was questioned therein , yet I am confident that afterwards she cast them all again .
It is not known how the young were fed , but related pigeons provide crop milk . Contemporary depictions show a large crop , which was probably used to add space for food storage and to produce crop milk . It has been suggested that the maximum size attained by the dodo and the solitaire was limited by the amount of crop milk they could produce for their young during early growth .
In 1973 , the tambalacoque , also known as the dodo tree , was thought to be dying out on Mauritus , to which it is endemic . There were supposedly only 13 specimens left , all estimated to be about 300 years old . Stanley Temple hypothesised that it depended on the dodo for its propagation , and that its seeds would germinate only after passing through the bird 's digestive tract . He claimed that the tambalacoque was now nearly coextinct because of the disappearance of the dodo . Temple overlooked reports from the 1940s that found that tambalacoque seeds germinated , albeit very rarely , without being abraded during digestion . Others have contested his hypothesis and suggested that the decline of the tree was exaggerated , or seeds were also distributed by other extinct animals such as Cylindraspis tortoises , fruit bats or the broad @-@ billed parrot . According to Wendy Strahm and Anthony Cheke , two experts in the ecology of the Mascarene Islands , the tree , while rare , has germinated since the demise of the dodo and numbers several hundred , not 13 as claimed by Temple , hence discrediting Temple 's view as to the dodo and the tree 's sole survival relationship .
It has been suggested that the broad @-@ billed parrot may have depended on dodos and Cylindraspis tortoises to eat palm fruits and excrete their seeds , which became food for the parrots . Anodorhynchus macaws depended on now @-@ extinct South American megafauna in the same way , but now rely on domesticated cattle for this service .
= = = Reproduction = = =
As it was flightless and terrestrial and there were no mammalian predators or other kinds of natural enemy on Mauritius , the dodo probably nested on the ground . The account by François Cauche from 1651 is the only description of the egg and the call :
I have seen in Mauritius birds bigger than a Swan , without feathers on the body , which is covered with a black down ; the hinder part is round , the rump adorned with curled feathers as many in number as the bird is years old . In place of wings they have feathers like these last , black and curved , without webs . They have no tongues , the beak is large , curving a little downwards ; their legs are long , scaly , with only three toes on each foot . It has a cry like a gosling , and is by no means so savoury to eat as the Flamingos and Ducks of which we have just spoken . They only lay one egg which is white , the size of a halfpenny roll , by the side of which they place a white stone the size of a hen 's egg . They lay on grass which they collect , and make their nests in the forests ; if one kills the young one , a grey stone is found in the gizzard . We call them Oiseaux de Nazaret . The fat is excellent to give ease to the muscles and nerves .
Cauche 's account is problematic , since it also mentions that the bird he was describing had three toes and no tongue , unlike dodos . This led some to believe that Cauche was describing a new species of dodo ( " Didus nazarenus " ) . The description was most probably mingled with that of a cassowary , and Cauche 's writings have other inconsistencies . A mention of a " young ostrich " taken on board a ship in 1617 is the only other reference to a possible juvenile dodo . An egg claimed to be that of a dodo is stored in the museum of East London , South Africa . It was donated by Marjorie Courtenay @-@ Latimer , whose great aunt had received it from a captain who claimed to have found it in a swamp on Mauritius . In 2010 , the curator of the museum proposed using genetic studies to determine its authenticity . It may instead be an aberrant ostrich egg .
Because of the possible single @-@ egg clutch and the bird 's large size , it has been proposed that the dodo was K @-@ selected , meaning that it produced a low number of altricial offspring , which required parental care until they matured . Some evidence , including the large size and the fact that tropical and frugivorous birds have slower growth rates , indicates that the bird may have had a protracted development period . The fact that no juvenile dodos have been found in the Mare aux Songes swamp , where most dodo remains have been excavated , may indicate that they produced little offspring , that they matured rapidly , that the breeding grounds were far away from the swamp , or that the risk of miring was seasonal .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Mauritius had previously been visited by Arab vessels in the Middle Ages and Portuguese ships between 1507 and 1513 , but was settled by neither . No records of dodos by these are known , although the Portuguese name for Mauritius , " Cerne ( swan ) Island " , may have been a reference to dodos . The Dutch Empire acquired Mauritius in 1598 , renaming it after Maurice of Nassau , and it was used for the provisioning of trade vessels of the Dutch East India Company henceforward . The earliest known accounts of the dodo were provided by Dutch travelers during the Second Dutch Expedition to Indonesia , led by admiral Jacob van Neck in 1598 . They appear in reports published in 1601 , which also contain the first published illustration of the bird . Since the first sailors to visit Mauritius had been at sea for a long time , their interest in these large birds was mainly culinary . The 1602 journal by Willem Van West @-@ Zanen of the ship Bruin @-@ Vis mentions that 24 – 25 dodos were hunted for food , which were so large that two could scarcely be consumed at mealtime , their remains being preserved by salting . An illustration made for the 1648 published version of this journal , showing the killing of dodos , a dugong , and possibly Mascarene grey parakeets , was captioned with a Dutch poem , here in Hugh Strickland 's 1848 translation :
Some early travellers found dodo meat unsavoury , and preferred to eat parrots and pigeons ; others described it as tough but good . Some hunted dodos only for their gizzards , as this was considered the most delicious part of the bird . Dodos were easy to catch , but hunters had to be careful not to be bitten by their powerful beaks .
The appearance of the dodo and the red rail led Peter Mundy to speculate , 230 years before Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution :
Of these 2 sorts off fowl afforementionede , For oughtt wee yett know , Not any to bee Found out of this Iland , which lyeth aboutt 100 leagues From St. Lawrence . A question may bee demaunded how they should bee here and Not elcewhere , beeing soe Farer From other land and can Neither fly or swymme ; whither by Mixture off kindes producing straunge and Monstrous formes , or the Nature of the Climate , ayer and earth in alltring the First shapes in long tyme , or how .
= = = Dodos transported abroad = = =
The dodo was found interesting enough that living specimens were sent to Europe and the East . The number of transported dodos that reached their destinations alive is uncertain , and it is unknown how they relate to contemporary depictions and the few non @-@ fossil remains in European museums . Based on a combination of contemporary accounts , paintings , and specimens , Julian Hume has inferred that at least eleven transported dodos reached their destinations alive .
Hamon L 'Estrange 's description of a dodo that he saw in London in 1638 is the only account that specifically mentions a live specimen in Europe . In 1626 Adriaen van de Venne drew a dodo that he claimed to have seen in Amsterdam , but he did not mention if it was alive , and his depiction is reminiscent of Savery 's Edwards 's Dodo . Two live specimens were seen by Peter Mundy in Surat , India , between 1628 and 1634 , one of which may have been the individual painted by Ustad Mansur around 1625 . In 1628 , Emmanuel Altham visited Mauritius and sent a letter to his brother in England :
Right wo and lovinge brother , we were ordered by ye said councell to go to an island called Mauritius , lying in 20d. of south latt . , where we arrived ye 28th of May ; this island having many goates , hogs and cowes upon it , and very strange fowles , called by ye portingalls Dodo , which for the rareness of the same , the like being not in ye world but here , I have sent you one by Mr. Perce , who did arrive with the ship William at this island ye 10th of June . [ In the margin of the letter ] Of Mr. Perce you shall receive a jarr of ginger for my sister , some beades for my cousins your daughters , and a bird called a Dodo , if it live .
Whether the dodo survived the journey is unknown , and the letter was destroyed by fire in the 19th century . The earliest known picture of a dodo specimen in Europe is from a c . 1610 collection of paintings depicting animals in the royal menagerie of Emperor Rudolph II in Prague . This collection includes paintings of other Mauritian animals as well , including a red rail . The dodo , which may be a juvenile , seems to have been dried or embalmed , and had probably lived in the emperor 's zoo for a while together with the other animals . That whole stuffed dodos were present in Europe indicates they had been brought alive and died there ; it is unlikely that taxidermists were on board the visiting ships , and spirits were not yet used to preserve biological specimens . Most tropical specimens were preserved as dried heads and feet .
One dodo was reportedly sent as far as Nagasaki , Japan in 1647 , but it was long unknown whether it arrived . Contemporary documents first published in 2014 proved the story , and showed that it had arrived alive . It was meant as a gift , and , despite its rarity , was considered of equal value to a white deer and a bezoar stone . It is the last recorded live dodo in captivity .
= = = Extinction = = =
Like many animals that evolved in isolation from significant predators , the dodo was entirely fearless of humans . This fearlessness and its inability to fly made the dodo easy prey for sailors . Although some scattered reports describe mass killings of dodos for ships ' provisions , archaeological investigations have found scant evidence of human predation . Bones of at least two dodos were found in caves at Baie du Cap that sheltered fugitive slaves and convicts in the 17th century , which would not have been easily accessible to dodos because of the high , broken terrain . The human population on Mauritius ( an area of 1 @,@ 860 km2 or 720 sq mi ) never exceeded 50 people in the 17th century , but they introduced other animals , including dogs , pigs , cats , rats , and crab @-@ eating macaques , which plundered dodo nests and competed for the limited food resources . At the same time , humans destroyed the forest habitat of the dodos . The impact of the introduced animals on the dodo population , especially the pigs and macaques , is today considered more severe than that of hunting . Rats were perhaps not much of a threat to the nests , since dodos would have been used to dealing with local land crabs .
It has been suggested that the dodo may already have been rare or localised before the arrival of humans on Mauritius , since it would have been unlikely to become extinct so rapidly if it had occupied all the remote areas of the island . A 2005 expedition found subfossil remains of dodos and other animals killed by a flash flood . Such mass mortalities would have further jeopardised a species already in danger of becoming extinct . Yet the fact that the dodo survived hundreds of years of volcanic activity and climactic changes shows the bird was resilient within its ecosystem .
Some controversy surrounds the date of their extinction . The last widely accepted record of a dodo sighting is the 1662 report by shipwrecked mariner Volkert Evertsz of the Dutch ship Arnhem , who described birds caught on a small islet off Mauritius , now suggested to be Amber Island :
These animals on our coming up to them stared at us and remained quiet where they stand , not knowing whether they had wings to fly away or legs to run off , and suffering us to approach them as close as we pleased . Amongst these birds were those which in India they call Dod @-@ aersen ( being a kind of very big goose ) ; these birds are unable to fly , and instead of wings , they merely have a few small pins , yet they can run very swiftly . We drove them together into one place in such a manner that we could catch them with our hands , and when we held one of them by its leg , and that upon this it made a great noise , the others all on a sudden came running as fast as they could to its assistance , and by which they were caught and made prisoners also .
The dodos on this islet may not necessarily have been the last members of the species . The last claimed sighting of a dodo was reported in the hunting records of Isaac Johannes Lamotius in 1688 . Statistical analysis of these records by Roberts and Solow gives a new estimated extinction date of 1693 , with a 95 % confidence interval of 1688 – 1715 . The authors also pointed out that because the last sighting before 1662 was in 1638 , the dodo was probably already quite rare by the 1660s , and thus a disputed report from 1674 by an escaped slave cannot be dismissed out of hand .
Anthony Cheke pointed out that some descriptions after 1662 use the names " Dodo " and " Dodaers " when referring to the red rail , indicating that they had been transferred to it after the disappearance of the dodo itself . Cheke therefore points to the 1662 description as the last credible observation . A 1668 account by English traveller John Marshall , who used the names " Dodo " and " Red Hen " interchangeably for the red rail , mentioned that the meat was " hard " , which echoes the description of the meat in the 1681 account . Even the 1662 account has been questioned by Errol Fuller , as the reaction to distress cries matches what was described for the red rail . Until this explanation was proposed , a description of " dodos " from 1681 was thought to be the last account , and that date still has proponents . Recently accessible Dutch manuscripts indicate that no dodos were seen by settlers in 1664 – 1674 . It is unlikely the issue will ever be resolved , unless late reports mentioning the name alongside a physical description are rediscovered . The IUCN Red List accepts Cheke 's rationale for choosing the 1662 date , taking all subsequent reports to refer to red rails . In any case , the dodo was probably extinct by 1700 , about a century after its discovery in 1598 . The Dutch left Mauritius in 1710 , but by then the dodo and most of the large terrestrial vertebrates there had become extinct .
Even though the rareness of the dodo was reported already in the 17th century , its extinction was not recognised until the 19th century . This was partly because , for religious reasons , extinction was not believed possible until later proved so by Georges Cuvier , and partly because many scientists doubted that the dodo had ever existed . It seemed altogether too strange a creature , and many believed it a myth . The bird was first used as an example of human @-@ induced extinction in Penny Magazine in 1833 .
= = Physical remains = =
= = = 17th @-@ century specimens = = =
The only extant remains of dodos taken to Europe in the 17th century are a dried head and foot in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History , a foot once housed in the British Museum but now lost , a skull in the University of Copenhagen Zoological Museum , and an upper jaw and leg bones in the National Museum , Prague . The last two were rediscovered and identified as dodo remains in the mid @-@ 19th century . Several stuffed dodos were also mentioned in old museum inventories , but none are known to have survived . Apart from these remains , a dried foot , which belonged to the Dutch professor Pieter Pauw , was mentioned by Carolus Clusius in 1605 . Its provenance is unknown , and it is now lost , but it may have been collected during the Van Neck voyage .
The only known soft tissue remains , the Oxford head ( specimen OUM 11605 ) and foot , belonged to the last known stuffed dodo , which was first mentioned as part of the Tradescant collection in 1656 and was moved to the Ashmolean Museum in 1659 . It has been suggested that this might be the remains of the bird that Hamon L 'Estrange saw in London , the bird sent by Emanuel Altham , or a donation by Thomas Herbert . Since the remains do not show signs of having been mounted , the specimen might instead have been preserved as a study skin . Many sources state that the museum burned the stuffed dodo around 1755 because of severe decay , saving only the head and leg . Statute 8 of the museum states " That as any particular grows old and perishing the keeper may remove it into one of the closets or other repository ; and some other to be substituted . " The deliberate destruction of the specimen is now believed to be a myth ; it was removed from exhibition to preserve what remained of it . This remaining soft tissue has since degraded further ; the head was dissected by Strickland and Melville , separating the skin from the skull in two halves . The foot is in a skeletal state , with only scraps of skin and tendons . Very few feathers remain on the head . It is probably a female , as the foot is 11 % smaller and more gracile than the London foot , yet appears to be fully grown . The specimen was exhibited at the Oxford museum from at least the 1860s and until 1998 , where @-@ after it was mainly kept in storage to prevent damage . Casts of the head can today be found in many museums worldwide .
The dried London foot , first mentioned in 1665 , and transferred to the British Museum in the 18th century , was displayed next to Savery 's Edwards 's Dodo painting until the 1840s , and it too was dissected by Strickland and Melville . It was not posed in a standing posture , which suggests that it was severed from a fresh specimen , not a mounted one . By 1896 it was mentioned as being without its integuments , and only the bones are believed to remain today , though its present whereabouts are unknown .
The Copenhagen skull ( specimen ZMUC 90 @-@ 806 ) is known to have been part of the collection of Bernardus Paludanus in Enkhuizen until 1651 , when it was moved to the museum in Gottorf Castle , Schleswig . After the castle was occupied by Danish forces in 1702 , the museum collection was assimilated into the Royal Danish collection . The skull was rediscovered by J. T. Reinhardt in 1840 . Based on its history , it may be the oldest known surviving remains of a dodo brought to Europe in the 17th century . It is 13 mm ( 0 @.@ 51 in ) shorter than the Oxford skull , and may have belonged to a female . It was mummified , but the skin has perished .
The front part of a skull ( specimen NMP P6V @-@ 004389 , a syntype of this species ) in the National Museum of Prague was found in 1850 among the remains of the Böhmisches Museum . Other elements supposedly belonging to this specimen have been listed in the literature , but it appears only the partial skull was ever present . It may be what remains of one of the stuffed dodos known to have been at the menagerie of Emperor Rudolph II , possibly the specimen painted by Hoefnagel or Savery there .
= = = Subfossil specimens = = =
Until 1860 , the only known dodo remains were the four incomplete 17th @-@ century specimens . Philip Burnard Ayres found the first subfossil bones in 1860 , which were sent to Richard Owen at the British Museum , who did not publish the findings . In 1863 , Owen requested the Mauritian Bishop Vincent Ryan to spread word that he should be informed if any dodo bones were found . In 1865 , George Clark , the government schoolmaster at Mahébourg , finally found an abundance of subfossil dodo bones in the swamp of Mare aux Songes in Southern Mauritius , after a 30 @-@ year search inspired by Strickland and Melville 's monograph . In 1866 , Clark explained his procedure to The Ibis , an ornithology journal : he had sent his coolies to wade through the centre of the swamp , feeling for bones with their feet . At first they found few bones , until they cut away herbage that covered the deepest part of the swamp , where they found many fossils . The swamp yielded the remains of over 300 dodos , but very few skull and wing bones , possibly because the upper bodies were washed away or scavenged while the lower body was trapped . The situation is similar to many finds of moa remains in New Zealand marshes . Most dodo remains from the Mare aux Songes have a medium to dark brown colouration .
Clark 's reports about the finds rekindled interest in the bird . Sir Richard Owen and Alfred Newton both wanted to be first to describe the post @-@ cranial anatomy of the dodo , and Owen bought a shipment of dodo bones originally meant for Newton , which led to rivalry between the two . Owen described the bones in Memoir on the Dodo in October 1866 , but erroneously based his reconstruction on the Edwards 's Dodo painting by Savery , making it too squat and obese . In 1869 he received more bones and corrected its stance , making it more upright . Newton moved his focus to the Réunion solitaire instead . The remaining bones not sold to Owen or Newton were auctioned off or donated to museums . In 1889 , Théodor Sauzier was commissioned to explore the " historical souvenirs " of Mauritius and find more dodo remains in the Mare aux Songes . He was successful , and also found remains of other extinct species .
In 2005 , after a hundred years of neglect , a part of the Mare aux Songes swamp was excavated by an international team of researchers ( International Dodo Research Project ) . To prevent malaria , the British had covered the swamp with hard core during their rule over Mauritius , which had to be removed . Many remains were found , including bones of at least 17 dodos in various stages of maturity ( though no juveniles ) , and several bones obviously from the skeleton of one individual bird , which have been preserved in their natural position . These findings were made public in December 2005 in the Naturalis museum in Leiden . 63 % of the fossils found in the swamp belonged to turtles of the extinct Cylindraspis genus , and 7 @.@ 1 % belonged to dodos , which had been deposited within several centuries , 4 @,@ 000 years ago . Subsequent excavations suggested that dodos and other animals became mired in the Mare aux Songes while trying to reach water during a long period of severe drought about 4 @,@ 200 years ago . Furthermore , cyanobacteria thrived in the conditions created by the excrements of animals gathered around the swamp , which died of intoxication , dehydration , trampling , and miring . Though many small skeletal elements were found during the recent excavations of the swamp , few were found during the 19th century , probably owing to the employment of less refined methods when collecting .
Louis Etienne Thirioux , an amateur naturalist at Port Louis , also found many dodo remains around 1900 from several locations . They included the first articulated specimen , which is the first subfossil dodo skeleton found outside the Mare aux Songes , and the only remains of a juvenile specimen , a now lost tarsometatarsus . The former specimen was found in 1904 in a cave near Le Pouce mountain , and is the only known complete skeleton of an individual dodo . Thirioux donated the specimen to the Museum Desjardins ( now Natural History Museum at Mauritius Institute ) . Thrioux 's heirs sold a second mounted composite skeleton ( composed of at least two skeletons , with a mainly reconstructed skull ) to the Durban Museum of Natural Science in South Africa in 1918 . Together , these two skeletons represent the most completely known dodo remains , including bone elements previously unrecorded ( such as knee @-@ caps and various wing bones ) . Though some contemporary writers noted the importance of Thrioux 's specimens , they were not scientifically studied , and were largely forgotten until 2011 , when sought out by a group of researchers . The mounted skeletons were laser scanned , from which 3 @-@ D models were reconstructed , which became the basis of a 2016 monograph about the osteology of the dodo . In 2006 , explorers discovered a complete skeleton of a dodo in a lava cave in Mauritius . This was only the second associated skeleton of an individual specimen everfound , and the only one in recent times .
Worldwide , 26 museums have significant holdings of dodo material , almost all found in the Mare aux Songes . The Natural History Museum , American Museum of Natural History , Cambridge University Museum of Zoology , the Senckenberg Museum , and others have almost complete skeletons , assembled from the dissociated subfossil remains of several individuals . In 2011 , a wooden box containing dodo bones from the Edwardian era was rediscovered at the Grant Museum at University College London during preparations for a move . They had been stored with crocodile bones until then .
= = The white dodo = =
The supposed " white dodo " ( or " solitaire " ) of Réunion is now considered an erroneous conjecture based on contemporary reports of the Réunion ibis and 17th @-@ century paintings of white , dodo @-@ like birds by Pieter Withoos and Pieter Holsteyn that surfaced in the 19th century . The confusion began when Willem Ysbrandtszoon Bontekoe , who visited Réunion around 1619 , mentioned fat , flightless birds that he referred to as " Dod @-@ eersen " in his journal , though without mentioning their colouration . When the journal was published in 1646 , it was accompanied by an engraving of a dodo from Savery 's " Crocker Art Gallery sketch " . A white , stocky , and flightless bird was first mentioned as part of the Réunion fauna by Chief Officer J. Tatton in 1625 . Sporadic mentions were subsequently made by Sieur Dubois and other contemporary writers .
Baron Edmond de Sélys Longchamps coined the name Raphus solitarius for these birds in 1848 , as he believed the accounts referred to a species of dodo . When 17th @-@ century paintings of white dodos were discovered by 19th @-@ century naturalists , it was assumed they depicted these birds . Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans suggested that the discrepancy between the paintings and the old descriptions was that the paintings showed females , and that the species was therefore sexually dimorphic . Some authors also believed the birds described were of a species similar to the Rodrigues solitaire , as it was referred to by the same name , or even that there were white species of both dodo and solitaire on the island .
The Pieter Withoos painting , which was discovered first , appears to be based on an earlier painting by Pieter Holsteyn , three versions of which are known to have existed . According to Hume , Cheke , and Valledor de Lozoya , it appears that all depictions of white dodos were based on Roelant Savery 's 1611 painting Landscape with Orpheus and the animals , or on copies of it . The painting shows a whitish specimen and was apparently based on a stuffed specimen then in Prague ; a walghvogel described as having a " dirty off @-@ white colouring " was mentioned in an inventory of specimens in the Prague collection of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II , to whom Savery was contracted at the time ( 1607 – 1611 ) . Savery 's several later images all show greyish birds , possibly because he had by then seen another specimen . Cheke and Hume believe the painted specimen was white , owing to albinism . Valledor de Lozoya has instead suggested that the light plumage was a juvenile trait , a result of bleaching of old taxidermy specimens , or simply artistic license .
In 1987 , scientists described fossils of a recently extinct species of ibis from Réunion with a relatively short beak , Borbonibis latipes , before a connection to the solitaire reports had been made . Cheke suggested to one of the authors , Francois Moutou , that the fossils may have been of the Réunion solitaire , and this suggestion was published in 1995 . The ibis was reassigned to the genus Threskiornis , now combined with the specific epithet solitarius from the binomial R. solitarius . Birds of this genus are also white and black with slender beaks , fitting the old descriptions of the Réunion solitaire . No fossil remains of dodo @-@ like birds have ever been found on the island .
= = Cultural significance = =
The dodo 's significance as one of the best @-@ known extinct animals and its singular appearance led to its use in literature and popular culture as a symbol of an outdated concept or object , as in the expression " dead as a dodo , " which has come to mean unquestionably dead or obsolete . Similarly , the phrase " to go the way of the dodo " means to become extinct or obsolete , to fall out of common usage or practice , or to become a thing of the past . " Dodo " is also a slang term for a stupid , dull @-@ witted person , as it was supposedly stupid and easily caught .
The dodo appears frequently in works of popular fiction , and even before its extinction , it was featured in European literature , as symbol for exotic lands , and of gluttony , due to its apparent fatness . In 1865 , the same year that George Clark started to publish reports about excavated dodo fossils , the newly vindicated bird was featured as a character in Lewis Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland . It is thought that he included the dodo because he identified with it and had adopted the name as a nickname for himself because of his stammer , which made him accidentally introduce himself as " Do @-@ do @-@ dodgson " , his legal surname . The book 's popularity made the dodo a well @-@ known icon of extinction .
The dodo is used as a mascot for many kinds of products , especially in Mauritius . The dodo appears as a supporter on the coat of arms of Mauritius . It is also used as a watermark on all Mauritian rupee banknotes . A smiling dodo is the symbol of the Brasseries de Bourbon , a popular brewer on Réunion , whose emblem displays the white species once thought to have lived there .
The dodo is used to promote the protection of endangered species by environmental organisations , such as the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and the Durrell Wildlife Park . The Center for Biological Diversity gives an annual ' Rubber Dodo Award ' , to " those who have done the most to destroy wild places , species and biological diversity " . In 2011 , the nephilid spider Nephilengys dodo , which inhabits the same woods as the dodo once did , was named after the bird to raise awareness of the urgent need for protection of the Mauritius biota . Two species of ant from Mauritius have been named after the dodo : Pseudolasius dodo in 1946 and Pheidole dodo in 2013 . A species of isopod from a coral reef off Réunion was named Hansenium dodo in 1991 . The name dodo has been used by scientists naming genetic elements , honoring the dodo 's flightless nature . A fruitfly gene within a region of a chromosome required for flying ability was named " dodo " . In addition , a defective transposable element family from Phytophthora infestans was named DodoPi as it contained mutations that eliminated the element 's ability to jump to new locations in a chromosome .
In 2009 , a previously unpublished 17th @-@ century Dutch illustration of a dodo went for sale at Christie 's and was expected to sell for £ 6 @,@ 000 . It is unknown whether the illustration was based on a specimen or on a previous image . It sold for £ 44 @,@ 450 .
The poet Thomas Lovell Beddoes included a lyric in his play Death 's Jest @-@ Book in which the spirit of an aborted fetus considers reincarnating as various animals , concluding :
The poet Hilaire Belloc included the following poem about the dodo in his Bad Child 's Book of Beasts from 1896 :
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= Aetosaur =
Aetosaurs ( aetosaur / eɪˌɛtoʊˈsɔːr / ; order name Aetosauria / eɪˌɛtoʊˈsɔːriə / ; from Greek , ἀετός ( aetos , " eagle " ) and σαυρος ( sauros , " lizard " ) ) are an extinct order of heavily armoured , medium- to large @-@ sized Late Triassic herbivorous archosaurs . They have small heads , upturned snouts , erect limbs , and a body covered by plate @-@ like scutes . All aetosaurs belong to the family Stagonolepididae . Two distinct subdivisions of aeotosaurs are currently recognized , Desmatosuchinae and Aetosaurinae , based primarily on differences in the morphology of the bony scutes of the two groups . Over 20 genera of aetosaurs have been described , and recently there has been controversy regarding the description of some of these genera .
Aetosaur fossil remains are known from Europe , North and South America , parts of Africa and India . Since their armoured plates are often preserved and are abundant in certain localities , aetosaurs serve as important Late Triassic tetrapod index fossils . Many aetosaurs had wide geographic ranges , but their stratigraphic ranges were relatively short . Therefore , the presence of particular aetosaurs can accurately date a site that they are found in .
Aetosaur remains have been found since the early 19th century , although the very first remains that were described were mistaken for fish scales . Aetosaurs were later recognized as crocodile relatives , with early paleontologists considering them to be semiaquatic scavengers . They are now considered to have been entirely terrestrial animals . Some forms have characteristics that may have been adaptations to digging for food . There is also evidence that some if not all aetosaurs made nests .
= = Description = =
The head is small relative to the large body , and quite distinctive in shape , being flat and blunt at the front , like the snout of a pig . Some teeth are chisel @-@ shaped , small and leaf @-@ like , indicating a probable herbivorous diet , although peg @-@ like teeth and a keratinous snout have been considered possible adaptations in some species for feeding on colonial insects . A study of the braincase of Stagonolepis robertsoni has shown that there are similarities between it and those of crocodylomorphs , which may indicate a close relationship .
Aetosaurs had a " pillar @-@ erect " erect limb posture similar to that seen in Rauisuchia , a related group of Triassic archosaurs . A pillar @-@ erect limb posture is one where the femur articulates vertically with the acetabulum of the hip , which is angled downward , so that the leg is positioned beneath the body and acts as a pillar bearing weight . While the limb posture is similar to rauisuchians , the feet resemble those of phytosaurs ( crocodile @-@ like semiaquatic crurotarsans ) in the retention of primitive characteristics . Although the forelimbs are much smaller than the hind limbs , all aetosaurs were quadrupeds .
Aetosaurs were very heavily armored ( most certainly as a defense against predators ) , with large quadrangular , interlocking bony plates , or osteoderms , protecting the back and sides , belly , and tail . Most osteoderms are heavily pitted on their upper surfaces and smooth on their undersides . Their centers are made of cancellous or spongy bone ( also called diploë ) and their outer portions are made up of compact bone . In life , these plates were probably covered in horn . Dorsal osteoderms , which are found on the backs of aetosaurs , are often ornamented with radial grooves . Dorsal paramedians , those found along the midline of the animal , are often wide and quadrangular with a small boss called a dorsal eminence on the dorsal surface of each plate . In aetosaurs , paramedian plates often have raised or depressed anterior edges where the plates articulate with the ones in front of them . If the anterior edge is raised , the area is called an anterior bar , while if it is depressed , the area is called an anterior lamina . In lateral plates , which are positioned on either side of the paramedian plates , the dorsal eminence is often enlarged into a prominent spike . This spike is especially noticeable in desmatosuchines such as Longosuchus and Desmatosuchus . Osteoderms are useful in diagnosing aetosaur taxa , and aetosaur species can often be identified from individual scutes based on their ornamentation pattern .
Primitive genera , like the widespread Norian genus Aetosaurus and the Carnian Coahomasuchus , tended to be small , about a metre ( 3 @.@ 2 ft ) in length . However , more advanced forms were larger - about 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) in length - with some taxa , such as Typothorax and Paratypothorax , possessing broad turtle @-@ like bodies , and others , like Desmatosuchus , a narrow @-@ bodied genus at least 4 metres ( 13 ft ) long , equipped with large spines over the shoulders , which added to the animal 's defensive armament .
= = History = =
Aetosaur material was first described by Swiss paleontologist Louis Agassiz in 1844 . He named the genus Stagonolepis from the Lossiemouth Sandstone in Elgin , Scotland , but considered it to be a Devonian fish rather than a Triassic reptile . This may be because he considered the strata to be part of the Old Red Sandstone , and thus Paleozoic in age . Agassiz mistook the osteoderms for large rhomboidal scales , which he thought were arranged in a similar pattern to those of gars . He also thought that these supposed scales were very similar to those of the lobe @-@ finned fish Megalichthys due to their large size .
English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley reconsidered the fish scales described by Agassiz and considered them to belong to a crocodilian . He first proposed this to the Geological Society of London in 1858 , and went into more detail in an 1875 paper in the society 's quarterly journal . By this time , new material had been uncovered from Elgin that indicated that Stagonolepis was not a fish , but a reptile . However , Stagonolepis was still known primarily by scutes and imprints of scutes , many of which were not well preserved .
More complete aetosaur remains were found from the Lower Stubensandtein of Germany in the 1870s . Among them were complete articulated skeletons of 22 aetosaurs . These specimens were found in a large sandstone outcrop near Stuttgart and were preserved together in an area less than 2 square metres in size . The animals were probably buried under lake sediment soon after they died , with the flow of water repositioning their bodies on the lake bed and putting them in close proximity to one another . In 1877 , German paleontologist Oskar Fraas assigned these specimens to the newly erected genus Aetosaurus . Fraas named the genus after the skull 's resemblance to the head of an eagle , with a narrow , elongate skull and a pointed snout .
The first aetosaurs from North America were also being described at this time . American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope named Typothorax in 1875 and Episcoposaurus in 1877 , both of which were from New Mexico . However , Cope considered these genera to be phytosaurs , crocodile @-@ like aquatic archosaurs that were also common in the Late Triassic . While new material referable to Typothorax has been found in recent years throughout the American southwest , Episcoposaurus is no longer considered valid . Cope , along with later paleontologists such as Friedrich von Huene , recognized that remains of the type species E. horridus actually belonged to Typothorax . Another species , E. haplocerus , was reassigned to Desmatosuchus in 1953 .
A third North American genus called Stegomus was named by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1896 . Marsh had a long @-@ time rivalry with Cope that was made famous in the Bone Wars of the late 19th century , in which the two tried to out @-@ compete one another in the field and in scientific literature . Unlike Cope 's aetosaurs , Stegomus was found from the eastern United States in Connecticut . Marsh also recognized Stegomus as an aetosaur rather than a phytosaur in his initial description of the genus . Like Cope , many paleontologists tended to consider aetosaur scutes to belong to phytosaurs during this time period .
Aetosauria was first named in 1889 by English naturalist Richard Lydekker and zoologist Henry Alleyne Nicholson . They considered Aetosauria to be one of three suborders of the order Crocodilia , the other two being Parasuchia ( a Triassic group ) and Eusuchia ( a group including all post @-@ Triassic crocodiles ) . At the time , Cope considered Aetosauria to belong to Rhynchocephalia , an order of reptiles that includes the living tuatara . He also thought that the tightly fitting osteoderms , which were thought to be fused to the ribs , indicated that aetosaurs were transitional between rhynchocephalians and turtles . Nicholson and Lydekker placed a single family within the suborder , Aëtosauridæ . They considered aetosaurs to be similar to living crocodilians apart from their elongated metatarsals , which were compared to those of dinosaurs . In fact , Marsh considered aetosaurs to be closely related to dinosaurs because both had similar metatarsals .
Aetosaur material continued to be described into the early 20th century , with notable paleontologists such as Barnum Brown and Charles Camp collecting specimens . However , aetosaur remains were still being confused with those of phytosaurs . During this time , aetosaurs were usually considered to be members of Pseudosuchia , a now obsolete group consisting of various Triassic archosaurs including phytosaurs . However , similarities were often observed between aetosaurs and Crocodilia , the group to which aetosaurs were initially referred in the 19th century . While the skull had many features in common with pseudosuchians , parts of the postcranial skeleton , in particular the scutes , seemed to be similar to those of crocodilians .
= = Distribution = =
Aetosaur fossils have been found on all continents except Australia and Antarctica , giving them a nearly worldwide distribution during the Late Triassic . Many aetosaur remains have been found from the Chinle Group in the southwestern United States . Most fossils have been found from Arizona , New Mexico , and Texas . Some remains have also been found from Utah , particularly in Canyonlands National Park and Zion National Park . Aetosaurs are also known from the Newark Supergroup along the East Coast of the United States in states such as Connecticut and North Carolina . Two genera are known from Greenland : Aetosaurus and Paratypothorax . They have been found from the Fleming Fjord Formation in Jameson Land . Longosuchus is the only aetosaur known from Africa , with scutes having been found from the late Carnian Timesgadiouine Formation in Morocco . During the Late Triassic , Morocco would have been in close proximity with the Newark Supergroup of North America in the supercontinent of Pangaea . It is also possible that Desmatosuchus was present in Africa , as fossils have been found from the Zarzaitine Series in Algeria that were referred to the genus .
South American aetosaurs have been found from Argentina , Brazil , and Chile . In Argentina , they are known from the Carnian Ischigualasto Formation . Common genera from Ischigualasto include Aetosauroides and Stagonolepis . In Brazil , fossils have been found in the Santa Maria and Caturrita Formations in Rio Grande do Sul ( Paleorrota ) . Chilean aetosaurs are represented by one genus , Chilenosuchus , from the Antofagasta Region . Aetosaurs have also been found from India , which , along with South America , was part of Gondwana during the Late Triassic . Early descriptions of aetosaurs included material from the Maleri Formation in south @-@ central India , although it was too inadequate to assign specimens to any particular genus . Based on such descriptions , the Indian aetosaurs most closely resemble Longosuchus and Paratypothorax . Reports of aetosaurs from Madagascar are based on probable crocodylomorph scutes .
Footprints belonging to the ichnogenus Brachychirotherium are often associated with aetosaurs . Brachychirotherium has been found from Rio Grande do Sul in Paleorrota , Brazil as well as Italy , Germany , and the eastern United States . They are also common in the southwestern United States , having been found from Canyonlands National Park and Dinosaur National Monument . Many of these tracks have a narrow gauge ( meaning left and right prints are placed closely together ) and nearly overstep each other . A 2011 functional analysis of the skeleton of Typothorax coccinarum indicated that it had the range of movement necessary to produce the tracks .
= = Classification = =
= = = Taxonomy = = =
Aetosaurs belong to Pseudosuchia , a clade of archosaurs that includes living crocodilians and is characterized by the distinctive structure of the ankle bones . Aetosaurs were traditionally referred to a ( now obsolete ) group called the thecodonts , which included all " primitive " crocodilian relatives that lived in the Triassic . With the rise of phylogenetics , aetosaurs were later placed in a group called Suchia , which included many Triassic crurotarsans as well as later crurotarsans , including crocodilians .
Originally , all aetosaurs were considered members of the family Stagonolepididae . Early phylogenetic analyses split aetosaurs into two subfamilies , Aetosaurinae and Desmatosuchinae . Aetosaurines are characterized by projections called eminences on the dorsal paramedian osteoderms that are close to the midline of the back . Desmatosuchines have a few more distinguishing characteristics , including grooves on the dorsal paramedians that help them lock to the lateral plates in a tight articulation . Many desmatosuchines have long spikes projecting from the lateral plates . These spikes are especially prominent in Desmatosuchus . Aetosaurines , on the other hand , tend to have less spikes . Many aetosaurines , such as Aetosaurus and Neoaetosauroides , have smooth carapaces and lack spikes altogether . More recent studies ( see below have favored a third group , Typothoracisinae , which like Desmatosuchinae has long spikes , but differs in having more sharply angled joints between osteoderms . Moreover , the genus Aetosauroides is now often classified outside Stagonolepididae as a non @-@ stagonolepidid aetosaur , making the names Aetosauria and Stagonolepididae no longer synonymous .
= = = = Genera = = = =
= = = Phylogeny = = =
Aetosaur phylogeny was first investigated in 1994 by paleontologist J. Michael Parrish . Aetosauroides , Aetosaurus , Desmatosuchus , Longosuchus , Neoaetosauroides , Stagonolepis , and Typothorax were included in the phylogenetic analysis . Aetosaurs were found to form a clade with rauisuchians , which Parrish termed Rauisuchiformes . Rauisuchiformes also included the superorder Crocodylomorpha , to which living crocodilians belong . Parrish found Aetosauria to be a monophyletic group and thus a true clade consisting of a common aetosaur ancestor and all of its descendants . To phylogenetically define Aetosauria , Parrish identified five synapomorphies , or shared characteristics . The first synapomorphy concerned the jaw , with the premaxilla at its tip being edentulous ( toothless ) , upturned , and wide to form a " shovel " . Moreover , the dentary bone in the lower jaw is also toothless , upturned , and broad . The reduced size and simple conical shape of the teeth was considered another synapomorphy . Two more synapomorphies of aetosaurs are shared with crocodylomorphs , but were not considered to be an indication of a close phylogenetic relationship ; the body is covered in dorsal and ventral armor to form a complete carapace , and the paramedian osteoderms are much wider than they are long , with distinctive pitting . A final synapomorphy was found in the structure of the limb bones . In all aetosaurs , the limbs are very robust , with large muscle attachments such as the deltopectoral crest of the humerus , the fourth trochanter of the femur , the intracondylar ridge of the tibia , and the iliofibularis trochanter of the fibula .
In Parrish 's phylogenetic analysis , Aetosaurus was found to be the most basal member of the clade , the earliest to diverge after the most recent common ancestor . After Aetosaurus , there is a polytomy of three smaller clades in which it is unknown which clade diverged first from the group . Within this polytomy there was Neoaetosauroides , a clade containing Aetosauroides and Stagonolepis , and another polytomy that included Longosuchus , Desmatosuchus , and a clade containing Paratypothorax and Typothorax .
A later study by paleontologists Andrew B. Heckert and Spencer G. Lucas in 1999 expanded the number of synapomorphies that diagnose Aetosauria to 18 . New synapomorphies included temporal fenestrae , or holes , that opened on the side of the skull rather than the top , lateral osteoderms articulating with the paramedians , and osteoderms covering the limbs . Aetosaurus was still found to be the most basal member , but the phylogeny of more derived aetosaurs differed in that Typothorax and Paratypothorax were split into two different clades with their sister taxa being Desmatosuchus and Longosuchus , respectively . More importantly , a new aetosaur called Coahomasuchus was included in the analysis . Coahomasuchus was found to be a basal aetosaur closely related to Stagonolepis , and also appeared early in the fossil record of aetosaurs . Previously , basal members were only known from later times , occurring after more advanced aetosaurs .
In 2003 , paleontologists Simon R. Harris , David J. Gower , and Mark Wilkinson examined previous phylogenetic studies of aetosaurs and criticized the way in which they used certain characters to produce cladograms . They concluded that only three hypotheses of aetosaur relationships from previous studies were still true : that Aetosaurus is the most basal aetosaur , that Aetosauroides is the sister taxon of Stagonolepis robertsoni , and that Longosuchus and Desmatosuchus are more closely related to each other than either is to Neoaetosauroides . They also went on to correct the trees from all previous analyses .
More recently , a 2007 analysis by paleontologist William G. Parker resulted in a larger tree of aetosaur phylogenetics with the inclusion of Heliocanthus . Based on the tree , Parker defined the clades Typothoracisinae and Paratypothoracisini , both within Aetosaurinae . Parker also gave a revised phylogenetic definition of Aetosauria , mentioning that the previous definition , made by Heckert and Lucas in 2000 , was somewhat ambiguous . Heckert & Lucas ( 2000 ) defined Aetosauria as a stem @-@ based taxon , claiming that Aetosauria included all crurotarsans that were more closely related to Desmatosuchus than to the immediate sister group of Aetosauria . Because the immediate sister group of Aetosauria was uncertain , Parker offered a new definition with several non @-@ aetosaur crurotarsan genera rather than one sister group . According to Parker , Aetosauria included all taxa more closely related to Aetosaurus and Desmatosuchus than to Leptosuchus , Postosuchus , Prestosuchus , Poposaurus , Sphenosuchus , Alligator , Gracilisuchus , and Revueltosaurus .
In 2008 , Parker , along with Michelle R. Stocker and Randall B. Irmis , conducted a new phylogenetic analysis which included the newly described Sierritasuchus . Below is the cladogram from Parker et al . ( 2008 ) :
A new genus of aetosaur , Aetobarbakinoides , was named in 2012 . The phylogenetic analysis in that study found Aetosaurinae to be a paraphyletic grouping . As a paraphyletic group , aetosaurines would share a most recent common ancestor that is also the ancestor of other non @-@ aetosaurine aetosaurs , and thus could not form their own clade . Parker 's 2007 analysis accepted this definition . In 2002 , Heckert and Lucas defined Aetosaurinae as " a stem @-@ based taxon containing all taxa more closely related to Aetosaurus than to the last common ancestor of Aetosaurus and Desmatosuchus " . The 2012 study placed Aetosaurus at the base of the stagonolepidid clade , with traditional aetosaurine taxa placed in successively more derived positions . In the analysis , these taxa are actually more closely related to Desmatosuchus than to Aetosaurus . Thus , under Heckert and Lucas 's definition Aetosaurinae might be restricted to only Aetosaurus itself .
Another finding of this study was that Aetosauroides lies outside Stagonolepididae . If this phylogeny is correct , Stagonolepididae and Aetosauria would not be equivalent groupings , and Aetosauroides would be the first non @-@ stagonolepidid aetosaur . The following cladogram simplified after an analysis presented by Julia B. Desojo , Martin D. Ezcurra and Edio E. Kischlat ( 2012 ) .
= = = Evolution = = =
Although aetosaurs are known exclusively from the Late Triassic , their currently accepted position in archosaur phylogeny indicates that they originated from more basal pseudosuchian archosaurs in the Early or Middle Triassic . Given that aetosaurs are highly specialized with many anatomical features not seen in other pseudosuchians , the group 's evolutionary origins are poorly understood . The recent discovery of complete specimens of the Late Triassic pseudosuchian Revueltosaurus callenderi indicate that it may have been close to the ancestry of aetosaurs . Several phylogenetic analyses place it as the sister taxon or closest relative of Aetosauria . Like aetosaurs , Revueltosaurus has two rows of paramedian osteoderms along its back and , in the cheek region of the skull , a maxilla that fits into a groove of the jugal bone . One phylogenetic analysis places Turfanosuchus dabanensis , a Middle Triassic pseudosuchian , as the sister taxon of Revueltosaurus and Aetosauria , potentially making it the earliest known " stem aetosaur " ( " stem " meaning that it lies on the branch that includes aetosaurs , but is not itself an aetosaur ) .
In 2012 a third " stem aetosaur " was described from the Middle Triassic Manda Beds of Tanzania . It differs from other Middle Triassic pseudosuchians in having a long skull , a small antorbital fenestra that fits into a large antorbital fossa in front of the eye socket , sharp and curved teeth , and osteoderms covering much of its body . Like aetosaurs and Revueltosaurus , it has a maxilla that fits into the jugal . Revueltosaurus , Turfanosuchus , and the unnamed Tanzanian pseudosuchian are all good fits for the hypothesized ancestor of aetosaurs because they both have double rows of leaf @-@ shaped osteoderms along their backs that could potentially have evolved into the tightly fitting paramedian osteoderms of aetosaurs .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Early interpretations = = =
In 1904 , American paleontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn described aetosaurs as carnivorous aquatic animals of the order Parasuchia , mentioning that " [ Parasuchia ] constitutes an independent order , probably freshwater , littoral , carnivorous , short snouted ( Aëtosaurus ) or long snouted ( Phytosaurus , Mystriosuchus ) forms , analogous in their habits to the modern Crocodilia " . Early aetosaur remains were often found in clays beside skeletons of aquatic animals such as phytosaurs and terrestrial animals such as dinosaurs and trilophosaurs . This may have led some paleontologists to believe that the animals had died in swampy environments . Because there were a large number of skeletons of animals that would not normally have inhabited swamps in these clays , some paleontologists even suggested that aetosaurs scavenged off the carcasses of animals that became trapped in the swamps and died . Doubts were later raised over this lifestyle , since aetosaur teeth show little indication of carnivory and the weight of the armor suggests that aetosaurs had " a passive mode of life . " However , aetosaurs were still regarded as partly aquatic into the mid @-@ 20th century .
= = = Feeding = = =
Aetosaurs were herbivores , likely feeding on ferns and seed ferns that were common in the Triassic . The upturned shape of their snout suggests that aetosaurs may have dug up roots and tubers . Aetosaurs have several anatomical features that may have been adaptations to digging , including a short radius relative to the humerus ( seen in many other digging tetrapods ) and a large deltopectoral crest on the humerus that served as an attachment for muscles . Aetosaurs also have large hind feet , or pes , with large claws that were likely used for skratch @-@ digging . One aetosaur , Typothorax , has an entepicondyle on the humerus , which is the origin of forearm pronator and manual flexor muscles often used in digging . Moreover , it has a large olecranon process on the ulna which projects backward past the elbow , giving a large area for the insertion of the triceps muscle . While many studies have suggested that aetosaurs had a fossorial or burrowing lifestyle , aetosaurs have few of the characteristics that fossorial animals have as adaptations to digging . Therefore , it is likely that aetosaurs were able to dig to some extent , possibly rooting for food , but were unable to burrow .
While features of the limbs indicate that aetosaurs probably dug for food , features of the skull and teeth can indicate what kind of food they were eating . Aetosaurs have many derived features not seen in other crurotarsans , which indicate that they are adapted to a different diet . Unlike the sharp , recurved teeth of other triassic archosaurs , aetosaurs had simple , conical teeth . The tips of the jaws were edentulous , or toothless , and probably supported a beak . The teeth have very little wear , suggesting that aetosaurs did not consume stiff and tough plant material . It is more likely that they consumed non @-@ abrasive vegetation such as soft leaves .
Alternative theories have been proposed for the diet of aetosaurs . In 1947 , H J Sawin proposed that the aetosaur Longosuchus was a scavenger based on the close proximity of some specimens to a large number of skeletons that were likely carcasses . A 2009 study of the jaw biomechanics of the South American genus Neoaetosauroides suggested that the animal may have fed on larvae and insects without hard exoskeletons . This is because Neoaetosauroides lacks serrations or wear facets on the teeth and has a jaw leverage that is not designed for strong forces such as crushing and chopping . The study recognized that northern aetosaurs such as Desmatosuchus and Stagonolepis did have jaws that would have supported a strong musculature , and were likely better suited to eating plant material .
= = = Nests = = =
At least some aetosaurs built nests and protected their eggs . In 1996 , geologist Stephen Hasiotis discovered 220 ‑ million @-@ year @-@ old , fossilized , bowl @-@ like nests in Arizona 's Petrified Forest , in part of the Chinle Formation . The oldest such nests that have been found belonged to phytosaurs and aetosaurs . The nests are compacted and appear very similar to the nests of the modern day crocodiles who guard their nests . The nests were holes dug in the sand in the bank of an ancient river .
A second possible aetosaur nest site is known from northeastern Italy . The nests are preserved as depressions in carbonate rock that are circular or horseshoe @-@ shaped , with high ridges around the sides . They appear to be unusually complex for nests created by Triassic reptiles . Archosaur footprints were found nearby that resembled aetosaurs , although they were not present in the same layer . Because the tracks were found so close to the nests , it is likely that aetosaurs built them .
= = = Growth = = =
The ages of individual aetosaurs can be determined by examining their osteoderms . Some isolated osteoderms have been claimed to belong to juvenile aetosaurs based on their size and shape but these hypotheses have often been questioned . For example , juvenile osteoderms of Calyptosuchus were later identified as those of the small @-@ bodied pseudosuchian Revueltosaurus ( which is not an aetosaur ) , and juvenile osteoderms of Desmatosuchus have been reinterpreted as those of aetosaur Acaenasuchus , which had a relatively small body size at maturity . Studies of the bone structure of paramedian osteoderms indicate that new bone was deposited along the edges of each plate over the course of an aetosaur 's lifetime . This means that lines of arrested growth on the undersides of paramedian osteoderms can be used to determine an individual 's age . Comparing the ages of individual specimens with their total body lengths indicates that aetosaurs increased in length at relatively constant rates , but increased in body mass at different rates depending on whether they had wide bodies like Typothorax or narrow bodies like Aetobarbakinoides . Aetosaurs also seem to have grown more slowly than modern crocodilians . Analysis of the limb bones of aetosaurs indicates that they grew quickly when young and more slowly when adults . This pattern of growth is seen in most other pseudosuchians .
= = Biochronology = =
Because species of aetosaurs typically have restricted fossil ranges and are abundant in the strata they are found in , they are useful in biochronology . Osteoderms are the most common remains associated with aetosaurs , so a single identifiable scute can accurately date the layer it is found in .
One aetosaur , Typothorax coccinarum , has been used to define the Revueltian land vertebrate faunachron . A land vertebrate faunachron ( LVF ) is a time interval that is defined by the first appearance datum ( FAD ) , or first occurrence , of a tetrapod index fossil and is commonly used to date Late Triassic and Early Jurassic terrestrial strata . Since the FAD of T. coccinarum is at the beginning of the Norian stage , the Revueltian LVF starts at the beginning of the Norian around 216 million years ago . The Revueltian ends with the next FAD , which happens to be that of the phytosaur Redondasaurus and the start of the Apachean LVF .
Biochrons for aetosaur genera have been developed for dating strata in the Chinle Group of the southwestern United States . Up to 13 genera of aetosaurs are known from the Chinle Group , with most occurring in multiple localities and over short time spans . In 1996 , paleontologists Spencer G. Lucas and Andrew B. Heckert recognized five biochrons based on the presence of aetosaurs throughout the Chinle Group . The number of biochrons grew to 11 in a 2007 study by Heckert and Lucas along with Adrian P. Hunt and Justin A. Spielmann . These biochrons occurred from the Otischalkian LVF to the Apachean LVF and included genera such as Longosuchus , Tecovasuchus , and Typothorax .
= = Naming controversy = =
In 2007 , paleontologists at the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science in Albuquerque , New Mexico were accused of plagiarism in some of their published articles dealing with aetosaurs . In late 2006 , the genus Rioarribasuchus was erected as a replacement name for " Desmatosuchus " chamaensis in the museum 's bulletin . However , four years earlier paleontologist William Parker reassigned " D. " chamaensis to the newly named genus Heliocanthus in an unpublished thesis . Because the name was not published , it was considered a nomen nudum until 2007 when it was described in the Journal of Systematic Palaeontology . The authors of the 2006 paper , Spencer G. Lucas , Adrian P. Hunt , and Justin A. Spielmann , were accused of " intellectual theft " by paleontologists Jeff Martz , Mike Taylor , Matt Wedel , and Darren Naish , who claimed that they knew that Parker was eventually going to redescribe the species and formally erect a new genus . According to Martz , Taylor , Wedel , and Naish , the authors rushed to publish their own name before Parker could publish his .
Another controversy occurred after Spielmann , Hunt , and Lucas published a 2006 paper mentioning that the holotype of Redondasuchus was not a left paramedian but a right one . In 2002 , Martz came to the same conclusion in an unpublished thesis . He , along with Taylor , Wedel , and Naish , claimed that this was another form of plagiarism .
These allegations were brought to the attention of the Ethics Education Committee of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology ( SVP ) in 2007 , and a response was given in 2008 . In regard to Redondasuchus , the SVP found no plagiarism involved , while in the case of Heliocanthus and Rioarribasuchus , the SVP did not try to resolve the issue .
The entire controversy came to be known as " Aetogate " , in reference to the famous Watergate scandal of the 1970s . It received wide attention from local Albuquerque newspapers and science blogs . It was also the focus of a news article in a 2008 issue of the journal Nature .
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= Portia schultzi =
Portia schultzi is a jumping spider which ranges from South Africa in the south to Kenya in the north , and also is found in West Africa and Madagascar . In this species , which is slightly smaller than some other species of the genus Portia , the bodies of females are 5 to 7 mm long , while those of males are 4 to 6 mm long . The carapaces of both sexes are orange @-@ brown with dark brown mottling , and covered with dark brown and whitish hairs lying over the surface . Males have white tufts on their thoraces and a broad white band above the bases of the legs , and these features are less conspicuous in females . Both sexes have tufts of orange to dark orange above the eyes , which are fringed with pale orange hairs . Males ' abdomens are yellow @-@ orange to orange @-@ brown with blackish mottling , and on the upper sides are black and light orange hairs , and nine white tufts . Those of females are pale yellow and have black markings with scattered white and orange @-@ brown hairs on the upper side . P. schultzi has relativity longer legs than other Portia , and a " lolloping " gait .
While most jumping spiders focus accurately up to about 75 cm away , P. schultzi responds to a maximum of about 10 cm in good light , and ignores everything in very subdued light . For prey , P. schultzi prefers web @-@ based spiders , then jumping spiders , and finally insects . The females of P. schultzi and other Portia species build " capture webs " to catch prey , and often join their own webs on to web @-@ based spiders to catch the other spiders or their prey .
If a P. schultzi female is mature , a male P. schultzi will try to copulate with her , or cohabit with a subadult female and copulate while she is moulting . They usually mate on a web or on a dragline made by the female , and P. schultzi typically copulates for about 100 seconds , while others in the genus can take several minutes or even several hours . Females try to kill and eat their mates during or after copulation , and subadult females mimic adult females to attract males as prey . Contests between Portia females are violent , and embraces in P. schultzi typically take 20 to 60 seconds . Sometimes , one female knocks the other on her back and the other may be killed and eaten if she does not right herself quickly and run way . When hunting , P. schultzi mature females emit olfactory signals that reduce the risk that any other females , males , or juveniles of the same species may contend for the same prey .
= = Body structure and appearance = =
The bodies of female P. schultzis are 5 to 7 mm long ( smaller than other Portia species ) , while those of males are 4 to 6 mm long . : 433 The carapaces of both sexes are orange @-@ brown with dark brown mottling , and covered with dark brown and whitish hairs lying over the surface . Males have white tufts on their thoraxes and broad white band above the bases of the legs , and these features are less conspicuous in females . Both sexes have tufts of orange to dark orange above the eyes , which are fringed with pale orange hairs . Females ' chelicerae are pale yellow with black markings at the ends , while males ' orange @-@ brown with darker markings , and those of both sexes have pale orange and white hairs . The abdomens of females are pale yellow with black markings and the upper sides have scattered white and orange @-@ brown hairs . Males ' abdomens yellow @-@ orange to orange @-@ brown with blackish mottling , and on the upper sides are black and light orange hairs , and nine white tufts . Those of females ' are pale yellow and have black markings with scattered white and orange @-@ brown hairs on the upper side , but no tufts . : 88 @-@ 89 The legs of both sexes are unusually long and slender , : 34 and those of male 's are orange @-@ brown with darker markings while those of females are light yellow with blackish markings . : 88 @-@ 89 In both sexes the final two segment of each leg has no other decorations , : 34 but the other segments in both sexes have brownish hairs and many robust spines , and those of males also scattered white tufts . The palps of both sexes have pale yellow hairs and white fringes . : 88 @-@ 89 All species of the genus Portia have elastic abdomens , so that those of both sexes can become almost spherical when well fed , and females ' can stretch as much when producing eggs . : 495
= = Movement = =
When not hunting for prey or a mate , Portia species , including P. schultzi , : 31 adopt a special posture , called the " cryptic rest posture " , pulling their legs in close to the body and their palps back beside the chelicerae ( " jaws " ) , which obscures the outlines of these appendages . When walking , most Portia species have a slow , " choppy " gait that preserves their concealment : pausing often and at irregular intervals , waving their legs continuously and their palps jerkily up and down , moving each appendage out of time with the others , : 6 and continuously varying the speed and timing . : 418 P. schultzi uses what Forster and Murphy ( 1986 ) call a " lolloping " gait , : 34 @-@ 35 flexing and stretching the legs . They suggest that the long legs are advantageous for moving through webs , and that lolloping enables P. schultzi to use the long legs while keeping the body near the surface . : 34
Like many species of spider , a P. schultzi lays a continuous dragline of silk as it moves , and from time to time anchors the dragline to a surface with a spot of sticky silk . This allows the spider to return to the surface if the animal is dislodged . A spider about to jump first lays a sticky silk anchor , and then lays out a dragline as it flies . : 574 Unlike those of most jumping spiders , P. schultzi ′ s draglines stick to each other and , when a P. schultzi has laid a few lines across a gap , it uses these as walkways and reinforces them with additional silk as it moves . : 34
When disturbed , most leap upwards about 100 to 150 mm , often from the cryptic rest pose , and often over a wide trajectory . Usually Portia then either freezes or runs about 100 mm and then freezes . : 434
= = Senses = =
Although other spiders can also jump , salticids including P. schultzi have significantly better vision than other spiders , : 521 and their main eyes are more acute in daylight than a cat 's and 10 times more acute than a dragonfly 's . Jumping spiders have eight eyes , the two large ones in the center @-@ and @-@ front position ( the anteriomedian eyes , also called " principal eyes " : 51 ) housed in tubes in the head and providing acute vision . The other six are secondary eyes , positioned along the sides of the carapace and acting mainly as movement detectors . : 16 In most jumping spiders , the middle pair of secondary eyes is very small and has no known function , but those of Portia are relatively large , and function as well as those of the other secondary eyes . : 424 : 232 Jumping spiders ' main eyes can see from red to ultraviolet .
In most jumping spiders , the main eyes focus accurately on an object up to about 75 cm away . : 51 , 53 However , P. schultzi does not react at all to objectives when the light is under 100 lux . Between 100 and 500 lux , it detects and approaches the objective from distances up to 6 cm , from 500 lux to 1500 lux , its response distance increases gradually to a maximum of about 10 cm , and stronger light causes no increase in the response distance . For comparison , Trite auricoma swivels towards a movement up to 75 cm away and approaches targets from about 20 cm . Perhaps P. schultzi gains little from being alerted to objectives at distances because this spider moves so slowly that it is very unlikely to reach a more distant target in time to catch it . : 37
Like all jumping spiders , P. schultzi can take in only a small visual field at one time , as the most acute part of a main eye can see all of a circle up to 12 millimeters wide at 20 centimeters away , or up to 18 millimeters wide at 30 centimeters away . A Portia spider takes a relatively long time to see objects , possibly because getting a good image out of such tiny eyes is a complex process and needs a lot of scanning . This makes a Portia vulnerable to much larger predators such as birds , frogs , and mantises , which it often cannot identify because of the other predator 's size .
Spiders , like other arthropods , have sensors , often modified setae ( bristles ) , for smell , taste , touch and vibration protruding through their cuticle ( " skin " ) . : 532 @-@ 533 Unlike insects , spiders and other chelicerates do not have antennae . A Portia can sense vibrations from surfaces , and use these for mating and for hunting other spiders in total darkness . It can use air- and surface " smells " to detect prey which it often meets , to identify members of the same species , to recognise familiar members , and to determine the sex of other member of the same species . : 13
= = Hunting tactics = =
= = = Tactics used by most jumping spiders and by most of genus Portia = = =
Members of the genus Portia have hunting tactics as versatile and adaptable as a lion 's . All members of Portia have instinctive tactics for their most common prey , but can improvise by trial and error against unfamiliar prey or in unfamiliar situations , and then remember the new approach . They can also make detours to find the best attack angle against dangerous prey , even when the best detour takes it out of visual contact with the prey , and sometimes the planned route leads to abseiling down a silk thread and biting the prey from behind . Such detours may take up to an hour , and it usually picks the best route even if it needs to walk past an incorrect route . : 422 If a Portia spider makes a mistake while hunting another spider , it may itself be killed .
While most jumping spiders prey mainly on insects and by active hunting , : 340 females of Portia also build webs to catch prey directly . These " capture webs " are funnel @-@ shaped and widest at the top : 513 and are about 4 @,@ 000 cm3 in volume . : 429 @-@ 431 The web is initially built in about 2 hours , and then gradually made stronger . : 239 A Portia spider often joins her own web on to one of a web @-@ based nonsalticid spider . When not joined to another spiders ' , a P. schultzi female 's capture web may be suspended from rigid foundations such as boughs and rocks , or from pliant bases such as stems of shrubs . : 432 Males of Portia do not build capture webs . : 429
Portias hunt in all types of webs , : 491 while other cursorial spiders generally have difficulty moving on webs , and web @-@ building spiders find it difficult to move in webs unlike those they build . : 424 Where the web is sparse , a Portia will use " rotary probing " , in which it moves a free leg around until it meets a thread . : 433 @-@ 434 When hunting in another spider 's web , a Portia ′ s slow , choppy movements and the flaps on its legs make it resemble leaf detritus caught in the web and blown in a breeze . : 514 P. schultzi and some other Portias use breezes and other disturbances as " smokescreens " in which these predators can approach web spiders more quickly , and revert to a more cautious approach when the disturbance disappears . : 313 A few web spiders run far away when they sense the un @-@ rhythmical gait of a Portia entering the web - a reaction Wilcox and Jackson call " Portia panic " . : 418
If a large insect is struggling in a web , Portia usually does not usually take the insect , but waits for up to a day until the insect stops struggling , even if the prey is thoroughly stuck . : 448 When an insect stuck in a web owned by P. schultzi , P. labiata or any regional variant of P. fimbriata , and next to a web spider 's web , the web spider sometimes enters the Portia ′ s web , and the Portia pursues and catches the web spider . : 440 @-@ 441 , 444
The webs of spiders on which Portias prey sometimes contain dead insects and other arthropods which are uneaten or partly eaten . P. schultzi and some other Portias such as P. fimbriata ( in Queensland ) and P. labiata sometimes scavenge these corpses if the corpses are not obviously decayed . : 448
A Portia typically takes 3 to 5 minutes to pursuit prey , but some pursuits can take much longer , and in extreme cases close to 10 hours when pursuing a web @-@ based spider . : 439
All Portias eat eggs of other spiders , including eggs of their own species and of other cursorial spiders , and can extract eggs from cases ranging from the flimsy ones of Pholcus to the tough papery ones of Philoponella . While only P. fimbriata ( in Queensland ) captures cursorial spiders in their nests , all Portias steal eggs from empty nests of cursorial spiders . : 448
Portias ' venom is unusually powerful against spiders . : 491 When a Portia stabs a small to medium spider ( up to the Portia ′ s weight : 428 ) , including another Portia , the prey usually runs away for about 100 to 200 millimetres , enters convulsions , becomes paralysed after 10 to 30 seconds , and continues convulsing for 10 seconds to 4 minutes . Portia slowly approaches the prey and takes it . : 441 @-@ 443 Portia usually needs to inflict up to 15 stabbings to completely immobilise a larger spider ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 times to the Portia ′ s weight : 428 ) , and then Portia may wait about 20 to 200 millimetres away for 15 to 30 minutes from seizing the prey . : 441 @-@ 443 Insects are usually not immobilised so quickly but continue to struggle , sometimes for several minutes . If Portia cannot make further contact , all types of prey usually recover , making sluggish movements several minutes after the stabbing but often starting normal movement only after an hour . : 441 @-@ 443
Occasionally a Portia is killed or injured while pursuing prey up to twice Portia ′ s size . In tests , P. schultzi is killed in 1 @.@ 7 % of pursuits and injured but not killed in 5 @.@ 3 % , P. labiata is killed in 2 @.@ 1 % and injured but not killed in 3 @.@ 9 % , and P. fimbriata in Queensland is killed in 0 @.@ 06 % of its pursuits and injured but not killed in another 0 @.@ 06 % . A Portia ′ s especially tough skin often prevents injury , even when its body is caught in the other spider 's fangs . When injured , Portia bleeds and may sometimes loses one or more legs . Spiders ' palps and legs break off easily when attacked , Portia ′ s palps and legs break off exceptionally easily , which may be a defence mechanism , and Portias are often seen with missing legs or palps , while other salticids in the same habitat are not seen with missing legs or palps . : 440 @-@ 450
= = = Tactics used by Portia schultzi = = =
All performance statistics summarise result of tests in a laboratory , using captive specimens . : 429 @-@ 430 The following table shows the hunting performance of adult females . In addition to P. schultzi , the table shows for comparison the hunting performances of P. africana , P. labiata and three regional variants of P. fimbriata . : 424 , 432 , 434
For resting , all Portias spin a horizontal web whose diameter is about twice the spider 's body length and is suspended only 1 to 4 millimetres below a leaf . : 496 , 513 P. schultzi returns to its resting platform at night . While eating prey at dusk and with no platform nearby , one P. schultzi built a silk platform while holding the prey , and then continued eating . : 34
P. schultzi does not respond to prey if the light is under 100 lux ( like a restaurant with only subdued artificial lighting ) , but responds to prey at distances from 6 to 10 centimetres as the light level increases . A test suggested that P. schultzi ′ s hunting is stimulated only by vision , as prey close but hidden caused no response . : 37 A preliminary check showed that lures got the same responses from P. schultzi as live prey , and then more detailed testing with the lures showed that : if the target moved erratically , P. schultzi did not pursue it ; if the target was totally stationary , the spider approached very slow ( between 5 and 100 millimetres per minute ) , with very long pauses in the final stages , and the sequence was not completed in 43 % of cases ; if the lure jiggled on the same spot , P. schultzi approached much faster and the sequence was almost always completed ; if a lure was pulled directly away from P. schultzi , the spider followed , and faster if the lure was pulled , up to a limit ( P. schultzi generally moves very slowly : 34 @-@ 35 ) . : 37 @-@ 38
A female P. schultzi more often pursues small jumping spiders and web spiders than larger prey . While it more often catches small jumping spiders than larger ones , it is about equally effective with all sizes of web spiders up to twice P. schultzi ′ s size . : 437 @-@ 439 A female P. schultzi is effective against insects up to twice P. schultzi ′ s size when the insect is stuck in a non @-@ salticid 's web , and against insects not in webs and up to P. schultzi ′ s size , while P. schultzi seldom pursues or catches a larger insect in the open . A female P. schultzi very seldom pursues or catches a larger insect in her own web , and is slightly less effective against smaller insects in P. schultzi ′ s web than in other situations . : 439 Males are less efficient in all cases . : 436
A test in 1997 showed that P. schultzi ′ s preferences for different types of prey are in the order : web spiders ; jumping spiders ; and insects . : 337 @-@ 339 These preferences apply to both live prey and motionless lures , and to P. schultzi specimens without prey for 7 days ( " well @-@ fed " : 335 ) and without prey for 14 days ( " starved " : 335 ) . P. schultzi specimens without prey for 21 days ( " extra @-@ starved " ) showed no preference for different types of prey . : 339 The test included as prey several species of web spiders and jumping spiders , and the selection of the prey species showed no evidence of affecting the results . : 337 @-@ 339 Insects were represented by the house fly Musca domestica . : 335
In a test , P. schultzi spiderlings took Drosophila ( " fruit flies " ) almost as often as spiders . P. schultzi retreats from the sudden flights of houseflies found in the open , but sometimes takes flies entangled in a web . : 38 @-@ 39 Out of its web , P. schultzi rarely capture thomisids ( non @-@ web sit @-@ and @-@ wait predators , usually under 13 millimetres long ) in the open , as thomisids often wave their front legs when threatened . : 38 @-@ 39
If a spider walks under a P. schultzi female 's capture web and the vertical distance is less than 8 centimetres , the P. schultzi often drops on to the prey too fast for a human eye to follow . If the P. schultzi misses , it quickly returns up its safety line to its vantage point and looks for another chance - and seldom misses the second time . Most drops cover two to four centimetres , as longer drops are often obstructed by the web . : 36
When hunting a web spider in the prey 's web , a P. schultzi walks very slowly towards the prey and then , when two to three centimetres away , pauses for some minutes . During this time the P. schultzi quivers very quickly with its whole body at regular intervals . In almost all cases the prey stays motionless . P. schultzi never plucks the web as Portia fimbriata does . : 37
Unlike the Queensland variant of P. frimbriata , P. schultzi has no special tactics when hunting other jumping spiders . : 343
When hunting , mature females of P. fimbriata , P. africana , P. fimbriata , P. labiata , and P. schultzi emit olfactory signals that reduce the risk that any other females , males or juveniles of the same species may contend for the same prey . The effect inhibits aggressive mimicry against a prey spider even if the prey spider is visible , and also if the prey is inhabiting any part of a web . If a female of one of these Portias smells a male of the same species , the female stimulates the males to court . These Portia species do not show this behaviour when they receive olfactory signals from members of other Portia species .
= = Reproduction and lifecycle = =
Before courtship , a male Portia spins a small web between boughs or twigs , and he hangs under that and ejaculates on to it . : 467 He then soaks the semen into reservoirs on his pedipalps , : 581 @-@ 583 which are larger than those of females . : 572 @-@ 573 Females of many spider species , including P. schultzi , emit volatile pheromones into the air , and these generally attract males from a distance . : 517 : 36
Among P. schultzi and some other Portias , when adults of the same species but opposite sexes recognise each other , they display at 10 to 30 centimetres . Males usually wait for 2 to 15 minutes before starting a display , but sometimes a female starts a display first . : 461 Portias sometimes use " propulsive displays " , with which a member threatens a rival of the same species and sex , and unreceptive females also threaten males in this way . : 343 A propulsive display is a series of sudden , quick movements including striking , charging , ramming and leaps . : 455 In P. schultzi and in some other species , contests between males usually last only 5 to 10 seconds , and only their legs make contact . : 466 Contests between Portia females are violent : 518 and embraces in P. schultzi typically take 20 to 60 seconds . These occasionally include grappling that sometimes breaks a leg , but more usually the final move is a lunge . Sometimes one knocks the other on her back and the other may be killed and eaten if she does not right herself quickly and run way . If the loser has a nest , the winner takes over and eats any eggs there . : 466 @-@ 467
A female P. schultzi that sees a male may approach slowly or wait . The male then walks erect and displaying by waving his legs and palps . If the female does not run away , she gives a propulsive display first . If the male stands his ground and she does not run away or repeat the propulsive display , he approaches and , if she is mature , they copulate . : 461 @-@ 464 If the female is sub @-@ adult ( one moult from maturity ) , a male may cohabit in the female 's capture web . : 467 Portias usually mate on a web or on a dragline made by the female . : 518 P. schultzi typically copulates for about 100 seconds , : 465 while other genera can take several minutes or even several hours . : 518 : 465
Females of P. schultzi , like those of P. labiata , try to kill and eat their mates during or after copulation , by twisting and lunging . The males wait until the females have hunched their legs , making this attack less likely . Males also try to abseil from a silk thread to approach from above , but females may manoeuvre to get the higher position . If the female moves at all , the male leaps and runs away . : 343
Before being mature enough to mate , females of P. shultzi and also P. labiata mimic adult females to attract males as prey .
P. schultzi usually lays eggs on dead , brown leaves about 20 millimetres long , suspended near the top of its capture web , and then cover the eggs with a sheet of silk . If there is no dead leaf available , the female will make a small horizontal silk platform in the capture web , lay the eggs on it , and then cover the eggs . : 434 @-@ 435 P. schultzi has been seen laying eggs in a rolled @-@ up leaf in a web of Ischnothele karschi . : 33
For moulting , all Portias spin a horizontal web whose diameter is about twice the spider 's body length and is suspended only 1 to 4 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 039 to 0 @.@ 157 in ) below a leaf . The spider lies head down , and often slides down 20 to 30 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 18 in ) during moulting . : 496 Portias spin a similar temporary web for resting . : 513 Like all arthropods , spiders moult and , after hatching , the life stage before each moult is called an " instar " . The distinctive tufts of P. schultzi juveniles appear in the third instar . : 33
P. schultzi exuviae ( discarded " skins " ) have been found both in their own webs and in those of I. karschi , which has suggested that P. schultzi moults in the open . In one case , while its new skin was still pale and soft , its spinnerets were still stuck in the discarded skin , and the spider slowly twirled for about 90 seconds until it was free . The spider 's body then darkened quickly to the normal colouration , and some time later the spider hung in its usual upside @-@ down posture in the web . : 35
= = Ecology = =
P. schultzi ′ s range runs from Durban ( in South Africa ) in the south to Malindi ( in Kenya ) in the north , and westwards to the East African Rift , and also in West Africa and Madagascar . : 30
P. schultzi , along with a large variety of spiders and insects , is often found in the dense , large webs of the diplurid Ischnothele karschi ( about 15 millimetres long : 31 ) , which are especially abundant in partly cleared secondary bush where rain forests have been cut down , and usually about one metre above the ground . A survey of one area suggested that there is about one P. schultzi per three I. karschi webs . P. schultzi is also found in its own web and those of other spiders , on tree trunks and the walls of buildings , and in leaf litter . : 30 @-@ 32
= = Taxonomy = =
P. schultzi is one of 17 species in the genus Portia as of June 2011 . This species has been named Portia schultzii ( Karsch , 1878 ) , Brettus martini ( Simon , 1900 ) , Linus lesserti ( Lawrence , 1937 ) , Linus alboguttatus ( Lawrence , 1938 ) , Portia schultzii ( Wanless , 1978 ) , Portia alboguttata ( Wanless , 1978 ) , Portia schultzi ( Simon , 1901 ; Jackson & Hallas , 1986 ; Próchniewicz , 1989 ) , and the last name has been used since then . : 424 : 88
Wanless divided the genus Portia into two species groups : the schultzi group , in which males ' palps have a fixed tibial apophysis ; and the kenti group , in which the apophysis of each palp in the males has a joint separated by a membrane . : 87 – 88 The schultzi group includes P. schultzi , P. africana , P. fimbriata , and P. labiata . : 93 – 94 , 99 – 100 , 102 – 105
Portia is in the subfamily Spartaeinae , which is thought to be primitive . : 491 Molecular phylogeny , a technique that compares the DNA of organisms to reconstruct the tree of life , indicates that Portia is a member of the clade Spartaeinae , that Spartaeinae is basal ( quite similar to the ancestors of all jumping spiders ) , that Portia ′ s closest relative is the genus Spartaeus , and that the next closest are Phaeacius and Holcolaetis . : 53
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= Say Hello to My Little Friend =
" Say Hello to My Little Friend " is the eleventh episode of the American television police procedural fantasy drama Awake , which originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) on May 10 , 2012 . Written by Leonard Chang and series creator Kyle Killen , " Say Hello to My Little Friend " earned a Nielsen rating of 0 @.@ 9 , being watched by 2 @.@ 51 million viewers upon its initial broadcast in the United States . Directed by recurring guest actress Laura Innes , the episode generally received positive reviews , with many critics claiming that it was the best episode of the series since " Pilot " and that Jason Isaacs ' performance deserved an Emmy Award .
Awake centers on Michael Britten ( Isaacs ) , a detective living in two separate realities after a car crash . In one reality , in which he wears a red wristband , his wife Hannah Britten ( Laura Allen ) survived the collision , and in another reality , in which he wears a green wristband , his son Rex Britten ( Dylan Minnette ) survived . In this episode , Michael passes out during a bungee jump while he is at a carnival with Rex and Emma ( Daniela Bobadilla ) . He is unable to switch realities , consistently hallucinates and realizes that Ed Hawkins ( Kevin Weisman ) , a detective who is working with Michael 's former partner Bird ( Steve Harris ) , was attempting to kill him in the crash . Meanwhile , Hannah deals with Emma 's new baby by trying to convince her parents to let her keep the baby .
Shortly after this episode was broadcast , NBC announced their decision to cancel Awake , due to declining ratings , although NBC still decided to air the remaining two episodes in the show 's original time slot . Isaacs found " Say Hello to My Little Friend " the most difficult to shoot , and had to imagine an awful thing happening to his family . It was filmed in Los Angeles , California , and continued and introduced key thematic elements to the series .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
The Brittens are involved in a fatal car crash . As a result , Michael Britten , a Los Angeles Police Department ( LAPD ) detective , begins to live in two separate realities . In one reality , in which he wears a red wristband , his wife Hannah Britten ( Laura Allen ) survives the crash , and in the other reality , in which he wears a green wristband , his son Rex Britten ( Dylan Minnette ) survives . Michael does not know which reality is real , and uses the wristbands to differentiate the two .
Michael sees two separate therapists : Dr. Jonathan Lee ( BD Wong ) in the " red reality " , and Dr. Judith Evans ( Cherry Jones ) in the " green reality " . Meanwhile , in the " red reality " , Michael and Hannah continue with their plan to move to Oregon . Michael works with Detective Isaiah " Bird " Freeman ( Steve Harris ) in the " green reality " and with Detective Efrem Vega ( Wilmer Valderrama ) in the " red reality " after the collision .
= = = Events = = =
Dr. Lee asks Michael about his latest experience with the " green reality " . At a police carnival at an amusement park , Emma ( Daniela Bobadilla ) , Rex 's girlfriend , asks if she and Rex can bungee jump . As they are walking to the ride , Michael bumps into someone who claims that it was his fault . At the ride , Michael goes first , but the person in charge of the ride seems concerned about something ; Michael passes out and wakes up in the " red reality " ( where Hannah is alive , but Rex is dead ) , as if the " green reality " were a dream . In the " red reality " , Dr. Lee says it is progress , that Michael is trying to tell himself that his son is dead and that he is on the verge of a breakthrough . Shortly after getting into his car , Michael suddenly sees the man who he bumped into at the amusement park . Michael sees the mystery man several more times throughout the episode and it becomes more clear the man is only a hallucination .
Michael passes out and remembers events shortly before and after the crash ; Hannah and Rex are singing the Queen song , " Bohemian Rhapsody " . Later , Michael meets with Emma 's father Joaquin ( Carlos Lacamara ) at a coffee shop to discuss the new baby , the mystery man appears to let Michael know that he sees the real mystery man through the window and Michael chases after him . When a police artist ( Chad Cleven ) draws an image of the man , his real name is revealed to be Ed Hawkins ( Kevin Weisman ) , another detective who took over Michael 's spot at the police department after the crash , now working with Bird ( Steve Harris ) , Michael 's former partner in the " red reality " and his current one in the " green reality " . Michael meets with Bird and Hawkins and the latter says that he was one of the first on the scene of the crash and that he is sorry about Rex 's death . Michael starts to believe that his son is really dead ; he remembers the crash , yet again , with additional information . Michael realizes that Hawkins was trying to kill him in the crash . As soon as he figures out the situation , Michael wakes up with Rex and Emma ; he is relieved to see Rex . After the carnival , Michael phones Dr. Evans to tell her what he now knows about the crash .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Leonard Chang and series creator Kyle Killen . It was Killen 's sixth credit and Chang 's second writing acknowledgment for the show . The entry was directed by Laura Innes , who guest stars in the recurring role of Captain Tricia Harper in the series . It was Innes ' first and only directing credit for Awake . The installment was rated TV @-@ 14 in the United States during its original broadcast . Killen noted that , during the filming of the episode , he became " hungry " and wanted to " bend the rules " with the installment . He stated that the installment was a model episode that he wanted to " pursue with the show going forward " . Killen also thought the last " three or four episodes " of Awake , including this episode , represent what the show 's writers were able to accomplish throughout Awake 's original run .
" Say Hello to My Little Friend " marked the first appearance of Hawkins , a detective who was described as a titular " little guy " , from the series ' second episode , " The Little Guy " . Weisman obtained a recurring role in January 2012 and later garnered the role of the character . He was later revealed as the man who caused the Britten family 's collision . This entry 's production code was " 1ATR10 " . It was filmed in Los Angeles , California .
Isaacs found " Say Hello to My Little Friend " the " most difficult [ episode ] to shoot " as one of the character 's realities was fabricated and had to disappear by the end . To prepare himself for the episode , he imagined that he had suddenly lost his own child or that something awful happened to his family . While Isaacs had " played cheesy disco music " through filming the majority of the episodes , he played nothing during the filming of " Say Hello to My Little Friend " . During a scene where Michael sits on the floor and starts crying , Isaacs had " no idea what came out of [ his mouth ] " . That scene was shot three or four times with a different performance by Isaacs each time ; the actor did not know which take Innes would use .
= = Themes = =
" Say Hello to My Little Friend " continued and introduced key thematic elements to the series that were originally introduced in " The Little Guy " . Key themes in this installment included when Michael was unable to see Rex and realized that Hawkins was trying to kill him in the car crash . It was described as a " show about grief " when it first started airing and that the " cause of the car crash didn 't really matter " at that time . Now , however , The A.V. Club noted that Awake is " dabbling in crooked cops and God only knows what else " . He observed that Michael could be having another defense to keep the fantasy world alive because of his thoughts with Hawkins .
The A.V. Club also thought that Hawkins was the reasoning for the second episode 's name . Writing for HitFix , Alan Sepinwall observed that the episode came from Michael 's perspective . According to Sepinwall , " Say Hello to My Little Friend " showed Hannah and Rex together for the first time in the flashback shortly before the crash . He opined that the only people who currently watch the series are " the ones who can quickly identify the red filter from the green filter and figure things out accordingly " . Maggie Furlong from The Huffington Post thought that " Say Hello to My Little Friend " " surfaces some serious issues for Britten " that has only been " cryptically referenced " previously .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Say Hello to My Little Friend " originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) on May 10 , 2012 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on Sky Atlantic on July 13 , 2012 . The episode 's initial broadcast in the United States was viewed by approximately 2 @.@ 51 million viewers . " Say Hello to My Little Friend " earned a Nielsen rating of 0 @.@ 9 , with a 2 share , meaning that roughly 0 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households and 2 percent of households watching television were tuned in to the episode .
A sneak peek was released online shortly before the episode 's original broadcast . In the United Kingdom , the episode obtained 275 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the third most @-@ viewed program for the channel behind Alan Partridges : Mid Morning Matters and The Newsroom . Shortly after this episode was broadcast , NBC announced their decision to cancel Awake , due to declining ratings . Despite the series ' cancellation , NBC still decided to air the remaining two episodes .
Before its original airing , " Say Hello to My Little Friend " was highly anticipated by commentators . In a review for " Slack Water " , The A.V. Club claimed that " Say Hello to My Little Friend " would be " very cool " because Michael will " face a crisis when he stops waking up in [ the green reality ] " . In a review for the same episode , Sepinwall called " Say Hello to My Little Friend " and the following episode " quite good " .
This episode generally received positive reviews from critics . Commentators from IGN , Paste and TV Fanatic were pleased with Isaacs ' performance ; they felt that his performance deserved an Emmy Award . IGN 's Matt Fowler described Isaacs ' performance as " suspense " -worthy , while Paste writer Ross Bonaime thought that his acting deserved an Emmy nomination " at the very least " . Although he did not note that his performance was Emmy @-@ worthy , in his " A- " review , Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club claimed that Isaacs ' is usually the " bad guy " , but he seems like a " dad " . Fowler gave the episode itself a " 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 " , classifying it as " amazing " ; the entry 's story was called " powerful " . However , Bonaime gave the entry a " 8 @.@ 9 " rating .
Fowler and Nick McHatton , a TV Fanatic critic , stated that this was the best episode of the program since " Pilot " ; Handlen said that the episode , for the most part , was " a great hour of television , and a fine uptick from the last couple weeks of Awake " , while Bonaime called it " one of Awake 's most compelling episodes to date " . McHatton called the emotional problems of the episode " heart wrenching " to watch " , as they had him in tears ; he gave a " 4 @.@ 9 out of 5 " rating for the episode . Handlen complimented the " powerful scene , as [ Michael ] tries to convince her father that he should do anything possible to avoid losing touch with his daughter " , and also noted that the episode " raises the stakes for [ Michael ] , changing what he 's come to accept as his routine for the first time since the start of the series : while bungee jumping at a fair with Rex and Emma in [ the green reality ] , [ Michael ] has a fainting spell , and comes to in [ the red reality ] " . Handlen claimed the episode " doesn 't seem to fit everything else " .
Sepinwall complained that viewers went into " the episode already knowing that the Britten family 's car crash was anything but " . Sepinwall noted that " as it played not only with the structure of the show , but the emotions of our hero by showing us what happens if he stops going to sleep in one reality and waking up in the other " . According to Sepinwall , " Say Hello to My Little Friend " was " effective " as it " forced [ Michael ] to finally confront a truth about his situation " , and that he finally needs to grieve , by recognizing that one of his two loved ones is dead . Sepinwall praised how the episode " kept mirroring moments in the pilot " , while Screen Rant writer Kevin Yeoman called the installment itself " powerful " and " compelling " . Yeoman compared Awake to Mission : Impossible , writing that " with just two episodes left " , Awake has to go into Mission : Impossible mode to " provide answers " .
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= Fragile Allegiance =
Fragile Allegiance is an open @-@ ended 4X real @-@ time strategy ( RTS ) game from Gremlin Interactive , released in 1996 for MS @-@ DOS and Windows 95 . The game begins on May 25 , 2496 as the player begins their employment with TetraCorp ( a large interstellar megacorporation ) who have set up a new asteroid mining franchise operation in the Fragmented Sectors . There are six alien races competing with Tetracorp for these resources . Beginning with one building and one million credits , the player is tasked with building up a successful mining operation to sell as much ore as possible to the Federation . Diplomacy is crucial to the success or failure of this franchise operation as the players colonies begin to encroach on one another .
The game features complex diplomacy between players and includes real @-@ time lip @-@ synced animations for in @-@ game actors . Described as a combination of SimCity 2000 , Civilization and Risk , Fragile Allegiance uses an icon based GUI for all menus and game commands . Unlike other RTS games , there is no defined tech tree , with technology being unlocked by the purchase of 36 blueprints at any time during the course of the game . Fragile Allegiance is the spiritual successor to K240 and there are many similarities between the two .
Fragile Allegiance generally scored well with reviewers , with PC Gamer UK giving the game the Game of Distinction award and it was praised for its graphics , interface and sound . The game has problems running on Windows XP and later Windows versions , as it was designed for MS @-@ DOS and ported to Windows 95 .
= = Gameplay = =
Gameplay takes place in the Fragmented Sectors , an area of outer space filled with asteroids that are rich in mineral resources . The aim of the game is to colonise and mine the asteroids for the various ores found on them and then sell the ore to the Federation . The player can use the proceeds for empire expansion , purchasing new technologies , construction of buildings , ships and missiles , spying , trading and also to pay fines should the Federation impose any . Construction of the various missiles and ships requires quantities of different ores , so the decision to sell to the Federation is not straightforward . The game has a stock market where commodities can be bought and sold . There is also a black market offering unauthorised information regarding individual spies and colony supervisors , and illicit trade in rare ores and missiles . The manual states that any TetraCorp employee caught selling ore on the black market will be terminated .
Fragile Allegiance has a simplistic combat system with the player having no direct control over units when a fleet enters combat . Enemy asteroids can be attacked using ships , missiles and agents . During a battle , laser beams criss @-@ cross the screen and buildings catch fire before being destroyed . Ground turrets fire back at attacking ships and anti @-@ missile turrets shoot out incoming missiles .
Small ships are built in a ship yard while the larger ships require a space dock for construction . Ships range from the small Scoutship ( used to discover new asteroids ) , to the gigantic Command Cruiser ( which is used for transporting combat fleets over vast distances that they would otherwise be unable to travel without refueling ) . Each ship has a limited number of hardpoints to which weapons and other devices can be attached , and ships can be grouped together into fleets .
There are a total of seven races in the game , but only TetraCorp ( representing the human race ) is playable . Upon discovering an alien race , diplomacy can be initiated in order to arrange actions such as non @-@ aggression pacts and joint @-@ combat treaties , as well as accuse them of spying or trading with the Mauna ( Trading with the Mauna is illegal under Federation law ) . If a faction is found to be trading with the Mauna , Jane Fong ( Federal minister for trade relations in addition to her role as Terran ambassador for the Fragmented Sectors ) can be informed , who will in turn tell the Federation , which could result in increased hostility towards the offending faction from all others or , they can be threatened with blackmail and forced to pay a tribute in return for the players silence . Each race has a unique look and diplomatic strategies and everything happens in real time with highly detailed characters that are well animated and lip @-@ synced . One of the factions — The Mauna , are not members of the Federation and are unable to be negotiated or traded with . As the players empire expands , agents and supervisors will make themselves available for employment . Agents are used for gathering intelligence on alien asteroids and can also be deployed on the players own asteroids for counter @-@ intelligence . Other uses for agents include deploying APV 's and destroying various buildings such as defense installations , life support , production , and other various installations . The chances of an agent successfully completing their mission and escaping detection are increased if there is a spy satellite orbiting the asteroid they are assigned to . Colony Supervisors are able to be employed to help manage the building and maintenance of asteroid colonies . There is no research in the game , as this popular mechanic is replaced with the Sci @-@ Tek blueprint system which allows players to buy new technologies as needed . Multiplayer is available over an IPX network with TetraCorp being the only playable race .
= = Plot = =
The player begins the game as the latest recruit to TetraCorps mining franchise operation and is tasked with selling as much ore as possible to the Federation , which is a coalition of six of the seven known alien cultures : the Terrans , the Artemia , the Mikotaj , the Achean Gatherings , the Braccatia and the Rigellians . The Federation was inaugurated in 2439 following a coup deposing the last Terran Emperor Dramon Salaria in 2437 and was established to encourage commercial competition rather than full @-@ scale wars between its constituent parties . The authority of the Federation is constantly challenged — in part by those who helped to create it , and the further away from the Federal center a person is , the less the Federation can influence their day @-@ to @-@ day lives . The seventh alien culture — the Mauna are not members of the Federation and it is revealed in the game that they are an untrustworthy and cruel species . It is not known if the Mauna were consulted with prior to the creation of the Federation , and trading with the Mauna is frowned upon by the Federation .
Numerous megacorporations exist within the Federation and TetraCorp is one of the largest and oldest . Their sister company is Sci @-@ Tek , which manufactures and supplies most of the technology that the player has access to . Sci @-@ Tek also has blueprints for advanced technologies that the player can purchase . The opening cinematic plays like a corporate recruitment video and at one point is jammed by a Terran male who tells the viewer that TetraCorp has a history of exploiting workers of all races and cultures with low pay and wretched working conditions . The movie is jammed a second time by an Artemian who tells the player that Terran progression was responsible for 68 % of all alien mortalities during the past three centuries and that the reason for this high percentage is due to megacorporations such as TetraCorp .
= = Development = =
Fragile Allegiance is essentially a remake of Gremlin Interactive 's 1994 Amiga game K240 , with the graphics and user interface revamped for the improved PC hardware available at the time . The core gameplay elements of K240 are retained ; the game is set in an asteroid belt , the Sci @-@ Tek blueprint system replaces research and the player is tasked with building up a successful mining operation . Many of the buildings , ships and missiles have the same names and functions as those in K240 and in both games there are six alien races competing against the player . The soundtrack for the game was composed by Patrick Phelan who also composed the soundtrack for K240 . The game was released in 1996 and competed against other empire building titles such as Ascendancy and Master of Orion 2 .
Fragile Allegiance was marketed as an intense deep space real @-@ time strategy game complete with complex face @-@ to @-@ face diplomacy . It was the first game to use Gremlin Interactive 's facial motion capture technology which allowed for highly detailed and realistic looking alien ambassadors , giving depth and adding atmosphere to the games diplomacy . Two versions of the game were released — a European version and a North American version , with each region having different box art . There were two different demo versions , one with audio and one without audio . A cheat code is available for the game and is entered slightly differently between the two versions . For the European version the code is " FRAGILE / cKim.Jon.fmsti " , while " FRAGILE / c.Osiris.fmsti " must be entered for the North American version . These codes reward the player with decreased construction time , extra money , the ability to see all asteroids in play , the ability to change the game speed in @-@ game and gives the player access to all of the information in the game .
Historically , people repored that Fragile Allegiance did not work properly on Windows XP and later Windows platforms , as the game was designed for MS @-@ DOS and ported to Windows 95 . The most common issues being reported are no audio , the game failing to start , and the game crashing when trying to rename anything , including saved games . As no patch was ever released for the game , people have had to use emulators such as VDMSound or DOSBox in order to get the game to function properly but it may still crash when trying to rename a saved game . The game is now however available for purchase from Steam and is packaged with a Dosbox build , making it compatible wih Windows 7 and later versions of Windows .
= = Reception = =
Fragile Allegiance was generally well received , achieving average to good scores from reviewers . It was praised for its graphics and icon driven interface which was considered slick and well integrated but a little confusing at first . Reviewers noted that after figuring out what all the icons did the game was immensely engrossing , with the player always having something to do . The game was criticised for its difficulty , its simplistic combat model , the time spent transporting ore between asteroids , and the large amount of micromanagement involved when the player 's empire got large — although reviewers noted that the latter two could be countered by the " Ore Teleporter blueprint " and Colony Supervisors respectively . There were mixed feelings regarding the replacing of research with the Sci @-@ Tek blueprint system , which meant that any blueprint could be bought in any order provided the player had the money to do so .
The game was also criticised for only having one playable race ( TetraCorp ) . Despite these criticisms PC Gamer UK gave it the Game of Distinction award for Christmas of 1996 stating , " Takes ages to work out what 's going on , and immense concentration . But this is completely engrossing . " and awarded it a score of 91 % . Users of internet gaming site GameSpot rated Fragile Allegiance significantly higher than the site reviewer , rating it 8 @.@ 6 / 10 . Gamezilla 's review rated it at 75 % while GameRankings gave the game a score of 65 % .
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= Love dart =
A love dart ( also known as a gypsobelum ) is a sharp , calcareous or chitinous dart which some hermaphroditic land snails and slugs create . Love darts are made in sexually mature animals only , and are used as part of the sequence of events during courtship , before actual mating takes place . Darts are quite large compared to the size of the animal : in the case of the semi @-@ slug genus Parmarion , the length of a dart can be up to one fifth that of the semi @-@ slug 's foot .
The process of using love darts in snails is a form of sexual selection . Prior to copulation , each of the two snails ( or slugs ) attempts to " shoot " one ( or more ) darts into the other snail ( or slug ) . There is no organ to receive the dart ; this action is more analogous to a stabbing , or to being shot with an arrow or flechette . The dart does not fly through the air to reach its target however ; instead it is fired as a contact shot .
The love dart is not a penial stylet ( in other words this is not an accessory organ for sperm transfer ) . The exchange of sperm between both of the two land snails is a completely separate part of the mating progression . Nevertheless , recent research shows that use of the dart can strongly favor the reproductive outcome for the snail that is able to lodge a dart in its partner . This is because mucus on the dart introduces a hormone @-@ like substance that allows far more of its sperm to survive .
Love darts , also known as shooting darts , or just as darts , are shaped in many distinctive ways which vary considerably between species . What all the shapes of love darts have in common is their harpoon @-@ like or needle @-@ like ability to pierce .
= = The mating dance = =
Mating begins with a courting ritual . For example , in land snails of the genus Helix , including the escargot Helix pomatia , and the common garden snail Helix aspersa ( also known as Cornu aspersum and Cantareus aspersus ) , copulation is preceded by an elaborate tactile courtship .
The two snails circle around each other for up to six hours , touching with their tentacles , and biting lips and the area of the genital pore , which shows some preliminary signs of the eversion of the penis . As the snails approach mating , hydraulic pressure builds up in the blood sinus surrounding the organ housing the dart . Each snail manoeuvres to get its genital pore in the best position , close to the other snail 's body . Then , when the body of one snail touches the other snail 's genital pore , it triggers the firing of the dart .
The darting can sometimes be so forceful that the dart ends up buried in the internal organs . It can also happen that a dart will pierce the body or head entirely , and protrude on the other side .
After both snails have fired their darts , the snails copulate and exchange sperm .
A snail does not have a dart to fire the very first time it mates , because the first mating is necessary to trigger the process of dart formation . Once a snail has mated , it fires a dart before some , but not all , subsequent matings . A snail often mates without having a dart to use , because it takes time to create a replacement dart . In the case of the garden snail Cornu aspersum , it takes a week for a new dart to form .
The dart is shot with some variation in force , and with considerable inaccuracy , such that one @-@ third of the darts that are fired in Cornu aspersum either fail to penetrate the skin , or miss the target altogether . Snails have only very simple visual systems and cannot see well enough to use vision to help aim the darts .
= = Function = =
Although the existence and use of love darts in snails has been known for at least several centuries , until recently the actual function of love darts was not properly understood .
It was long assumed that the darts had some sort of " stimulating " function , and served to make copulation more likely . It was also suggested that darts might be a " gift " of calcium . These theories have proved to be incorrect ; recent research has led to a new understanding of the function of love darts in which the love dart is used by the male component to manipulate the female component ’ s sperm collection , increasing paternity .
A closer look into the behavior of Cornu aspersum , shows that it is not the mechanical action of the dart that increases paternity in sperm donors but instead the mucus that coats the dart . The mucus carries an allohormone that is transferred into the recipient snail ’ s hemolymph when the dart is stabbed . This allohormone reconfigures the female component of the reproductive system in the receiving individual : the bursa copulax ( sperm digestion organ ) is closed off , and the copulatory canal ( leading to the sperm storage ) is opened . This reconfiguration allows more sperm to access the sperm storage area and fertilize eggs , rather than being digested . Ultimately this increases the shooter ’ s paternity .
= = Morphology of darts = =
The love dart , also known as a " gypsobelum " , is often made of calcium carbonate which is secreted by a specialized organ within the reproductive system of several families of air @-@ breathing snails and slugs , mainly in terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks within the clade Stylommatophora .
Darts can range in size from about 30 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) long in the larger snail species , down to about 1 millimetre ( 0 @.@ 04 in ) in the smallest snails that have darts . Typically most darts are less than 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) long , but they are substantial compared with the size of the animal .
There is considerable variety in both the overall shape and the cross section of the love dart . The morphology ( shape and form ) of the dart is species @-@ specific . For example , individual snails of the two rather similar helicid species Cepaea hortensis and Cepaea nemoralis can sometimes only be distinguished by examining the shape of the love dart and the vaginal mucus glands ( which in the anatomical diagram are marked " MG " and are positioned off the structure marked " V " . )
= = Anatomical context = =
Note : The taxonomic placement of all the families mentioned in this article follows the taxonomy of the Gastropoda by Bouchet & Rocroi ( 2005 ) .
There is a complex hermaphroditic reproductive system in pulmonate snails ( those snails that have a lung rather than a gill or gills . ) Their reproductive system is completely internal , except for the active protrusion ( eversion ) of the penis for copulation . The outer opening of the reproductive system is called the " genital pore " ; it is positioned on the right hand side , very close to the head of the animal . This opening is virtually invisible however , unless it is actively in use .
The love dart is created and stored before use in a highly muscular internal anatomical structure known as the stylophore or dart sac ( also known as the bursa telae ) . The exact positioning of the stylophore varies , but it is in the vicinity of the eversible penis and the vagina , where these two structures open into the " atrium " , a common area right inside the genital pore .
The opening of the stylophore leads directly into the atrium in certain species in the families Vitrinidae , Parmacellidae , Helminthoglyptidae , Bradybaenidae , Urocyclidae , Ariophantidae , and Dyakiidae . The opening of the stylophore can instead lead to the penis , as is the case in some species of Aneitinae ( a subfamily of Athoracophoridae ) , Sagdidae , Euconulidae , Gastrodontidae and Onchidiidae . Alternatively , it can lead to the vagina , as in the case in some species of Ariopeltinae ( a subfamily of Oopeltidae ) , Ariolimacinae ( a subfamily of Ariolimacidae ) , Philomycidae , other species within the Bradybaenidae , and also in the Hygromiidae , Helicidae and Dyakiidae .
Only two families have darts present in every species : the Bradybaenidae and in the Dyakiidae . In all the other families there is reduction or loss of dart @-@ making ability in some of the species ( cf . ) .
Many species have only one dart sac , however other species have several . Snails in the family Bradybaenidae have more than one dart sac , and some species of Hygromiidae and Helmintoglyptidae have four dart sacs . Some Urocyclidae have up to 70 darts .
= = Occurrence within the pulmonate snails and slugs = =
All pulmonate land snails are hermaphrodites , and have a complete and rather elaborate set of both male and female reproductive organs ( see the simplified anatomical diagram above ) , but the majority of pulmonate land snails have no love darts and no dart sac .
= = = Calcareous darts = = =
Calcareous ( composed of calcium carbonate ) darts are found in a limited number of pulmonate families within the Stylommatophora .
Most of these families are within the land snail superfamily Helicoidea : Helicidae , Bradybaenidae , Helminthoglyptidae , Hygromiidae , Humboldtianidae ( previously considered to be a part of the Hygromiidae ) .
Calcium carbonate darts are also found in the family Zonitidae within the superfamily Zonitoidea , and in one family of slugs , the Philomycidae , which are within the superfamly Arionoidea .
Lightly calcified darts occur in the snail and semi @-@ slug family Urocyclidae , within the superfamily Helicarionoidea .
= = = Chitinous darts = = =
Chitinous ( composed of chitin ) love darts occur in the pulmonate land snail families Ariophantidae ( superfamily Helicarionoidea ) , in the family Helicarionidae ( superfamily Helicarionoidea ) , in the Vitrinidae ( superfamily Limacoidea ) , and in the slug family Parmacellidae ( superfamily Parmacelloidea ) .
Within the more ancient clade Systellommatophora , chitin darts are found in the pulmonate sea slugs of the family Onchidiidae , in the superfamily Onchidioidea .
= = = Cartilaginous darts = = =
Love darts made of cartilage occur in the family Gastrodontidae .
= = Evolution of love darts = =
Because of the presence of darts in many superfamilies of the Stylommatophora , it seems likely that love darts appeared during the early evolution of the Pulmonata , and that the ancestors of the Stylommatophora possessed darts already .
During evolution , darts appear to have been lost secondarily , i.e. , after they had evolved and been functional . Vestigial darts ( ones that exist only in a rudimentary condition ) occur in the family Sagdidae . , and in many Helicoidea , the surrounding organs have also degenerated ( become non @-@ functional ) . The sarcobelum is a fleshy or cuticle @-@ coated papilla which is considered to be a degenerated , previously dart @-@ bearing , organ .
= = Species variability = =
Love darts are shaped in many distinctive ways , and vary considerably between species . The morphology of the dart is almost always species @-@ specific .
Some darts have a round cross section , others are bladed or vaned . In some cases the blades on the sides of the dart are bifurcated or divided into two parts . Some darts are shaped like a needle or a thorn , others have a tip like an arrowhead , or look like a dagger . What all the shapes have in common is their ability to pierce .
= = = Images = = =
Note : both the scanning electron micrographs ( SEMs ) and the drawings below are taken from , or modified from , Koene & Schulenburg , 2005 .
SEM images of love darts from eight different species of pulmonate land snails . The upper images show a lateral view , where the scale bar is 500 μm ( = 0 @.@ 5 mm ) . The lower images show a cross @-@ section , where the scale bar is 50 μm ( = 0 @.@ 05 mm ) .
The following tables or charts show numerous examples of love dart morphology , on a family by family and species by species basis . Not all families and species are included . The drawings show first the cross section , and then the lateral view , of the dart in that particular species . Darts vary in size according to the size of the snail or slug species , but here they are all shown at the same size , for purposes of comparison .
= = = = Helicidae = = = =
= = = = Elonidae = = = =
= = = = Bradybaenidae = = = =
= = = = Helminthoglyptidae = = = =
= = = = Hygromiidae = = = =
= = = = Humboldtianidae = = = =
= = = = Ariophantidae = = = =
= = = = Ariophantidae = = = =
= = = = Philomycidae = = = =
A slug family
= = = = Urocyclidae = = = =
Some species in this family have spiral darts , and some darts have " minute barbs pointing toward the tip " .
= = = = Vitrinidae = = = =
= = = = Parmacellidae = = = =
Species of slugs within this family have spiral darts .
= = = = Gastrodontidae = = = =
= = The Cupid connection = =
Some writers have commented on the parallel between the love darts of snails and the love darts fired by the mythological being Cupid , known as Eros in Greek mythology . It is even possible that there is a connection between the behavior of the snails and the myth . Malacologist ( mollusk expert ) Ronald Chase of McGill University said about the garden snail Cornu aspersum , " I believe the myth of Cupid and his arrows has its basis in this snail species , which is native to Greece " . He added , " The Greeks probably knew about this behavior because they were pretty good naturalists and observers . "
In some languages , the dart that these snails use before mating is known as an " arrow " . For example , in the German language it is called a Liebespfeil or " love arrow " , and in the Czech language it is šíp lásky ( which means " arrow of love " ) .
= = Dart @-@ like structures in other gastropod groups = =
= = = The toxoglossans = = =
Marine gastropods in the predatory superfamily Conoidea , ( known as the toxoglossans , meaning " poison tongue " ) use a poison dart or harpoon , which is a single modified radula tooth which is created inside the mouth of the snail , and which is primarily made of chitin . These snails are carnivorous hunters : the harpoon is used in predation . When the snail is close to its prey , it extends its proboscis a considerable distance ; then it fires its harpoon and injects a toxin into the prey . For most species of toxoglossans the prey is marine worms , but in the case of some larger cone snails , the prey is small fish .
= = = Opisthobranchs = = =
Opisthobranch gastropods are hermaphrodites , as are the pulmonates , however opisthobranchs do not have love darts . Nonetheless , some of them do stab one another during mating , using hardened anatomical structures . For example , in the Cephalaspidean genus Siphopteron , both seaslugs attempt to stab their partner with a two @-@ part , spined penis .
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= Boletus abruptibulbus =
Boletus abruptibulbus is a species of bolete mushroom in the family Boletaceae . Described as new to science in 2009 , it is found only in the Gulf Coast of the Florida Panhandle , where it grows on the ground in coastal sand dunes , one of only three North American boletes known to favor this habitat . The fruit bodies have convex brownish caps up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter , supported by solid yellowish to reddish stems measuring 3 – 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) long by 10 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The pores on the underside of the cap measure about 1 – 2 mm in diameter and are initially pale yellow before developing a greenish tinge in age . The mushroom 's spores , about 20 micrometers long , are unusually long for a member of the Boletaceae . The stem base is bulbous , a diagnostic feature for which the species is named .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was described as new to science in 2009 by Beatriz Ortiz @-@ Santana , William Roody , and Ernst Both in the journal Mycotaxon . The holotype material was collected at St. Joseph Peninsula State Park in Florida in January 2005 . In 2007 , Roody and Both published a short description and color photograph of the species in their field guide Mushrooms of the Southeastern United States , but this was not a valid name as it lacked a Latin description . The specific epithet abruptibulbus refers to the abruptly ( abrupti- ) swollen ( -bulbus ) shape of the bulb at the base of the stem .
= = Description = =
The convex cap measures 30 – 80 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter . Slightly sticky when wet , the cap surface is shiny and smooth . Sometimes , the surface has flattened filaments ( formed from aggregated hyphae ) , and may develop cracks . The thin and easily detached cap cuticle is initially reddish brown to dark brown , later becoming cinnamon brown . The cap margin is curved inward when young , but becomes bent downward when mature . The white to very pale yellow cap flesh does not change color when exposed to air , and has a pleasant odor and mild taste . The tubes comprising the hymenophore on the underside of the cap measure 3 – 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 3 in ) long and are pale yellow initially before developing a greenish tinge in age . The pore surface does not stain when it is bruised . The pores are roughly spherical or polyhedral at first , becoming angular to pentagonal in age , and almost gill @-@ like near the attachment to the stem . Pores are about 1 – 2 mm in diameter . The stem is solid ( i.e. , not hollow ) 3 – 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) long , 10 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick in the upper part , expanding to 2 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) at the bulbous base . It has pseudorrhiza ( cord @-@ like structures resembling a plant root ) that are 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) long . The stem surface is dry and smooth except for a powdery region near the apex . The top of the stem is yellow , but it gradually becomes reddish approaching the bulbous base . The stem tissue is pale yellow , although tunnels dug by insect larvae are reddish brown .
A drop of dilute ammonia ( as a 12 % NH4OH solution ) placed on the cap surface immediately turns dark red . If placed on the bulbous part of the stem base of a dried specimen , it will turn dark for roughly 15 seconds before starting to fade .
The spores are smooth , spindle @-@ shaped , and measure 13 @.@ 5 – 19 @.@ 8 by 5 @.@ 0 – 7 @.@ 2 µm — rather large for a member of the Boletaceae . Grayish @-@ yellow or greenish yellow when mounted in a dilute potassium hydroxide , they are dextrinoid ( yellowish- or reddish @-@ brown ) when stained with Melzer 's reagent . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium ) are club @-@ shaped , hyaline ( translucent ) , four @-@ spored , and measure 28 @.@ 8 – 42 @.@ 3 by 7 @.@ 2 – 11 @.@ 7 µm . The hymenium contains basidioles ( immature or aborted basidia ) , which are club @-@ shaped and measure 20 @.@ 7 – 35 @.@ 1 by 7 @.@ 2 – 9 @.@ 0 µm . Pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the surface of the tubes ) range in shape from somewhat spindle @-@ shaped to cylindrical , and are hyaline , smooth , and thin @-@ walled , with dimensions of 41 @.@ 4 – 61 @.@ 2 by 7 @.@ 2 – 10 @.@ 8 µm . Cystidia on the edges of the pores ( cheilocystidia ) are 31 @.@ 5 – 49 @.@ 5 by 7 @.@ 2 – 13 @.@ 5 µm , spindle @-@ shaped to centrally swollen , hyaline , smooth , and thin @-@ walled . Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae .
The bulbous base , large spores , and distinctive habitat are characteristic features that make this species readily distinguishable from other boletes . It has a coloration and cap texture similar to Boletus flaviporus and B. auriporus , but the spores of these species are shorter ( 11 – 15 µm and 11 – 16 µm , respectively ) .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Boletus abruptibulbus grow singly or in groups in sand . The species is known only from the Gulf Coast of the Florida Panhandle , where fruiting occurs on older sand dunes , particularly in areas where the habit changes from coastal scrub to oak @-@ pine woods . This latter habitat is characterized by the presence of the tree species Sand Live Oak ( Quercus geminata ) , Myrtle Oak ( Q. myrtifolia ) , and Sand Pine ( Pinus clausa ) . Fruiting occurs from December to March . Boletus abruptibulbus is one of only three North American Boletaceae species that occur in coastal sand dunes ; the others are Leccinum arenicola , found in New Brunswick , Canada , and Phylloporus arenicola , described from Oregon .
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= Industrial metal =
Industrial metal is a musical genre that draws from industrial dance music , thrash metal and hardcore punk , using repeating metal guitar riffs , sampling , synthesizer or sequencer lines , and distorted vocals . Founding industrial metal acts include Ministry , Godflesh , and KMFDM .
Industrial metal developed in the late 1980s , as industrial and heavy metal began to fuse into a common genre . In the early years of the 21st century , groups from the black metal scene began to incorporate elements of industrial music . Industrial metal did well in the early 1990s , particularly in North America , with the success of groups such as Nine Inch Nails . The industrial metal movement began to fade in the latter half of the 1990s .
= = History = =
= = = Early innovators = = =
Though electric guitars had been used by industrial artists since the early days of the genre , archetypal industrial groups such as Throbbing Gristle displayed a strong anti @-@ rock stance . British post @-@ punk band Killing Joke pioneered the crossing over between styles , and was an influence on major industrial metal bands such as Ministry , Godflesh , and Nine Inch Nails . Another pioneer industrial rock group , Big Black , also impacted some later groups .
By the late 1980s industrial and heavy metal began to fuse into a common genre , with Godflesh 's self @-@ titled EP and Ministry 's The Land of Rape and Honey at the forefront . Godflesh was founded by former Napalm Death guitarist Justin Broadrick . Drawing from a wide array of influences — power electronics forefathers Whitehouse , noise rock band Swans , ambient music creator Brian Eno and fellow Birmingham hard rockers Black Sabbath — the Godflesh sound was once described as " Pornography @-@ era Cure on Quaaludes " . Though not a top @-@ seller , Godflesh nonetheless became an influential act , their name mentioned by Korn , Metallica , Danzig , Faith No More , and Fear Factory .
Ministry emerged from the scene surrounding Wax Trax ! Records , a Chicago label dedicated to industrial music . Ministry 's initial foray into guitar rock happened during a recording session of The Land of Rape and Honey on Southern Studios , in London . The band 's frontman , the Cuban @-@ born Al Jourgensen , explained this transition :
Jourgensen seemed particularly fond of thrash metal . After the release of Land , he recruited guitarist Mike Scaccia from Texas thrashers Rigor Mortis . On one occasion , Jourgensen told the press that Sepultura was his favorite band . He also expressed the desire to produce a Metallica album . Jourgensen 's interest in dance @-@ oriented electronic music did not entirely fade , however ; he also formed the side @-@ project Revolting Cocks , a more electronic body music @-@ inflected collaboration with Richard 23 of Front 242 .
German band KMFDM was another seminal industrial metal group . Although not a metal fan , KMFDM leader Sascha Konietzko 's " infatuation with ripping off metal licks " stemmed from his experiments with E @-@ mu 's Emax sampler in late 1986 . He told Guitar World that ,
A Swiss trio , The Young Gods , brushed with the style on their second album , L 'Eau Rouge ( 1989 ) . Prior to its release , singer Franz Treichler declared :
Pigface , formed by Martin Atkins and including Ministry drummer Bill Rieflin , emerged as an industrial metal collective of sorts , participating with many figures from the noise rock and industrial worlds . Nine Inch Nails , the " one @-@ man @-@ band " formed by Trent Reznor , brought the genre to mainstream audiences with albums such as the Grammy @-@ winning Broken and the best @-@ selling The Downward Spiral , accompanied by their groundbreaking performance at Woodstock ' 94 . The rivethead subculture also developed at this time , along with the so @-@ called " coldwave " subgenre , which encompassed Chemlab , 16 Volt , and Acumen Nation . Some electro @-@ industrial groups adopted industrial metal techniques in this period , including Skinny Puppy ( on the Jourgensen @-@ produced Rabies ) , and Front Line Assembly .
British band Pitchshifter , formed in 1989 by brothers Jon and Mark Clayden , also started as an industrial metal band . The band later included elements of drum and bass . Frontman JS mentions
= = = Industrial thrash and death metal = = =
Industrial metal 's popularity led a number of successful thrash metal groups , including Megadeth , Sepultura , and Anthrax , to request remixes by " industrial " artists . Some musicians emerging from the death metal scene , such as Fear Factory , Nailbomb , and Meathook Seed , also began to experiment with industrial . Fear Factory , from Los Angeles , were initially influenced by the Earache roster ( namely Godflesh , Napalm Death and Bolt Thrower ) . The German band Oomph ! after their debut album Sperm started to play Industrial metal combined with elements of death metal and groove metal until the album Plastik . Sepultura singer Max Cavalera 's Nailbomb , a collaboration with Alex Newport , also practiced a combination of extreme metal and industrial production techniques . A lesser @-@ known example of industrial death metal is Meathook Seed , made up of members of Napalm Death and the Florida death metal group Obituary . An industrial music fan , Obituary guitarist Trevor Peres suggested drum machines for The End Complete , Obituary 's most successful album . The other band members ' refusal led him to form Meathook Seed .
= = = Industrial black metal = = =
In the early years of the 21st century , groups from the black metal scene began to incorporate elements of industrial music . Mysticum , formed in 1991 , was the first of these groups . DHG ( Dødheimsgard ) , Thorns from Norway and Blut Aus Nord , a French black metal group , have been acclaimed for their incorporation of industrial elements . Other industrial black metal musicians include Samael , The Axis of Perdition , Aborym , and ... And Oceans . In addition , The Kovenant , Mortiis and Ulver emerged from the Norwegian black metal scene , but later chose to experiment with industrial music .
= = = Commercial rise = = =
Industrial metal blossomed in the early 1990s , particularly in North America , where it would eventually sell close to 35 million units . It first became a commercial force in 1992 when Nine Inch Nails ' Broken and Ministry 's Psalm 69 went platinum in America , though the latter took three years to reach that status . Both groups were nominated for the Best Metal Performance in the 1992 Grammy Awards , with Nine Inch Nails winning . Two years later , Nine Inch Nails released The Downward Spiral , which debuted at No. 2 , and would eventually go quadruple @-@ platinum . This record is considered by Allmusic as " one of the bleakest multi @-@ platinum albums ever . "
Overall , popular heavy rock music has changed to become more " industrialized " . This robbed the industrial hardcore movement of any hopes of establishing a new identity of its own . The style is dead ( or at least dying ) ; the elements of the style continue on in new musical settings .
– David A. Locher , Professor of Sociology , Missouri State University , 1998
Following Nine Inch Nails ' success , Marilyn Manson , led by a protégé of Reznor 's , came to prominence . The group 's live performance and its transgressive appeal was often more commented on than their music .
Industrial metal reached its commercial zenith in the latter half of the 1990s – according to the RIAA databases , its top @-@ selling artists sold around 17 @.@ 5 million units combined . Records by major industrial metal artists routinely debuted on the top spots of the Billboard 200 chart : Fear Factory 's Obsolete ( No. 1 ) , Rob Zombie 's Hellbilly Deluxe ( No. 5 ) , Marilyn Manson 's Antichrist Superstar ( No. 3 ) , and Nine Inch Nails ' The Fragile ( No. 1 ) . A number of industrial metal albums performed well on Billboard 's Heatseekers chart : Filter 's Short Bus ( No. 3 ) , Stabbing Westward 's Wither Blister Burn + Peel ( No. 1 ) , Rammstein 's Sehnsucht ( No. 2 ) , Orgy 's Candyass ( No. 1 ) , and Static @-@ X 's Wisconsin Death Trip ( No. 1 ) .
During this era , Trent Reznor was chosen by Time as one of the most influential Americans of 1997 . Its popularity was such that established glam metal groups , including Guns N ' Roses and Mötley Crüe , began to dabble in the style . Figures from the hip hop scene also began to seek out collaborations with and remixes from industrial metal musicians .
When industrial metal climbed the charts of the late 1990s , its sudden popularity was met with negative reactions from the early innovators of industrial music . Peter Christopherson told The Wire that he no longer felt any kinship with the industrial scene : " this is not me , this is not what I 'm about " . Lustmord , a prominent early industrial musician , declared that " Ministry just doesn 't interest [ him ] " and " [ he has ] no time for all this rock and roll shit they 're doing now . " Skinny Puppy frontman Nivek Ogre dismissed Nine Inch Nails as " cock rock " , but have since patched things up and have even performed on stage together .
Industrial metal suffered a critical backlash at the turn of the millennium . In an April 2000 review for the Chicago Sun Times , Jim DeRogatis dismissed Nine Inch Nails ' new music as a " generic brand of industrial thrash " and accused Ministry of repeating an act that " was old by 1992 " . Although The Fragile reached the top spot of the Billboard 200 and went on to earn double platinum status , DeRogatis considered it a " flop " nonetheless . Around this time , veteran industrial metal artists ( Ministry , Godflesh , and White Zombie ) began to repudiate the industrial label . Sales remained high throughout 2000 – 2005 ; at least 10 million records were sold during that time frame . Many groups began to take influence from hip hop and electronic music , in addition to industrial metal . As a result , acts like Powerman 5000 are often described as industrial metal as well as nu metal .
= = Film and video = =
Several industrial metal groups have produced eye @-@ catching videos . These include Godflesh 's collaboration with Andres Serrano , Aidan Hughes 's graphics for KMFDM , Nine Inch Nails ' work with Mark Romanek , Rob Zombie 's visual work for White Zombie ( for which he received the MTV Video Music Award for Best Hard Rock Video ) , and Marilyn Manson 's output with Richard Kern and Floria Sigismondi . NIN later collaborated with Bill Viola for live accompaniment . Trent Reznor also produced the soundtracks for the films Natural Born Killers and Lost Highway , and served as " musical consultant " for Man on Fire . Rob Zombie has directed three films . As of 2009 , Marilyn Manson is in the process of directing Phantasmagoria : The Visions of Lewis Carroll . Other films that have included prominent contributions from industrial metal artists include The Crow , Johnny Mnemonic , Spawn , The Matrix , and A.I. Artificial Intelligence .
= = Controversy = =
Its emphasis on transgressive themes has made a few industrial metal groups vulnerable to attack from American social conservatives . For example , Sen. Bob Dole , then head of the Republican Party , sharply criticized Time Warner after a meeting between Michael J. Fuchs ( head of the Warner Music Group ) , William Bennett , and C. Delores Tucker , at which Tucker and Bennett demanded that Fuchs read lyrics from NIN 's " Big Man with a Gun " . A year later , Bennett , Tucker , and Joseph Lieberman launched a similar campaign against MCA Records for their distribution of Marilyn Manson 's music . Many of his concerts were cancelled by authorities after this uproar . In addition , Dennis Cooper cited Ministry 's video for " Just One Fix " , which featured footage of William S. Burroughs , as an early example of heroin chic . Some initial reports claimed that Columbine High School shooters Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold were Marilyn Manson fans . In fact , they preferred KMFDM and Rammstein . Asa Coon , another school shooter , was a Manson fan . Manson , a former journalist , published a detailed response to the controversy following the Columbine shootings in an article published in Rolling Stone . It concluded :
Sascha Konietzko reported that KMFDM was " sick and appalled " by the shootings , issuing a statement the following day saying :
Rammstein stated that they " have no lyrical content or political beliefs that could have possibly influenced such behavior . " Rammstein have also been controversial for their use of Nazi imagery , including footage shot by Leni Riefenstahl for Olympia in their video for " Stripped " . Alec Empire , a German digital hardcore musician , declared that " [ Rammstein is ] successful for all the wrong reasons . I think they 're not a fascist band at all , but I think in Germany there 's a lot of misunderstanding and that 's why they sell records and I think that 's dangerous . " In response to the controversy , Rammstein stated that " We are not Nazis , Neo @-@ Nazis , or any other kind of Nazi . We are against racism , bigotry or any other type of discrimination . "
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= Anna Bågenholm =
Anna Elisabeth Johansson Bågenholm ( born 1970 ) is a Swedish radiologist from Vänersborg , who survived after a skiing accident in 1999 left her trapped under a layer of ice for 80 minutes in freezing water . During this time she became a victim of extreme hypothermia and her body temperature decreased to 13 @.@ 7 ° C ( 56 @.@ 7 ° F ) , one of the lowest survived body temperatures ever recorded in a human with accidental hypothermia . Bågenholm was able to find an air pocket under the ice , but suffered circulatory arrest after 40 minutes in the water .
After rescue , Bågenholm was transported by helicopter to the Tromsø University Hospital , where a team of more than a hundred doctors and nurses worked in shifts for nine hours to save her life . Bågenholm woke up ten days after the accident , paralyzed from the neck down and subsequently spent two months recovering in an intensive care unit . Although she has made an almost full recovery from the incident , late in 2009 she was still suffering from minor symptoms in hands and feet related to nerve injury . Bågenholm 's case has been discussed in the leading British medical journal The Lancet , and in medical textbooks .
= = Background and incident = =
Anna Bågenholm was born in 1970 in Vänersborg , Sweden . At the time of the incident , she was 29 years old and studying to become an orthopedic surgeon . Bågenholm decided to do her residency in Narvik , Norway , and , in May 1998 , she became a surgeon assistant at the Narvik Hospital . Bågenholm 's mentor during this period was Yngve Jones , a doctor at the Narvik Hospital who was about to celebrate his retirement with a party on 20 May 1999 .
On that day , Bågenholm was skiing in the mountains outside of Narvik with two of her colleagues , Marie Falkenberg and Torvind Næsheim . An expert skier , Bågenholm often skied after work . On this day , as she was heading down a steep mountainside — a route she had taken several times before — she lost control of her skis . She fell headfirst onto a layer of ice on a frozen stream near a waterfall , landing on her back . A hole opened up in the ice and Bågenholm 's head and torso were pulled in as meltwater filled her clothes . Her body became trapped under the ice , which was 20 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick . When Falkenberg and Næsheim found Bågenholm , only her feet and skis were above the ice .
= = Rescue attempts = =
Bågenholm 's colleagues made an attempt to free her but failed . At 18 : 27 local time ( CET ) , seven minutes after she had fallen into the water , they called for help on a mobile phone . Police lieutenant Bård Mikalsen received the call and put together two rescue teams ; one at the top of the mountain and one at the bottom . Mikalsen also contacted the Bodø rescue team , which was equipped with a Sea King helicopter , but they told him that the helicopter had left to transport a sick child . Mikalsen was persistent and convinced the dispatcher to turn the helicopter around .
Falkenberg and Næsheim held onto Bågenholm 's skis as they waited for the rescue teams to arrive . As Bågenholm first struggled in the cold water , she found an air pocket and was able to remain conscious for 40 minutes before becoming a victim of circulatory arrest . Ketil Singstad led the rescue team from the top of the mountain . He skied as fast as he could to Bågenholm 's location , where he and his rescue team tried unsuccessfully to pull her out with a rope . They then tried to dig her out , but their snow shovel could not break through the ice . Rescuers from the bottom of the mountain then arrived , bringing with them a pointed gardening shovel . They were able to cut a hole in the ice , and pulled her through at 19 : 40 . Bågenholm had been in the water for 80 minutes when she was rescued .
= = Resuscitation and recovery = =
When Bågenholm was pulled out of the water , her pupils were dilated , her blood was not circulating , and she was not breathing . Falkenberg and Næsheim , both doctors , began giving her cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( CPR ) . The rescue helicopter soon arrived and Bågenholm was brought to the Tromsø University Hospital in an hour . The helicopter emergency team continued to give her CPR during the flight , and she was ventilated with oxygen . She was also treated with a defibrillator , but to no effect .
Bågenholm arrived at the hospital at 21 : 10 . Her body temperature at the time was 13 @.@ 7 ° C ( 56 @.@ 7 ° F ) , the lowest survived body temperature ever recorded in a human with accidental hypothermia , until fellow Swede Stella , 7 years old , survived 13 @.@ 0 ° C ( 55 @.@ 4 ° F ) at Christmas 2010 . Dr. Mads Gilbert , an anesthesiologist and the chief of the hospital 's emergency room , proceeded with the resuscitation attempt . He commented on Bågenholm 's state : " She has completely dilated pupils . She is ashen , flaxen white . She 's wet . She 's ice cold when I touch her skin , and she looks absolutely dead . " Gilbert had treated many cases of hypothermia before because of the cold climate in Norway , and knew how to treat Bågenholm . The electrocardiogram connected to her showed no signs of life , but Gilbert knew patients should be " warmed up before you declare them dead " . He and his team hoped Bågenholm 's brain had received enough oxygen from the CPR she was given after her rescue .
Bågenholm was brought to the operating theatre , where a team of more than a hundred doctors and nurses worked in shifts for nine hours to save her life . At 21 : 40 , she was connected to a cardiopulmonary bypass machine that warmed up her blood outside of her body before it was reinserted into her veins . Bågenholm 's first heart beat was recorded at 22 : 15 , and her body temperature had risen to 36 @.@ 4 ° C ( 97 @.@ 5 ° F ) at 0 : 49 . Bågenholm 's lung function deteriorated at 02 : 20 , and she spent the following 35 days connected to a ventilator .
Bågenholm soon began to show signs of vitality , and woke up paralyzed from the neck down on 30 May . She feared she would spend the rest of her life on her back , and was angry with her colleagues for saving her . Bågenholm soon recovered from the paralysis , however , and later apologized to her friends ; " I was very irritated when I realized they had saved me . I feared a meaningless life , without any dignity . Now I am very happy to be alive and want to apologize . " Bågenholm 's kidneys and digestive system were not working properly , so she had to recover in an intensive care unit for two more months . After spending 28 days in the Tromsø intensive care unit , she was flown to Sweden in an ambulance helicopter for the remainder of her recovery .
Dr Petter Andreas Steen , professor at the National Hospital in Oslo , said it was " an extraordinary medical achievement " that Bågenholm 's life could be saved . He believed the reason she was able to recover was that her metabolism slowed down during the incident and the tissues inside her body required less oxygen at the low temperatures . According to the journal Proto ( published by the Massachusetts General Hospital ) , Bågenholm 's metabolism slowed down to ten percent of its baseline rate and thus she barely needed any oxygen at all .
= = Aftermath = =
Despite the severe damage to Bågenholm 's body , no permanent brain damage was diagnosed . Gilbert commented on this : " Her body had time to cool down completely before the heart stopped . Her brain was so cold when the heart stopped that the brain cells needed very little oxygen , so the brain could survive for quite a prolonged time . " Gilbert also noted that therapeutic hypothermia , a method used to save victims of circulatory arrest by lowering their body temperature , has become more frequent at Norwegian hospitals after Bågenholm 's case gained fame .
Bågenholm returned to work in October 1999 . On 7 October 1999 – 140 days after the accident — she returned to the hospital in Tromsø and met the doctors and nurses that helped save her life . Bågenholm commented : " When you are a patient , you 're not thinking you are going to die . You think , I 'm going to make it . But as a medical person , I think it 's amazing that I 'm alive . " As of October 2009 , Bågenholm has made an almost full recovery , although minor symptoms in hands and feet related to nerve injury remain . In late 2009 , she was working as a radiologist at the hospital where her life was saved .
According to BBC News , most patients who suffer from extreme hypothermia die , even if doctors are able to restart their hearts . The survival rate for adults whose body temperature has decreased to below 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) is 10 % – 33 % . Prior to Bågenholm 's accident , the lowest survived body temperature was 14 @.@ 4 ° C ( 57 @.@ 9 ° F ) , which had been recorded in a child . Gilbert said " victims of very deep accidental hypothermia with circulatory arrest should be seen as potentially resuscitable with a prospect of full recovery . The key success factors of such marginal resuscitation efforts are early bystander actions with vigorous CPR and early warning of the emergency system , early dispatch of adequate rescue units ( ground and air @-@ ambulances ) and good co @-@ ordination between the resources outside and inside the hospital , aggressive rewarming and a spirit not to give up . " General practitioner Jel Coward from Tywyn , Wales , said persons who are victims of extreme hypothermia are often mistakenly thought dead because it can be difficult to detect a pulse on them . He said this case " really does bring it home to us how cautious one has to be before diagnosing death in people who are cold . "
After the incident , Bågenholm became a subject of fiction and medical textbooks , and her case has been discussed in the leading British medical journal The Lancet . On 25 October 2009 her story was featured on CNN 's television program Another Day : Cheating Death . Hosted by Sanjay Gupta , the program features stories from people who have survived severe conditions against all odds . Bågenholm hoped the program would give the people watching it more knowledge of hypothermia . The story is also included in Gupta 's companion book , Cheating Death : The Doctors and Medical Miracles that Are Saving Lives Against All Odds . On 30 October 2009 , Bågenholm and Gilbert appeared together on the popular Swedish SVT talk show Skavlan , hosted by Fredrik Skavlan .
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= Treehouse of Horror =
" Treehouse of Horror " ( originally known as " The Simpsons Halloween Special " ) is the third episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 25 , 1990 . The episode was inspired by 1950s horror comics , and begins with a disclaimer that it may be too scary for children . It is the first Treehouse of Horror episode . These episodes do not obey the show 's rule of realism and are not treated as canon . The opening disclaimer and a panning shot through a cemetery with humorous tombstones were features that were used sporadically in the Treehouse of Horror series and eventually dropped . This is also the first episode to have the music composed by Alf Clausen , taking over for Danny Elfman who also wrote the show 's theme .
The plot revolves around three scary stories told by the Simpson children in the family 's treehouse . The first segment involves a haunted house that is based on various theatrical haunted houses , primarily The Amityville Horror and Poltergeist . In the second segment , Kang and Kodos are introduced when the Simpsons are abducted by aliens . In the third , Edgar Allan Poe 's " The Raven " is adapted . James Earl Jones guest starred in all three segments . The episode was received positively , being included on several critics ' " best of " lists . Critics singled out The Raven for praise , although Simpsons creator Matt Groening was concerned that it would be seen as pretentious .
= = Plot = =
On Halloween , Bart , Lisa and Maggie sit in the treehouse and tell scary stories , while Homer eavesdrops on them .
= = = Bad Dream House = = =
The Simpsons move into an old house , wondering at its low cost . Their questions are answered when the walls begin to bleed and objects begin to fly through the air , and Lisa senses an evil presence in the house . There is also a portal to another dimension in the kitchen . Marge expresses the desire to leave , but Homer asks her to sleep on it , due to the cost of buying the house . That night , the house possesses Homer and the children , manipulating their minds and making them chase each other with axes and knives . Marge unlike the others however , is instead using her knife to spread mayonnaise on a sandwich and intervenes , breaking the trance . Afterwards , Lisa discovers the source of the haunting - a Native American burial ground hidden in the basement . After the Spirit of The House threatens them again , Marge loses her patience and confronts the house , demanding that it treat them with respect during their stay . The house thinks it over , and eventually opts to destroy itself rather than live with the Simpsons .
= = = Hungry are the Damned = = =
The Simpsons are in their backyard having a barbecue when they are abducted by extraterrestrial life forms ( specifically Kang and Kodos ) . The aliens explain that they are taking the Simpsons to their home planet on Rigel IV , " a world of infinite delights , " for a ' feast ' . En route they present the family with enormous amounts of food and watch eagerly as they gorge themselves , then check their weights , being particularly delighted at Homer 's mass . Suspicious of the alien 's intentions , Lisa sneaks into the kitchen and finds a book titled How To Cook Humans . She takes the book and shows it to the aliens , who explain to her that part of the title was obscured by space dust , which they then blow away to reveal the title How To Cook For Humans . Lisa , skeptical at this , blows off more space dust , revealing the title to be How To Cook Forty Humans . The aliens blow off the last of the space dust , finally revealing the real title How To Cook For Forty Humans . Enraged at Lisa 's mistrust , they return the Simpsons to Earth , explaining that Lisa ruined the family 's chance at paradise on the aliens ' home planet . Homer and Bart agree with the aliens , but Marge tries to explain to them that Lisa was just concerned for their family and didn 't know better . Even she agrees that Lisa sometimes needs to tone down her attitude and just ask .
= = = The Raven = = =
Lisa reads " The Raven " by Edgar Allan Poe . In this adaptation , Bart is depicted as the raven , Homer finds himself in the role of the poem 's lead character , while Lisa and Maggie are seraphim . Marge appears briefly as a painting of Lenore . James Earl Jones narrates .
The episode then returns to the treehouse and Bart , Lisa and Maggie , who are not frightened by any of the stories . They climb down from the treehouse and sleep peacefully the whole night . Homer , on the other hand , lies in his bed terrified . As he notices a raven outside the window similar to the one from the poem , Homer hides under the sheets and exclaims that he " hates Halloween " .
= = Production = =
Unlike a typical Simpsons episode , " Treehouse of Horror " is divided into three segments . It is the first in the Treehouse of Horror series of Halloween themed Simpsons episodes . It is considered to be non @-@ canon and takes place outside the normal continuity of the show . A Treehouse of Horror episode has since aired around Halloween every season . Part of the series ' attraction for the writers is that they are able to break the rules and include violence that would not make it into a regular episode . The episode was inspired by EC Comics horror comics , such as Tales from the Crypt . In the first segment , several haunted house films are parodied , including The Shining and The Amityville Horror . The haunted house being built on a burial ground is inspired by the 1982 film Poltergeist . The house was also designed to look like the Addams family house . The second segment 's cookbook is a reference to the 1962 The Twilight Zone episode " To Serve Man " . The third segment reimagines Edgar Allan Poe 's " The Raven " .
In 2011 , staff writer Al Jean commented on the episode : " The idea of it to parody EC Comics was really original and kind of shocking for a cartoon on network television . [ Executive producer ] Jim Brooks said , ' We better have a disclaimer at the beginning of this Halloween show , ' so Marge came out and warned people that they were going to see something scary . And the funny thing is it 's now very tame by our Halloween standards and by network animation standards . " According to M. Keith Booker , author of Drawn to Television , the warning only made the episode more attractive to children . The entire segment was a parody of the opening of the 1931 film Frankenstein . While similar " warnings " were used to open the second and third " Treehouse " episodes , these quickly became a burden to write and there was no warning for the fourth episode . Instead , it had Marge ask Bart to warn people how frightening the show was during his introduction paying homage to Night Gallery . The tradition was revived for " Treehouse of Horror V " ; after that , they were permanently dropped and the writers did not make any attempts at reviving them . In the opening segment of the episode , and the four subsequent episodes , the camera zooms through a cemetery where tombstones with humorous epitaphs can be seen . These messages include the names of canceled shows from the previous television season and celebrities such as Walt Disney and Jim Morrison . They were last used in " Treehouse of Horror V " , which included a solitary tombstone with the words " Amusing Tombstones " to signal this . The tombstone gags were easy for the writers in the first episode , but like Marge 's warnings , they eventually got more difficult to write , so they were abandoned . Of the series , " Treehouse of Horror " was the only one that included a treehouse as a setting . " Treehouse of Horror " was the first time that an alternate version of the theme that airs over the end credits was used . Originally it was supposed to use a theremin ( an early electronic musical instrument ) , but one could not be found that could hit all the necessary notes .
Alf Clausen , who has scored most of the Simpsons music , began his work on the show with this episode . The first segment , " Bad Dream House " , was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Wes Archer . The voice of the house was provided by cast member Harry Shearer . Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky wrote the second segment , " Hungry are the Damned " , and Rich Moore directed it . Sam Simon wrote the third segment , " The Raven " , and David Silverman directed it . The segment was based on Edgar Allan Poe 's 1845 narrative poem " The Raven " . During production , Simpsons creator Matt Groening was nervous about " The Raven " because it did not have many gags , and felt it would be " the worst , most pretentious thing [ they had ] ever done " on the show . American actor James Earl Jones guest starred in the episode as a moving man , Serak the Preparer ( one of the aliens ) and the narrator of " The Raven " . He recorded his lines at the Village Recorder in West Los Angeles . To get the right drooling sound for the aliens , Jones chewed on a cookie close to his microphone .
The sibling aliens Kang and Kodos first appeared on the show on this episode . Every Treehouse of Horror episode since this one must have Kang and Kodos as characters , states an unofficial Simpsons rule . Despite this rule , the writers say the duo will often be forgotten and then added at the last second , leading to brief appearances . The idea of Kang and Kodos came from Kogen and Wolodarsky . In the script , Kang and Kodos were shown as " an octopus in a space helmet with a trail of goo " . The finished design was based on the cover of an EC Comics issue . Although originally designed to constantly drool , Groening suggested that they not drool all the time to make the animation process easier . However , the animators did not mind the work , leading to the drooling staying in the script . Kang and Kodos 's names are derived from two Star Trek characters . Kang was a Klingon captain portrayed by actor Michael Ansara in the episode " Day of the Dove " , whereas Kodos the Executioner was a human villain from " The Conscience of the King " . Harry Shearer voices Kang , and Dan Castellaneta voices Kodos .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Treehouse of Horror " finished 25th in ratings for the week of October 22 – 28 , 1990 , with a Nielsen rating of 15 @.@ 7 , equivalent to approximately 14 @.@ 6 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating Married ... with Children . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , said the first two segments worked better than the third , " but this is a marvelous episode , and set a high standard for the Halloween specials to come . " In 2008 , Canwest News Service chose " Treehouse of Horror " as one of the top five scariest episodes from the television 's past . They singled out Marge saying " This family has had its differences and we 've squabbled , but we 've never had knife fights before , and I blame this house " as a memorable line from the episode . Two of the episode 's segments were singled out by critics as exemplary parts of the Treehouse of Horror series . " The Raven " was selected as the second best Treehouse of Horror segment by Ryan J. Budke of TV Squad in 2005 . Budke described the segment as " one of the most refined Simpsons pop references ever " and knows " people that consider this the point that they realized The Simpsons could be both highly hilarious and highly intelligent . " " Hungry are the Damned " was selected as the fifth best Treehouse of Horror segment by Eric Goldman , Dan Iverson and Brian Zoromski of IGN in 2008 . The IGN reviewers singled out the How to Cook for Forty Humans section of the segment as its funniest moment .
Critics also praised the episode 's relationship to various television shows and Poe 's " The Raven " . Michael Stailey of DVD Verdict described the three Treehouse of Horror segments as " brilliantly crafted tales capturing the best elements of The Twilight Zone , Outer Limits , and Alfred Hitchcock Presents , injecting them into the Simpsons ' universe . " DVD reviewer Doug Pratt described " The Raven " as a " perfect adaptation " . Kurt M. Koenigsberger said in his book Leaving Springfield that The Simpsons , while " not strictly a literary form " , " is certainly the literate of all situation comedies . " Koenigsberger uses " The Raven " as one example in support of the statement " The Simpsons is steeped in the American literary context into which Arnold Bennett made such a splash on his tour in 1911 . "
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= Alyssa Miller =
Alyssa Elaine Miller ( born July 4 , 1989 ) is an American fashion model . She has done print and runway work for numerous leading companies . Among her highlights are cover appearances on for Vogue ( Germany ) and Elle ( Italy ) , work as a featured model / spokesperson for both Guess and Victoria 's Secret as well as appearances in the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue .
= = Early life and description = =
Miller was born in Los Angeles , California . Her ancestry includes German , Austrian , English , Irish , Scottish and Welsh . She grew up in Palmdale , Los Angeles County .
Miller is known for her dark brown hair , full eyebrows and bone structure . She is considered to have a very European look . Guess founder Paul Marciano said , " Alyssa is the most European @-@ looking American girl I 've ever seen ! " When she had her breakthrough with Guess , she drew comparisons to Sophia Loren and Brooke Shields and was regarded as something of a throwback .
= = Career = =
In 2003 , her father sent test photos to a Los Angeles office of IMG Models . By 2005 she was an up @-@ and @-@ coming model with the Marilyn NY agency . She did a 2005 fall campaign for Stella McCartney . By February 2006 , she had been featured in each of the major editions of Vogue , including the cover of a Vogue Italia supplement . Following cover appearances for the October 2006 German Vogue and the July 2010 Italian Elle ( she also later appeared on the October 2012 cover ) , she became one of the new faces of Guess clothing in late 2010 . Miller has also done work for Victoria 's Secret . Other ad work has included Bebe , Billabong , Chopard , Diesel , Elie Tahari , Intimissimi , Juicy Couture , La Perla and Laura Biagiotti .
She signed with Elite Model Management in 2011 . She made her Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue debut in 2011 when she was one of five rookies ( along with Shannan Click , Kenza Fourati , Izabel Goulart , and fellow Guess model Kate Upton ) in the issue . According to a story in The Wall Street Journal she had previously thought that if she ever appeared in Sports Illustrated it would be for soccer , since given her athletic background she had envisioned herself as a professional soccer player . She also appeared in the body painting feature in the 2011 Swimsuit Issue where Joanne Gair painted her and Stewart Shining photographed her in New York City . 2013 was her third Swimsuit Issue . In both 2011 and 2013 , Miller participated in the annual Sports Illustrated swimsuit edition of David Letterman 's Top 10 on the Late Show with David Letterman on the night that the Swimsuit Issue cover model was announced .
In 2012 she became the muse of Blumarine Bellissima fragrance . She played the mermaid in the 2013 music video for " Mermaid " by Train . Miller is a former victim of bullying , and she became an advocate against bullying and cyberbullying on May 1 , 2013 , along with Super Bowl XLVII champion Jameel McClain , by becoming a global ambassador for STOMP Out Bullying . In 2013 , Miller signed with IMG soon after a first public appearance with Jake Gyllenhaal . She was featured in the 80th anniversary issue of Esquire as one of the 80 things that define our time . In December 2013 , she appeared on the cover and in the 2014 Calendar Girl Issue of the fashion magazine Galore . Her images were augmented by the artwork of Claw Money who affixed his graphic cartoon paws to both black @-@ and @-@ white and color photographs of her as if they were gripping her while she was modelling .
In July 2014 Miller , together with fashion publicist Robyn Berkley , launched a meditation @-@ wear collection for Berkley ’ s line , Live the Process , with a percentage of sales to the David Lynch Foundation . Miller made a cameo appearance in the 2015 film Entourage .
= = Personal life = =
Miller began dating actor Jake Gyllenhaal in mid @-@ June 2013 and they became a public couple in July . Their first public appearance as a couple was at Barry 's Bootcamp , a gym in Tribeca , on July 12 and she met Gyllenhaal 's mother three days later . She credits Gyllenhaal with teaching her how to cook as they hosted dinner parties . According to reports , Miller and Gyllenhaal broke up in late 2013 . A source told UsMagazine.com : " They fizzled out . It happened a while ago – before the holidays . He 's back on the scene . " However , by February , the couple had reconciled . In May 2014 , they were spotted together walking her dog , a Boston Terrier named Charlie .
Miller 's fitness regimen includes ballet and running ; she practices Transcendental Meditation . She has taken both acting and improvisation classes . Her father 's name is Craig Miller ; she has several siblings .
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= Ruggiero di Lauria @-@ class ironclad =
The Ruggiero di Lauria class was a class of ironclad battleships built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) during the late 19th century . The three ships — Ruggiero di Lauria , Francesco Morosini , and Andrea Doria — were improved versions of the earlier Caio Duilio @-@ class battleships . The primary improvements were new breech @-@ loading guns , better armor protection , and more powerful machinery . The ships , designed by Giuseppe Micheli , marked a temporary diversion from the ideas of Benedetto Brin , who had designed the two preceding classes along with the following class .
Construction of the ships was very lengthy , and by the time they were completed , the first pre @-@ dreadnought battleships were being built . Rendered obsolescent by these new ships , the Ruggiero di Laurias had limited careers . The spent their time in service alternating between the Active and Reserve Squadrons , and they were primarily occupied with conducting training exercises . The ships were removed from service in 1909 – 11 ; Francesco Morosini was expended as a target ship , while Ruggiero di Lauria became a floating oil tank and Andrea Doria was converted into a depot ship . During World War I , Andrea Doria returned to service as a guard ship before being repurposed for oil storage after the war , eventually being broken up in 1929 . Ruggiero di Lauria survived until 1943 , when she was sunk by bombers during World War II . Her wreck was salvaged in 1945 .
= = Design = =
Starting in the 1870s , following the Italian fleet 's defeat at the Battle of Lissa , the Italians began a large naval expansion program , initially aimed at countering the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . The program included the Caio Duilio and Italia classes , which were both designed by Benedetto Brin . The Ruggiero di Laurias were authorized in the naval program for 1880 , and the task of designing them was assigned to Engineering Inspector Giuseppe Micheli . Vice Admiral Ferdinando Acton opposed the very large ironclads designed by Brin , and so he charged Micheli with creating a ship that would not exceed 10 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 800 long tons ; 11 @,@ 000 short tons ) . Micheli chose to base his new design on a cut @-@ down version of Caio Duilio , though he incorporated several improvements , including more modern , breech @-@ loading guns , a more powerful propulsion system , and new , more effective compound armor . Micheli 's tenure as the designer for Italian capital ships was short @-@ lived , with Brin returning to create the follow @-@ on Re Umberto class , the final members of the second generation of Italian ironclads .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Ruggiero di Lauria class were 100 meters ( 330 ft ) long between perpendiculars and 105 @.@ 9 meters ( 347 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 19 @.@ 84 m ( 65 @.@ 1 ft ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 29 to 8 @.@ 37 m ( 27 @.@ 2 to 27 @.@ 5 ft ) . They displaced 9 @,@ 886 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 730 long tons ) normally and up to 11 @,@ 145 t ( 10 @,@ 969 long tons ) at full load . The ships were built with a high forecastle to improve sea @-@ keeping over the Caio Duilio class . A single military mast with fighting tops was located amidships ; a hurricane deck connected the forward and aft superstructure . Both sections of superstructure was used to store several smaller boats ; each section also had a large crane to handle the boats . The ships had a crew of 507 – 509 officers and men .
Their propulsion system consisted of a pair of compound steam engines , each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by eight coal @-@ fired , cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers . The boilers were trunked into two funnels , one in the forward superstructure and the other in the aft superstructure . Ruggiero di Lauria was the fastest member of the class , reaching a top speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) at 10 @,@ 591 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 898 kW ) . Francesco Morosini and Andrea Dorea had a top speed of around 16 kn ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . The ships could steam for 2 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 200 km ; 3 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The Ruggiero di Laurias were armed with a main battery of four 17 in ( 432 mm ) 27 @-@ caliber rifled breechloading guns , mounted in two pairs en echelon in a central barbette . These guns were the A 1882 model , and they fired a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 910 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of around 1 @,@ 837 feet per second ( 560 m / s ) . Their rate of fire was very slow , taking eight minutes to reload after each shot . They carried a secondary battery of two 6 in ( 152 mm ) 32 @-@ caliber guns , one at the bow and the other at the stern , and four 4 @.@ 7 in ( 119 mm ) 32 @-@ caliber guns . The 6 in gun fired a variety of shells , including 102 lb ( 46 kg ) armor @-@ piercing shells , while the 4 @.@ 7 in guns fired 36 lb ( 16 kg ) shells . From 1900 , the ships had their secondary battery significantly expanded with two 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns , ten 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 40 @-@ caliber guns , twelve 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , five 37 mm revolver cannon , and two machine guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , they carried five 14 in ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull . The torpedoes carried a 125 kg ( 276 lb ) warhead and had a range of 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) .
The ships ' protection scheme consisted of compound armor . The Ruggiero di Laurias had an armored belt that was 17 @.@ 75 in ( 451 mm ) thick ; the citadel received the same thickness of steel . They had an armored deck that was 3 in ( 76 mm ) thick , and their conning tower was armored with 9 @.@ 8 in ( 249 mm ) of steel plate . The barbette had 14 @.@ 2 in ( 361 mm ) of steel armor .
= = Construction = =
The ships ' construction times were very lengthy ; by the time they were completed , the United Kingdom had begun building the Royal Sovereign @-@ class battleships , the first pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , which rendered older ironclad battleships obsolescent . In addition , technological progress , particularly in armor production techniques — first Harvey armor and then Krupp armor — contributed to the ships ' rapid obsolescence .
= = Service history = =
The three Ruggiero di Laurias served in the Active Squadron for the first several years of their careers , into the mid @-@ 1890s . By 1895 , Ruggiero di Lauria had been transferred to the Reserve Squadron , though Andrea Doria and Francesco Morosini remained in the Active Squadron . That year , Ruggiero di Lauria and Andrea Doria joined the Active Squadron for a major cruise to Britain and Germany . All three ships were assigned to the Active Squadron in 1899 . That year , Ruggiero di Lauria and Andrea Doria took part in a naval review in Cagliari for the Italian King Umberto I , which included a French and British squadron as well .
All three ships had been transferred to the Reserve Squadron by 1905 , and they were quickly discarded . In 1908 , the Italian Navy decided to discard Ruggiero di Lauria and Francesco Morosini , while Andrea Doria remained in service until 1911 . Francesco Morosini was expended as a target ship for torpedo experiments in September 1909 . Ruggiero di Lauria was converted into a floating oil tank in 1909 and was renamed GM 45 ; she was sunk in an air raid in 1943 during World War II . Andrea Doria served as a depot ship until Italy entered World War I in May 1915 , when she was employed as a guard ship in Brindisi . After the war , she too was converted into an oil tank , before being broken up for scrap in 1929 .
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= Denny Bautista =
Denny M. Bautista Germán ( born August 23 , 1980 ) is a Dominican professional baseball pitcher who is currently a free agent . Bautista is 6 feet 5 inches ( 1 @.@ 96 m ) tall and weighs 190 pounds ( 86 kg ) . He played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the Baltimore Orioles , Kansas City Royals , Colorado Rockies , Detroit Tigers , Pittsburgh Pirates , and San Francisco Giants from 2004 to 2010 . From 2011 through 2013 , he played for the Hanwha Eagles of the Korea Baseball Organization ( KBO ) . He bats and throws right @-@ handed . Bautista throws three pitches : a fastball , a curveball , and a changeup . He has struggled with control throughout his career .
Bautista grew up receiving instruction on pitching from his second cousin , Pedro Martínez . The Florida Marlins signed him in 2000 but traded him to the Baltimore Orioles before Bautista reached the major leagues . He debuted with the Orioles in 2004 , appearing in two games before getting traded to the Kansas City Royals . Bautista was ranked Kansas City 's number two prospect by Baseball America entering the 2005 season , but he made just seven starts before missing the rest of the season with an injury . He posted a 5 @.@ 66 earned run average ( ERA ) for the Royals in 2006 before getting traded to the Colorado Rockies . He appeared in nine games ( all in relief ) for the Rockies in 2007 , spending most of the year in the minor leagues .
After 2007 , Bautista never made another start in the major leagues . He began 2008 with the Detroit Tigers bullpen but had an injury and was traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates during the year . He re @-@ signed with Pittsburgh in 2009 but only appeared in 14 games , spending most of the year in the minors . Bautista posted a 3 @.@ 74 ERA with the San Francisco Giants in 2010 but was never on their playoff roster and was released during the playoffs . In 2011 , he signed with the Seattle Mariners but was assigned to the minor leagues . Halfway through the season , he joined the Hanwha Eagles of the Korea Baseball Organization . On April 18 , 2015 , it was announced that he had signed a minor league deal with the Boston Red Sox .
= = Early life = =
Bautista had an early connection to Major League Baseball ( MLB ) : as a teenager he pitched in a park built by professional baseball players Pedro Martínez , Ramón Martínez , and Juan Guzmán . Pedro , then one of baseball 's outstanding starting pitchers , mentored Bautista and trained with him during the offseason .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor league career = = =
= = = = Florida Marlins organization = = = =
The Florida Marlins signed Bautista on June 21 , 2000 , and assigned him to the Gulf Coast Marlins , their rookie @-@ level minor league affiliate . He started 11 games for the Marlins , posting a 6 – 2 win – loss record with an earned run average ( ERA ) of 2 @.@ 43 and 17 walks . He was tied for second in the league in wins ( along with six other pitchers behind Jeff Randazzo 's seven ) , second in the league in ERA ( behind Yoel Hernández 's 1 @.@ 35 ) , tied for second with 58 strikeouts ( along with Randazzo behind Manuel Esquivia 's 77 ) , third in the league with 63 innings pitched ( behind Randazzo 's 68 2 ⁄ 3 and Esquivia 's 64 2 ⁄ 3 ) , and tied for second in the league in complete games with two ( tied with Hernández behind Randazzo 's three ) . He also appeared in one game for the Single @-@ A short season Utica Blue Sox of the New York – Penn League that year . He split 2001 between Utica and the Single @-@ A Kane County Cougars of the Midwest League , going a combined 6 – 2 with an ERA of 3 @.@ 23 , 51 strikeouts , 20 walks , and 78 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 15 games ( 14 starts ) . In the playoffs , he pitched a shutout for the Cougars , allowing just one hit , striking out eight , and helping the Cougars win their first Midwest League title .
After the 2001 season , Baseball America ranked Bautista the third @-@ best prospect in the Marlins ' organization . The following April , a USA Today article said that Bautista had similar career potential to Pedro Martínez , noting that Bautista 's fastball had become about 10 mph faster during his time in the minor leagues . In 2002 , he pitched with the Single @-@ A Advanced Jupiter Hammerheads of the Florida State League , where he went 4 – 6 with an ERA of 4 @.@ 99 , 79 strikeouts , 40 walks , and 88 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 19 games ( 15 starts ) . He recovered in 2003 , making 25 starts between the Hammerheads and the Double @-@ A Carolina Mudcats of the Southern League . He finished the year with a 12 – 9 win @-@ loss record , an improved ERA of 3 @.@ 41 , 138 strikeouts , and 70 walks in 137 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .
= = = Major League career = = =
= = = = Baltimore Orioles = = = =
On August 31 , 2003 the Marlins traded Bautista and fellow minor leaguer Don Levinski to the Baltimore Orioles for veteran Jeff Conine . Before the 2004 season , Baseball America ranked him the Orioles ' fifth @-@ best prospect . The Orioles assigned Bautista to the Double @-@ A Bowie Baysox of the Eastern League , where he went 3 – 5 with a 4 @.@ 74 ERA , 72 strikeouts , 33 walks , and 62 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 14 games ( 13 starts ) during the 2004 season . Bautista made his major league debut that year : the Orioles called him up as part of a roster reshuffle , and he made his first appearance , in relief , on May 25 , 2004 , against the New York Yankees . He recorded three outs in the first inning he pitched , but he got into difficulties and surrendered four runs on three hits before getting removed during his second inning . After a second relief appearance on May 27 ( in which he allowed four runs in 1 ⁄ 3 of an inning ) amid a three @-@ game sweep of the Orioles by the Yankees , Bautista was sent back to Bowie . A month later the Orioles traded him to the Kansas City Royals for veteran relief pitcher Jason Grimsley .
= = = = Kansas City Royals = = = =
= = = = = 2004 = = = = =
The Royals assigned Bautista to the Double @-@ A Wichita Wranglers of the Texas League , where he went 4 – 3 with an ERA of 2 @.@ 53 , 73 strikeouts , 32 walks , and 81 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 12 starts . In September , he was called up and added to the Royals ' starting rotation when the team decided to go to a six @-@ man staff to limit their pitchers ' innings . He made his first major league start on September 6 , allowing four runs over six innings and taking the loss in a 7 – 3 defeat to the Detroit Tigers . In five starts for the Royals , Bautista had an 0 – 4 record , a 6 @.@ 51 ERA , 18 strikeouts , and 11 walks in 27 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .
= = = = = 2005 = = = = =
Bautista was ranked the second @-@ best prospect in the Royals ' organization before the 2005 season by Baseball America . After a productive spring training in 2005 , Bautista was named to the Royals ' starting rotation again ; he started seven games , going 2 – 2 with an ERA of 5 @.@ 80 , 23 strikeouts , and 17 walks in 35 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched before tendinitis in his shoulder put him on the disabled list for the remainder of the season . On April 8 , 2005 , Bautista won his first MLB game , holding the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim to one run in eight innings pitched .
= = = = = 2006 = = = = =
At the start of the 2006 season , Bautista was again in the Royals ' starting rotation , but after a poor start ( interrupted by a disabled list stint from April 14 to May 8 ) in which he went 0 – 2 with an ERA of 5 @.@ 66 , 22 strikeouts , and 17 walks in 35 innings pitched , the Royals sent him to the Triple @-@ A Omaha Royals of the Pacific Coast League . There he continued to struggle , posting a 2 – 5 record , a 7 @.@ 36 ERA , 28 strikeouts , 32 walks , and 44 innings pitched in 10 starts . On August 1 , the Royals traded him along with Jeremy Affeldt to the Colorado Rockies for Ryan Shealy and Scott Dohmann .
= = = = Colorado Rockies = = = =
= = = = = 2006 = = = = =
The Rockies assigned Bautista to the Triple @-@ A Colorado Springs Sky Sox of the Pacific Coast League where he started six games , posting a 1 – 4 record , a 4 @.@ 50 ERA , 35 strikeouts , and 16 walks in 36 innings pitched before being called up to the Rockies in September . He appeared in four games , three of them in relief with Colorado . In 12 games ( eight starts ) with Kansas City and Colorado on the season , Bautista had an 0 – 3 record , a 5 @.@ 62 ERA , 27 strikeouts , and 21 walks in 41 2 ⁄ 3 innings . His Pacific Coast League totals for 2006 were a 3 – 9 record , a 6 @.@ 08 ERA , 63 strikeouts , and 40 walks in 80 innings pitched .
= = = = = 2007 = = = = =
Bautista was optioned to Colorado Springs halfway through spring training in 2007 . On April 29 , he was called up by the Rockies to replace Ryan Speier in the bullpen . He gave up one run over 4 2 ⁄ 3 innings and won two of the first four games he appeared in before he then allowed 11 runs in one inning pitched over his next three outings . After Bautista allowed six runs in 1 ⁄ 3 of an inning on May 13 in a 15 – 2 loss to the San Francisco Giants , bringing his ERA to 19 @.@ 06 , he was sent back to Colorado Springs . In 51 games , all in relief , at Colorado Springs , he had a 3 – 2 record , a 2 @.@ 92 ERA , 63 strikeouts , and 31 walks in 64 2 ⁄ 3 innings . He was recalled when rosters expanded in September . On September 12 , he made his final major league start in a bullpen game , throwing two scoreless innings in a 12 – 0 victory over the Philadelphia Phillies . In nine games , he had a 2 – 1 record , a 12 @.@ 46 ERA , eight strikeouts , and four walks in 8 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He was left off the playoff roster as the Rockies went to the World Series . On December 4 , the Rockies traded Bautista to the Detroit Tigers for pitcher José Capellán .
= = = = Detroit Tigers = = = =
Bautista began 2008 with the Tigers in a relief role , often pitching in the eighth @-@ inning as the " setup man " for veteran closer Todd Jones . In his debut on Opening Day ( March 31 ) , he gave up a run in the 11th inning and took the loss in a 5 – 4 defeat to the Royals . After that game , he had nine consecutive scoreless outings . He then allowed five runs over three outings in a row before getting placed on the disabled list on May 3 with a sore shoulder . He came off the disabled list on June 5 and appeared in three more games with the Tigers . In 16 games with the Tigers , Bautista had an 0 – 1 record , a 3 @.@ 32 ERA , 10 strikeouts , and 14 walks in 19 innings . Due to the return of Joel Zumaya from the disabled list , Bautista was designated for assignment and was traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates on June 25 for right @-@ handed pitcher Kyle Pearson .
= = = = Pittsburgh Pirates = = = =
= = = = = 2008 = = = = =
Bautista made thirty @-@ five appearances for the Pirates in 2008 , all in relief . On July 2 , he threw 3 1 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings of relief to pick up the win in a 9 – 5 victory over the Cincinnati Reds . With Pittsburgh , Bautista posted a 4 – 3 record , an ERA of 6 @.@ 10 , 34 strikeouts , and 28 walks in 41 1 ⁄ 3 innings . His combined totals for the season were a 4 – 4 record , a 5 @.@ 22 ERA , 44 strikeouts , 42 walks , and 60 1 ⁄ 3 innings in 51 games . Bautista was eligible for arbitration but the Pirates declined to tender an offer , although general manager Neal Huntington stated " We 'd like to get him back . "
= = = = = 2009 = = = = =
On December 22 , 2008 , Bautista signed a minor league contract with an invitation to spring training to return to the Pirates in 2009 . He failed to make the team and began 2009 with the Triple @-@ A Indianapolis Indians of the International League . In 36 games with Indianapolis , he had a 2 – 3 record , a 4 @.@ 88 ERA , 58 strikeouts , and 34 walks in 48 innings . On August 15 , he had his contract purchased from Indianapolis to replace the injured José Ascanio in the bullpen . He threw two scoreless innings to earn the win on August 27 in a 3 – 2 victory over the Philadelphia Phillies . In 14 games , he had a 1 – 1 record , a 5 @.@ 27 ERA , 15 strikeouts , and seven walks in 13 2 ⁄ 3 innings . On October 27 , he became a free agent .
= = = = San Francisco Giants = = = =
On January 21 , 2010 , Bautista signed a minor league contract with the San Francisco Giants with an invite to spring training . He competed with Guillermo Mota for the final spot in the Giants ' bullpen but was sent to the minors on April 4 as Mota won the job . Bautista served as the closer for the Fresno Grizzlies of the Pacific Coast League before he was recalled to the major league team on May 7 . Giants ' manager Bruce Bochy said , " He 's been the best pitcher down there . " With the Giants , Bautista often pitched in long relief . He posted a 2 @.@ 16 ERA in his first 19 games through June 30 , but in 12 games after that , his ERA was 8 @.@ 31 . In his most recent major league appearance , on August 4 , he allowed back @-@ to @-@ back home runs to Carlos González and Troy Tulowitzki in a 6 – 1 loss to Colorado . On August 5 , Bautista was designated for assignment by the Giants to make room for Todd Wellemeyer on the roster . Shortly thereafter , he was outrighted to Fresno . In 31 games with the Giants , he had a 2 – 0 record , a 3 @.@ 74 ERA , 44 strikeouts , and 27 walks in 33 2 ⁄ 3 innings . In 19 games with Fresno , he had a 3 – 2 record , a 3 @.@ 18 ERA , 28 strikeouts , 9 walks , and six saves in 22 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He did not pitch at all in the postseason for the Giants as they won the 2010 World Series ; in fact , he was granted free agency during the playoffs on October 12 .
= = = = Seattle Mariners organization = = = =
On December 14 , 2010 , Bautista signed a minor league contract with the Seattle Mariners including an invite to spring training . He stayed with the Mariners through most of spring training but was reassigned to the minor leagues on March 27 , 2011 . In 24 games with the Tacoma Rainiers of the Pacific Coast League , Bautista had a 1 – 2 record , a 4 @.@ 21 ERA , 49 strikeouts , and 22 walks in 36 1 ⁄ 3 innings . He was released on June 30 so that he could join the Korea Baseball Organization .
= = = = Hanwha Eagles = = = =
Bautista signed with the Hanwha Eagles in Korea on June 29 , 2011 . He served as Hanwha 's closer upon joining the team in 2011 , posting a 3 – 0 record , a 2 @.@ 02 ERA , 122 strikeouts , 41 walks , and 35 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 27 games . On April 11 , 2013 , he allowed a three @-@ run home run to Lee Seung @-@ Yeop in a 4 – 0 loss to the Samsung Lions . While pitching for Hanwha , he has become friends with Kim Tae @-@ kyun . Used as a starter in 2013 after the departure of Hyun @-@ jin Ryu , Bautista had a 7 – 7 record , a 4 @.@ 24 ERA , and 153 strikeouts in 138 innings . After the 2013 season , the Eagles chose not to resign Bautista , opting to make Félix Pie and Caleb Clay the foreign players on their roster .
= = = Boston Red Sox = = =
Bautista signed a minor league deal with the Boston Red Sox in April 2015 .
= = Pitching style = =
Bautista throws three pitches : a fastball , a curveball , and a changeup . His fastball travels in the high 90 mph range . His curve can break down sharply , and he learned the changeup from Pedro Martínez . Wildness had been a problem for Bautista throughout his career . He has trouble controlling his fastball and walks a great deal of hitters , which has often contributed to his departure from teams .
= = Personal life = =
Bautista is married to Elizabeth ; the couple has one son and resides in Santo Domingo . The relationship between Bautista and Pedro Martínez has been reported variously as first cousin and second cousin , with Bautista at one point denying there was a connection at all . Bautista finally confirmed that he and Martínez are second cousins through Bautista 's mother .
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= Code Age Commanders : Tsugu Mono Tsuga Reru Mono =
Code Age Commanders : Tsugu Mono Tsuga Reru Mono ( コード ・ エイジ コマンダーズ ～ 継ぐ者 継がれる者 ～ ) is a Japan @-@ exclusive action role @-@ playing game developed and published by Square Enix on October 13 , 2005 for the PlayStation 2 . It is part of the Code Age series , a franchise created by video game artist Yusuke Naora and designed to span different interweaved titles in multiple platforms and media . The series consists of Commanders , the mobile phone game Code Age Brawls , and the manga Code Age Archives .
The story of the game depicts the struggles of people surviving in a fictional " intraglobular world " menaced by an impending destruction , mysterious warped creatures , and different factions warring against each other . The game focuses successively on the viewpoints of four main protagonists . Reviews of the game were relatively positive , with high praises of its graphics and art direction but more mixed feelings for its complex and atypical gameplay .
= = Gameplay = =
Code Age Commanders is an action role @-@ playing game divided in missions , in which the goal is to fight enemies called " Coded " to reach a certain area of the map , where a boss must sometimes be defeated . The player controls one character while other allies are computer @-@ controlled and must not die for the mission to be successful . Between two missions , the player can select in a menu numerous optional cut scenes to watch and which reveal the memories of the Coded defeated , while stages already completed can be re @-@ explored . The game features four successive main playable characters , and items and skills learned by one is each time passed to the next .
Weapons are equipped on both hands of the characters and are used with the circle and cross buttons . Pressing both buttons in succession is necessary to execute combos . The other buttons are used to lock focus onto an enemy , guard , dash , or manually change the camera angle . The number of attacks and blocks is limited by an energy meter for each arm , which decreases after each move but replenishes with time .
A third meter increases after each combo and allows when maxed out to perform a " Code Drive " attack . Executed with the triangle button , a Code Drive triggers a brief close @-@ up sequence in which a blue circle appears around the character . If the player presses a second button before the circle shifts to red , a powerful special attack will be unleashed . If the enemy blocks the Code Drive , a second , shorter close @-@ up sequence is triggered . Enemies can also perform Code Drives , in which case the player 's button press allows for protection rather than attack . Executing Code Drives frequently can cause the weapon used to upgrade , or the character to go into a " Code Crisis " ; a mode which reduces speed and renders immune to attack , but slowly drains hit points .
= = = Customization = = =
In addition to Coded , enemy creatures include " Otellos " , which can either be defeated normally or be absorbed , mutating one of the protagonist 's arm into a new form with new abilities . Depending on their types , absorbed Otellos can be used to fight , heal or be shot as a projectile weapon . Multiple Otellos can be absorbed into each arm and switched for usage , although gathering too many may result in an " Overload " mode in which attack power is boosted ; but one Otello must be dropped quickly or the character 's hit points will decrease steadily and continually .
Characters do not level up in a way similar to standard role @-@ playing games ; instead , stats evolve according to two coexistent systems . The " Self Evolution System " alters stats and skills depending on their usage during battle : for instance , a repeated use of left @-@ handed attacks increases the character 's left arm strength , while running around often increases their speed . The second system is the " Code Extension " mode , in which Code Points can be spent on either of the two arms or up to four body slots to increase their stats or acquire new skills . Code Points are earned after each mission in amounts that depend on the quantity of " Dropped Code " collected from defeated enemies , as well as mission clear time , and damage done and taken . When replaying completed stages , the amount of Code Points earned is the difference between the player 's highest past score for the mission and the new score obtained .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Code Age Commanders is set in an " intraglobular world " ( 球内世界 , kyuunai sekai ) , a fictional hollow world similar to a Dyson sphere , with people living on its internal surface . The center of the sphere is occupied by the " Central Code " , a spherical structure which goes through a transformation called " Reborn " about every ten thousand years , destroying all life on the globe and allowing for the birth of a new one .
The game begins near the end of a Central Code cycle , while mankind has learned about the impending disaster and built " Arks " , flying stations intended to float in the sky and house most of them in a deep sleep state for the duration of the Reborn . The operation works for one hundred years before objects falling from the Central Code hit the Arks and cause them to crash to the surface . Its passengers die or awake , now at the mercy of those who remained on the ground as well as the Otellos ; a new , warped species which arose from the dropped pieces of the Central Code . The Otellos seek humans to turn them into mindless puppets named " Coded " , although the mutation fails on people from the Arks and results in free and extremely evolved hybrids called " Warheads " .
Knowing this , several humans seek Otellos voluntarily to become Warheads and try to protect mankind with the powers gained from the mutation . Several armed factions form with differing points of view on the way to save the world , while the Reborn still has not been completed .
= = = Characters = = =
The events of the game unfolds successively from the viewpoints of four different Warhead protagonists . The first one is Gene , a young man who becomes amnesic after the Arks accident . He is the son of professor Alvin , one of the builders of the Arks , who disappeared some time after the accident . While searching for his sister Aliz kidnapped by a strange creature , Gene is mutated into a Warhead and watches his arm turning into a weapon during a battle against some Otellos . He is assisted by a small floating companion named Pake ; and is later joined by the Warhead Kilroy , who was an assistant to professor Alvin ; and Meme , a mysterious but determined , optimistic young female Warhead .
The second protagonist , Fiona , is a soldier of the White Army of Guinevere , who saved her life . Commander Guinevere , a Warhead , was a female scientist who worked in the Arks with professor Alvin . Fiona is initially very loyal to Guinevere , but becomes more reluctant following the death of a friend and the commander 's changing , more dominating behavior .
The third protagonist is Gerald , a member of the Black Army of Sullivan . Also very loyal , Gerald nevertheless wonders why people do not unite to face the common threat represented by the Otellos . Commander Sullivan was another companion of professor Alvin and Guinevere , and also became a Warhead . His divergence of opinions with the White Army forced him to gather his own distinct army . The fourth and final protagonist is Haze Healy , a member of the Keepers ; a faction opposed to both White and Black Armies .
= = Development = =
Conceptual work by Yusuke Naora , the producer of the Code Age franchise , began in 2002 ; and Code Age Commanders was officially announced in the April 2005 edition of the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu . The development team was nicknamed " Warhead " and specifically assembled for the game , with its lead developers Yusuke Naora and Toshiyuki Itahana belonging to the art field rather than project management . Several connections to the mobile phone game Code Age Brawls and the manga Code Age Archives were put throughout the game , so that information learnt from it could be used by players and readers of the other installments to understand the full picture .
The focus on customization features in the game was designed by Naora to appeal to the American market . A trailer of the game was featured at the Los Angeles E3 in 2005 , although Naora later commented that a North American release date was not yet set as there were concerns about competing with the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ released PlayStation 3 . While the gaming website RPGamer reported at one point a 2006 release in North America , the game was eventually released only in Japan .
= = Audio = =
The score for the game was composed primarily by Kumi Tanioka , with Yasuhiro Yamanaka penning three tracks and J @-@ Pop singer Kou Shibasaki writing and performing the theme song titled " Memory Pocket -Memopoke- " . The non @-@ optional event scenes of the game are fully voiced . The Code Age Commanders Original Soundtrack , which does not contain " Memory Pocket " , was published by Square Enix on October 19 , 2005 in Japan . It spans two discs and 80 tracks , covering a duration of 2 hours and 28 minutes . " Memory Pocket " was released as the B @-@ side to Shibasaki 's single Sweet Mom by Universal Music Group on October 5 , 2005 in Japan , and was included in her second album Hitori Asobi published by Universal Music Group on 2006 @-@ 12 @-@ 14 in Japan .
= = Reception = =
Code Age Commanders sold 37 @,@ 000 units in its first week of release in Japan , a strong start for a new franchise ; debuting at number two in the charts behind Dragon Ball Z : Budokai Tenkaichi . It sold over 61 @,@ 000 copies in Japan by the end of 2005 . The game scored 32 out of 40 in the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu ; 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 in the American Play Magazine ; and 78 out of 100 on the gaming website GameBrink.Com. Nevertheless , the gaming site Siliconera reported overall low sales in Japan and attributed the absence of a North American release to this lukewarm response .
GameBrink.Com highly praised the quality of the graphics and animation of the game , and compared them to those of the Kingdom Hearts titles . The site greatly lauded the music and sound effects , stating that they set the mood well and tie in with the visuals ; and comparing their style to that of " Final Fantasy and Phantasy Star mixed together " . Siliconera also considered the character design interesting and original , although they felt the textures were " blocky sort " and the environments consisted mostly of wide fields .
However , GameBrink.Com felt that the gameplay , user @-@ friendly even to non @-@ Japanese players , consists of too much repetitive button mashing despite featuring characters with different abilities . The Code Extension mode was considered imperfectly implemented , seeming as if it were " tacked on [ … ] late in development " , being totally optional yet difficult not to use to survive in the later missions . Calling the gameplay " shallow " , the site stated that " the soundtrack would probably be a better purchase than the actual game " . On its part , Siliconera noted that while the gameplay may seem complex for using every button on the controller , thirty minutes were enough to grasp how to play the game . The site felt the missions were designed with good pacing and replayability value , but added that hardcore role @-@ playing game fans could dislike the lack of exploration , puzzle , and standard role @-@ playing game principles .
The storyline was also criticized by GameBrink.Com for feeling secondary to the gameplay yet being told in long and numerous cut scenes ; their amount was compared to that of the Xenosaga series . On the contrary , Siliconera praised the story and did not report any issue concerning it , although it regretted that playing and reading the other installments of the franchise was necessary for a thorough understanding of all plot points .
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= Cyclone Peter =
Cyclone Peter was the rainiest tropical cyclone on record in Australia . The third system and first severe tropical cyclone of the 1978 – 79 season , Peter developed on 29 December from a weak low pressure area over the Gulf of Carpentaria . Peter moved southeastward and deepened while brushing Arnhem Land . Initially a tropical low , it strengthened into a Category 1 cyclone by 12 : 00 UTC on 29 December . Peter intensified further on 30 December and became a Category 2 cyclone . On the following day , the cyclone peaked with maximum sustained winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . Peter weakened to a Category 1 cyclone before making landfall near the mouth of the Edward River in Queensland . While crossing the Cape York Peninsula , the storm weakened slowly . After reaching Pacific Ocean near Cooktown , the storm decelerated and meandered offshore , but dissipated just offshore on 4 January .
While trekking slowly offshore the east coast of Queensland , the storm dropped very heavy rainfall , peaking at 1 @,@ 947 millimetres ( 76 @.@ 7 in ) at Mount Bellenden Ker , making it the wettest tropical cyclone on record in Australia . Severe flooding occurred , especially in the Cairns area . The most severe damage was dealt to sugar cane , which suffered 70 to 90 percent destruction . Some flights were canceled at the Cairns Airport due to standing water . Floodwaters forced at least 50 people to flee their homes in Cairns . A number of roads , including major highways , were flooded throughout coastal areas of Far North Queensland . Rainfall and winds also resulted in many power and telephone service outages through the region . There were two fatalities and damage reached approximately $ 10 million ( 1979 AUD ; $ 11 @.@ 4 million 1979 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
During the final week of December 1978 , an area of atmospheric convection developed over northern Australia and surrounding areas . During 28 December , an area of low pressure developed over the eastern Arnhem Land within this area of atmospheric convection . Over the next day the system moved northwestward toward the Gulf of Carpentaria and developed further , with the first gale force wind associated with the system reported from an automatic weather station on 29 December . The system was subsequently named Peter by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) after it moved into the Gulf and developed into a Category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale . After being named , Peter continued to intensify further as it tracked southeastward toward the Cape York Peninsula .
The system was subsequently considered to have peaked as a Category 2 tropical cyclone on 31 December , with 10 @-@ minute sustained winds estimated at 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) by the BoM . Several hours later , the system made landfall between Aurukun and the Edward River mission , Queensland , at around 20 : 00 ( Australian Eastern Standard Time , 11 : 00 UTC ) . As Peter made landfall during 31 December winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , were reported from both Fitzroy Island and the Edward River mission weather stations . Over the next couple of days the system gradually weakened over land , before it emerged into the Coral Sea near Cooktown , Queensland , on 1 January . The system subsequently weakened below tropical cyclone intensity and became a tropical low during 2 January . The system was last noted on the following day as it degenerated into a complex low pressure system and moved back over the Cape York Peninsula . The complex low subsequently moved westwards over the Peninsula and into the Gulf , where it developed into Tropical Cyclone Greta .
= = Impact = =
The Darwin Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre ( TCWC ) in Northern Territory issued a cyclone warning on 30 December for the coast of Arnhem Land from the Wessel Islands to Port Roper , located near the mouth of the Roper River . Although a cyclone warning indicates expectation of landfall , Peter would never strike Northern Territory . The strongest observed winds in the territory was 74 km / h ( 46 mph ) on Northeast Island , while the highest precipitation total was 140 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) in Nhulunbuy , 107 mm ( 4 @.@ 2 in ) of which fell in 24 hours . Very rough seas were reported along the coast of some areas , beaching a 12 m ( 39 ft ) fishing vessel onto the rocks at Gove harbour .
In Queensland , the Brisbane TCWC issued cyclone watches and flood warnings as the storm passed over the Cape York Peninsula . Some areas experienced strong winds , with gusts up to 110 km / h ( 68 mph ) at Edward River Aboriginal Mission and Fitzroy Island . The storm dropped very heavy rainfall while drifting offshore Queensland , with Mount Bellenden Ker recording 1 @,@ 947 mm ( 76 @.@ 7 in ) over a period of approximately three days , making Peter the wettest tropical cyclone in Australia . About 1 @,@ 140 mm ( 45 in ) of that fell in a 24 @-@ hour period , which was the country 's highest daily rainfall total . Other significant precipitation amounts included 433 mm ( 17 @.@ 0 in ) in Millaa Millaa and 402 mm ( 15 @.@ 8 in ) in Cooktown .
Due to the heavy rainfall , severe flooding occurred , mostly between Tully and Cooktown , with the worst impact in the Cairns area . Many creeks and rivers , such as the Herbert , the north and south branches of the Johnstone , and McLeod rivers overflowed or reached dangerous levels . Much of the damage in North Queensland occurred to newly planted sugar cane , with approximately 70 to 90 percent of area 's crop destroyed . Twenty growers in Goondi each lost between $ 20 @,@ 000 to $ 30 @,@ 000 in sugar cane . Damage to this crop was comparable to the floods in 1977 . In total , the storm destroyed 270 @,@ 000 to 315 @,@ 000 tonnes of sugar cane .
Standing water at Cairns Airport led Ansett Australia to cancel some flights . Portions of many roads , including major highways such as the Bruce , Captain Cook , Gillies , and Kennedy highways were reported by the Royal Automobile Club as closed due to inundation and washouts . Many motorists were left stranded by floodwaters on Bruce Highway . Emergency personnel crews were put on standby in Innisfail as water up to 60 cm ( 24 in ) threatened dozens of homes in the eastern part of town . In Cairns , over 50 people fled their homes . On 5 January , the Coast Guard of Australia began evacuating some 160 stranded campers in areas about 140 km ( 85 mi ) north of Mossman . Foods shortages occurred in some areas of Far North Queensland , forcing several emergency food drops , including to about 250 people on 4 January and 70 people on 5 January . Additionally , a policeman was winched by helicopter to deliver food supplies to 10 isolated people on 7 January in Goldsborough , which is located in the Gillies Range to the west of Gordonvale . Overall , Peter left two fatalities and about $ 10 million ( 1979 AUD ) in damage , at least $ 4 @.@ 5 million of which was done to sugar cane in Babinda , Innisfail , and Tully .
After the storm , the Government of Queensland declared the Cairns area as a natural disaster area . About week later , the Cabinet supported a measure by Minister for Primary Industries , Vic Sullivan , to offer low @-@ interest loans to farmer who lost significant amounts of crops and livestock . Later , Queensland Premier Joh Bjelke @-@ Petersen requested aid from the national government . Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser approved low @-@ interest loans up to $ 25 @,@ 000 ( 1979 AUD ) for small businesses and the implementation of other measures for recovery .
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= John Calvin =
John Calvin ( / ˈkælvɪn / ; French : Jean Calvin , pronounced : [ ʒɑ ̃ kalvɛ ̃ ] ; born Jehan Cauvin : 10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564 ) was an influential French theologian and pastor during the Protestant Reformation . He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism , aspects of which include the doctrine of predestination and the absolute sovereignty of God in salvation of the human soul from death and eternal damnation . In these areas Calvin was influenced by the Augustinian tradition . Various Congregational , Reformed and Presbyterian churches , which look to Calvin as the chief expositor of their beliefs , have spread throughout the world .
Calvin was a tireless polemic and apologetic writer who generated much controversy . He also exchanged cordial and supportive letters with many reformers , including Philipp Melanchthon and Heinrich Bullinger . In addition to his seminal work Institutes of the Christian Religion , he wrote commentaries on most books of the Bible , as well as theological treatises and confessional documents .
Originally trained as a humanist lawyer , he broke from the Roman Catholic Church around 1530 . After religious tensions provoked a violent uprising against Protestantism in France , Calvin fled to Basel , Switzerland , where he published the first edition of the Institutes in 1536 . In that year , Calvin was recruited by another Frenchman William Farel to help reform the church in Geneva , where he regularly preached sermons throughout the week . The city council resisted the implementation of Calvin 's and Farel 's ideas , and both men were expelled . At the invitation of Martin Bucer , Calvin proceeded to Strasbourg , where he became the minister of a church of French refugees . He continued to support the reform movement in Geneva , and was eventually invited back to lead its church in 1541 .
Following his return , Calvin introduced new forms of church government and liturgy , despite opposition from several powerful families in the city who tried to curb his authority . During this period , Michael Servetus , a Spaniard regarded by both Catholics and Protestants as having a heretical view of the Trinity , arrived in Geneva . He was denounced by Calvin and burned at the stake for heresy by the city council . Following an influx of supportive refugees and new elections to the city council , Calvin 's opponents were forced out . Calvin spent his final years promoting the Reformation both in Geneva and throughout Europe .
= = Early life ( 1509 – 1535 ) = =
John Calvin was born as Jehan Cauvin on 10 July 1509 , in the town of Noyon in the Picardy region of France . He was the first of four sons who survived infancy . His mother , Jeanne le Franc , was the daughter of an innkeeper from Cambrai . She died in Calvin 's childhood , from an unknown cause , after bearing four more children . Calvin 's father , Gérard Cauvin , had a prosperous career as the cathedral notary and registrar to the ecclesiastical court . He died in 1531 , after suffering for two years with testicular cancer . Gérard intended his three sons — Charles , Jean , and Antoine — for the priesthood .
Young Calvin was particularly precocious . However , by age 12 , he was employed by the bishop as a clerk and received the tonsure , cutting his hair to symbolise his dedication to the Church . He also won the patronage of an influential family , the Montmors . Through their assistance , Calvin was able to attend the Collège de la Marche , Paris , where he learned Latin from one of its greatest teachers , Mathurin Cordier . Once he completed the course , he entered the Collège de Montaigu as a philosophy student .
In 1525 or 1526 , Gérard withdrew his son from the Collège de Montaigu and enrolled him in the University of Orléans to study law . According to contemporary biographers Theodore Beza and Nicolas Colladon , Gérard believed that Calvin would earn more money as a lawyer than as a priest . After a few years of quiet study , Calvin entered the University of Bourges in 1529 . He was intrigued by Andreas Alciati , a humanist lawyer . Humanism was a European intellectual movement which stressed classical studies . During his 18 @-@ month stay in Bourges , Calvin learned Koine Greek , a necessity for studying the New Testament .
During the autumn of 1533 Calvin experienced a religious conversion . In later life , he wrote two accounts of his conversion that differ in significant ways . In the first account he portrays his conversion as a sudden change of mind , brought about by God . This account can be found in his Commentary on the Book of Psalms :
" God by a sudden conversion subdued and brought my mind to a teachable frame , which was more hardened in such matters than might have been expected from one at my early period of life . Having thus received some taste and knowledge of true godliness , I was immediately inflamed with so intense a desire to make progress therein , that although I did not altogether leave off other studies , yet I pursued them with less ardour . "
In his second account he speaks of a long process of inner turmoil , followed by spiritual and psychological anguish .
" Being exceedingly alarmed at the misery into which I had fallen , and much more at that which threatened me in view of eternal death , I , duty bound , made it my first business to betake myself to your way , condemning my past life , not without groans and tears . And now , O Lord , what remains to a wretch like me , but instead of defence , earnestly to supplicate you not to judge that fearful abandonment of your Word according to its deserts , from which in your wondrous goodness you have at last delivered me . "
Scholars have argued about the precise interpretation of these accounts , but most agree that his conversion corresponded with his break from the Roman Catholic Church . The Calvin biographer Bruce Gordon has stressed that " the two accounts are not antithetical , revealing some inconsistency in Calvin 's memory , but rather [ are ] two different ways of expressing the same reality . " At the time of his conversion ( scholars have argued ) , Calvin also believed himself to have experienced a prophetic calling to reform the church , which is briefly reflected in the Psalms commentary account of his conversion and in many of his sermons and a number of his polemical tracts "
By 1532 , Calvin received his licentiate in law and published his first book , a commentary on Seneca 's De Clementia . After uneventful trips to Orléans and his hometown of Noyon , Calvin returned to Paris in October 1533 . During this time , tensions rose at the Collège Royal ( later to become the Collège de France ) between the humanists / reformers and the conservative senior faculty members . One of the reformers , Nicolas Cop , was rector of the university . On 1 November 1533 he devoted his inaugural address to the need for reform and renewal in the Catholic Church .
The address provoked a strong reaction from the faculty , who denounced it as heretical , forcing Cop to flee to Basel . Calvin , a close friend of Cop , was implicated in the offence , and for the next year he was forced into hiding . He remained on the move , sheltering with his friend Louis du Tillet in Angoulême and taking refuge in Noyon and Orléans . He was finally forced to flee France during the Affair of the Placards in mid @-@ October 1534 . In that incident , unknown reformers had posted placards in various cities attacking the Catholic mass , which provoked a violent backlash against Protestants . In January 1535 , Calvin joined Cop in Basel , a city under the influence of the reformer Johannes Oecolampadius .
= = Reform work commences ( 1536 – 1538 ) = =
In March 1536 , Calvin published the first edition of his Institutio Christianae Religionis or Institutes of the Christian Religion . The work was an apologia or defense of his faith and a statement of the doctrinal position of the reformers . He also intended it to serve as an elementary instruction book for anyone interested in the Christian religion . The book was the first expression of his theology . Calvin updated the work and published new editions throughout his life . Shortly after its publication , he left Basel for Ferrara , Italy , where he briefly served as secretary to Princess Renée of France . By June he was back in Paris with his brother Antoine , who was resolving their father 's affairs . Following the Edict of Coucy , which gave a limited six @-@ month period for heretics to reconcile with the Catholic faith , Calvin decided that there was no future for him in France . In August he set off for Strasbourg , a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire and a refuge for reformers . Due to military manoeuvres of imperial and French forces , he was forced to make a detour to the south , bringing him to Geneva .
Calvin had only intended to stay a single night , but William Farel , a fellow French reformer residing in the city , implored him to stay and assist him in his work of reforming the church there , insisting that it was his pious duty . Calvin , who reluctantly agreed to remain , recounts :
Then Farel , who was working with incredible zeal to promote the gospel , bent all his efforts to keep me in the city . And when he realized that I was determined to study in privacy in some obscure place , and saw that he gained nothing by entreaty , he descended to cursing , and said that God would surely curse my peace if I held back from giving help at a time of such great need . Terrified by his words , and conscious of my own timidity and cowardice , I gave up my journey and attempted to apply whatever gift I had in defense of my faith .
Calvin accepted his new role without any preconditions on his tasks or duties . The office to which he was initially assigned is unknown . He was eventually given the title of " reader " , which most likely meant that he could give expository lectures on the Bible . Sometime in 1537 he was selected to be a " pastor " although he never received any pastoral consecration . For the first time , the lawyer @-@ theologian took up pastoral duties such as baptisms , weddings , and church services .
During the fall of 1536 , Farel drafted a confession of faith while Calvin wrote separate articles on reorganizing the church in Geneva . On 16 January 1537 , Farel and Calvin presented their Articles concernant l 'organisation de l 'église et du culte à Genève ( Articles on the Organization of the Church and its Worship at Geneva ) to the city council . The document described the manner and frequency of their celebrations of the Eucharist , the reason for , and the method of , excommunication , the requirement to subscribe to the confession of faith , the use of congregational singing in the liturgy , and the revision of marriage laws . The council accepted the document on the same day .
As the year progressed , however , Calvin and Farel 's reputation with the council began to suffer . The council was reluctant to enforce the subscription requirement , as only a few citizens had subscribed to their confession of faith . On 26 November , the two ministers hotly debated the council over the issue . Furthermore , France was taking an interest in forming an alliance with Geneva and as the two ministers were Frenchmen , councillors had begun to question their loyalty . Finally , a major ecclesiastical @-@ political quarrel developed when the city of Bern , Geneva 's ally in the reformation of the Swiss churches , proposed to introduce uniformity in the church ceremonies . One proposal required the use of unleavened bread for the Eucharist . The two ministers were unwilling to follow Bern 's lead and delayed the use of such bread until a synod in Zurich could be convened to make the final decision . The council ordered Calvin and Farel to use unleavened bread for the Easter Eucharist . In protest , they refused to administer communion during the Easter service . This caused a riot during the service and the next day , the council told Farel and Calvin to leave Geneva .
Farel and Calvin then went to Bern and Zurich to plead their case . The resulting synod in Zurich placed most of the blame on Calvin for not being sympathetic enough toward the people of Geneva . However , it asked Bern to mediate with the aim of restoring the two ministers . The Geneva council refused to readmit the two men , who then took refuge in Basel . Subsequently , Farel received an invitation to lead the church in Neuchâtel . Calvin was invited to lead a church of French refugees in Strasbourg by that city 's leading reformers , Martin Bucer and Wolfgang Capito . Initially , Calvin refused because Farel was not included in the invitation , but relented when Bucer appealed to him . By September 1538 Calvin had taken up his new position in Strasbourg , fully expecting that this time it would be permanent ; a few months later , he applied for and was granted citizenship of the city .
= = Minister in Strasbourg ( 1538 – 1541 ) = =
During his time in Strasbourg , Calvin was not attached to one particular church , but held his office successively in the Saint @-@ Nicolas Church , the Sainte @-@ Madeleine Church and the former Dominican Church , renamed the Temple Neuf . ( All of these churches still exist , but none are in the architectural state of Calvin 's days . ) Calvin ministered to 400 – 500 members in his church . He preached or lectured every day , with two sermons on Sunday . Communion was celebrated monthly and congregational singing of the psalms was encouraged . He also worked on the second edition of the Institutes . Calvin was dissatisfied with its original structure as a catechism , a primer for young Christians .
For the second edition , published in 1539 , Calvin dropped this format in favour of systematically presenting the main doctrines from the Bible . In the process , the book was enlarged from six chapters to seventeen . He concurrently worked on another book , the Commentary on Romans , which was published in March 1540 . The book was a model for his later commentaries : it included his own Latin translation from the Greek rather than the Latin Vulgate , an exegesis , and an exposition . In the dedicatory letter , Calvin praised the work of his predecessors Philipp Melanchthon , Heinrich Bullinger , and Martin Bucer , but he also took care to distinguish his own work from theirs and to criticise some of their shortcomings .
Calvin 's friends urged him to marry . Calvin took a prosaic view , writing to one correspondent :
" I , who have the air of being so hostile to celibacy , I am still not married and do not know whether I will ever be . If I take a wife it will be because , being better freed from numerous worries , I can devote myself to the Lord . "
Several candidates were presented to him including one young woman from a noble family . Reluctantly , Calvin agreed to the marriage , on the condition that she would learn French . Although a wedding date was planned for March 1540 , he remained reluctant and the wedding never took place . He later wrote that he would never think of marrying her , " unless the Lord had entirely bereft me of my wits " . Instead , in August of that year , he married Idelette de Bure , a widow who had two children from her first marriage .
Geneva reconsidered its expulsion of Calvin . Church attendance had dwindled and the political climate had changed ; as Bern and Geneva quarrelled over land , their alliance frayed . When Cardinal Jacopo Sadoleto wrote a letter to the city council inviting Geneva to return to the Catholic faith , the council searched for an ecclesiastical authority to respond to him . At first Pierre Viret was consulted , but when he refused , the council asked Calvin . He agreed and his Responsio ad Sadoletum ( Letter to Sadoleto ) strongly defended Geneva 's position concerning reforms in the church . On 21 September 1540 the council commissioned one of its members , Ami Perrin , to find a way to recall Calvin . An embassy reached Calvin while he was at a colloquy , a conference to settle religious disputes , in Worms . His reaction to the suggestion was one of horror in which he wrote , " Rather would I submit to death a hundred times than to that cross on which I had to perish daily a thousand times over . "
Calvin also wrote that he was prepared to follow the Lord 's calling . A plan was drawn up in which Viret would be appointed to take temporary charge in Geneva for six months while Bucer and Calvin would visit the city to determine the next steps . However , the city council pressed for the immediate appointment of Calvin in Geneva . By summer 1541 , Strasbourg decided to loan Calvin to Geneva for six months . Calvin returned on 13 September 1541 with an official escort and a wagon for his family .
= = Reform in Geneva ( 1541 – 1549 ) = =
In supporting Calvin 's proposals for reforms , the council of Geneva passed the Ordonnances ecclésiastiques ( Ecclesiastical Ordinances ) on 20 November 1541 . The ordinances defined four orders of ministerial function : pastors to preach and to administer the sacraments ; doctors to instruct believers in the faith ; elders to provide discipline ; and deacons to care for the poor and needy . They also called for the creation of the Consistoire ( Consistory ) , an ecclesiastical court composed of the lay elders and the ministers . The city government retained the power to summon persons before the court , and the Consistory could judge only ecclesiastical matters having no civil jurisdiction . Originally , the court had the power to mete out sentences , with excommunication as its most severe penalty . However , the government contested this power and on 19 March 1543 the council decided that all sentencing would be carried out by the government .
In 1542 , Calvin adapted a service book used in Strasbourg , publishing La Forme des Prières et Chants Ecclésiastiques ( The Form of Prayers and Church Hymns ) . Calvin recognised the power of music and he intended that it be used to support scripture readings . The original Strasbourg psalter contained twelve psalms by Clément Marot and Calvin added several more hymns of his own composition in the Geneva version . At the end of 1542 , Marot became a refugee in Geneva and contributed nineteen more psalms . Louis Bourgeois , also a refugee , lived and taught music in Geneva for sixteen years and Calvin took the opportunity to add his hymns , the most famous being the Old Hundredth .
In the same year of 1542 , Calvin published Catéchisme de l 'Eglise de Genève ( Catechism of the Church of Geneva ) , which was inspired by Bucer 's Kurze Schrifftliche Erklärung of 1534 . Calvin had written an earlier catechism during his first stay in Geneva which was largely based on Martin Luther 's Large Catechism . The first version was arranged pedagogically , describing Law , Faith , and Prayer . The 1542 version was rearranged for theological reasons , covering Faith first , then Law and Prayer .
Historians debate the extent to which Geneva was a theocracy . On the one hand , Calvin 's theology clearly called for separation between church and state . Other historians have stressed the enormous political power wielded on a daily basis by the clerics .
During his ministry in Geneva , Calvin preached over two thousand sermons . Initially he preached twice on Sunday and three times during the week . This proved to be too heavy a burden and late in 1542 the council allowed him to preach only once on Sunday . However , in October 1549 , he was again required to preach twice on Sundays and , in addition , every weekday of alternate weeks . His sermons lasted more than an hour and he did not use notes . An occasional secretary tried to record his sermons , but very little of his preaching was preserved before 1549 . In that year , professional scribe Denis Raguenier , who had learned or developed a system of shorthand , was assigned to record all of Calvin 's sermons . An analysis of his sermons by T. H. L. Parker suggests that Calvin was a consistent preacher and his style changed very little over the years .
Voltaire wrote about Calvin , Luther and Zwingli , " If they condemned celibacy in the priests , and opened the gates of the convents , it was only to turn all society into a convent . Shows and entertainments were expressly forbidden by their religion ; and for more than two hundred years there was not a single musical instrument allowed in the city of Geneva . They condemned auricular confession , but they enjoined a public one ; and in Switzerland , Scotland , and Geneva it was performed the same as penance . "
Very little is known about Calvin 's personal life in Geneva . His house and furniture were owned by the council . The house was big enough to accommodate his family as well as Antoine 's family and some servants . On 28 July 1542 , Idelette gave birth to a son , Jacques , but he was born prematurely and survived only briefly . Idelette fell ill in 1545 and died on 29 March 1549 . Calvin never married again . He expressed his sorrow in a letter to Viret :
I have been bereaved of the best friend of my life , of one who , if it has been so ordained , would willingly have shared not only my poverty but also my death . During her life she was the faithful helper of my ministry . From her I never experienced the slightest hindrance .
Throughout the rest of his life in Geneva , he maintained several friendships from his early years including Montmor , Cordier , Cop , Farel , Melanchthon and Bullinger .
= = Discipline and opposition ( 1546 – 1553 ) = =
Calvin encountered bitter opposition to his work in Geneva . Around 1546 , the uncoordinated forces coalesced into an identifiable group whom he referred to as the libertines , but who preferred to be called either Spirituels or Patriots . According to Calvin , these were people who felt that after being liberated through grace , they were exempted from both ecclesiastical and civil law . The group consisted of wealthy , politically powerful , and interrelated families of Geneva . At the end of January 1546 , Pierre Ameaux , a maker of playing cards who had already been in conflict with the Consistory , attacked Calvin by calling him a " Picard " , an epithet denoting anti @-@ French sentiment , and accused him of false doctrine . Ameaux was punished by the council and forced to make expiation by parading through the city and begging God for forgiveness . A few months later Ami Perrin , the man who had brought Calvin to Geneva , moved into open opposition . Perrin had married Françoise Favre , daughter of François Favre , a well @-@ established Genevan merchant . Both Perrin 's wife and father @-@ in @-@ law had previous conflicts with the Consistory . The court noted that many of Geneva 's notables , including Perrin , had breached a law against dancing . Initially , Perrin ignored the court when he was summoned , but after receiving a letter from Calvin , he appeared before the Consistory .
By 1547 , opposition to Calvin and other French refugee ministers had grown to constitute the majority of the syndics , the civil magistrates of Geneva . On 27 June an unsigned threatening letter in Genevan dialect was found at the pulpit of St. Pierre Cathedral where Calvin preached . Suspecting a plot against both the church and the state , the council appointed a commission to investigate . Jacques Gruet , a Genevan member of Favre 's group , was arrested and incriminating evidence was found when his house was searched . Under torture , he confessed to several crimes including writing the letter left in the pulpit which threatened the church leaders . A civil court condemned Gruet to death and he was beheaded on 26 July . Calvin was not opposed to the civil court 's decision .
The libertines continued organizing opposition , insulting the appointed ministers , and challenging the authority of the Consistory . The council straddled both sides of the conflict , alternately admonishing and upholding Calvin . When Perrin was elected first syndic in February 1552 , Calvin 's authority appeared to be at its lowest point . After some losses before the council , Calvin believed he was defeated ; on 24 July 1553 he asked the council to allow him to resign . Although the libertines controlled the council , his request was refused . The opposition realised that they could curb Calvin 's authority , but they did not have enough power to banish him .
= = Michael Servetus ( 1553 ) = =
The turning point in Calvin 's fortunes occurred when Michael Servetus , a fugitive from ecclesiastical authorities , appeared in Geneva on 13 August 1553 . Servetus was a Spanish physician and Protestant theologian who boldly criticised the doctrine of the Trinity and paedobaptism ( infant baptism ) . In July 1530 he disputed with Johannes Oecolampadius in Basel and was eventually expelled . He went to Strasbourg where he published a pamphlet against the Trinity . Bucer publicly refuted it and asked Servetus to leave . After returning to Basel , Servetus published Two Books of Dialogues on the Trinity ( Latin : Dialogorum de Trinitate libri duo ) which caused a sensation among Reformers and Catholics alike . The Inquisition in Spain ordered his arrest .
Calvin and Servetus were first brought into contact in 1546 through a common acquaintance , Jean Frellon of Lyon ; they exchanged letters debating doctrine ; Calvin used a pseudonym as Charles d ' Espeville , while Servetus left his unsigned . Eventually , Calvin lost patience and refused to respond ; by this time Servetus had written around thirty letters to Calvin . Calvin was particularly outraged when Servetus sent him a copy of the Institutes of the Christian Religion heavily annotated with arguments pointing to errors in the book . When Servetus mentioned that he would come to Geneva , " Espeville " ( Calvin ) wrote a letter to Farel on 13 February 1546 noting that if Servetus were to come , he would not assure him safe conduct : " for if he came , as far as my authority goes , I would not let him leave alive . "
In 1553 , Calvin 's front man , Guillaume de Trie , sent letters trying to address the French Inquisition to Servetus . Calling him a " Spanish @-@ Portuguese " , suspecting and accusing him of his recently proved Jewish converso origin . De Trie wrote down that " his proper name is Michael Servetus , but he currently calls himself Villeneuve , practising medicine . He stayed for some time in Lyon , and now he is living in Vienne . " When the inquisitor @-@ general of France learned that Servetus was hiding in Vienne , according to Calvin under an assumed name , he contacted Cardinal François de Tournon , the secretary of the archbishop of Lyon , to take up the matter . Servetus was arrested and taken in for questioning . His letters to Calvin were presented as evidence of heresy , but he denied having written them , and later said he was not sure it was his handwriting . He said , after swearing before the holy gospel , that " he was Michel De Villeneuve Doctor in Medicine about 42 years old , native of Tudela of the kingdom of Navarre , a city under the obedience to the Emperor " . The following day he said : " .. although he was not Servetus he assumed the person of Servet for debating with Calvin " . He managed to escape from prison , and the Catholic authorities sentenced him in absentia to death by slow burning .
On his way to Italy , Servetus stopped in Geneva to visit " d 'Espeville " , where he was recognized and arrested . Calvin 's secretary Nicholas de la Fontaine composed a list of accusations that was submitted before the court . The prosecutor was Philibert Berthelier , a member of a libertine family and son of a famous Geneva patriot , and the sessions were led by Pierre Tissot , Perrin 's brother @-@ in @-@ law . The libertines allowed the trial to drag on in an attempt to harass Calvin . The difficulty in using Servetus as a weapon against Calvin was that the heretical reputation of Servetus was widespread and most of the cities in Europe were observing and awaiting the outcome of the trial . This posed a dilemma for the libertines , so on 21 August the council decided to write to other Swiss cities for their opinions , thus mitigating their own responsibility for the final decision . While waiting for the responses , the council also asked Servetus if he preferred to be judged in Vienne or in Geneva . He begged to stay in Geneva . On 20 October the replies from Zurich , Basel , Bern , and Schaffhausen were read and the council condemned Servetus as a heretic . The following day he was sentenced to burning at the stake , the same sentence as in Vienne . Some scholars claim that Calvin and other ministers asked that he be beheaded instead of burnt , knowing that burning at the stake was the only legal recourse . This plea was refused and on 27 October , Servetus was burnt alive at the Plateau of Champel at the edge of Geneva .
= = Securing the Protestant Reformation ( 1553 – 1555 ) = =
After the death of Servetus , Calvin was acclaimed a defender of Christianity , but his ultimate triumph over the libertines was still two years away . He had always insisted that the Consistory retain the power of excommunication , despite the council 's past decision to take it away . During Servetus 's trial , Philibert Berthelier asked the council for permission to take communion , as he had been excommunicated the previous year for insulting a minister . Calvin protested that the council did not have the legal authority to overturn Berthelier 's excommunication . Unsure of how the council would rule , he hinted in a sermon on 3 September 1553 that he might be dismissed by the authorities . The council decided to re @-@ examine the Ordonnances and on 18 September it voted in support of Calvin — excommunication was within the jurisdiction of the Consistory . Berthelier applied for reinstatement to another Genevan administrative assembly , the Deux Cents ( Two Hundred ) , in November . This body reversed the council 's decision and stated that the final arbiter concerning excommunication should be the council . However , the ministers continued to protest , and as in the case of Servetus , the opinions of the Swiss churches were sought . The affair dragged on through 1554 . Finally , on 22 January 1555 , the council announced the decision of the Swiss churches : the original Ordonnances were to be kept and the Consistory was to regain its official powers .
The libertines ' downfall began with the February 1555 elections . By then , many of the French refugees had been granted citizenship and with their support , Calvin 's partisans elected the majority of the syndics and the councillors . On 16 May the libertines took to the streets in a drunken protest and attempted to burn down a house that was supposedly full of Frenchmen . The syndic Henri Aulbert tried to intervene , carrying with him the baton of office that symbolised his power . Perrin seized the baton and waved it over the crowd , which gave the appearance that he was taking power and initiating a coup d 'état . The insurrection was soon over when another syndic appeared and ordered Perrin to go with him to the town hall . Perrin and other leaders were forced to flee the city . With the approval of Calvin , the other plotters who remained in the city were found and executed . The opposition to Calvin 's church polity came to an end .
= = Final years ( 1555 – 1564 ) = =
Calvin 's authority was practically uncontested during his final years , and he enjoyed an international reputation as a reformer distinct from Martin Luther . Initially , Luther and Calvin had mutual respect for each other . However , a doctrinal conflict had developed between Luther and Zurich reformer Huldrych Zwingli on the interpretation of the eucharist . Calvin 's opinion on the issue forced Luther to place him in Zwingli 's camp . Calvin actively participated in the polemics that were exchanged between the Lutheran and Reformed branches of the Reformation movement . At the same time , Calvin was dismayed by the lack of unity among the reformers . He took steps toward rapprochement with Bullinger by signing the Consensus Tigurinus , a concordat between the Zurich and Geneva churches . He reached out to England when Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer called for an ecumenical synod of all the evangelical churches . Calvin praised the idea , but ultimately Cranmer was unable to bring it to fruition .
Calvin sheltered Marian exiles ( those who fled the reign of Catholic Mary Tudor in England ) in Geneva starting in 1555 . Under the city 's protection , they were able to form their own reformed church under John Knox and William Whittingham and eventually carried Calvin 's ideas on doctrine and polity back to England and Scotland . However , Calvin was most interested in reforming his homeland , France . He supported the building of churches by distributing literature and sending ministers . Between 1555 and 1562 , more than 100 ministers were sent to France . These efforts were funded by the church in Geneva , as the city council had refused to become involved in missionary activities at the time . Henry II severely persecuted Protestants under the Edict of Chateaubriand and when the French authorities complained about the missionary activities , Geneva was able to disclaim responsibility .
Within Geneva , Calvin 's main concern was the creation of a collège , an institute for the education of children . A site for the school was selected on 25 March 1558 and it opened the following year on 5 June 1559 . Although the school was a single institution , it was divided into two parts : a grammar school called the collège or schola privata and an advanced school called the académie or schola publica . Calvin tried to recruit two professors for the institute , Mathurin Cordier , his old friend and Latin scholar who was now based in Lausanne , and Emmanuel Tremellius , the Regius professor of Hebrew in Cambridge . Neither was available , but he succeeded in obtaining Theodore Beza as rector . Within five years there were 1 @,@ 200 students in the grammar school and 300 in the advanced school . The collège eventually became the Collège Calvin , one of the college preparatory schools of Geneva , while the académie became the University of Geneva .
In the autumn of 1558 , Calvin became ill with a fever . Since he was afraid that he might die before completing the final revision of the Institutes , he forced himself to work . The final edition was greatly expanded to the extent that Calvin referred to it as a new work . The expansion from the 21 chapters of the previous edition to 80 was due to the extended treatment of existing material rather than the addition of new topics . Shortly after he recovered , he strained his voice while preaching , which brought on a violent fit of coughing . He burst a blood @-@ vessel in his lungs , and his health steadily declined . He preached his final sermon in St. Pierre on 6 February 1564 . On 25 April , he made his will , in which he left small sums to his family and to the collège . A few days later , the ministers of the church came to visit him , and he bade his final farewell , which was recorded in Discours d 'adieu aux ministres . He recounted his life in Geneva , sometimes recalling bitterly some of the hardships he had suffered . Calvin died on 27 May 1564 aged 54 . At first his body was laid in state , but since so many people came to see it , the reformers were afraid that they would be accused of fostering a new saint 's cult . On the following day , he was buried in an unmarked grave in the Cimetière des Rois . While the exact location of the grave is unknown , a stone was added in the 19th century to mark a grave traditionally thought to be Calvin 's .
= = Theology = =
Calvin developed his theology in his biblical commentaries as well as his sermons and treatises , but the most concise expression of his views is found in his magnum opus , the Institutes of the Christian Religion . He intended that the book be used as a summary of his views on Christian theology and that it be read in conjunction with his commentaries . The various editions of that work span nearly his entire career as a reformer , and the successive revisions of the book show that his theology changed very little from his youth to his death . The first edition from 1536 consisted of only six chapters . The second edition , published in 1539 , was three times as long because he added chapters on subjects that appear in Melanchthon 's Loci Communes . In 1543 , he again added new material and expanded a chapter on the Apostles ' Creed . The final edition of the Institutes appeared in 1559 . By then , the work consisted of four books of eighty chapters , and each book was named after statements from the creed : Book 1 on God the Creator , Book 2 on the Redeemer in Christ , Book 3 on receiving the Grace of Christ through the Holy Spirit , and Book 4 on the Society of Christ or the Church .
The first statement in the Institutes acknowledges its central theme . It states that the sum of human wisdom consists of two parts : the knowledge of God and of ourselves . Calvin argues that the knowledge of God is not inherent in humanity nor can it be discovered by observing this world . The only way to obtain it is to study scripture . Calvin writes , " For anyone to arrive at God the Creator he needs Scripture as his Guide and Teacher . " He does not try to prove the authority of scripture but rather describes it as autopiston or self @-@ authenticating . He defends the trinitarian view of God and , in a strong polemical stand against the Catholic Church , argues that images of God lead to idolatry . At the end of the first book , he offers his views on providence , writing , " By his Power God cherishes and guards the World which he made and by his Providence rules its individual Parts . " Humans are unable to fully comprehend why God performs any particular action , but whatever good or evil people may practise , their efforts always result in the execution of God 's will and judgments .
The second book includes several essays on the original sin and the fall of man , which directly refer to Augustine , who developed these doctrines . He often cited the Church Fathers in order to defend the reformed cause against the charge that the reformers were creating new theology . In Calvin 's view , sin began with the fall of Adam and propagated to all of humanity . The domination of sin is complete to the point that people are driven to evil . Thus fallen humanity is in need of the redemption that can be found in Christ . But before Calvin expounded on this doctrine , he described the special situation of the Jews who lived during the time of the Old Testament . God made a covenant with Abraham , promising the coming of Christ . Hence , the Old Covenant was not in opposition to Christ , but was rather a continuation of God 's promise . Calvin then describes the New Covenant using the passage from the Apostles ' Creed that describes Christ 's suffering under Pontius Pilate and his return to judge the living and the dead . For Calvin , the whole course of Christ 's obedience to the Father removed the discord between humanity and God .
In the third book , Calvin describes how the spiritual union of Christ and humanity is achieved . He first defines faith as the firm and certain knowledge of God in Christ . The immediate effects of faith are repentance and the remission of sin . This is followed by spiritual regeneration , which returns the believer to the state of holiness before Adam 's transgression . However , complete perfection is unattainable in this life , and the believer should expect a continual struggle against sin . Several chapters are then devoted to the subject of justification by faith alone . He defined justification as " the acceptance by which God regards us as righteous whom he has received into grace . " In this definition , it is clear that it is God who initiates and carries through the action and that people play no role ; God is completely sovereign in salvation . Near the end of the book , Calvin describes and defends the doctrine of predestination , a doctrine advanced by Augustine in opposition to the teachings of Pelagius . Fellow theologians who followed the Augustinian tradition on this point included Thomas Aquinas and Martin Luther , though Calvin 's formulation of the doctrine went further than the tradition that went before him . The principle , in Calvin 's words , is that " All are not created on equal terms , but some are preordained to eternal life , others to eternal damnation ; and , accordingly , as each has been created for one or other of these ends , we say that he has been predestinated to life or to death . "
The final book describes what he considers to be the true Church and its ministry , authority , and sacraments . He denied the papal claim to primacy and the accusation that the reformers were schismatic . For Calvin , the Church was defined as the body of believers who placed Christ at its head . By definition , there was only one " catholic " or " universal " Church . Hence , he argued that the reformers " had to leave them in order that we might come to Christ . " The ministers of the Church are described from a passage from Ephesians , and they consisted of apostles , prophets , evangelists , pastors , and doctors . Calvin regarded the first three offices as temporary , limited in their existence to the time of the New Testament . The latter two offices were established in the church in Geneva . Although Calvin respected the work of the ecumenical councils , he considered them to be subject to God 's Word found in scripture . He also believed that the civil and church authorities were separate and should not interfere with each other .
Calvin defined a sacrament as an earthly sign associated with a promise from God . He accepted only two sacraments as valid under the new covenant : baptism and the Lord 's Supper ( in opposition to the Catholic acceptance of seven sacraments ) . He completely rejected the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation and the treatment of the Supper as a sacrifice . He also could not accept the Lutheran doctrine of sacramental union in which Christ was " in , with and under " the elements . His own view was close to Zwingli 's symbolic view , but it was not identical . Rather than holding a purely symbolic view , Calvin noted that with the participation of the Holy Spirit , faith was nourished and strengthened by the sacrament . In his words , the eucharistic rite was " a secret too sublime for my mind to understand or words to express . I experience it rather than understand it . "
= = = Controversies = = =
Calvin 's theology was not without controversy . Pierre Caroli , a Protestant minister in Lausanne accused Calvin as well as Viret and Farel of Arianism in 1536 . Calvin defended his beliefs on the Trinity in Confessio de Trinitate propter calumnias P. Caroli . In 1551 Jérôme @-@ Hermès Bolsec , a physician in Geneva , attacked Calvin 's doctrine of predestination and accused him of making God the author of sin . Bolsec was banished from the city , and after Calvin 's death , he wrote a biography which severely maligned Calvin 's character . In the following year , Joachim Westphal , a Gnesio @-@ Lutheran pastor in Hamburg , condemned Calvin and Zwingli as heretics in denying the eucharistic doctrine of the union of Christ 's body with the elements . Calvin 's Defensio sanae et orthodoxae doctrinae de sacramentis ( A Defence of the Sober and Orthodox Doctrine of the Sacrament ) was his response in 1555 . In 1556 Justus Velsius , a Dutch dissident , held a public disputation with Calvin during his visit to Frankfurt , in which Velsius defended free will against Calvin 's doctrine of predestination . Following the execution of Servetus , a close associate of Calvin , Sebastian Castellio , broke with him on the issue of the treatment of heretics . In Castellio 's Treatise on Heretics ( 1554 ) , he argued for a focus on Christ 's moral teachings in place of the vanity of theology , and he afterward developed a theory of tolerance based on biblical principles .
= = = Calvin and the Jews = = =
Scholars have debated Calvin 's view of the Jews and Judaism . Some have argued that Calvin was the least anti @-@ semitic among all the major reformers of his time , especially in comparison to Martin Luther . Others have argued that Calvin was firmly within the anti @-@ semitic camp . Scholars agree , however , that it is important to distinguish between Calvin 's views toward the biblical Jews and his attitude toward contemporary Jews . In his theology , Calvin does not differentiate between God 's covenant with Israel and the New Covenant . He stated , " all the children of the promise , reborn of God , who have obeyed the commands by faith working through love , have belonged to the New Covenant since the world began . " Still he was a covenant theologian and argued that the Jews are a rejected people who must embrace Jesus to re @-@ enter the covenant .
Most of Calvin 's statements on the Jewry of his era were polemical . For example , Calvin once wrote , " I have had much conversation with many Jews : I have never seen either a drop of piety or a grain of truth or ingenuousness – nay , I have never found common sense in any Jew . " In this respect , he differed little from other Protestant and Catholic theologians of his day . Among his extant writings , Calvin only dealt explicitly with issues of contemporary Jews and Judaism in one treatise , Response to Questions and Objections of a Certain Jew . In it , he argued that Jews misread their own scriptures because they miss the unity of the Old and New Testaments .
= = Political thought = =
The aim of Calvin 's political theory was to safeguard the rights and freedoms of ordinary people . Although he was convinced that the Bible contained no blueprint for a certain form of government , Calvin favored a combination of democracy and aristocracy ( mixed government ) . He appreciated the advantages of democracy . To further minimize the misuse of political power , Calvin proposed to divide it among several political institutions like the aristocracy , lower estates , or magistrates in a system of checks and balances ( separation of powers ) . Finally , Calvin taught that if rulers rise up against God they lose their divine right and must be put down . State and church are separate , though they have to cooperate to the benefit of the people . Christian magistrates have to make sure that the church can fulfill its duties in freedom . In extreme cases the magistrates have to expel or execute dangerous heretics . But nobody can be forced to become a Protestant .
Calvin thought that agriculture and the traditional crafts were normal human activities . With regard to trade and the financial world he was more liberal than Luther , but both were strictly opposed to usury . However , Calvin allowed the charging of modest interest rates on loans . Like the other Reformers Calvin understood work as a means through which the believers expressed their gratitude to God for their redemption in Christ and as a service to their neighbors . Everybody was obliged to work ; loafing and begging were rejected . The idea that economic success was a visible sign of God 's grace played only a minor role in Calvin 's thinking . It became more important in later , partly secularized forms of Calvinism and became the starting @-@ point of Max Weber 's theory about the rise of capitalism .
= = Selected works = =
Calvin 's first published work was a commentary of Seneca the Younger 's De Clementia . Published at his own expense in 1532 , it showed that he was a humanist in the tradition of Erasmus with a thorough understanding of classical scholarship . His first theological work , the Psychopannychia , attempted to refute the doctrine of soul sleep as promulgated by the Anabaptists . Calvin probably wrote it during the period following Cop 's speech , but it was not published until 1542 in Strasbourg .
Calvin produced commentaries on most of the books of the Bible . His first commentary on Romans was published in 1540 , and he planned to write commentaries on the entire New Testament . Six years passed before he wrote his second , a commentary on I Corinthians , but after that he devoted more attention to reaching his goal . Within four years he had published commentaries on all the Pauline epistles , and he also revised the commentary on Romans . He then turned his attention to the general epistles , dedicating them to Edward VI of England . By 1555 he had completed his work on the New Testament , finishing with the Acts and the Gospels ( he omitted only the brief second and third Epistles of John and the Book of Revelation ) . For the Old Testament , he wrote commentaries on Isaiah , the books of the Pentateuch , the Psalms , and Joshua . The material for the commentaries often originated from lectures to students and ministers that he reworked for publication . However , from 1557 onwards , he could not find the time to continue this method , and he gave permission for his lectures to be published from stenographers ' notes . These Praelectiones covered the minor prophets , Daniel , Jeremiah , Lamentations , and part of Ezekiel .
Calvin also wrote many letters and treatises . Following the Responsio ad Sadoletum , Calvin wrote an open letter at the request of Bucer to Charles V in 1543 , Supplex exhortatio ad Caesarem , defending the reformed faith . This was followed by an open letter to the pope ( Admonitio paterna Pauli III ) in 1544 , in which Calvin admonished Paul III for depriving the reformers of any prospect of rapprochement . The pope proceeded to open the Council of Trent , which resulted in decrees against the reformers . Calvin refuted the decrees by producing the Acta synodi Tridentinae cum Antidoto in 1547 . When Charles tried to find a compromise solution with the Augsburg Interim , Bucer and Bullinger urged Calvin to respond . He wrote the treatise , Vera Christianae pacificationis et Ecclesiae reformandae ratio in 1549 , in which he described the doctrines that should be upheld , including justification by faith .
Calvin provided many of the foundational documents for reformed churches , including documents on the catechism , the liturgy , and church governance . He also produced several confessions of faith in order to unite the churches . In 1559 , he drafted the French confession of faith , the Gallic Confession , and the synod in Paris accepted it with few changes . The Belgic Confession of 1561 , a Dutch confession of faith , was partly based on the Gallic Confession .
= = Legacy = =
After the deaths of Calvin and his successor , Beza , the Geneva city council gradually gained control over areas of life that were previously in the ecclesiastical domain . Increasing secularisation was accompanied by the decline of the church . Even the Geneva académie was eclipsed by universities in Leiden and Heidelberg , which became the new strongholds of Calvin 's ideas , first identified as " Calvinism " by Joachim Westphal in 1552 . By 1585 , Geneva , once the wellspring of the reform movement , had become merely its symbol . However , Calvin had always warned against describing him as an " idol " and Geneva as a new " Jerusalem " . He encouraged people to adapt to the environments in which they found themselves . Even during his polemical exchange with Westphal , he advised a group of French @-@ speaking refugees , who had settled in Wesel , Germany , to integrate with the local Lutheran churches . Despite his differences with the Lutherans , he did not deny that they were members of the true Church . Calvin 's recognition of the need to adapt to local conditions became an important characteristic of the reformation movement as it spread across Europe .
Due to Calvin 's missionary work in France , his programme of reform eventually reached the French @-@ speaking provinces of the Netherlands . Calvinism was adopted in the Electorate of the Palatinate under Frederick III , which led to the formulation of the Heidelberg Catechism in 1563 . This and the Belgic Confession were adopted as confessional standards in the first synod of the Dutch Reformed Church in 1571 . Several leading divines , either Calvinist or those sympathetic to Calvinism , settled in England ( Martin Bucer , Peter Martyr , and Jan Laski ) and Scotland ( John Knox ) . During the English Civil War , the Calvinistic Puritans produced the Westminster Confession , which became the confessional standard for Presbyterians in the English @-@ speaking world . As the Ottoman Empire did not force Muslim conversion on its conquered western territories , reformed ideas were quickly adopted in the two @-@ thirds of Hungary they occupied ( the Habsburg @-@ ruled third part of Hungary remained Catholic ) . A Reformed Constitutional Synod was held in 1567 in Debrecen , the main hub of Hungarian Calvinism , where the Second Helvetic Confession was adopted as the official confession of Hungarian Calvinists . Having established itself in Europe , the movement continued to spread to other parts of the world including North America , South Africa , and Korea .
Calvin did not live to see the foundation of his work grow into an international movement ; but his death allowed his ideas to break out of their city of origin , to succeed far beyond their borders , and to establish their own distinct character .
Calvin is recognized as a Renewer of the Church in Lutheran churches , and as a saint in the Church of England , commemorated on 26 May , and on 28 May by the Episcopal Church ( USA ) .
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= Domenico Selvo =
Domenico Selvo ( died 1087 ) was the 31st Doge of Venice , serving from 1071 to 1084 . During his reign as Doge , his domestic policies , the alliances that he forged , and the battles that the Venetian military won and lost laid the foundations for much of the subsequent foreign and domestic policy of the Republic of Venice . He avoided confrontations with the Byzantine Empire , the Holy Roman Empire , and the Roman Catholic Church at a time in European history when conflict threatened to upset the balance of power . At the same time , he forged new agreements with the major nations that would set up a long period of prosperity for the Republic of Venice . Through his military alliance with the Byzantine Empire , Emperor Alexios I Komnenos awarded Venice economic favors with the declaration of a Golden Bull that would allow for the development of the republic 's international trade over the next few centuries .
Within the city itself , he supervised a longer period of the construction of the modern St Mark 's Basilica than any other Doge . The basilica 's complex architecture and expensive decorations stand as a testament to the prosperity of Venetian traders during this period . The essentially democratic way in which he not only was elected but also removed from power was part of an important transition of Venetian political philosophy . The overthrow of his rule in 1084 was one of many forced abdications in the early history of the republic that further blurred the lines between the powers of the Doge , the common electorate , and the nobility .
= = Background = =
Beginning with the reign of Pietro II Candiano in 932 , Venice saw a string of inept leaders such as Pietro III Candiano , Pietro IV Candiano , and Tribuno Memmo . The reputed arrogance and ambition of these Doges caused the deterioration of the relationship with the Holy Roman Empire in the west , the stagnancy of the relationship with the Byzantine Empire in the east , and discord at home in the Republic . However , in 991 , Pietro II Orseolo became the Doge and spent his reign pushing the boundaries of the Republic further east down the western coast of the Balkan Peninsula with his conquests in Dalmatia in 1000 . This strengthened the commercial bonds with the empires of the east , Sicily , Northern Africa , and the Holy Roman Empire , and put an end to the infighting among the citizens of Venice . Pietro II 's negotiations with Byzantine Emperor Basil II to decrease tariffs on Venetian @-@ produced goods helped foster a new age of prosperity in the Republic as Venetian merchants could undercut the competition in the international markets of the Byzantine Empire . Similarly , Pietro II had success developing a new relationship with Holy Roman Emperor Otto III , who displayed his friendship to him by restoring previously seized lands to Venice , opening up routes of free trade between the two states , and exempting all Venetians from taxes in the Holy Roman Empire .
As the power and reputation of Pietro II grew , the Venetian people began to wonder if he was secretly planning to establish a hereditary monarchy . Their fears were confirmed when his son , Otto Orseolo ( named after Otto III ) , assumed the title of Doge upon Pietro II 's death in 1009 , thereby becoming the youngest Doge in Venetian history at the age of 16 . Scandal marked much of Otto 's reign as he showed a clear inclination toward nepotism by elevating several relatives to positions of power . In 1026 , he was deposed by his enemies and exiled to Constantinople , but his successor , Pietro Barbolano , had such difficulty in attempting to unite the city that it seemed infighting would once again seize Venice .
In 1032 , Barbolano himself was deposed by those who wished to restore power to Otto Orseolo , but the former Doge lay dying in Constantinople and was unable to return from exile . Domenico Orseolo , a younger brother of Otto and a rather unpopular figure in Venice , attempted to seize the throne without waiting for the formality of an election , but as soon as he tried this , his many enemies , including those who pushed for the reinstatement of Otto , grew outraged that an Orseolo would assume the throne simply because he was the son of Pietro II . The power of the Doge was severely checked , and Domenico Flabanico , a successful merchant , was called by the people to the position of Doge . During his 11 @-@ year reign Flabanico enacted several key reforms that would restrict the power of future Doges , including a law forbidding the election of a son of a Doge .
Doge Domenico Contarini ( 1043 – 1071 ) had a relatively uneventful reign , healing the rift between the Doge and his subjects and regaining territory that had been lost in the east to the Kingdom of Croatia in the years following the deposition of Otto Orseolo . However , one fact remained : based on their actions in the first half of the 11th century , the majority of the people of Venice were clearly not in favor of having a royal hereditary class . This reality , coupled with the fresh memories of power @-@ hungry Doges , set the stage for Domenico Selvo .
= = Biography = =
= = = Life before Dogeship = = =
What little is known of Selvo 's past is based mostly on accounts of his reputation when he entered his Dogeship . Details of his family origins and even the year of his birth are unknown , but it can be assumed that he was a Venetian noble because , with the rare exception of Domenico Flabanico , only members of this class were elected to the position of Doge at this point in the Republic 's history . Selvo supposedly belonged to a family in the patrician class from the sestiere of Dorsoduro who were allegedly of ancient Roman origin , possibly from one of the tribunes . He had also apparently been an ambassador to Holy Roman Emperor Henry III and he was certainly ducal counselor to Domenico Contarini prior to his election as Doge . Being connected to the relatively popular Doge might have been one of the causes for his own apparent initial popularity .
= = = Election as Doge = = =
Selvo is notable for being the first Doge in the history of Venice whose election was recorded by an eyewitness , a parish priest of the church of San Michele Archangelo by the name of Domenico Tino . The account gives historians a valuable glimpse of the power of the popular will of the Venetian people . Over the previous two centuries , the rule of quasi @-@ tyrannies had plagued the popular belief that Venetians held democratic control over their leaders . The events of Selvo 's election occurred in the spring of 1071 , when the nearly thirty @-@ year reign of Doge Domenico Contarini came to an end upon his death .
According to Tino 's account , on the day of the election , Selvo was attending mass for the funeral of the late Doge at the new monastery church of San Nicolò built under Domenico Contarini on Lido , an island in the Venetian Lagoon . The location was ideal for the funeral of a Doge not only because St Mark 's Basilica was under construction at the time , but the new church was also spacious enough to hold a fairly large number of people . The location also proved ideal for the election of a new Doge for the very same reasons .
After the funeral , a large crowd assembled in their gondolas and armed galleys . Domenico Tino says " an innumerable multitude of people , virtually all Venice " was there to voice their opinion on the selection of a new Doge . After the bishop of Venice asked " who would be worthy of his nation , " the crowds chanted , " Domenicum Silvium volumus et laudamus " ( We want Domenico Selvo and we praise him ) . The people , according to the account , had clearly spoken , and with these cries , the election was over . A group of more distinguished citizens then lifted the Doge @-@ elect above the roaring crowd , and he was transported as such back to the city . Barefoot , in accordance with tradition , Selvo was led into St Mark 's Basilica where , amidst the construction materials and scaffolding , he prayed to God , received his staff of office , heard the oaths of fidelity from his subjects , and was legally sworn in as the 31st Doge of Venice .
= = = Peace and prosperity ( 1071 – 1080 ) = = =
During the first decade of his rule , Selvo 's policies were largely a continuation of those of Domenico Contarini . There were few armed conflicts at home or abroad , and the Doge enjoyed a period of popularity due to the prosperous economic conditions . The relations with the Holy Roman Empire were gradually strengthened to a level unknown since the reign of the last Orseolo through relatively free trade and the good relationship that Selvo maintained with Emperor Henry IV . The importance of the economic alliance between the two nations became increasingly crucial when the historically shared power of the Holy Roman Emperor and the Pope was challenged by the Investiture Controversy between Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII . Selvo had to walk an extremely tight line of competing priorities . On the one hand , he wanted to maintain the trade agreement Venice had with the lands occupied by Henry IV , but on the other hand , Venetians were religiously loyal to Roman Catholicism as opposed to the Eastern Orthodoxy . At the height of the controversy , Pope Gregory VII privately threatened to excommunicate Selvo and put an interdict on the Venetian Republic , but Selvo was able to narrowly escape this by diplomatically asserting Venice 's religious power as the reputed holders of the remains of St Mark .
In the east , Selvo not only maintained good trade relations with the Byzantine Empire , but also married into their royal family to consolidate the alliance that had existed for many years between the two nations . In 1075 , Selvo married Teodora Ducas , daughter of Constantine X and sister of the reigning emperor , Michael VII . Though Venetians , especially the nobles , were wary of the pageantry that accompanied the marriage and the royal bride , the strengthened alliance meant even greater mobility for Venetian merchants in the east . Though the popularity of the new dogaressa was not great , Selvo was the hero of the merchant class that had had even greater political sway since the depositions of the Orseoli .
= = = Victory ( 1081 – 1083 ) = = =
Despite the relative peace of the early years of Selvo 's reign , the forces that would eventually lead to his deposition had already swung into action . In southern Italy , the Duke of Apulia and Calabria , Robert Guiscard , had spent the majority of his reign consolidating Norman power along the heel and toe of lo Stivale by expelling the Byzantine armies . Guiscard was pushing north toward the Papal States ( to which the Duchy of Apulia and Calabria was allied ) , and was threatening Byzantine control of cities along the Ionian and Adriatic seas . In May 1081 , Guiscard led his army and navy across the sea to lay siege to the port city of Durazzo , as it was one end of the famous Via Egnatia , a direct route to the Byzantine capital of Constantinople . Alexios I Komnenos , the newly crowned Byzantine Emperor , dispatched an urgent message to Selvo asking for the mobilization of the Venetian fleet in defense of Durazzo in return for great rewards . The Doge wasted no time in setting sail for the besieged city in charge of his fleet of 14 warships and 45 other vessels . Selvo was motivated not only by his familial ties and the promise of reward , but also the realization that Norman control over the Strait of Otranto would be just as great of a threat to Venetian power in the region as it would be to their ally in the east .
When Selvo approached the city , Guiscard 's ships had already anchored in the harbor at Durazzo . Though the battle was fierce , superior tactics by the skilled Venetian fleet overpowered the inexperienced Normans who were mostly used to land battles . The battered fleet led by Guiscard retreated into the harbor after losing many ships . Victorious at sea , Selvo left the fleet under the command of his son and returned to Venice a hero . Because of the help given to the Byzantine Empire , the Republic of Venice was awarded a Golden Bull : a decree by Emperor Alexios I Komnenos granting Venice many privileges , including a tax exemption for Venetian merchants , that would be crucial for the future economic and political expansion of Venice in the eastern Mediterranean .
The defeat off the coast of Durazzo , though devastating to Guiscard 's fleet , had inflicted little damage to his army as the majority of it had disembarked before the battle in preparation of the siege of Durazzo . In the coming months , Guiscard would regroup his forces and defeat a large Byzantine army led by Alexios I himself . In 1082 , Guiscard took the city of Durazzo , and as the Venetian sailors were forced out of the city and their ships vacated the harbor of Durazzo , the first victory by Venice against the Norman fleet appeared just a temporary setback for the Normans . Due to the new trade privileges and the fact that virtually no damage was inflicted on the Venetians during this siege , Selvo remained very popular in Venice . Meanwhile , Guiscard advanced rapidly across the Balkan Peninsula , but his march was halted by an urgent dispatch and a call for help from his greatest ally , Pope Gregory VII . Guiscard responded by returning to Italy and marching on Rome to temporarily expel Henry IV , but in the process , he lost almost all the territories he had gained in the Balkans . Knowing that Guiscard was gone , in 1083 , Selvo sent the Venetian fleet to recapture both Durazzo and the island of Corfu to the south .
= = = Defeat and deposition ( 1084 ) = = =
In 1084 , Guiscard returned to the Balkans and planned a new offensive against Corfu , where a combined Greek @-@ Venetian fleet , commanded by Selvo , awaited his arrival . When the Normans approached the island , the combined fleets dealt Guiscard an even greater defeat than he had received in the naval battle at Durazzo . Guiscard ordered another attack three days later , but the results were still more disastrous for the Normans . Selvo was completely convinced of his fleet 's victory and sent all damaged ships north to Venice for repairs , to free them for other uses , and to report of their victory . The Doge then retired with the remaining ships to the Albanian coast to await the departure of the Normans . Acting on the Doge 's belief that a third attack would be unlikely and that the presence of a slightly depleted Venetian fleet meant greater odds for victory , Guiscard summoned every floating vessel he could find and led the Normans into a surprise attack . His strategy , though perhaps risky , was ultimately well @-@ calculated as it caused mass confusion among the Venetians , who were overwhelmed on all flanks , while the Greeks fled what they assumed to be a losing battle . Selvo barely managed to retreat with the remainder of his fleet , but not before 3 @,@ 000 Venetians died and another 2 @,@ 500 were taken prisoner . The Venetians also lost 9 great galleys , the largest and most heavily armed ships in their war fleet .
When the battered fleet returned to Venice , news of the defeat spread throughout the city to mixed reactions . Though some were willing to forgive the defeat considering the circumstances , many others needed someone to blame for the loss that was considerable not only in human and material terms , but also symbolically . The people of Venice had been humiliated by an upstart nation with practically no naval experience . Though Guiscard would die the next year and the Norman threat would quickly disappear , a scapegoat was needed at that moment . A faction of influential Venetians , possibly led by Vitale Faliero based on later writings , led a popular revolt to depose Selvo , and in December 1084 they succeeded . Selvo apparently did not make a great effort to defend himself and was sent off to a monastery . He died three years later in 1087 , and was buried in the loggiato of St. Mark 's Basilica .
= = Legacy = =
After Selvo was deposed , it took several years for Venice to recover from the defeat at Corfu and for the Venetians to fully realize the immediate impact of his actions as Doge . When Venice provided military aid to the Byzantine Empire , they were awarded a Golden Bull by Emperor Alexios I that would provide the Venetians a great economic and strategic advantage throughout the eastern empire for centuries . According to the terms of the decree , annual grants were awarded to all the churches in Venice ( including a special gift to the coffers of St Mark 's ) , the Republic was granted whole sections of the Golden Horn in Constantinople , and Venetian merchants were given a full exemption from all taxes and duties throughout the territories of the Byzantine Empire . Not only did this aid the rapid economic growth of Venice in the next few centuries by giving Venetian goods a significant price advantage over other foreign goods , but it initiated a long period of artistic , cultural , and military relationships between Venice and Byzantium . This combination of eastern and western cultural influences made Venice a symbolic gateway between the east and the west in Southern Europe .
At the beginning of Selvo 's rule , he took over responsibility for the third construction of St. Mark 's Basilica . This final and most famous version of the church , whose construction was begun by Domenico Contarini and finished by Vitale Faliero in 1094 , remains an important symbol of the long periods of medieval Venetian wealth and power . The church is also a monument to the great Byzantine influence on Venetian art and culture throughout its history , but particularly in the 11th century . Though Selvo did not oversee the beginning or completion of St Mark 's Basilica , his rule covered a longer period of its construction than the other two Doges who oversaw the project . The Doge decreed that all Venetian merchants returning from the east had to bring back marbles or fine carvings to decorate St Mark 's . The first mosaics were started in the basilica under the supervision of Selvo .
By gaining power through a vote of confidence from the people and then willingly surrendering power , Selvo , like many other Doges who underwent similar transitions , left a long @-@ term impact on the succession process that would eventually become a model for peaceful , anti @-@ nepotistic transitions of power in a classical republic . Although his deposition did not immediately change the system , it was one of many important changes of power in a society that was in the process of moving away from a monarchy and toward a government led by an elected official . Following the battles at Corfu , Selvo was seen by many as inept and incapable of handling the duties that a Doge must perform . His apparent squandering of nearly the entire fleet coupled with a decade @-@ long distrust for his royal wife caused Selvo to become unpopular in Venice . By responding to the will of the people , Selvo helped shape a society that would eventually create a complicated system to check the power of its most influential members , create cooperative governmental branches that checked each other 's power , and fuse the nation into a classical republic .
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= Early life and career of Gene Roddenberry =
Eugene Wesley " Gene " Roddenberry ( August 19 , 1921 – October 24 , 1991 ) was an American television screenwriter , producer and futurist best remembered for creating the original Star Trek television series . He was born in El Paso , Texas , but grew up in Los Angeles , California where his father worked as a police officer . While at school , the young Roddenberry majored in police science and became interested in aeronautical engineering .
He obtained a pilot 's license through the Civilian Pilot Training Program . Following his graduation , he signed up for the United States Army Air Corps and he enlisted after the attack on Pearl Harbor . He was commissioned on August 5 , 1942 , and was posted to the Pacific Theater of Operations where he joined the 394th Bomb Squadron , 5th Bombardment Group , of the Thirteenth Air Force . He flew Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress in an estimated 89 combat missions . After being rotated back to the United States he was promoted to Captain and became an air crash investigator . During his military career , he was involved in two plane crashes and was awarded both the Air Medal and the Distinguished Flying Cross .
Once a civilian , he began to fly long @-@ haul routes for Pan American World Airways . He was involved in a further crash in June 1947 , where the Clipper Eclipse crashed in the Syrian desert . After pulling injured passengers out of the burning plane , he led the party which sought help . After a further incident , he resigned from Pan @-@ Am , seeking to write for television instead . However , he joined the Los Angeles Police Department , initially in the traffic division but transferred to the newspaper unit where he worked with Chief William H. Parker as a speech writer . He landed the role of technical adviser for a television version of Mr. District Attorney , which led to him writing scripts for the series under the pseudonym of " Robert Wesley " . This led to a series of collaborations with Ziv Television Programs , and he resigned from the police on June 7 , 1956 , in order to take up a writing position on the staff of The West Point Story .
= = Early life ( 1921 – 1941 ) = =
Gene Roddenberry was born on August 19 , 1921 in his parents ' rented home in El Paso , Texas , the first child of Eugene Edward Roddenberry and Caroline " Glen " ( née Goleman ) Roddenberry . He was named after his father and referred to as " Little " Gene . Roddenberry would later describe his father as " very intelligent " but a " very common man " . At the time of Gene 's birth , his father was working as a linesman , but shortly afterward he rode the rails to Los Angeles to seek better employment . He joined the Los Angeles Police Department as an emergency appointee on December 7 , 1922 . The following March he sent a message to his wife to tell her to come to Los Angeles with their son . Two months later , Gene Sr. passed the Civil Service test and was given a police commission .
The elder Roddenberry became a patrolman , and held that rank for the next twenty years . The family expanded with the birth of Robert Leon Roddenberry in 1924 , and Doris Willodean Roddenberry in 1925 . During this time , the Roddenberrys bought their first home at 3243 Drew Street . During Gene 's early years , he was saved by a quick thinking milkman who noticed that the house was on fire . He pounded on the door until Glen awoke and rushed out of the house with the children in tow . Roddenberry 's father kept rabbits , and the children sold them outside the house . It was these animals that became the subject of Roddenberry 's first published work in his school 's twice @-@ yearly newspaper , The Ace . During his childhood , Roddenberry was interested in reading , especially pulp magazines , and was a fan of stories such as John Carter of Mars , Tarzan , and the Skylark series by E. E. Smith .
In 1933 , when Roddenberry was twelve years old , the family moved to 4906 Monte Vista in the shadow of Mount Washington , and he began attending Luther Burbank Junior High School . This was the house that Roddenberry would later describe as his childhood home . His father helped the boys obtain local jobs ; Gene worked as a newspaper delivery boy and as a gas station attendant on Saturdays , and after school . The young Roddenberry moved to Franklin High School during the middle years of the Great Depression . His father was relatively unaffected by the Great Depression because of his stable employment with the police department . The family distributed food to friends and family who were in need . Glen 's parents and her younger sister Willodean moved into the house for a time before finding other accommodation in Redondo Beach . During his time at Franklin , Roddenberry joined the Varsity Debate Team and was a member of the Authors Club under Mrs. Virginia Church . He graduated in 1939 .
He attended Los Angeles City College from 1939 onward . Although Roddenberry ranked in the ninetieth percentile on an intelligence test , and in the 99th percentile on a reading test administered as part of his college entrance examination , he elected to major in the police science curriculum ; as president of the school 's Police Club , he communicated with police liaison Stanley Sheldon . During his second year , he developed an interest in aeronautical engineering and obtained a pilot 's license through the United States Army Air Corps @-@ sponsored Civilian Pilot Training Program . He graduated from Los Angeles City College with an Associate of Arts degree in police science on June 26 , 1941 , becoming the first member of his family to earn a college degree . After graduating , he traveled to March Air Base and signed up for the Army Air Corps ; due to the lack of training spaces his entrance was delayed . For the remainder of the summer , he attended Peace Officer training at the University of California , Los Angeles as an Army cadet .
= = Military service and civil aviation ( 1941 – 1948 ) = =
In the days following the attack on Pearl Harbor , Roddenberry received a telegram with orders to attend Kelly Air Force Base , enlisting on December 18 , 1941 . Following the completion of boot camp , he was sent to Corsicana , Texas for pilot training by civilian instructors . He completed sixty hours of flight time there , including thirty @-@ two solo hours . In March 1942 , he moved to Goodfellow Field ( now Goodfellow Air Force Base ) in San Angelo , Texas for basic flight training where he flew a Vultee BT @-@ 13 Valiant . Roddenberry graduated on August 5 , and was commissioned as a second lieutenant .
His initial posting to the Pacific Theater was delayed by a month , during which he completed further training on the Cessna AT @-@ 17 Bobcat . By virtue of this additional training , and because Roddenberry 's height made it unlikely that he would be suitable for a combat fighter pilot , he was assigned to bombers . He received orders to report to Bellows Field , Oahu , to join the 394th Bomb Squadron , 5th Bombardment Group , of the Thirteenth Air Force . The squadron flew the Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress , which had previously been used by the 19th Bomb Group , and were en route to a maintenance overhaul when they had to flee due to the Japanese invasion of the Philippines . Roddenberry was assigned as Captain William Ripley 's co @-@ pilot for the flight that the squadron took to Christmas Island , and the following day to Canton Island . An additional flight on November 17 took the squadron to Nadi , Fiji , where they were expected to go on to the New Hebrides . Instead they were ordered to remain in Nadi to fly reconnaissance missions .
In January 1943 , the squadron was ordered to conduct bombing missions , alternating between bases in Espiritu Santo , Nadi , and Guadalcanal . These missions consisted of teams of four to eight planes , with no fighter support . It was during these flights that Roddenberry faced Japanese fighters for the first time . On August 2 , 1943 , while flying out of Espiritu Santo , Roddenberry was piloting a B @-@ 17 but realized the plane did not have enough speed to take off . He applied the brakes to stop the aircraft but they did not respond . The tail brake was applied but it also failed . The plane overshot the runway by 500 feet ( 150 m ) and impacted trees , crushing the nose , and starting a fire . Bombardier Sgt. John P. Kruger and navigator Lt. Talbert H. Wollam were both positioned in the nose and died on impact . While an official report absolved Roddenberry of any responsibility , there were those in the squadron who blamed him for the men 's deaths . Early in September 1943 , the squadron was rotated back to the United States . The crew was transported on an old Dutch freighter across the Pacific ; upon his arrival , and reunion with his wife , his picture was featured in the Los Angeles Times .
Roddenberry spent the remainder of his military career in the United States , and while he did not keep an ongoing record , he estimated that he had flown 89 combat missions . This number was disputed by the records of the Army Air Corps and other members of the 394th Bomber Squadron . For example , one pilot in the same bomb group as Roddenberry flew eighty missions , but took three times longer than Roddenberry had claimed to do so . In October , he was assigned to Fort Worth , Texas and then the 18th Replacement Wing at Salt Lake City . He was subsequently moved to the Office of Flight Safety based in Oakland , California . In February 1944 , he moved back to March Field and was promoted to Captain and subsequently flew all over the United States in his role as a plane crash investigator . During this time he was in another accident as a passenger on a military flight that crashed and caught fire . Roddenberry pulled three men to safety . During his military career , he was awarded the Air Medal and the Distinguished Flying Cross .
In March 1945 , he applied to the Civil Aeronautics Administration for a commercial pilot 's licence . He was subsequently certified to fly both single and multi @-@ engine aircraft between 225 and 1500 horsepower . Before being discharged from the Army Air Force in July 1945 , he began to fly for Pan American World Airways . He was based first in Miami , before moving to New York City for their long @-@ haul flights . He began to fly routes from New York to Johannesburg or Calcutta , the two longest Pan Am routes at the time . He and his wife Eileen lived in River Edge , New Jersey . He continued to pursue his dream of writing , and had a poem published in the Op @-@ Ed section of the New York Times on June 17 , 1943 . During his time with the airline , he took two extension courses at Columbia University in the spring of 1946 .
On June 18 , 1947 , he picked up the Clipper Eclipse in Karachi , India , for a flight to Istanbul with the designation Pan Am Flight 121 . Five hours into the flight , the number one engine developed a fault and was shut down . The plane was able to fly on three engines . However , they began to overheat , and the pilot descended to a lower altitude to allow the engines to cool . A second engine caught fire , and fire suppressant measures failed to extinguish it . While the pilot attempted to land the plane , Roddenberry went to the cabin to calm the passengers . He was certain at the time that he was going to die , as the engine fell from the wing , exposing fuel lines , causing the fire to spread . The plane descended rapidly . As he unbuckled himself from a seat to calm a woman , it crashed in the Syrian Desert . Though he had two broken ribs , he began to evacuate passengers from the burning plane with the other crew . Roddenberry had to force the broken seatbelt of the Maharani of Phaltan open so that she could leave the plane . He repeatedly re @-@ entered the plane to pull out more passengers ; some were burning and he used pillows to extinguish the flames . The wind turned , causing the fire to engulf the plane , and he was unable to make any further trips . Roddenberry took charge in the aftermath , and , after a group of local tribesmen proved to be of no help , he formed two teams to search for civilization . The team he led trekked four miles across the desert to the town of Mayadine , where he telephoned the emergency landing strip at Deir ez @-@ Zor , some 38 miles ( 61 km ) away . In response , the Syrian Army dispatched planes with medical teams to the crash site . Roddenberry returned to the site to assist the survivors . Fourteen people died in the crash ; eleven passengers needed hospital treatment , eight were unharmed .
Two weeks later , the Syrian authorities allowed Roddenberry to return to the United States . This near @-@ death experience had increased his desire to have children , and Eileen became pregnant shortly after his return . While back in the U.S. , he testified at a Civil Aviation Authority inquiry in New York alongside two other surviving crew members . All three were commended for their work following the crash for : " devotion to duty , their calmness and efficiency in the difficult and hazardous experience . " The crash investigation questioned the maintenance of the plane 's engines , as issues with them had been identified on a previous flight . The Roddenberrys ' first child , Darleen Anita , was born on April 4 , 1948 , and Eileen expressed concerns , following the crash , about raising the child alone . After the birth , Roddenberry continued to fly for Pan @-@ Am , but another incident , while flying out of La Guardia Airport , marked the end of his career as a pilot . On a particularly cold and snowy day , the controls froze during takeoff , almost causing the plane to stall . He resigned from Pan @-@ Am on May 15 , 1948 , and decided to pursue his dream of writing particularly for the new medium of television .
= = Police service and burgeoning writing career = =
On arriving back in Los Angeles , the Roddenberry family lived initially with Gene 's parents at 2710 Green Street , Temple City . He obtained employment as a sales manager with the Tri @-@ Vision Corporation in Alhambra , which sold stereo " 3 @-@ D " cameras . However , he realized that this would only be temporary and sought more permanent employment elsewhere . Roddenberry applied for a position with the Los Angeles Police Department on January 10 , 1949 , quitting Tri @-@ Vision the following day . He was enrolled in the department on February 1 and given badge number 6089 . His initial training was completed on March 16 , and he spent the following sixteen months in the traffic division . Roddenberry was subsequently transferred to the newspaper unit . His first job , in his new role as a writer , was to write press releases and teach traffic safety . Roddenberry 's father had worked with Deputy Chief William H. Parker , who was promoted to LAPD Chief on August 9 , 1950 , and Gene became friends with him .
As part of Parker 's modernization efforts , the newspaper unit became the " Public Information Division " with Captain Stanley Sheldon in charge . He and Gene had known each other since Roddenberry attended Los Angeles City College . Roddenberry became Parker 's speech writer , and wrote of the Chief 's professional philosophy in the in @-@ house magazine , The Beat , in September 1952 . He reputedly based the Star Trek character Spock on Parker 's rational and unemotional behavior . In this new office , he worked alongside Don Ingells , who would go on to create Fantasy Island , and write episodes for Star Trek such as " The Alternative Factor " . The Association for Professional Law Enforcement was founded on November 12 , 1952 , with Roddenberry as one of the founding members and spokesman . He said at the time that : " We are of the opinion that professional ethics and practical police work are completely compatible and we intend to meet together to promote this compatibility . " Following this , Roddenberry began a correspondence with Erle Stanley Gardner , creator of the Perry Mason novels . The duo would record audio letters and send them to each other . Gardner forwarded Roddenberry 's comments to Harry Steeger , who felt that he and Roddenberry had similar opinions on law enforcement . Gardner began to seek Roddenberry 's opinion of his work , including allowing him a preview of The Court of Last Resort .
Over time , Roddenberry sought to earn more money for his family . In 1951 , he requested permission to take a second job which he described as " of a dignified nature " ; it was as a freezer salesman for the Amana Corporation . He was turned down , but found another way to earn money . The Dragnet radio series and the 1951 television series sourced their stories from the LAPD . Roddenberry gathered stories from his colleagues on the force and wrote them up for submission to the show , splitting the $ 100 payment evenly if they sold . This extra income was substantial for the time , as he earned only $ 400 a month from the Department . The Roddenberry 's second child , Dawn Allison , was born on August 31 , 1953 .
Later that year , Captain Sheldon gave Roddenberry an additional position as technical adviser for a new television version of Mr. District Attorney . Having spent the intervening years dissecting any scripts he could get his hands on , and comparing them to the television output , Roddenberry advised the head of the studio 's story department that he could write scripts as good as the ones they were using . He submitted his first script on October 22 , 1953 , under his pseudonym " Robert Wesley " . It went into production as episode 9b , " Defense Plant Gambling " . On December 1 , he made a further request to the LAPD for a second job as a free @-@ lance writer and adviser . This time it was approved . He later said , during the production of the second season of Star Trek , that the pseudonym was used after a fortune cookie revealed a message saying : " A change of name will bring you fame . "
Roddenberry took his Sergeant 's exam in early 1954 passing on the first attempt . At the same time , he wrote a second script for Mr. District Attorney titled " Wife Killer " , for which he was paid $ 700 . During his six @-@ month probation as Sergeant , he became friends with Wilbur Clingan , who would later have the Klingon race named after him . He sold another script entitled " Police Academy " in July . The sales of the three scripts amounted to the equivalent of nearly fifty @-@ percent of his Sergeant 's yearly salary of $ 5 @,@ 000 . The following December , he began to write the script for his first work of science fiction , which was eventually called The Secret Defense of 117 . With Ricardo Montalbán as lead , it was aired two years later as part of an anthology package , with the screenplay again credited to Robert Wesley . This was his first collaboration with Ziv Television Programs . He submitted a science fiction script " The Transporter " on January 4 , 1955 which was not purchased , but sold several scripts through the rest of the year : " Court Escape " , " Patrol Boat " , and " Police Brutality " for Mr. District Attorney , and " Reformed Criminal " , " Human Bomb " , and " Mental Patient " for Ziv 's Highway Patrol . In early 1956 , he sold two @-@ story ideas for I Led Three Lives , and he found that it was becoming increasingly difficult to be a writer as well as a policeman .
Ziv offered Roddenberry a writing position for a series it was developing called The West Point Story . He informed Parker that he was intending to resign in order to join the writing staff . To his surprise , the Chief revealed that he had been intentionally connecting Roddenberry with television professionals for the past few years with the hope that one would offer him a permanent position so that he could pursue his dream of writing . On June 7 , 1956 , he resigned from the force to concentrate on his writing career . In his brief letter of resignation , Roddenberry wrote : " I find myself unable to support my family at present on anticipated police salary levels in a manner we consider necessary . Having spent slightly more than seven years on this job , during all of which fair treatment and enjoyable working conditions were received , this decision is made with considerable and genuine regret . "
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= Milwaukee Airport Railroad Station =
The Milwaukee Airport Railroad Station is an Amtrak railway station which opened for service on January 18 , 2005 . It is located at 5601 South 6th Street , just south of Wisconsin Highway 119 , near the western edge of General Mitchell International Airport in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , United States . The facility accommodates travelers who use the Hiawatha Service between Chicago Union Station and the Milwaukee Intermodal Station , and sees fourteen daily arrivals , seven each from Milwaukee and Chicago . There is a shuttle from the station to the terminal of Mitchell Airport .
= = Service and facilities = =
The Milwaukee Airport Rail Station 's primary functions are to serve as an airport rail link for General Mitchell International Airport and to serve as an alternate to the downtown Milwaukee station for residents of the southern portions of the Milwaukee metropolitan area . The station is served only by the Amtrak Hiawatha Service , and sees fourteen daily arrivals , seven each from Milwaukee and Chicago Union Station . The station is the first stop en route to Chicago , with a travel time along the 8 @-@ mile ( 13 @-@ kilometer ) section taking 10 minutes . It is also the third stop en route to Milwaukee , with a travel time along the 78 @-@ mile ( 126 @-@ kilometer ) section taking one hour and 14 minutes . For 2008 , the station handled 149 @,@ 824 passengers .
The 1 @,@ 600 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 150 m2 ) station includes a Quik @-@ Trak ticket vending machine , restrooms , a seating area and covered walkways to both the drive @-@ up area and the boarding platform . As the station is unstaffed , all tickets from the station need to be pre @-@ paid , purchased from Quik @-@ Trak or on the train from a conductor . The station parking lot contains 300 spaces and costs $ 5 per day per vehicle . All revenue generated from parking fees is used to finance the station 's operating costs . Transport to and from the airport terminal is provided by the free parking shuttle buses operated by the airport .
= = History = =
The idea of opening an Amtrak station in the vicinity of Mitchell Airport is one that had been discussed since the mid @-@ 1970s . The justification for not building the station at the time was based on infrequent Amtrak service and relatively congestion @-@ free access to the airport from the south by road . By the late 1990s , a station at the airport was proposed as part of the Midwest Regional Rail Initiative . In June 2001 , the Wisconsin Department of Transportation authorized $ 100 @,@ 000 to start the preliminary design for the station , with an original opening slated for late @-@ 2003 . Although funding was authorized for preliminary work , funding for actual construction had not been secured .
How to fund construction of the station became an issue following objections from both airport and Milwaukee County officials . Although supported by both airport and local officials , they stated that financing a facility to transport persons primarily away from Milwaukee should not be done with local , but rather state and federal sources . As a result of this sentiment , Senator Herb Kohl requested $ 5 million for its construction as part of a federal transportation appropriations bill in July , only to see it reduced to $ 2 @.@ 5 million in the final bill in December . With an additional $ 4 million in funding secured by Kohl in February 2003 , combined with the $ 2 @.@ 5 million previously appropriated , construction of the $ 6 @.@ 5 million station could commence .
Groundbreaking for the facility occurred on June 28 , 2004 . Present at the ceremony was Governor Jim Doyle , Herb Kohl and state Transportation Secretary Frank Busalacchi . Included in its $ 6 @.@ 8 million budget was funds for both the construction of the station in addition to track improvements to reduce delays between Milwaukee and Chicago . State and local economic development officials saw its construction as an opportunity for travelers from Greater Chicago to use the station as a rail link to reach General Mitchell International Airport as an alternative for both Chicago 's Midway and O 'Hare airports . The station opened for service on January 18 , 2005 , as a regular stop along Amtrak 's Hiawatha Service . At the time of its opening , this became only the fourth Amtrak station to have direct service to an airport after Baltimore , Newark and Burbank . In January 2006 , the station was awarded an Urban Design Award from Milwaukee mayor Tom Barrett for its design as a " Prairie @-@ style transportation symbol . "
In 2009 , the Wisconsin Department of Transportation proposed adding 400 feet ( 120 m ) to the southern end of the existing 400 @-@ foot ( 120 m ) platform . The station was designed for trains carrying only four coach cars ; however , service has since been expanded to five cars with a sixth being proposed for the future . A six @-@ car train is nearly 700 feet ( 210 m ) long , thus the additional platform space is necessary to accommodate the increased train length for boarding and deboarding passengers .
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= Jeremy Lin =
Jeremy Shu @-@ How Lin ( born August 23 , 1988 ) is an American professional basketball player for the Brooklyn Nets of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He unexpectedly led a winning turnaround with the New York Knicks in 2012 , which generated a global following known as " Linsanity " .
Lin grew up in the San Francisco Bay Area , and he earned Northern California player of the year honors as a senior in high school . After receiving no athletic scholarship offers , he attended Harvard University , where he was a three @-@ time all @-@ conference player in the Ivy League . Undrafted out of college , Lin reached a partially guaranteed contract deal in 2010 with his hometown Golden State Warriors . He seldom played in his rookie season and was assigned to the NBA Development League ( D @-@ League ) three times . He was waived by the Warriors and the Houston Rockets the following preseason before joining the New York Knicks early in the 2011 – 12 season . Lin continued to be played sparingly and again spent time in the D @-@ League . In February 2012 , he led a winning streak by New York while being promoted to the starting lineup . In the summer of 2012 , Lin signed a three @-@ year contract with the Rockets , for whom he played two seasons before the Los Angeles Lakers acquired him in a trade . He played one season with the Lakers before signing with the Charlotte Hornets . He signed with Brooklyn the following season .
Lin is one of the few Asian Americans in NBA history , and the first American of Chinese or Taiwanese descent to play in the league . He is also known for his public expression of his Christianity .
= = Early life = =
Lin was born in Los Angeles County in the city of Torrance . He was raised in a Christian family in the San Francisco Bay Area city of Palo Alto .
His parents , Lin Gie @-@ Ming and Shirley Lin , emigrated from Taiwan to the United States in the mid @-@ 1970s , settling first in Virginia before moving to Indiana , where they both attended universities . They are dual nationals of Taiwan and the U.S. Lin 's paternal family comes from Beidou , Changhua , Taiwan , while his maternal grandmother emigrated to Taiwan in the late 1940s from Pinghu , Zhejiang , in mainland China .
Lin 's parents are both 5 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 68 m ) tall . His maternal grandmother 's family was tall , and her father was over 6 feet 0 inches ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) . Lin has an older brother , Josh , and a younger brother , Joseph . Gie @-@ Ming taught his sons to play basketball at the local YMCA . Shirley helped form a National Junior Basketball program in Palo Alto where Lin played . She worked with coaches to ensure his playing did not affect academics . She was criticized by her friends for letting Lin play so much basketball , but let him play the game he enjoyed .
= = High school career = =
In his senior year in 2005 – 2006 , Lin captained Palo Alto High School to a 32 – 1 record and upset nationally ranked Mater Dei , 51 – 47 , for the California Interscholastic Federation ( CIF ) Division II state title . He was named first @-@ team All @-@ State and Northern California Division II Player of the Year , ending his senior year averaging 15 @.@ 1 points , 7 @.@ 1 assists , 6 @.@ 2 rebounds and 5 @.@ 0 steals .
= = College career = =
= = = Recruiting process = = =
Lin sent his résumé and a DVD of highlights of his high @-@ school basketball career to all the Ivy League schools , University of California , Berkeley , and his dream schools Stanford and University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) . The Pac @-@ 10 schools wanted him to walk @-@ on , rather than be actively recruited or offered a sports scholarship . Harvard and Brown were the only teams that guaranteed him a spot on their basketball teams , but Ivy League schools do not offer athletic scholarships . Rex Walters , University of San Francisco men 's basketball coach and a retired NBA player , said NCAA limits on coaches ' recruiting visits had an impact on Lin 's chances . " Most colleges start recruiting a guy in the first five minutes they see him because he runs really fast , jumps really high , does the quick , easy thing to evaluate , " Walters said . Lin added , " I just think in order for someone to understand my game , they have to watch me more than once , because I 'm not going to do anything that 's extra flashy or freakishly athletic . "
In July 2005 , then @-@ Harvard assistant coach Bill Holden saw that Lin was 6 feet 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) , which fit the physical attributes he was seeking , and he had a 4 @.@ 2 grade point average in high school , which met Harvard 's academic standards . But Holden was initially unimpressed with Lin 's on @-@ court abilities , and told Lin 's high school basketball coach , Peter Diepenbrock , that Lin was a " Division III player " . Later that week , Holden saw Lin playing in a much more competitive game , driving to the basket at every opportunity with the " instincts of a killer " , and Lin became a top priority for him . Harvard coaches feared that Stanford , close to Lin 's home , would offer Lin a scholarship , but it did not , and Lin chose to attend Harvard . " I wasn 't sitting there saying all these Division I coaches were knuckleheads , " Diepenbrock said . " There were legitimate questions about Jeremy . " Joe Lacob , incoming Warriors ' owner and Stanford booster , said Stanford 's failure to recruit Lin " was really stupid . The kid was right across the street . [ If ] you can 't recognize that , you 've got a problem . " Kerry Keating , the UCLA assistant who offered Lin the opportunity to walk @-@ on , said in hindsight that Lin would probably have ended up starting at point guard for UCLA .
= = = Harvard = = =
A Harvard coach remembered Lin in his freshman season as " the [ physically ] weakest guy on the team " , but in his sophomore season ( 2007 – 08 ) , Lin averaged 12 @.@ 6 points and was named All @-@ Ivy League Second Team . By his junior year during the 2008 – 09 season , he was the only NCAA Division I men 's basketball player who ranked in the top ten in his conference for scoring ( 17 @.@ 8 ) , rebounding ( 5 @.@ 5 ) , assists ( 4 @.@ 3 ) , steals ( 2 @.@ 4 ) , blocked shots ( 0 @.@ 6 ) , field goal percentage ( 0 @.@ 502 ) , free throw percentage ( 0 @.@ 744 ) , and three @-@ point shot percentage ( 0 @.@ 400 ) , and was a consensus selection for All @-@ Ivy League First Team . He had 27 points , 8 assists , and 6 rebounds in an 82 – 70 win over the 17th @-@ ranked Boston College Eagles , three days after the Eagles defeated No. 1 North Carolina .
In his senior year ( 2009 – 10 ) , Lin averaged 16 @.@ 4 points , 4 @.@ 4 rebounds , 4 @.@ 5 assists , 2 @.@ 4 steals and 1 @.@ 1 blocks , and was again a unanimous selection for All @-@ Ivy League First Team . He was one of 30 midseason candidates for the John R. Wooden Award and one of 11 finalists for the Bob Cousy Award . He was also invited to the Portsmouth Invitational Tournament . Fran Fraschilla of ESPN picked Lin among the 12 most versatile players in college basketball . He gained national attention for his performance against the 12th @-@ ranked Connecticut Huskies , against whom he scored a career @-@ high tying 30 points and grabbed 9 rebounds on the road . After the game , Hall of Fame Connecticut coach Jim Calhoun said of Lin : " I 've seen a lot of teams come through here , and he could play for any of them . He 's got great , great composure on the court . He knows how to play . "
For the season , Harvard set numerous program records including wins ( 21 ) , non @-@ conference wins ( 11 ) , home wins ( 11 ) and road / neutral wins ( 10 ) . Lin finished his career as the first player in the history of the Ivy League to record at least 1 @,@ 450 points ( 1 @,@ 483 ) , 450 rebounds ( 487 ) , 400 assists ( 406 ) and 200 steals ( 225 ) . He graduated from Harvard in 2010 with a degree in economics and a 3 @.@ 1 grade @-@ point average .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2010 NBA Draft and Summer League = = =
At the Portsmouth Invitational , Lin first met sports agent Roger Montgomery and later gave him a commitment . To their disappointment , no team chose Lin in the 2010 NBA draft . The NBA had not drafted an Ivy League player since Jerome Allen of Penn in the second round in 1995 . The last Ivy League player to play in the NBA was Yale 's Chris Dudley in 2003 , while the last Harvard player was Ed Smith in 1954 . Eight teams had invited Lin to predraft workouts . Diepenbrock said that NBA tryouts do not play five on five . Lin acknowledged that the workouts were " one on one or two on two or three on three , and that 's not where I excel . I 've never played basketball like that . " Scouts saw what The New York Times later described as " a smart passer with a flawed jump shot and a thin frame , who might not have the strength and athleticism to defend , create his own shot or finish at the rim in the N.B.A. " Lin joined the Dallas Mavericks for mini @-@ camp as well as their NBA Summer League team in Las Vegas . Donnie Nelson of the Mavericks was the only General Manager who offered him an invitation to play in the Summer League . " Donnie took care of me , " said Lin . " He has a different type of vision than most people do . "
In five Summer League games , while playing both guard positions , Lin averaged 9 @.@ 8 points , 3 @.@ 2 rebounds , 1 @.@ 8 assists , and 1 @.@ 2 steals in 18 @.@ 6 minutes per game and shot a team leading 54 @.@ 5 % from the floor . He outplayed first overall pick John Wall ; Lin scored 13 points to Wall 's 21 , but did so on 6 @-@ for @-@ 12 shooting in 28 minutes . Wall was 4 @-@ for @-@ 19 in 33 minutes . While Wall received the biggest cheer for any player during introductions , the crowd turned on Wall and was cheering for Lin by the end of the game . Lin was reluctant to play overseas without an NBA offer and only planned to do so for a year before finding a non basketball @-@ related job , but after the summer league received offers from the Mavericks , Los Angeles Lakers , Golden State Warriors , and an unnamed Eastern Conference team .
= = = Golden State Warriors ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = =
On July 21 , 2010 , Lin signed a two @-@ year deal with his hometown Warriors , his favorite team growing up . Lin 's deal was partially guaranteed for 2010 – 11 , and the Warriors held a team option for the second season . The deal included a first @-@ year salary of close to $ 500 @,@ 000 with more than half of it guaranteed . Lin said the counteroffers from the three other teams were higher , but he wanted to play for the Warriors . Lin 's agent Roger Montgomery negotiated the deal . Lin also signed a three @-@ year guaranteed contract with Nike . His jersey was already on sale before his first NBA game .
The Warriors held a press conference for Lin after his signing , with national media in attendance . " It was surprising to see that ... for an undrafted rookie , " said then @-@ Warriors coach Keith Smart . The San Jose Mercury News wrote that Lin " had something of a cult following " after his signing . The San Francisco Bay Area , with its large Asian @-@ American population , celebrated his arrival . He became the first American of Chinese or Taiwanese descent to play in the NBA . Lin received the loudest ovation of the night in the Warriors ' home exhibition opener at Oracle Arena when he entered the game in the fourth quarter . The crowd had started chanting for him in the third quarter . " That really touched me . It 's something I 'll remember forever , " Lin said . During the first month of the season , Oracle Arena fans continued to root for Lin to play in the end of games and cheered every time he touched the ball . He drew cheers from the crowd on the road as well , with some writers attributing the attention to the unique story of a successful Asian @-@ American basketball player . Nevertheless , Lin played more relaxed on the road , where he felt less scrutiny and pressure to perform .
Lin acknowledged the expectations and warned , " I won 't be an All @-@ Star this year . " He was appreciative of the support , especially from the Asian @-@ American community , but he preferred to concentrate on his play without all the attention when he had not " proven anything to anybody " . Smart saw that Lin was skilled at getting to the paint , but needed to learn to pass because , he said , Lin " couldn 't shoot the ball at all " . The coach also noticed that the player always arrived early for practice and left late . Lin studied and rehearsed Steve Nash 's and other top point guards ' pick @-@ and @-@ roll plays . Frank Hughes of Sports Illustrated wrote that Lin spoke with the occasional " seeds of self @-@ doubt " , which he said was uncommon to hear in the NBA . Hughes also found it rare when Lin compared himself to the Phoenix Suns ' then @-@ backup point guard Goran Dragić . " Neither of us is a freak athlete , but we 're both effective and know how to play the game , " Lin said . Lin and Stephen Curry , the 2009 – 10 runner @-@ up Rookie of the Year , received more interview requests than any other Warrior . Team officials regularly denied requests for Lin to help him keep his focus . He was approached to be the subject of documentaries . Smart planned to take pressure off Lin since Lin had a tendency to be hard on himself and get frustrated , but the coach admitted that he once succumbed to the home crowd 's wishes and put Lin into a game in the wrong situation .
Lin received little playing time during the season with two dominant ball @-@ handling guards , Curry and Monta Ellis , starring for the Warriors . He initially competed with Charlie Bell and Reggie Williams , and later Acie Law , for playing time at backup point guard . Lin started the regular season on the Warriors ' inactive list , but made his NBA debut the next game during the Warriors ' Asian Heritage Night . He received a standing ovation when he entered the game in the final minutes . In the next game against the Los Angeles Lakers , Lin scored his first NBA basket , had three assists , and recorded four steals . He played 11 of his 16 minutes in the third quarter and committed five fouls but played a role in a 12 – 1 run by the Warriors in a 107 – 83 loss to the defending NBA champions . Lakers ' guard Derek Fisher praised Lin for his energy and aggressiveness . At Toronto on November 8 , the Raptors held Asian Heritage Night to coincide with Lin 's visit with the Warriors . Over 20 members of Toronto 's Chinese media covered the game . In an 89 – 117 road loss to the Lakers , Lin scored a ( then ) career @-@ high 13 points in 18 minutes after scoring only seven total points in his first six games .
Three times during the season , Lin was assigned to the Warriors ' D @-@ League affiliate , the Reno Bighorns . Each time , he was later recalled by the Warriors . He competed in the NBA D @-@ League Showcase and was named to the All @-@ NBA D @-@ League Showcase First Team on January 14 , 2011 . Lin helped lead the Bighorns to a 2 – 0 record at the Showcase with averages of 21 @.@ 5 points , 6 @.@ 0 rebounds , 5 @.@ 5 assists and 3 @.@ 5 steals . Lin posted a season @-@ high 27 points with the Bighorns on March 18 . In 20 games he averaged 18 points , 5 @.@ 8 rebounds and 4 @.@ 4 assists with Reno . Lin initially felt he was not good enough to play in the NBA , but he later realized he was learning and getting playing time in the D @-@ League that he would not have received with the Warriors . Lin credited Bighorns coach Eric Musselman with " helping him regain [ his ] swagger " . Musselman recalled that Lin was a good scorer but was not yet skilled at " using the whole floor " . He committed many offensive fouls , but Musselman believed Lin was as good as Gilbert Arenas in the dribble drive , an ability " you can 't teach " . The player continued to improve his pick @-@ and @-@ roll , how to handle double teams and traps , and improved his jump shot and , especially , his three pointer . Musselman also noticed that Lin , who as an NBA player received first @-@ class airplane tickets , gave them to his teammates .
The Warriors saw Lin as a potential backup for Curry . Lacob said the team received more than one trade offer for Lin while he was in the D @-@ League , but he was happy with Lin 's progress as an undrafted free agent . " He 's a minimum , inexpensive asset . You need to look at him as a developing asset . Is he going to be a superstar ? No . " He finished his rookie NBA season averaging 2 @.@ 6 points on 38 @.@ 9 percent shooting in 29 games .
= = = 2011 offseason = = =
Lin recovered from a patellar ligament injury to his knee during the 2011 NBA lockout . In September 2011 , Lin played a few games for the Chinese Basketball Association ( CBA ) club Dongguan Leopards at the ABA Club Championship in Guangzhou , China , where he was named the MVP of the tournament . Shanghai Sharks president and former NBA star Yao Ming also tried , unsuccessfully , to sign Lin for the upcoming CBA season ; Lin explained that as someone still under contract with the Golden State Warriors , he could not play in the CBA as the league would only admit NBA free agents . A few days before the lockout was lifted on November 26 , Lin had been close to signing with an undisclosed club in Italy .
Lin worked to improve his jump shot during the offseason by abandoning the shooting form he had used since the eighth grade . He also increased his strength , doubling the weight he could squat ( from 110 pounds ( 50 kg ) to 231 ( 105 ) ) and almost tripling the number of pull @-@ ups that he could do ( from 12 to 30 ) . He increased his body weight from 200 pounds ( 91 kg ) to 212 ( 96 ) — including 15 pounds ( 6 @.@ 8 kg ) of muscle — added 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 8 @.@ 9 cm ) to his standing vertical jump and 6 inches ( 15 cm ) to his running vertical jump , and improved his lateral quickness by 32 percent . Due to the lockout , he never got a chance to workout for new Warriors coach Mark Jackson . On the first day of training camp on December 9 , 2011 , the Warriors waived Lin . He was a favorite of Lacob , but the Warriors were freeing up salary cap space to make an offer to restricted free agent center DeAndre Jordan ; Lin was due to make almost $ 800 @,@ 000 that would have become fully guaranteed on February 10 , 2012 . The San Francisco Chronicle said Lin would have had trouble beating out rookie guard Charles Jenkins .
Lin was claimed off of waivers by the Houston Rockets on December 12 , 2011 , and played seven minutes , in two pre @-@ season games in Houston , but with Kyle Lowry , Goran Dragić and Jonny Flynn as point guards , all with guaranteed contracts , the Rockets waived Lin on December 24 , before the start of the season , to clear payroll to sign center Samuel Dalembert .
= = = New York Knicks ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = =
On December 27 , after an injury to guard Iman Shumpert , the New York Knicks claimed Lin off of waivers to be a backup behind Toney Douglas and Mike Bibby . Recently signed guard Baron Davis had also been injured , and was weeks away from being able to play . Because of the lockout , coaches had had little opportunity to see Lin 's play , and placed him fourth on the point guard depth chart . Lin stated that he was " competing for a backup spot " , and people saw him " as the 12th to 15th guy on the roster . It 's a numbers game , " yet he continued to arrive first at practice , and leave last , intensely studying game film , and working with coaches to improve his footwork and judgment . He made his season debut with the Knicks on the road against the Warriors , where he was warmly cheered in his return to Oracle Arena . In January , Lin was assigned to the Erie BayHawks of the D @-@ League , and on January 20 , he scored a triple @-@ double with 28 points , 11 rebounds , and 12 assists in the BayHawks ' 122 – 113 victory over the Maine Red Claws . Three days later , Lin was recalled by the Knicks , but was so fearful of being cut again that he asked a chaplain at a pregame prayer service to pray for him . If he were to be released again , Lin would consider playing in Europe , returning to the D @-@ League , or taking a non @-@ basketball job .
On January 28 , Davis postponed his Knicks debut due to an elbow infection and more back pain . Then New York considered releasing Lin before his contract became guaranteed on February 10 so they could sign a new player . However , after the Knicks squandered a fourth quarter lead in a February 3 loss to the Boston Celtics , coach Mike D 'Antoni decided to give Lin a chance to play , in " desperation " according to experts . " He got lucky because we were playing so bad , " said D 'Antoni . Lin had played only 55 minutes through the Knicks ' first 23 games , but he unexpectedly led a turnaround of an 8 – 15 team that had lost 11 of its last 13 games .
On February 4 , against the New Jersey Nets and All @-@ Star guard Deron Williams , Lin had 25 points , five rebounds , and seven assists — all career highs — in a 99 – 92 Knicks victory . Teammate Carmelo Anthony suggested to coach Mike D 'Antoni at halftime that Lin should play more in the second half . After the game , D 'Antoni said Lin had a point @-@ guard mentality and " a rhyme and a reason for what he is doing out there " . In the subsequent game against the Utah Jazz , Lin made his first career start playing without stars Anthony , who left the game due to injury , and Amar 'e Stoudemire , whose older brother had died . Lin had 28 points and eight assists in the Knicks ' 99 – 88 win . Stoudemire and Anthony missed the next three and seven games , respectively . D 'Antoni stated after the Jazz game that he intended to ride Lin " like freakin ' Secretariat " . Basketball trainer David Thorpe said in hindsight that such a statement of confidence so soon by a coach was " incredibly rare " , and likely gave Lin the confidence to continue to play aggressively despite making mistakes .
In a 107 – 93 win over the Washington Wizards , Lin played against John Wall and had 23 points and 10 assists , his first double @-@ double . On February 10 , Lin scored a new career @-@ high 38 points and had seven assists , leading the Knicks in their 92 – 85 victory over the Los Angeles Lakers . He outscored the Lakers ' Kobe Bryant , who had 34 points . On February 11 , Lin scored 20 points and had eight assists in a narrow 100 – 98 victory over the Minnesota Timberwolves . Lin was named the Eastern Conference Player of the Week after averaging 27 @.@ 3 points , 8 @.@ 3 assists and 2 @.@ 0 steals in those four starts with the Knicks going undefeated .
On February 14 , with less than a second remaining , Lin scored a game @-@ winning three @-@ pointer in a Knicks 90 – 87 win against the Toronto Raptors . The basket so amazed the Lakers , watching on TV , that veteran player Metta World Peace ran by reporters shouting " Linsanity ! Linsanity ! " and waving his hands above his head . Lin became the first NBA player to score at least 20 points and have seven assists in each of his first five starts . Lin scored 89 , 109 , and 136 points in his first three , four , and five career starts , respectively , all three of which are the most by any player since the merger between the American Basketball Association ( ABA ) and the NBA in 1976 – 77 .
In the following game against the Sacramento Kings , Lin recorded 13 assists and led the Knicks back to .500 . New York had a 7 – 0 record after Lin started receiving major playing time , 6 – 0 with him starting . The winning streak ended in an 89 – 85 loss to the New Orleans Hornets ; Lin scored 26 points but had nine turnovers . His 45 turnovers in his first seven career starts were the most since individual turnovers began being tracked in 1977 – 78 .
On February 19 in a 104 – 97 win against the Mavericks , Lin scored 28 points and tallied career highs with 14 assists and five steals . USA Today wrote , " No matter what Dallas threw at Lin – double @-@ teams , traps , blitzes , tall defenders ... smaller defenders ... stocky , thin – Lin found a way ... to a victory against the defending NBA champions . " By February 23 LeBron James and Dwyane Wade of the Miami Heat argued over who would guard Lin . He did not do as well against the Heat , going one for 11 from the field and committing eight turnovers . The eventual NBA champions focused their entire defense on Lin , an experience he described as " flattering — and terrifying ... I felt like they were all like hawks circling me and staring . "
In his 12 starts before the All @-@ Star break , Lin averaged 22 @.@ 5 points and 8 @.@ 7 assists , and New York had a 9 – 3 record . He played in the Rising Stars Challenge during NBA All @-@ Star Weekend . He was omitted from the original Rising Stars roster , but was added after his sudden rise to stardom . Some media outlets — including USA Today , Los Angeles Times , and CBSSports.com — stated that he deserved to play in the All @-@ Star Game .
The Knicks in March replaced D 'Antoni with Mike Woodson , who ran fewer pick @-@ and rolls and more isolation plays . Lin had excelled running pick @-@ and @-@ rolls under D 'Antoni . After the March 24 game against the Detroit Pistons he complained about a sore knee , and an MRI later revealed a small meniscus tear in the left knee . Lin opted to have knee surgery and missed the remainder of the regular season . He averaged 18 @.@ 5 points and 7 @.@ 6 assists during his 26 games as an everyday player . In the first 10 games , Lin averaged 24 @.@ 6 points and 9 @.@ 2 assists , shooting 49 @.@ 7 percent from the field but with 5 @.@ 6 turnovers . In the next seven games , he averaged 16 points and 7 @.@ 7 assists with 3 @.@ 9 turnovers . In the last nine games , Lin averaged 13 @.@ 6 points and 5 @.@ 9 assists and shot only 39 @.@ 1 percent while dealing with his then @-@ undisclosed knee injury .
Lin became a restricted free agent at the end of the season . The New York Times called Lin " [ the Knicks ' ] most popular player in a decade " , but his success over only 26 games left teams uncertain about his overall standing among the league 's point guards . Some still believed Lin was a bench player .
= = = Houston Rockets ( 2012 – 2014 ) = = =
During the 2012 offseason , the Knicks encouraged Lin to seek other offers , but he and the press expected that the team would re @-@ sign him given its need for a young guard , his good play , and worldwide popularity ; ESPN reported that the Knicks would match any other offer " up to $ 1 billion " . The Rockets offered a $ 28 @.@ 8 million contract over four years with the fourth year of that deal being at the team 's option , which put the true commitment at $ 19 @.@ 5 million . Woodson said the Knicks would match Houston 's offer and that Lin would be his starting point guard . The Rockets then offered a revised three @-@ year , $ 25 million deal , which Anthony called " ridiculous " . The Knicks did not match the deal , and Lin deduced the team 's decision when they signed Raymond Felton instead . The first two years of Houston 's offer paid $ 5 million and $ 5 @.@ 225 million , respectively , followed by $ 14 @.@ 8 million in the third year . The higher salary in the final year , known as a " poison pill " , was intended to discourage New York from matching the offer . Including luxury tax , the Knicks ' cost for Lin in 2014 – 15 was estimated at $ 43 million . Their failure to match the offer surprised observers , given the team 's history of high payrolls ; Lin would only have been the fourth @-@ highest @-@ paid Knick .
Having already traded Kyle Lowry and lost Goran Dragić to free agency , the Rockets made Lin the center of both their preseason " A New Age " publicity campaign as well as their initial ads on Comcast SportsNet Houston . Coming off his " Linsanity " performance in New York , Houston coach Kevin McHale said the expectations of Lin were undue . McHale said the public believed Lin would " average 28 [ points ] and 11 [ assists ] " , but he had never played a whole 82 @-@ game season before . Shortly before their regular @-@ season opener in October , the Rockets acquired James Harden , who supplanted Lin as the face of the team . Throughout the season , though , Lin still placed pressure on himself to live up to the expectations from Linsanity . However , Harden was a ball @-@ dominant , pick @-@ and @-@ roll player like Lin , and McHale chose to have the offense run through the more @-@ proven Harden . The Rockets started the season with a 5 – 7 record and the youngest roster in the league . Lin was averaging 10 points and 6 @.@ 3 assists , but was struggling shooting 33 @.@ 3 percent and 22 @.@ 9 percent of his 3 @-@ pointers . He was handling the ball less than he did with the Knicks , with Harden often controlling the ball on pick @-@ and @-@ rolls with Lin on the wing . In the Rockets ' next game on November 23 , Lin faced the Knicks for the first time since leaving as a free agent . The Knicks entered at 8 – 2 with the best record in the league , but Houston won at home 131 – 103 as Lin contributed 13 points , seven rebounds and three assists . He shot 6 @-@ for @-@ 12 , making half of his shots for the first time in eight games , and breaking a personal five @-@ game drought without a 3 @-@ pointer .
Lin continued to struggle , and he began losing playing time to backup Toney Douglas . With Harden sitting out injured on December 10 , Lin scored 38 points in a 134 – 126 overtime loss to the San Antonio Spurs . The performance was reminiscent of his play during Linsanity . Lin shot 9 @-@ for @-@ 16 ( 56 @.@ 2 percent ) on his jump shots in the game ; entering the contest , he had shot just 26 @.@ 1 percent on jumpers , whereas he was 40 @.@ 2 percent a year earlier . Numbers through the season suggested that Harden and Lin were more productive individually with the other on the bench . " I 'll be my harshest critic but I 'll go ahead and say it : I 'm doing terrible , " Lin said before facing the Knicks in his first game back in New York . Houston won 109 – 96 , handing the Knicks their first home loss in 11 games . Lin had 22 points and nine assists . He was cheered in pregame introductions , but was booed after the game began . Three miles south in Chinatown , Lin fans packed restaurant and bars .
Lin did not play in the 2013 All @-@ Star Game , held in Houston , after finishing third in the voting behind Bryant and Chris Paul for the two starting guards of the Western Conference . He was selected instead to compete in the Skills Challenge during All @-@ Star Weekend . His scoring , shooting percentage , and 3 @-@ point percentage improved after the All @-@ Star break , and he finished with season averages of 13 @.@ 4 points and 6 @.@ 1 assists . Lin and center Ömer Aşık were the only Rockets to play in all 82 games . Houston qualified for the playoffs , but lost in the first round in six games to the No. 1 seed Oklahoma City Thunder . Lin suffered a bruised chest in Game 2 , which limited him in Game 3 and sidelined him for the two games after . He returned for the final game , coming off the bench for three points in 13 minutes .
In 2013 – 14 , Lin was replaced in the Rockets ' starting lineup by Patrick Beverley , and Lin became the second unit 's primary ball handler and scoring option as the team 's sixth man . Houston liked beginning games with Beverley 's defensive pressure , but also preferred increasing Lin 's playing time without Harden also on the court . Lin and Harden were both attacking players offensively , but each struggled defensively . In November , Lin established the highest two @-@ game scoring total of his career , 65 points , including season @-@ highs of 34 points and 11 assists along with a Rockets record @-@ tying nine three @-@ pointers in a start in place of an injured Harden . It was followed by a 21 @-@ point performance in a win at New York . He received a round of applause upon entering the game , though it was more subdued than in his first return against the Knicks . On November 27 , Lin sprained his right knee against the Atlanta Hawks , causing him to miss six games . He missed four additional games in December due to back spasms ; he started in his return on December 23 with both Harden and Beverley injured — Beverley was estimated to be out four to six weeks due to a fractured right hand . On February 1 , 2014 , Lin recorded 15 points , 11 rebounds and 10 assists — his first career triple @-@ double — in 29 minutes off the bench in a 106 – 92 home victory over the Cleveland Cavaliers . He was the first Rocket to notch a triple @-@ double off the bench since Cedric Maxwell in 1988 . However , he went into a shooting slump after the All @-@ Star break , and again experienced problems with his back .
He finished the season with 33 starts and averages of 12 @.@ 5 points and 4 @.@ 1 assists a game along with career highs in field goal percentage ( 44 @.@ 6 % ) , three @-@ point percentage ( 35 @.@ 8 % ) , and free throw percentage ( 82 @.@ 3 % ) . He shot 57 @.@ 8 percent off of drives during the season , exceeded only by LeBron James ( 63 @.@ 8 percent ) in the league . In the playoffs , Lin averaged 11 @.@ 3 points off the bench as Houston lost in six games to the Portland Trail Blazers . He scored 21 points in a Game 5 win that extended the Rockets season . During the offseason , the Rockets pursued Lin 's former Knicks teammate Anthony in free agency , and showed images outside of its arena of Anthony in a Houston jersey bearing Lin 's No. 7 .
= = = Los Angeles Lakers ( 2014 – 2015 ) = = =
On July 13 , 2014 , Lin was traded , along with a 2015 first and second round pick , to the Los Angeles Lakers in exchange for the rights to Sergei Lishouk . The Rockets made the move to clear cap space in their attempt to sign free agent Chris Bosh . The Lakers owed Lin $ 15 million for 2014 – 15 , the final year of his contract , but only $ 8 @.@ 3 million counted against their salary cap . His role was undefined with the Lakers , who were just 21 – 61 in his only season with the team . Lin moved into the starting lineup late in the preseason after an injury to Ronnie Price , and he started the first 20 games of the season . However , he struggled in coach Byron Scott 's offense , which was based on the methodical player and ball movement of the Princeton offense , while Lin was most comfortable dominating the ball while attacking off the pick @-@ and @-@ roll as he did in New York and Houston .
After the team 's poor 5 – 15 start , Scott attempted to improve the Lakers ' poor defense by moving Lin to the bench in favor of the journeyman Price . Lin was disappointed in the demotion , calling it " one of the toughest situations I 've been in " . On January 23 , 2015 , Scott promoted rookie Jordan Clarkson to start over Price and chose not to play a healthy Lin in a blowout loss to San Antonio , which the Lakers trailed by as much as 23 while playing without Kobe Bryant . Lin had previously played in each game of the season , averaging 10 @.@ 5 points and 4 @.@ 5 assists in 43 games . It was the first time he was healthy and did not play since February 2 , 2012 , two days before he logged then @-@ career highs against New Jersey at the dawn of Linsanity . After Lin scored a season @-@ high 29 on March 22 in a win over Philadelphia , Scott returned him to the starting lineup . On March 24 , Lin and teammate Clarkson , who is part Filipino , became the first Asian Americans to start together in the backcourt in NBA history . Lin missed the last five games of the season due to an upper respiratory infection .
= = = Charlotte Hornets ( 2015 – 2016 ) = = =
On July 9 , 2015 , Lin signed a two @-@ year , $ 4 @.@ 3 million contract with the Charlotte Hornets , who used their bi @-@ annual exception in the deal . He had been open to re @-@ joining New York , but they were not interested , having drafted guard Jerian Grant to pair with veteran José Calderón at point guard . Lin was projected to back up Hornets point guard Kemba Walker , and coach Steve Clifford envisioned that the two pick @-@ and @-@ roll players would sometimes play together .
Lin made his debut for the Hornets in the team 's season opener against the Miami Heat on October 28 , scoring 17 points off the bench in a 104 – 94 loss . On December 17 , he scored a season @-@ high 35 points in a 109 – 99 overtime win over the Toronto Raptors . On March 21 , 2016 , he scored 15 of his 29 points in the fourth quarter to help Charlotte rally from a 30 – 7 deficit in the second quarter for a 91 – 88 comeback victory over San Antonio , snapping the Spurs ' six @-@ game winning streak . Charlotte was the first team to score seven points or fewer in the opening quarter and come back to win since 2008 . It was also the largest comeback surrendered by the Spurs in the Tim Duncan era , which began in 1997 . Lin was 11 @-@ of @-@ 18 from the field and hit all four three @-@ point attempts , including three in the fourth quarter , and provided the go @-@ ahead jumper with 48 seconds left . Lin 's first and only season with the Hornets came to an end after the Hornets were defeated by the Heat in the first round of the playoffs .
After declining his $ 2 @.@ 2 million player option for the 2016 – 17 season , Lin became an unrestricted free agent on July 1 , 2016 .
= = = Brooklyn Nets ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On July 7 , 2016 , Lin signed a multi @-@ year contract with the Brooklyn Nets .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = College = = =
= = = NBA = = =
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = = = Playoffs = = = =
= = International career = =
In addition to being a U.S. citizen , Lin is by descent through his parents a national of Taiwan ; Lin would qualify for a Taiwan passport although there is no record of him having done so . Lin has been invited to play for the Chinese Taipei men 's national basketball team in FIBA competitions . On July 28 , 2010 while in Taipei to play in Yao Ming 's charity game , Lin said he had not made a decision yet on whether he would represent Chinese Taipei ( the name used by Taiwan in international sporting competitions ) . In June 2011 , the Chinese Taipei Basketball Association ( CTBA ) included Lin in its preliminary squad of 24 players for the 2011 FIBA Asia Championship . The next month , however , the CTBA announced that Lin would not be included on their roster due to a knee injury .
Taiwanese media reported that Lin declined an offer from the People 's Republic of China to play in the same tournament ; however , the Chinese Basketball Management Center denied having ever approached him .
Lin was named to the USA Basketball Men 's Select Team to scrimmage against the 2012 USA Olympic team candidates , but he did not participate due to his restricted free agent status with the Knicks .
= = Player profile = =
Apart from being a capable passer , Lin has established himself as a strong , fast @-@ paced offensive player who attacks the basket and excels at the pick @-@ and @-@ roll . He improved his outside shooting from early in his career , and became a threat from three @-@ point range . He has also been considered difficult to defend at times because of his ability to get to the free @-@ throw line . An admitted risk taker , he has been criticized for his tendency to commit turnovers , as well as his mediocre defense .
= = Racial issues = =
Sean Gregory of Time wrote of Lin 's zero Division I scholarship offers : " [ Lin ] was scrawny , but don 't doubt that a little racial profiling , intentional or otherwise , contributed to his underrecruitment . " Diepenbrock stated , " If [ Lin ] was African American or Caucasian , it might have been a different deal " ; he did not think Lin 's race affected his recruiting until later seeing 10 Division I coaches express interest in a black student who Diepenbrock assessed as " a nice junior college player " . Lin said : " I 'm not saying top @-@ 5 state automatically gets you offers , but I do think [ my ethnicity ] did affect the way coaches recruited me . I think if I were a different race , I would 've been treated differently . " Walters added , " People who don 't think stereotypes exist are crazy . If [ Lin 's ] white , he 's either a good shooter or heady . If he 's Asian , he 's good at math . We 're not taking him . " During Lin 's college career , fewer than 0 @.@ 5 % of men 's Division 1 basketball players were Asian @-@ American .
At Harvard , Lin was uncomfortable with the attention on his ethnicity as opposed to his performance . He regularly heard bigoted jeers at games such as " Wonton soup " , " Sweet and sour pork " , " Open your eyes ! " , " Go back to China " , " Orchestra is on the other side of campus , " or pseudo @-@ Chinese gibberish . Lin said this occurred at most if not all Ivy League gyms , but he did not react to it . " I expect it , I 'm used to it , it is what it is , " said Lin . The heckling came mostly from opposing fans and not as much from players . According to Harvard teammate Oliver McNally , a fellow Ivy League player once called Lin the ethnic slur chink . In January 2010 , Harvard played against Santa Clara University at the Leavey Center , just 15 miles from his hometown of Palo Alto , California . Playing to a capacity crowd that included droves of Asian Americans wanting to see his homecoming , his teammates told him , " It was like Hong Kong . "
Lin considers himself a basketball player more than just an Asian American . He understands that there have not been many Asians in the NBA . " Maybe I can help break the stereotype , " said Lin . " I feel like Asians in general don 't get the respect that we may deserve whether it comes to sports , basketball , or whatever it might be , " Lin said . Prior to the 2010 – 11 NBA season , Americans of Asian descent who played in the NBA included Wataru Misaka , Raymond Townsend , Corey Gaines , Rex Walters , and Robert Swift . " [ Lin 's ] carrying the hopes of an entire continent . I only had to carry the hopes of Little Rock , Arkansas . He 's accomplished a lot more than I have already , " said Derek Fisher , who had won five NBA championships with the Lakers , after his first game against Lin . Lin is setting an example for prospective Asian athletes in America who rarely see Asian @-@ Americans playing on their favorite teams . " I don 't look Japanese , " Walters said , referring to his mother 's ethnicity . " When they see [ Lin ] , it 's an Asian @-@ American . "
Based on comments he heard that his talents were " deceptive " , Lin stated in a 2013 60 Minutes interview that it was his " gut feeling " his ethnicity contributed to his being undrafted . NBA commissioner David Stern also believed Lin was not drafted due to discrimination . " I don 't know whether he was discriminated against because he was at Harvard . Or because he was Asian , " said Stern . Some fans and commentators wrote off his Warriors signing as a publicity stunt . Larry Riley , the team 's general manager , denied catering to the Bay Area 's large Asian population . He understood that some people would see it that way . " We evaluated him throughout summer league , " Riley said . " All that had to happen was for him to confirm what we already believed . " While the team created a campaign around him , Riley said it would not have been advisable if Lin was not a basketball player first .
On February 10 , 2012 , in the middle of Lin 's career game against the Lakers , Fox Sports columnist Jason Whitlock posted on Twitter , " Some lucky lady in NYC is gonna feel a couple inches of pain tonight , " a reference to Lin 's sexual prowess . Hyphen wrote that Whitlock " reinforced the insipid and insidious ' small Asian penis ' stereotype " . The Asian American Journalists Association demanded an apology . " I debased a feel @-@ good sports moment . For that , I 'm truly sorry , " apologized Whitlock . Boxer Floyd Mayweather , Jr. wrote on his Twitter page , " Jeremy Lin is a good player but all the hype is because he 's Asian . Black players do what he does every night and don 't get the same praise . " NBCNewYork.com in response to Mayweather noted that " no one of any skin color in the history of basketball has done in their first four starts what Lin pulled off for the Knicks last week . " On February 15 , the MSG Network during game coverage showed a fan 's sign of Lin 's face above a fortune cookie with the words " The Knicks Good Fortune " , which some viewed as an ethnic stereotype . Sporting News wrote that the sign was " questionable " , while CBS News called it " distasteful " . Some Knicks teammates were criticized for bowing to Lin during games . On February 17 , ESPN used a racial slur on its mobile website in the headline " Chink in the Armor " after Lin had nine turnovers in New York 's loss to the Hornets . It was removed 35 minutes later , and ESPN apologized . The network fired the employee who posted the headline , and suspended ESPNews anchor Max Bretos for using the same reference earlier in the week . Bretos also apologized . Knicks radio announcer Spero Dedes also used the phrase on 1050 ESPN New York , but he was an employee of Madison Square Garden ( MSG ) and not ESPN . He apologized and was disciplined by MSG . Saturday Night Live satirized the ethnic puns being made about Lin , pointing out the difference in society 's reaction to racial jokes about Asian people versus racial jokes about black people . In the skit , three sports commentators were featured happily making jokes about Lin 's race , while a fourth drew contempt for making similar comments about black players . ESPN received emails suggesting that Lin was subjected to racial mockery in a manner that African @-@ Americans are not . Ben & Jerry 's created a frozen yogurt in honor of Lin named " Taste the Lin @-@ Sanity " . It contained lychee honey swirls and fortune cookie pieces . The company later replaced the fortune cookies with waffle cookies and apologized to anyone offended by their Lin @-@ Sanity flavor . J. A. Adande of ESPN.com wrote that the heightened ethnic sensitivity toward Asian Americans was " another way [ Lin 's ] impact resonates far beyond Madison Square Garden " . The AAJA released a set of guidelines to the media in response to what it termed as " factual inaccuracies about Lin 's background as well as an alarming number of references that rely on stereotypes about Asians or Asian Americans " . On November 14 , 2013 , ESPN SportsCenter anchor Jorge Andres apologized on @-@ air after commenting that Lin " was cooking with some hot peanut oil " after Lin 's 21 @-@ point performance helped Houston to a win over the Knicks .
In a 2015 interview with Pablo S. Torre in ESPN The Magazine , Lin expressed belief that perceptions of Asians had impacted his reputation as a player who was turnover @-@ prone or unable to use both hands , despite statistics that suggested he had improved in both areas . He also cited the notion that he was a poor defender due to the belief that he lacked speed , while D 'Antoni stated that Lin " was one of the quickest athletes we 've ever worked out " . However , Lin acknowledged that being a non @-@ black basketball player , his performance with the Knicks was overhyped .
Diepenbrock said that people without meaning any harm assume since Lin is Asian that he is not a basketball player . The first time Lin went to a Pro @-@ Am game in Kezar Pavilion in San Francisco , a security guard informed him : " Sorry , sir , there 's no volleyball here tonight . It 's basketball . " Early in his stint with the Knicks , a security guard at Madison Square Garden stopped Lin from entering the players ' entrance , mistaking him as a trainer . After signing with the Hornets , the five @-@ year NBA veteran had to convince security at Charlotte 's Time Warner Cable Arena that he was a player .
= = Public image = =
Lin has a popular YouTube account , and has made videos with YouTube personalities Nigahiga and KevJumba . Lin and former Knicks teammate Landry Fields appeared on the channel revealing their " secret handshake " . In 2014 , Lin became a content partner with Whistle Sports Network , adding his YouTube channel with roughly 400 @,@ 000 subscribers in exchange for an undisclosed equity stake . He was the first athlete from one of the four major sports leagues in the United States to produce content for the digital sports platform .
In a video interview conducted by Elie Seckbach , he asked Lin how it felt to be representing so many people . Lin responded by stating , " It 's humbling , a privilege , and an honor . I 'm really proud of being Chinese , I 'm really proud of my parents being from Taiwan . I just thank God for the opportunity . " In July 2011 , the overseas Chinese Vivid Magazine named Lin one of its top eight influential Chinese @-@ Americans . In April 2012 , Lin was named to Time Magazine 's 2012 list of the " Top 100 Most Influential People in the World " . On June 18 , 2012 , NBA TV announced that Lin was the first @-@ ever winner of the " Social Breakout Player of the Year " Award . He was also the winner of " The EPIC Award " . In July 2012 , Lin won the ESPY Award for Breakthrough Athlete of the Year .
In 2014 , Madame Tussauds unveiled a wax figure of his likeness at its San Francisco branch .
= = = " Linsanity " = = =
After he became a starter for the Knicks , the Associated Press called Lin " the most surprising story in the NBA " . Bloomberg News wrote that Lin " has already become the most famous [ Asian American NBA player ] " . Knicks fans developed nicknames for him along with a new lexicon inspired by his name , Lin . Most popular was the word Linsanity , the excitement over the unheralded Lin . Time.com ran an article titled , " It 's Official : Linsanity Is for Real " .
Hall of Fame player Magic Johnson said , " The excitement [ Lin ] has caused in [ Madison Square ] Garden , man , I hadn 't seen that in a long time . " He appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated with the headline " Against All Odds " , which the Times called " the greatest tribute " . He also made the cover of Time in Asia ; Forbes wrote , " Congratulations Jeremy . You have now made the cover of Time the same number of times as Michael Jordan . Linsanity reigns on . " Lin 's story was also on the front @-@ page of many Taipei newspapers . " I haven 't done a computation , but it 's fair to say that no player has created the interest and the frenzy in this short period of time , in any sport , that I 'm aware of like Jeremy Lin has , " said NBA commissioner David Stern .
The Knicks ' success due to Lin 's play reportedly contributed to the end of a dispute that had for 48 days prevented Time Warner Cable customers from watching Knicks games and other MSG Network programs . The team quickly began selling replicas of Lin 's No. 17 jerseys and T @-@ shirts , and the sales and traffic for its online store increased more than 3 @,@ 000 % ; Lin 's merchandise dominated the displays at Knicks stores , with those for the team 's high @-@ priced stars — Anthony , Stoudemire , and Tyson Chandler — were moved to the sale racks . He had the best selling jersey in the NBA in February and March . For the one @-@ year period ending April 2012 , Lin had the second highest selling jersey in the league behind Derrick Rose . Both Nike and Adidas introduced Lin @-@ related athletic apparel , and expected that his fame would help sales in China . His popularity was attributed with growing the NBA 's popularity there since Yao Ming 's retirement in the offseason ; the audience for NBA games on television and online in China rose 39 percent over the previous season .
Within three weeks of his first game as a starter , at least seven e @-@ books were being published on Lin , and the Global Language Monitor declared that Linsanity had met its criteria to be considered an English @-@ language word . He appeared on a second consecutive Sports Illustrated cover , the first New York @-@ based team athlete and the third NBA player in the magazine 's history , after Jordan and Dirk Nowitzki . New York City restaurants introduced new food and bar items in honor of Lin . The city has about 450 @,@ 000 residents of Chinese or Taiwanese descent — larger than the entire populations of NBA cities like Miami , Atlanta or Cleveland — and viewing parties to watch Lin play flourished in Manhattan 's Chinatown . An airline advertised " Linsanely low prices " , bids for his rookie card exceeded $ 21 @,@ 000 on eBay , and the press circulated rumors — denied by Lin — that he was dating Kim Kardashian . Foreign Policy speculated on his potential impact on Sino @-@ American relations , and Jack and Suzy Welch wrote that Lin 's rise was a lesson to business leaders to not let bureaucracy stifle unproven talent . Despite Lin 's sudden fame Sacramento Kings coach Keith Smart stated , " I knew [ Lin ] before he was Linmania . He 's still the same humble guy . The guy has not changed a bit , which is real special for a young man . "
Lin trademarked the word Linsanity in 2012 to preempt strangers from profiting from his likeness . Two others had attempted to trademark the term in the first week of February , but the United States Patent and Trademark Office ultimately registered the term to Lin . A documentary film about Lin , titled Linsanity , premiered on January 20 , 2013 , at the Sundance Film Festival . It was shown at numerous film festivals before making its way into art houses .
= = = Endorsements = = =
Lin has turned down most of the sponsorship deals he has been offered . He stated that he declined tens of millions of dollars of endorsement opportunities during the peak of Linsanity . " I do think my purpose is to play basketball , play well , and play for the glory of God , " he said . Lin called business outside of basketball " definitely secondary to my primary job " .
He has endorsed the following brands during his career :
Volvo
Nike ( 2010 – 2014 )
Steiner Sports
Adidas ( 2014 – )
= = Personal life = =
Lin is an evangelical Christian , and was a leader in Harvard 's Asian American Christian Fellowship during his time there . He credited his NBA success to playing without pressure . " I 've surrendered that to God . I 'm not in a battle with what everybody else thinks anymore , " said Lin . He hopes to become a pastor who can head up non @-@ profit organizations , either home or abroad , and has talked of working in inner @-@ city communities to help with underprivileged children .
Lin 's younger brother , Joseph , plays basketball for the Fubon Braves , and his older brother , Josh , was a dental student at New York University .
Lin said that he understands Mandarin , though he could use some help speaking it ; he can also read and write a little . He took a few Mandarin classes while attending Harvard to try to improve . After joining the Knicks in 2012 , Lin slept on a couch in his brother 's one @-@ bedroom apartment on the Lower East Side of Manhattan , New York City . The night before his breakout game , he slept on the couch of teammate Landry Fields . He relocated to a luxury condo in White Plains , New York , after his Knicks contract became guaranteed .
Lin has publicly declared that one of his favorite pastimes is playing the video game Dota 2 , having been a fan of its predecessor , Defense of the Ancients , since his sophomore year of high school . He appeared in Free to Play , the 2014 documentary centered around the game , in which he described it as a " way of life " that helped him better connect with his family and friends .
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= Khan Noonien Singh =
Khan Noonien Singh , commonly shortened to Khan , is a fictional villain in the Star Trek science fiction franchise . The character first appeared in the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Space Seed " ( 1967 ) , and was portrayed by Ricardo Montalbán who reprised his role in the 1982 film Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan . In the 2013 film Star Trek Into Darkness , he is played by Benedict Cumberbatch .
The character once controlled more than a quarter of the Earth during the Eugenics Wars of the 1990s . After being revived from suspended animation in 2267 by the crew of the Starship Enterprise , Khan attempts to capture the starship , but is thwarted by James T. Kirk and exiled on Ceti Alpha V to create a new society with his people . In Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan , set fifteen years after " Space Seed " , Khan escapes his exile and sets out to exact revenge upon Kirk .
Harve Bennett , executive producer for Star Trek II , chose Khan as the villain for the film . To reflect the time spent marooned on an inhospitable world , Khan was given a costume that looked as though it had been scavenged from different items and showed off Montalbán 's physique . Montalbán 's portrayal has been positively received by critics and fans ; Khan was voted one of the ten greatest film villains by the Online Film Critics Society .
In Star Trek Into Darkness , set in the alternate continuity established in Star Trek ( 2009 ) , Khan is awakened almost a decade before the events of " Space Seed . " Khan is given the false identity " John Harrison " and coerced by Admiral Marcus into building weapons for Starfleet in exchange for the lives of Khan 's crew . He ultimately rebels and comes into conflict with the crew of Enterprise .
= = Appearances = =
= = = " Space Seed " = = =
Khan makes his introductory appearance in the episode " Space Seed " , first broadcast on February 16 , 1967 . According to the backstory revealed in the episode , Khan is one of a group of genetically engineered superhumans , bred to be free of the usual human mental and physical limitations , who were removed from power after the Eugenics Wars of the 1990s . Khan had been both the most successful conqueror and the most benign ruler of the group , ruling more than a quarter of the Earth 's area across Asia to the Middle East from 1992 to 1996 with a firm but generally peaceful hand until he was deposed . While most of the supermen were killed or sentenced to death , Khan and 84 others escaped Earth by way of the sleeper ship SS Botany Bay . Botany Bay is discovered by the crew of the Starship Enterprise in 2267 , with Khan and 72 of the 84 crew members of Botany Bay still alive , cryogenically frozen in suspended animation .
When Khan 's sleep chamber malfunctions , he is transported to Enterprise , where he reawakens and learns he is in the 23rd century . Given spacious quarters while Botany Bay is towed to a starbase , Khan fascinates and charms the ship 's historian , Marla McGivers ( Madlyn Rhue ) , while using his access to the ship 's technical manuals to learn how to take over and operate Enterprise . McGivers agrees to help Khan revive the other supermen , allowing him to organize a mutiny . To coerce the Enterprise crew to cooperate with him , Khan places Captain James T. Kirk ( William Shatner ) in the ship 's decompression chamber and threatens to kill Kirk unless the crew submits . McGivers cannot stand by as her Captain dies and frees Kirk , who neutralizes Khan 's men by using a neural gas . Khan heads to engineering and sets the ship 's engines to self @-@ destruct , whereupon he is incapacitated by Kirk . Captain Kirk conducts a hearing , sentencing Khan and his followers to exile on an uncolonized world , Ceti Alpha V. Khan accepts Kirk 's challenge — invoking the fall of Lucifer in Milton 's Paradise Lost — and McGivers joins Khan rather than face court @-@ martial . Spock ( Leonard Nimoy ) wonders what the " seed " Kirk has planted will bear in a hundred years .
= = = Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan = = =
Khan returns in the 1982 feature film Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan . Captain Clark Terrell ( Paul Winfield ) and First Officer Pavel Chekov ( Walter Koenig ) of USS Reliant are searching for an uninhabited world to test the Genesis device , a powerful terraforming tool . They beam down to what they believe is Ceti Alpha VI . Khan 's followers capture Terrell and Chekov , and Khan explains that the barren world is Ceti Alpha V ; the sixth planet of the system exploded shortly after Khan and his followers were marooned . The cataclysm caused massive climate disturbances , rendering the planet into a desert , and many of the survivors — including Khan 's wife — were killed by the only surviving species of animal , the Ceti eel . Only twenty of Khan 's followers survive . Swearing vengeance on Kirk , Khan implants Ceti eels in Terrell and Chekov 's brains , rendering them vulnerable to suggestion . Khan then seizes control of Reliant , intent on capturing the Genesis device .
Khan lures Enterprise to the space station Regula I , and he launches a surprise attack that disables Kirk 's ship . Kirk tricks Khan by using a special code to remotely lower Reliant 's shields , allowing Enterprise to inflict significant damage . Khan is forced to withdraw to make repairs . Using the mind @-@ controlled Terrell and Chekov as spies , Khan captures the Genesis device and leaves Kirk marooned on Regula I. Spock deceives Khan into thinking that Enterprise is crippled , surprising Khan when Enterprise rescues Kirk and escapes to the nearby Mutara Nebula . Goaded into following Kirk , Khan pilots Reliant into the nebula , where shields and sensors are inoperable . Due to Khan 's inexperience with three @-@ dimensional space combat , Enterprise defeats Reliant and Khan is severely wounded . Refusing to accept defeat , Khan activates the Genesis device , intent on killing his foe along with himself . Khan quotes Ahab 's words of vengeance from Moby Dick as he watches Enterprise try to escape .
= = = Star Trek Into Darkness = = =
Khan appears in the 2013 film Star Trek Into Darkness , taking place in the alternate continuity established in Star Trek ( 2009 ) . While the character ’ s backstory remains the same , Khan is revived by Starfleet Admiral Alexander Marcus rather than the crew of Enterprise . Marcus anticipates a war with the Klingons , and forces Khan to develop warships and weapons for Starfleet under the cover identity of " John Harrison " , holding Khan 's shipmates hostage . These developments include advanced long @-@ range torpedoes and the warship USS Vengeance .
Believing Marcus killed his crew , Khan engineers attacks on a Starfleet archive and Starfleet leadership , before fleeing to the Klingon homeworld Qo 'noS . Marcus arms Enterprise with 72 advanced torpedoes and sends Kirk and Enterprise to Qo 'noS to kill Harrison . Against orders , Kirk attempts to capture him alive . Upon learning the number of torpedoes on board Enterprise , Khan surrenders , revealing his identity , the presence of his followers in the torpedoes , and the reasons for his attacks .
When Marcus arrives aboard Vengeance and attacks Enterprise , Kirk and Khan work together to take control of Vengeance 's bridge . Once in control of Vengeance , Khan kills Admiral Marcus and demands that Spock return his crew . Spock , having removed Khan 's people from the torpedoes , lowers the Enterprise 's shields and allows Khan to beam the activated weapons ' warheads aboard Vengeance , crippling the ship . Khan crashes Vengeance in San Francisco in an attempt to escape , but is pursued and captured by Spock . Khan is placed back into cryogenic sleep along with his crew .
= = = Novels and comics = = =
Khan has been depicted in various novels and comic book publications . As with all non @-@ television and non @-@ film Star Trek material , the publications are outside of Star Trek canon .
Author Greg Cox penned three Star Trek novels featuring Khan , published by licensee Pocket Books . In the two @-@ volume The Eugenics Wars : The Rise and Fall of Khan Noonien Singh , Khan is depicted as a North Indian from a family of Sikhs . " Khan " is a title ; his adoptive parents are from Chandigarh , Punjab , India and are both eugenic scientists . At the end of the second novel , Khan and his followers are placed aboard the Botany Bay by Gary Seven as part of a deal to stop Khan 's machinations on Earth . The 2005 follow @-@ up , To Reign in Hell : The Exile of Khan Noonien Singh , relates what happened to Khan and his fellow exiles between the events of " Space Seed " and The Wrath of Khan . A different version of Khan 's exile on Ceti Alpha V is depicted in IDW Publishing 's 2010 comic miniseries Khan : Ruling in Hell .
From 2013 to 2014 , IDW published a five @-@ part series of comic books telling the story of the Into Darkness incarnation of Khan . The first issue in the series acknowledges the discrepancy of Khan 's physical appearance compared to that of the previous incarnation . In keeping with the prime timeline 's backstory , Khan 's beginnings , rise to power , and involvement in the Eugenics War are depicted . It is also revealed his birth name was Noonien Singh and that he adopted the title " Khan " out of admiration for Genghis Khan . The series goes on to mention that Khan 's anatomy and memories were altered per Marcus 's orders , so that Khan would initially believe himself to be the fabricated Harrison .
= = Development = =
= = = Initial development = = =
Writer Carey Wilber pitched " Space Seed " to Star Trek producers Roddenberry , Gene Coon , and Robert Justman with an 18 @-@ page outline dated August 29 , 1966 . In the outline , Wilber envisioned the crew of Botany Bay as criminals sent on a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ year journey to make room on Earth for others . Khan was represented as a Nordic criminal with a " magnificent " body , Harald Ericsson . The producers suggested changes to the outline in a series of memos ; in memos dated September 7 and 9 , Coon suggested significant changes to Ericsson . " I want to rather do more with him than you have indicated in the story outline , ” he wrote . Believing that Ericsson ( misspelled as Erickson in the memo ) could be a worthy adversary for Kirk , Coon suggested that the character be “ in fact very similar to James Kirk , our captain , except that our captain has made an adjustment to this world and this culture [ ... ] In other words , Carey , build us a giant of a man . "
The first draft of the script introduced the character as John Ericssen — who is revealed to be a man involved in " The First World Tyranny " , named Ragnar Thorwald . The character of Thorwald was more brutal than Khan in the final version , killing guards using a phaser . In the original script , Kirk forgives Ericssen and offers him and his people a chance at a fresh start — something that remained in the final episode — but the character committing murder would have precluded such an ending , as NBC censors would have necessitated the " bad guy " be punished for his actions .
By the final draft , Khan is Indian ; a character guesses that Khan is from Northern India , and " probably a Sikh . " Khan 's full name was based on that of Kim Noonien Singh , a pilot Gene Roddenbery served with during the Second World War . Roddenbery lost touch with his friend and had hoped that Khan 's similar name might attract his attention and renew his old acquaintance .
In " Space Seed " , Khan is presented as having several positive characteristics : he is gracious , smiling , fearless and generous . He is not threatened by the success of others , and encourages their self @-@ esteem . He is also ambitious , desiring a challenge commensurate with his abilities , but this ambition is not tempered by any consideration of the rights of others . Author Paul Cantor asserts that Khan is a mirror image of Kirk , sharing his aggressiveness , ambition , and even his womanizing tendencies , but possessing them in far greater degree . During the episode , several of the characters express their admiration for the man even as they oppose him , with Kirk referring to him as " the best of the tyrants , and the most dangerous . " The character 's Spanish accent and superhuman appearance strongly differentiate him from most Star Trek characters .
= = = The Wrath of Khan = = =
After the disappointing response to the first Star Trek feature film , The Motion Picture , Paramount executives appointed Harve Bennett , a television producer who had never watched Star Trek , to be executive producer for the sequel . Bennett watched all the original series episodes and chose Khan from " Space Seed " as a possible villain for the film . Early drafts of the script had Khan as a shadowy tyrant leading a planet in revolt ; later drafts added the " Genesis device " which Khan would steal .
Costume designer Robert Fletcher wanted to emphasize the effects of their harsh environment on Khan and his followers . " My intention with Khan was to express the fact that they had been marooned on that planet with no technical infrastructure , so they had to cannibalize from the spaceship whatever they used or wore . Therefore , I tried to make it look as if they had dressed themselves out of pieces of upholstery and electrical equipment that composed the ship , " he said . Director Nicholas Meyer told Montalbán to keep Khan 's right glove on at all times , in order to give viewers a puzzle they could form their own opinions about and add mystery to the character . Meyer has been repeatedly asked if Montalbán wore a prosthetic chest for his scenes , as his uniform was purposefully designed with an open front . Meyer replied in audio commentary for the film that Montalbán ( who was 61 during filming ) is " one strong cookie , " and that no prosthetics were applied to the actor 's sizeable frame .
At no point during The Wrath of Khan are Khan and Kirk in the same location ; they speak to each other only over communication links such as view screens . This was due in part to the fact that the set of the Reliant was a redress of the Enterprise bridge , and the two actors ' scenes were filmed four months apart . Montalbán recited his lines with a script assistant instead of to William Shatner .
Montalbán said in promotional interviews for the film he realized early on in his career that a good villain does not see himself as villainous . The villain may do villainous things , but he feels that he is doing them for righteous reasons . Montalbán further stated he always tried to find a flaw in the character , as no one is completely good or completely evil ; while Khan had a rather distorted view of reality and therefore performed acts of evil , he still felt that his vengeance was a noble cause because of the death of his wife . Khan quotes the character of Ahab from Moby @-@ Dick throughout the film , driving home his lust to make Kirk pay for the wrongs he has inflicted upon him .
= = = Star Trek Into Darkness = = =
Following the box office success of J. J. Abrams ' Star Trek reboot and the announcement that actors Chris Pine and Zachary Quinto had tentatively agreed to appear in two sequels , Internet rumors began circulating about the plot of the second film . Abrams hinted that because of the alternate timeline created in the first film , reintroducing Khan into Star Trek lore remained a possibility . Abrams told MTV , " [ Khan and Kirk ] exist — and while their history may not be exactly as people are familiar with , I would argue that a person 's character is what it is , " Abrams said of the notion that his Khan could be just as evil , even if Kirk never stranded him on Ceti Alpha V. " Certain people are destined to cross paths and come together , and Khan is out there ... even if he doesn 't have the same issues . " Writer Damon Lindelof declared that Khan 's " intense gravity , " particularly regarding the character 's delivery of monologues , made him an obligatory character to use , even if its iconic status made the crew afraid of the fan reaction . Lindelof jokingly stated that " it was never really a ' Should we or shouldn 't we ? ' as much as it was ' We really have to do this but if we don 't get it right people are going to kill us . ' "
As part of the secrecy campaign , Benedict Cumberbatch denied that he was playing Khan during interviews , describing Harrison as simply a terrorist with his own purposes , as well as " someone that 's activated and manufactured in a way by Starfleet , and it 's a scene that has come back to haunt him . " He discussed the character 's moral ambiguity saying it fit the adage " one man 's terrorist is another man 's freedom fighter , " adding parallels to the current world order " whether it 's U.S. foreign policy or the actions of some terrorists . " Into Darkness writers Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman added that they used the character of Khan not just for his popularity with the fandom — “ It ’ s so easy to fall into the trap of doing something because you think people are going to love it . You must come up with what the movie can be on its own and then , if it turns out the villain maybe can be Khan , then you can do it . But you can ’ t start there . ” — but for fitting the sequel 's theme of " how far will we go to exact vengeance and justice on an enemy that scares us . "
Some fans protested Cumberbatch 's casting as Khan , believing that a person of Indian descent should have been given the role instead .
= = Analysis = =
Superficially , Khan has been compared to Friedrich Nietzsche 's concept of the " Übermensch " ( superman or overman ) . Khan is mentally and physically superior to any normal human . In the Star Trek : Enterprise episode " Borderland " , Malik , the leader of a group of " supermen " created from the same genetic engineering project as Khan , quotes Nietzsche , telling Archer that " Mankind is something to be surpassed " . Professor William J. Devlin and coauthor Shai Biderman examined Khan 's character compared to the Übermensch and found that Khan 's blind pursuit of revenge is against Nietzsche 's ideals of transcendence and self @-@ creation of a meaningful life . Instead , the authors offer Spock 's self @-@ sacrifice in The Wrath of Khan as a better example of the Übermensch .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Montalbán 's performance as Khan was favorably received by critics . Discussing the Star Trek motion pictures , the Associated Press noted that Star Trek films were measured by how menacing their foe was , and that Khan was among the best in the series ; a 2002 review of the Star Trek films ranked Khan as the greatest enemy seen in any of the films . Reviewers of The Wrath of Khan , such as Roger Ebert , rated Khan as one of the strongest aspects of the film . New Yorker critic Pauline Kael said Montalbán 's performance " was the only validation he has ever had of his power to command the big screen . "
Critic Christopher Null notes that " it is nearly gospel now among Trekkies that ... Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan is the undisputed best of the series , and will likely never meet its equal , " and calls Khan the " greatest role of [ Montalbán 's ] career " . Though he felt that the villain of Star Trek : The Motion Picture , V 'ger , was more cerebral and interesting , author James Iaccino notes that most fans and moviegoers preferred the archetypical good @-@ versus @-@ evil fight the struggle between Khan and Kirk represents . Villains in subsequent Star Trek films have been measured by the standard of Khan , with Paramount promising fans that the villain of Star Trek Generations would be equal to the genetic superman . IGN ranked Khan as the best Star Trek villain , noting that he set the pattern for revenge @-@ seeking villains in the series ; in the decades since the film 's release , " even those with a passing interest [ in Trek ] know the name . " Star Trek producer Rick Berman called the villain " threatening and memorable . "
Khan is also recognized as a great villain outside of the Star Trek series . The Associated Press called the character " one of sci @-@ fi 's great villains " . In 2002 , the Online Film Critics Society 's 132 members voted Khan as the 10th Greatest Screen Villain of all time , the only Star Trek character to appear in the listing . In 2006 , Emmy Magazine voted Khan " TV 's Most Out @-@ of @-@ This @-@ World Character " , beating out other science @-@ fiction characters such as The Doctor and Commander Adama . Editors wrote that " Khan was so cool we would 've bought a Chrysler Cordoba if he 'd told us to , " referring to an ad campaign Montalbán appeared in for Chrysler . The character also had a cultural impact outside of Star Trek fandom ; a clip from The Wrath of Khan featuring Kirk screaming " Khaaan ! " was one popular culture appropriation that became a " popular fad " driving the success of the website YTMND .
In 2004 , the Star Trek franchise returned to Khan 's backstory in a three @-@ episode story arc on Star Trek : Enterprise . In " Borderland " , " Cold Station 12 " and " The Augments " , a 22nd @-@ century scientist is portrayed as having revived genetically engineered embryos from Khan 's time and raised them as " Augments " . Enterprise producer Manny Coto described these characters as " mini Khan Noonien Singhs " .
Benedict Cumberbatch 's performance in Star Trek Into Darkness drew praise from critics with Peter Travers of Rolling Stone magazine calling it a " tour @-@ de @-@ force to be reckoned with " and his character " a villain for the ages " . Joe Neumaier of New York 's Daily News wrote that Cumberbatch delivered " one of the best blockbuster villains in recent memory . " Jonathan Romney of The Independent specifically noted Cumberbatch 's voice saying it was " So sepulchrally resonant that it could have been synthesised from the combined timbres of Ian McKellen , Patrick Stewart and Alan Rickman holding an elocution contest down a well . " The New York Times on the other hand praised his screen presence saying " He fuses Byronic charisma with an impatient , imperious intelligence that seems to raise the ambient I.Q. whenever he ’ s on screen . "
Christian Blauvelt from website Hollywood.com criticized the casting of Khan in Star Trek Into Darkness as being " whitewashed into oblivion " . Star Trek : Voyager actor Garrett Wang tweeting , " The casting of Cumberbatch was a mistake on the part of the producers . I am not being critical of the actor or his talent , just the casting . " Co @-@ producer and co @-@ screenwriter Roberto Orci addressed the issue of the casting saying , " Basically , as we went through the casting process and we began honing in on the themes of the movie , it became uncomfortable for me to support demonizing anyone of color , particularly any one of Middle Eastern descent or anyone evoking that . One of the points of the movie is that we must be careful about the villain within US , not some other race . "
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= The Boat Race 1854 =
The 12th Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 8 April 1854 . Typically held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge . The race was won by Oxford who triumphed over Cambridge by seven lengths .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Cambridge by nine lengths in the previous race . Cambridge led overall with seven wins to Oxford 's four .
There was no Boat Race in 1853 as the Henley Royal Regatta was scheduled for the same time as that proposed by Cambridge in their challenge to Oxford . The universities did however race each other that year , in the Grand Challenge Cup , which was won by Oxford . On 11 February 1854 , a challenge was sent to Oxford by the former Light Blue cox Thomas Selby Egan , who had assumed temporary captaincy of Cambridge University Boat Club , despite having coached the Dark Blues to victory in the 1852 race .
Although Oxford arrived at Putney as favourites to win the race , Cambridge 's style was enough to force the odds to evens . However , in a practice race , the Dark Blues defeated a watermen scratch crew easily and restored their position as pre @-@ race favourites . Both crews rowed in 65 @-@ foot ( 20 m ) long boats manufactured by Searle . The umpire for the race was Charles Jasper Selwyn and the starter was Edward Searle .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 11 st 1 lb ( 70 @.@ 1 kg ) , 5 @.@ 75 pounds ( 2 @.@ 6 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge saw one rower return from the 1852 race in F. Johnson , while Oxford 's crew contained two former Blues in Nind and the Oxford University Boat Club president Olliver Meade King .
= = Race = =
Oxford were pre @-@ race favourites . They won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing Cambridge the Surrey side of the river . The race commenced at 10.40am , with Oxford pulling away from the start . The Dark Blues were clear of Cambridge by the time the crews reached the Crab Tree . By Hammersmith Bridge both coxes were forced to take evasive action as a result of a barge blocking their route . With a lead of two lengths after the bridge , Oxford continued to increase their lead , eventually passing the flag @-@ boat with a seven @-@ length advantage in a time of 25 minutes 29 seconds . It was their third consecutive victory and took the overall record to 7 – 5 in Cambridge 's favour .
In a speech in the evening 's celebrations , Charles Selwyn , who had umpired this and the previous four Boat Races , declared that he was " no longer young and active enough " to continue to act in the capacity of umpire ; he would be replaced in 1856 by W. G. Rich , the former Cambridge University Boat Club president who had rowed in both the March and December races of 1849 .
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= Tim Breslin =
Timothy G. Breslin ( December 8 , 1967 – February 9 , 2005 ) was a professional ice hockey left wing . Breslin played eight seasons in the International Hockey League ( IHL ) with the Phoenix Roadrunners and Chicago Wolves and part of a season in the ECHL with the South Carolina Stingrays . He also played major league roller hockey in Roller Hockey International ( RHI ) with the Chicago Cheetahs .
Breslin attended Lake Superior State University . While a freshman he helped the Lakers win the school 's first national championship in 1988 . He served as an alternate captain in his senior season while also tying two school records , points in a game ( 7 ) and points in a series ( 10 ) . Undrafted out of college , he signed with the Los Angeles Kings as a free agent . He spent four years in their minor league system playing for Phoenix and South Carolina . After a brief stint in the RHI , he joined the Wolves as a free agent . As a member of the Wolves , Breslin was highly involved in charitable activities which led to him winning IHL Man of the Year honors in the 1996 – 97 season . He was a member of Chicago 's Turner Cup champion team the following year .
Late in 2004 Breslin was diagnosed with cancer and died 11 weeks later on February 9 , 2005 due to complications from appendiceal cancer . To honor him the Wolves created the Tim Breslin Unsung Hero Award and the Tim Breslin Memorial Scholarship . As a way of helping his family financially , they hosted an exhibition game dubbed the Breslin Cup .
= = Early life = =
Tim was born in Downers Grove , Illinois on December 8 , 1967 to James and Kathleen Breslin . He was one of six children , having three sisters and two brothers . Breslin grew up in Addison , Illinois where he began playing hockey at age five . He learned the game while playing with his brothers on a frozen pond near the family home and on a backyard rink his father made . As he got older Breslin played in local leagues and Driscoll Catholic High School 's club team , which afforded him the opportunity to join the Dubuque Fighting Saints in the United States Hockey League .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur = = =
Breslin joined the Fighting Saints for his high school senior year and played an additional season after graduation . His performance in Dubuque helped earn a scholarship to Lake Superior State University ( LSSU ) . In his freshman season with the Lakers , Breslin contributed 6 goals and 20 points , as LSSU finished first in the Central Collegiate Hockey Association ( CCHA ) . Advancing to the 1988 NCAA Division I Men 's Ice Hockey Tournament , the Lakers defeated Merrimack College and University of Maine to reach the championship game . In the title game LSSU defeated St. Lawrence to earn its first National Championship . For the 1988 – 89 season Breslin improved to 7 goals while remaining at 20 points . LSSU finished second in the CCHA and in the 1989 NCAA Tournament they lost to eventual national champion Harvard in the quarterfinals . In his junior season Breslin continued to produce at about the same pace , registering 8 goals and 25 points . The Lakers again finished second in the CCHA , and in the 1990 NCAA Tournament they advanced to the quarterfinals for the second straight year where they were defeated by national champion runner @-@ up Colgate .
In his senior season Breslin was named one of the team 's alternate captains . Playing on a line with future National Hockey League ( NHL ) player Doug Weight , Breslin had a break @-@ out season . He set career highs in goals ( 25 ) , assists ( 37 ) , and points ( 62 ) . During the year he tied a school record for points in a game with a seven @-@ point performance against Ohio State . The scoring output helped him tie another school record when the two teams played the following day . Adding another three points in the second game , Breslin brought his two @-@ game total to 10 , tying the record for points in a series . Lake Superior State finished first in the CCHA , but was again defeated in the quarterfinals of the 1991 NCAA Tournament .
= = = Professional = = =
Undrafted out of college , Breslin signed with the Los Angeles Kings as a free agent . He attended Kings training camp , where he played with his professional hockey hero , Wayne Gretzky . Breslin failed to make the team and Los Angeles assigned him to their International Hockey League ( IHL ) affiliate the Phoenix Roadrunners . In his first season with Phoenix , Breslin broke his arm early in the season . He returned to play just three weeks after the injury , but eventually re @-@ broke the arm and missed the remainder of the season . He finished his first professional season playing in 45 games , scoring 8 goals and 29 points . In the 1992 – 93 season Breslin improved his production to 14 goals and a career @-@ high 44 points . Phoenix finished the season with a league @-@ low 26 wins and 58 points . He began his third professional season with the Roadrunners , but after five games he was reassigned to the ECHL 's South Carolina Stingrays . Breslin played nine games for the Stingrays , registering six points , before being recalled by Phoenix . Finishing the year with the Roadrunners , he registered 9 goals and 27 points in 50 games . Phoenix improved to 85 points but failed to make the playoffs for the third straight year . At the conclusion of the season , Breslin 's contract with the Kings expired .
In the summer Breslin joined the Chicago Cheetahs of the Roller Hockey International ( RHI ) league for the 1994 season . Playing in just 6 games , Breslin recorded 5 goals and 13 points . Prior to the start of the 1994 – 95 IHL season , Breslin signed a one @-@ year contract with the Chicago Wolves . He was one of the first three players signed by the Wolves who began their first season as an IHL expansion team . In his first season with the Wolves , Breslin notched 7 goals and 28 points . Chicago finished with 80 points — good enough for third in their division and to qualify for the playoffs . Facing the Kalamazoo Wings in the first round , Chicago was swept in three straight games . Playing in his first professional playoffs , Breslin contributed two points playing in all three games . In the off @-@ season Breslin negotiated his own contract to stay in Chicago , signing a two @-@ year deal . Over the next two seasons , Breslin averaged 56 games played a season due to knee and shoulder injuries . As a team the Wolves qualified for the playoffs in both seasons but failed to advance beyond the second round . At the conclusion of the 1996 – 97 season , Breslin was awarded the I. John Snider trophy as IHL Man of the Year , an award given to recognize outstanding community service .
In the off @-@ season Breslin again re @-@ signed with the Wolves . Chicago also brought in John Anderson to be the team 's new head coach . Under Anderson , Breslin had posted a career high in assists with 26 and games played with 81 . Chicago won the West division and finished with the second @-@ best record in the league . In the postseason the Wolves stormed through the first three rounds , losing only four games , to advance to the 1998 Turner Cup Finals . In game 1 of the finals against the Detroit Vipers , Chicago blew a two @-@ goal lead early in the third period . They regained the lead with just over eight minutes to play . In the final minutes of the game , Breslin added an insurance empty net goal giving the Wolves a 4 – 2 victory . It was Breslin 's only goal of the playoffs . The series eventually went to a seventh and deciding game that the Wolves won 3 – 0 to capture the franchise 's first Turner Cup . For the 1998 – 99 season Breslin 's production dipped to 7 goals and 21 points . The Wolves advanced to the third round the playoffs , but Breslin played in only 4 of the team 's 10 games . On the first day of training camp the following year , Breslin announced his retirement from professional hockey .
= = Playing style = =
Listed as a left wing , Breslin was capable of playing all three forward positions , an ability which gave his coaches flexibility and allowed him to play in any situation . Not a big player , standing six feet tall weighing 180 pounds , he played a gritty , physical , brand of hockey primary in a checking line role . As a checker it was his responsibility to shut down the opposition and keep them from scoring , emphasizing defense over offense . Because of his versatility and role , he was often a member of his team 's penalty killing unit . Breslin was known for his team @-@ first attitude and willingness to do whatever was asked of him in order to help the team succeed . Former Wolves General Manager Kevin Cheveldayoff said of Breslin , " You could always count on Tim to come and compete every night and do what was needed for the team to win " . Not the most talented of players , Breslin 's work ethic helped him to be a better player . Head coach Anderson once stated , " He is the kind of player who maybe isn 't in the very upper echelon in skill factor , but his dedication and hard work make up for that . "
= = Personal = =
Breslin married Jami Rutili , and the couple had three children , Shane , Paige , and Chase . He earned a degree in recreation management while at Lake Superior State . During his career , Breslin was involved in numerous charities . He delivered food on Thanksgiving for the Chris Zorich Foundation ; conducted self @-@ esteem workshops for an anti @-@ drug , anti @-@ gang organization ; participated in the Wolves ' Read to Succeed program , in which he read to children at local libraries ; and several others . In a 1997 interview , Breslin said that the most special charity he helped was one started by him and his wife . The Extra Effort program was started at Indian Trail Junior High School in Addison , where Jami was a teacher . Each month the program gave both a male and a female student four tickets to a Wolves game and a gift bag . The students were chosen based on attitude , effort and attendance . After retiring from professional hockey , he coached youth hockey and helped manage an Irish pub .
= = Death and legacy = =
After complaining of stomach pains for several days , Breslin was taken to a hospital on Thanksgiving of 2004 . There he was diagnosed with appendiceal cancer and underwent surgery . He died eleven weeks later on February 9 , 2005 due to complications from the cancer . The Wolves honored Breslin by wearing a helmet sticker shaped like a shamrock with his initials inside of it for the 2004 – 05 season . As a way of helping his family financially , the Wolves and Chicago Blackhawks put on a charity game called the " Breslin Cup " . The game featured 40 players , most of whom were former players from the two franchises . All the proceeds from the game went to a trust set up for the family . The game drew around 10 @,@ 000 fans , with the Wolves ' alumni defeating the Blackhawks ' alums in a shootout . The Breslin Cup and associated events raised over $ 250 @,@ 000 for the family .
The following season the Wolves further honored Breslin with an on @-@ ice ceremony that concluded with the raising of a banner of his name . They also created a team award called the Tim Breslin Unsung Hero Award , to be given annually to a player who " best typifies Breslin 's on @-@ ice spirit and team @-@ first attitude " , and a college scholarship , the Tim Breslin Memorial Scholarship , in his honor . A winner is chosen each season from students who fill out an entry form and write a corresponding essay . The scholarship pays for one semester of college . Breslin was inducted into the Illinois Hockey Hall of Fame in 2013 .
= = Career statistics = =
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= Big Star =
Big Star was an American power pop band formed in Memphis , Tennessee , in 1971 by Alex Chilton , Chris Bell , Jody Stephens , and Andy Hummel . The group broke up in 1974 , and reorganized with a new line @-@ up nearly 20 years later . In its first era , the band 's musical style drew on the vocal harmonies of the Beatles , as well as the swaggering rhythms of the Rolling Stones and the jangling guitars of the Byrds . To the resulting power pop , Big Star added dark , existential themes , and produced a style that foreshadowed the alternative rock of the 1980s and 1990s . Before it broke up , Big Star created a " seminal body of work that never stopped inspiring succeeding generations " in the words of Rolling Stone , as the " quintessential American power pop band " and " one of the most mythic and influential cult acts in all of rock & roll " .
Big Star 's first album — 1972 's # 1 Record — was met by enthusiastic reviews , but ineffective marketing by Stax Records and limited distribution stunted its commercial success . Frustration took its toll on band relations : Bell left not long after the first record 's commercial progress stalled , and Hummel left to finish his college education after a second album , Radio City , was completed in December 1973 . Like # 1 Record , Radio City received excellent reviews , but label issues again thwarted sales — Columbia Records , which had assumed control of the Stax catalog , likewise effectively vetoed its distribution . After a third album was deemed non @-@ commercially viable and shelved before receiving a title , the band broke up late in 1974 . Four years later , the first two Big Star LPs were released together in the UK as a double album . The band 's third album was finally issued soon afterward ; titled Third / Sister Lovers , it found limited commercial success . Shortly thereafter , Chris Bell was killed in a car accident at the age of 27 .
The Big Star discography drew renewed attention in the 1980s when R.E.M. , and the Replacements as well as other popular bands cited the group as an influence . In 1992 , interest was further stimulated by Rykodisc 's reissues of the band 's albums , complemented by a collection of Bell 's solo work . In 1993 , Chilton and Stephens reformed Big Star with recruits Jon Auer and Ken Stringfellow of the Posies , and gave a concert at the University of Missouri . The band remained active , performing tours in Europe and Japan , and released a new studio album , In Space , in 2005 . Chilton died on March 17 , 2010 , after being admitted to a New Orleans hospital with heart problems . Hummel , who was diagnosed with cancer in 2008 , died on July 19 , 2010 . These deaths left Stephens as the sole surviving founding member . Big Star was inducted into the Memphis Music Hall of Fame in 2014 .
= = First era : 1971 – 1974 = =
= = = Formation of the band = = =
Alex Chilton was the lead singer for the blue @-@ eyed soul group the Box Tops from 1967 to 1970 , who scored a No. 1 hit with the song " The Letter " when he was sixteen . Following his stint with the Box Tops , he recorded a solo studio album . He was offered the role of lead vocalist for Blood , Sweat & Tears , but turned the offer down as " too commercial " . Chilton had known Chris Bell for some time : both lived in Memphis , each had spent time recording music at Ardent Studios , and each , when aged 13 , had been struck by the music of the Beatles during the band 's 1964 debut US tour . A song Chilton wrote nearly six years after he first witnessed a Beatles performance , " Thirteen " , referred to the event with the line " Rock ' n ' roll is here to stay " . Chilton asked Bell to work with him as a duo modeled on Simon & Garfunkel ; Bell declined , but invited Chilton to a performance by his own band , Icewater , comprising Bell , drummer Jody Stephens , and bassist Andy Hummel . Attracted by Icewater 's music , Chilton showed the three his new song " Watch the Sunrise " , and was asked to join the band . Both " Watch the Sunrise " and " Thirteen " were subsequently included on Big Star 's first album , # 1 Record . The now four @-@ piece band adopted the name Big Star when one member was given the idea from a grocery store often visited for snacks during recording sessions . One of many Big Star Markets outlets in the Memphis region at the time , it had a logo consisting of a five @-@ pointed star enclosing the words " Big Star " ; as well as the store 's name , the band used its logo but without the word " Star " to avoid infringing copyright .
= = = # 1 Record = = =
Although all four members contributed to songwriting and vocals on the first album , Chilton and Bell dominated as a duo intentionally modeled on John Lennon and Paul McCartney . The album was recorded by Ardent founder John Fry , with Terry Manning contributing occasional backing vocals and keyboards . The title # 1 Record was decided towards the end of the recording sessions and evinced , albeit as a playful hope rather than a serious expectation , the chart position to be achieved by a big star . Although Fry — at the band 's insistence — was credited as " executive producer " , publicly he insisted that " the band themselves really produced these records " . Fry recalled how Ardent , one of the first recording studios to use a sixteen @-@ track tape machine , worked experimentally with the band members : " We started recording the songs with the intent that if it turned out OK we 'd put it out [ ... ] I wound up being the one that primarily worked on it : I recorded all the tracks and then they would often come late at night and do overdubs . One by one , they all learned enough engineering . "
Describing the mix of musical styles present on # 1 Record , Rolling Stone 's Bud Scoppa notes that the album includes " reflective and acoustic " numbers , saying that " even the prettiest tunes have tension and subtle energy to them , and the rockers reverberate with power " . Scoppa finds that in each mode , " the guitar sound is sharp @-@ edged and full " . # 1 Record was released in June 1972 , and quickly received strong reviews . Billboard went as far as to say , " Every cut could be a single " . Rolling Stone judged the album " exceptionally good " , while Cashbox stated , " This album is one of those red @-@ letter days when everything falls together as a total sound " , and called it " an important record that should go to the top with proper handling " . Proper handling , however , was not forthcoming : Stax Records proved unable to either promote or distribute the record with any degree of success , and even when the band 's own efforts to get airplay generated interest , fans were unable to buy it as Stax could not make it available in many stores . Stax , in an effort to improve its catalog 's availability , signed a deal with Columbia Records , already successful distributors in the US , making Columbia responsible for the entire Stax catalog . But Columbia had no interest in dealing with the independent distributors previously used by Stax and removed even the existing copies of # 1 Record from the stores .
= = = Radio City = = =
The frustration at # 1 Record 's obstructed sales contributed to tension within the band . There was physical fighting between members : Bell , after being punched in the face by Hummel , retaliated by smashing Hummel 's new bass guitar to pieces against the wall . Hummel took revenge at a later date : finding Bell 's acoustic guitar in the latter 's unattended car , he repeatedly punched it with a screwdriver . In November 1972 , Bell quit the band . When work continued on songs for a second album , Bell rejoined , but further conflict soon erupted . A master tape of the new songs inexplicably went missing , and Bell , whose heavy drug intake was affecting his judgment , attacked Fry 's parked car . In late 1972 , struggling with severe depression , Bell quit the band once more , and by the end of the year Big Star disbanded .
After a few months Chilton , Stephens and Hummel decided to reform Big Star , and the three resumed work on the second album . The title chosen , Radio City , continued the play on the theme of a big star 's popularity and success , expressing what biographer Robert Gordon calls the band 's " romantic expectation " . As Hummel put it ,
This was probably pretty lame , but in those days putting any word in front of the noun " city " to sort of emphasize the totality and pervasiveness of it was just a way of talking people had . If someone suggested going to a store but you had gotten a bad deal there you might say , " Oh no , that place is ' rip off city ' . " Calling an LP Radio City would be kind of wishful thinking . I mean we hoped it would be played on the radio a lot , making it " radio city " . Of course it didn 't pan out that way ...
Stephens recalled : " Radio City , for me , was just an amazing record . Being a three @-@ piece really opened things up for me in terms of playing drums . Drums take on a different role in a three @-@ piece band , so it was a lot of fun . [ ... ] Radio City was really more spontaneous , and the performances were pretty close to live performances . "
Although uncredited , Bell contributed to the writing of some of the album 's songs , including " O My Soul " and " Back of a Car " . Shortly before the album 's release , Hummel left the band : judging that it would not last , and in his final year at college , he elected to concentrate on his studies and live a more normal life . He was replaced by John Lightman for a short tenure prior to the band dissolving .
Rolling Stone 's Ken Barnes , describing the musical style of Radio City , opens by noting as a backdrop that the band 's debut , # 1 Record , established it as " one of the leading new American bands working in the mid @-@ Sixties pop and rock vein " . Radio City , Barnes finds , has " plenty of shimmering pop delights " , although " the opening tune , ' O My Soul , ' is a foreboding , sprawling funk affair " ; Barnes concludes that " Sometimes they sound like the Byrds , sometimes like the early Who , but usually like their own indescribable selves " . Radio City was released in February 1974 and , like # 1 Record , received excellent reviews . Record World reported , " The sound is stimulating , the musicianship superb , and the result is tight and rollickingly rhythmic . " Billboard judged it " a highly commercial set " . Rolling Stone 's Bud Scoppa , then with Phonograph Record , affirmed , " Alex Chilton has now emerged as a major talent , and he 'll be heard from again " . Cashbox called it " a collection of excellent material that hopefully will break this deserving band in a big way " . But just as # 1 Record had fallen victim to poor marketing , so too did Radio City . Columbia , now in complete control of the Stax catalog , refused to process it following a disagreement . Without a distributor , sales of Radio City , though far greater than those of # 1 Record , were minimal at only around 20 @,@ 000 copies .
= = = Third / Sister Lovers = = =
In September 1974 , eight months after the release of Radio City , the two remaining members of Big Star returned to Ardent Studios to work on a third album . Chilton and Stephens were assisted by producer Jim Dickinson and an assortment of musicians including drummer Richard Rosebrough , and Lesa Aldridge , Chilton 's girlfriend , who contributed on vocals . The sessions and mixing were completed in early 1975 , and 250 copies of the album were pressed with plain labels for promotional use .
Parke Putterbaugh of Rolling Stone described Third / Sister Lovers as " extraordinary " . It is , he wrote , " Chilton 's untidy masterpiece . [ ... ] beautiful and disturbing " ; " vehemently original " ; of " haunting brilliance " :
To listen to it is to be " plunged into a maelstrom of conflicting emotions . Songs are drenched in strings and sweet sentiment one minute , starkly played and downcast the next . No pop song has ever bottomed out more than " Holocaust " , an anguished plaint sung at a snail 's pace over discordant slide @-@ guitar fragments and moaning cello [ ... ] On the up side , there 's the delicious pop minuet " Stroke It Noel , " the anticipatory magic of " Nightime " ( " Caught a glance in your eyes and fell through the skies , " Chilton rhapsodizes ) [ ... ] Big Star 's baroque , guitar @-@ driven pop reaches its apotheosis on songs like " Kizza Me , " " Thank You Friends " and " O , Dana " . [ ... ] Without question , Third is one of the most idiosyncratic , deeply felt and fully realized albums in the pop idiom .
Fry and Dickinson flew to New York with promotional copies and met employees of a number of record labels , but could not generate interest in the album . When a similar promotion attempt failed in California , the album was shelved as it was considered not commercial enough for release . Fry recalled , " We 'd go in and play it and these guys would look at us like we were crazy " . In late 1974 , before the album was even named , the band broke up , bringing Big Star 's first era to its end . Dickinson later said that he was " nailed for indulging Alex on Big Star Third , but I think it is important that the artist is enabled to perform with integrity . What I did for Alex was literally remove the yoke of oppressive production that he had been under since the first time he ever uttered a word into a microphone , for good or ill . "
Since quitting the band in 1972 , Bell had spent time in several different countries trying to develop his solo career . In 1978 , after his return to Memphis , the first two Big Star albums were released together in the UK as a double album , drawing enthusiastic reviews and interest from fans . Soon afterwards Big Star 's recognition grew further when , four years after its completion , the third album too was released in both the US and the UK . By now , the hitherto untitled Third / Sister Lovers had become known by several unofficial names including Third ( reflecting its position in the discography ) , Beale Street Green ( acknowledging the legendary site nearby , once a focal point for Memphis blues musicians ) and Sister Lovers ( because during the album 's recording sessions , Chilton and Stephens were dating sisters Lesa and Holliday Aldridge ) .
Not long after the release of Third / Sister Lovers , Bell died in a car accident . He apparently lost control of his car while driving alone and was killed when he struck a lamp post after hitting the curb a hundred feet before . A blood test found that he was not drunk at the time , and no drugs were found on him other than a bottle of vitamins . Bell is believed to have either fallen asleep at the wheel or become distracted .
= = Second era : 1993 – 2010 = =
Big Star returned in 1993 with a new line @-@ up when guitarist Jon Auer and bassist Ken Stringfellow joined Chilton and Stephens . Auer and Stringfellow remained members of the Posies , founded by the pair in 1986 . Stringfellow is also known for his work with R.E.M. and the Minus 5 . Hummel elected not to participate . First @-@ era material dominates Big Star 's performances , with the occasional addition of a song from the 2005 album In Space ; Stringfellow recalled that during the 1990s , " We were working out the set list and we went to this little cafe . Little did I know we 'd be playing that set for the next ten years " . The resurrected band made its debut at the 1993 University of Missouri spring music festival . A recording of the performance was issued on CD by Zoo Records as Columbia : Live at Missouri University . The concert was followed by tours of Europe and Japan , as well as an appearance on The Tonight Show .
Big Star 's first post @-@ reunion studio recording was the song " Hot Thing , " recorded in the mid @-@ 1990s for the Big Star tribute album Big Star , Small World . As with their prior studio release , however , the tribute album was delayed for years due to its record company going under . Originally scheduled for a 1998 release on Ignition Records , the album was eventually released in 2006 on Koch Records .
In Space was released on September 27 , 2005 on the Rykodisc label . Recorded during 2004 , the album consisted of new material mostly co @-@ written by Chilton , Stephens , Auer , and Stringfellow . Reviewing In Space , Rolling Stone 's David Fricke first pointed out that the context of the release was now " a world expecting that American Beatles ideal all over again " from a band that " achieved its power @-@ pop perfection when no one else was looking . " In Fricke 's estimation , this seemingly unrealistic expectation was met in part : " It 's here – in the jangly longing and ice @-@ wall harmonies of ' Lady Sweet ' " – however , Fricke found that the successful songs were interleaved with " the eccentric R & B and demo @-@ quality glam rock that have made Chilton 's solo records a mixed blessing , " and that " ' A Whole New Thing ' starts out like old T.Rex , then goes nowhere special . " Warming nevertheless to " the rough sunshine " of " Best Chance , " Fricke concluded , " In Space is no # 1 Record , but at its brightest , it is Big Star in every way . "
The band appeared at San Francisco 's Fillmore Auditorium on October 20 , 2007 . San Francisco @-@ based band Oranger , performed as opening act . Big Star performed at the 2008 Rhythm Festival , staged from August 29 – 31 in Bedfordshire , UK . On June 16 , 2009 , the # 1 Record / Radio City double album was reissued in remastered form . The same month , it was announced that a film of Big Star 's history , based on biographer Rob Jovanovic 's book Big Star : The Story of Rock 's Forgotten Band , was in pre @-@ production . On July 1 , 2009 , Big Star performed at a concert in Hyde Park , London , UK . On September 15 , 2009 , Rhino Records issued a four @-@ CD box set containing 98 recordings made between 1968 and 1975 . Keep an Eye on the Sky included live and demo versions of Big Star songs , solo work , and material from Bell 's earlier bands Rock City and Icewater . On November 18 , 2009 , the band performed at the Brooklyn Masonic Temple in New York City .
= = Post @-@ Chilton releases and tributes = =
= = = Alex Chilton memorial shows = = =
On March 17 , 2010 , Chilton suffered a fatal heart attack . He was pronounced dead on arrival at Tulane Medical Center in New Orleans . Big Star had been scheduled to play at SXSW Music Festival that same week . The remaining members , joined by special guests original bassist Andy Hummel , M. Ward , Evan Dando , R.E.M. bassist Mike Mills , and Chris Stamey , staged the concert as a tribute to him .
= = = " Big Star 's Third " shows = = =
Asked about the band 's future plans after Hummel 's death , Stephens told Billboard , " It 's music we all really love to play , and we love to play it together , so we 're trying to figure out a way forward where we can keep doing it . " In a Rolling Stone interview , Stephens said that the May 2010 tribute performance would be the group 's final show as Big Star , although not his last show with Auer and Stringfellow , stating , " I can 't see us going out as Big Star ... But I would hate to compound the loss of Alex by saying , ' That 's it ' for Ken and Jon , too . I can 't imagine not playing with them . There 's so much fun — but an emotional bond there too . "
In December 2010 , under the billing " Big Star 's Third , " Stephens teamed with Mitch Easter , Stamey , and Mills , along with a string section , to perform a live tribute performance of Big Star 's album Third / Sister Lovers in Chapel Hill , North Carolina . Joined by additional performers such as Matthew Sweet , Big Star 's Third was performed in a similar tribute concert in New York City on March 26 , 2011 , and at the Barbican in London on May 28 , 2012 . The project continued with concerts in Chicago and New York in 2013 , a January 2014 concert in Sydney , Australia , and a series of U.S. shows that included Seattle 's Bumbershoot festival on August 31 , 2014 . In November 2014 , Auer and Stringfellow rejoined Stephens , Easter , Stamey , and Mills for a free benefit performance in Athens , Georgia . As of 2016 , Big Star 's Third continues to perform .
= = = Posthumous releases = = =
In June 2011 , Ardent Records released the EP Live Tribute to Alex Chilton , and Stephens confirmed on the Ardent blog that the tribute performance in May 2010 was the last performance for Big Star as a band . A documentary titled Big Star : Nothing Can Hurt Me ( 2012 ) , directed by Drew DeNicola and Olivia Mori , chronicled the group 's career and band members ' solo efforts . In 2013 , the documentary was released in theatres and on DVD , and it had a limited theatrical re @-@ release in England in August 2014 . In November 2014 , Live in Memphis was released by Omnivore Recordings on CD , vinyl , and as a DVD of Big Star 's performance of October 29 , 1994 , their only known show to be professionally filmed in its entirety . According to Mojo , the DVD documents how Big Star 's 1990s lineup defied expectations and endured for another 16 years : " Chilton 's musicality is mesmerising as he drives the band .... Alternating between lead and rhythm , he plays with a mix of laser focus and utter insouciant cool . "
= = Musical style and influences = =
Bell took up guitar when twelve or thirteen , but only on hearing the first Beatles records was he motivated to play the instrument regularly . He acted as lead and rhythm guitarist and vocalist for a sequence of bands , performing songs by the Beatles , the Rolling Stones , the Kinks , the Zombies and the Animals . Chilton 's first awareness of music came at the age of six when his brother repeatedly played a record by the Coasters . His father 's liking for jazz then exposed him over the next few years to the music of Glenn Miller , Ray Charles and Dave Brubeck . Chilton 's enthusiasm for music took hold when at age thirteen he first heard Beatles records ; he recalled having known of 1950s rock and roll but " by 1959 Elvis was syrup and Jerry Lee was pretty much gone , and the rockabilly thing was sort of over so I didn 't get really caught up in the rock scene until the Beatles came along " .
Chilton took up electric guitar at thirteen , playing along with Beatles songs , later saying , " I really loved the mid @-@ sixties British pop music [ ... ] all two and a half minutes or three minutes long , really appealing songs . So I 've always aspired to that same format , that 's what I like . Not to mention the rhythm and blues and the Stax stuff , too " . Chilton abandoned his guitar @-@ playing when with The Box Tops , then took up the instrument again ; he met Roger McGuinn , guitarist for the Byrds , and developed particular interest in electric guitar and acoustic folk . Stephens enjoyed the music of Otis Redding , the Isley Brothers , the Who , the Kinks and , in particular , the Beatles . Hummel likewise was a member of more than one band during his early musical years , again influenced by the Beatles and other British Invasion acts . The bassist also played acoustic guitar for personal enjoyment , following the styles of Simon & Garfunkel and Joni Mitchell and using finger @-@ picking techniques to play folk and bluegrass . Most songs on the first three albums are credited to either Bell / Chilton or Chilton , but some credit Hummel , Stephens and others , as either writer or co @-@ writer . At the only seven live performances in the original era , the last of which took place before the second album 's release , all four members contributed vocally .
While primarily inspired by the music of the Beatles and other British Invasion bands , acknowledging too the jangle pop and power pop of the period , Big Star also incorporated dark , nihilistic themes to produce a striking blend of musical and lyrical styles . The body of work resulting from the first era was a precursor of the alternative rock of the 1980s and 1990s , at the same time yielding material today considered an outstanding example of power pop . The stylistic range is evident from modern day critiques . Bogdanov et al . , commenting on # 1 Record in their All Music Guide to Rock , perceive in " The Ballad of El Goodo " a " luminous , melancholy ballad " , whereas John Borack 's Ultimate Power Pop Guide singles out Radio City 's " September Gurls " as a " glorious , glittering jewel " of power pop . Borack notes too that Third / Sister Lovers is " slower , darker and a good deal weirder " than the first two albums , identifying " Holocaust " as " Alex Chilton at his haunting best " , yet finds " Thank You Friends " exemplifying " left @-@ field gems " also present in which " the hooks are every bit as undeniable " as before . Jovanovic writes that when recording what Peter Buckley in his Rough Guide to Rock terms the " snarling guitar rock " of the first album 's " Don 't Lie To Me " , the band , deeming conventional instruments inadequate for the task , wheeled two Norton Commando motorcycles into the studio and gunned the engines to intensify the song 's bridge . Bogdanov et al. reserve " snarl " for a Radio City song , " Mod Lang " ; here Buckley writes that " the power of the performance and the erratic mix gave a sense of chaos which only added to the thrill " .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Although Big Star 's first era came to an end in 1974 , the band acquired a cult following in the 1980s when new acts began to acknowledge the early material 's significance . R.E.M. ' s Peter Buck admitted , " We 've sort of flirted with greatness , but we 've yet to make a record as good as Revolver or Highway 61 Revisited or Exile on Main Street or Big Star 's Third . I don 't know what it 'll take to push us on to that level , but I think we 've got it in us . " Chilton , however , told an interviewer in 1992 , " I 'm constantly surprised that people fall for Big Star the way they do ... People say Big Star made some of the best rock ' n roll albums ever . And I say they 're wrong . "
Recently , Paul Stanley cited Big Star as influence to early Kiss moments , " We 've always been about verses , choruses , bridges ( ... ) It 's called a hook for a reason , because it grabs you . And that 's my mentality . Give me the Raspberries . Give me Small Faces . Give me Big Star . "
Today , critics cite Big Star 's first three albums as a profound influence on subsequent musicians . Rolling Stone notes that Big Star " created a seminal body of work that never stopped inspiring succeeding generations of rockers , from the power @-@ pop revivalists of the late 1970s to alternative rockers at the end of the century to the indie rock nation in the new millennium " . Jason Ankeny , music critic for Allmusic , identifies Big Star as " one of the most mythic and influential cult acts in all of rock & roll " , whose " impact on subsequent generations of indie bands on both sides of the Atlantic is surpassed only by that of the Velvet Underground " . Ankeny describes Big Star 's second album , Radio City , as " their masterpiece — ragged and raw guitar @-@ pop infused with remarkable intensity and spontaneity " .
In 1992 , Rykodisc generated further interest in the band when it reissued Third / Sister Lovers and released a posthumous compilation of Bell 's solo material , I Am the Cosmos . In his 2007 book Shake Some Action : The Ultimate Power Pop Guide , John Borack ranks the # 1 Record / Radio City double album at No. 2 in his chart " The 200 Greatest Power Pop Albums " . Rolling Stone includes # 1 Record , Radio City and Third / Sister Lovers in The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time and " September Gurls " and " Thirteen " in The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . In addition to R.E.M. , artists including Teenage Fanclub , The Replacements , Primal Scream , the Posies , and Bill Lloyd and the dB 's cite Big Star as an inspiration , and the band 's influence on Game Theory , Matthew Sweet and Velvet Crush is also acknowledged .
A cover version of " September Gurls " appeared on the Bangles ' 1986 triple platinum album Different Light . " September Gurls " , Borack wrote , " was and is the sine qua non of power pop , a glorious , glittering jewel with every facet cut and shined to absolute perfection .... a peerless , aching distillation of love and longing . ' September Gurls ' may not actually be the greatest song ever recorded , but for the duration of its 2 : 47 running time , you can be forgiven for believing it is . " The 1987 tribute song " Alex Chilton " , co @-@ written by three members of the Replacements , was released as a single from the album Pleased to Meet Me and contains the lyric " I never travel far without a little Big Star . " " I 'm In Love With A Girl " from Radio City features in the soundtrack of the 2009 film Adventureland . In 1998 , an ad hoc , shortened version of # 1 Record 's " In the Street " ( recorded by Todd Griffin ) was used as the theme song for the sitcom That ' 70s Show , and in 1999 , a new version titled " That ' 70s Song ( In the Street ) " was recorded by Cheap Trick also specifically for the show . " That ' 70s Song " and Big Star 's own " September Gurls " are included on the 1999 album That ' 70s Album ( Rockin ' ) released by the television program 's producers . The 2006 tribute album Big Star , Small World includes Big Star covers by the Posies , Teenage Fanclub , Gin Blossoms , Wilco , the Afghan Whigs , Whiskeytown and others . Lucero , a Memphis , Tennessee @-@ based alternative country band , covered " I 'm In Love With a Girl " on their 2015 release All a Man Should Do , an album which takes its title from a lyric in the song . Founding member Jody Stephens , and later additions to Big Star , provide backup on the track .
= = Personnel = =
Alex Chilton – guitars , piano , vocals ( 1971 – 1974 , 1993 – 2010 )
Jody Stephens – drums , vocals ( 1971 – 1974 , 1993 – 2010 )
Chris Bell – guitars , vocals ( 1971 – 1972 )
Andy Hummel – bass guitar , vocals ( 1971 – 1973 )
John Lightman – bass guitar , backing vocals ( 1974 )
Jon Auer – guitar , vocals ( 1993 – 2010 )
Ken Stringfellow – bass guitar , vocals ( 1993 – 2010 )
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
# 1 Record ( Ardent / Stax , 1972 )
Radio City ( Ardent / Stax , 1974 )
Third / Sister Lovers ( PVC , 1978 )
In Space ( Rykodisc , 2005 )
Live albums
Live ( Rykodisc , 1992 )
Columbia : Live at Missouri University 4 / 25 / 93 ( Zoo , 1993 )
Nobody Can Dance ( Norton , 1999 ) – rehearsals and live recordings
Live Tribute at the Levitt Shell ( Ardent , 2011 ) – Big Star with John Davis
Live in Memphis ( Omnivore , 2014 ) – Big Star live on October 29 , 1994
Complete Columbia : Live at University of Missouri University 4 / 25 / 93 ( Volcano / Legacy , 2016 )
Compilations
Biggest ( Line Records , 1994 ) – greatest hits
The Best Of ( Ace Records , 1999 ) – greatest hits
Big Star Story ( Rykodisc , 2003 ) – greatest hits with one new track
Keep an Eye on the Sky ( Rhino , 2009 ) – box set with a live disc
Nothing Can Hurt Me ( Omnivore Recordings , 2013 ) – soundtrack to movie
Playlist ( 1972 @-@ 2005 ) ( Legacy Recordings , 2013 ) – first compilation to cover all eras of band
= = Videography = =
Big Star : Nothing Can Hurt Me ( Magnolia , DVD , 2012 )
Live in Memphis ( Omnivore , DVD , 2014 ) – Big Star live on October 29 , 1994
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= Pennsylvania Route 848 =
Pennsylvania Route 848 ( PA 848 ) is a 6 @.@ 66 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 10 @.@ 72 km ) state highway located in Susquehanna County in Pennsylvania . The western terminus is at U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) just south of PA 492 in New Milford . The eastern terminus is at PA 547 in Gibson Township . PA 848 remains as a former portion of PA 371 , which was originally designated in 1936 from New Milford to the New York state line . The highway was designated as PA 848 in 1961 , seven years after it was truncated from New Milford .
= = Route description = =
PA 848 begins at an intersection with US 11 ( Main Street ) in New Milford . The route runs east towards Cobb Street , making a bend to the southeast . Passing through a residential area , the route leaves the borough of New Milford and enters the township of New Milford . The surroundings become more rural , and at the intersection with State Route 2061 ( SR 2061 ) , the route curves to the southeast into a dense forested area . PA 848 remains a two @-@ lane road through New Milford Township . The route soon reaches SR 2063 ( Far Hill Road ) and later with SR 2081 ( Oliver Road ) , which serves as the connection between Interstate 81 's ( I @-@ 81 ) exit 219 southbound and PA 848 . After crossing over I @-@ 81 , PA 848 intersects the northbound ramps before returning to the rural Gibson Township . After the intersection with Creek Road , PA 848 enters the village of Gibson , where it terminates at an intersection with PA 547 and Township Road 574 .
= = History = =
The route of PA 848 began as an alignment of the Cochecton and Great Bend Turnpike ( a portion of the Great Bend and Newburgh Turnpike ) , a 19th Century turnpike built from Great Bend , Pennsylvania to Newburgh , New York . The road was completed in Pennsylvania in 1811 , five years after construction began . The turnpike did not fare after the mid @-@ 1800s , with the road abandoned in 1853 . When the modern state highway system for Pennsylvania debuted in 1928 , the alignment of future PA 371 was not included . In 1936 , PA 371 was designated on its alignment from New Milford to the New York state line ; however , this would only last sixteen years , as the Pennsylvania Department of Highways truncated PA 371 back to the intersection with PA 171 in Union Dale , further east in Susquehanna County .
In April 1961 , PA 848 was designated from Gibson to New Milford as part of the construction of I @-@ 81 to make sure interchanges were with numbered routes . The rest of the alignment was designated part of PA 374 from Lyon Street ( west of Union Dale ) to Union Dale . The rest was later designated Township Road 945 from Gibson to PA 92 intersection and SR 2034 from PA 92 to PA 374 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Susquehanna County .
= = PA 848 Truck = =
Pennsylvania Route 848 Truck is a truck route of PA 848 bypassing a weight @-@ restricted bridge over a branch of Butler Creek in Gibson Township , on which trucks over 27 tons and combination loads over 36 tons are prohibited . It follows I @-@ 81 and PA 547 . The route was signed in 2013 .
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= Maybe This Christmas =
Maybe This Christmas is a holiday compilation album released in November 2002 through Nettwerk Records featuring contemporary musicians performing both classic and original Christmas songs . The album is the first in a series , named by Ron Sexsmith , of three holiday compilations released through the record label between 2002 and 2004 . A portion of the proceeds from each album in the series went to Toys for Tots , a charity supported by the United States Marine Corps . Most of the tracks exclusive to Maybe This Christmas were recorded just a few months prior to its release . The album 's cover art was designed by artist Paul Frank , creator of Julius the pictured " wide @-@ mouth monkey " . Critical reception of the compilation was mixed , with reviewers often complimenting or criticizing select tracks . In the United States , the album reached a peak position of number thirty @-@ eight on Billboard 's Top Holiday Albums chart .
= = Background and composition = =
Maybe This Christmas is the first in a series of three consecutive holiday compilation albums released through Nettwerk . Maybe This Christmas Too ? and Maybe This Christmas Tree were released in October 2003 and October 2004 , respectively . The series was named by Ron Sexsmith , who contributed the title track to the compilation . A portion of proceeds from all three albums went to Toys for Tots , a charity supported by the United States Marine Corps . Maybe This Christmas contains thirteen " rock @-@ oriented " tracks recorded by various artists . Most of the tracks exclusive to the album were recorded just a few months prior to its release . Allmusic 's MacKenzie Wilson dubbed the compilation as an " album suited for those twenty @-@ somethings searching for [ their ] not @-@ so @-@ typical Christmas collection . " The cover art was designed by artist Paul Frank , creator of Julius the " illustrated , wide @-@ mouth monkey " .
The album opens with Phantom Planet 's " sweet rock romp " rendition of Felix Bernard and Richard B. Smith 's " Winter Wonderland " . Sexsmith 's title track is less than minutes in length and has a shuffling beat . " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " ( Ralph Blane , Hugh Martin ) features a downtempo , " jazz @-@ like " solo piano performance by Chris Martin of Coldplay . Exclusive tracks to the album include Vanessa Carlton 's piano @-@ driven rendition of the traditional song " Greensleeves " as well as Bright Eyes ' cover of " Blue Christmas " ( Bill Hayes , Jay Johnson ) ; others include Sense Field 's version of John Lennon and Yoko Ono 's " Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) " and " What a Year for a New Year " by Dan Wilson , lead singer of the rock band Semisonic .
Jimmy Eat World 's " 12 / 23 / 95 " , described by The Austin Chronicle 's Christopher Gray as " serious emo " and The New York Times ' Kelefa Sanneh as a " gentle ballad of apology " , previously appeared on the band 's 1999 album Clarity . The song title and date refer to Little Christmas Eve , the traditional day in which Norwegians decorate Christmas trees . Jack Johnson incorporates a " upbeat street @-@ corner " shuffle into his version of " Rudolph the Red Nosed Reindeer " ( Johnny Marks , Robert L. May ) , just over two minutes in length . The traditional song " God Rest Ye Merry Gentlemen " is performed as a duet by the Barenaked Ladies and Sarah McLachlan . Following is a string of original songs , including " Bizarre Christmas Incident " by Ben Folds , " What a Year for a New Year " by Dan Wilson ) and Neil Finn 's " Sweet Secret Peace " . " Winter Wonderland , " " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " and " Bizarre Christmas Incident " were recorded previously for fans but had not been released commercially . The closing track , " Snow " ( Archibald Lampman , Loreena McKennitt ) was performed by McKennitt and has been described as a " haunting , orchestral new @-@ age hymn that could fit nicely into a midnight Mass . "
= = Reception = =
Maybe This Christmas received mixed critical reception . Many reviewers complimented or criticized select tracks , though Jimmy Eat World 's " 12 / 23 / 95 " received the most praise . Allmusic 's MacKenzie Wilson awarded the album three out of five stars and described it as a " solid holiday effort " for both " casual and die @-@ hard music fans " . Wilson considered " 12 / 23 / 95 " the standout track of the album and wrote that performances by Bright Eyes , Loreena McKennitt , Sense Field and Dan Wilson provided traditional carols with " fresh face " along with their own " dash of coolness " . She also complimented Coldplay 's rendition of " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " , calling it as " endearing " as the original , and thought Sarah McLachlan 's " God Rest Ye Merry Gentlemen " was " playfully charming " . Christopher Gray of The Austin Chronicle considered " Blue Christmas " the best and " Bizarre Christmas Incident " the " funniest " track on the compilation .
Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a " B " rating and called it a " mixed bag " . He described performances by Vanessa Carlton and Bright Eyes as " painful " but also complimented the Barenaked Ladies and McLachlan for their collaboration . Willman considered Wilson 's " What a Year for a New Year " the stand @-@ out track of the album . Annie Zaleski of The Phoenix rated the album 2 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , calling some of the collection " gorgeous and alluring " but most of it " subdued " . Zaleski complimented the title track but criticized performances by Coldplay and Bright Eyes , the latter for its " unsteady , wobbly twang " . Zaleski and Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times also praised " 12 / 23 / 95 " . Zaleski concluded : " Not exactly your traditional take on traditional holiday fare , but a pleasant alternative to all the muzak you have to put up with this time of year . "
= = Track listing = =
" Winter Wonderland " ( Felix Bernard , Richard B. Smith ) , performed by Phantom Planet – 2 : 47
" Maybe This Christmas " ( Ron Sexsmith ) , performed by Ron Sexsmith – 1 : 53
" Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " ( Ralph Blane , Hugh Martin ) , performed by Coldplay – 2 : 22
" Greensleeves " ( traditional ) , performed by Vanessa Carlton – 3 : 35
" Blue Christmas " ( Bill Hayes , Jay Johnson ) , performed by Bright Eyes – 2 : 21
" Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) " ( John Lennon , Yoko Ono ) , performed by Sense Field – 3 : 29
" 12 / 23 / 95 " ( Jimmy Eat World ) , performed by Jimmy Eat World – 3 : 37
" Rudolph the Red Nosed Reindeer " ( Johnny Marks ) , performed by Jack Johnson – 2 : 09
" God Rest Ye Merry Gentlemen " ( traditional ) , performed by Barenaked Ladies and Sarah McLachlan – 3 : 30
" Bizarre Christmas Incident " ( Ben Folds ) , performed by Ben Folds – 2 : 24
" What a Year for a New Year " ( Dan Wilson ) , performed by Dan Wilson – 4 : 06
" Sweet Secret Peace " ( Neil Finn , Michael Leunig ) , performed by Neil Finn – 3 : 50
" Snow " ( Archibald Lampman , Loreena McKennitt ) , performed by Loreena McKennitt – 5 : 36
Track listing adapted from Allmusic .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
In the United States , Maybe This Christmas reached a peak position of number thirty @-@ eight on Billboard 's Top Holiday Albums chart .
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= Pennsylvania Route 12 =
Pennsylvania Route 12 ( PA 12 ) is a 9 @.@ 566 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 15 @.@ 395 km ) state highway located in Berks County in eastern Pennsylvania . The western terminus of the route is at U.S. Route 222 ( US 222 ) and US 422 in Wyomissing . Its eastern terminus is PA 662 in Ruscombmanor Township . In the Reading area , PA 12 is a four @-@ lane freeway called the Warren Street Bypass that heads northeast through urban areas , coming to interchanges with several roads including PA 183 , PA 61 , and US 222 Bus . In Alsace Township , the route becomes a two @-@ lane undivided surface road called Pricetown Road and continues northeast through rural areas , intersecting PA 73 before ending at PA 662 .
Pricetown Road originally existed in the 18th century as a road to link farmers in Pricetown to markets in Reading . The Warren Street Bypass was first planned in 1949 as a widening of Warren Street in Reading leading to a new bridge over Tulpehocken Creek to Wyomissing . In the 1950s , the Warren Street Bypass was completed from Wyomissing northeast to US 222 ( Allentown Pike , now 5th Street Highway ) north of Reading , providing a bypass of Reading . US 222 was routed onto this bypass by 1976 , with the Warren Street Bypass extended northeast to Pricetown Road in 1980 . The part of the Warren Street Bypass northeast of US 222 along with Pricetown Road became State Route 2026 ( SR 2026 ) when the Location Referencing System was established . In 1998 , PA 12 was assigned to its current alignment following the rerouting of US 222 onto a new bypass of Reading .
= = Route description = =
PA 12 begins at an interchange with US 222 and US 422 in Wyomissing . Southwest of this interchange , the Warren Street Bypass continues as part of southbound US 222 / westbound US 422 . US 222 northbound continues northwest and US 422 eastbound continues southeast on the West Shore Bypass . PA 12 does not have access to or from the northbound direction of US 222 at this interchange . From US 222 / US 422 , the route heads northeast on the four @-@ lane divided Warren Street Bypass . PA 12 crosses Tulpehocken Creek into Reading and heads through commercial areas . Along this stretch , the route has no cross traffic , with access to some local streets as well as businesses while access to other local cross streets is blocked by barricades . The road comes to an interchange with PA 183 , with access provided from right @-@ in / right @-@ out ramps to Butler Street and Lehigh Street in the northbound direction and to Carbon Street and Lackawanna Street in the southbound direction . The PA 183 interchange provides access to Reading Regional Airport , an airport with charter flights that is also home to the Mid @-@ Atlantic Air Museum . Following this interchange , the route becomes a freeway and heads near residential neighborhoods and turns north , running to the west of Norfolk Southern 's Reading Line . PA 12 crosses the Schuylkill River and comes to a partial cloverleaf interchange with River Road .
From here , the freeway curves to the northeast and passes under the Reading Line , heading into commercial areas within Muhlenberg Township and coming to a partial cloverleaf interchange with PA 61 that has an eastbound exit and a westbound entrance along with an eastbound entrance from northbound PA 61 . The PA 61 south exit provides access to FirstEnergy Stadium , the home ballpark of Minor League Baseball 's Reading Fightin Phils . The route passes under Norfolk Southern 's Pottsville Branch and comes to a partial cloverleaf interchange with US 222 Bus . ; this interchange provides access from westbound PA 12 to PA 61 and northbound US 222 . Past this interchange , the freeway passes near more development , reaching a diamond interchange with 11th Street . PA 12 heads into more wooded surroundings and curves northeast . The route comes to a partial cloverleaf interchange with Spring Valley Road and continues into Alsace Township , where the freeway ends .
After the freeway ends , PA 12 becomes a two @-@ lane undivided surface road called Pricetown Road , continuing northeast through forested areas with some homes and businesses . The road passes through the community of Alsace Manor before crossing into Ruscombmanor Township , where it intersects PA 73 . Past this intersection , the route continues through a mix of farmland and woodland with some homes . PA 12 ends at an intersection with PA 662 in the community of Pricetown , where Pricetown Road continues northeast as SR 2026 to an intersection with Lobachsville Road in the community of New Jerusalem in Rockland Township .
In 2014 , PA 12 had an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 59 @,@ 000 vehicles between the US 222 / US 422 and PA 183 interchanges to a low of 8 @,@ 600 vehicles between PA 73 and Walnuttown Road . The portion of PA 12 along the Warren Street Bypass is a part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
Pricetown Road dates back to the 18th century as a road linking the village of Pricetown to Reading . The road was used by farmers in the Pricetown area who traveled to Reading to buy and sell wares . Pricetown was settled in 1754 and grew into a village with three taverns and a general store that served the trade to and from Reading . In the 19th century , Pricetown Road was used to transport Montana horses from Temple to country auctions in the area . Pricetown Road was originally an unpaved road . Warren Street in Reading was constructed by 1920 , running from Fayette Street near the Tulpehocken Creek east to a dead end near the Schuylkill River . In 1927 , Pricetown Road was paved in concrete . The road was straightened at the Walnuttown Road intersection by 1940 .
In 1949 , plans were made to build a four @-@ lane bridge across Tulpehocken Creek at Warren Street . As part of this plan , Warren Street was to be widened from the proposed bridge to Schuylkill Avenue . This widened Warren Street was envisioned to become part of a bypass route of Reading . The bridge and widening were approved with the provision that Warren Street only be widened as far as Schuylkill Avenue as not to build a bypass route through a residential area . Construction on the bridge and the Warren Street Bypass between US 422 ( Harrisburg Pike , now Penn Avenue ) and PA 83 ( now PA 183 , Schuylkill Avenue ) began in 1950 . In 1953 , the Park Avenue Extension ( now a part of the Warren Street Bypass along US 222 / US 422 ) and the Warren Street Bypass from US 422 in Wyomissing to Tulpehocken Creek , along with the Tulpehocken Creek bridge , was finished , with a continuation of the Warren Street Bypass northeast from PA 83 to US 222 ( Allentown Pike , now 5th Street Highway ) proposed . Construction on the extension of the Warren Street Bypass to US 222 began in 1956 with the process of widening of the existing Warren Street . The PA 83 bridge over the bypass was built in 1957 . In 1959 , the Warren Street Bypass extension to US 222 was opened to traffic with the portion of Warren Street between Tulpehocken Creek and PA 83 widened to four lanes . The Warren Street Bypass included an interchange with the under @-@ construction Reading Bypass ( now US 422 , West Shore Bypass ) southwest of Tulpehocken Creek when it opened in 1959 .
An extension of the Warren Street Bypass from US 222 to Pricetown Road was proposed in 1962 . Two routes for the extension were proposed : one following a more southerly route as it does today and another following a more northerly route along Spring Valley Road , passing near the Bernhart Reservoir . The extension of the bypass was intended to provide access to a growing industrial park . In 1966 , plans were made to make the portion of the Warren Street Bypass through the Glenside neighborhood of Reading limited @-@ access by eliminating at @-@ grade intersections with local streets , resulting in the streets coming to a dead end at the bypass . The more southerly route for the Warren Street Bypass extension between US 222 and Pricetown Road was selected by 1969 . On November 15 , 1975 , the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) approved for US 222 to be routed to bypass Reading , with the route following the Warren Street Bypass between US 422 in Wyomissing and Allentown Pike . In 1976 , construction began on the extension of the Warren Street Bypass between US 222 and Pricetown Road . The portion of the Warren Street Bypass between Spring Valley Road and Pricetown Road was completed in July 1979 while the portion between 11th Street and Spring Valley Road was completed in December 1979 . In 1980 , the remainder of the Warren Street Bypass extension between US 222 and 11th Street was completed .
With the establishment of the Location Referencing System for state roads in 1987 , the Warren Street Bypass between US 222 and Pricetown Road , along with the entire length of Pricetown Road northeast to New Jerusalem , became SR 2026 . In 1998 , US 222 was rerouted to a freeway alignment northwest of Reading following the completion of the Park Road Corridor in October of that year ; the PA 12 designation was given to the Warren Street Bypass northeast of US 222 / US 422 in Wyomissing as well as to SR 2026 up to the intersection with PA 662 in December of that year .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Berks County .
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= Alex Hewit =
Alexander G. " Alex " Hewit ( November 8 , 1985 – ) is a retired lacrosse goaltender . He began playing lacrosse as a youth . He led his high school to three New Jersey state championships and was one of the most sought after high school lacrosse players in the United States . Since his older brother was studying and playing lacrosse at Princeton University , Alex decided to attend Princeton as well . He starred as a member of the Princeton Tigers men 's lacrosse team from 2005 through 2008 . He was recognized as a three @-@ time United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( USILA ) All @-@ American ( first team once ) and a three @-@ time second team All @-@ Ivy League performer . He was the 2006 National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) goaltender of the year and 2008 Princeton co @-@ captain . During his college career , Princeton lacrosse earned an Ivy League championship and two NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship invitations .
= = Background = =
Hewit is the son of Russell and Nan Hewit , and his siblings are Grant , Meghan and Rusty . Born November 8 , 1985 , and raised in Chatham , New Jersey , Hewitt began playing lacrosse as a youth . Both of his older brothers played and introduced him to the sport . Hewit started playing lacrosse in fourth grade in a local recreational league in his hometown . By sixth grade he was converted from an attackman to a goalie , but not until the coaches convinced his mother 's that her concern for her son 's safety were unwarranted . He met his middle school , high school and college teammate Dan Cocoziello taking an entrance exam for the Delbarton School in sixth grade . On the seventh and eighth grade team and the freshman team at the Delbarton School he also played goalie . In eighth grade , he made a New Jersey state eighth @-@ grade all @-@ star team along with Cocoziello that competed against all @-@ stars from other states . He made the varsity team as a sophomore and helped lead the team to a cumulative 63 – 4 record and three high school lacrosse state championships . He was an all @-@ state and all @-@ conference goalie who made the headmaster ’ s list as a student . He was regarded as the fifth @-@ best high school lacrosse recruit in the nation in the 2003 , according to Inside Lacrosse . Since his older brother Grant was at Princeton , the college was on his short list along with Johns Hopkins , Duke , Harvard and Dartmouth . Grant later became captain of the 2006 Tigers lacrosse team .
= = College career = =
Hewit played in six games for Princeton and started three as a freshman in 2005 . He became the starting goalie late in his freshman year . He was first team USILA All @-@ American Team selection in 2006 , a second team selection in 2007 and an honorable mention selection in 2008 . He was a 2006 , 2007 & 2008 second team All @-@ Ivy League selection . Hewit was a mild @-@ mannered goalie who never celebrated after making saves . His goaltending style of taking away the high and tight shots altered the way opposing teams approached scoring . During the 2006 season , he held the three highest scoring teams in the country ( Virginia , Hofstra and Cornell ) to 20 goals , which was half of their combined average . He was given the Ensign C. Markland Kelly , Jr . Award in 2006 in recognition of being the best National Collegiate Athletic Association lacrosse goaltender . The 2006 team was Ivy League co @-@ champion with Cornell . In 2007 , he entered the season with a lower goals against average ( 6 @.@ 45 ) than the NCAA Division I career record and was a preseason first team All @-@ American according to Inside Lacrosse . He served as co @-@ captain of the 2008 team . After a 5 – 7 2005 year , Princeton qualified for the NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship in 2006 & 2007 .
= = Professional career = =
Hewit took a job with Lehman Brothers after graduating from Princeton . He was signed by New Jersey Pride for the 2008 MLL season , but he appeared in no games .
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= Shaun Murphy ( snooker player ) =
Shaun Murphy ( born 10 August 1982 ) is an English professional snooker player , who won the 2005 World Championship . Nicknamed " The Magician " , Murphy is noted for his straight cue action and his long potting .
Born in Harlow and raised in Irthlingborough , Murphy turned professional in 1998 . His victory at the World Championship was considered a major surprise as he was only the third qualifier to lift the title . His other ranking tournament victories came in the 2007 Malta Cup , the 2008 UK Championship , the Players Tour Championship 2010 / 2011 – Finals and the 2014 World Open , while he reached a second World Championship final in 2009 and a third in 2015 . He has also won seven non @-@ ranking tournaments , including the 2015 Masters , which completed his career Triple Crown .
Murphy has won over £ 2 million in prize money and has compiled more than 300 century breaks in his professional career . His highest world ranking was number three , which he maintained for three seasons following 2007 / 2008 , and he is currently ranked number four .
= = Career = =
Born in Harlow , England , Murphy began playing snooker at the age of eight after his parents bought him a snooker table for Christmas . He made his first century break at the age of 10 and practised at the Rushden Snooker Centre , where players such as Stephen Hendry , Mark Williams , and Ken Doherty have also played . At the age of 13 , he secured a five @-@ year £ 5 @,@ 000 @-@ a @-@ year sponsorship deal with the Doc Martens shoe company and stated his ambitions of winning the World Championship and becoming world number one . He turned professional in 1998 at the age of 15 .
Murphy was coached by Steve Prest until the 2006 / 2007 season . Willie Thorne and Ray Reardon also gave him guidance , and when he was 15 , he was given the latter 's old cue by his father .
= = = Early career = = =
Murphy began his career on the UK Tour in 1998 ( renamed the Challenge Tour in 2000 ) , at the time the second @-@ level professional tour . He was runner @-@ up in the fourth event on the UK tour for the 1997 / 1998 season and , for the 2000 / 2001 season , won the third and fourth events on the Challenge Tour , topping the Order of Merit rankings .
In 2000 , he received the World Snooker Newcomer of the Year award and one of six Young Player of Distinction of the Year awards from the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association . In 2000 , he won the English Open Championship .
Murphy won his first professional tournament at the 2000 Benson & Hedges Championship , defeating Mark Davis 6 – 1 in the semi @-@ final , and Stuart Bingham 9 – 7 in the final , recovering from 2 – 5 down . Although he was not yet on the first @-@ level main tour , this victory brought qualification for the Masters — a prestigious non @-@ ranking invitation tournament with places for members of the top 16 , the winner of the qualifying tournament , and a limited number of wildcards . In the 2001 tournament , he showed promise in his first televised match , defeating world number 15 , Marco Fu , and building a 4 – 1 lead over seven @-@ time world champion Hendry , before losing the match . He made his first maximum break in the 2001 Benson & Hedges Championship .
= = = Early ranking results = = =
Murphy first reached the final stages of a ranking event at the 2002 World Championship , hosted at the Crucible Theatre , where he lost 4 – 10 to Hendry in the first round . In the 2002 / 2003 season , he reached the final stages of the Scottish Open , where he was defeated 3 – 5 by Drew Henry in the first round , and the World Championship , where he lost 9 – 10 against Doherty on the final black in the first round .
For the 2003 / 2004 season , Murphy was ranked number 64 and qualified for the final stages of three ranking tournaments . In the LG Cup , Murphy defeated Steve Davis 5 – 4 in the second round , before losing 2 – 5 to John Higgins in third round . After the victory over Davis , Murphy said " This is one of the greatest days in my snooker career . " In the British Open , he defeated Dave Harold 5 – 1 in the first round , before losing to Paul Hunter 2 – 5 in the second round .
In the Players Championship — the new name of the Scottish Open — he lost 3 – 5 to eventual champion Jimmy White in the second round . He failed to reach the World Championship , losing a qualifying match 7 – 10 against Stuart Pettman , in which Pettman was docked a frame for arriving late .
For the 2004 / 2005 season , Murphy was ranked number 48 and reached the final stages of four ranking events , including the World Championship victory . In the Grand Prix — the new name of the LG Cup — he lost 2 – 5 to Stephen Maguire in the first round . This was followed by his first ranking semi @-@ final , at the British Open , where he was whitewashed 0 – 6 by Higgins . In the Malta Cup , he lost 2 – 5 to Matthew Stevens in the first round .
= = = 2005 World Championship = = =
Murphy won two qualifying matches to qualify for the 2005 World Championship . He defeated former world champions Higgins 13 – 8 , Davis 13 – 4 , and Peter Ebdon 17 – 12 to reach the final to face Stevens , the world number six . He trailed Stevens 6 – 10 at the end of the first day ( the World Championship final is played over two days ) , but made a comeback to bring the score to 16 – 16 . He then made two frame @-@ winning breaks to lift the title . His 11 century breaks were the most in that year 's tournament .
Murphy 's victory was considered a major surprise . His pre @-@ tournament odds were 150 – 1 , and before his win he was considered an underachiever . He became only the third qualifier to win the World Championship ( or to reach the final ) after Alex Higgins in 1972 and Terry Griffiths in 1979 . At the age of 22 , Murphy was the second youngest player to win the World Championship , following Hendry who first lifted the title when he was 21 . No previous world champion had played as many matches ( seven ) to lift the title , and he was the lowest ranked player , at number 48 , to win the tournament . No player had won the World Championship as his first ranking event win since Joe Johnson in 1986 . His run in the tournament earned him the nickname " Magician " and the tournament doubled his previous career prize money , with which he purchased a Mercedes @-@ Benz and a house . After his win , in July 2005 , he married his fiancée Clare .
= = = 2005 / 2006 = = =
For the new season , he improved his ranking to number 21 , which would not usually guarantee qualification for ranking events . However , as world champion he qualified automatically for every tournament in the season as the number two seed ( and number one seed for the 2006 World Championship ) . He was invited to play in the Premier League Snooker , a non @-@ ranking tournament with a 25 @-@ a @-@ second shot clock , but he went out in the round @-@ robin stage .
In the inaugural , non @-@ ranking Northern Ireland Trophy , he reached the quarter @-@ finals before he was defeated 4 – 5 by Neil Robertson . In the first three ranking events of the season — the Grand Prix , the UK Championship , and the Malta Cup — he reached the last 16 , losing final @-@ frame matches to Bingham , Robertson , and Graeme Dott , respectively . After his loss to Bingham , he complained about having to play his match on an outside table , given his world champion status . In the revival of Pot Black , a single @-@ frame knockout tournament not staged since 1991 , Murphy was defeated in the final by Stevens . Murphy was awarded Sportsman of the Year at the BBC East Midlands Sports Awards in December 2005 .
In the Masters , Murphy lost 4 – 6 to Higgins in the quarter @-@ finals , but reached his second ranking final in the Welsh Open , losing 4 – 9 to Stephen Lee . In the World Championship , he reached the quarter @-@ finals , but fell victim to the so @-@ called " Crucible Curse " – no first @-@ time champion has successfully defended the title at the Crucible Theatre — when he was defeated 7 – 13 by Ebdon .
= = = 2006 / 2007 = = =
For the next season , Murphy moved to number five in the world rankings , entering the elite top 16 for the first time , and thereby automatically qualifying for the final stages of ranking tournaments and receiving an automatic invitation to the Masters .
In the Northern Ireland Trophy ( a ranking event in this season ) , he lost 4 – 5 to Lee in the quarter @-@ finals , and in the UK Championship , he lost 3 – 9 to Alan McManus in the second round . A 3 – 6 defeat by Stephen Hendry in the quarter @-@ finals of the Masters was followed by his second ranking title , when he defeated Ryan Day 9 – 4 in the final of the Malta Cup . After the victory , he said it was a relief to get rid of the one @-@ hit wonder label . In his next match , a victory over Jamie Cope in the Welsh Open , he scored centuries in four consecutive frames , becoming only the second player to do this ( after Higgins in the 2005 Grand Prix final ) and the only person to do so in a best @-@ of @-@ nine match . He went on to lose 3 – 5 to Maguire in the quarter @-@ finals . In the World Championship , Murphy defeated Stevens 13 – 12 in the quarter @-@ finals — recovering from 5 – 11 down and knocking the latter out of the top 16 — before losing 16 – 17 against Mark Selby in the semi @-@ finals .
= = = 2007 / 2008 = = =
For the 2007 / 2008 season , he was ranked number three , his highest ever ranking , and reached at least the semi @-@ finals of five ranking events , without winning any .
In the inaugural Shanghai Masters , he was defeated 2 – 5 by Ian McCulloch in the first round . He reached the final of the Pot Black , where he was defeated by Doherty . In the Grand Prix , he reached the semi @-@ finals , where he lost 5 – 6 against Ronnie O 'Sullivan , despite leading 5 – 2 . Further semi @-@ finals followed at the Northern Ireland Trophy and the UK Championship , where he was defeated on both occasions by Maguire , 5 – 6 and 5 – 9 , respectively , making it three consecutive semi @-@ final losses . Before the UK Championship , he was provisionally ranked number one . He successfully defended his Malta Cup title ( that year the tournament was not a ranking event ) with a 9 – 3 victory over Doherty in the final . In the China Open , he defeated Selby 6 – 3 in the semi @-@ final — his sixth semi @-@ final in the past seven ranking events — but lost 9 – 10 to Maguire in the final . Before the World Championship , he was again provisional number one .
In the World Championship , as one of the favourites , he reached the second round , before losing 4 – 13 to Ali Carter . After his loss , Murphy criticised the state of the tables .
= = = 2008 / 2009 = = =
Murphy maintained his number three ranking for the 2008 / 2009 season . He won the non @-@ ranking Paul Hunter Classic , defeating Selby 4 – 0 in the final , but lost in the first round of the first four ranking tournaments , including a 4 – 5 defeat by world number 47 Mike Dunn in the Bahrain Championship . In October , Murphy and his wife separated , after three years of marriage ; he did not wear his wedding ring in the Grand Prix .
Despite the four consecutive first @-@ round losses — which had been attributed to the split from his wife — Murphy claimed his third ranking title at the UK Championship , defeating Fu 10 – 9 in a low @-@ quality final , in which he fluked a pink in the deciding frame that was effectively match ball . The victory meant he joined Davis , Alex Higgins , Griffiths , John Parrott , Hendry , O 'Sullivan , Williams , John Higgins and Ebdon as the tenth player to have won both the World title and the UK title , cementing his place as one of the elite top players in the world .
In the World Championship , there were concerns that Murphy 's estranged wife would serve him divorce papers during play of his first @-@ round match against Andrew Higginson . He defeated Higginson 10 – 8 without incident , although his wife 's parents were present in the arena and were asked to leave . He went on to defeat Fu 13 – 3 , Hendry 13 – 11 , and Robertson 17 – 14 to earn a place in his second world final , with two @-@ time world champion Higgins as the opponent . In the final , he trailed 5 – 11 after the first day , and was beaten 18 – 9 by Higgins . On the first day of the final , a newspaper published a " kiss and tell " story involving Murphy .
= = = 2009 / 2010 = = =
Murphy maintained his number three ranking for a third year in the 2009 / 2010 season . He successfully defended his Paul Hunter Classic title , defeating White 4 – 0 in the final . He won the Premier League Snooker with a 7 – 3 win against O 'Sullivan in the final , ending the latter 's run of five consecutive wins in the tournament .
He reached the semi @-@ finals of the first ranking tournament , the Shanghai Masters , before losing 5 – 6 against Liang Wenbo . This would be his only run to the semi @-@ finals or better in a ranking tournament that season . In the UK Championship , as the defending champion , he lost 5 – 9 to eventual winner Ding Junhui in the second round . After the match , Murphy complained about Ding leaving the arena too often after frames , saying " I can 't believe anyone needs to go to the toilet after every single frame . " He reached the quarter @-@ finals of the Masters , where he lost 4 – 6 against Williams . In the Welsh Open and the China Open , he lost his first @-@ round matches to Stevens and Nigel Bond , respectively . In the World Championship , he defeated Gerard Greene and Ding , but lost 12 – 13 against Carter in the quarter @-@ finals , despite leading 8 – 4 . This was the first season in which he did not reach a final or better of a ranking tournament since the 2003 / 2004 season .
= = = 2010 / 2011 = = =
After three seasons ranked number three , he dropped to number seven for the 2010 / 2011 season . He won the Wuxi Classic , a non @-@ ranking tournament held in China , defeating Ding 9 – 8 , having recovered from 2 – 8 down . Murphy reached the semi @-@ finals of the Paul Hunter Classic , now part of the Players Tour Championship minor @-@ ranking series , but lost 2 – 4 against eventual winner Judd Trump . Murphy won the Brugge Open , the second European event of the Players Tour Championship , with defeating Matthew Couch 4 – 2 in the final . He reached the final of the Ruhr Championship , but lost 2 – 4 against John Higgins . Murphy finished 1st on the Players Tour Championship Order of Merit , couldn 't defend his Premier League Snooker title , as he lost 1 – 7 against Ronnie O 'Sullivan in the final . He then reached the semi @-@ finals of the 2010 UK Championship , where he lost to eventual runner @-@ up Mark Williams 8 – 9 .
Murphy lost in the first round of the Masters 3 – 6 against Jamie Cope , in the second round of the German Masters 2 – 5 against Joe Swail and in the first round of the Welsh Open 0 – 4 against Matthew Stevens . Murphy then won the finals of the Players Tour Championship with a 4 – 0 victory over Martin Gould , winning his fourth ranking title . The next week Murphy also reached the final of the Championship League , but lost 1 – 3 against Matthew Stevens . Murphy reached the semi @-@ final of the China Open , where he lost 1 – 6 against Judd Trump . Murphy 's last tournament of the season was the World Championship , where he lost in the second round 10 – 13 against Ronnie O 'Sullivan .
= = = 2011 / 2012 = = =
Murphy began the 2011 / 2012 season ranked number seven . He could not defend his Wuxi Classic title , as he lost 3 – 6 against Ali Carter . Murphy reached the semi @-@ finals of the Australian Goldfields Open , but lost 2 – 6 against eventual champion Stuart Bingham . At the Shanghai Masters Murphy reached the quarter @-@ finals , but lost 4 – 5 against Mark Selby . Murphy 's next tournament was the Brazil Masters , where he defeated Graeme Dott 5 – 0 in the final . Murphy also participated at the Premier League and ended the league stage with two wins and four losses . As a result , he did not advance to the play @-@ off . Murphy then reached the quarter @-@ finals of the UK Championship , but lost 3 – 6 against Ricky Walden . He also participated at the Players Tour Championship , where his best results came at the Warsaw Classic and the Kay Suzanne Memorial Trophy , where he reached the quarter @-@ finals , but lost 3 – 4 against Neil Robertson and 2 – 4 against Matthew Stevens respectively . He finished number 37 on the Order of Merit , and could not qualify to the Finals to defend his title .
Murphy reached his first Masters final , but lost 6 – 10 against Neil Robertson . Murphy then reached the semi @-@ finals of the next two ranking tournaments , but lost 0 – 6 against Stephen Maguire at the German Masters , 2 – 6 against Ding Junhui at the Welsh Open . He then lost in the quarter @-@ finals of the World Open 0 – 5 against Mark Selby . Murphy ended the season with two first round losses . He lost 2 – 5 against wild @-@ card Lu Ning at the China Open and 8 – 10 against Jamie Jones at the World Snooker Championship .
= = = 2012 / 2013 = = =
Murphy began the 2012 / 2013 season ranked number six . The first tournament for Murphy was the Wuxi Classic , where he lost in the first round 1 – 5 against Ken Doherty . Murphy 's next tournament was the Six @-@ red World Championship , where he finished first in Group E with four wins out of five matches and advanced to the knock @-@ out stage . There he defeated James Wattana , Barry Hawkins , Dominic Dale and Judd Trump to reach the final , but lost 4 – 8 against Mark Davis . He then reached the quarter @-@ finals of the Australian Goldfields Open , but lost 4 – 5 against Peter Ebdon . Murphy gone one better in the next two ranking tournaments , as he reached the semi @-@ finals of the Shanghai Masters and the International Championship , but lost 3 – 6 against John Higgins and 5 – 9 against Neil Robertson respectively . Murphy than reached the final of the 2012 UK Championship courtesy of two tight victories . The first against teenager Luca Brecel in the quarter @-@ finals , after Brecel twice had the chance to pot the final pink and black to win the match , then against Ali Carter in which Murphy recovered from 4 – 8 down and 0 – 32 in points behind in the deciding frame to win 9 – 8 . He was ultimately defeated by good friend Mark Selby 10 – 6 in the final . He also participated at the Players Tour Championship , with his best result coming at the third English event , where he reached the semi @-@ finals , but lost 0 – 4 against Marco Fu . He finished number 29 on the Order of Merit , and couldn 't qualify to the Finals .
Murphy began the year by reaching the semi @-@ finals at the Masters , but lost 2 – 6 against Neil Robertson . He then reached the quarter @-@ final of the German Masters , but lost 4 – 5 against Robertson . In the first round of the 2013 World Snooker Championship , Murphy defeated Martin Gould 10 – 5 to advance to the second round , where he faced Graeme Dott , winning 13 – 11 . In the quarter @-@ final , he faced Judd Trump in a tense match that went to a deciding frame , after Trump won five consecutive frames from 7 – 12 down to level at 12 – 12 . Trump ultimately prevailed in a nervy last frame to go through to the semi @-@ final .
= = = 2013 / 2014 = = =
Murphy 's 2013 / 2014 season began with a shock 1 – 5 defeat by Alex Davies in the qualifying round of the 2013 Wuxi Classic . The tournament was the first to use a new format that required top @-@ 16 players to compete in qualifiers .
Between August 2013 and January 2014 , Murphy lost 3 stones ( 42 pounds or 19 kg ) in weight , due to a new diet and fitness regime . He stated that one of his health and fitness goals was to improve his stamina and concentration at the table .
In group two of the 2014 Championship League , he made his second official maximum break in his round @-@ robin match against Mark Davis .
In the first round of the Masters , Murphy came back from 2 – 4 behind to defeat Ding Junhui 6 – 4 . He produced another comeback in the quarter @-@ finals , where he trailed Marco Fu 1 – 4 before winning five frames in a row to clinch a 6 – 4 victory . He faced defending champion Mark Selby in the semi @-@ finals , but lost 1 – 6 .
In February 2014 , while playing Jamie Jones in the last 16 of the minor @-@ ranking Gdynia Open , Murphy made his second 147 break of the season and the third of his professional career . He went on to win the tournament , defeating Fergal O 'Brien 4 – 1 in the final to capture his first title in 29 months . The following month , he defeated Selby 10 – 6 in the final of the World Open , winning the fifth ranking title of his career and his first ranking title in three years .
At the World Championship , Murphy defeated Jamie Cope 10 – 9 and Marco Fu 13 – 8 to reach the quarter @-@ finals , where he faced defending champion Ronnie O 'Sullivan . Although Murphy won the first two frames and left O 'Sullivan requiring three snookers in the third frame , O 'Sullivan ultimately made the score 2 – 1 then won 12 of the next 13 to defeat Murphy 13 – 3 with a session to spare .
= = = 2014 / 2015 = = =
In October 2014 , he won the Bulgarian Open defeating Martin Gould 4 – 2 in the final . Two weeks later he reached the final of the General Cup but lost 6 – 7 against Ali Carter . In November , he won the Ruhr Open beating Robert Milkins 4 – 0 in the final . In the second frame of the final he achieved the fourth maximum break of his career after missing out on the maximum on two previous occasions during that day , in matches against Joe Swail where Murphy made a break of 129 before missing the blue ball and in a match against Mark Williams with the break ending on the green ball and thus 122 . In 2014 , Shaun Murphy became the first player to make three maximums in a calendar year .
In January 2015 , at the Masters , Murphy beat Mark Selby , Stephen Maguire and Mark Allen en route to the final against Neil Robertson . Murphy won the match 10 – 2 , completing his career Triple Crown .
In the World Championship , Murphy , seeded eighth , beat Robin Hull 10 – 3 , Joe Perry 13 – 5 , Anthony McGill 13 – 8 and Barry Hawkins 17 – 9 to reach his third World Championship final , meeting tenth seed Stuart Bingham . In the final , despite leading 3 – 0 and 8 – 5 , Murphy fell behind 14 – 11 in the third session . Despite fighting back to level the score at 15 – 15 , Murphy lost the next three frames and the final 18 – 15 .
= = Rivalry = =
Murphy has clashed with Stephen Maguire , another of the 2000 Young Players of Distinction , on several occasions . At the start of their 2004 Grand Prix match , there was an incident that resulted in Maguire being docked the opening frame . After they had shaken hands at the outset of the first frame , Maguire asked referee Johan Oomen for permission to leave the arena and retrieve his chalk , which he had forgotten . While Maguire was away , the referee and Murphy spoke before tournament director Mike Ganley arrived on the scene and docked Maguire a frame for technically not being ready to start at the scheduled time , which angered and surprised Maguire . Murphy refutes that the docking of the frame was down to him speaking to the referee . Maguire won the match 5 – 2 and later commented : " Rules are rules but I 've never heard of anything like that happening before " .
Further incidents came in subsequent years . During the 2006 World Championship , Maguire said " I don 't want to be a fat world champion " , a reference to Murphy . After beating Murphy in the 2007 Welsh Open , Maguire said of the chalk incident , " That put the icing on the cake , but we 've always had a rivalry . I dislike him and I think he dislikes me . I try hard to beat everyone , but it would have hurt more if I 'd lost to him . " Murphy currently leads the head @-@ to @-@ head 12 – 10 .
Murphy has been outspoken about several other of his rivals , criticising them for having too many toilet breaks and complaining about table conditions among other things . Murphy also makes collective criticisms of his fellow professionals for not attending events and has branded other players ' concerns over prize money as a joke . Murphy 's harshest criticism has been reserved for Ronnie O 'Sullivan . Murphy highlights what he perceives to be O 'Sullivan 's lack of professionalism .
= = Playing style = =
Murphy is noted for his straight cue action — which Davis once called " the best cue action I 've ever seen " — his long potting , and his breakbuilding . Phil Yates wrote in 2008 in The Times that Murphy has improved his tactical game since his World Championship victory . He has compiled more than 300 century breaks and has made four maximum breaks . His career earnings amount to more than £ 2 million .
= = Personal life = =
Murphy was born in Harlow and grew up in Irthlingborough . He was home @-@ schooled from age 13 after being bullied at school , and his parents split up when he was 14 . He lived with his father Tony , a former professional golfer , and did not see his mother again until he was 19 . During the 2007 World Championship , it was reported that he had developed a rift with his father , who was a member of the World Snooker board . He said that they had not spoken in over a year , but that he would willingly speak to his father again if the other called him .
Murphy moved to Rotherham during the 2004 season to be with his fiancée , Clare , whom he married in July 2005 . Murphy 's wife filed for divorce in 2009 on the grounds of infidelity after The People newspaper published an exposé revealing he had spent the night with an escort girl he had met at a religious youth group . Murphy 's then manager , Brandon Parker , issued a statement confirming that Murphy had slept with the woman but denied he had been unfaithful , stating that Murphy did not have sex with her . He also dated Claire Chorlton , who was first introduced to the viewing public backstage during the final of the 2012 UK Championship . Murphy is currently engaged to his girlfriend Elaine , after proposing marriage at a restaurant in her native Ireland during Christmas 2014 , and he now lives just outside Nottingham .
Murphy has been a Christian since 15 , after meeting a religious family on holiday . Murphy is well known for his charitable nature , having spent some of the summer of 2006 doing aid work in Zimbabwe with his then wife , Clare . He also donated one @-@ tenth of his 2005 World Championship winnings to the church , and at the 2012 World Snooker Championship Murphy donated £ 100 to the Royal Manchester Children 's Hospital Charity for every century he made .
= = Performance and rankings timeline = =
= = Career finals = =
= = = Ranking event finals : 12 ( 6 titles , 6 runners @-@ up ) = = =
= = = Minor @-@ ranking event finals : 6 ( 4 titles , 2 runner @-@ up ) = = =
= = = Non @-@ ranking event finals : 18 ( 10 titles , 8 runners @-@ up ) = = =
= = = Pro @-@ am event wins = = =
Paul Hunter Classic – 2008 , 2009
= = = Variant event finals : 1 ( 1 runner @-@ up ) = = =
= = Maximum breaks = =
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= Hurricane Klaus ( 1984 ) =
This article is about the Hurricane Klaus of 1984 ; there was also a Hurricane Klaus that was retired in the 1990 Atlantic hurricane season .
Hurricane Klaus was a North Atlantic hurricane that hit the Leeward Islands from the west in November of the 1984 Atlantic hurricane season . Forming from a broad area of low pressure on November 5 , Klaus maintained a northeast movement throughout much of its path . After making landfall on extreme eastern Puerto Rico , it passed to the north of the Leeward Islands , resulting in strong southwesterly winds and rough seas . Klaus attained hurricane status and reached peak winds of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) before becoming extratropical over cooler waters on November 13 . The storm dropped heavy rainfall in Puerto Rico , causing minor flooding and light damage . Klaus caused heavy marine damage in the Leeward Islands , including wrecking at least three ships . The Virgin Islands experienced heavy damage as well .
= = Meteorological history = =
A broad area of low pressure gradually developed over the extreme southeastern Caribbean Sea on November 1 . It moved slowly westward and steadily organized . By November 4 , the system stalled to the north of Curaçao , which was followed by a turn to the northeast . Convection slowly organized as a surface circulation formed , and on November 5 the system developed into Tropical Depression Fifteen . Initially weak with only 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) winds , the depression steadily organized as it moved northeastward , and a Reconnaissance Aircraft mission confirmed the existence of the cyclone on November 6 as it was located midway between Puerto Rico and the Netherlands Antilles . Late on the 6th , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Klaus while located a short distance south of Puerto Rico .
Tropical Storm Klaus continued northeastward , and made landfall on extreme eastern Puerto Rico early on November 7 . The storm passed a short distance north of the Lesser Antilles , and became the first tropical cyclone in recorded history to affect the islands from the west . Favorable conditions allowed the storm to continue strengthening , and Klaus attained hurricane status early on November 8 . The hurricane accelerated to the northeast , and reached its peak intensity of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) late on November 8 . After maintaining its peak strength for 30 hours , Klaus weakened slightly . Interaction with an upper @-@ level low turned the hurricane westward on November 11 , though an approaching trough of low pressure turned Hurricane Klaus to the northeast . Cold air and cooler waters weakened the convection around the center on November 12 , and Klaus degenerated to a subtropical storm . It accelerated to the northeast and degenerated to an extratropical storm on November 13 while located about 440 miles ( 700 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . Six hours later , it was absorbed by another extratropical system .
= = Preparations = =
Shortly after forming , gale warnings were issued for Puerto Rico , the Virgin Islands , the Netherlands Antilles of the Leeward Islands , Saint Kitts and Nevis , and Anguilla . Klaus was the first tropical cyclone on record to hit the Leeward Islands from the west , and as a result many were unprepared for the strong winds and rough seas from the southwest .
= = Impact = =
While moving past Puerto Rico , Tropical Storm Klaus dropped heavy rainfall peaking at 25 @.@ 69 inches ( 653 mm ) in Guavate Camp in the southeastern part of the island . Much of the southern half of Puerto Rico reported over 7 inches ( 178 mm ) . Vieques received around 7 inches ( 178 mm ) of precipitation , while Culebra experienced over 10 inches ( 250 mm ) . The heavy rainfall resulted in freshwater flooding . The strongest winds of the storm remained offshore , and wind gusts peaked at 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) in Roosevelt Roads Naval Station . Winds and rainfall on the island resulted in downed trees and power lines , though damage was minimal . Klaus struck the island on election day , causing slight disruptions to the process .
Saint John in the United States Virgin Islands reported over 15 inches ( 380 mm ) of rainfall in association with Tropical Storm Klaus . Both Saint Thomas and Saint Croix received around 10 inches ( 250 mm ) , while rainfall in the British Virgin Islands remained below 10 inches ( 250 mm ) . Tropical Storm Klaus caused severe flooding and extensive damage throughout the U.S. Virgin Islands . Strong southwesterly winds resulted in gale force winds and rough seas along the southwestern portions of the Leeward Islands . The rough waves caused considerable damage to marine interests in the area . In Anguilla , three ships were wrecked . 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) off of Saint Martin , the rough seas wrecked a cruise ship . The 60 passengers and 23 crew members swam safely to shore , though one person was hospitalized . Rough seas also damaged local coral reefs . 10 @,@ 000 people were affected on the island of Dominica . There , the storm caused $ 2 million ( 1984 USD , $ 3 @.@ 9 million 2006 USD ) in damage and resulted in two fatalities . In Antigua , strong waves from the hurricane produced severe beach erosion , which endangered a highway behind an eroded beach . Beach erosion was reported in nearby Barbuda , as well . The British Virgin Islands sustained moderate damage totaling to $ 152 million ( 1984 USD , $ 315 million 2008 USD ) . St. Kitts and Nevis also saw much Leeward coastal damage resulting from the storm , the worst impact being the destruction of the Sandy Point town port in Saint Kitts .
= = Aftermath = =
In Anguilla , nine ships , including three that were wrecked from the hurricane , were intentionally sunk in 1990 to create an artificial reef . About a month after the storm passed , President Ronald Reagan declared the U.S. Virgin Islands a major disaster area . The declaration permitted use of federal funds for recovery . The Federal Emergency Management Agency provided an average relief fund of $ 2 @,@ 128 ( 1984 USD , $ 4 @,@ 147 2006 USD ) per affected person , the smallest return rate for a declared disaster in the Virgin Islands .
Because damage was not significant , the name Klaus was not retired after this year , but a different Hurricane Klaus in 1990 was retired , and was replaced by Kyle in 1996 .
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= The Boat ( The Office ) =
" The Boat " is the sixth episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the 182nd episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC on November 8 , 2012 . It guest stars Josh Groban as Andy 's brother Walter .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) must help his family when his dad loses all of their money , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) is pranked into thinking he is a guest on a radio show , and Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) learns of Oscar Martinez 's ( Oscar Nunez ) affair with Angela Martin 's husband .
" The Boat " received positive reviews from television critics . The episode was also viewed by 4 @.@ 83 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 4 / 6 percent rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking third in its timeslot , making it the highest rated episode of the season at the time of its airing . The episode ultimately ranked as the second @-@ highest rated NBC series of the night , after The Voice .
= = Plot = =
Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) learns that his father took all the family money and fled to Argentina with his mistress . Left to pick up the pieces , Andy sells off family heirlooms , and is upset that he has to sell the family boat for lack of any other means for his mother to support herself . Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) convinces him that before he sells the boat , they should take it out for one last sunset cruise , and they drive to Stamford , Connecticut , where the boat is docked . Andy starts to hoist the main sail , but is stopped by a broker who is to sail it to the Caribbean for the buyer . With Erin 's encouragement , Andy decides to take the boat to the Caribbean himself . He then finds his drunken brother Walter ( Josh Groban ) passed out in the liquor closet . Walter comes to and tells Andy he wanted to get the first relapse out of the way before checking into rehab . Andy invites him on the trip , saying they both need family time together and leaves , thanking Erin for her encouragement . Erin says to the camera that she would have loved to go with him if he asked . Back in the office that evening , Pete ( Jake Lacy ) asks Erin to join him for drinks , and she accepts .
A local radio show schedules an interview with Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) to discuss Dunder Mifflin , but the interview is later canceled . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) suggests they all use this to their advantage , and stage an interview for Dwight 's benefit . Dwight believes he is talking to the interviewer through the phone in the break room , but is actually talking to Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) who is using an American accent . They convince him that the information he is giving leads to a hostage situation with CEO David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) cornered in his house . Dwight calls David and tries to talk him into surrendering to the police . David is confused but nonetheless responds in a way that leads Dwight to believe he was successful . He emerges from the break room and is greeted by a round of applause from his coworkers .
Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) overhears Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) confessing to the camera that he is having an affair with Angela 's ( Angela Kinsey ) husband Robert Lipton ( Jack Coleman ) . Oscar makes Kevin promise not to reveal anything . During the day , Angela constantly makes unconscious double entendres and foreshadowing , sorely tempting Kevin to let out what he knows . Afraid that Kevin cannot keep his secret , Oscar tries to frame Kevin so that Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) will have him fired , but later confesses to him that he lied . Later , Robert visits the office , and Oscar asks unnaturally nervous around him . Before Angela 's suspicions can be aroused , Kevin interrupts to cheer Robert on about his upcoming election . Oscar says to the camera that he is proud of how Kevin kept the secret , but Kevin then reveals that he momentarily forgot all about the secret , and begins to laugh uncontrollably .
= = Production = =
" The Boat " was written by executive producer Dan Sterling , his first credit for the series . He was hired before production on the ninth season started as executive producer , to replace Mindy Kaling , who departed full @-@ time involvement on the series following the eighth season . The episode was also directed by series cast member John Krasinski , his third directing credit for the series after the sixth season episode " Sabre " and the eighth season episode , " Lotto " . The episode features the return of Andy 's brother , Walter Jr . , played by Josh Groban , who is now a drunk . He previously appeared in the eighth season episode , " Garden Party " . The episode also guest stars Andy Buckley in voice only . Buckley portrayed David Wallace , the CFO of Dunder Mifflin from seasons two to six . He was recently brought back on board near the end of season eight . Following this episode , Ed Helms will be written out of several episodes , in order to film The Hangover Part III .
The official website of The Office included several cut scenes from " The Boat " within a week of the episode 's release . In the first 57 @-@ second clip , Dwight gets mad when Jim is called a superior salesman and when Nellie claims beet farmers and Battlestar Galactica fans have low IQ levels , during the radio show prank . In the second 53 @-@ second clip , Erin goes through several attempts to cheer up Andy . In the third 37 @-@ second clip , more scenes from the false hostage situation are seen .
= = Cultural references = =
Dwight claims that the radio is using Gotcha journalism . In order to cover up for Oscar , Kevin starts chanting " U @-@ S @-@ A ! " , a popular Olympic chant . When Oscar admits that he lied to Toby , Toby goes on a tangential rant about the Scranton Strangler , a reference to a minor plot development that occurred during the show 's sixth and seventh seasons .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Boat " was originally scheduled to air on NBC on November 1 , 2012 but was replaced with a rerun of The Voice . NBC claimed it was for those affected by Hurricane Sandy , however the schedule change happened nationwide . It eventually aired a week later , on November 8 , 2012 . In its original broadcast , " The Boat " was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 83 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 6 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 4 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked an increase in the ratings from the previous episode , " Here Comes Treble " , which had reached a series low in the ratings . The episode tied with the Fox series Glee for third in its timeslot , being beaten by an episode of the ABC series Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 3 / 8 percent rating and an entry of the CBS drama Person of Interest , which received a 2 @.@ 9 / 8 percent rating . The Office was also the second highest @-@ rated NBC television program of the night , after an episode of The Voice .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Boat " received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The A.V. Club reviewer Erik Adams called it " another solid late @-@ period episode " , praising Rainn Wilson 's commitment to Dwight throughout the main plotline . He also complimented the Andy @-@ Erin subplot , and considered it superior to the previous episode for featuring more consistency in Andy 's characterization . He also complimented Dan Sterling and John Krasinski 's work on the episode , saying that the script made " good on previous hints that Andy and Erin ’ s story won ’ t end like Jim and Pam ’ s " and that Krasinski 's direction added " just enough energy not to feel overwhelming " . He gave the episode a " B + " . IGN writer Cindy White called the episode a " pleasant surprise " , for its use of the supporting characters and its development of the season 's plotlines . She complimented most of the subplots , and compared Pete and Erin 's romance to Jim and Pam 's from the early seasons of the series . Her only complaint was Andy 's characterization throughout the episode and the ninth season , as a whole , for being " mopey and self @-@ obsessed . " Despite this , she gave the episode an 8 @.@ 0 / 10 , calling it " Great " . WhatCulture ! reviewer Joseph Kratzer gave the episode four stars out of five , praising the episode for making the previously unsuccessful Oscar @-@ Senator storyline and the Andy 's bankrupt family storyline entertaining . He also complimented the fact that Jim and Pam 's bickering from the previous episode was not expanded upon , and praised their prank on Dwight , calling it a " great bit " and " an excellent comedic balance to the more serious story of Andy ’ s inner demons . "
Michael Tedder of New York called the episode " the single funniest episode of the show since Steve Carell left " and praised Brian Baumgartner 's performance for hitting " notes of sweetness , frustration , and emotional confusion that normally get written for the topliners " . He also praised the plotlines , writing that " what made this episode so great was that not only did every plot line work [ ... ] but every moment positively sang " . He gave the episode five stars , concluding that " The Office still has some surprises in it " .
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= Great Lakes Storm of 1913 =
The Great Lakes Storm of 1913 , historically referred to as the " Big Blow , " the " Freshwater Fury , " or the " White Hurricane , " was a blizzard with hurricane @-@ force winds that devastated the Great Lakes Basin in the Midwestern United States and the province of Ontario in Canada from November 7 through November 10 , 1913 . The storm was most powerful on November 9 , battering and overturning ships on four of the five Great Lakes , particularly Lake Huron . Deceptive lulls in the storm and the slow pace of weather reports contributed to the storm 's destructiveness .
The deadliest and most destructive natural disaster ever to hit the lakes , the Great Lakes Storm killed more than 250 people , destroyed 19 ships , and stranded 19 others . The financial loss in vessels alone was nearly US $ 5 million ( or about $ 119 @,@ 714 @,@ 000 in today 's dollars ) . This included about $ 1 million at current value in lost cargo totalling about 68 @,@ 300 tons , such as coal , iron ore , and grain .
The storm , an extratropical cyclone , originated as the convergence of two major storm fronts , fueled by the lakes ' relatively warm waters — a seasonal process called a " November gale " . It produced 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) wind gusts , waves over 35 feet ( 11 m ) high , and whiteout snowsqualls . Analysis of the storm and its impact on humans , engineering structures , and the landscape led to better forecasting and faster responses to storm warnings , stronger construction ( especially of marine vessels ) , and improved preparedness .
= = Background = =
The immense volume of water in the five Great Lakes holds heat that allows the lakes to remain relatively warm for much later into the year and postpones the Arctic spread in the region . During the autumn months , two major weather tracks converge over the area . Cold , dry air moves south / southeast from the province of Alberta and northern Canada ; warm , moist air moves north / northeast from the Gulf of Mexico , along the lee of the central Rocky Mountains . The collision of these masses forms large storm systems in the middle of the North American continent , including the Great Lakes . When the cold air from these storms moves over the lakes , it is warmed by the waters below and picks up a spin . As the cyclonic system continues over the lakes , its power is intensified by the jet stream above and the warm waters below .
The result is commonly referred to as a " November gale " or " November witch . " Such a storm can maintain hurricane @-@ force wind gusts , produce waves over 50 feet ( 15 m ) high , and dump several inches of rain or feet of snow . Fuelled by the warm lake water , these powerful storms may remain over the Great Lakes for days . Intense winds ravage the lakes and surrounding shores , severely eroding and flooding the shorelines .
November gales have been a bane of the Great Lakes , with at least 25 killer storms striking the region since 1847 . During the Big Blow of 1905 , 27 wooden vessels were lost . During a November gale in 1975 , the giant ore bulk carrier SS Edmund Fitzgerald sank suddenly with all hands , without a distress signal .
= = Prelude to the storm = =
The storm was first noticed on Thursday , November 6 , on the western side of Lake Superior , moving rapidly toward northern Lake Michigan . The weather forecast in The Detroit News called for " moderate to brisk " winds for the Great Lakes , with occasional rains Thursday night or Friday for the upper lakes ( except on southern Lake Huron ) , and fair to unsettled conditions for the lower lakes .
Around midnight , the steamer Cornell , while 50 miles ( 80 km ) west of Whitefish Point in Lake Superior , ran into a sudden northerly gale and was badly damaged . This gale lasted until late November 10 , almost forcing Cornell ashore .
= = Storm = =
= = = November 7 = = =
On Friday , the weather forecast in the Port Huron Times @-@ Herald of Port Huron , Michigan , described the storm as " moderately severe . " By then , the storm was centered over the upper Mississippi Valley and had caused moderate to brisk southerly winds with warmer weather over the lakes . The forecast predicted increased winds and falling temperatures over the next 24 hours .
At 10 : 00 a.m. , Coast Guard stations and United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) Weather Bureau offices at Lake Superior ports raised white pennants above square red flags with black centers , indicating a storm warning with northwesterly winds . By late afternoon , the storm signal flags were replaced with a vertical sequence of red , white , and red lanterns , indicating that a hurricane with winds over 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) was coming . The winds on Lake Superior had already reached 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , and an accompanying blizzard was moving toward Lake Huron .
= = = November 8 = = =
By Saturday , the storm 's status had been upgraded to " severe " . The storm was centered over eastern Lake Superior , covering the entire lake basin . The weather forecast of the Port Huron Times @-@ Herald stated that southerly winds had remained " moderate to brisk " . Northwesterly winds had reached gale strength on northern Lake Michigan and western Lake Superior , with winds of up to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) at Duluth , Minnesota .
A false lull in the storm ( a " sucker hole " ) allowed traffic to begin flowing again , both down the St. Marys River and up Lake Erie , and the Detroit and St. Clair rivers , into Lake Huron . Gale wind flags were raised at more than a hundred ports , but were ignored by many ship captains . Long ships traveled all that day through the St. Marys River , all night through the Straits of Mackinac , and early Sunday morning up the Detroit and St. Clair rivers .
= = = November 9 = = =
By noon on Sunday , weather conditions on lower Lake Huron were close to normal for a November gale . Barometric pressures in some areas began to rise , bringing hope of an end to the storm . The low pressure area that had moved across Lake Superior was moving northeast , away from the lakes .
The Weather Bureau had issued the first of its twice @-@ daily reports at approximately 8 : 00 a.m. ; it did not send another report to Washington , D.C. until 8 : 00 p.m. This proved to be a serious problem : the storm would have the better part of a day to build up hurricane forces before the Bureau headquarters in Washington , D.C. , would have detailed information .
Along southeastern Lake Erie , near the city of Erie , Pennsylvania , a southern low @-@ pressure area was moving toward the lake . This low had formed overnight , so was absent from Friday 's weather map . It had been traveling northward and began moving northwestward after passing over Washington , D.C.
The intense counterclockwise rotation of the low was made apparent by the changing wind directions around its center . In Buffalo , New York , morning northwest winds had shifted to northeast by noon and were blowing southeast by 5 : 00 p.m. , with the fastest gusts , 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , occurring between 1 : 00 p.m. and 2 : 00 p.m. Just 180 miles ( 290 km ) to the southwest , in Cleveland , winds remained northwest during the day , shifting to the west by 5 : 00 p.m. , and maintaining speeds of more than 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . The fastest gust in Cleveland , 79 mph ( 127 km / h ) , occurred at 4 : 40 p.m. There was a dramatic drop in barometric pressure at Buffalo , from 29 @.@ 52 inHg ( 999 @.@ 7 hPa ) at 8 : 00 a.m. to 28 @.@ 77 inHg ( 974 @.@ 3 hPa ) at 8 : 00 p.m.
The rotating low continued along its northward path into the evening , bringing its counterclockwise winds in phase with the northwesterly winds already hitting Lakes Superior and Huron . This resulted in an explosive increase in northerly wind speeds and swirling snow . Ships on Lake Huron that were south of Alpena , Michigan — especially around Harbor Beach and Port Huron in Michigan and Goderich and Sarnia in Ontario — were battered with massive waves moving southward toward St. Clair River .
From 8 : 00 p.m. to midnight , the storm became what modern meteorologists call a " weather bomb " . Sustained hurricane @-@ speed winds of more than 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) ravaged the four western lakes . The worst damage was done on Lake Huron as numerous ships scrambled for shelter along its southern end . Gusts of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) were reported off Harbor Beach , Michigan . The lake 's shape allowed northerly winds to increase unchecked , because of the lower surface friction of water compared to land , and the wind following the lake 's long axis .
In retrospect , weather forecasters of the time did not have enough data or understanding of atmospheric dynamics to predict or comprehend the events of Sunday , November 9 . Frontal mechanisms , referred to then as " squall lines " , were not yet understood . Surface observations were collected only twice daily at stations around the country , and by the time these data were collected and hand @-@ drawn maps created , the information lagged actual weather conditions by hours .
= = = November 10 and 11 = = =
On Monday morning , the storm had moved northeast of London , Ontario , dragging lake effect blizzards in its wake . An additional 17 inches ( 43 cm ) of snow were dumped on Cleveland , Ohio that day , filling the streets with snowdrifts 6 feet ( 2 m ) high . Streetcar operators stayed with their stranded , powerless vehicles for two nights , eating whatever food was provided by local residents . Travelers were forced to take shelter and wait for things to clear .
By Tuesday , the storm was rapidly moving across eastern Canada . Without the warm lake waters , it lost power quickly . This also meant less snowfall , both because of the fast motion of the storm and the lack of lake effect snow . All shipping was halted on Monday and part of Tuesday along the St. Lawrence River around Montreal , Quebec .
= = Aftermath = =
Historically , storms of such magnitude and with such high wind velocities have not lasted more than four or five hours . The Great Lakes storm , however , raged for more than 16 hours , with an average speed of 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) , and frequent bursts of more than 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . It crippled traffic on the lakes and throughout the Great Lakes basin region .
= = = Surrounding shoreline = = =
Along the shoreline , blizzards shut down traffic and communication , causing hundreds of thousands of dollars in damage . A 22 @-@ inch ( 56 cm ) snowfall in Cleveland , Ohio , put stores out of business for two days . There were four @-@ foot ( 122 cm ) snowdrifts around Lake Huron . Power was out for several days across Michigan and Ontario , cutting off telephone and telegraph communications . A recently completed US $ 100 @,@ 000 Chicago breakwater , intended to protect the Lincoln Park basin from storms , was swept away in a few hours . The Milwaukee harbor lost its entire south breakwater and much of the surrounding South Park area that had been recently renovated .
After the final blizzards hit Cleveland , the city was paralyzed under feet of ice and snow and was without power for days . Telephone poles had been broken , and power cables lay in tangled masses . The November 11 Plain Dealer described the aftermath :
" Cleveland lay in white and mighty solitude , mute and deaf to the outside world , a city of lonesome snowiness , storm @-@ swept from end to end , when the violence of the two @-@ day blizzard lessened late yesterday afternoon . "
William H. Alexander , Cleveland 's chief weather forecaster , observed :
" Take it all in all — the depth of the snowfall , the tremendous wind , the amount of damage done and the total unpreparedness of the people — I think it is safe to say that the present storm is the worst experienced in Cleveland during the whole forty @-@ three years the Weather Bureau has been established in the city . "
= = = On the lakes = = =
The greatest damage was done on the lakes . Major shipwrecks occurred on all but Lake Ontario , with most happening on southern and western Lake Huron . Lake masters recounted that waves reached at least 35 feet ( 11 m ) in height . Being shorter in length than waves ordinarily formed by gales , they occurred in rapid succession , with three waves frequently striking in succession . Masters also stated that the wind often blew in directions opposite to the waves below . This was the result of the storm 's cyclonic motion , a phenomenon rarely seen on the Great Lakes .
In the late afternoon of November 10 , an unknown vessel was spotted floating upside @-@ down in about 60 feet ( 18 m ) of water on the eastern coast of Michigan , within sight of Huronia Beach and the mouth of the St. Clair River . Determining the identity of this " mystery ship " became of regional interest , resulting in daily front @-@ page newspaper articles . The ship eventually sank , and it was not until early Saturday morning , November 15 , that it was finally identified as the Charles S. Price . ( This was the first time in Great Lakes history that a fully loaded ore carrier had been capsized . ) The front page of that day 's Port Huron Times @-@ Herald extra edition read , " BOAT IS PRICE — DIVER IS BAKER — SECRET KNOWN " . Milton Smith , an assistant engineer who decided at the last moment not to join his crew on premonition of disaster , aided in identifying any bodies that were found .
The final tally of financial loss included US $ 2 @,@ 332 @,@ 000 for vessels totally lost , $ 830 @,@ 900 for vessels that became constructive total losses , $ 620 @,@ 000 for vessels stranded but returned to service , and approximately $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in lost cargoes . This figure did not include financial losses in coastal cities .
The storm had several long @-@ term consequences . Complaints against the USDA Weather Bureau of alleged unpreparedness resulted in increased efforts to achieve more accurate weather forecasting and faster realization and communication of proper storm warnings . Criticism of the shipping companies and shipbuilders led to a series of conferences with insurers and mariners to seek safer designs for vessels . This resulted in the construction of ships with greater stability and more longitudinal strength . Immediately following the blizzard of Cleveland , Ohio , the city began a campaign to move all utility cables underground , in tubes beneath major streets . The project took half a decade .
= = Ships foundered = =
The following list includes ships that sank during the storm , killing their entire crews . It does not include the three victims from the freighter William Nottingham , who volunteered to leave the ship on a lifeboat in search of assistance . While the boat was being lowered into the water , a breaking wave smashed it into the side of the ship . The men disappeared into the near @-@ freezing waters below . The following shipwreck casualties have been documented :
Lake Superior
Leafield : 18 victims
Henry B. Smith : 25 victims
Lake Michigan
Plymouth ( barge ) : 7 victims
Lake Huron
Argus : 28 victims
James Carruthers : 22 victims
Hydrus : 25 victims
John A. McGean : 28 victims
Charles S. Price : 28 victims
Regina : 20 victims
Isaac M. Scott : 28 victims
Wexford : 20 victims
Lake Erie
Lightship LV 82 , Buffalo : 6 victims
Of the twelve ships that sank in the storm , three have never been found : Leafield , James Carruthers , and Plymouth . The most recent discovery is Hydrus , which was located in the summer of 2015 . The last wreck found previous to Hydrus was Henry B. Smith in 2013 .
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= Star Fox Command =
Star Fox Command ( Japanese : スターフォックス コマンド , Hepburn : Sutā Fokkusu Komando ) is the fifth game in Nintendo 's Shoot ' em up Star Fox series , published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS in 2006 and 2007 . Released in Japan on August 3 , 2006 and in North America on August 28 , 2006 , it was first announced at the E3 2005 conference , under the name Star Fox DS . Command is the first Star Fox game for a handheld , and supports the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection , making it the first online Star Fox game . Star Fox Command returns the series to its roots as an air @-@ combat game . Fox 's redesign here would later go on to be used in future iterations of Nintendo 's hit fighting series , Super Smash Bros.
The game 's plot involves the protagonist Fox McCloud and his team setting out to defend their homes from aliens known as the Anglar . Q @-@ Games originally worked on a puzzle game , which Nintendo decided to turn into a DS game . The game was generally well @-@ received ; it has achieved an average score of 76 % from Game Rankings , a reviews aggregate .
= = Gameplay = =
Star Fox Command has two types of single @-@ player gameplay : a strategic map mode , and a battle mode . The overworld @-@ like map mode is where the player takes command of several ships . This mode is used to get ships into the battle mode and is essentially a simple turn @-@ based strategy game . Up to four ships can be maneuvered at a time . The object of this mode is to prevent enemy ships from reaching the Great Fox . This mode also allows players to fire missiles from the Great Fox that they have picked up from exploring in this mode , or from meeting certain conditions in the battle mode ( usually destroying all enemies ) . When a craft that is controlled by the player encounters an enemy group or missile in this mode , the gameplay switches to the battle mode .
Battle mode is similar to the " all @-@ range mode " employed in Star Fox 64 for some bosses and levels . Like the cancelled Star Fox 2 the game is completely all @-@ range , as opposed to the " on @-@ rails " levels featured in most other Star Fox games ( however , the game will sometimes force the player to engage in classic " chase " missions in order to complete an objective ) . The usual objectives are to destroy a base ship , destroy all enemies , or collect a number of cores to complete the battle mode . Once the battle mode is completed , the game returns to the map mode . As players progress through the game , they will be able to choose to go different routes upon completing certain levels . Each route has its own character dialogue to accompany it , and players will be able to visit differing planets depending on what routes they choose . The game features 9 different endings altogether , and gamers can access all of them by playing the game multiple times , selecting different routes each time . Instead of merely giving different perspectives on what happens to the Star Fox team , each ending is unique — the characters go in various directions depending on what ending is watched . Star Fox Command does not feature traditional voice acting . Instead it outputs gibberish akin to the " voices " in Star Fox for the SNES , or the " Lylat speech " present in Lylat Wars ( but not Star Fox 64 ) . Players can also record their own voices into the game ’ s " gibberish generator " using the built @-@ in DS microphone where it is converted into the garbled speech of the various characters .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Star Fox Command supports six players in local wireless multiplayer matches via DS Download Play and up to three players on the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection . In Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection matches , only the Arwing II is available . Players score not by killing opponents , but by collecting stars from them when they have been destroyed . It is also possible to collect a star from an opponent not killed by the player . This is a modified version of the mode from Star Fox 64 / Lylat Wars . Nintendo WiFi uses a ranking system based on rankings of the alphabet with Z being the lowest and A being the highest . Players work their way up from Z by collecting wins ( it could be based on points ) . For every win a player gains a certain amount of percent and once they reach 100 % they move to the next letter . The highest rank a player can get is 100 % of the A rank .
= = Plot and setting = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
This installment of the Star Fox series is once again in the Lylat system , using a similar map as Star Fox 64 to switch between each area . However , not all the planets seen in Star Fox 64 are visited , such as Zoness and Macbeth , and do not appear on the map . Papetoon , only seen in the Nintendo Power Star Fox comic , is mentioned in one of the endings.Command has the largest number of playable characters in any Star Fox game , with a total of fourteen , which include Fox McCloud , Falco Lombardi , Krystal , Slippy Toad , Peppy Hare , Wolf O 'Donnell , Panther Caroso , Leon Powalski , Amanda ( Slippy 's fianceé ) , Lucy Hare ( Peppy 's daughter ) , Bill Grey , Katt Monroe , Dash Bowman ( Andross ' grandson ) , and James McCloud.Andrew Oikonny is one of the game 's bosses . Beltino Toad makes an appearance during a mission briefing . ROB 64 is not playable , but pilots the Great Fox when on the map screen . Pigma Dengar appears as a boss in two of Falco 's stories . The ghost of Andross , possessing a different bioweapon ( Monarch Dodra , Grunner , Killer Bee , or Dune Worm ) depending on the mission , appears as a boss on Titania . Octoman , an F @-@ Zero racer , appears as a boss in certain Aquas and Venom missions .
= = = Story = = =
The planet Venom 's forces were all but destroyed , and there is thought to be peace . This is not to be , however , as a race of beings known as the Anglar rise from the acidic oceans of Venom , thought to be unable to support life . The leader of the Anglar plans on destroying the Lylat system , which Fox McCloud and crew set out to save once again . The Star Fox team has broken up , but re @-@ assembles to fight this new threat . Peppy is made the General of the Cornerian Army , replacing Pepper . Fox flew around the Lylat system with ROB on patrol , and Krystal broke off her relationship with Fox after she left the team , because he was afraid she would receive injury and it would affect him . Slippy finds love with a frog named Amanda , and thus spends less time with the team . Falco left the team and went around on solo missions ( as he has done before in Star Fox Adventures ) . There are nine endings depending on paths chosen by the player , though the player is required to finish the game before having the options . Designers have hinted that a possible Star Fox game in the future may begin in the middle of Star Fox Command , revealing a true ending . Many fans suspect the first ending ( Fox getting back together with Krystal and the Starfox team continuing with Amanda as its newest member ) is the real ending . At the same time , in the same interview , Takaya Imamura stated that " the story ends here " , which has thrown some fans for a loop .
= = Development = =
Developer Q @-@ Games was working on a puzzle game called Digidrive for Nintendo when they were approached to do a mock up of the game demo . After three months , using the original Star Fox , it was shown to Takaya Imamura at Nintendo who said that the company would redesign it for better compatibility with the Nintendo DS and add some ideas from Star Fox 2 . Nintendo EAD was responsible for the music and production of the game , while Q @-@ Games handled the main development .
= = Reception = =
Star Fox Command debuted on the Japanese best seller list as number 14 , selling over 20 @,@ 000 copies on the first day . In the United States , it was the 5th best seller in the first week.Star Fox Command has received mostly positive reviews , with a Metacritic score of 76 / 100 and a GameRankings score of 76 % . IGN gave it an 8 out of 10 , or " Impressive " , calling it a " surprisingly rich and faithful action game " that had similar game play to Star Fox and Star Fox 64 . Star Fox Command received IGN DS 's August 2006 Game of the Month Award for capturing " the fun and essence of what made the series so significant . " Famitsu gave a 32 / 40 , and was cited as an influence for the games large initial sales . It received a 4 out of 5 star rating on G4 's X @-@ Play , which stated that " Fox is finally back in the Arwing -- where he belongs , Stylus control is mostly excellent , Strategy elements work well . " The Associated Press noted the game for having developed the game to work well with the DS controls , but had mixed feelings about the turn @-@ based sections of gameplay . Electronic Gaming Monthly claimed that while the game has its own charm , it lacks the original gameplay from Star Fox and Star Fox 64 and becomes repetitive . UK website Mansized gave Command a three out of five stars , stating that " Star Fox Command can ’ t hold a candle to previous games in the series . " Command was nominated in three categories in Nintendo Power 's annual vote @-@ in awards , although it did not win in any of them . Star Fox Command has also received an 8 from Game Informer magazine . Although it was criticized for its brevity , the game was lauded for its solid gameplay mechanics , and one reviewer stated that " His place is in the cockpit . That 's where he 's at his best . "
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= Blink ( Doctor Who ) =
" Blink " is the tenth episode of the third series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who . It was first broadcast on 9 June 2007 on the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) . The episode was directed by Hettie MacDonald and is the only episode in the 2007 series written by Steven Moffat . The episode is based on a previous short story written by Moffat for the 2006 Doctor Who Annual , entitled " ' What I Did on My Christmas Holidays ' By Sally Sparrow " .
In the episode , the Doctor — a time travelling alien played by David Tennant — and his companion Martha Jones ( Freema Agyeman ) are trapped in the past and try to communicate with a young woman , Sally Sparrow ( Carey Mulligan ) , to prevent the Weeping Angels from taking control of the TARDIS . Sparrow and her best friend 's brother , Larry Nightingale ( Finlay Robertson ) , must unravel a set of cryptic clues sent through time by the marooned Doctor .
The Doctor and his companion have very little screen time , which allowed for another episode to be filmed simultaneously ; " Blink " is consequently referred to as a " Doctor @-@ lite " episode . The scenes at Wester Drumlins were shot in a derelict house in Newport . To create the angels , two actresses wore makeup and prosthetics . The episode was seen by 6 @.@ 62 million viewers in the United Kingdom .
" Blink " received widespread critical acclaim , and is widely considered to be one of the best episodes of the show . Moffat won the BAFTA Craft and BAFTA Cymru awards for Best Writer , and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form , while for her single performance in the series , Mulligan won the Constellation Award for Best Female Performance in a 2007 Science Fiction Television Episode . In 2009 the episode was voted the second best Doctor Who story ever by readers of Doctor Who Magazine .
= = Plot = =
In 2007 , Sally Sparrow enters an abandoned house to look for subjects to photograph . Instead she finds eerie statues and a message from the Doctor behind peeling wallpaper addressed to her , warning her about the Weeping Angels . Sally returns the next day with her friend Kathy Nightingale to explore further but Kathy disappears at the same time a young man knocks at the door . He claims to be Kathy 's grandson and delivers a letter to Sally . The letter explains that Kathy suddenly found herself in the 1920s in Hull . She settled down with a husband and led a peaceful life and requests that Sally tell Kathy 's brother Larry of her disappearance . Sally sees a Yale key hanging from the hand of one of the statues and takes it before leaving .
Sally visits Larry at a DVD shop and is told that he has been documenting an " Easter egg " in seventeen apparently unrelated DVDs . The egg contains video clips of a man calling himself The Doctor , having half of a conversation with the viewer . Larry gives Sally a list of the DVDs and she leaves for the police station . There she meets DI Billy Shipton , who explains that there have been several disappearances at the abandoned house and shows her an impound lot containing a locked fake police box . Sally leaves but remembers the Yale key and returns to find that Billy and the phone box have disappeared . She immediately receives a call from a much older Billy , who is on his death bed at the hospital . She visits him and he explains that after she left the lot , he discovered the Angels trying to retrieve the police box . He then suddenly found himself in 1969 , where he met the Doctor and was asked to relay a message to Sally decades later . Billy subsequently married and started a video production house that was responsible for putting the Easter egg on the DVDs . Before Billy dies he tells Sally the Doctor 's message , which instructs her to look at the list . Sally realises that the list is her own DVD collection and that the Easter egg is meant for her .
Sally and Larry return to the house with several of the DVDs and a portable DVD player . They select a DVD to watch the Easter egg and Larry places another into his pocket . Sally discovers she can converse with the Doctor in the past , as he possesses a transcript that is currently being compiled by Larry as he listens . The Doctor explains that he and Martha were transported to the past by the Weeping Angels . The Angels are " quantum locked " , allowing them to move unbelievably fast when unobserved , while they turn to stone , making them become statues that are difficult to destroy , when they are observed . They will cover their eyes when near other angels to avoid looking at each other , giving them their weeping appearance . If they ever look at another angel , they become permanently locked in statue form . He warns Sally not to look away or even blink when they are around . The Doctor tells them they are seeking his TARDIS to acquire its potential power . The Doctor comes to the end of the transcript and Sally realises Larry has stopped writing it due to the presence of an Angel in the room . They make their way to the basement of the house and discover the Angels and the TARDIS . The Angels attack and Sally and Larry use Sally 's key to hide inside the TARDIS . Once in the control room , a hologram of the Doctor informs them that they have a control disk with them . Larry takes a now glowing DVD from his pocket and inserts it into the console . The TARDIS dematerialises , leaving a panicking Sally and Larry behind . With the TARDIS gone , the Angels have been tricked into looking at each other and have become permanently frozen as statues .
One year later , Sally and Larry have opened a DVD store . Sally insists on keeping a folder of the events but Larry wants her to move on and indicates he has feelings for her . Sally gently rebuffs him and Larry steps out on an errand . Sally sees the Doctor and Martha hurriedly leave a taxi in front of the shop and goes outside to meet them . They don 't recognise her and she realises that they have yet to experience the events that sent them to the past . She hands the Doctor the folder , warning him that he will need it in his future . The Doctor and Sally say goodbye as Larry returns , surprised to see the man from the Easter egg . Sally and Larry return to the shop hand in hand , hinting that she is now ready for a romantic relationship . The episode ends with a repeat of the Doctor 's warning to Sally , this time directed at the viewer and overlaid with flashes of famous statues , implying any statue in the world can be a Weeping Angel .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Blink " was written by Steven Moffat . Part of the story for " Blink " is based on Moffat 's own Ninth Doctor short story from the Doctor Who Annual 2006 called " ' What I Did on My Christmas Holidays ' by Sally Sparrow " . The short story is presented as a homework essay from Sally , though only 12 years old , who encounters evidence of the Doctor 's presence from the past in her aunt 's house while visiting . " What I Did " includes several elements that are reused in " Blink " , including messages under the wallpaper and an ontological paradox involving a conversation between Sally and the Doctor , prerecorded on a video cassette , based on a written transcript — the essay itself ; however , instead of the Angels , " What I Did " features the Doctor and the TARDIS inadvertently separated twenty years in time by a fault in the time machine , and the Doctor is able to instruct Sally how to bring it back to him in the past .
Moffat had held the idea of the Weeping Angels since seeing an angel statue in a graveyard whilst on a family holiday , and had planned to use them for the next series in the episodes that became " Silence in the Library " and " Forest of the Dead " . However , after withdrawing from the writing of series three 's first two @-@ part story — Helen Raynor took over these episodes , writing " Daleks in Manhattan " and " Evolution of the Daleks " — Moffat volunteered to write the series ' Doctor @-@ lite episode and opted to use the Weeping Angels in what would become " Blink " . Moffat was also inspired to write the episode based on the popular children 's game Statues , which he always found " frightening " . Murray Gold , the composer for the series , later compared the creatures to the moving ghostly topiary animals in Stephen King 's 1977 horror novel The Shining .
" Blink " is the third story of the revived series to be adapted for television by the same writer from a piece of their spin @-@ off writing . It follows the " Human Nature " and " The Family of Blood " story arc , which was adapted by Paul Cornell from his 1995 novel Human Nature ; and " Dalek " , which used the basic premise as well as several scenes and lines of dialogue adapted by Robert Shearman from his 2003 audio drama Jubilee . " Blink " is referred to as a " Doctor @-@ Lite " episode because the Doctor and his companion have very little screen time . This allowed two episodes to be filmed simultaneously , a process known as " double banking " . The practice had begun with the 2006 entry " Love & Monsters " , and would continue for episodes such as " Turn Left " , " Midnight " , and " The Girl Who Waited " . Moffat stated that he felt relaxed when he was writing the script for " Blink " , for if it proved to be unpopular , he could blame the " Doctor @-@ lite " structure of the episode . Due to the show 's tight schedule , " Blink " had only one script meeting .
= = = Filming = = =
" Blink " was directed by Hettie MacDonald , making her the first female director of a Doctor Who episode since the Sixth Doctor serial The Mark of the Rani . Russell T Davies , the series ' executive producer , later noted that , due to MacDonald 's work , the episode included some of " the most beautiful [ visuals ] we 've ever had " . British actress Carey Mulligan was chosen to play Sally Sparrow ; Mulligan was reportedly ecstatic to have been cast in the series . She was initially concerned with the fact that Tennant would have little screen time , but after the episode aired was very pleased with the final result .
Location shooting for scenes set at the Police Station Garage took place at the Coal Exchange and Mount Stuart Square , Cardiff Bay on 21 November 2006 . Fields House , located in Newport , filled in for Wester Drumlins . The house was already abandoned and falling into disrepair when the filming crews arrived . Moffat noted that " very little of it was tarted up " for the shoot ; Moffat later called the location " the creepiest house " he had ever seen . The name was taken from a previous residence that Moffat lived in during the late 1990s . Larry describes the residence as " Scooby @-@ Doo 's house " , a reference to the dilapidated mansions that the Scooby @-@ Doo gang would usually visit . The BBC Fact File for the episode notes that 1969 — the year Martha , the Doctor and Billy are sent to — is the first year Scooby @-@ Doo , Where Are You ! aired .
Originally , the producers considered having Michael Obiora play both the young and old version of Billy Shipton . However , it was decided that Obiora in makeup would look too fake , and so Louis Mahoney was cast to play the older version . Initially , Obiora played the role with a London accent ; Mahoney , however , has a thick accent . Obiora had to re @-@ dub his lines to match . Billy mentions that the windows of the TARDIS are the wrong size for a real police box . In 2004 , when the first photographs of the new series ' TARDIS prop were revealed , there was a vigorous discussion of the box 's dimensions on the Outpost Gallifrey Doctor Who discussion forum , in which some fans complained that the prop 's windows were too big . Moffat has confirmed that this line is an in @-@ joke aimed at the Outpost Gallifrey forum .
= = = Effects = = =
Moffat joked that " since I was a kid , I 've been thinking of Doctor Who monsters , just now when I do , it costs the art department [ … ] a lot of money " . To create the rigid structure of the angels ' dresses , prosthetics supervisors Rob Mayor soaked fabric in fibreglass resin , which was then painted over . Although they are never shown moving on screen , all of the Weeping Angels were played by actresses Aga Blonska and Elen Thomas wearing makeup and prosthetics . The actresses wore two distinct masks : one that was more docile looking , and one with fangs bared . Blonska later noted that " I 'm partly painted , partly glued into the costume , but it 's quite comfortable . " Although the actresses were slightly " wobbly " when they stood still , the producers used digital effects to , in essence , freeze the angels on film . Moffat was very pleased with the results , and called them " fantastic " . Mulligan later called the effects " so good " and " really creepy " .
To create the effect of the Angels rocking the TARDIS Mulligan and Robertson threw themselves around the ship 's set . The camera 's operator then shook the camera in the opposite direction that Mulligan and Robertson threw themselves . The scene wherein the Doctor talks to Sally via a DVD extra was created by writing a conversation , removing Sally 's lines , then having David Tennant record his lines . Moffat felt that this one @-@ way filming made the performance more convincing . Moffat initially wrote placeholder dialogue in the script for the scene where the Doctor tells Sally that he can hear her in the DVD shop , because he knew the lines that appeared would have to play " double duty later on " and be authentic and fresh both times . Gold called the sequences " the heart of the Chinese puzzle " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Blink " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 9 June 2007 . Overnight ratings showed that it was watched by 6 @.@ 1 million viewers , which rose to 6 @.@ 62 once time @-@ shifted viewers were taken into account . The episode was the seventh most watched episode on BBC One for the week ending 10 June and was the lowest @-@ rated episode of Doctor Who 's third series . It received an Appreciation Index of 87 , considered " excellent " . In its initial broadcast , a short clip of a card reading " One Year Later " was shown before the episode 's denouement . In the syndicated and the DVD version , this shot has been removed .
A Region 2 DVD containing " Blink " together with the episodes " Human Nature " and " The Family of Blood " was released on 23 July 2007 . It was re @-@ released as part of the complete series three DVD on 5 November 2007 .
= = = Critical reception and accolades = = =
" Blink " received universal critical acclaim , with many praising the acting , the script , the level of fear and the Weeping Angels themselves . The Guardian 's Stephen Brook called it a " wonderfully creepy episode " that " ultimately made sense " despite " barely featur [ ing ] the Doctor and Martha " . David Bradley of SFX awarded " Blink " five out of five stars , saying that it could have featured any of the previous Doctors and predicted that its " timelessness " would ensure that it would " [ go ] down as one of the finest , scariest , cleverest Who episodes ever " . IGN 's Travis Fickett gave the episode 9 @.@ 1 out of 10 , praising the way the audience felt they had known Sally Sparrow for a while , as well as the strength of Mulligan 's performance , although he noted that " all of the performances in this episode are exceptional " . He concluded that , " it 's difficult to believe that so much was accomplished in such a short amount of time . The story of not one , but two relationships was told , several time lines intersected and a new and rather frightening enemy was vanquished without The Doctor ever coming face to face with them " . Ross Ruedinger of Slant Magazine believed that the episode was not just the best Doctor Who episode , but also a great episode of the science fiction and horror genre that could allow it to stand alone . He also praised the fear @-@ inducing concept of the Weeping Angels as well the " tenderness of the story and the characters " which were " quite intricate given how much is going on in these 45 minutes " . The Daily Telegraph named the episode one of the best of the show 's entire run , noting that , while the Doctor " is somewhat on the periphery here " , it " adds to the threat " .
Many critics consider the episode one of the strongest during Tennant 's time as the Doctor . IGN 's Matt Wales named it the sixth best episode of Tennant 's tenure , while Sam McPherson of TVOvermind listed it as the second best Tenth Doctor episode . In 2011 , before the second half of the sixth series , The Huffington Post labelled " Blink " as one of the five essential episodes for new viewers to watch . The Weeping Angels also received critical praise . In 2009 SFX named the climax with the Weeping Angels advancing on Sally and Larry the scariest moment in Doctor Who 's history , describing it as " a terrifying combination of scary concept and perfect direction " . The Weeping Angels came in at number three in Neil Gaiman 's " Top Ten New Classic Monsters " in Entertainment Weekly , while TV Squad named them the third scariest television characters . They were also rated the third " baddie " in Doctor Who by The Daily Telegraph , behind the Nestene Consciousness and Daleks . In 2009 SFX listed the Angels in their list of favourite things of the revival of Doctor Who , writing , " Scariest . Monsters . Ever . "
Writer Steven Moffat was awarded the 2008 BAFTA Craft and BAFTA Cymru awards for Best Writer for his work on this episode . " Blink " won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form , and Carey Mulligan received the Constellation Award for Best Female Performance in a 2007 Science Fiction Television Episode . The episode was nominated for the Nebula Award for Best Script , but lost to Pan 's Labyrinth by Guillermo del Toro .
= = = Legacy = = =
" Blink " received the award for Best Story in the Doctor Who Magazine 2007 Survey . In Doctor Who Magazine 's 2009 poll to find the greatest Doctor Who story ever , it came in second place after Peter Davison 's final story , The Caves of Androzani . In a 2007 poll conducted by the BBC , taking votes from 2 @,@ 000 readers of the Doctor Who Adventures magazine , the Weeping Angels were voted the scariest monsters of 2007 with 55 % of the vote ; the Master and the Daleks took second and third place with 15 % and 4 % of the vote . In a 2012 poll of over ten thousand respondents conducted by the Radio Times , the Weeping Angels were again voted the best Doctor Who monster with 49 @.@ 4 % of the vote . In Doctor Who Magazine 's 2014 fan poll of the greatest episodes of all time , " Blink " again came in second , this time behind the 2013 episode " The Day of the Doctor " .
Moffat , after becoming lead writer of the programme , wrote " The Time of Angels " and " Flesh and Stone " for the fifth series as a more action @-@ oriented sequel , believing that good monsters should come back with a different style of story . They also returned in " The Angels Take Manhattan " , seventh series episode , and have featured in " Good as Gold " , a mini @-@ episode written by children for a Blue Peter contest , and the New Series Adventures novel Touched by an Angel by Jonathan Morris .
A line spoken by the Doctor , " The angels have the phone box " , is rhetorically repeated by Larry and prompts him to say " I 've got that on a T @-@ shirt " . As expected by Moffat and Gold , this led online retailers such as ThinkGeek , and Zazzle , among others , to offer versions of such a product for sale . In addition , the " wibbly @-@ wobbly timey @-@ wimey " line has been used to describe several of Moffat 's complex time travel stories , such as " Let 's Kill Hitler " and " The Big Bang " . The line was also referenced in the first episode of the fifth series , " The Eleventh Hour " , when the Eleventh Doctor ( Matt Smith ) scans the crack in young Amelia Pond 's ( Caitlin Blackwood ) wall with his sonic screwdriver . BBC America created a series of four specials prior to the seventh series premiere of Doctor Who , including one entitled " The Timey @-@ Wimey Stuff of Doctor Who " .
British " Timelord rock " band Chameleon Circuit , composed of YouTube bloggers Alex Day and Charlie McDonnell among others , wrote a song about the episode , also entitled " Blink " , and released it on their debut eponymous album .
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= Westminster tube station =
Westminster is a London Underground station in the City of Westminster . It is served by the Circle , District and Jubilee lines . On the Circle and District lines , the station is between St. James 's Park and Embankment and , on the Jubilee line it is between Green Park and Waterloo . It is in Travelcard Zone 1 . The station is located at the corner of Bridge Street and Victoria Embankment and is close to the Houses of Parliament , Westminster Abbey , Parliament Square , Whitehall , Westminster Bridge and the London Eye . Also close by are Downing Street , the Cenotaph , Westminster Millennium Pier , the Treasury , the Foreign and Commonwealth Office and the Supreme Court .
The station is in two parts : sub @-@ surface platforms opened in 1868 by the District Railway ( DR ) as part of the company 's first section of the Inner Circle route and deep level platforms opened in 1999 as part of the Jubilee line extension from Green Park to Stratford . A variety of underground and main line services have operated over the sub @-@ surface tracks , but the original station was completely rebuilt in conjunction with the construction of the deep level platforms and Portcullis House which sits above the station .
= = History = =
= = = Sub @-@ surface station = = =
The station was opened as Westminster Bridge on 24 December 1868 by the steam @-@ operated District Railway ( DR ) ( now the District line ) when the railway opened the first section of its line from South Kensington . It was originally the eastern terminus of the DR and the station cutting ended at a concrete wall buffered by timber sleepers . The approach to the station from the west runs in cut and cover tunnel under the roadway of Broad Sanctuary and diagonally under Parliament Square . In Broad Sanctuary the tunnel is close to Westminster Abbey and St Margaret 's church and care was required to avoid undermining their foundations when excavating in the poor ground found there .
The original station building was a temporary structure positioned over the tracks and the platforms were sheltered with individual awnings rather than the all @-@ over glazed roof provided at the DR 's other stations . Access to the station was via a passageway from Bridge Street and a pedestrian subway under the road . On 30 May 1870 , the railway was extended to Blackfriars .
The DR connected to the Metropolitan Railway ( MR , later the Metropolitan line ) at South Kensington and , although the two companies were rivals , each company operated its trains over the other 's tracks in a joint service known as the Inner Circle . On 1 February 1872 , the DR opened a northbound branch from its station at Earl 's Court to connect to the West London Extension Joint Railway ( WLEJR , now the West London Line ) at Addison Road ( now Kensington ( Olympia ) ) . From that date the Outer Circle service began running over the DR 's tracks . The service was run by the North London Railway ( NLR ) from its terminus at Broad Street ( now demolished ) in the City of London via the North London Line to Willesden Junction , then the West London Line to Addison Road and the DR to Mansion House – at that time the eastern terminus of the DR.
From 1 August 1872 , the Middle Circle service also began operations through South Kensington , running from Moorgate along the MR 's tracks on the north side of the Inner Circle to Paddington , then over the Hammersmith & City Railway ( H & CR ) track to Latimer Road , then , via a now demolished link , on the WLEJR to Addison Road and the DR to Mansion House . The service was operated jointly by the H & CR and the DR. On 30 June 1900 , the Middle Circle service was shortened to terminate at Earl 's Court , and , on 31 December 1908 , the Outer Circle service was withdrawn from the DR tracks . As part of efforts to improve competitiveness , the DR 's tracks were electrified during 1905 and new electric rolling stock was brought into use . In 1907 , the station was given its present name , Westminster .
By the mid @-@ 1890s the station entrance had been incorporated into a larger building . In 1922 , a new entrance and canopy was designed for the Bridge Street entrance by Charles Holden and , in 1924 , he designed a plainly rendered replacement elevation for the eastern entrance on to the Embankment . These were the first of many projects by the architect for the London Electric Railway ( the main forerunner of London Transport and Transport for London ) . The station platforms were also refurbished with new wall tiling in the green , blue , black and white tiling scheme used later by Holden on many stations of the period and still visible at neighbouring St James 's Park station . In 1949 , the Metropolitan line @-@ operated Inner Circle route was given its own identity on the tube map as the Circle line .
Between late 1962 and early 1964 the east ends of the platforms were extended to allow longer 8 @-@ car trains to be operated . This involved carefully enlarging the tunnels under the Metropolitan Police 's original headquarters at New Scotland Yard ( now Norman Shaw Buildings ) . The station was completely rebuilt to incorporate new deep @-@ level platforms for the Jubilee line when it was extended to the London Docklands in the 1990s . During the works , the level of the sub @-@ surface platforms was lowered to enable ground level access to Portcullis House . This was achieved in small increments which were carried out when the line was closed at night .
= = = Deep @-@ level station = = =
When the first section of the Jubilee line was planned in the 1970s , the second phase of the project was intended to continue the line eastwards from the terminus at Charing Cross to the City of London , Woolwich and Thamesmead . Westminster station would not have been on this planned route , but the need to provide transport infrastructure for the redevelopment of the London Docklands in east and south @-@ east London led to a redirection of the route to run via Westminster to connect Waterloo and London Bridge stations with the new developments . For the Jubilee Line Extension , the buildings around the station were demolished and the sub @-@ surface station was completely reconstructed together with the erection of a parliamentary office building , Portcullis House , which sits above the station . Both projects were designed by Michael Hopkins & Partners .
The construction of the deep @-@ level station involved the excavation of a 39 @-@ metre ( 128 ft ) deep void around and beneath the sub @-@ surface station to house the escalators to the Jubilee line platforms . The void , known as the station box , was the deepest ever excavation in central London and was carried out between thick reinforced concrete diaphragm walls stiffened and braced horizontally for stability . Under Bridge Street , on the south side of the station box , the two Jubilee line platform tunnels are arranged with the westbound platform below the eastbound . The depth of the station box excavation and the proximity of the tunnels represented a significant risk to the stability of the foundation of the Houses of Parliament 's clock tower ( popularly known as Big Ben ) , which stands only 34 metres ( 112 ft ) from the edge of the station box . To protect the foundation and manage settlement in the sub @-@ soil , a series of 50 @-@ metre ( 160 ft ) long steel tubes was installed horizontally around and beneath the clock tower 's 3 @-@ metre ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) thick foundation . The tubes were provided with a control system through which grout was injected into the ground to compensate for settlement detected from detailed measurements of the clock tower 's position . As excavation of the station box and the tunnels took place , grout was injected on 22 occasions between January 1996 and September 1997 . The process limited the movement of the clock tower to an acceptable maximum of 35 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) . Without the grout injection , the movement would have been at least 120 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) causing cracking to the structure of the tower and the Houses of Parliament . The Jubilee line platforms were opened on 22 December 1999 , although trains had been running through the station without stopping since 20 November 1999 .
The station 's architecture is an austere combination of concrete and stainless steel , with stacked banks of escalators supported from the cross @-@ bracing structures spanning the station box and routes for passengers entering or leaving the station separated from those changing between lines . As with the other underground stations on the extension , the Jubilee line platforms feature platform screen doors to improve airflow through the system and increase safety . The station design won a number of awards including Civic Trust awards in 2000 and 2002 , the Royal Fine Art Commission Millennium Building of the Year award in 2000 and the RIBA Award for Architecture in 2001 . Both projects were jointly short @-@ listed in 2001 for the RIBA 's prestigious Stirling Prize .
= = = Design Icon = = =
As part of the Transported by Design programme of activities , in 15 October 2015 , after two months of public voting , Westminster tube station was elected by Londoners as one of the 10 favourite transport design icons .
= = Services = =
The station is in London fare zone 1 . On the District and Circle lines , the station is between St James 's Park and Embankment , and , on the Jubilee line , it is between Green Park and Waterloo . Train frequencies vary throughout the day , but generally District line trains operate every 2 – 6 minutes from approximately 05 : 25 to 00 : 38 eastbound and 05 : 49 to 00 : 37 westbound ; they are supplemented by Circle line trains every 8 – 12 minutes from approximately 05 : 49 to 00 : 24 clockwise and 05 : 36 to 00 : 19 anticlockwise . Jubilee line trains operate every 2 – 5 minutes from approximately 05 : 28 to 00 : 48 eastbound and 05 : 38 to 00 : 31 northbound .
= = Connections = =
London Buses routes 3 , 11 , 12 , 24 , 53 , 87 , 88 , 148 , 159 , 211 and 453 and night routes N2 , N3 , N11 , N44 , N52 , N87 , N109 , N136 , N155 and N381 serve the station .
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= Franco @-@ Mongol alliance =
Several attempts at a Franco @-@ Mongol alliance against the Islamic caliphates , their common enemy , were made by various leaders among the Frankish Crusaders and the Mongol Empire in the 13th century . Such an alliance might have seemed an obvious choice : the Mongols were already sympathetic to Christianity , given the presence of many influential Nestorian Christians in the Mongol court . The Franks ( Western Europeans and those in the Crusader States of the Levant ) were open to the idea of support from the East , in part owing to the long @-@ running legend of the mythical Prester John , an Eastern king in a magical kingdom who many believed would one day come to the assistance of the Crusaders in the Holy Land . The Franks and Mongols also shared a common enemy in the Muslims . However , despite many messages , gifts , and emissaries over the course of several decades , the often @-@ proposed alliance never came to fruition .
Contact between Europeans and Mongols began around 1220 , with occasional messages from the papacy and European monarchs to Mongol leaders such as the Great Khan , and subsequently to the Ilkhans in Mongol @-@ conquered Iran . Communications tended to follow a recurring pattern : the Europeans asked the Mongols to convert to Western Christianity , while the Mongols responded with demands for submission and tribute . The Mongols had already conquered many Christian and Muslim nations in their advance across Asia , and after destroying the Muslim Abbasid and Ayyubid dynasties , for the next few generations fought the remaining Islamic power in the region , the Egyptian Mamluks . Hethum I , king of the Christian nation of Cilician Armenia , had submitted to the Mongols in 1247 , and strongly encouraged other monarchs to engage in a Christian @-@ Mongol alliance , but was only able to persuade his son @-@ in @-@ law , Prince Bohemond VI of the Crusader State of Antioch , who submitted in 1260 . Other Christian leaders such as the Crusaders of Acre were more mistrustful of the Mongols , perceiving them as the most significant threat in the region . The Barons of Acre therefore engaged in an unusual passive alliance with the Muslim Mamluks , allowing Egyptian forces to advance unopposed through Crusader territory to engage and defeat the Mongols at the pivotal Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 .
European attitudes began to change in the mid @-@ 1260s , from perceiving the Mongols as enemies to be feared , to potential allies against the Muslims . The Mongols sought to capitalize on this , promising a re @-@ conquered Jerusalem to the Europeans in return for cooperation . Attempts to cement an alliance continued through negotiations with many leaders of the Mongol Ilkhanate in Iran , from its founder Hulagu through his descendants Abaqa , Arghun , Ghazan , and Öljaitü , but without success . The Mongols invaded Syria several times between 1281 and 1312 , sometimes in attempts at joint operations with the Franks , but the considerable logistical difficulties involved meant that forces would arrive months apart , never able to coordinate activities in any effective way . The Mongol Empire eventually dissolved into civil war , and the Egyptian Mamluks successfully recaptured all of Palestine and Syria from the Crusaders . After the Fall of Acre in 1291 , the remaining Crusaders retreated to the island of Cyprus . They made a final attempt to establish a bridgehead at the small island of Ruad off the coast of Tortosa , again in an attempt to coordinate military action with the Mongols , but the plan failed , and the Muslims responded by besieging the island . With the Fall of Ruad in 1302 or 1303 , the Crusaders lost their last foothold in the Holy Land .
Modern historians debate whether an alliance between the Franks and Mongols would have been successful in shifting the balance of power in the region , and if it would have been a wise choice on the part of the Europeans . Traditionally , the Mongols tended to see outside parties as either subjects or enemies , with little room in the middle for a concept such as an ally .
= = Background ( 1209 – 1244 ) = =
Among Western Europeans , there had long been rumors and expectations that a great Christian ally would come from the East . These rumors circulated as early as the First Crusade ( 1096 – 1099 ) , and usually surged in popularity after the Crusaders lost a battle . A legend arose about a figure known as Prester John , who lived in far @-@ off India , Central Asia , or perhaps even Ethiopia . This legend developed a life of its own , and some individuals who came from the East were greeted with expectations that they might be forces sent by the long @-@ awaited Prester John . In 1210 , news reached the West of the battles of the Mongol Kuchlug ( d . 1218 ) , leader of the largely Christian tribe of the Naimans . Kuchlug 's forces had been battling the powerful Khwarezmian Empire , whose leader was the Muslim Muhammad II of Khwarezm . Rumors circulated in Europe that Kuchlug was the mythical Prester John , again battling the Muslims in the East .
During the Fifth Crusade ( 1213 – 1221 ) , as the Christians were unsuccessfully laying siege to the Egyptian city of Damietta , the legend of Prester John became conflated with the reality of Genghis Khan 's rapidly expanding empire . Mongol raiding parties were beginning to invade the eastern Islamic world , in Transoxania and Persia in 1219 – 1221 . Rumors circulated among the Crusaders that a " Christian king of the Indies " , a King David who was either Prester John or one of his descendants , had been attacking Muslims in the East and was on his way to help the Christians in their crusades . In a letter dated June 20 , 1221 , Pope Honorius III even commented about " forces coming from the Far East to rescue the Holy Land " .
After Genghis Khan 's death in 1227 , his empire was divided by his descendants into four sections or Khanates , which degenerated into civil war . The northwestern Kipchak Khanate , known as the Golden Horde , expanded towards Europe , primarily via Hungary and Poland , while its leaders simultaneously opposed the rule of their cousins back at the Mongol capital . The southwestern section , known as the Ilkhanate , was under the leadership of Genghis Khan 's grandson Hulagu . He continued to support his brother , the Great Khan , and was therefore at war with the Golden Horde , while at the same time continuing an advance towards Persia and the Holy Land .
= = Papal overtures ( 1245 – 1248 ) = =
The first official communications between Western Europe and the Mongol Empire occurred between Pope Innocent IV ( fl . 1243 – 1254 ) and the Great Khans , via letters and envoys that were sent overland and could take years to arrive at their destination . The communications initiated what was to become a regular pattern in European – Mongol communications : the Europeans would ask the Mongols to convert to Christianity , and the Mongols would respond with demands for submission .
The Mongol invasion of Europe ended in 1242 , in part because of the death of the Great Khan Ögedei , successor to Genghis Khan . When one Great Khan died , Mongols from all parts of the empire were recalled to the capital to decide who should be the next Great Khan . In the meantime , the Mongols ' relentless march westward had displaced the Khawarizmi Turks , who themselves moved west , eventually allying with the Ayyubid Muslims in Egypt . Along the way , the Turks took Jerusalem from the Christians in 1244 . After the subsequent loss at the Battle of La Forbie , Christian kings began to prepare for a new crusade ( the Seventh Crusade ) , declared by Pope Innocent IV in June 1245 at the First Council of Lyon . The loss of Jerusalem caused some Europeans to look to the Mongols as potential allies of Christendom , provided the Mongols could be converted to Western Christianity . In March 1245 , Pope Innocent IV had issued multiple papal bulls , some of which were sent with an envoy , the Franciscan John of Plano Carpini , to the " Emperor of the Tartars " . In a letter now called the Cum non solum , Pope Innocent expressed a desire for peace , and asked the Mongol ruler to become a Christian and to stop killing Christians . However , the new Mongol Great Khan Güyük , installed at Karakorum in 1246 , replied only with a demand for the submission of the pope , and a visit from the rulers of the West in homage to Mongol power :
You should say with a sincere heart : " I will submit and serve you . " Thou thyself , at the head of all the Princes , come at once to serve and wait upon us ! At that time I shall recognize your submission . If you do not observe God 's command , and if you ignore my command , I shall know you as my enemy .
A second mission sent in 1245 by Pope Innocent was led by the Dominican Ascelin of Lombardia , who met with the Mongol commander Baiju near the Caspian Sea in 1247 . Baiju , who had plans to capture Baghdad , welcomed the possibility of an alliance and sent a message to Rome via his envoys Aïbeg and Serkis . They then returned a year later with Pope Innocent 's letter , Viam agnoscere veritatis , in which he appealed to the Mongols to " cease their menaces " .
= = Christian vassals = =
As the Mongols of the Ilkhanate continued to move towards the Holy Land , city after city fell to the Mongols . The typical Mongol pattern was to give a region one chance to surrender . If the target acquiesced , the Mongols absorbed the populace and warriors into their own Mongol army , which they would then use to further expand the empire . If a community did not surrender , the Mongols forcefully took the settlement or settlements and slaughtered everyone they found . Faced with the option of subjugation to or combat with the nearby Mongol horde , many communities chose the former , including some Christian realms .
Christian Georgia was repeatedly attacked starting in 1220 , and in 1243 Queen Rusudan formally submitted to the Mongols , turning Georgia into a vassal state which then became a regular ally in the Mongol military conquests . Hethum I of Cilician Armenia submitted in 1247 , and over the following years encouraged other monarchs to enter into a Christian @-@ Mongol alliance . He sent his brother Sempad to the Mongol court in Karakorum , and Sempad 's positive letters about the Mongols were influential in European circles .
= = = Antioch = = =
The Principality of Antioch was one of the earliest Crusader States , founded in 1098 during the First Crusade . At the time of the Mongol advance , it was under the rule of Bohemond VI . Under the influence of his father @-@ in @-@ law , Hethum I , Bohemond too submitted Antioch to Hulagu in 1260 . A Mongol representative and a Mongol garrison were stationed in the capital city of Antioch , where they remained until the Principality was destroyed by the Mamluks in 1268 . Bohemond was also required by the Mongols to accept the restoration of a Greek Orthodox patriarch , Euthymius , as a way of strengthening ties between the Mongols and the Byzantines . In return for this loyalty , Hulagu awarded Bohemond all the Antiochene territories which had been lost to the Muslims in 1243 . However , for his relations with the Mongols , Bohemond was also temporarily excommunicated by Jacques Pantaléon , the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem , though this was lifted in 1263 .
Around 1262 or 1263 , the Mamluk leader Baibars attempted an attack on Antioch , but the principality was saved by Mongol intervention . In later years the Mongols were not able to offer as much support . In 1264 – 1265 the Mongols were able to attack only the frontier fort of al @-@ Bira . In 1268 Baibars completely overran the rest of Antioch , ending the 170 @-@ year @-@ old principality .
In 1271 , Baibars sent a letter to Bohemond threatening him with total annihilation and taunting him for his alliance with the Mongols :
Our yellow flags have repelled your red flags , and the sound of the bells has been replaced by the call : " Allâh Akbar ! " ... Warn your walls and your churches that soon our siege machinery will deal with them , your knights that soon our swords will invite themselves in their homes ... We will see then what use will be your alliance with Abagha .
Bohemond was left with no estates except the County of Tripoli , which was itself to fall to the Mamluks in 1289 .
= = Saint Louis and the Mongols = =
Louis IX of France had communications with the Mongols throughout his own crusades . During his first venture to Outremer , he was met on December 20 , 1248 in Cyprus by two Mongol envoys , Nestorians from Mosul named David and Marc , who brought a letter from the Mongol commander in Persia , Eljigidei . The letter communicated a more conciliatory tone than previous Mongol demands for submission , and Eljigidei 's envoys suggested that King Louis should land in Egypt while Eljigidei attacked Baghdad , as a way of preventing the Muslims of Egypt and those of Syria from joining forces . Louis responded by sending the emissary Andrew of Longjumeau to the Great Khan Güyük , but Güyük died from drink before the emissary arrived at his court . Güyük 's widow Oghul Qaimish simply gave the emissary a gift and a condescending letter to take back to King Louis , instructing him to continue sending tributes each year .
Louis 's campaign against Egypt did not go well . He successfully captured Damietta , but lost his entire army at the Battle of Al Mansurah , and was himself captured by the Egyptians . His release was eventually negotiated in return for a ransom ( some of which was a loan from the Templars ) and the surrender of the city of Damietta . A few years later , in 1252 , Louis tried unsuccessfully to ally with the Egyptians , and then in 1253 he sought allies among both the Ismaili Assassins and the Mongols . When he saw a letter from Hethum 's brother , the Armenian noble Sempad , which spoke well of the Mongols , Louis dispatched the Franciscan William of Rubruck to the Mongol court . But the Mongol leader Möngke replied with only a letter via William in 1254 , asking for the King 's submission to Mongol authority .
Louis attempted a second crusade ( the Eighth Crusade ) in 1270 . The Mongol Ilkhanate leader Abaqa wrote to Louis IX offering military support as soon as the Crusaders landed in Palestine , but Louis instead went to Tunis in modern Tunisia . His intention was evidently to first conquer Tunis , and then to move his troops along the coast to reach Alexandria in Egypt . The French historians Alain Demurger and Jean Richard suggest that this crusade may still have been an attempt at coordination with the Mongols , in that Louis may have attacked Tunis instead of Syria following a message from Abaqa that he would not be able to commit his forces in 1270 , and asking to postpone the campaign to 1271 . Envoys from the Byzantine emperor , the Armenians and the Mongols of Abaqa were present at Tunis , but events put a stop to plans for a continued crusade when Louis died of illness . According to legend , his last word was " Jerusalem " .
= = Relations with the Ilkhanate = =
= = = Hulagu ( 1256 – 1265 ) = = =
Hulagu Khan , a grandson of Genghis Khan , was an avowed shamanist , but was nevertheless very tolerant of Christianity . His mother Sorghaghtani Beki , his favorite wife Doquz Khatun , and several of his closest collaborators were Nestorian Christians . One of his most important generals , Kitbuqa , was a Nestorian Christian of the Naiman tribe . Military collaboration between the Mongols and their Christian vassals became substantial in 1258 – 1260 . Hulagu 's army , with the forces of his Christian subjects Bohemond VI of Antioch , Hethum I of Armenia , and the Christian Georgians , effectively destroyed two of the most powerful Muslim dynasties of the era : the Abbasids in Baghdad and the Ayyubids in Syria .
= = = = Fall of Baghdad ( 1258 ) = = = =
The Abbasid Caliphate , supposedly founded by Muhammad 's uncle Abbas in the 8th century , had ruled northeastern Africa , Arabia , and the Near East . Their seat of power for 500 years was Baghdad , a city considered to be the jewel of Islam and one of the largest and most powerful cities in the world . But under attack from the Mongols , the city fell on February 15 , 1258 , a loss often considered in the Muslim world as the single most catastrophic event in the history of Islam , the end of the Islamic Golden Age . The Christian Georgians had been the first to breach the walls , and as described by historian Steven Runciman , " were particularly fierce in their destruction " . When Hulagu conquered the city , the Mongols demolished buildings , burned entire neighborhoods , and massacred nearly 80 @,@ 000 men , women , and children . But at the intervention of Doquz Khatun , the Christian inhabitants were spared .
For Asiatic Christians , the fall of Baghdad was cause for celebration . Hulagu and his Christian queen came to be considered as God 's agents against the enemies of Christianity , and were compared to the influential 4th @-@ century Christian Emperor Constantine the Great and his revered empress mother , Saint Helen , an icon of the Christian church . The Armenian historian Kyrakos of Gandzak praised the Mongol royal couple in texts for the Armenian Church , and Bar Hebraeus , a bishop of the Syriac Orthodox Church , also referred to them as a Constantine and Helena , writing of Hulagu that nothing could compare to the " king of kings " in " wisdom , high @-@ mindedness , and splendid deeds " .
= = = = Invasion of Syria ( 1260 ) = = = =
After Baghdad , in 1260 the Mongols with their Christian subjects conquered Muslim Syria , domain of the Ayyubid dynasty . They took together the city of Aleppo in January , and in March , the Mongols with the Armenians and the Franks of Antioch took Damascus , under the Christian Mongol general Kitbuqa . With both the Abbasid and Ayyubid dynasties destroyed , the Near East , as described by historian Steven Runciman , " was never again to dominate civilization . " The last Ayyubid sultan An @-@ Nasir Yusuf died shortly thereafter , and with the Islamic power centers of Baghdad and Damascus gone , the center of Islamic power transferred to the Egyptian Mamluks in Cairo . However , before the Mongols could continue their advance towards Egypt , they needed to withdraw because of the death of the Great Khan . Hulagu was needed back at the capital and took the bulk of his forces with him , leaving a small force under Kitbuqa to occupy Palestine during his absence . Mongol raiding parties were sent south into Palestine towards Egypt , with small Mongol garrisons of about 1 @,@ 000 established in Gaza .
= = = = Battle of Ain Jalut = = = =
Despite the cooperation between the Mongols and their Christian subjects in Antioch , other Christians in the Levant regarded the Mongol approach with unease . Jacques Pantaléon , the Patriarch of Jerusalem , saw the Mongols as a clear threat , and had written to the Pope to warn him about them in 1256 . The Franks did , however , send the Dominican David of Ashby to the court of Hulagu in 1260 . In Sidon , Julian Grenier , Lord of Sidon and Beaufort , described by his contemporaries as irresponsible and light @-@ headed , took an opportunity to raid and plunder the area of the Beqaa Valley in Mongol territory . One of the Mongols killed was Kitbuqa 's nephew , and in retaliation , Kitbuqa raided the city of Sidon . These events added to the level of distrust between the Mongols and the Crusader forces , whose own center of power was now in the coastal city of Acre .
The Franks of Acre did their best to maintain a position of cautious neutrality between the Mongols and the Mamluks . Despite their long history of enmity with the Mamluks , the Franks acknowledged that the Mongols were a greater threat , and after careful debate , chose to enter into a passive truce with their previous adversaries . The Franks allowed the Mamluk forces to move northward through Christian territory to engage the Mongols , in exchange for an agreement that the Franks could purchase any captured Mongol horses at a low price . The truce allowed the Mamluks to camp and re @-@ supply near Acre , and engage the Mongols at Ain Jalut on September 3 , 1260 . The Mongol forces were already depleted due to their main force withdrawing , so with the passive assistance of the Franks , the Mamluks were able to achieve a decisive and historic victory over the Mongols . The remainder of the Mongol army retreated to Cilician Armenia , where they were received and re @-@ equipped by Hethum I. Ain Jalut marked a major turning point in the history of the Mongols , as it was the first major battle that they had lost , and set the western border for what had seemed an unstoppable expansion of the Mongol Empire .
= = = = Papal communications = = = =
In the 1260s , a change occurred in the European perception of the Mongols , and they became regarded less as enemies , and more as potential allies in the fight against the Muslims . As recently as 1259 , Pope Alexander IV had been encouraging a new crusade against the Mongols , and had been extremely disappointed in hearing that the monarchs of Antioch and Cilician Armenia had submitted to Mongol overlordship . Alexander had put the monarchs ' cases on the agenda of his upcoming council , but died in 1261 just months before the Council could be convened , and before the new crusade could be launched . For a new pope , the choice fell to Pantaléon , the same Patriarch of Jerusalem who had earlier been warning of the Mongol threat . He took the name Pope Urban IV , and tried to raise money for a new crusade .
On April 10 , 1262 , the Mongol leader Hulagu sent through John the Hungarian a new letter to King Louis IX of France , again offering an alliance . The letter explained that previously , the Mongols had been under the impression that the pope was the leader of the Christians , but now they realized that the true power rested with the French monarchy . The letter mentioned Hulagu 's intention to capture Jerusalem for the benefit of the pope , and asked for Louis to send a fleet against Egypt . Hulagu promised the restoration of Jerusalem to the Christians , but also still insisted on Mongol sovereignty , in the Mongols ' quest for conquering the world . It is unclear whether or not King Louis actually received the letter , but at some point it was transmitted to Pope Urban , who answered in a similar way as his predecessors . In his papal bull Exultavit cor nostrum , Urban congratulated Hulagu on his expression of goodwill towards the Christian faith , and encouraged him to convert to Christianity .
Historians dispute the exact meaning of Urban 's actions . The mainstream view , exemplified by British historian Peter Jackson , holds that Urban still regarded the Mongols as enemies at this time . This perception began changing a few years later , during the pontificate of Pope Clement IV ( 1265 – 68 ) , when the Mongols were seen more as potential allies . However , the French historian Jean Richard argues that Urban 's act signaled a turning point in Mongol @-@ European relations as early as 1263 , after which the Mongols were considered as actual allies . Richard also argues that it was in response to this forming coalition between the Franks , Ilkhanid Mongols and Byzantines , that the Mongols of the Golden Horde allied with the Muslim Mamluks in return . However , the mainstream view of historians is that though there were many attempts at forming an alliance , the attempts proved unsuccessful .
= = = Abaqa ( 1265 – 1282 ) = = =
Hulagu died in 1265 , and was succeeded by Abaqa ( 1234 – 1282 ) , who further pursued Western cooperation . Though a Buddhist , upon his succession he married Maria Palaiologina , an Orthodox Christian and the illegitimate daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos . Abaqa corresponded with Pope Clement IV through 1267 and 1268 , sending envoys to both Clement and King James I of Aragon . In a 1268 message to Clement , Abaqa promised to send troops to aid the Christians . It is unclear if this was what led to James 's unsuccessful expedition to Acre in 1269 . James initiated a small crusade , but a storm descended on his fleet as they attempted their crossing , forcing most of the ships to turn back . The crusade was ultimately handled by James 's two sons Fernando Sanchez and Pedro Fernandez , who arrived in Acre in December 1269 . Abaqa , despite his earlier promises of assistance , was in the process of facing another threat , an invasion in Khorasan by Mongols from Turkestan , and so could only commit a small force for the Holy Land , which did little but brandish the threat of an invasion along the Syrian frontier in October 1269 . He raided as far as Harim and Afamiyaa in October , but retreated as soon as Baibars ' forces advanced .
= = = = Edward I 's crusade ( 1269 – 1274 ) = = = =
In 1269 , the English Prince Edward ( the future Edward I ) , inspired by tales of his great @-@ uncle , Richard the Lionheart , and the second crusade of the French King Louis , started on a crusade of his own , the Ninth Crusade . The number of knights and retainers that accompanied Edward on the crusade was quite small , possibly around 230 knights , with a total complement of approximately 1 @,@ 000 people , transported in a flotilla of 13 ships . Edward understood the value of an alliance with the Mongols , and upon his arrival in Acre on May 9 , 1271 , he immediately sent an embassy to the Mongol ruler Abaqa , requesting assistance . Abaqa answered positively to Edward 's request , asking him to coordinate his activities with his general Samagar , whom he sent on an offensive against the Mamluks with 10 @,@ 000 Mongols to join Edward 's army . But Edward was able only to engage in some fairly ineffectual raids that did not actually achieve success in gaining new territory . For example , when he engaged in a raid into the Plain of Sharon , he proved unable to even take the small Mamluk fortress of Qaqun . However , Edward 's military operations , limited though they were , were still of assistance in persuading the Mamluk leader Baibars to agree to a 10 @-@ year truce between the city of Acre and the Mamluks , signed in 1272 . Edward 's efforts were described by historian Reuven Amitai as " the nearest thing to real Mongol @-@ Frankish military coordination that was ever to be achieved , by Edward or any other Frankish leader . "
= = = = Council of Lyon ( 1274 ) = = = =
In 1274 Pope Gregory X convened the Second Council of Lyon . Abaqa sent a delegation of 13 to 16 Mongols to the Council , which created a great stir , particularly when three of their members underwent a public baptism . Abaqa 's Latin secretary Rychaldus delivered a report to the Council which outlined previous European @-@ Ilkhanid relations under Abaqa 's father , Hulagu , affirming that after Hulagu had welcomed Christian ambassadors to his court , he had agreed to exempt Latin Christians from taxes and charges , in exchange for their prayers for the Khan . According to Rychaldus , Hulagu had also prohibited the molestation of Frank establishments , and had committed to return Jerusalem to the Franks . Rychaldus assured the assembly that even after Hulagu 's death , his son Abaqa was still determined to drive the Mamluks from Syria .
At the Council , Pope Gregory promulgated a new crusade in liaison with the Mongols , putting in place a vast program in his " Constitutions for the zeal of the faith " , with four main elements : imposing a new tax for three years , forbidding trade with the Sarazins ( Muslims ) , arranging the supply of ships by the Italian maritime republics , and the alliance of the West with both Byzantium and the Mongol Ilkhan Abaqa . Abaqa then sent another embassy , led by the Georgian Vassali brothers , to further notify Western leaders of military preparations . Gregory answered that his legates would accompany the crusade , and that they would be in charge of coordinating military operations with the Ilkhan .
However , the papal plans were not supported by the other European monarchs , who had lost enthusiasm for the Crusades . Only one western monarch attended the Council , the elderly James I of Aragon , who could only offer a small force . There was fundraising for a new crusade , and plans were made , but never followed through . The projects essentially came to a halt with the death of Pope Gregory on January 10 , 1276 , and the money which had been raised to finance the expedition was instead distributed in Italy .
= = = = Invasion of Syria ( 1280 – 1281 ) = = = =
Without support from the Europeans , some Franks in Outremer , particularly the Knights Hospitaller of the fortress of Marqab , and to some extent the Franks of Cyprus and Antioch , attempted to join in combined operations with the Mongols in 1280 – 1281 . The death of the Egyptian leader Baibars in 1277 led to disorganization in the Muslim territories , making conditions ripe for a new action by other factions in the Holy Land . The Mongols seized the opportunity , organized a new invasion of Syria , and in September 1280 occupied Bagras and Darbsak , followed by Aleppo on October 20 . The Mongol leader Abaqa , taking advantage of his momentum , sent envoys to Edward I of England , the Franks of Acre , King Hugh of Cyprus , and Bohemond VII of Tripoli ( son of Bohemond VI ) , requesting their support for the campaign . But the Crusaders were not organized enough themselves to be of much help . In Acre , the Patriarch 's Vicar replied that the city was suffering from hunger , and that the king of Jerusalem was already embroiled in another war . Local Knights Hospitaller from Marqab ( in the area which had previously been Antioch / Tripoli ) were able to make raids into the Beqaa Valley , as far as the Mamluk @-@ held Krak des Chevaliers in 1280 and 1281 . Hugh and Bohemond of Antioch mobilized their armies , but their forces were prevented from joining those of the Mongols by Baibars ' successor , the new Egyptian Sultan Qalawun . He advanced north from Egypt in March 1281 , positioned his own army between the Franks and Mongols , and then further divided the potential allies by renewing a truce with the Barons of Acre on May 3 , 1281 , extending it for another ten years and ten months ( a truce he would later breach ) . He also renewed a second 10 @-@ year truce with Bohemond VII of Tripoli on July 16 , 1281 , and affirmed pilgrim access to Jerusalem .
In September 1281 the Mongols returned , with 50 @,@ 000 of their own troops , plus 30 @,@ 000 others including Armenians under Leo III , Georgians , and 200 Knights Hospitaller from Marqab , who sent a contingent even though the Franks of Acre had agreed a truce with the Mamluks . The Mongols and their auxiliary troops fought against the Mamluks at the Second Battle of Homs on October 30 , 1281 , but the encounter was indecisive , with the Sultan suffering heavy losses . In retaliation , Qalawun later besieged and captured the Hospitaller fortress of Marqab in 1285 .
= = = Arghun ( 1284 – 1291 ) = = =
Abaqa died in 1282 and was briefly replaced by his brother Tekuder , who had converted to Islam . Tekuder reversed Abaqa 's policy of seeking an alliance with the Franks , offering instead an alliance to the Mamluk Sultan Qalawun , who continued his own advance , capturing the Hospitaller fortress of Margat in 1285 , Lattakia in 1287 , and the County of Tripoli in 1289 . However , Tekuder 's pro @-@ Muslim stance was not popular , and in 1284 , Abaqa 's Buddhist son Arghun , with the support of the Great Khan Kublai , led a revolt and had Tekuder executed . Arghun then revived the idea of an alliance with the West , and sent multiple envoys to Europe .
The first of Arghun 's embassies was led by Isa Kelemechi , a Nestorian scientist who had been head of Kublai Khan 's Office of Western Astronomy . Kelemechi met with Pope Honorius IV in 1285 , offering to " remove " the Saracens ( Muslims ) and divide " the land of Sham , namely Egypt " with the Franks . The second embassy , and probably the most famous , was that of the elderly cleric Rabban Bar Sauma , who had been visiting the Ilkhanate during a remarkable pilgrimage from China to Jerusalem .
Through Bar Sauma and other later envoys , such as Buscarello de Ghizolfi , Arghun promised the European leaders that if Jerusalem were conquered , he would have himself baptized and would return Jerusalem to the Christians . Bar Sauma was greeted warmly by the European monarchs , but Western Europe was no longer as interested in the Crusades , and the mission to form an alliance was ultimately fruitless . England did respond by sending a representative , Geoffrey of Langley , who had been a member of Edward I 's Crusade 20 years earlier , and was sent to the Mongol court as an ambassador in 1291 .
= = = = Genoese shipmakers = = = =
Another link between Europe and the Mongols was attempted in 1290 , when the Genoese endeavored to assist the Mongols with naval operations . The plan was to construct and man two galleys to attack Mamluk ships in the Red Sea , and operate a blockade of Egypt 's trade with India . As the Genoese were traditional supporters of the Mamluks , this was a major shift in policy , apparently motivated by the attack of the Egyptian Sultan Qalawun on the Cilician Armenians in 1285 . To build and man the fleet , a squadron of 800 Genoese carpenters , sailors and crossbowmen went to Baghdad , working on the Tigris . However , due to a feud between the Guelphs and Ghibellines , the Genoese soon degenerated into internal bickering , and killed each other in Basra , putting an end to the project . Genoa finally cancelled the agreement and signed a new treaty with the Mamluks instead .
All these attempts to mount a combined offensive between the Franks and Mongols were too little and too late . In May 1291 , the city of Acre was conquered by the Egyptian Mamluks in the Siege of Acre . When Pope Nicholas IV learned of this , he wrote to Arghun , again asking him to be baptized and to fight against the Mamluks . But Arghun had died on March 10 , 1291 , and Pope Nicholas died as well in March 1292 , putting an end to their efforts towards combined action .
= = = Ghazan ( 1295 – 1304 ) = = =
After Arghun 's death , he was followed in rapid succession by two brief and fairly ineffective leaders , one of whom only held power for a few months . Stability was restored when Arghun 's son Ghazan took power in 1295 , though to secure cooperation from other influential Mongols , he made a public conversion to Islam when he took the throne , marking a major turning point in the state religion of the Ilkhanate . Despite being an official Muslim , however , Ghazan remained tolerant of multiple religions , and worked to maintain good relations with his Christian vassal states such as Cilician Armenia and Georgia .
In 1299 , he made the first of what were to be three attempts to invade Syria . As he launched his new invasion , he also sent letters to the Franks of Cyprus ( Henry II , King of Cyprus ; and the heads of the military orders ) , inviting them to come join him in his attack on the Mamluks in Syria . The Mongols successfully took the city of Aleppo , and were there joined by their vassal King Hethum II , whose forces participated in the rest of the offensive . The Mongols soundly defeated the Mamluks in the Battle of Wadi al @-@ Khazandar , on December 23 or 24 , 1299 . This success in Syria led to wild rumors in Europe that the Mongols had successfully re @-@ captured the Holy Land , and had even conquered the Mamluks in Egypt and were on a mission to conquer Tunisia in northern Africa . But in reality , Jerusalem had been neither taken nor even besieged . All that had been managed were some Mongol raids into Palestine in early 1300 . The raids went as far as Gaza , passing through several towns , probably including Jerusalem . But when the Egyptians again advanced from Cairo in May , the Mongols retreated without resistance .
In July 1300 , the Crusaders launched naval operations to press the advantage . A fleet of sixteen galleys with some smaller vessels was equipped in Cyprus , commanded by King Henry of Cyprus , accompanied by his brother Amalric , Prince of Tyre , the heads of the military orders , and Ghazan 's ambassador " Chial " ( Isol the Pisan ) . The ships left Famagusta on July 20 , 1300 , to raid the coasts of Egypt and Syria : Rosette , Alexandria , Acre , Tortosa , and Maraclea , before returning to Cyprus .
= = = = Ruad expedition = = = =
Ghazan announced that he would return by November 1300 , and sent letters and ambassadors to the West so that they could prepare themselves . After their own naval raids , the Cypriots attempted a major operation to re @-@ take the former Syrian Templar stronghold of Tortosa . They prepared the largest force they could muster at the time , approximately 600 men : 300 under Amalric , and similar contingents from the Templars and Hospitallers . In November 1300 they attempted to occupy Tortosa on the mainland , but were unable to gain control of the city . The Mongols were delayed , and the Cypriots moved offshore to the nearby island of Ruad to establish a base . The Mongols continued to be delayed , and the bulk of the Crusader forces returned to Cyprus , leaving only a garrison on Ruad . In February 1301 , Ghazan 's Mongols finally made a new advance into Syria . The force was commanded by the Mongol general Kutlushka , who was joined by Armenian troops , and Guy of Ibelin and John , lord of Giblet . But despite a force of 60 @,@ 000 , Kutluskha could do little else than engage in some raids around Syria , and then retreated .
Plans for combined operations between the Franks and the Mongols were again made for the following winter offensives , in 1301 and 1302 . But in mid @-@ 1301 the island of Ruad was attacked by the Egyptian Mamluks . After a lengthy siege , the island surrendered in 1302 or 1303 . The Mamluks slaughtered many of the inhabitants , and captured the surviving Templars to send them to prison in Cairo . In late 1301 , Ghazan sent letters to the pope asking him to send troops , priests , and peasants , to make the Holy Land a Frank state again .
In 1303 , Ghazan sent another letter to Edward I , via Buscarello de Ghizolfi , who had also been an ambassador for Arghun . The letter reiterated their ancestor Hulagu 's promise that the Ilkhans would give Jerusalem to the Franks in exchange for help against the Mamluks . That year , the Mongols again attempted to invade Syria , appearing in great strength ( about 80 @,@ 000 ) together with the Armenians . But they were again defeated at Homs on March 30 , 1303 , and at the decisive Battle of Shaqhab , south of Damascus , on April 21 , 1303 . It is considered to be the last major Mongol invasion of Syria . Ghazan died on May 10 , 1304 , and Frankish dreams of a rapid reconquest of the Holy Land were destroyed .
= = = Oljeitu ( 1304 – 1316 ) = = =
Oljeitu , also named Mohammad Khodabandeh , was great @-@ grandson of Ilkhanate founder Hulagu , and brother and successor of Ghazan . In his youth he at first converted to Buddhism , and then later to Sunni Islam with his brother Ghazan , and changed his first name to the Islamic Muhammad . In April 1305 , Oljeitu sent letters to Philip IV of France , Pope Clement V , and Edward I of England . As had his predecessors , Oljeitu offered a military collaboration between the Mongols and the Christian nations of Europe , against the Mamluks . European nations prepared a crusade , but were delayed . In the meantime Oljeitu launched a last campaign against the Mamluks ( 1312 – 1313 ) , in which he was unsuccessful . A final settlement with the Mamluks would only be found when Oljeitu 's son Abu Sa 'id signed the Treaty of Aleppo in 1322 .
= = Last contacts = =
In the 14th century , diplomatic contact continued between the Franks and the Mongols , until the Ilkhanate dissolved in the 1330s , and the ravages of the Black Death in Europe caused contact with the East to be severed . A few marital alliances between Christian rulers and the Mongols of the Golden Horde continued , such as when the Byzantine emperor Andronicus II gave daughters in marriage to Toqto 'a ( d . 1312 ) and later to his successor Uzbek ( 1312 – 1341 ) .
After Abu Sa 'id , relations between Christian princes and the Ilkhanate became very sparse . Abu Sa 'id died in 1335 with neither heir nor successor , and the Ilkhanate lost its status after his death , becoming a plethora of little kingdoms run by Mongols , Turks , and Persians .
In 1336 , an embassy to the French Pope Benedict XII in Avignon was sent by Toghun Temür , the last Yuan emperor in Dadu . The embassy was led by two Genoese travelers in the service of the Mongol emperor , who carried letters representing that the Mongols had been eight years ( since Archbishop John of Montecorvino 's death ) without a spiritual guide , and earnestly desired one . Pope Benedict appointed four ecclesiastics as his legates to the khan 's court . In 1338 , a total of 50 ecclesiastics were sent by the pope to Peking , among them John of Marignolli , who returned to Avignon in 1353 with a letter from the Yuan emperor to Pope Innocent VI . But soon , the Han Chinese rose up and drove the Mongols out of China , establishing the Ming Dynasty in 1368 . By 1369 , all foreign influences , from Mongols to Christians , Manichaeans , and Buddhists , were expelled by the Ming Dynasty .
In the early 15th century , Timur ( Tamerlane ) resumed relations with Europe , attempting to form an alliance against the Egyptian Mamluks and the Ottoman Empire , and engaged in communications with Charles VI of France and Henry III of Castile , but died in 1405 .
= = = Cultural contacts = = =
In the cultural sphere , there were some Mongol elements in Western medieval art , especially in Italy , of which most surviving examples are from the 14th century , after the chance of a military alliance had faded . These included the depiction of textiles from the Mongol Empire and Mongol script in various contexts , the latter often anachronistic . Imports of textiles had a considerable influence on Italian textile design . Mongol military costume is sometimes worn by soldiers , typically those acting against Christian figures , as in martyrdoms or Crucifixion scenes . These were perhaps copied from drawings made of Mongol envoys to Europe , or ones brought back from Outremer .
= = Views from historians = =
Most historians describe the contacts between the Mongol Empire and the Western Europeans as a series of attempts , missed opportunities , and failed negotiations . Christopher Atwood , in the 2004 Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire , summed up the relations between Western Europe and the Mongols : " Despite numerous envoys and the obvious logic of an alliance against mutual enemies , the papacy and the Crusaders never achieved the often @-@ proposed alliance against Islam . "
A few other historians argue there was an actual alliance , but do not agree on the details : Jean Richard wrote that an alliance began around 1263 . Reuven Amitai stated that the closest thing to actual Mongol @-@ Frankish military coordination was when Prince Edward of England attempted to coordinate activities with Abaga in 1271 . Amitai also mentioned the other attempts towards cooperation , but said , " In none of these episodes , however , can we speak of Mongols and troops from the Frankish West being on the Syrian mainland at the same time . " Timothy May described the alliance as having its peak at the Council of Lyon in 1274 , but that it began to unravel in 1275 with the death of Bohemond , and May too admitted that the forces never engaged in joint operations . Alain Demurger , in his own book The Last Templar , said that an alliance was not sealed until 1300 .
There also continues to be debate about whether or not an alliance would have been a wise idea , and whether the Crusaders at that point in history were even relevant to the Persian @-@ Mongol conflict . The 20th @-@ century historian Glenn Burger said , " The refusal of the Latin Christian states in the area to follow Hethum 's example and adapt to changing conditions by allying themselves with the new Mongol empire must stand as one of the saddest of the many failures of Outremer . " This was similar to the view of Steven Runciman , who argued , " Had the Mongol alliance been achieved and honestly implemented by the West , the existence of Outremer would almost certainly have been prolonged . The Mameluks would have been crippled if not destroyed ; and the Ilkhanate of Persia would have survived as a power friendly to the Christians and the West " . However , David Nicolle , describing the Mongols as " potential allies " , said that early historians were writing from the benefit of hindsight , and that overall the major players were the Mamluks and the Mongols , with Christians just " pawns in a greater game . "
= = Reasons for failure = =
There has been much discussion among historians as to why the Franco @-@ Mongol alliance never became a reality and why , despite all the diplomatic contacts , it stayed a chimera or fantasy . Many reasons have been proposed : one was that the Mongols at that stage in their empire were not entirely focused on expanding to the West . By the late 13th century , the Mongol leaders were several generations removed from the great Genghis Khan , and internal disruption was brewing . The original nomadic Mongols from the day of Genghis had become more settled , and had turned into administrators instead of conquerors . Battles were springing up that were Mongol against Mongol , which took troops away from the front in Syria . There was also confusion within Europe as to the differences between the Mongols of the Ilkhanate in the Holy Land , and the Mongols of the Golden Horde , who were attacking Eastern Europe in Hungary and Poland . Within the Mongol Empire , the Ilkhanids and the Golden Horde considered each other enemies , but it took time for Western observers to be able to distinguish between the different parts of the Mongol Empire . From the Mongol side , there were also concerns as to just how much clout the Franks could have brought to bear , especially as there was decreased interest in Europe in pursuing the Crusades . Court historians of Mongol Iran made no mention whatsoever of the communications between the Ilkhans and the Christian West , and barely mentioned the Franks at all . The communications were evidently not seen as important by the Mongols , and may have even been considered embarrassing . The Mongol leader Ghazan , a converted Muslim since 1295 , might not have wanted to be perceived as trying to gain the assistance of infidels against his fellow Muslims in Egypt . When Mongol historians did make notes of foreign territories , the areas were usually categorized as either " enemies " , " conquered " , or " in rebellion " . The Franks , in that context , were listed in the same category as the Egyptians , in that they were enemies to be conquered . The idea of " ally " was foreign to the Mongols .
Some European monarchs responded positively to Mongol inquiries , but became vague and evasive when asked to actually commit troops and resources . Logistics also became more complex – the Egyptian Mamluks were genuinely concerned about the threat of another wave of Crusader forces , so each time the Mamluks captured another castle or port , instead of occupying it , they systematically destroyed it so that it could never be used again . This both made it more difficult for the Crusaders to plan military operations , and increased the expense of those operations . Monarchs in Western Europe often gave lip service to the idea of going on crusade , as a way of making an emotional appeal to their subjects , but in reality they would take years to prepare , and sometimes never actually left for Outremer . Internal wars in Europe , such as the War of the Vespers , were also distracting attention , and making it less likely for European nobles to want to commit their military to the Crusades , when they were more needed at home .
The Europeans were also concerned about the long @-@ term goals of the Mongols . Early Mongol diplomacy had been not a simple offer of cooperation , but straightforward demands for submission . It was only in later communications that Mongol diplomats started to adopt a more conciliatory tone ; but they still used language that implied more command than entreaty . Even the Armenian historian Hayton of Corycus , the most enthusiastic advocate of Western @-@ Mongol collaboration , freely admitted that the Mongol leadership was not inclined to listen to European advice . His recommendation was that even if working together , European armies and Mongol armies should avoid contact because of Mongol arrogance . European leaders were aware that the Mongols would not have been content to stop at the Holy Land , but were on a clear quest for world domination . If the Mongols had achieved a successful alliance with the West and destroyed the Mamluk Sultanate , they certainly would have eventually turned upon the Franks of Cyprus and the Byzantines . They also would have surely conquered Egypt , from which they could have continued an advance into Africa , where no strong state could have stood in their way until Morocco and the Islamic caliphates in the Maghreb .
And lastly , there was not much support among the general populace in Europe for a Mongol alliance . Writers in Europe were creating " recovery " literature with their ideas about how best to recover the Holy Land , but few mentioned the Mongols as a genuine possibility . In 1306 , when Pope Clement V asked the leaders of the military orders , Jacques de Molay and Fulk de Villaret , to present their proposals for how the Crusades should proceed , neither of them factored in any kind of a Mongol alliance . A few later proposals talked briefly about the Mongols as being a force that could invade Syria and keep the Mamluks distracted , but not as a force that could be counted on for cooperation .
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= Chen Chi @-@ mai =
Chen Chi @-@ mai ( simplified Chinese : 陈其迈 ; traditional Chinese : 陳其邁 ; pinyin : Chén Qímài ; Wade – Giles : Chen2 Ch 'i2 @-@ mai4 ; born December 23 , 1964 ) is a Taiwanese politician and member of the Legislative Yuan . He is also currently the spokesperson of the Democratic Progressive Party and the chief executive officer of the its Policy Research and Coordinating Committee . A physician from Keelung , Chen started his political career by becoming member of the Legislative Yuan in 1996 and served as legislator for almost eight years before becoming the spokesperson of the Executive Yuan .
In 2005 , Chen succeeded to the mayoralty of Kaohsiung after then @-@ mayor Frank Hsieh 's appointment as premier . Chen became the Deputy Secretary @-@ General of the Presidential Office in 2007 and served until the inauguration of President Ma Ying @-@ jeou .
= = Early life = =
Chen Chi @-@ mai was born in Keelung City , Taiwan , on December 23 , 1964 . He is the son of Chen Che @-@ nan , who is also a politician and was also a Deputy Secretary @-@ General of the Presidential Office before Chen took office in 2007 .
Chen studied medicine at the Chung Shan Medical University in Taichung , where he earned his MB degree in 1991 . He got his MS degree in preventive medicine at the National Taiwan University in 1994 . He practiced medicine at the Chang Gung Memorial Hospital ( 長庚紀念醫院 ) for about three years and became a lecturer at the Taipei Medical University in 1996 .
Chen made his early entry into public affairs when he , as a student , served as an assistant to his father , a legislator at the time .
= = Rise in politics = =
A member of the Democratic Progressive Party ( DPP ) , Chen was elected legislator three times serving from 1996 to 2004 . During his term , he became the secretary @-@ general of the Justice Alliance faction of the DPP in 1998 and the legislative caucus leader in 1999 . He also became members of various committees within the Legislative Yuan , including the Foreign Affairs , Judiciary , National Defense , and Transportation Committees .
Before the DPP became the ruling party , Chen suggested that then @-@ incumbent magistrate of Taoyuan County Annette Lu would be a better choice for Chen Shui @-@ bian 's presidential running mate than any other party member . Lu was eventually selected as his running mate .
After Shui @-@ bian 's successful presidential campaign , Chen Chi @-@ mai , as a leader of the Justice Alliance faction , supported the proposal of another member to revise the pro @-@ independence guideline . Although many party members had similar views , the proposal was sent back to the party 's policy research department for review .
In 2004 , Chen was appointed a Minister without Portfolio and spokesperson of the Executive Yuan . Soon after , another proposal to modify pro @-@ independence guidelines was created . Several DPP legislators believed that the change of the national title from " Republic of China " to " Taiwan , " which is one of the ultimate goals of Taiwan 's desinicization campaign and localization movement , was not necessary . Chen also supported the proposal . The proposal was documented in an essay called New Culture Discourse , drafted by DPP legislator Lee Wen @-@ chung of the New Tide faction . After the essay was leaked to the media , many politicians , including Chen , denied being involved in drafting the document . The document was proved too controversial and was attacked within the party as a result , although some members believed that it was only based on the 1999 Resolution on Taiwan 's Future .
In January 2005 , following the death of former CCP General Secretary Zhao Ziyang , Chen represented the Taiwanese cabinet in delivering a message to the Chinese government . In his address , Chen urged China 's leaders to pursue democratization . Chen stated that Beijing should " face the truth about Tiananmen Square ... We urge the Chinese government to learn from Mr. Zhao 's tolerance and to push for democratic reforms . "
Later in January 2005 , Chen Chi @-@ mai was nominated to serve as acting mayor of Kaohsiung by premier @-@ designate Frank Hsieh .
= = Mayoralty = =
After becoming the mayor of Kaohsiung , Chen sought to continue construction of the Kaohsiung Mass Rapid Transit ( KMRT ) , a major construction started during Frank Hsieh 's mayoral term . The Red Line of the system is opened , and the Orange Line is scheduled to be opened in August 2008 .
Chen also worked to turn Kaohsiung into the a film location hub by encouraging filmmakers to shoot their films in the port city . He offered filmmakers , such as Tsai Ming @-@ liang , various incentives for their award @-@ winning films . He presented a NT $ 10 million ( approx . US $ 323 thousand ) prize to Tsai for his film The Wayward Cloud . Tsai in returned said he will soon shoot a new film in Kaohsiung and praised the city 's efforts to develop Kaohsiung into an international city .
On July 25 , 2005 , Kaohsiung officially became the host city of World Games 2009 , which will be the largest international sports event hosted in Taiwan , after Chen received the flag of the World Games . Chen later announced the construction of a world @-@ class stadium built for the event .
In August 2005 , Thai workers rioted over the draconian treatment they received as foreign workers . These workers lived in poor conditions and had limited freedom . The Chen administration vowed to take action on August 25 . Chen apologized to the public for the social turmoil caused by the incident and offered to resign three times . Then @-@ premier Frank Hsieh authorized Chen 's resignation on September 12 , and replaced him with former vice premier Yeh Chu @-@ lan .
= = Post @-@ mayoralty = =
After a temporary period of research at the London School of Economics in England , Chen was appointed the Deputy Secretary @-@ General of the Presidential Office in February 2007 . His appointment drew mixed reactions , with the support from the DPP legislative caucus and opposition from the Kuomintang legislative caucus . Chen served with Lin Chia @-@ lung , former director of the Government Information Office .
After the DPP chairmanship election in May 2008 , chairwoman @-@ elect Tsai Ing @-@ wen announced the appointment of Chen as the deputy secretary @-@ general of the party . He held the position with Cho Jung @-@ tai until 2009 . Chen is now concurrently serving as both the spokesperson of the Democratic Progressive Party and the chief executive officer of the party 's Policy Research and Coordinating Committee since May 2011 .
In the 2012 legislative elections , Chen was placed on the DPP electoral list , from which 13 members were elected based on the amount of votes the DPP received . Being the 8th member on the list , Chen returned to the Legislative Yuan once again as a legislator in February 2012 .
= = Personal = =
Chen is married and has a son and daughter .
He is a Master Scuba Diver .
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= My Hands =
" My Hands " is a song recorded by British singer @-@ songwriter Leona Lewis for her second studio album Echo ( 2009 ) . It was written by Arnthor Birgisson and Ina Wroldsen and produced by the former . Alongside Birgisson , Lewis was involved with the song 's vocal production . Lyrically , it is about life after the end of a relationship . The strings were performed by Urban Soul Orchestra , who were led by Simon Fischer .
" My Hands " was selected as the official theme song for the English version of the video game Final Fantasy XIII . Lewis decided to accept the offer of her track being used as she felt as though she connected with the video game 's female protagonist , Lightning . The song garnered a mixed response from music critics , who described it as forgettable , despite noting that Lewis performs the song undeniably well . In March 2010 , " My Hands " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 145 .
= = Background and production = =
" My Hands " was recorded for Lewis 's second studio album , Echo , which was released in November 2009 . It was written by Arnthor Birgisson and Ina Wroldsen , and produced by Birgisson . Both Lewis 's vocals and the instrumentation for the track were recorded by Seth Waldmann at Conway Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California , United States , Dean Street Studios in London , England and The Vault in Stockholm , Sweden . Birgisson and Lewis carried the vocal production . The strings were performed by Urban Soul Orchestra , who were led by Simon Fischer ; they were arranged and conducted by Stephen Hussey .
Additionally , the strings were recorded and engineered by Rich Cooper at British Groove Studios in London . All guitars were provided for by Esbjörn Öhrwal , while the choir was organised and arranged by Lawrence Johnson . The vocals performed by the choir were recorded by Neil Tucker at Metropolis Studios in London . " My Hands " was mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Studios in Universal City , California ; he was assisted in the process by Christian Plata and Erik Madrid . Stephem Simmonds contributed background vocals .
= = Composition and critical reception = =
Lasting for a duration of 4 : 12 , " My Hands " is a song about " life after the end of a relationship . " It is composed in the key of D major using common time and is 80 beats per minute . " My Hands " garnered a negative response from music critics . Andy Gill for The Independent listed it as one of the top four tracks to download from Echo , along with " Happy " , " Lost Then Found " and " Brave " . A reviewer for CBBC 's Newsround labelled the song , along with another track from the album called " Broken " , as " pretty forgettable . " The reviewer continued to write that although Lewis 's performs the songs undeniably well , they do not stand out compared to " Happy " and " I Got You " . Michael Cragg for musicOMH wrote that the chorus of " My Hands " " erupts " and " bludgeons the listener into submission " and that its meaning becomes overshadowed .
= = Usage in media = =
" My Hands " was selected as the official theme song for the trailer of Final Fantasy XIII . The video game was first released in Japan on 17 December 2009 , which uses a different theme song called " Kimi Ga Iru Kara " , written by Masashi Hamauzu and sung by Sayuri Sugawara . However , international versions produced by NTSC and PAL feature " My Hands " as the official theme song . Gabriel Zamora for Examiner.com wrote that despite sounding " loud " compared to Hamauzu 's song , " My Hands " suits the nature of the video game and " seems to fit well . " She continued to write that fans had hoped that " My Hands " would not replace " Kimi Ga Iru Kara " completely , instead wanting a new track called " Eternal Love " to be the official theme song . Although , she noted that the use of Lewis 's track for the entirety of the trailer seemed to make this an " unlikely " notion .
As part of promotion for the video games release , Lewis recorded a promotional advert for Square Enix ( the video game 's developer and publisher ) and spoke about how she was happy to have been approached about the use of " My Hands " on the trailer and that it had some personal meaning . She said " I 'm thrilled to be collaborating with Square Enix on such a groundbreaking game . I never would have imagined ' My Hands ' as such a perfect fit for Final Fantasy XIII , but the strong female protagonist struck a chord with me and I can 't wait to see Lightning do her thing . "
= = Track listing = =
Standard edition
" My Hands " – 4 : 12
United States standard version
" My Hands " – 4 : 12
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Conway Recording Studios , Los Angeles , California , United States ; Dean Street Studios , London , England and The Vault , Stockholm , Sweden .
Choir vocals recorded at Metropolis Studios , London , England .
Mixed at Larrabee Studios , Universal City , California , United States .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Echo .
= = Charts = =
Five months after the release of Echo , " My Hands " debuted at number 145 on the UK Singles Chart on 20 March 2010 .
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= Ratchet & Clank : Going Commando =
Ratchet & Clank : Going Commando ( known as Ratchet & Clank 2 : Locked and Loaded in Europe and Australia , and Ratchet & Clank 2 in Japan ) is a 2003 3D platform video game developed by Insomniac Games and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 2 . Ratchet & Clank : Going Commando is the second game in the Ratchet & Clank series , following Ratchet & Clank and preceding Ratchet & Clank : Up Your Arsenal .
The game begins with an interview of Ratchet and Clank that is seen by Megacorp CEO Abercrombie Fizzwidget . Fizzwidget contacts Ratchet and Clank and explains that a top secret experiment was stolen from Megacorp . Ratchet and Clank are given the task of tracking down the experiment but run into difficulties as they journey across the galaxy .
The gameplay of Going Commando is similar to that of the original Ratchet & Clank . The player controlled protagonists are seen in a third @-@ person perspective ; the player uses various weapons and gadgets to defeat enemies and solve puzzles , while exploring planets , completing platforming sections and minigames , and progressing through the story . The game features many improvements over the original game , such as the aesthetics , and introduces many new gameplay aspects , such as weapon upgrading .
Ratchet & Clank : Going Commando was released roughly a year after its predecessor , and received critical acclaim , with some calling it one of the best PlayStation 2 games ever made . Critics noted the game 's improved graphics , engaging gameplay , longer story , and overall sound as being major improvements over the original , but criticized the game for its high difficulty level , and certain minigames .
= = Gameplay = =
The player controls Ratchet from a third @-@ person perspective , and uses weapons to defeat enemies . The player can also use gadgets to explore new areas . The player travels to planets in the " Bogon " Galaxy and completes main objectives and optional side quests . " Bolts " , the game world 's currency , are primarily obtained by defeating enemies and breaking crates located throughout the game 's levels . Going Commando also includes four types of " maxi @-@ games " , or minigames . These games include arena battles , spherical world battles , hover bike races , and space races / battles . After completing the game , the player may also enter " challenge mode " which is more difficult but the player starts with the weapons and health that they had when they finished the game the first time , additional weapon upgrades are also unlocked .
Going Commando introduces eighteen new weapons , such as the Blitz Gun , Seeker and Lava Gun . Each weapon has a " growth bar " , which increases when the weapon is used to defeat enemies . The weapon is upgraded once the bar is filled , increasing its power and changing the design of it . Certain devices from the original Ratchet & Clank make a return , such as the Swingshot , while others are new to Going Commando . The player can use a save file from the original Ratchet & Clank to get " retro " weapons from the first game for free .
As with weapons , Ratchet gains experience with each enemy destroyed . When Ratchet 's experience bar fills , he gains a new level of " nanotech " . This awards him with additional health bubbles , up to a maximum of 80 . Ratchet 's health can also be increased by finding nanotech upgrades . The game introduces armor vendors , which are able to provide up to four additional levels of protection .
= = Plot = =
After defeating Drek in the previous game , Ratchet and Clank become celebrities , though their lives remain otherwise uneventful . After giving an interview for the holovision show Behind the Hero , Ratchet and Clank are suddenly teleported to the Bogon galaxy by Abercrombie Fizzwidget , the founder and CEO of Megacorp , the galaxy 's largest maker of consumer goods and electronics , who offers them a job recovering a stolen biological experiment . Upon completing an extensive training regime , the duo is sent to a flying laboratory on planet Aranos where the experiment was last seen . Before they can retrieve it , however , a masked thief appears and swipes it for himself . Escaping unharmed , Ratchet returns to his ship and contacts Fizzwidget , who provides him with coordinates to track the experiment .
The duo proceed to pursue the thief across several planets , eventually confronting him on planet Siberius . The thief escapes , but Ratchet manages to reclaim the experiment . Fizzwidget arranges a meeting to take custody , but " accidentally " maroons the duo in the desert afterwards . The thief arrives and reveals his true identity as Angela Cross , a former Megacorp scientist . Claiming that the experiment is a threat to the entire galaxy , she gives them the location of a testing facility on planet Dobbo where it was created .
Following her lead , the duo infiltrate the facility and discover a video recording of the experiment on a violent rampage . Angela then contacts them with news that Megacorp is hosting an event on planet Boldan to promote the experiment as the " Protopet " , with Fizzwidget in attendance . Convinced that Fizzwidget is unaware of the Protopet 's flaws , Ratchet goes to warn him , only to discover that the whole thing was a trap set by private mercenaries on Megacorp 's payroll . Captured , they are then sent to a remote prison over Aranos , but manage to reunite and escape . Tracking the mercenaries to their hideout on planet Snivelak , they rescue a captive Angela and set out to confront Fizzwidget at Megacorp headquarters .
To their surprise , " Fizzwidget " turns out to be none other than disgraced hero Captain Qwark . In a bid to restore his reputation , Qwark intends to unleash the Protopet upon the galaxy , so he can use a device created by Angela to defeat the creatures and make himself famous again . When he demonstrates the device , however , it malfunctions and transforms the original Protopet into a gigantic beast that devours him . While Angela goes to rescue the real Fizzwidget , Ratchet subdues the Protopet and saves Qwark 's life . With Clank 's help , Angela fixes the device and broadcasts a signal through Megacorp 's TV transponders , neutralizing the Protopets and restoring peace to the Bogon galaxy . In the game 's epilogue , Ratchet , Clank , Angela , and a female Infobot that Clank had met at several points in the game hang out at Clank 's apartment , where Angela informs Ratchet that Qwark has been assigned to work as a test subject for Megacorp as punishment for his crimes .
= = Development and release = =
Going Commando was approved for development five months before the first game 's release , after highly positive reviews from the original 's playtesters . In August 2002 , Insomniac Games started designing the visual concepts for Going Commando , while still fixing bugs in the original game . Brian Hastings , Insomniac 's Vice President of Programming , said in a 2003 interview that the first step in the game 's design was to " try to come up with a few ' Big Ideas ' . These are the things we think will really grab people 's attention and give the game that Wow @-@ Factor . In the case of Ratchet & Clank : Going Commando the big ideas were RPG elements ( like weapon upgrades and health upgrades ) , spherical planets and space combat . " Hastings said that the inspiration for the game 's spherical worlds came in part from the cover of the 1943 novel The Little Prince . Designing the spherical worlds required changing about 50 @,@ 000 lines of the game 's code , to account for the different handling of gravity . Development took a total of ten months , during which time Insomniac 's design team doubled from 40 to 80 members .
One common criticism of the original Ratchet & Clank was the design and personality of Ratchet . Ted Price , the game 's producer , said that to fix this they made Ratchet " less cocky , he is much more friendly to Clank , and he 's able to handle himself better in stressful situations without being impetuous , which is what he was in Ratchet 1 . " The character of Captain Qwark was a late addition to the game .
Going Commando was released in North America on November 11 , 2003 , Europe on November 21 , 2003 , and Japan on December 11 , 2003 . In 2004 , Sony added Going Commando to their Greatest Hits series of games for the PlayStation 2 , and it was similarly added to the Platinum Range used in the PAL region on August 13 , 2004 , and to the Japanese list of The Best games on July 8 , 2004 .
= = Reception = =
Going Commando received critical acclaim . 1UP.com said that " Everything that Ratchet & Clank did , Going Commando does better , and the tweaks and additions just push it further over the top . " Game Informer 's Andy McNamara said that the game has " the best and most compelling content [ Insomniac ] has put out to date . "
The game 's arena combat and racing levels were praised by Andrew Reiner of Game Informer , and Benjamin Turner of GameSpy similarly said that " it 's surprising how fun it can be to play interstellar gladiator . " GamePro praised the game 's pacing , saying that the first game felt like it didn 't " really show its true colors until about halfway through " , but that Going Commando had the same feeling by the end of the second level . GameSpot mentioned that the " great sense of humor " of the original game is also noticeable in Ratchet & Clank : Going Commando , a statement echoed by GameZone when they said that the game 's cut @-@ scenes " represent some of the most thought @-@ out and gut @-@ wrenchingly funny sequences ever witnessed in a platforming game . "
Going Commando 's graphics were praised by reviewers , who specifically mentioned Ratchet 's improved character design . Game Informer said that " the graphical details will leave you speechless ... " GameSpot considered the reuse of graphics for the menus and mission screens to be " a little lazy " , but praised the graphics and sound effects of the game 's weapons . GameSpy mentioned that " Going Commando is easily the most graphically impressive platformer on the market " . GameZone reported that the game 's sound was well @-@ done , including the music , weapon effects , and dialogue .
Criticism of the game was aimed at its level of difficulty , which is higher than that of its predecessor ; 1UP.com mentioned that this was most noticeable near the end of the game , where " there are levels that consist of nothing but wave after wave of difficult enemies thrown at you to deplete your ammo , and then more waves of enemies after that . " GameSpy , however , praised this aspect of the game , saying that it made Going Commando more interesting than the original . Some reviewers also felt that the game 's space combat was poorly done in comparison to the rest of the game , and that the " Giant Clank " levels were " brainless and boring " .
The game was awarded 11th place on IGN 's 2007 list of " The Top 25 PS2 Games of All Time " . IGN also awarded both Going Commando and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 their Game of the Month award for November 2003 in their first " Game of the Month " feature to cover two games .
While the first Ratchet and Clank suffered , in my opinion , because of its immensely generic homogenization of character and because of its relative ease , Ratchet and Clank Going Commando tries to solve these problems in typical Insomniac fashion . Ratchet too annoying ? Let him grow up and take charge . Game too easy ? Increase the quantity and kinds of weapons for Ratchet and for the enemies . But Insomniac didn 't just fix problems . It looked at every detail of the first game and from the ground up improved everything wholesale . It upgraded everything , and then it added new stuff . [ ... ] Throughout its core fabric , Going Commando is improved in every way .
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= False potto =
The false potto ( Pseudopotto martini ) is a lorisoid primate of uncertain taxonomic status found in Africa . Anthropologist Jeffrey H. Schwartz named it in 1996 as the only species of the genus Pseudopotto on the basis of two specimens ( consisting only of skeletal material ) that had previously been identified as pottos ( Perodicticus potto ) . The precise provenances of the two specimens are uncertain , but at least one may have come from Cameroon . Schwartz thought the false potto could even represent a separate family , but other researchers have argued that the supposed distinguishing features of the animal do not actually distinguish it from the potto ; specifically , the false potto shares several features with West African pottos .
The false potto generally resembles a small potto , but according to Schwartz it differs in having a longer tail , shorter spines on its neck and chest vertebrae , a smaller , less complex spine on the second neck vertebra , an entepicondylar foramen ( an opening in the humerus , or upper arm bone ) , a lacrimal fossa ( a depression in the skull ) that is located inside the eye socket , a smaller upper third premolar and molar , and higher @-@ crowned cheekteeth , among other traits . However , many of these traits are variable among pottos ; for example , one researcher found entepicondylar foramina in almost half of the specimens in his sample of pottos .
= = Taxonomy = =
In a series of potto ( Perodicticus potto ) skeletons in the collections of the Anthropological Institute and Museum of the University of Zurich at Irchel , anthropologist Jeffrey H. Schwartz recognized two specimens with traits he believed distinct from all pottos , and in 1996 he used these two specimens to describe a new genus and species of primate , Pseudopotto martini . The generic name , Pseudopotto , combines the element pseudo- ( Greek for " false " ) with " potto " , referring to superficial similarities between the new form and the potto . The specific name , martini , honors primatologist Robert D. Martin . The exact provenance of the two specimens is unknown , and one is represented by a complete skeleton ( but no skin ) and the other by a skull only . Schwartz placed both specimens in a single species , but noted that further study might indicate that the two represent distinct species . He thought the relationships of the new form were unknown and difficult to assess and did not assign it to any family , but provisionally placed it closest to the family Lorisidae , together with the potto , the angwantibos , and the lorises . The discovery , published in the Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History , was featured in Scientific American and Science ; the Science account noted that Schwartz thought Pseudopotto may represent a new family of primates .
In 1998 , the journal African Primates published three papers by primatologists on the false potto . Colin Groves affirmed that it was probably distinct from the potto and Simon Bearder cited it as an example of unrecognized taxonomic diversity in lorisids , but Esteban Sarmiento compared the new taxon to specimens of the potto and found that the alleged distinctive traits of the false potto in fact fell within the range of variation of the potto , and that the false potto was probably not even a species distinct from Perodicticus potto . In 2000 , primatologist B.S. Leon agreed that the false potto was not distinct from the subspecies Perodicticus potto potto , but noted that various forms of potto were distinct enough from each other that there may indeed be more than one species of potto . Opinions since then have been divided : a 2003 compilation of African primate diversity concluded that there was insufficient evidence that the false potto is a distinct species , the primate chapter of the 2005 third edition of Mammal Species of the World , written by Groves , listed Pseudopotto as a genus but noted that it was " controversial " ; and Schwartz continued to recognize the false potto as a genus in 2005 . Also in 2005 , primatologist David Stump reviewed some of the distinguishing features of Pseudopotto in the context of studying variation among pottos , and found that some but not all of the false potto 's traits were found in some pottos , mainly western populations ( subspecies potto ) .
= = Description = =
One of the specimens , AMZ 6698 , is an adult female that lived in Zürich Zoo . It is represented by a virtually complete skeleton , but the skin was not preserved . According to Schwartz , the skeleton shows signs of osteoporosis and periodontitis ( common in zoo animals ) , but not of other pathologies or abnormalities . The right teeth were removed before Schwartz studied the specimen . Schwartz selected this specimen as the holotype . The other specimen , AMZ @-@ AS 1730 , is a subadult male collected in the wild , of which only the skull , including the mandible ( lower jaw ) , was preserved . The dentition includes both permanent and deciduous teeth . Specimens of Pseudopotto are at least superficially similar to pottos , but according to Schwartz , they differ in a number of traits . Among lorisids , Schwartz saw similarities between the false potto and true pottos as well as angwantibos and slow lorises ( Nycticebus ) . The false potto is comparable in size to the smallest pottos , but falls within their range of metrical variation ; small size is also seen in western pottos .
The tail , according to Schwartz , is longer than in the potto . He does not provide measurements of the tail of AMZ 6698 and notes that at least one vertebra is missing , but Sarmiento counted 11 caudal vertebrae in an illustration of AMZ 6698 and Groves counted at least 15 . However , Sarmiento found that the number of caudal vertebrae ranges from 5 to 17 , with an average of 11 , in pottos . Relatively long tails are also common in the western form of the potto , , though according to Stump the tail of Pseudopotto is longer than any seen in pottos . The false potto allegedly has shorter spines on its cervical ( neck ) and first and second thoracic ( chest ) vertebrae , but Leon notes that this feature is also seen in western pottos . Schwartz writes that the false potto differs from pottos and angwantibos in lacking a bifid ( two @-@ tipped ) spine on the second cervical vertebra , but Sarmiento found this feature in 3 out of 11 potto specimens he examined .
The ulnar styloid process ( a projection on the ulna , one of the bones of the forearm , where it meets the wrist ) is not as hooked as in other lorisids , according to Schwartz , which Groves suggests may indicate that the wrist is more mobile . Another alleged diagnostic feature is the presence of an entepicondylar foramen ( an opening near the distal , or far , end of the bone ) on the humerus ( upper arm bone ) ; however , Sarmiento found this feature in 4 out of 11 specimens , and on one side of a fifth , and Stump noted that the foramen occurred in specimens from across the potto 's range .
The lacrimal fossa , a depression in the skull , is located on the upper surface of the skull in most lorisids , but Schwartz found that it was further to the back , inside the orbit ( eye socket ) in the false potto and the slow loris . Sarmiento found this feature in 3 out of 11 pottos examined . The coronoid process of the mandible is said to be more hooked in the false potto than in the potto and slow loris .
Other distinguishing features of the false potto are in the dentition . Sarmiento notes , however , that captive specimens may develop abnormalities in the teeth and that some dental characters Schwartz uses are quite variable , sometimes even from one side of the same individual to another . The third upper molar ( M3 ) is more reduced in the false potto than in any other prosimian , according to Schwartz , but Leon notes that western pottos also have a relatively small M3 . The third upper premolar ( P3 ) is also reduced , resembling the condition in the fork @-@ marked lemurs ( Phaner ) . Stump writes that small P3s are also common in western pottos , although the false potto 's P3 is shaped differently . Groves notes that P1 is quite long , another point of similarity with the fork @-@ marked lemurs . The lower premolars are compressed laterally in Pseudopotto , the cusps on the cheekteeth are higher , and the cristid obliqua ( a crest connected to the protoconid cusp ) is at a relatively buccal position ( in the direction of the cheeks ) .
In AMZ 6698 , skull length is 59 @.@ 30 mm ( 2 @.@ 335 in ) and length of the right humerus is 57 @.@ 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 27 in ) .
= = Distribution and status = =
According to records in the Anthropological Institute and Museum , AMZ 6698 , the holotype , is from " Equatorial Africa " , and AMZ @-@ AS 1730 is from the " Cameroons " . According to mammalogist Ronald Nowak , these designations imply that the latter came either from modern Cameroon or far eastern Nigeria ( British Cameroons ) and the former from Cameroon or a neighboring state . In 1999 , Simon Bearder claimed , citing a personal communication by C. Wild , that Pseudopotto had been seen in the wild and in 2001 , ornithologist Christopher Bowden noted the occurrence of Pseudopotto on Mount Kupe in Cameroon , also citing C. Wild . However , the IUCN Red List notes that while sightings of the false potto at 820 to 940 m ( 2690 to 3080 ft ) on Mount Kupe had been reported , surveys had failed to confirm its occurrence there , though pottos , some with long tails , had been found . The false potto is not listed separately from the potto in the Red List , because the evidence that it is a distinct species is considered insufficient .
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= Tropical Storm Trudy ( 2014 ) =
Tropical Storm Trudy was a short @-@ lived tropical cyclone in October 2014 that caused significant flooding in southern Mexico . The storm originated from an area of low pressure associated with a monsoon trough near Central America in early October . A slow @-@ moving system , the low eventually consolidated into a tropical depression on October 17 near the Mexican coastline . Favorable environmental conditions aided rapid development of Trudy . Within 15 hours of its designation , an eye formed over the storm 's center . Trudy ultimately achieved its peak as a strong tropical storm with 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) winds as it made landfall just southeast of Marquelia , Mexico . The region 's mountainous terrain quickly weakened Trudy and the cyclone dissipated early on October 19 . Though the cyclone dissipated , its remnant energy later contributed to the formation of Tropical Storm Hanna in the Atlantic .
Prior to Trudy 's landfall , the Government of Mexico issued multiple watches and warnings for the threatened region . Forecasters highlighted the threat of heavy rains and mudslides . Guerrero experienced the greatest effects from Trudy , with landslides and flooding claiming eight lives in the state . Over 4 @,@ 000 people were evacuated in the region . A ninth fatality took place in Campeche .
= = Meteorological history = =
On October 8 , a weak area of low pressure developed within a monsoon trough over the extreme eastern edge of the Pacific basin . Environmental conditions ahead of the system were forecast to become gradually favorable for tropical cyclogenesis . Situated near Costa Rica , scattered convection accompanied the well @-@ defined system . This low became less defined over the following days while remaining in the same general area . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring the system for long @-@ term cyclogenesis on October 13 , at which time the low was situated 150 mi ( 240 km ) south of Guatemala . Organization was prolonged and slow ; however , the convergence of a Kelvin wave and a Gulf of Tehuantepec gap wind event on October 15 spurred a significant increase in convection .
Marked structural improvements took place on October 17 and the NHC assessed a high probability of the system becoming a tropical cyclone within 48 hours . That evening , corroborating data from ships , satellite imagery , and scatterometer estimates indicated the formation of a tropical depression by 12 : 00 UTC . With the cyclone located over warm waters of 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) and within a very moist region with low wind shear , intensification was a certainty as the depression approached Mexico . Uncertainties existed as to how fast the system would move . Some forecast models depicting the system as stalling just offshore for several days , though forecasters indicated that a steady northward movement would lead to dissipation within 48 hours .
Owing to the aforementioned environmental conditions , the depression intensified to a tropical storm by 18 : 00 UTC on October 17 ; it was subsequently assigned the name Trudy by the NHC . Very deep convection blossomed over both the center and accompanying banding features . During the morning of October 18 , a central dense overcast became increasingly defined ; microwave satellite imagery and coastal radars depicted the formation of a 12 to 17 mi ( 19 to 27 km ) wide eye by 03 : 00 UTC . It is estimated that Trudy reached its peak intensity around 09 : 15 UTC on October 18 with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 998 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 47 inHg ) . Simultaneously the storm made landfall just southeast of Marquelia , or roughly 70 mi ( 110 km ) east of Acapulco . Interaction with the mountainous terrain of Mexico quickly took its toll on Trudy , with the system degrading to a tropical depression by 18 : 00 UTC . The low @-@ level circulation of the depression dissipated early on October 19 , with its mid @-@ level remnants continuing northeastward over Mexico . The remnant system emerged over the Bay of Campeche on October 20 and subsequently developed into Atlantic Tropical Depression Nine — which later became Tropical Storm Hanna — on October 22 . Due to the dissipation of its surface low , Trudy and Hanna are considered separate tropical cyclones by the NHC .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Upon the designation of Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ E on October 17 , a tropical storm warning was issued for coastal areas of Mexico between Tecpán de Galeana and Lagunas de Chacahua . Forecasters at the NHC noted that the greatest threat from the system would be torrential rains across Guerrero and Oaxaca that could trigger life @-@ threatening flash floods and mudslides . Rapid organization of the system prompted a hurricane watch to be issued by 09 : 00 UTC on October 18 for areas between Acapulco and Lagunas de Chacahua . This watch was soon discontinued as Trudy failed to reach hurricane intensity before moving inland over Mexico . The tropical storm warning was subsequently allowed to expire by 21 : 00 UTC as Trudy weakened to a depression . In addition to the above watches and warnings , a " yellow " alert was activated for Guerrero on October 17 . Upon abruptly intensifying prior to landfall , a " red " alert was activated for southeastern Guerrero and southwestern Oaxaca while the rest of Guerrero and Oaxaca were placed under an " orange " alert . A total of 35 shelters were opened across eastern areas of Guerrero .
Heavy rains across Guerrero wreaked havoc , causing widespread flooding and damage . A total of 4 @,@ 075 people were evacuated from the most at @-@ risk areas in the state . A further 300 residents were urged to leave as a river threatened to over @-@ top its banks . Wall collapses attributed to the storm resulted in four deaths : three in Ometepec and one in Cochoapa . A landslide in Tlacoachistlahuaca killed two people , while flooding elsewhere killed two people . Road access to 16 towns was cut off and the main road to Acapulco was damaged by landslides and flooding . Approximately 5 @,@ 000 homes were affected by the storm , with 218 damaged by flooding and 6 destroyed . More than 20 @,@ 000 households lost power due to the storm , though the vast majority was restored within a day . A state of emergency was later declared for 35 towns in Guerrero .
Oaxaca experienced similar impacts to Guerrero , with flooding and landslides mostly causing damage to road infrastructure . Notably , a 39 ft ( 12 m ) bridge in San Martín Peras collapsed , leaving several villages isolated . At least 160 ft ( 50 m ) of Mexican Federal Highway 125 was washed away , requiring a repair bill of 8 million pesos ( US $ 532 @,@ 000 ) . An emergency declaration was made for 100 municipalities in Oaxaca . Trudy was also blamed for one death in Campeche .
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= History of Singapore =
The written history of Singapore dates back to the third century . Later , the Kingdom of Singapura rose in importance during the 14th century under the rule of Sultan Iskandar Shah and Singapore became an important port . Until it was invaded by the Majapahit in 1398 . It then came under the Malacca Sultanate and then the Portuguese , then rapidly becoming a major port city .
During World War II , Singapore was conquered and occupied by the Japanese Empire from 1942 to 1945 . When the war ended , Singapore reverted to British control , with increasing levels of self @-@ government being granted , culminating in Singapore 's merger with the Federation of Malaya to form Malaysia in 1963 . But social unrest and disputes between Singapore 's ruling People 's Action Party and Malaysia 's Alliance Party resulted in Singapore 's separation from Malaysia . Singapore became an independent republic on August 9 , 1965 .
Facing severe unemployment and a housing crisis , Singapore embarked on a modernization programme beginning in the late 1960s through the 1970s that focused on establishing a manufacturing industry , developing large public housing estates and investing heavily on public education .
By the 1990 , the country had become one of the world 's most prosperous nations , with a highly developed free market economy , strong international trading links , and the highest per capita gross domestic product in Asia outside Japan .
= = Ancient Singapore = =
The series of raids launched by the Chola Empire in the 11th century had weakened the once glorious Malay empire of Srivijaya . Although Greco @-@ Roman astronomer Ptolemy ( 90 – 168 ) identified a place called Sabana in the general area , the earliest written record of Singapore occurs in a Chinese account from the third century , describing the island of Pu Luo Chung ( 蒲 罗 中 ) . This was itself a transliteration from the Malay name " Pulau Ujong " , or " island at the end " ( of the Malay Peninsula ) . The Sejarah Melayu ( Malay Annals ) contains a tale of a prince of Srivijaya , Seri Teri Buana ( also known as Sang Nila Utama ) , who landed on the island during the 13th century . When he saw a lion , the prince took this as an auspicious sign and founded a settlement called Singapura , which means " Lion City " in Sanskrit .
In 1320 , the Mongol Empire sent a trade mission to a place called Long Ya Men ( or Dragon 's Tooth Strait ) , which is believed to be Keppel Harbour , at the southern part of the island . The Chinese traveler Wang Dayuan , visiting the island around 1330 , described a small settlement called Dan Ma Xi ( 淡马锡 , from Malay Tamasik ) with Malay and Chinese residents . The Nagarakretagama , a Javanese epic poem written in 1365 , also referred to a settlement on the island called Temasek ( Sea Town ) . Recent excavations in Fort Canning found evidence indicating that Singapore was an important port in the 14th century . Singapore is the oldest location where a Chinese community is known to exist outside China , as corroborated by both historical records and archaeological evidence .
In the 1370s , Singapore was caught in the struggle between Siam ( now Thailand ) and the Java @-@ based Majapahit Empire for control over the Malay Peninsula . According to Sejarah Melayu , Singapore was defeated in one Majapahit attack . The last king , Sultan Iskandar Shah ruled the island for several years , before being forced to Melaka where he founded the Sultanate of Malacca . Singapore became an important trading port of the Malacca Sultanate and later the Sultanate of Johor .
In the early 15th century , Singapore was a Thai vassal state , but the Malacca Sultanate , which Iskandar had founded , quickly extended its authority over the island . After the Portuguese seizure of Malacca in 1511 , the Portuguese destroyed the settlements in Singapore in 1587 and the island sank into obscurity for the next two centuries .
= = Founding of modern Singapore ( 1819 ) = =
Between the 16th and 19th centuries , the Malay Archipelago was gradually taken over by the European colonial powers , beginning with the arrival of the Portuguese at Malacca in 1509 . The early dominance of the Portuguese was challenged during the 17th century by the Dutch , who came to control most of the ports in the region . The Dutch established a monopoly over trade within the archipelago , particularly in spices , then the region 's most important product . Other colonial powers , including the British , were limited to a relatively minor presence .
In 1818 , Sir Stamford Raffles was appointed as the Lieutenant Governor of the British colony at Bencoolen . He was determined that Great Britain should replace the Netherlands as the dominant power in the archipelago , since the trade route between China and British India , which had become vitally important with the institution of the opium trade with China , passed through the archipelago . The Dutch had been stifling British trade in the region by prohibiting the British from operating in Dutch @-@ controlled ports or by subjecting them to a high tariff . Raffles hoped to challenge the Dutch by establishing a new port along the Straits of Malacca , the main ship passageway for the India @-@ China trade . He convinced Lord Hastings , the Governor @-@ General of India and his superior at the British East India Company , to fund an expedition to seek a new British base in the region .
Raffles arrived in Singapore on 28 January 1819 and soon recognised the island as a natural choice for the new port . It lay at the southern tip of the Malay peninsula , near the Straits of Malacca , and possessed a natural deep harbor , fresh water supplies , and timber for repairing ships . Raffles found a small Malay settlement , with a population of about a thousand , at the mouth of the Singapore River , headed by Temenggong Abdu 'r Rahman . The island was nominally ruled by the Sultan of Johor , who was controlled by the Dutch and the Bugis . However , the Sultanate was weakened by factional division and Temenggong Abdu 'r Rahman and his officials were loyal to Tengku Rahman 's elder brother Tengku Hussein ( or Tengku Long ) who was living in exile in Riau . With the Temenggong 's help , Raffles managed to smuggle Hussein back into Singapore . He offered to recognize Hussein as the rightful Sultan of Johor and provide him with a yearly payment ; in return , Hussein would grant the British the right to establish a trading post on Singapore . A formal treaty was signed on 6 February 1819 and modern Singapore was born .
Before Raffles arrived , there were around 1 @,@ 000 people living in Singapore , mostly Malays and a few dozen Chinese . By 1869 , due to migration from Malaya and other parts of Asia , Singapore 's population had reached 100 @,@ 000 . Many Chinese and Indian immigrants came to Singapore to work in the rubber plantations and tin mines , and their descendants later formed the bulk of Singapore 's population .
= = Early growth ( 1819 – 1826 ) = =
Raffles returned to Bencoolen soon after the signing of the treaty and left Major William Farquhar in charge of the new settlement , with some artillery and a small regiment of Indian soldiers . Establishing a trading port from scratch was a daunting endeavor . Farquhar 's administration was fairly funded and was prohibited from collecting port duties to raise revenue as Raffles had decided that Singapore would be a free port . Farquhar invited settlers to Singapore , and stationed a British official on St. John 's Island to invite passing ships to stop in Singapore . As news of the free port spread across the archipelago , Bugis , Peranakan Chinese , and Arab traders flocked to the island , seeking to circumvent the Dutch trade restrictions . During the starting year of operation , $ 400 @,@ 000 ( Spanish dollars ) worth of trade passed through Singapore . By 1821 , the island 's population had gone up to around 5 @,@ 000 , and the trade volume was $ 8 million . The population reached the 10 @,@ 000 mark in 1825 , and with a trade volume of $ 22 million , Singapore surpassed the long @-@ established port of Penang .
Raffles returned to Singapore in 1822 and became critical of many of Farquhar 's decisions , despite Farquhar 's success in leading the settlement through its difficult early years . For instance , in order to generate much @-@ needed revenue , Farquhar had resorted to selling licenses for gambling and the sale of opium , which Raffles saw as social evils . Shocked at the disarray of the colony , Raffles set about drafting a set of new policies for the settlement . He also organized Singapore into functional and ethnic subdivisions under the Raffles Plan of Singapore . Today , remnants of this organization can still be found in the ethnic neighborhoods . William Farquhar was also stripped off his post . Farquhar later died in Perth , Scotland .
On 7 June 1823 , John Crawfurd signed a second treaty with the Sultan and Temenggong , which extended British possession to most of the island . The Sultan and Temenggong traded most of their administrative rights of the island , including the collection of port taxes for lifelong monthly payments of $ 1500 and $ 800 respectively . This agreement brought the island under the British Law , with the provision that it would take into account Malay customs , traditions and religion . Raffles replaced Farquhar with John Crawfurd , an efficient and frugal administrator , as the new governor . In October 1823 , Raffles departed for Britain and would never return to Singapore as he died in 1826 , at the age of 44 . In 1824 , Singapore was ceded in perpetuity to the East India Company by the Sultan .
= = Colonial Singapore ( 1819 – 1942 ) = =
= = = The Straits Settlements ( 1826 – 1867 ) = = =
The status of a British outpost in Singapore seemed initially in doubt as the Dutch government soon protested to Britain for violating the Netherlands ' sphere of influence . But as Singapore rapidly emerged as an important trading post , Britain consolidated its claim on the island . The Anglo @-@ Dutch Treaty of 1824 cemented the status of Singapore as a British possession , carving up the Malay archipelago between the two colonial powers with the area north of the S826 , Singapore was grouped by the British East India Company together with Penang and Malacca to form the Straits Settlements , administered by the British East India Company . In 1830 , the Straits Settlements became a residency , or subdivision , of the Presidency of Bengal in British India .
During the subsequent decades , Singapore grew to become an important port in the region . Its success was due to several reasons including the opening of the Chinese market , the advent of ocean @-@ going steamships , and the production of rubber and tin in Malaya . Its status as a free port provided a crucial advantage over other colonial port cities in Batavia ( now Jakarta ) and Manila where tariffs were levied , and it drew many Chinese , Malay , Indian , and Arab traders operating in South @-@ East Asia to Singapore . The later opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 would further boost trade in Singapore . By 1880 , over 1 @.@ 5 million tons of goods were passing through Singapore each year , with around 80 % of the cargo transported by steamships . The main commercial activity was entrepôt trade which flourished under no taxation and little restriction . Many merchant houses were set up in Singapore mainly by European trading firms , but also by Jewish , Chinese , Arab , Armenian , American and Indian merchants . There were also many Chinese middlemen who handled most of the trade between the European and Asian merchants .
By 1827 , the Chinese had become the largest ethnic group in Singapore . They consisted of Peranakans , who were descendants of early Chinese settlers , and Chinese coolies who flocked to Singapore to escape economic hardship in southern China . Their numbers were swelled by those fleeing the turmoil caused by the First Opium War ( 1839 – 1842 ) and Second Opium War ( 1856 – 1860 ) . Many arrived in Singapore as impoverished indentured laborers . The Malays were the second largest ethnic group until the 1860s and they worked as fishermen , craftsmen , or as wage earners while continued to live mostly in kampungs . By 1860 , the Indians had become the second largest ethnic group . They consisted of unskilled laborers , traders , and convicts who were sent to carry out public works projects such as clearing jungles and laying out roads . There were also Indian Sepoy troops garrisoned at Singapore by the British .
Despite Singapore 's growing importance , the administration governing the island was understaffed , ineffectual and unconcerned with the welfare of the populace . Administrators were usually posted from India and were unfamiliar with local culture and languages . While the population had quadrupled during 1830 to 1867 , the size of the civil service in Singapore had remained unchanged . Most people had no access to public health services and diseases such as cholera and smallpox caused severe health problems , especially in overcrowded working @-@ class areas . As a result of the administration 's ineffectiveness and the predominantly male , transient , and uneducated nature of the population , the society was lawless and chaotic . In 1850 there were only twelve police officers in the city of nearly 60 @,@ 000 people . Prostitution , gambling , and drug abuse ( particularly of opium ) were widespread . Chinese criminal secret societies ( analogous to modern @-@ day triads ) were extremely powerful , and some had tens of thousands of members . Turf wars between rival societies occasionally led to hundreds of deaths and attempts to suppress them had limited success .
The situation created deep concern in the European population of the island . In 1854 the Singapore Free Press complained that Singapore was a " small island " full of the " very dregs of the population of south eastern Asia " .
= = = Straits Settlements Crown Colony ( 1867 – 1942 ) = = =
As Singapore continued to grow , the deficiencies in the Straits Settlements administration became serious and Singapore 's merchant community began agitating against British Indian rule . The British government agreed to establish the Straits Settlements as a separate Crown Colony on 1 April 1867 . This new colony was ruled by a governor under the supervision of the Colonial Office in London . An executive council and a legislative council assisted the governor . Although members of the councils were not elected , more representatives for the local population were gradually included over the years .
The colonial government embarked on several measures to address the serious social problems facing Singapore . A Chinese Protectorate under Pickering was established in 1877 to address the needs of the Chinese community , especially in controlling the worst abuses of the coolie trade and protecting Chinese women from forced prostitution . In 1889 Governor Sir Cecil Clementi Smith banned secret societies , driving them underground . Nevertheless , many social problems persisted up through the post @-@ war era , including an acute housing shortage and poor health and living standards . In 1906 , the Tongmenghui , a revolutionary Chinese organisation dedicated to the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and led by Sun Yat @-@ sen , founded its Nanyang branch in Singapore , which served as the organisation 's headquarters in Southeast Asia . The members of the branch included Dr. Wong Hong @-@ Kui ( 黃康衢 ) , Mr. Tan Chor Lam ( 陳楚楠 , 1884 @-@ 1971 , originally a rubber manufacturer ) and Mr. Teo Eng Hock ( 張永福 , originally a rubber shoe manufacturer ) . Chan Cho @-@ Nam , Cheung Wing @-@ Fook and Chan Po @-@ Yin ( 陳步賢 , 1883 @-@ 1965 ) started the revolution @-@ related Chong Shing Chinese Daily Newspaper ( 中興日報 , 中興 meaning China revival ) , with the inaugural issue on 20 August 1907 and a daily distribution of 1000 copies . The newspaper ended in 1910 , presumably due to the revolution in 1911 . Working with other Cantonese people , Chan , Cheung and Chan opened the revolution @-@ related Kai Ming Bookstore ( 開明書報社 , 開明 meaning open wisdom ) in Singapore . For the revolution , Chan Po @-@ Yin raised over 30 @,@ 000 yuan for the purchase and shipment ( from Singapore to China ) of military equipment and for the support of the expenses of people travelling from Singapore to China for revolutionary work . The immigrant Chinese population in Singapore donated generously to Tongmenghui , which organised the 1911 Xinhai Revolution that led to the establishment of the Republic of China .
World War I ( 1914 – 1918 ) did not deeply affect Singapore : the conflict did not spread to Southeast Asia . The only significant local military event during the war was a 1915 mutiny by the British Muslim Indian sepoys garrisoned in Singapore . After hearing rumors of plans to send them to fight the Ottoman Empire , the soldiers revolted , killing their officers and several British civilians before troops arriving from Johor and Burma suppressed the unrest .
After the war , the British government devoted significant resources into building a naval base in Singapore , as a deterrent to the increasingly ambitious Japanese Empire . Completed in 1939 at a staggering cost of $ 500 million , the naval base boasted what was then the largest dry dock in the world , the third @-@ largest floating dock , and enough fuel tanks to support the entire British navy for six months . It was defended by heavy 15 @-@ inch naval guns and by Royal Air Force squadrons stationed at Tengah Air Base . Winston Churchill touted it as the " Gibraltar of the East . " Unfortunately , it was a base without a fleet . The British Home Fleet was stationed in Europe and the plan was for it to sail quickly to Singapore when needed . However , after World War II broke out in 1939 , the Fleet was fully occupied with defending Britain . Lieutenant General Sir William George Shedden Dobbie was appointed governor of Singapore and General Officer Commanding Malaya Command on 8 November 1935 , holding the post based in The Istana until shortly before the outbreak of World War II in 1939 . He was responsible for forming The Dobbie Hypothesis on the fall of Singapore which , had it been heeded , may have prevented the fall of Singapore during the Second World War .
= = The Battle for Singapore and Japanese occupation ( 1942 – 1945 ) = =
In December 1941 , Japan attacked Pearl Harbor and the east coast of Malaya , causing the Pacific War to begin in earnest . Both attacks occurred at the same time , but due to the international dateline , the Honolulu attack is dated December 7 while the Kota Bharu attack is dated December 8 . One of Japan 's objectives was to capture Southeast Asia and secure the rich supply of natural resources to feed its military and industry needs . Singapore , the main Allied base in the region , was an obvious military target because of its flourishing trade and wealth . The British military commanders in Singapore had believed that the Japanese attack would come by sea from the south , since the dense Malayan jungle in the north would serve as a natural barrier against invasion . Although they had drawn up a plan for dealing with an attack on northern Malaya , preparations were never completed . The military was confident that " Fortress Singapore " would withstand any Japanese attack and this confidence was further reinforced by the arrival of Force Z , a squadron of British warships dispatched to the defense of Singapore , including the battleship HMS Prince of Wales , and cruiser HMS Repulse . The squadron was to have been accompanied by a third capital ship , the aircraft carrier HMS Indomitable , but it ran aground en route , leaving the squadron without air cover .
On 8 December 1941 , Japanese forces landed at Kota Bharu in northern Malaya . Just two days after the start of the invasion of Malaya , Prince of Wales and Repulse were sunk 50 miles off the coast of Kuantan in Pahang , by a force of Japanese bombers and torpedo bomber aircraft , in the worst British naval defeat of World War II . Allied air support did not arrive in time to protect the two capital ships . After this incident , Singapore and Malaya suffered daily air raids , including those targeting civilian structures such as hospitals or shophouses with casualties ranging from the tens to the hundreds each time .
The Japanese army advanced swiftly southward through the Malay Peninsula , crushing or bypassing Allied resistance . The Allied forces did not have tanks , which they considered unsuitable in the tropical rainforest , and their infantry proved powerless against the Japanese light tanks . As their resistance failed against the Japanese advance , the Allied forces were forced to retreat southwards towards Singapore . By 31 January 1942 , a mere 55 days after the start of the invasion , the Japanese had conquered the entire Malay Peninsula and were poised to attack Singapore .
The causeway linking Johor and Singapore was blown up by the Allied forces in an effort to stop the Japanese army . However , the Japanese managed to cross the Straits of Johor in inflatable boats days after . Several fights by the Allied forces and volunteers of Singapore 's population against the advancing Japanese , such as the Battle of Pasir Panjang , took place during this period . However , with most of the defenses shattered and supplies exhausted , Lieutenant @-@ General Arthur Percival surrendered the Allied forces in Singapore to General Tomoyuki Yamashita of the Imperial Japanese Army on Chinese New Year , 15 February 1942 . About 130 @,@ 000 Indian , Australian and British troops became prisoners of war , many of whom would later be transported to Burma , Japan , Korea , or Manchuria for use as slave labour via prisoner transports known as " hell ships . " The fall of Singapore was the largest surrender of British @-@ led forces in history . Japanese newspapers triumphantly declared the victory as deciding the general situation of the war .
Singapore , renamed Syonan @-@ to ( 昭南島 Shōnan @-@ tō , " Light of the South Island " in Japanese ) , was occupied by the Japanese from 1942 to 1945 . The Japanese army imposed harsh measures against the local population , with troops , especially the Kempeitai or Japanese military police , particularly ruthless in dealing with the Chinese population . The most notable atrocity was the Sook Ching massacre of Chinese civilians , undertaken in retaliation against support of the war effort in China . The Japanese screened citizens ( including children ) to check if they were " anti @-@ Japanese " . If so , the " guilty " citizens would be sent away in a truck to be executed . These mass executions claimed between 25 @,@ 000 and 50 @,@ 000 lives in Malaya and Singapore . The rest of the population suffered severe hardship throughout the three and a half years of Japanese occupation . The Malay and Indians were forced to build the " Death Railway " , a railway between Thailand and Burma ( Myanmar ) . Most of them died while building the railway . The Eurasians were also caught as POWs ( Prisoners of War ) .
= = Post @-@ war period ( 1945 – 1955 ) = =
After the Japanese surrender to the Allies on 15 August 1945 , Singapore fell into a brief state of anomie ; looting and revenge @-@ killing were widespread . British troops led by Lord Louis Mountbatten , Supreme Allied Commander for Southeast Asia Command , returned to Singapore to receive formal surrender of the Japanese forces in the region from General Itagaki Seishiro on behalf of General Hisaichi Terauchi on 12 September 1945 , and a British Military Administration was formed to govern the island until March 1946 . Much of the infrastructure had been destroyed during the war , including electricity and water supply systems , telephone services , as well as the harbor facilities at the Port of Singapore . There was also a shortage of food leading to malnutrition , disease , and rampant crime and violence . High food prices , unemployment , and workers ' discontent culminated into a series of strikes in 1947 causing massive stoppages in public transport and other services . By late 1947 , the economy began to recover , facilitated by a growing demand for tin and rubber around the world , but it would take several more years before the economy returned to pre @-@ war levels .
The failure of Britain to defend Singapore had destroyed its credibility as infallible ruler in the eyes of Singaporeans . The decades after the war saw a political awakening amongst the local populace and the rise of anti @-@ colonial and nationalist sentiments , epitomized by the slogan Merdeka , or " independence " in the Malay language . The British , on their part , were prepared to gradually increase self @-@ governance for Singapore and Malaya . On 1 April 1946 , the Straits Settlements was dissolved and Singapore became a separate Crown Colony with a civil administration headed by a Governor . In July 1947 , separate Executive and Legislative Councils were established and the election of six members of the Legislative Council was scheduled in the following year .
= = = First Legislative Council ( 1948 – 1951 ) = = =
The first Singaporean elections , held in March 1948 , were limited as only six of the twenty @-@ five seats on the Legislative Council were to be elected . Only British subjects had the rights to vote , and only 23 @,@ 000 or about 10 % of those eligible registered to vote . Other members of the Council were chosen either by the Governor or by the chambers of commerce . Three of the elected seats were won by a newly formed Singapore Progressive Party ( SPP ) , a conservative party whose leaders were businessmen and professionals and were disinclined to press for immediate self @-@ rule . The other three seats were won by independents .
Three months after the elections , an armed insurgency by communist groups in Malaya – the Malayan Emergency – broke out . The British imposed tough measures to control left @-@ wing groups in both Singapore and Malaya and introduced the controversial Internal Security Act , which allowed indefinite detention without trial for persons suspected of being " threats to security " . Since the left @-@ wing groups were the strongest critics of the colonial system , progress on self @-@ government was stalled for several years .
= = = Second Legislative Council ( 1951 – 1955 ) = = =
A second Legislative Council election was held in 1951 with the number of elected seats increased to nine . This election was again dominated by the SPP which won six seats . While this contributed to the formation of a distinct local government of Singapore , the colonial administration was still dominant . In 1953 , with the communists in Malaya suppressed and the worst of the Emergency over , a British Commission , headed by Sir George Rendel , proposed a limited form of self @-@ government for Singapore . A new Legislative Assembly with twenty @-@ five out of thirty @-@ two seats chosen by popular election would replace the Legislative Council , from which a Chief Minister as head of government and Council of Ministers as a cabinet would be picked under a parliamentary system . The British would retain control over areas such as internal security and foreign affairs , as well as veto power over legislation .
The election for the Legislative Assembly held on 2 April 1955 was a lively and closely fought affair , with several new political parties joining the fray . Unlike previous elections , voters were automatically registered , expanding the electorate to around 300 @,@ 000 . The SPP was soundly defeated in the election , winning only four seats . The newly formed , left @-@ leaning Labour Front was the biggest winner with ten seats and it formed a coalition government with the UMNO @-@ MCA Alliance , which won three seats . Another new party , the leftist People 's Action Party ( PAP ) , won three seats .
= = Self @-@ government ( 1955 – 1963 ) = =
= = = Partial internal self @-@ government ( 1955 – 1959 ) = = =
David Marshall , leader of the Labour Front , became the first Chief Minister of Singapore . He presided over a shaky government , receiving little cooperation from either the colonial government or the other local parties . Social unrest was on the rise , and in May 1955 , the Hock Lee bus riots broke out , killing four people and seriously discrediting Marshall 's government . In 1956 , the Chinese middle school riots broke out among students in The Chinese High School and other schools , further increasing the tension between the local government and the Chinese students and unionists who were regarded of having communist sympathies .
In April 1956 , Marshall led a delegation to London to negotiate for complete self @-@ rule in the Merdeka Talks , but the talks failed when the British were reluctant to give up control over Singapore 's internal security . The British were concerned about communist influence and labour strikes which were undermining Singapore 's economic stability , and felt that the local government was ineffective in handling earlier riots . Marshall resigned following the failure of the talk .
The new Chief Minister , Lim Yew Hock , launched a crackdown on communist and leftist groups , imprisoning many trade union leaders and several pro @-@ communist members of the PAP under the Internal Security Act . The British government approved of Lim 's tough stance against communist agitators , and when a new round of talks was held beginning in March 1957 , they agreed to grant complete internal self @-@ government . A State of Singapore would be created , with its own citizenship . The Legislative Assembly would be expanded to fifty @-@ one members , entirely chosen by popular election , and the Prime Minister and cabinet would control all aspects of government except defense and foreign affairs . The governorship was replaced by a Yang di @-@ Pertuan Negara or head of state . In August 1958 , the State of Singapore Act was passed in the United Kingdom Parliament providing for the establishment of the State of Singapore .
= = = Full internal self @-@ government ( 1959 – 1963 ) = = =
Elections for the new Legislative Assembly were held in May 1959 . The People 's Action Party ( PAP ) won the polls in a landslide victory , winning forty @-@ three of the fifty @-@ one seats . They accomplished this by courting the Chinese @-@ speaking majority , particularly those in the labour unions and radical student organizations . Its leader Lee Kuan Yew , a young Cambridge @-@ educated lawyer , became the first Prime Minister of Singapore .
The PAP 's victory was at first viewed with dismay by foreign and local business leaders because some party 's members were pro @-@ communists . Many businesses promptly shifted their headquarters from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur . Despite these ill omens , the PAP government embarked on a vigorous program to address Singapore 's various economic and social problems . Economic development was overseen by the new Minister of Finance Goh Keng Swee , whose strategy was to encourage foreign and local investment with measures ranging from tax incentives to the establishment of a large industrial estate in Jurong . The education system was revamped to train a skilled workforce and the English language was promoted over the Chinese language as the language of instruction . To eliminate labour unrest , existing labour unions were consolidated , sometimes forcibly , into a single umbrella organisation , called the National Trades Union Congress ( NTUC ) with strong oversight from the government . On the social front , an aggressive and well @-@ funded public housing program was launched to solve the long @-@ standing housing problem . More than 25 @,@ 000 high @-@ rise , low @-@ cost apartments were constructed during the first two years of the program .
= = = Campaign for merger = = =
Despite their successes in governing Singapore , the PAP leaders , including Lee and Goh , believed that Singapore 's future lay with Malaya . They felt that the historic and economic ties between Singapore and Malaya were too strong for them to continue as separate nations . Furthermore , Singapore lacked natural resources , and faced both a declining entrepôt trade and a growing population which required jobs . It was thought that the merger would benefit the economy by creating a common market , eliminating trade tariffs , and thus supporting new industries which would solve the ongoing unemployment woes .
Although the PAP leadership campaigned vigorously for a merger , the sizable pro @-@ communist wing of the PAP were strongly opposed to the merger , fearing a loss of influence as the ruling party of Malaya , United Malays National Organisation , was staunchly anti @-@ communist and would support the non @-@ communist faction of PAP against them . The UMNO leaders were also skeptical of the idea of a merger due to their distrust of the PAP government and concerns that the large Chinese population in Singapore would alter the racial balance on which their political power base depended . The issue came to a head in 1961 when pro @-@ communist PAP minister Ong Eng Guan defected from the party and beat a PAP candidate in a subsequent by @-@ election , a move that threatened to bring down Lee 's government .
Faced with the prospect of a takeover by the pro @-@ communists , UMNO changed their minds about the merger . On 27 May , Malaya 's Prime Minister , Tunku Abdul Rahman , mooted the idea of a Federation of Malaysia , comprising existing Federation of Malaya , Singapore , Brunei and the British Borneo territories of North Borneo and Sarawak . The UMNO leaders believed that the additional Malay population in the Borneo territories would offset Singapore 's Chinese population . The British government , for its part , believed that the merger would prevent Singapore from becoming a haven for communism .
On 9 July 1963 , the leaders of Singapore , Malaya , North Borneo and Sarawak signed the Malaysia Agreement to establish the Federation of Malaysia .
= = Singapore in Malaysia ( 1963 – 1965 ) = =
= = = Merger = = =
On 16 September 1963 , Malaya , Singapore , North Borneo and Sarawak were merged and Malaysia was formed . The union was rocky from the start . During the 1963 Singapore state elections , a local branch of United Malays National Organisation ( UMNO ) took part in the election despite an earlier UMNO 's agreement with the PAP not to participate in the state 's politics during Malaysia 's formative years . Although UMNO lost all its bids , relations between PAP and UMNO worsened . The PAP , in a tit @-@ for @-@ tat , challenged UMNO candidates in the 1964 federal election as part of the Malaysian Solidarity Convention , winning one glorious seat in Malaysian Parliament , compared to the empty @-@ handed Malaysia government .
= = = Racial tension = = =
Racial tensions increased as the Chinese in Singapore disdained being discriminated against by the federal policies of affirmative action , which granted special privileges to the Malays guaranteed under Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia . There were also other financial and economic benefits that were preferentially given to Malays . Lee Kuan Yew and other political leaders began advocating for the fair and equal treatment of all races in Malaysia , with a rallying cry of " Malaysian Malaysia ! " .
Meanwhile , the Malays in Singapore were being increasingly incited by the federal government 's accusations that the PAP was mistreating the Malays . The external political situation was also tense ; Indonesian President Sukarno declared a state of Konfrontasi ( Confrontation ) against Malaysia and initiated military and other actions against the new nation , including the bombing of MacDonald House in Singapore 10 March 1965 by Indonesian commandos , killing three people . Indonesia also conducted sedition activities to provoke the Malays against the Chinese . Numerous racial riots resulted and curfews were frequently imposed to restore order . The most notorious riots were the 1964 Race Riots that first took place on Prophet Muhammad 's birthday on 21 July with twenty three people killed and hundreds injured . During the unrest , the price of food skyrocketed when transport system was disrupted , causing further hardship for the people .
The state and federal governments also had conflicts on the economic front . UMNO leaders feared that the economic dominance of Singapore would inevitably shift political power away from Kuala Lumpur . Despite earlier agreement to establish a common market , Singapore continued to face restrictions when trading with the rest of Malaysia . In retaliation , Singapore refused to provide Sabah and Sarawak the full extent of the loans previously agreed to for the economic development of the two eastern states . The Bank of China branch of Singapore was closed by the Central Government in Kuala Lumpur as it was suspected of funding communists . The situation escalated to such an extent that talks between UMNO and the PAP broke down , and abusive speeches and writings became rife on both sides . UMNO extremists called for the arrest of Lee Kuan Yew .
= = = Separation = = =
Seeing no alternative to avoid further bloodshed , the Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman decided to expel Singapore from the federation . Goh Keng Swee , who had become skeptical of merger 's economic benefits for Singapore , convinced Lee Kuan Yew that the separation had to take place . UMNO and PAP representatives worked out the terms of separation in extreme secrecy in order to present the British government , in particular , with a fait accompli .
On the morning of 9 August 1965 , the Parliament of Malaysia voted 126 – 0 in favor of a constitutional amendment expelling Singapore from the federation ; hours later , the Parliament of Singapore passed the Republic of Singapore Independence Act , establishing the island as an independent and sovereign republic . A tearful Lee Kuan Yew announced in a televised press conference that Singapore had become a sovereign , independent nation . In a widely remembered quote , he stated : " For me , it is a moment of anguish . All my life , my whole adult life , I have believed in merger and unity of the two territories . " The new state became the Republic of Singapore , with Yusof bin Ishak appointed as its first President .
= = Republic of Singapore ( 1965 – present ) = =
= = = 1965 to 1979 = = =
After gaining independence abruptly , Singapore faced a future filled with uncertainties . The Konfrontasi was on @-@ going and the conservative UMNO faction strongly opposed the separation ; Singapore faced the dangers of attack by the Indonesian military and forcible re @-@ integration into the Malaysia Federation on unfavorable terms . Much of the international media was skeptical of prospects for Singapore 's survival . Besides the issue of sovereignty , the pressing problems were unemployment , housing , education , and the lack of natural resources and land . Unemployment was ranging between 10 – 12 % , threatening to trigger civil unrest .
Singapore immediately sought international recognition of its sovereignty . The new state joined the United Nations on 21 September 1965 , becoming the 117th member ; and joined the Commonwealth in October that year . Foreign minister Sinnathamby Rajaratnam headed a new foreign service that helped assert Singapore 's independence and establishing diplomatic relations with other countries . On 22 December 1965 , the Constitution Amendment Act was passed under which the Head of State became the President and the State of Singapore became the Republic of Singapore . Singapore later co @-@ founded the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) on 8 August 1967 and was admitted into the Non @-@ Aligned Movement in 1970 .
The Economic Development Board had been set up in 1961 to formulate and implement national economic strategies , focusing on promoting Singapore 's manufacturing sector . Industrial estates were set up , especially in Jurong , and foreign investment was attracted to the country with tax incentives . The industrialization transformed the manufacturing sector to one that produced higher value @-@ added goods and achieved greater revenue . The service industry also grew at this time , driven by demand for services by ships calling at the port and increasing commerce . This progress helped to alleviate the unemployment crisis . Singapore also attracted big oil companies like Shell and Esso to establish oil refineries in Singapore which , by the mid @-@ 1970s , became the third largest oil @-@ refining centre in the world . The government invested heavily in an education system that adopted English as the language of instruction and emphasised practical training to develop a competent workforce well suited for the industry .
The lack of good public housing , poor sanitation , and high unemployment led to social problems from crime to health issues . The proliferation of squatter settlements resulted in safety hazards and caused the Bukit Ho Swee Fire in 1961 that killed four people and left 16 @,@ 000 others homeless . The Housing Development Board set up before independence continued to be largely successful and huge building projects sprung up to provide affordable public housing to resettle the squatters . Within a decade , the majority of the population had been housed in these apartments . The Central Provident Fund ( CPF ) Housing Scheme , introduced in 1968 , allows residents to use their compulsory savings account to purchase HDB flats and gradually increases home ownership in Singapore .
British troops had remained in Singapore following its independence , but in 1968 , London announced its decision to withdraw the forces by 1971 . With the secret aid of military advisers from Israel , Singapore rapidly established the Singapore Armed Forces , with the help of a national service program introduced in 1967 . Since independence , Singaporean defense spending has been approximately five percent of GDP . Today , the Singapore Armed Forces are among the best @-@ equipped in Asia .
= = = The 1980s and 1990s = = =
Further economic success continued through the 1980s , with the unemployment rate falling to 3 % and real GDP growth averaging at about 8 % up until 1999 . During the 1980s , Singapore began to upgrade to higher @-@ technological industries , such as the wafer fabrication sector , in order to compete with its neighbours which now had cheaper labour . Singapore Changi Airport was opened in 1981 and Singapore Airlines was developed to become a major airline . The Port of Singapore became one of the world 's busiest ports and the service and tourism industries also grew immensely during this period . Singapore emerged as an important transportation hub and a major tourist destination .
The Housing Development Board ( HDB ) continued to promote public housing with new towns , such as Ang Mo Kio , being designed and built . These new residential estates have larger and higher @-@ standard apartments and are served with better amenities . Today , 80 – 90 % of the population lives in HDB apartments . In 1987 , the first Mass Rapid Transit ( MRT ) line began operation , connecting most of these housing estates and the city centre .
The political situation in Singapore continues to be dominated by the People 's Action Party . The PAP won all the parliamentary seats in every election between 1966 and 1981 . The PAP rule is termed authoritarian by some activists and opposition politicians who see the strict regulation of political and media activities by the government as an infringement on political rights . The conviction of opposition politician Chee Soon Juan for illegal protests and the defamation lawsuits against J. B. Jeyaretnam have been cited by the opposition parties as examples of such authoritarianism . The lack of separation of powers between the court system and the government led to further accusations by the opposition parties of miscarriage of justice .
The government of Singapore underwent several significant changes . Non @-@ Constituency Members of Parliament were introduced in 1984 to allow up to three losing candidates from opposition parties to be appointed as MPs . Group Representation Constituencies ( GRCs ) was introduced in 1988 to create multi @-@ seat electoral divisions , intended to ensure minority representation in parliament . Nominated Members of Parliament were introduced in 1990 to allow non @-@ elected non @-@ partisan MPs . The Constitution was amended in 1991 to provide for an Elected President who has veto power in the use of national reserves and appointments to public office . The opposition parties have complained that the GRC system has made it difficult for them to gain a foothold in parliamentary elections in Singapore , and the plurality voting system tends to exclude minority parties .
In 1990 , Lee Kuan Yew passed the reins of leadership to Goh Chok Tong , who became the second prime minister of Singapore . Goh presented a more open and consultative style of leadership as the country continued to modernise . In 1997 , Singapore experienced the effect of the Asian financial crisis and tough measures , such as cuts in the CPF contribution , were implemented .
Lee 's programs in Singapore had a profound effect on the Communist leadership in China , who made a major effort , especially under Deng Xiaoping , to emulate his policies of economic growth , entrepreneurship , and subtle suppression of dissent . Over 22 @,@ 000 Chinese officials were sent to Singapore to study its methods .
= = = 2000 – present = = =
= = = = Early 2000s = = = =
In the early 2000s , Singapore went through some post @-@ independence crises , including the SARS outbreak in 2003 and the threat of terrorism . In December 2001 , a plot to bomb embassies and other infrastructure in Singapore was uncovered and as many as 36 members of the Jemaah Islamiyah group were arrested under the Internal Security Act . Major counter @-@ terrorism measures were put in place to detect and prevent potential terrorist acts and to minimise damages should they occur . More emphasis was placed on promoting social integration and trust between the different communities .
In 2004 , Lee Hsien Loong , the eldest son of Lee Kuan Yew , became the third prime minister of Singapore . He introduced several policy changes , including the reduction of national service duration from two and a half years to two years , and the legalisation of casino gambling . Other efforts to raise the city 's global profile included the reestablishment of the Singapore Grand Prix in 2008 , and the hosting of the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics .
The general election of 2006 was a landmark election because of the prominent use of the internet and blogging to cover and comment on the election , circumventing the official media . The PAP returned to power , winning 82 of the 84 parliamentary seats and 66 % of the votes . In 2005 , Wee Kim Wee and Devan Nair , two former Presidents , died .
= = = = 2010 – 2015 = = = =
The general election of 2011 was yet another watershed election due to the first time a GRC was lost by the ruling party PAP , to the opposition party WP . Four years later , Lee Kuan Yew , founding father and the first Prime Minister of Singapore , died on 23 March 2015 . Singapore declared a period of national mourning from 23 – 29 March . There was a golden jubilee weekend , featuring an extra holiday in 2015 . Fun packs , which are usually given to people who attend the National Day Parade was given to every Singaporean and PR household . The NDP was the first one without the founding prime minister Lee Kuan Yew . Therefore , there was a tribute to him the NDP . The NDP was also the first which foreign dignitaries were invited over to see the parade .
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= Bob Muglia =
Bob Muglia ( born 1959 ) is an American business executive and research and development specialist . He is currently the Chief Executive Officer of Snowflake Computing , a data warehousing startup . Muglia is known for managing divisions at Microsoft that supported the Microsoft Office Suite , Windows Server and MSN Network product families . He was one of four presidents that reported directly to Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer .
Muglia held several executive positions at Microsoft before resigning from the company in 2011 . He worked briefly for Juniper Networks , then accepted his current position as CEO of Snowflake Computing in June 2014 .
= = Early life = =
Bob Muglia was born in 1959 in Connecticut . His father was an automotive parts salesman . Muglia started working at his first job when he was 15 years old . He moved to Michigan and earned an undergraduate degree from the University of Michigan in 1981 . After graduating , he started working for ROLM Corporation .
= = Career = =
= = = Microsoft = = =
= = = = Windows and business software = = = =
Bob Muglia started his Microsoft career in 1988 . He was the first product manager for SQL Server . Muglia also served as the director of Windows NT Program Management and User Education . He was promoted to vice president of the Windows NT division in October 1995 . Muglia later held the position of vice president of the Server Application group , until he was promoted to senior vice president of the Applications and Tools group in February 1998 .
Bob Muglia was influential in a corporate restructuring at Microsoft in 1999 , which assigned business divisions to customer types , rather than technologies . As part of the re @-@ structuring , Muglia became head of the business @-@ productivity group , which oversaw Microsoft Office , Exchange and other business software . According to Computer Reseller News , Muglia pushed developers to visit customers , created customer advisory boards and led other efforts to incorporate customer input into product development at Microsoft .
Muglia testified in the United States v. Microsoft Corp. anti @-@ trust lawsuit , and in a case between Microsoft and Sun Microsystems regarding Microsoft 's use of Java . According to New York Times reporters Steve Lohr and Koel Brinkley , the judge embarrassed Muglia by rebuking him for his persistent characterization of an email from Bill Gates . Muglia also negotiated aggressively with RealNetworks , regarding an anti @-@ trust dispute between the two companies .
In August 2000 , Muglia was appointed to vice president of a new .NET Services Group . The following year he was reassigned to focus on database technologies as senior vice president of the Enterprise Storage Services Group . He helped develop Microsoft 's plan for autonomic computing , which was announced in March 2003 . By early 2004 , Muglia held the position of senior vice president of the Windows Server Division .
= = = = Servers and tools division = = = =
Another re @-@ organization at Microsoft in 2005 resulted in Muglia taking the position of Senior Vice President of Servers and Tools before being promoted to president of the division in 2009 . This made Muglia one of four presidents at Microsoft .
During his tenure , the business group grew its revenues more than ten percent each year for six years . The division accounted for more than 20 percent of Microsoft 's revenues by January 2009 . In this position , Muglia led Microsoft 's ten @-@ year plan for data center and desktop automation products , its Dynamic Systems Initiative and its Dynamic IT strategy . In October 2010 , developers criticized Muglia for suggesting Microsoft would put less emphasis on Silverlight ; a statement he later retracted .
Muglia announced his resignation from Microsoft in January 2011 ; he was replaced by Satya Nadella , now Microsoft 's CEO . He was the fourth executive reporting directly to Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer to resign between early 2010 and 2011 . According to Financial Times , Ballmer credited Muglia for growing the servers and tools division , but implied the departure was related to disagreements between the two executives about the company 's cloud computing strategy .
= = = Juniper = = =
In July 2011 , a few months prior to Muglia 's last day at Microsoft , Juniper Networks announced it would hire Muglia as the executive vice president of its software division . He reported to then Juniper CEO Kevin Johnson , who ( along with other Juniper staff ) is also a former Microsoft executive . Muglia was hired to consolidate Juniper 's software groups under a new division called Software Solutions . He also helped develop Juniper 's software @-@ defined networking ( SDN ) strategy .
In December 2013 Muglia quit Juniper , a month after Shaygan Kheradpir was appointed as the company 's new CEO . Several other Juniper executives also left around this time .
= = = Snowflake computing = = =
Bob Muglia is currently the Chief Executive Officer of Snowflake Computing , a cloud @-@ based data @-@ warehousing startup . He joined the company in June 2014 , a couple years after it was founded in 2012 . Snowflake Computing came out of stealth mode that October .
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= Mark Oliphant =
Sir Marcus " Mark " Laurence Elwin Oliphant , AC , KBE , FRS , FAA ( 8 October 1901 – 14 July 2000 ) was an Australian physicist and humanitarian who played an important role in the first experimental demonstration of nuclear fusion and also the development of nuclear weapons .
Born and raised in Adelaide , South Australia , Oliphant graduated from the University of Adelaide in 1922 . He was awarded an 1851 Exhibition Scholarship in 1927 on the strength of the research he had done on mercury , and went to England , where he studied under Sir Ernest Rutherford at the University of Cambridge 's Cavendish Laboratory . There , he used a particle accelerator to fire heavy hydrogen nuclei ( deuterons ) at various targets . He discovered the nuclei of helium @-@ 3 ( helions ) and tritium ( tritons ) . He also discovered that when they reacted with each other , the particles that were released had far more energy than they started with . Energy had been liberated from inside the nucleus , and he realised that this was a result of nuclear fusion .
Oliphant left the Cavendish Laboratory in 1937 to become the Poynting Professor of Physics at the University of Birmingham . He attempted to build a 60 @-@ inch ( 150 cm ) cyclotron at the university , but its completion was postponed by the outbreak of the Second World War in Europe in 1939 . He became involved with the development of radar , heading a group at the University of Birmingham that included John Randall and Harry Boot . They created a radical new design , the cavity magnetron , that made microwave radar possible . Oliphant also formed part of the MAUD Committee , which reported in July 1941 , that an atomic bomb was not only feasible , but might be produced as early as 1943 . Oliphant was instrumental in spreading the word of this finding in the United States , thereby starting what became the Manhattan Project . Later in the war , he worked on it with his friend Ernest Lawrence at the Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley , California , developing electromagnetic isotope separation .
After the war , Oliphant returned to Australia as the first Director of the Research School of Physical Sciences and Engineering at the new Australian National University , where he initiated the design and construction of the world 's largest ( 500 megajoule ) homopolar generator . He retired in 1976 , but was appointed Governor of South Australia on the advice of Premier , Don Dunstan . He assisted in the founding of the Australian Democrats political party , and he was the chairman of the meeting in Melbourne in 1977 at which the party was launched . Late in life he watched his wife , Rosa , suffer before her death in 1987 , and he became an advocate for voluntary euthanasia . He died in Canberra in 2000 .
= = Early life = =
Marcus " Mark " Laurence Elwin Oliphant was born on 8 October 1901 in Kent Town , a suburb of Adelaide . His father was Harold George " Baron " Oliphant , a civil servant with the South Australian Engineering and Water Supply Department and part @-@ time lecturer in Economics with the Workers ' Educational Association . His mother was Beatrice Edith Fanny Oliphant , née Tucker , an artist . He was named after Marcus Clarke , the Australian author , and Laurence Oliphant , the British traveller and mystic . Most people called him Mark ; this became official when he was knighted in 1959 . He had four younger brothers , Roland , Keith , Nigel and Donald . His parents were theosophists , and as such were opposed to eating meat . Marcus became a lifelong vegetarian while a boy , after witnessing the slaughter of pigs on a farm . He was found to be completely deaf in one ear and he needed glasses for severe astigmatism and short @-@ sightedness .
Oliphant was first educated at primary schools in Goodwood and Mylor , after the family moved there in 1910 . He attended Unley High School in Adelaide , and , for his final year in 1918 , Adelaide High School . After graduation he failed to obtain a bursary to attend university , and so got a job cleaning floors for a jewellery manufacturer . He then got a cadetship with the State Library of South Australia , which allowed him to take courses at the University of Adelaide at night .
In 1919 , Oliphant began studying at the University of Adelaide . At first he was interested in a career in medicine , but later in the year Kerr Grant , the physics professor , offered him a cadetship in the Physics Department . It paid 10 shillings a week ( equivalent to AUD $ 34 in 2010 ) , the same amount that Oliphant received for working at the State Library , but it allowed him to take any university course that did not conflict with his work for the department . He received his Bachelor of Science ( BSc ) degree in 1921 and then did honours the following year , supervised by Kerr Grant . Roy Burdon , who acted as head of the department when Kerr went on sabbatical in 1925 , worked with Oliphant to produce two papers in 1927 on the properties of mercury , " The Problem of the Surface Tension of Mercury and the Action of Aqueous Solutions on a Mercury Surface " and " Absorption of Gases on the Surface of Mercury " . Oliphant later recalled that Burdon taught him " the extraordinary exhilaration there was in even minor discoveries in the field of physics " .
Oliphant married Rosa Louise Wilbraham , who was also from Adelaide , on 23 May 1925 . The two had known each other since they were teenagers . He made Rosa 's wedding ring in the laboratory from a gold nugget ( from the Coolgardie Goldfields ) that his father had given him .
= = Cavendish Laboratory = =
In 1925 , Oliphant heard a speech given by the New Zealand physicist , Sir Ernest Rutherford , and he decided he wanted to work for him – an ambition that he fulfilled by earning a position at the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in 1927 . He applied for an 1851 Exhibition Scholarship on the strength of the research he had done on mercury with Burdon . It came with a living allowance of £ 250 per annum ( equivalent to AUD $ 17 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) . When word came through that he had been awarded a fellowship , he wired Rutherford and Trinity College , Cambridge . Both accepted him .
Rutherford 's Cavendish Laboratory was carrying out some of the most advanced research into nuclear physics in the world at the time . Oliphant was invited to afternoon tea by Rutherford and Lady Rutherford . He soon got to meet other researchers at the Cavendish Laboratory , including Patrick Blackett , Edward Bullard , James Chadwick , John Cockcroft , Charles Ellis , Peter Kapitza , Philip Moon and Ernest Walton . There were two fellow Australians : Harrie Massey and John Keith Roberts . Oliphant would become especially close friends with Cockcroft . The laboratory had considerable talent but not a lot of money to spare , and tended to use a " string and sealing wax " approach to experimental equipment . Oliphant had to buy his own equipment , at one point spending £ 24 ( equivalent to AUD $ 800 in 2010 ) of his allowance on a vacuum pump .
Oliphant submitted his PhD thesis on " The Neutralization of Positive Ions at Metal Surfaces , and the Emission of Secondary Electrons " in December 1929 . For his viva , he was examined by Rutherford and Ellis . Receiving his degree was the attainment of a major life goal , but it also meant the end of his 1851 Exhibition Scholarship . Oliphant secured an 1851 Senior Studentship , of which there were five awarded each year . It came with a living allowance of £ 450 per annum ( equivalent to A $ 30 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) for two years , with the possibility of a one @-@ year extension in exceptional circumstances , which Oliphant was also awarded .
A son , Geoffrey Bruce Oliphant , was born 6 October 1930 , but he died of meningitis on 5 September 1933 , and was interred in an unmarked grave in the Ascension Parish Burial Ground in Cambridge alongside Timothy Cockcroft , the infant son of Sir John and Lady Elizabeth Cockcroft , who had died the year before . Unable to have more children , the Oliphants adopted a four @-@ month @-@ old boy , Michael John , in 1936 , and a daughter , Vivian , in 1938 .
In 1932 and 1933 , the scientists at the Cavendish Laboratory made a series of ground @-@ breaking discoveries . Cockroft and Walton bombarded lithium with high energy protons and succeeded in transmuting it into energetic nuclei of helium . This was one of the earliest experiments to change the atomic nucleus of one element to another by artificial means . Then Chadwick devised an experiment that discovered a new , uncharged particle with roughly the same mass as the proton : the neutron . In 1933 , Blackett discovered tracks in his cloud chamber that confirmed the existence of the positron and revealed the opposing spiral traces of positron – electron pair production .
Oliphant followed up the work by constructing a particle accelerator that could fire protons with up to 600 @,@ 000 electronvolts of energy . He soon confirmed the results of Cockroft and Walton on the artificial disintegration of the nucleus and positive ions . He produced a series of six papers over the following two years . In 1933 , the Cavendish Laboratory received a gift from the American physical chemist Gilbert N. Lewis of a few drops of heavy water . The accelerator was used to fire heavy hydrogen nuclei ( deuterons , which Rutherford called diplons ) at various targets . Working with Rutherford and others , Oliphant thereby discovered the nuclei of Helium @-@ 3 ( helions ) and tritium ( tritons ) .
Oliphant used electromagnetic separation to separate the isotopes of lithium . He was the first to experimentally demonstrate nuclear fusion . He found that when deuterons reacted with nuclei of Helium @-@ 3 , tritium or with other deuterons , the particles that were released had far more energy than they started with . Binding energy had been liberated from inside the nucleus . Following Arthur Eddington 's 1920 prediction that energy released by fusing small nuclei together could provide the energy source that powers the stars , Oliphant speculated that nuclear fusion reactions might be what powered the sun . With its higher cross section , the deuterium – tritium nuclear fusion reaction became the basis of a hydrogen bomb . Oliphant had not foreseen this development :
... we had no idea whatever that this would one day be applied to make hydrogen bombs . Our curiosity was just curiosity about the structure of the nucleus of the atom , and the discovery of these reactions was purely , as the Americans would put it , coincidental .
In 1934 , Cockcroft arranged for Oliphant become a fellow of St John 's College , Cambridge , which paid about £ 600 . When Chadwick left the Cavendish Laboratory for the University of Liverpool in 1935 , Oliphant and Ellis both replaced him as Rutherford 's Assistant Director for Research . The job came with a salary of £ 600 ( equivalent to AUD $ 49 @,@ 900 in 2010 ) . With the money from St John 's , this gave him a comfortable income . Oliphant soon fitted out a new accelerator laboratory with a 1 @.@ 23 MeV generator at a cost of £ 6 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to AUD $ 499 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) while he designed an even larger 2 MeV generator . He was the first to conceive of the proton synchrotron , a new type of cyclic particle accelerator . In 1937 , he was elected to the Royal Society . When he died he was its longest @-@ serving fellow .
= = University of Birmingham = =
Samuel Walter Johnson Smith 's imminent mandatory retirement at age 65 prompted a search for a new Poynting Professor of Physics at the University of Birmingham . The University wanted not just a replacement , but a well @-@ known name , and was willing to spend lavishly in order to build up nuclear physics expertise at Birmingham . Neville Moss , its Professor of Mining Engineering and the Dean of its Faculty of Science approached Oliphant , who presented his terms . In addition to his salary of £ 1 @,@ 300 ( equivalent to AUD $ 103 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) , he wanted the University to spend £ 2 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to A $ 158 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) to upgrade the laboratory , and another £ 1 @,@ 000 per annum ( equivalent to A $ 79 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) on it . And he did not wish to start until October 1937 , to enable him to wrap up his work at the Cavendish Laboratory . Moss agreed to Oliphant 's terms .
To obtain funding for the 60 @-@ inch ( 150 cm ) cyclotron that he wanted , Oliphant wrote to the prime minister , Neville Chamberlain , who was from Birmingham . Chamberlain took up the matter with his friend Lord Nuffield , who provided £ 60 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to AUD $ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) for the project , enough for the cyclotron , a brand new building to house it , and a trip to Berkeley , California , so Oliphant could confer with Ernest Lawrence , the inventor of the cyclotron . Lawrence was supportive of the project , sending Oliphant the plans of the 60 @-@ inch cyclotron that he had under construction at Berkeley , and inviting Oliphant to visit him at the Radiation Laboratory . Oliphant sailed for New York on 10 December 1938 , and met Lawrence in Berkeley . The two men got along very well , dining at Trader Vic 's in Oakland . Oliphant was aware of the problems in building cyclotrons encountered by Chadwick at the University of Liverpool and Cockcroft at the Cavendish Laboratory , and intended to avoid these and get his cyclotron built on time and on budget by following Lawrence 's specifications as closely as possible . He hoped that it would be running by Christmas 1939 , but the outbreak of the Second World War quashed his hopes . The Nuffield Cyclotron would not be completed until after the war .
= = = Radar = = =
In 1938 , Oliphant became involved with the development of radar , then still a secret . While visiting prototype radar stations , he realised that shorter @-@ wavelength radio waves were needed urgently , especially if there was to be any chance of building a radar set small enough to fit into an aircraft . In August 1939 , he took a small group to Ventnor , on the Isle of Wight , to examine the Chain Home system first hand . He obtained a grant from the Admiralty to develop radar systems with wavelengths less than 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) ; the best available at the time was 150 centimetres ( 59 in ) .
Oliphant 's group at Birmingham worked on developing two promising devices , the klystron and the magnetron . Working with James Sayers , Oliphant managed to produce an improved version of the klystron capable of generating 400W . Meanwhile , two more members of his Birmingham team , John Randall and Harry Boot , worked on a radical new design , a cavity magnetron . By February 1940 , they had an output of 400W with a wavelength of 9 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) , just the kind of short wavelengths needed for good airborne radars . The magnetron 's power was soon increased a hundred @-@ fold , and Birmingham concentrated on magnetron development . The first operational magnetrons were delivered in August 1941 . This invention was one of the key scientific breakthroughs during the war and played a major part in defeating the German U @-@ boats , intercepting enemy bombers , and in directing Allied bombers .
In 1940 , the Fall of France , and the possibility that Britain might be invaded , prompted Oliphant to send his wife and children to Australia . The Fall of Singapore in February 1942 led him to offer his services to John Madsen , the Professor of Electrical Engineering at the University of Sydney , and the head of the Radiophysics Laboratory at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research , which was responsible for developing radar . He embarked from Glasgow for Australia on QSMV Dominion Monarch on 20 March . The voyage , part of a 46 @-@ ship convoy , was a slow one , with the convoy frequently zigzagging to avoid U @-@ boats , and the ship did not reach Fremantle until 27 May .
The Australians were already preparing to produce radar sets locally . Oliphant persuaded Professor Thomas Laby to release Eric Burhop and Leslie Martin from their work on optical munitions to work on radar , and they succeeded in building a cavity magnetron in their laboratory at the University of Melbourne in May 1942 . Oliphant worked with Martin on the process of moving the magnetrons for the laboratory to the production line . Over 2 @,@ 000 radar sets were produced in Australia during the war .
= = = Manhattan Project = = =
At the University of Birmingham in March 1940 , Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls examined the theoretical issues involved in developing , producing and using atomic bombs in a paper that became known as the Frisch – Peierls memorandum . They considered what would happen to a sphere of pure uranium @-@ 235 , and found that not only could a chain reaction occur , but it might require as little as 1 kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) of uranium @-@ 235 to unleash the energy of hundreds of tons of TNT . The first person they showed their paper to was Oliphant , and he immediately took it to Sir Henry Tizard , the chairman of the Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Warfare ( CSSAW ) . As a result , a special subcommittee of the CSSAW known as the MAUD Committee was created to investigate the matter further . It was chaired by Sir George Thomson , and its original membership included Oliphant , Chadwick , Cockcroft and Moon . In its final report in July 1941 , the MAUD Committee concluded that an atomic bomb was not only feasible , but might be produced as early as 1943 .
Great Britain was at war and authorities there thought that the development of an atomic bomb was urgent , but there was much less urgency in the United States . Oliphant was one of the people who pushed the American program into motion . Oliphant flew to the United States in late August 1941 in an unheated bomber , ostensibly to discuss the radar @-@ development program , but was assigned to find out why the United States was ignoring the findings of the MAUD Committee . He later recalled : " the minutes and reports had been sent to Lyman Briggs , who was the Director of the Uranium Committee , and we were puzzled to receive virtually no comment . I called on Briggs in Washington [ DC ] , only to find out that this inarticulate and unimpressive man had put the reports in his safe and had not shown them to members of his committee . I was amazed and distressed . "
Oliphant then met with the Uranium Committee . Samuel K. Allison , a new member of the Committee , was a talented experimental physicist and a protégé of Arthur Compton at the University of Chicago . Oliphant " came to a meeting " , Allison recalls , " and said ' bomb ' in no uncertain terms . He told us we must concentrate every effort on the bomb , and said we had no right to work on power plants or anything but the bomb . The bomb would cost 25 million dollars , he said , and Britain did not have the money or the manpower , so it was up to us . " Allison was surprised that Briggs had kept the committee in the dark . Oliphant visited his friend Ernest Lawrence , and also spoke with James Conant and Enrico Fermi . He not only managed to convince the Americans that an atomic bomb was feasible , but also inspired Lawrence to convert his 37 @-@ inch ( 94 cm ) cyclotron into a giant mass spectrometer for isotope separation , a technique Oliphant had pioneered in 1934 . Leo Szilard later wrote , " if Congress knew the true history of the atomic energy project , I have no doubt but that it would create a special medal to be given to meddling foreigners for distinguished services , and that Dr Oliphant would be the first to receive one . "
On 26 October 1942 , Oliphant embarked from Melbourne , taking Rosa and the children back with him . The wartime sea voyage on the French Desirade was again a slow one , and they did not reach Glasgow until 29 February 1943 . But he had to leave them behind once more in November 1943 after he joined the Manhattan Project in the United States as part of the British Mission . Oliphant was one of the scientists whose services the Americans were most eager to secure , and Robert Oppenheimer , the head of the Los Alamos Laboratory attempted to persuade Oliphant to join . The work on the bomb itself made him uneasy , and he preferred to head the team assisting his friend Lawrence at the Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley to develop the electromagnetic uranium enrichment – a vital but less overtly military part of the project .
Oliphant secured the services of fellow Australian physicist Harrie Massey , who had been working for the Admiralty on magnetic mines , along with James Stayers and Stanley Duke , who had worked with him on the cavity magnetron . This initial group set out for Berkeley in a B @-@ 24 Liberator bomber in November 1943 . Oliphant became Lawrence 's de facto deputy , and was in charge of the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory when Lawrence was absent . Although based in Berkeley , he often visited Oak Ridge , Tennessee , where the separation plant was , and was an occasional visitor to Los Alamos . He made efforts to involve Australian scientists in the project , and had Sir David Rivett , the head of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research , release Eric Burhop to work on the Manhattan Project . He briefed Stanley Bruce , the Australian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom , on the project , and urged the Australian government to secure Australian uranium deposits .
Oliphant returned to England in March 1945 , and resumed his post as a professor of physics at the University of Birmingham . He was on holiday in Wales with his family when he first heard of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . He was later to remark that he felt " sort of proud that the bomb had worked , and absolutely appalled at what it had done to human beings " . Oliphant became a harsh critic of nuclear weapons and a member of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs , saying , " I , right from the beginning , have been terribly worried by the existence of nuclear weapons and very much against their use . " His wartime work would have earned him a Presidential Medal of Freedom with Gold Palm , but the Australian government vetoed this honour , as government policy at the time was not to confer honours on civilians .
= = Later years in Australia = =
In April 1946 , the Prime Minister , Ben Chifley , asked Oliphant if he would be a technical advisor to the Australian delegation to the newly formed United Nations Atomic Energy Commission ( UNAEC ) , which was debating international control of nuclear weapons . Oliphant agreed , and joined the Minister for External Affairs , H. V. Evatt and the Australian Representative at the United Nations , Paul Hasluck , to hear the Baruch Plan . The attempt at international control was unsuccessful , and no agreement was reached .
Chifley , and the Minister for Post @-@ War Reconstruction , Dr H. C. " Nugget " Coombs , also discussed with Oliphant a plan to create a new research institute that would attract the world 's best scholars to Australia and lift the standard of university education nationwide . They hoped to start by attracting three of Australia 's most distinguished expatriates : Oliphant , Howard Florey and Keith Hancock .
It was academic suicide ; Australia was far from the centres where the latest research was being carried out , and communications were much poorer at that time . But Oliphant accepted , and in 1950 returned to Australia as the first Director of the Research School of Physical Sciences and Engineering at the Australian National University . Within the school he created a Department of Particle Physics , which he headed himself , a Department of Nuclear Physics under Ernest Titterton , a Department of Geophysics under John Jaeger , a Department of Astronomy under Bart Bok , a Department of Theoretical Physics under Kevin LeCouter and a Department of Mathematics under Bernhard Neumann .
Oliphant was an advocate of nuclear weapons research . He served on the post @-@ war Technical Committee that advised the British government on nuclear weapons , and publicly declared that Britain needed to develop its own nuclear weapons independent of the United States to " avoid the danger of becoming a lesser power " . The establishment of a world @-@ class nuclear physics research capability in Australia was intimately linked with the government 's plans to develop nuclear power and weapons . Locating the new research institute in Canberra would place it close to the Snowy Mountains Scheme , which was planned to be the centrepiece of a new nuclear power industry . Oliphant hoped that Britain would assist with the Australian program , and the British were interested in cooperation because Australia had uranium ore and weapons testing sites , and there were concerns that Australia was becoming too closely aligned with the United States . Arrangements were made for Australian scientists to be seconded to the British Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell , but the close cooperation he sought was stymied by security concerns arising from Britain 's commitments to the United States .
Oliphant envisaged Canberra one day becoming a university town like Oxford or Cambridge . A threat to the future of the University arose in the wake of the 1949 election , when the Liberal Party of Australia led by Robert Menzies won . Many Liberals were opposed to the University , which they saw as an extravagance . Menzies defended it , but in 1954 he announced that it had entered a period of consolidation , with a funding ceiling , ending the possibility of successful competition with universities in Europe and North America . A further blow came in 1959 , when the Menzies government amalgamated it with the Canberra University College . Henceforth , it would no longer be a research university , but a regular one , with responsibility for teaching undergraduates . Nonetheless , parts of the university stayed committed to the old mission , and the ANU remained a university where research is central to its activities . Despite the setbacks , by 2014 the vision of Canberra as a university town would be well on its way to becoming a reality .
In September 1951 , Oliphant applied for a visa to travel to the United States for a nuclear physics conference in Chicago . The visa was not refused , nor was Oliphant accused of subversive activities , but neither was it issued . This was the height of the Red Scare . The American McCarran Act restricted travel to the United States , and in Australia the Menzies government was attempting to ban the Communist Party , and was not inclined to support Oliphant against the American government . A subsequent request to travel to Canada via Hawaii in September 1954 was refused by the United States Department of State . Although Oliphant was granted a special waiver that allowed him to transit the US , he preferred to cancel the trip rather than accept this humiliation . The Menzies government subsequently excluded him from participating in or observing the British nuclear tests at Maralinga , nor was he allowed access to classified nuclear information for fear of antagonising the US .
In 1955 , Oliphant initiated the design and construction of a 500 megajoule homopolar generator ( HPG ) , the world 's largest . This massive machine contained three discs 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) in diameter and weighing 38 tonnes ( 37 long tons ) . He obtained £ 40 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to A $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) initial funding from the Australian Atomic Energy Commission . Completed in 1963 , the HPG was intended to be the power source for a synchrotron , but this was not built . Instead , it was used to power the LT @-@ 4 Tokamak and a large @-@ scale railgun that was used as a scientific instrument for experiments with plasma physics . It was decommissioned in 1985 .
Oliphant founded the Australian Academy of Science in 1954 , teaming up with David Martyn to overcome the obstacles that had frustrated previous attempts . Oliphant was its president until 1956 . Deciding that the Academy of Science should have its own special building , Oliphant raised the required money from donations . As chairman of the Building Design Committee , he selected and oversaw the construction of one of Canberra 's most striking architectural designs . He also delivered the Academy of Science 's 1961 Matthew Flinders Lecture , on the subject of " Faraday in his time and today " .
Oliphant retired as Professor of Particle Physics in 1964 , and was appointed Professor of Ionised Gases . In this chair he produced his first research papers since the 1930s . He was appointed Professor Emeritus in 1967 . He was invited by the premier , Don Dunstan , to become the Governor of South Australia , a position he held from 1971 to 1976 . During this period , he caused great concern to Dunstan when he strongly supported the decision of the Governor @-@ General , Sir John Kerr , in the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis .
The Age reported in 1981 that " Sir Mark Oliphant warned the Dunstan Government of the ' grave dangers ' of appointing an Australian Aborigine , Sir Douglas Nicholls , to succeed him as South Australia 's Governor " . Oliphant had secretly written , " [ t ] here is something inherent in the personality of the Aborigine which makes it difficult for him to adapt fully to the ways of the white man . " The authors of Oliphant 's biography noted that " that was the prevailing attitude of almost the entire white population of Australia until well after World War II " .
Oliphant was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( KBE ) in 1959 , and was made a Companion of the Order of Australia ( AC ) in 1977 " for eminent achievement and merit of the highest degree in the field of public service and in service to the crown " .
Late in life he watched his wife , Rosa , suffer before her death in 1987 , and he became an advocate for voluntary euthanasia . On 14 July 2000 , he died in Canberra , at the age of 98 . His body was cremated . He was survived by his daughter Vivian , his son Michael having died from colon cancer in 1971 .
= = Legacy = =
Places and things named in honour of Sir Mark Oliphant include the Oliphant Building at the Australian National University , the Mark Oliphant Conservation Park , a South Australian high schools science competition , the Oliphant Wing of the Physics Building at the University of Adelaide , and a high school in Munno Para West , South Australia . His papers are in the Adolph Basser Library at the Australian Academy of Science , and the Barr Smith Library at the University of Adelaide . Oliphant 's nephew , Pat Oliphant , is a Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning cartoonist .
= = Honours and awards = =
1937 Elected Fellow of the Royal Society
1943 Awarded Hughes Medal by the Royal Society
1946 Awarded Silvanius Thomson Medal , Institute of Radiology
1948 Awarded Faraday Medal by the Institution of Engineers
1954 Elected ( Foundation ) Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science
1954 Elected ( Foundation ) President of the Australian Academy of Science
1955 Invited to deliver the Bakerian Lecture by the Royal Society
1955 Invited to deliver the Rutherford Memorial Lecture by the Royal Society
1956 Awarded Galathea Medal by King Frederick IX of Denmark
1959 Created Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire
1961 Awarded Matthew Flinders Medal and Lecture
1977 Appointed Companion of the Order of Australia
Memorials to Mark Oliphant
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= Tropical Depression Auring ( 2009 ) =
Tropical Depression Auring formed as a tropical disturbance late on December 30 , 2008 , to the southeast of Manila in the Philippines . Over the next few days the disturbance gradually developed before early on January 3 , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) and the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) , reported that the disturbance had intensified into the first tropical depression of the season with PAGASA assigning the name Auring to the depression . As the Depression was moving into a high level of vertical wind shear , it did not develop any further and late on January 5 as the baroclinic zone approached Auring , it was downgraded to an area of low pressure by PAGASA before the JMA followed suit the next day as it was declared as dissipated by the JTWC .
Heavy rain from Auring produced severe flooding in the eastern Philippines . Two people were killed and nine others were left missing . A total of 305 homes were destroyed and another 610 were damaged . In addition , an estimated 53 hectares ( 130 @.@ 9 acres ) of rice and 3 @.@ 5 hectares ( 8 @.@ 6 acres ) of corn were damaged . About 43 @,@ 851 people were affected by the depression and damages were estimated at PHP 23 million ( $ 498 @,@ 318 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
Late on January 1 , 2009 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) reported that an area of deep atmospheric convection had persisted for the last 48 hours about 730 km ( 455 mi ) , to the southeast of Manila in the Philippines . Deep convection was developing over the northern quadrant of a weak low level circulation center . A subtropical ridge of pressure was helping to guide the disturbance and was providing good outflow as well as low to moderate vertical wind shear . However , as the disturbance was moving into a higher level of vertical wind shear the depression was not expected to develop into a significant tropical cyclone within 48 hours . During the next 48 hours the disturbance gradually developed , with the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) and the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) reporting early on January 3 that it had become the first tropical depression of the season , with the name Auring being assigned to the depression by PAGASA whilst it was located about 140 km ( 85 mi ) east of Surigao City on the Philippine island of Mindanao . This came after the low level circulation center had started to consolidate as deep convection was being fueled by a poleward diffluence despite being in an area of strong vertical wind shear . Over the next couple of days as Auring moved towards the east , dry air started to wrap in to its low level circulation center which started to weaken the depression after it had peaked with winds of 45 km / h , ( 30 mph ) 10 @-@ min sustained and a peak pressure of 1006 hPa / Mbar . As the baroclinic zone approached the depression late on January 5 , PAGASA downgraded the depression to an area of low pressure as the baroclinic zone was approaching the depression , as vertical wind shear had increased and outflow became hindered . However the JMA continued to issue warnings on the depression until early the next morning when the depression was declared dissipated by the JTWC and the JMA .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Upon being classified as a tropical depression , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration issued Public Storm Warning Signal # 1 for Samar , Leyte , the Camotes Islands , Surigao del Norte , Siargao Island , and Dinagat Island as winds up to 60 km / h ( 37 mph ) were expected to affect those areas . Three hours later , Biliran Island was also put under the warning signal . On January 4 , all signals , except in Eastern Samar , were lifted as Auring recurved and moved away from the Philippines . The warning signal for Eastern Samar was lifted early the next day .
Heavy rains from Auring triggered flooding across the eastern provinces of the Philippines . A total of 38 @,@ 764 people were evacuated to avoid floodwaters . The rains caused the Cagayan River to swell , leading to the death of a 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy in Gingoog City . In Talisay City , Cebu , a 27 @-@ year @-@ old woman was killed after she was electrocuted by a steel wire which was knocked down by high winds produced by Auring . Nine other people , all of whom are children , were listed as missing . About 12 @,@ 211 people were left stranded at ports due to dangerous conditions caused by the depression . An additional 14 trucks , 44 light cars , 75 passenger buses , 27 vessels and 295 rolling cargoes were also stranded . Severe flooding destroyed 305 homes , 199 of which were in Macasandig . Another 610 homes sustained damage . An estimated 53 hectares ( 130 @.@ 9 acres ) of rice and 3 @.@ 5 hectares ( 8 @.@ 6 acres ) of corn were damaged . About 43 @,@ 851 people were affected by the storm , mainly along the Cagayan River . The remnants of Auring brought heavy rains to the flooded areas again on January 7 , triggering several landslides which blocked off roads and damaging power lines , leaving parts of the Catanduanes without power for several hours . Damages from the depression were estimated at PHP 23 million ( $ 498 @,@ 318 USD ) and an estimated 5 @,@ 000 families were left homeless .
= = Aftermath = =
The severe flooding on Siargao Island led to the issuance of a state of calamity . In addition to the state of calamity in Siargao Island , 16 villages within Cagayan de Oro City were declared calamity areas . In the wake of Auring , the Department of Social Welfare and Development ( DSWD ) provided family food packets and assistance to flooded areas , valued at PHP 372 @,@ 760 ( $ 8 @,@ 120 USD ) . Relief funds of PHP 292 @,@ 189 @.@ 11 ( $ 6 @,@ 365 USD ) , stockpiles of food valued at PHP 77 @,@ 431 @.@ 2 ( $ 1 @,@ 686 USD ) , and non @-@ food items valued at PHP 413 @,@ 568 ( $ 9 @,@ 009 USD ) were available if needed . Residents who were left homeless in Iligan City were provided with assistance at an estimated cost of PHP 1 @,@ 129 @,@ 870 ( $ 24 @,@ 613 USD ) .
The Robinson ’ s Supermarket donated 97 packs of bihon , 77 packets of bihon palabok , 525 packs of misua , and 208 cans of carne norte ; Cagayan de Oro Hotel and Restaurant Association donated 12 bags of linen ; Nestlé provided 51 boxes of milo ; Grains Retailers Confederations of the Philippines sent 30 sacks of rice ; National Transmission Corporation provided nine boxes of assorted canned goods ; Rotary International District 3870 donated six sacks of rice , one box of used clothing , and 40 loaves of bread ; STI Rotary Club of Center Point provided 50 boxes assorted goods and food items ; SM City Cagayan donated 180 family food packs ; DYNAMIC Pharmacy provided one box of assorted medicine ; Xavier Estates Catholic Groups sent assorted clothing and boxes of food ; Bombo Radyo Philippines donated three boxes of bottled water and assorted food items , and PNRC provided 36 sacks of rice , 18 boxes of sardines , and 38 boxes of noodles .
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= Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 =
Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 ( formally designated D / 1993 F2 ) was a comet that broke apart in July 1992 and collided with Jupiter in July 1994 , providing the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of Solar System objects . This generated a large amount of coverage in the popular media , and the comet was closely observed by astronomers worldwide . The collision provided new information about Jupiter and highlighted its role in reducing space debris in the inner Solar System .
The comet was discovered by astronomers Carolyn and Eugene M. Shoemaker and David Levy . Shoemaker – Levy 9 had been captured by Jupiter and was orbiting the planet at the time . It was located on the night of March 24 , 1993 in a photograph taken with the 40 cm ( 16 in ) Schmidt telescope at the Palomar Observatory in California . It was the first comet observed to be orbiting a planet , and had probably been captured by Jupiter around 20 – 30 years earlier .
Calculations showed that its unusual fragmented form was due to a previous closer approach to Jupiter in July 1992 . At that time , the orbit of Shoemaker – Levy 9 passed within Jupiter 's Roche limit , and Jupiter 's tidal forces had acted to pull apart the comet . The comet was later observed as a series of fragments ranging up to 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) in diameter . These fragments collided with Jupiter 's southern hemisphere between July 16 and July 22 , 1994 at a speed of approximately 60 km / s ( 37 mi / s ) or 216 @,@ 000 km / h ( 134 @,@ 000 mph ) . The prominent scars from the impacts were more easily visible than the Great Red Spot and persisted for many months .
= = Discovery = =
While conducting a program of observations designed to uncover near @-@ Earth objects , the Shoemakers and Levy discovered Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 on the night of March 24 , 1993 in a photograph taken with the 0 @.@ 4 m ( 1 @.@ 3 ft ) Schmidt telescope at the Palomar Observatory in California . The comet was thus a serendipitous discovery , but one that quickly overshadowed the results from their main observing program .
Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 was the ninth periodic comet ( a comet whose orbital period is 200 years or less ) discovered by the Shoemakers and Levy , hence its name . It was their eleventh comet discovery overall including their discovery of two non @-@ periodic comets , which use a different nomenclature . The discovery was announced in IAU Circular 5725 on March 27 , 1993 .
The discovery image gave the first hint that comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 was an unusual comet , as it appeared to show multiple nuclei in an elongated region about 50 arcseconds long and 10 arcseconds wide . Brian G. Marsden of the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams noted that the comet lay only about 4 degrees from Jupiter as seen from Earth , and that although this could of course be a line of sight effect , its apparent motion in the sky suggested that it was physically close to it . Because of this , he suggested that the Shoemakers and David Levy had discovered the fragments of a comet that had been disrupted by Jupiter 's gravity .
= = Jupiter @-@ orbiting comet = =
Orbital studies of the new comet soon revealed that it was orbiting Jupiter rather than the Sun , unlike all other comets known at the time . Its orbit around Jupiter was very loosely bound , with a period of about 2 years and an apoapsis ( the point in the orbit farthest from the planet ) of 0 @.@ 33 astronomical units ( 49 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ) . Its orbit around the planet was highly eccentric ( e = 0 @.@ 9986 ) .
Tracing back the comet 's orbital motion revealed that it had been orbiting Jupiter for some time . It seems most likely that it was captured from a solar orbit in the early 1970s , although the capture may have occurred as early as the mid @-@ 1960s . Several other observers found images of the comet in precovery images obtained before March 24 , including Kin Endate from a photograph exposed on March 15 , S. Otomo on March 17 , and a team led by Eleanor Helin from images on March 19 . No precovery images dating back to earlier than March 1993 have been found . Before the comet was captured by Jupiter , it was probably a short @-@ period comet with an aphelion just inside Jupiter 's orbit , and a perihelion interior to the asteroid belt .
The volume of space within which an object can be said to orbit Jupiter is defined by Jupiter 's Hill sphere ( also called the Roche sphere ) . When the comet passed Jupiter in the late 1960s or early 1970s , it happened to be near its aphelion , and found itself slightly within Jupiter 's Hill sphere . Jupiter 's gravity nudged the comet towards it . Because the comet 's motion with respect to Jupiter was very small , it fell almost straight toward Jupiter , which is why it ended up on a Jupiter @-@ centric orbit of very high eccentricity – that is to say , the ellipse was nearly flattened out .
The comet had apparently passed extremely close to Jupiter on July 7 , 1992 , just over 40 @,@ 000 km ( 25 @,@ 000 mi ) above its cloud tops — a smaller distance than Jupiter 's radius of 70 @,@ 000 km ( 43 @,@ 000 mi ) , and well within the orbit of Jupiter 's innermost moon Metis and the planet 's Roche limit , inside which tidal forces are strong enough to disrupt a body held together only by gravity . Although the comet had approached Jupiter closely before , the July 7 encounter seemed to be by far the closest , and the fragmentation of the comet is thought to have occurred at this time . Each fragment of the comet was denoted by a letter of the alphabet , from " fragment A " through to " fragment W " , a practice already established from previously observed broken @-@ up comets .
More exciting for planetary astronomers was that the best orbital calculations suggested that the comet would pass within 45 @,@ 000 km ( 28 @,@ 000 mi ) of the center of Jupiter , a distance smaller than the planet 's radius , meaning that there was an extremely high probability that SL9 would collide with Jupiter in July 1994 . Studies suggested that the train of nuclei would plow into Jupiter 's atmosphere over a period of about five days .
= = Predictions for the collision = =
The discovery that the comet was likely to collide with Jupiter caused great excitement within the astronomical community and beyond , as astronomers had never before seen two significant Solar System bodies collide . Intense studies of the comet were undertaken , and as its orbit became more accurately established , the possibility of a collision became a certainty . The collision would provide a unique opportunity for scientists to look inside Jupiter 's atmosphere , as the collisions were expected to cause eruptions of material from the layers normally hidden beneath the clouds .
Astronomers estimated that the visible fragments of SL9 ranged in size from a few hundred metres to two kilometres across , suggesting that the original comet may have had a nucleus up to 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) across — somewhat larger than Comet Hyakutake , which became very bright when it passed close to the Earth in 1996 . One of the great debates in advance of the impact was whether the effects of the impact of such small bodies would be noticeable from Earth , apart from a flash as they disintegrated like giant meteors . The most optimistic prediction was that large , asymmetric ballistic fireballs would rise above the limb of Jupiter and into sunlight to be visible from Earth . Other suggested effects of the impacts were seismic waves travelling across the planet , an increase in stratospheric haze on the planet due to dust from the impacts , and an increase in the mass of the Jovian ring system . However , given that observing such a collision was completely unprecedented , astronomers were cautious with their predictions of what the event might reveal .
= = Impacts = =
Anticipation grew as the predicted date for the collisions approached , and astronomers trained terrestrial telescopes on Jupiter . Several space observatories did the same , including the Hubble Space Telescope , the ROSAT X @-@ ray @-@ observing satellite , and significantly the Galileo spacecraft , then on its way to a rendezvous with Jupiter scheduled for 1995 . Although the impacts took place on the side of Jupiter hidden from Earth , Galileo , then at a distance of 1 @.@ 6 AU from the planet , was able to see the impacts as they occurred . Jupiter 's rapid rotation brought the impact sites into view for terrestrial observers a few minutes after the collisions .
Two other satellites made observations at the time of the impact : the Ulysses spacecraft , primarily designed for solar observations , was pointed towards Jupiter from its location 2 @.@ 6 AU away , and the distant Voyager 2 probe , some 44 AU from Jupiter and on its way out of the Solar System following its encounter with Neptune in 1989 , was programmed to look for radio emission in the 1 – 390 kHz range .
The first impact occurred at 20 : 13 UTC on July 16 , 1994 , when fragment A of the nucleus entered Jupiter 's southern hemisphere at a speed of about 60 km / s . Instruments on Galileo detected a fireball that reached a peak temperature of about 24 @,@ 000 K , compared to the typical Jovian cloudtop temperature of about 130 K , before expanding and cooling rapidly to about 1500 K after 40 s . The plume from the fireball quickly reached a height of over 3 @,@ 000 km . A few minutes after the impact fireball was detected , Galileo measured renewed heating , probably due to ejected material falling back onto the planet . Earth @-@ based observers detected the fireball rising over the limb of the planet shortly after the initial impact .
Despite published predictions , astronomers had not expected to see the fireballs from the impacts and did not have any idea in advance how visible the other atmospheric effects of the impacts would be from Earth . Observers soon saw a huge dark spot after the first impact . The spot was visible even in very small telescopes , and was about 6 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @,@ 700 mi ) ( one Earth radius ) across . This and subsequent dark spots were thought to have been caused by debris from the impacts , and were markedly asymmetric , forming crescent shapes in front of the direction of impact .
Over the next six days , 21 distinct impacts were observed , with the largest coming on July 18 at 07 : 33 UTC when fragment G struck Jupiter . This impact created a giant dark spot over 12 @,@ 000 km across , and was estimated to have released an energy equivalent to 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 megatons of TNT ( 600 times the world 's nuclear arsenal ) . Two impacts 12 hours apart on July 19 created impact marks of similar size to that caused by fragment G , and impacts continued until July 22 , when fragment W struck the planet .
= = Observations and discoveries = =
= = = Chemical studies = = =
Observers hoped that the impacts would give them a first glimpse of Jupiter beneath the cloud tops , as lower material was exposed by the comet fragments punching through the upper atmosphere . Spectroscopic studies revealed absorption lines in the Jovian spectrum due to diatomic sulfur ( S2 ) and carbon disulfide ( CS2 ) , the first detection of either in Jupiter , and only the second detection of S2 in any astronomical object . Other molecules detected included ammonia ( NH3 ) and hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) . The amount of sulfur implied by the quantities of these compounds was much greater than the amount that would be expected in a small cometary nucleus , showing that material from within Jupiter was being revealed . Oxygen @-@ bearing molecules such as sulfur dioxide were not detected , to the surprise of astronomers .
As well as these molecules , emission from heavy atoms such as iron , magnesium and silicon was detected , with abundances consistent with what would be found in a cometary nucleus . Although a substantial amount of water was detected spectroscopically , it was not as much as predicted beforehand , meaning that either the water layer thought to exist below the clouds was thinner than predicted , or that the cometary fragments did not penetrate deeply enough . The relatively low levels of water were later confirmed by Galileo 's atmospheric probe , which explored Jupiter 's atmosphere directly .
= = = Waves = = =
As predicted beforehand , the collisions generated enormous waves that swept across Jupiter at speeds of 450 m / s ( 1 @,@ 476 ft / s ) and were observed for over two hours after the largest impacts . The waves were thought to be travelling within a stable layer acting as a waveguide , and some scientists thought the stable layer must lie within the hypothesised tropospheric water cloud . However , other evidence seemed to indicate that the cometary fragments had not reached the water layer , and the waves were instead propagating within the stratosphere .
= = = Other observations = = =
Radio observations revealed a sharp increase in continuum emission at a wavelength of 21 cm after the largest impacts , which peaked at 120 % of the normal emission from the planet . This was thought to be due to synchrotron radiation , caused by the injection of relativistic electrons — electrons with velocities near the speed of light — into the Jovian magnetosphere by the impacts .
About an hour after fragment K entered Jupiter , observers recorded auroral emission near the impact region , as well as at the antipode of the impact site with respect to Jupiter 's strong magnetic field . The cause of these emissions was difficult to establish due to a lack of knowledge of Jupiter 's internal magnetic field and of the geometry of the impact sites . One possible explanation was that upwardly accelerating shock waves from the impact accelerated charged particles enough to cause auroral emission , a phenomenon more typically associated with fast @-@ moving solar wind particles striking a planetary atmosphere near a magnetic pole .
Some astronomers had suggested that the impacts might have a noticeable effect on the Io torus , a torus of high @-@ energy particles connecting Jupiter with the highly volcanic moon Io . High resolution spectroscopic studies found that variations in the ion density , rotational velocity , and temperatures at the time of impact and afterwards were within the normal limits .
= = Post @-@ impact analysis = =
Several models were devised to compute the density and size of Shoemaker – Levy 9 . Its average density was calculated to be about 0 @.@ 5 g cm − 3 ; the breakup of a much less dense comet would not have resembled the observed string of objects . The size of the parent comet was calculated to be about 1 @.@ 8 km in diameter . These predictions were among the few that were actually confirmed by subsequent observation .
One of the surprises of the impacts was the small amount of water revealed compared to prior predictions . Before the impact , models of Jupiter 's atmosphere had indicated that the break @-@ up of the largest fragments would occur at atmospheric pressures of anywhere from 30 kilopascals to a few tens of megapascals ( from 0 @.@ 3 to a few hundred bar ) , with some predictions that the comet would penetrate a layer of water and create a bluish shroud over that region of Jupiter .
Astronomers did not observe large amounts of water following the collisions , and later impact studies found that fragmentation and destruction of the cometary fragments in an ' airburst ' probably occurred at much higher altitudes than previously expected , with even the largest fragments being destroyed when the pressure reached 250 kPa ( 36 psi ) , well above the expected depth of the water layer . The smaller fragments were probably destroyed before they even reached the cloud layer .
= = Longer @-@ term effects = =
The visible scars from the impacts could be seen on Jupiter for many months . They were extremely prominent , and observers described them as even more easily visible than the Great Red Spot . A search of historical observations revealed that the spots were probably the most prominent transient features ever seen on the planet , and that although the Great Red Spot is notable for its striking color , no spots of the size and darkness of those caused by the SL9 impacts have ever been recorded before .
Spectroscopic observers found that ammonia and carbon disulfide persisted in the atmosphere for at least fourteen months after the collisions , with a considerable amount of ammonia being present in the stratosphere as opposed to its normal location in the troposphere .
Counterintuitively , the atmospheric temperature dropped to normal levels much more quickly at the larger impact sites than at the smaller sites : at the larger impact sites , temperatures were elevated over a region 15 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 km ( 9 @,@ 300 to 12 @,@ 400 mi ) wide , but dropped back to normal levels within a week of the impact . At smaller sites , temperatures 10 K higher than the surroundings persisted for almost two weeks . Global stratospheric temperatures rose immediately after the impacts , then fell to below pre @-@ impact temperatures 2 – 3 weeks afterwards , before rising slowly to normal temperatures .
= = Frequency of impacts = =
SL9 is not unique in having orbited Jupiter for a time ; five comets , ( including 82P / Gehrels , 147P / Kushida – Muramatsu , and 111P / Helin – Roman – Crockett ) are known to have been temporarily captured by the planet . Cometary orbits around Jupiter are unstable , as they will be highly elliptical and likely to be strongly perturbed by the Sun 's gravity at apojove ( the furthest point on the orbit from the planet ) .
By far the most massive planet in the Solar System , Jupiter can capture objects relatively frequently , but the size of SL9 makes it a rarity : one post @-@ impact study estimated that comets 0 @.@ 3 km in diameter impact the planet once in approximately 500 years and those 1 @.@ 6 km ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) in diameter do so just once in every 6 @,@ 000 years .
There is very strong evidence that comets have previously been fragmented and collided with Jupiter and its satellites . During the Voyager missions to the planet , planetary scientists identified 13 crater chains on Callisto and three on Ganymede , the origin of which was initially a mystery . Crater chains seen on the Moon often radiate from large craters , and are thought to be caused by secondary impacts of the original ejecta , but the chains on the Jovian moons did not lead back to a larger crater . The impact of SL9 strongly implied that the chains were due to trains of disrupted cometary fragments crashing into the satellites .
= = = Impact of July 19 , 2009 = = =
On July 19 , 2009 , a new black spot about the size of the Pacific Ocean appeared in Jupiter 's southern hemisphere . Thermal infrared measurements showed the impact site was warm and spectroscopic analysis detected the production of excess hot ammonia and silica @-@ rich dust in the upper regions of Jupiter 's atmosphere . Scientists have concluded that another impact event had occurred , but this time a more compact and strong object , probably a small undiscovered asteroid , was the cause .
= = Jupiter as a " cosmic vacuum cleaner " = =
The impact of SL9 highlighted Jupiter 's role as a " cosmic vacuum cleaner " ( or in deference to the ancients ' planetary correspondences to the major organs in the human body , a " cosmic liver " ) for the inner Solar System . The planet 's strong gravitational influence leads to many small comets and asteroids colliding with the planet , and the rate of cometary impacts on Jupiter is thought to be between 2000 @-@ 8000 times higher than the rate on Earth .
The extinction of the dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous period is generally thought to have been caused by the Cretaceous – Paleogene impact event , which created the Chicxulub crater , demonstrating that impacts are a serious threat to life on Earth . Astronomers have speculated that without Jupiter to mop up potential impactors , extinction events might have been more frequent on Earth , and complex life might not have been able to develop . This is part of the argument used in the Rare Earth hypothesis .
In 2009 , it was shown that the presence of a smaller planet at Jupiter 's position in the Solar System might increase the impact rate of comets on the Earth significantly . A planet of Jupiter 's mass still seems to provide increased protection against asteroids , but the total effect on all orbital bodies within the Solar System is unclear . Computer simulations in 2016 have continued to erode the theory .
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= 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament =
The 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament was a professional wrestling single @-@ elimination X Cup Tournament produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion . It was the second @-@ ever Super X Cup tournament and the last held as of 2016 . The competition began on July 19 , 2005 and concluded on August 14 , 2005 at TNA 's Sacrifice pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event . Then @-@ TNA X Division Champion Christopher Daniels called the contest the " Christopher Daniels Invitational " .
The tournament featured eight TNA wrestlers : A.J. Styles , Alex Shelley , Chris Sabin , Michael Shane , Petey Williams , Samoa Joe , Shocker , and Sonjay Dutt . The event was preceded by a four @-@ way qualification match at TNA 's No Surrender PPV event on July 17 , 2005 in which Dutt defeated Elix Skipper , Mikey Batts and Shark Boy . Samoa Joe and A.J. Styles passed through the quarterfinals and the semifinals to make it to the tournament final at Sacrifice . Joe defeated Styles at the event , thus winning the Super X Cup trophy and becoming number one contender to the TNA X Division Championship . Despite losing to Joe , Styles was added to the title match Joe received for winning the competition due to storyline reasons . TNA held a Three Way match for the TNA X Division Championship between Daniels , Joe , and Styles at the Unbreakable PPV event on September 11 , 2005 , which Styles won to become the new TNA X Division Champion .
Canadian Online Explorer columnist Corey David Lacroix reviewed Sacrifice , giving the Super X Cup final a rating of 8 out of 10 . Lacorix said the final " could have been a certified Match of the Year contender if someone in the back had not decided to make Daniels interfere in this contest . " He went on to say the match " was a thing of beauty that got stained . " Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch gave the Super X Cup final four out of five stars . Keller wrote that it was a " four @-@ star match that was begging to be given an extra ten minutes to be a match of the year candidate . "
= = Background = =
TNA editor Bill Banks announced the tournament in July 2005 in his " Bank Shot " column , adding that the final would be held at TNA 's Sacrifice PPV event on August 14 , 2005 . The 2005 tournament was the second Super X Cup held . The first was the 2003 TNA Super X Cup Tournament , won by Chris Sabin in September 2003 . Winners of Super X Cup tournaments receive trophies and a future TNA X Division Championship match .
TNA announced the final list of eight participants in July 2005 : A.J. Styles , Alex Shelley , Sabin , Michael Shane , Petey Williams , Samoa Joe , Shocker , and Sonjay Dutt . Dutt defeated Elix Skipper , Mikey Batts , and Shark Boy in a Four Way Super X Cup qualification match on July 27 , 2005 at TNA 's No Surrender PPV event on July 17 , 2005 to enter the tournament .
= = Tournament = =
The 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament featured seven matches involving numerous wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds and storylines . Wrestlers portrayed villains , heroes and less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in wrestling matches .
The tournament consisted of three rounds : the quarterfinals , semifinals , and finals . The quarterfinals and the semifinals took place on TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! , while the finals were held at Sacrifice . The quarterfinals were taped on July 19 and aired on the July 22 and July 29 episodes of Impact ! . The semifinals were also taped on July 19 before airing on August 5 and August 10 episodes of Impact ! Then @-@ TNA X Division Champion Christopher Daniels provided commentary for each encounter . Daniels nicknamed the competition the " Christopher Daniels Invitational " .
Quarterfinals
In the first of two quarterfinal matches aired on July 22 , Samoa Joe fought Sonjay Dutt in a match lasting 9 minutes and 32 seconds . Joe won after forcing Dutt to submit with his signature Coquina Clutch submission hold . The second bout pitted A.J. Styles against Michael Shane . Before the match began , Shane announced he was changing his stage name to Matt Bentley . Styles won after America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) interfered . Harris distracted the referee , allowing Storm to kick Bentley in the face .
The third and fourth quarterfinal bouts aired on July 29 . Alex Shelley fought Shocker in the first match of the episode , winning with a pinning combination at 5 minutes and 28 seconds . Petey Williams faced Chris Sabin in the second match . A @-@ 1 interfered during the encounter by distracting the referee and tossing Williams a hockey stick , which Williams used to hit Sabin across the stomach . He then performed his signature Canadian Destroyer maneuver , forcing Sabin 's head into the mat and winning the match at 11 minutes and 45 seconds .
Semifinals
Joe , Shelley , Styles , and Williams advanced to the semifinals . The first match took place on the August 5 episode of Impact ! between Joe and Shelley . Joe slammed Shelley back @-@ first into the mat with his signature Muscle Buster maneuver and then choked him unconscious with the Coquina Clutch at 9 minutes and 4 seconds to win and advance to the finals . In the second semifinal match on August 10 , Styles defeated Williams with a small package pin at 9 minutes and 19 seconds .
Finals
The tournament final between A.J. Styles and Samoa Joe took place on August 14 at Sacrifice . As Styles laid against the ring ropes at the beginning of the match , Joe ran across the ring and kicked him in the face , causing him to fly out of the ring and crash down on the floor . Joe followed by diving through the ring ropes and smashing Styles in the face with his forearm as Styles reached his feet . Joe later held Styles in an STF submission hold , which he was forced to release when Styles touched the bottom rope . Styles then gained the advantage with a dropkick and front @-@ flip splash from the ring ropes . He held Joe on his shoulders before twisting him off into a powerbomb , or what he calls a Rack Bomb . During the move , referee Andrew Thomas was kicked in the face and knocked unconscious , allowing Daniels to interfere in the contest . Daniels attacked Styles and attempted to hit Joe with the X Division Title belt before Styles threw Daniels from the ring . Joe followed by lifting Styles up and performing his Muscle Buster maneuver , then placing Styles in his Coquina Clutch submission hold . Styles submitted to the move as the referee came to , giving the victory to Joe . The final bout lasted 15 minutes and 15 seconds .
Joe 's win gave him the Super X Cup trophy and made him the number @-@ one contender for the TNA X Division Championship . He earned a title match against Daniels at TNA 's Unbreakable PPV event on September 11 .
Tournament bracket
= = Reception = =
James Caldwell of Pro Wrestling Torch called the Samoa Joe versus Sonjay Dutt encounter in the quarterfinals " another phenomenal match involving Samoa Joe , " and wrote that it was " another reason to build the X Division – and the promotion – around Joe . " Caldwell also praised the A.J. Styles versus Matt Bentley bout in the quarterfinals , calling it a " solid , methodical match that told a story in the ring . " Canadian Online Explorer journalist Chris Sokol said the Styles versus Bentley contest was a " great match . " Caldwell said of the July 29 quarterfinal between Alex Shelley and Shocker that " with Shelley winning the match using Shocker 's traditional roll up pinning combination , Shelley looked strong coming out of the match for outsmarting his opponent . " He went on to say if the bout had lasted longer it " could have allowed the match to tell a more complete story , but the match was good for delivering the intended purpose . " Sokol said in a column about the show that it was an " excellent match " . On the quarterfinal between Sabin and Williams , Caldwell said the two men " put together a solid finish that was ruined by yet another round of outside interference by Team Canada " . Sokol called it " another excellent match . "
Reviews of the semifinal matches on August 5 and 10 were also generally positive . Caldwell said the Joe versus Shelley contest was " another outstanding Samoa Joe match . " Sokol said the Styles versus Williams bout was a " back and forth match " , and Caldwell said it was " a solid match " that was " nothing spectacular or particularly breathtaking , but it didn 't need to be because the crowd was into the match simply because of who was in the ring . " He went on to say that the wrestlers " didn 't need to pull of a four star match with amazing spots to wow the crowd because they had the audience captivated from the get @-@ go . "
Canadian Online Explorer columnist Corey David Lacroix reviewed Sacrifice , giving the Super X Cup Final an 8 out of 10 rating . Lacorix wrote that the Super X Cup Final " could have been a certified Match of the Year contender if someone in the back had not decided to make Daniels interfere in this contest . " He went on to say the match " was a thing of beauty that got stained . " Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch gave the Super X Cup Final four stars out of five , calling it a " four star match that was begging to be given an extra ten minutes to be a match of the year candidate . "
= = Aftermath = =
A.J. Styles suffered a tendon injury during his title bout with Samoa Joe at Sacrifice . TNA management kept him out of the following Impact ! tapings , hoping to keep him rested and not risk any further injury despite expectations that he would not be sidelined long . Styles , however , canceled an appearance in the Ring of Honor promotion on August 20 . He came back for a promotion on August 27 at their Dragon 's Gate Invasion event , losing a match to CIMA .
After winning the 2005 TNA Super X Cup tournament , Samoa Joe was set to face Christopher Daniels for the TNA X Division Championship at Unbreakable . On the August 19 episode of Impact ! , however , Styles assaulted Daniels in an act of revenge for Daniels ' interference at Sacrifice . Daniels demanded Styles be suspended for this action . NWA Championship Committee member Larry Zbyszko denied the request , and instead added Styles to the planned encounter at Unbreakable , thus making it a Three Way match for the TNA X Division Championship . TNA promoted the match as an X Division " Dream Bout " pitting the top competitors in the division against each other for the championship . Styles won the match and the title by pinning Daniels . Wrestling journalist Dave Meltzer bestowed a rare 5 Star match rating to the bout between A.J. Styles , Christopher Daniels and Samoa Joe .
The three @-@ way match began an extended storyline involving its participants . At TNA 's Bound for Glory PPV event on October 23 , Styles defeated Daniels in a 30 @-@ minute Iron Man match to retain the TNA X Division Championship . TNA then held a Four @-@ on @-@ Four Elimination X match at the Genesis PPV event on November 13 . In that match , the team of Alex Shelley , Daniels , Joe , and Roderick Strong defeated the team of Austin Aries , Chris Sabin , Matt Bentley , and Sonjay Dutt . After the contest , Joe assaulted Daniels , performing his signature Muscle Buster maneuver on him twice , the second time on a steel chair . Daniels suffered an injury in the storyline in the attack , sidelining him until December 11 's TNA Turning Point PPV event . At that event , Daniels saved Styles from an assault by Joe following Joe 's victory over Styles to win the TNA X Division Championship . Daniels then challenged Joe for the championship at TNA 's Final Resolution PPV event on January 15 , 2006 , but Joe retained the title . At TNA 's Against All Odds PPV event on February 12 , 2006 , Daniels , Joe , and Styles competed in another three @-@ way match for the TNA X Division Championship ; Joe gained the pinfall to retain the title . The three competed again in a three @-@ way Ultimate X match for the championship at TNA 's Destination X PPV event on March 12 , 2006 . Daniels won , becoming the new TNA X Division Champion . The rivalry ended on the April 13 , 2006 episode of Impact ! when Joe defeated Daniels to win back the championship .
Due to the popularity of the rivalry between the three in 2005 and 2006 , TNA held another three @-@ way match at TNA 's Turning Point PPV event on November 15 , 2009 , this time for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . Then @-@ champion Styles retained his title , beating Daniels and Joe . Styles went on to successfully defend the title against Daniels at the following TNA PPV event , Final Resolution , on December 20 , 2009 .
Most of the wrestlers involved in the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament , excluding Bentley , Styles , and Joe , went on to compete in the Chris Candido Memorial Tag Team Tournament . In that contest , eight tag teams were drawn at random , and veteran wrestlers were matched with younger wrestlers . Shelley partnered with Sean Waltman , Sabin and Shocker were placed together , Dutt was placed with Ron Killings , and Kip James and Petey Williams teamed up in the tournament . Sabin and Shocker ended faced Shelley and Waltman in the tournament final on the September 9 , 2005 episode of Impact ! . Shelley and Waltman won to win the Chris Candido Cup .
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= Clarke Carlisle =
Clarke James Carlisle ( born 14 October 1979 ) is an English former professional footballer who played as a defender and was chairman of the Professional Footballers ' Association .
Born in Preston , he began playing football at a young age , taking inspiration from his father who played semi @-@ professionally . Carlisle represented his home county of Lancashire at youth level . The start of his professional career was his Football League debut for Blackpool in September 1997 . He moved to Queens Park Rangers in May 2000 . In the same year , Carlisle won three caps for the England under @-@ 21 national team . He missed a number of games for Queens Park Rangers due to a posterior cruciate ligament injury which at one stage led doctors to believe that his career was over . He then missed one month of the 2003 – 04 season because of an alcohol @-@ related problem , and left Queens Park Rangers at the end of that season . In the summer of 2004 , he joined Leeds United on a free transfer .
Carlisle spent just one season with Leeds United before signing for Championship side Watford in August 2005 . In the 2005 – 06 season , his first with Watford , the team finished third in the division and achieved promotion to the Premier League via the play @-@ offs . However , a thigh injury caused Carlisle to miss the majority of the team 's inaugural top @-@ flight season . In March 2007 he had a one @-@ month loan spell at Luton Town . In August 2007 , Burnley manager Steve Cotterill bought Carlisle from Watford for a transfer fee of £ 200 @,@ 000 . In the 2008 – 09 season he played over 40 matches as Burnley reached the semi @-@ finals of the League Cup and finished fifth in the league , earning a place in the play @-@ offs . Carlisle was named man of the match for his performance in the play @-@ off final as Burnley beat Sheffield United 1 – 0 to return to the top tier of English football for the first time in 33 years .
An imposing figure in the centre of defence thanks to his stature , Carlisle also provided an attacking threat from set pieces . He is a practising Christian and regularly attends church . He attended Balshaw 's Church of England High School where he attained 10 A @-@ grades at GCSE and studied mathematics and politics at A @-@ level , and in 2002 was awarded the title of " Britain 's Brainiest Footballer " in a TV game show . He has been an ambassador for the Kick It Out campaign and is a former Chairman of the Management Committee of the Professional Footballers ' Association .
= = Early life and education = =
Carlisle was born in Preston , Lancashire . He grew up in the town with his parents , Mervin and Rose ( née Edgar ) . As a teenager , he attended Balshaw 's Church of England High School in Leyland and attained 10 A @-@ grades at GCSE . He went on to study A @-@ level mathematics and politics at Ealing , Hammersmith and West London College while he was unable to play football due to an injury . Carlisle has a degree in Professional Sports Writing and Broadcasting from Staffordshire University , and has also considered taking up teaching work after his football career is over .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Carlisle was inspired to become a footballer by his father , Mervin , who played semi @-@ professionally for Morecambe and Southport . Carlisle started playing at a young age and represented Lancashire at under @-@ 15 level , before being signed by Blackpool where he became a trainee with the youth team . Carlisle signed a professional contract with the club on 13 August 1997 and moved into the first team squad . On 2 September 1997 , he made his debut for Blackpool in the side 's 4 – 3 victory over Wrexham in the Second Division . He scored his first goal as a professional footballer with the 90th @-@ minute winner in the following match , a 2 – 1 win against Carlisle United at Blackpool 's home ground , Bloomfield Road . He was shown the first red card of his career in Blackpool 's 1 – 0 victory against Wigan Athletic in the quarter @-@ final of the Football League Trophy on 27 January 1998 . He played 12 matches in his first season , scoring two goals .
The following season , he played 43 games as Blackpool achieved a 14th @-@ placed finish in the Second Division . His single goal of the campaign came in a 3 – 1 victory over Stoke City at the Victoria Ground . In the 1999 – 2000 season , he played 51 times and scored five goals as Blackpool finished 22nd and were relegated to the Third Division . He scored on his 93rd and final league appearance for the club in a 1 – 1 draw with Oldham Athletic at Boundary Park . Despite the team 's relegation , Carlisle 's strong defensive performances during his three years at Blackpool attracted the attention of Iain Dowie , who at the time was a scout for Queens Park Rangers .
= = = Queens Park Rangers = = =
Dowie recommended Carlisle to Queens Park Rangers manager Gerry Francis , who paid a transfer fee of £ 250 @,@ 000 to sign him on 25 May 2000 . He played his first game for the side on 12 August 2000 in the 0 – 0 draw with Birmingham City at Loftus Road . He made a further 31 appearances in the 2000 – 01 season and scored three times , earning himself a call @-@ up to the England national under @-@ 21 team . However , his season was cut short on 31 January 2001 , when he suffered his first major injury after a tackle by Rufus Brevett during the 2 – 0 defeat to Fulham . It was found that Carlisle had torn his posterior cruciate ligament , an injury which kept him sidelined for a year and caused doctors to believe that his career might be over . While he was out of action , Queens Park Rangers suffered relegation to the Second Division after finishing 23rd in the league . Soon after the injury he attempted suicide , and years later was diagnosed with major depressive disorder . Upon his return to football , Carlisle was injured again in a reserve team match against Bristol City , sparking fears that he had aggravated his previous injury . The damage proved not to be particularly severe , although it delayed his return to training by a further month .
After missing the entire 2001 – 02 campaign , Carlisle returned to competitive football on 7 September 2002 in Queens Park Rangers ' 4 – 0 victory over Mansfield Town . He scored two goals in 41 matches in the 2002 – 03 season , helping the side to a fourth @-@ placed finish and a spot in the Second Division play @-@ offs . The club reached the 2003 Football League Second Division play @-@ off Final , but were defeated 1 – 0 by Cardiff City at the Millennium Stadium on 25 May 2003 . During the following season , Carlisle developed personal problems , including an alcohol addiction , although he continued to play for a number of months . In September 2003 , as the team were travelling to Colchester United for a league fixture , he was found drunk by manager Ian Holloway . He subsequently missed one month of the season after being admitted to Sporting Chance , a clinic run by former England international footballer Tony Adams , for 28 days for treatment for alcohol @-@ related problems . He later had counselling for the problem before returning to action in October 2003 . Upon his return to the side , Carlisle won the Second Division Player of the Month award for November 2003 . He scored one goal in 39 games in 2003 – 04 as Queens Park Rangers finished as runners @-@ up in the league , achieving promotion to the Championship . Carlisle 's contract with Queens Park Rangers ended at the conclusion of the 2003 – 04 campaign .
= = = Leeds United = = =
In June 2004 , Carlisle agreed to join recently relegated Championship outfit Leeds United on a free transfer . He was offered a new contract by Queens Park Rangers , but he was keen to return to northern England and cut short his summer holiday in Tenerife to sign for the West Yorkshire outfit on a two @-@ year contract . His contract with Leeds began on 1 July 2004 , and he made his debut for the club in the 1 – 1 draw with Nottingham Forest on 21 August . He scored his first goal for Leeds two games later , netting the first goal in the side 's 3 – 0 victory against Coventry City . He was a regular in the team during the first half of the season , playing in every match from the start of September until the end of November . However , he then experienced another major injury set @-@ back , tearing his ankle ligaments during the 1 – 0 defeat to Rotherham United on 29 November 2004 , an injury which left him out of action for a number of weeks .
When fit again , Carlisle found it difficult to break into the first team as his place in the centre of defence had been taken by Matthew Kilgallon . His return came on 28 December 2004 , when he was brought on as an 80th @-@ minute substitute for Frazer Richardson in the 2 – 1 win against Plymouth Argyle . He started the next league match , against Coventry City , but was shown a red card late on in the 2 – 1 victory at Highfield Road . After his return from suspension , he was dropped from the team , making just a handful of substitute appearances in the following two months . Carlisle regained his place in the team towards the end of the season , starting in each of the final four matches of the campaign . He left Leeds in the summer of 2005 , having spent one season at the club , playing 38 matches and scoring four times for the side as they reached the third round of the League Cup and attained a 14th @-@ placed finish in the league . At the end of the 2004 – 05 campaign it was revealed that two clubs , Watford and Stoke City , were both competing to sign Carlisle . Leeds United accepted bids of £ 100 @,@ 000 from both clubs but Carlisle chose to sign for Watford , and he agreed a three @-@ year contract with the club on 5 August 2005 . The deal taking him to Vicarage Road included a clause in his contract stipulating that he would not be played against Leeds in the following season .
= = = Watford and Luton Town = = =
Watford manager Aidy Boothroyd , who had been a coach at Leeds during the previous season , was pleased with the signing , stating that Carlisle was " exactly the type of defender I wanted " . Carlisle was placed straight into Watford 's starting line @-@ up and played his first game for his new club on 6 August 2005 , but he could not prevent the side losing 2 – 1 to Preston North End at Vicarage Road . On 29 August 2005 , Carlisle scored his first goal for the club , claiming the winning header in a 2 – 1 victory over Derby County at Pride Park . Soon after , Carlisle scored two goals in a competitive match for the first time in his career , grabbing both in Watford 's 2 – 1 win against Wolverhampton Wanderers in the second round of the League Cup .
On 4 November 2005 , Wolverhampton Wanderers manager Glenn Hoddle accused Carlisle of stamping on goalkeeper Michael Oakes in the match the previous weekend , and threatened to report him to the Football Association . However , the referee did not show Carlisle a red or yellow card during the match , and no further action was taken against the player . During the 2005 – 06 campaign , Carlisle made 35 appearances and five three goals , helping Watford to achieve a place in the play @-@ offs after finishing third in the Championship . However , towards the end of the season he suffered yet another injury , being forced off the pitch in Watford 's penultimate league match away at Queens Park Rangers . The thigh problem caused him to be unavailable for the play @-@ offs as Watford defeated Leeds 3 – 0 at the Millennium Stadium to win promotion to the FA Premier League .
The injury forced Carlisle to miss the first eight months of the 2006 – 07 Premier League season , and he eventually returned to full training in February 2007 . He played in two reserve team matches for Watford in order to regain some fitness , hoping to break into the first team and make his Premier League debut . On 2 March 2007 , Carlisle joined local rivals Luton Town on a one @-@ month emergency loan deal in an attempt to return to full match fitness . He made his debut for Luton the following day in the 3 – 2 away defeat to Wolverhampton Wanderers in the Championship , coming on as a substitute for Matthew Spring , who had himself joined the club from Watford earlier in the season after failing to break into the first team . Carlisle went on to play five games for Luton . He made his final appearance on 31 March 2007 , in a 0 – 0 draw with Burnley at Turf Moor , before returning to Watford on 2 April 2007 . He finally played his first Premier League match on 9 April 2007 , starting in the 4 – 2 victory over Portsmouth . He was selected to play in the team 's following match , an FA Cup semi @-@ final against Manchester United , but despite being named man of the match for his performance , Watford were defeated 4 – 1 at Villa Park . Carlisle went on to play in Watford 's following three league games of the season as their relegation back to the Championship was confirmed after a 1 – 1 draw with Manchester City at Vicarage Road .
= = = Burnley and loan spells = = =
On 14 August 2007 , Steve Cotterill , manager of fellow Championship club Burnley , made an offer of £ 200 @,@ 000 for Carlisle , who signed a three @-@ year contract at Turf Moor two days later . Helped along by the club captain Steven Caldwell , Carlisle settled in well at Burnley . Two days after signing , he made his debut for his new club in the 2 – 0 defeat away to Scunthorpe United . Carlisle scored his first goal for Burnley on 22 September 2007 , netting a stoppage time minute equaliser with an overhead kick in the 2 – 2 draw with Bristol City at Ashton Gate . On 28 September 2007 , the day before a Championship match , he was involved in a serious car crash after spinning and crashing into a ditch causing his car to be written off . Steve Cotterill praised Carlisle 's character for playing the next day in the 1 – 1 draw with Crystal Palace . He and Caldwell formed a solid defensive partnership and played most matches of the season together . Carlisle was named in the official Team of the Week for his performance in Burnley 's 3 – 1 away win at Charlton Athletic . His partnership with Caldwell was broken towards the end of the campaign as Carlisle was given suspensions after being sent off twice in his last four games of the season , first in the 1 – 2 loss to Preston and then in the last match of the season , a 0 – 5 defeat at Crystal Palace . Carlisle ended the 2007 – 08 season with two goals in 35 appearances .
The 2008 – 09 campaign was Burnley 's first full season with Owen Coyle as manager . Carlisle managed to keep his place in the side under the new regime and was a regular fixture in the team for the first six months of the season . However , he was dropped from the side for the match against Charlton on 31 January 2009 due to a lack of form . He remained out of the team for the whole of February 2009 . He made his return to action on 3 March 2009 , starting in the centre of defence in the 1 – 0 win over his old team , Blackpool , at Bloomfield Road . On his next league appearance he scored Burnley 's first goal in a 4 – 2 victory against Crystal Palace at Turf Moor . He went on to score three further goals in the last two months of the season , getting his name on the scoresheet against Nottingham Forest , Southampton and his former team , Queens Park Rangers . His goals helped Burnley to a fifth @-@ placed finish in the Championship , and a place in the play @-@ offs . He played in both legs of the semi @-@ final against Reading as the side won 3 – 0 on aggregate to secure a place in the play @-@ off final at Wembley Stadium . Carlisle was handed the man of the match award for his performance as Burnley triumphed 1 – 0 against Sheffield United to earn promotion to the Premier League for the 2009 – 10 season .
Prior to the start of the campaign , Carlisle stated his belief that Burnley could avoid relegation back to the Championship . He was selected in the team to play Burnley 's first top @-@ flight match in 33 years on 15 August 2009 , when the side were defeated 2 – 0 by Stoke City at the Britannia Stadium . He also played in the following match as Burnley recorded their first ever Premier League victory , a 1 – 0 win over reigning champions Manchester United at Turf Moor . During the early part of the season , he formed a defensive pairing with new signing André Bikey . He was reunited with Caldwell in the centre of defence for the 2 – 1 victory over Birmingham on 3 October 2009 . In the away loss to Wolverhampton Wanderers on 20 December 2009 , Carlisle suffered a groin injury which kept him sidelined over the Christmas period . After over a month out of the Burnley side with the injury , he made his first start under new manager Brian Laws in the 1 – 0 defeat to Bolton Wanderers on 26 January 2010 . Although the team was relegated from the Premier League at the end of the season , Carlisle was one of several players offered a new contract , and he signed a two @-@ year extension in May 2010 .
In the first away match of the 2010 – 11 season , he scored an injury @-@ time equaliser against Ipswich Town ; the goal was Burnley 's first from a corner kick for 15 months . After serving a three @-@ match suspension in October 2010 following a red card in the 1 – 1 draw away at Millwall , Carlisle returned to the side for the League Cup tie against Aston Villa and scored an 89th @-@ minute equaliser to take the match to extra time . He made 41 appearances during the campaign but was not deemed a first @-@ choice player by new manager Eddie Howe , and in July 2011 he joined his hometown club Preston North End on loan for the duration of the 2011 – 12 season .
Carlisle made his Preston debut in the opening match of the campaign , a 4 – 2 home defeat against Colchester on 6 August 2011 . Three games later , he scored his first goal for the club , netting the opening goal from a corner kick in the 2 – 0 away win over Chesterfield . He was a regular starter for Preston during the opening months of the season and also played in the cup competitions as the side reached the third round of the League Cup before being eliminated by Southampton and progressed to the same stage of the Football League Trophy with penalty shoot @-@ out victories over Morecambe and Rochdale . He was handed a one @-@ match ban after receiving his fifth yellow card of the campaign in the FA Cup first round defeat to Southend United on 22 November 2011 . Preston manager Phil Brown brought in Jamie McCombe on loan as cover for Carlisle , and the Huddersfield Town loanee kept his place in the starting line @-@ up throughout December 2011 . Carlisle returned to the Preston team for the visit to Rochdale on 2 January 2012 , when he was selected to play alongside Craig Morgan by caretaker managers Graham Alexander and David Unsworth . He played five times during that month , scoring on his 27th and final appearance for the club in the 1 – 2 loss to Yeovil Town . Following the appointment of Graham Westley as Preston manager , Carlisle struggled to fit the new training regime in with his commitments as chairman of the Professional Footballers ' Association and his loan deal was cancelled by mutual consent on 31 January 2012 .
Later the same day , Carlisle signed for League Two side Northampton Town , managed by former Watford boss Aidy Boothroyd , on loan for the remainder of the season . He made his first start for Northampton in the 1 – 0 win over AFC Wimbledon at the Sixfields Stadium on 14 February 2012 . Carlisle was appointed captain upon his arrival at the club and was a regular first team player , often playing alongside fellow centre @-@ back Kelvin Langmead . He scored his first goal for the side in the 3 – 1 home defeat to Bradford City on 14 April 2012 . Carlisle played 18 matches and scored one goal for Northampton during his three months with the club , making his final appearance in the final game of the campaign , a 1 – 1 draw away at Rotherham . He was released by Burnley in May 2012 after the expiry of his contract .
= = = York City and Northampton Town return = = =
Carlisle signed for newly promoted League Two side York City on 30 August 2012 on a contract lasting until January 2013 , having previously turned down a contract offer from Northampton . He made his debut two days later in York 's 3 – 1 victory at home to Oxford United . On 19 November 2012 , Carlisle re @-@ signed for Northampton on loan until January 2013 , when he would sign permanently , having made 14 appearances for York . He made his second debut the following day in Northampton 's 3 – 0 home win over Morecambe . After making five appearances on loan , Carlisle completed his permanent move to Northampton on a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half year contract on 4 January 2013 . He played for Northampton in their 3 – 0 defeat to Bradford in the 2013 Football League Two play @-@ off Final at Wembley on 18 May 2013 .
On 23 May 2013 , Carlisle announced his retirement from playing .
= = International career = =
While playing for Queens Park Rangers , Carlisle was selected to play for the England national under @-@ 21 team on three occasions . He was called up to the squad by Howard Wilkinson , and made his debut for his country on 31 August 2000 , coming on as a substitute in England 's 6 – 1 friendly victory over Georgia at the Riverside Stadium in Middlesbrough . His second appearance for England , also from the substitutes ' bench , came in a 2002 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualifying match on 6 October 2000 in the 1 – 1 draw with Germany at Pride Park . He played his third and final game for England four days later , again coming on as a substitute in the 2 – 2 draw with Finland at the Tehtaan kenttä stadium in Valkeakoski . Despite playing well in the second half of the match , he was not selected for the under @-@ 21 team again .
= = Style of play = =
Carlisle 's predominant playing position is as a centre @-@ back and he has been described as a " defensive lynchpin " . He has stated that as a youngster , he modelled his style of play on defenders such as Steve Bruce and Gary Pallister . However , he says that their style was too " ruthless " for modern football , and he now attempts to read the opponents ' attacking plays . He is not known for his pace , and this has caused him some disciplinary problems as he has received eight red cards during his career . Former Leeds United teammate Michael Duberry described Carlisle as a " strong " defender . Carlisle is recognised as being a highly intelligent footballer , and is often seen as an imposing figure in the centre of the defence thanks to his 6 ft 3 in ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) stature . He also looks to use his size to cause an attacking threat from set pieces such as free kicks and corners , and scored 39 goals in his career .
= = PFA roles = =
Carlisle is an ambassador for the Kick It Out scheme , which campaigns for inclusion and equality in football . He is also currently on the Management Committee of the Professional Footballers ' Association ( PFA ) , and it was announced on 17 November 2010 that Carlisle would succeed Chris Powell as the chairman of the PFA . As part of his work with the PFA , he collects the views of his fellow professionals and reports back to the committee . He also visits local schools to give talks to the students . Carlisle was among those who criticised FIFA president Sepp Blatter following his comments in November 2011 that racism was no longer a problem in football . In February 2012 , he was part of a PFA delegation that met with British Prime Minister David Cameron to discuss the issues of racism and homophobia in the sport .
= = Media work = =
In October 2009 , Carlisle made his first appearance on the BBC television football programme Match of the Day 2 . He has since appeared as a pundit for Sky Sports and ITV Sport during numerous televised football matches . Carlisle has made two appearances on the BBC panel debate show Question Time , becoming the first footballer to appear on the programme . In July 2012 , he presented a documentary on BBC Three titled Is Football Racist ? , in which he interviewed former footballers Stan Collymore , Chris Hughton and John Barnes about their experiences of racism during their careers , as well as investigating the history of racism in English football on the pitch and in the stands . He also presented a second documentary for BBC Three , Football 's Suicide Secret , on the issue of mental health in football on 9 July 2013 . He published his autobiography , You Don 't Know Me , But ... A Footballer 's Life in 2013 .
= = Personal life = =
Carlisle is of Dominican descent . His grandfather , James Carlisle , was born in Dominica but he travelled and now resides in England . From an early age , Carlisle was encouraged to follow Christianity by his parents . He adopted those beliefs , and became a regular churchgoer during his time at Watford . Carlisle is married to Gemma , whom he met just prior to his admission to the Sporting Chance clinic . The couple married on the island of Antigua , where some of Carlisle 's family also resides . The couple lived in Ripponden , West Yorkshire with their son , Marley , who was born in 2007 , and daughter Honey , born 2010 . Carlisle also has a daughter named Francesca , born in 1999 , from a previous relationship . He is close friends with Adebayo Akinfenwa , his former teammate at Northampton .
On 30 January 2002 , Carlisle was awarded the accolade of " Britain 's Brainiest Footballer " in a television quiz . Carlisle appeared as a contestant on the Channel 4 game show Countdown on 24 February 2010 , winning his first match against the defending champion to stay on the show for the following programme . Carlisle then won his second contest , achieving a larger score than the previous day to stay on for another match . In his third match on 26 February 2010 , he was defeated by three points . He was banned from driving for one year and eight months and fined £ 2 @,@ 365 after pleading guilty of drink driving at Bury Magistrates Court on 11 October 2011 .
In the morning of 22 December 2014 , Carlisle was hit by a lorry on the A64 near Bishopthorpe , North Yorkshire , and was airlifted to Leeds General Infirmary having suffered cuts , bruises , internal bleeding , a broken rib and a shattered left knee . He had surgery soon after and his wife reported that he was " very poorly " but " alive and stable " . Burnley and Liverpool supporters performed a minute 's applause in support of Carlisle starting in the fifth minute of their match on 26 December 2014 , in reference to Carlisle wearing the number five shirt for Burnley . On 30 December 2014 , it was announced that Carlisle was charged with a drink @-@ driving offence on 20 December 2014 . He appeared at Highbury Corner Magistrates ' Court on 20 January 2015 . In February 2015 , after leaving hospital , Carlisle said that he had been trying to kill himself when he was hit by the lorry in December 2014 .
Carlisle and his wife Gemma separated in early 2015 over his depression and recent suicide attempt . On 14 May 2015 , Clarke was banned from driving for three years , ordered to carry out 150 hours unpaid work and pay £ 145 in costs .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Honours = =
Queens Park Rangers
Football League Second Division runner @-@ up : 2003 – 04
Burnley
Football League Championship play @-@ offs : 2008 – 09
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= Battle of Atlanta =
The Battle of Atlanta was a battle of the Atlanta Campaign fought during the American Civil War on July 22 , 1864 , just southeast of Atlanta , Georgia . Continuing their summer campaign to seize the important rail and supply center of Atlanta , Union forces commanded by William T. Sherman overwhelmed and defeated Confederate forces defending the city under John B. Hood . Union Maj. Gen. James B. McPherson was killed during the battle . Despite the implication of finality in its name , the battle occurred midway through the campaign , and the city did not fall until September 2 , 1864 , after a Union siege and various attempts to seize railroads and supply lines leading to Atlanta . After taking the city , Sherman 's troops headed south @-@ southeastward toward Milledgeville , the state capital , and on to Savannah with the March to the Sea .
The fall of Atlanta was especially noteworthy for its political ramifications . In the 1864 election , former Union general George B. McClellan , a Democrat , ran against President Lincoln , on a peace platform calling for a truce with the Confederacy . The capture of Atlanta and Hood 's burning of military facilities as he evacuated were extensively covered by Northern newspapers , significantly boosting Northern morale , and Lincoln was reelected by a large margin .
= = Background = =
In the Atlanta Campaign , Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman commanded the Union forces of the Western Theater . The main Union force in this battle was the Army of the Tennessee , under Maj. Gen. James B. McPherson . He was one of Sherman 's and Grant 's favorite commanders , as he was very quick and aggressive . Within Sherman 's army , the XV Corps was commanded by Maj. Gen. John A. Logan , the XVI Corps was commanded by Maj. Gen. Grenville M. Dodge , and Maj. Gen. Frank P. Blair Jr. commanded the XVII Corps .
During the months leading up to the battle , Confederate Gen. Joseph E. Johnston had repeatedly retreated from Sherman 's superior force . All along the railroad line , from Chattanooga , Tennessee , to Marietta , Georgia , a pattern was played and replayed : Johnston took up a defensive position , Sherman marched to outflank the Confederate defenses , and Johnston retreated again . After Johnston 's withdrawal following the Battle of Resaca , the two armies clashed again at the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain , but the Confederate senior leadership in Richmond was unhappy with Johnston 's perceived reluctance to fight the Union army , even though he had little chance of winning . Thus , on July 17 , 1864 , as he was preparing for the Battle of Peachtree Creek , Johnston was relieved of his command and replaced by Lt. Gen. John Bell Hood . The dismissal and replacement of Johnston was one of the most controversial decisions of the civil war . Hood , who was fond of taking risks , lashed out at Sherman 's army at Peachtree Creek , but the attack failed with more than two thousand five hundred Confederate casualties .
Hood needed to defend the city of Atlanta , which was an important rail hub and industrial center for the Confederacy , but his army was small in comparison to the armies that Sherman commanded . He decided to withdraw , enticing the Union troops to come forward . McPherson 's army closed in from Decatur , Georgia , to the east side of Atlanta .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Union forces = = =
= = = Confederate = = =
= = Battle = =
Meanwhile , Hood ordered Lt. Gen. William J. Hardee 's corps on a march around the Union left flank , had Maj. Gen. Joseph Wheeler 's cavalry march near Sherman 's supply line , and had Maj. Gen. Benjamin Cheatham 's corps attack the Union front . However , it took longer than expected for Hardee to get his men into position , and , during that time , McPherson had correctly deduced a possible threat to his left flank , and sent XVI Corps , his reserve , to help strengthen it . Hardee 's men met this other force , and the battle began . Although the initial Confederate attack was repulsed , the Union left flank began to retreat . About this time , McPherson , who had ridden to the front to observe the battle , was shot and killed by Confederate infantry .
Near Decatur , Brig. Gen. John W. Sprague , in command of the 2nd Brigade , 4th Division of the XVI Corps , was attacked by Wheeler 's cavalry . Wheeler had taken the Fayetteville Road , while Hardee 's column took the Flat Shoals Road toward McPherson 's position . The Federals fled the town in a stampede , but managed to save the ordnance and supply trains of the XV , XVI , XVII , and XX corps . With the failure of Hardee 's assault , Wheeler was in no position to hold Decatur , and fell back to Atlanta that night . Sprague was later awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions .
The main lines of battle now formed an " L " shape , with Hardee 's attack forming the lower part of the " L , " and Cheatham 's attack on the Union front as the vertical member of the " L " . Hood intended to attack the Union troops from both east and west . The fighting centered on a hill east of the city known as Bald Hill . The Federals had arrived two days earlier , and began to shell the city proper , killing several civilians . A savage struggle , sometimes hand @-@ to @-@ hand , developed around the hill , lasting until just after dark . The Federals held the hill while the Confederates retired to a point just south of there . Meanwhile , two miles to the north , Cheatham 's troops had broken through the Union lines at the Georgia railroad . In response , twenty artillery pieces were positioned near Sherman 's headquarters at Copen Hill , and shelled the Confederates , while Logan 's XV Corps regrouped and repulsed the Southern troops .
The Union had suffered 3 @,@ 641 casualties , including Maj. Gen. McPherson , to the Confederate 's 5 @,@ 500 . This was a devastating loss for the already reduced Confederate army , but they still held the city .
= = Siege and closure = =
Sherman settled into a siege of Atlanta , shelling the city and sending raids west and south of the city to cut off the supply lines from Macon , Georgia . Both of Sherman 's cavalry raids were defeated by superior southern horsemen . Following the failure to break the Confederates ' hold on the city , Sherman began to employ a new strategy . He swung his entire army in a broad flanking maneuver to the west . Finally , on August 31 , at Jonesborough , Georgia , Sherman 's army captured the railroad track from Macon , pushing the Confederates to Lovejoy 's Station . With his supply lines fully severed , Hood pulled his troops out of Atlanta the next day , September 1 , destroying supply depots as he left to prevent them from falling into Union hands . He also set fire to eighty @-@ one loaded ammunition cars , which led to a conflagration watched by hundreds .
On September 2 , Mayor James Calhoun , along with a committee of Union @-@ leaning citizens including William Markham , Jonathan Norcross , and Edward Rawson , met a captain on the staff of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Slocum , and surrendered the city , asking for " protection to non @-@ combatants and private property " . Sherman , who was in Jonesborough at the time of surrender , sent a telegram to Washington on September 3 , reading , " Atlanta is ours , and fairly won " . He then established his headquarters there on September 7 , where he stayed for over two months . On November 15 , the army departed east toward Savannah , on what became known as " Sherman 's March to the Sea " .
= = Aftermath = =
The fall of Atlanta and the success of the overall Atlanta Campaign were extensively covered by Northern newspapers , and were a boon to Northern morale and to President Lincoln 's political standing . The 1864 election was between former Union general George B. McClellan , a Democrat , and Abraham Lincoln . McClellan ran a conflicted campaign - McClellan was a Unionist who advocated continuing the war until the defeat of the Confederacy , but the Democratic platform included calls for negotiations with the Confederacy on the subject of a potential truce . The capture of Atlanta and Hood 's burning of military facilities as he evacuated showed that a successful conclusion of the war was in sight , weakening support for a truce . Lincoln was reelected by a comfortable margin , with 212 out of 233 electoral votes .
Maj. Gen. James B. McPherson , who was one of the highest @-@ ranking Union officers killed in action during the Civil War , was mourned and honored by Sherman , who declared in his official report :
His public enemies , even the men who directed the fatal shot , ne 'er spoke or wrote of him without expressions of marked respect ; those whom he commanded loved him even to idolatry ; and I , his associate and commander , fail in words adequate to express my opinion of his great worth . I feel assured that every patriot in America , on hearing this sad news , will feel a sense of personal loss , and the country generally will realize that we have lost , not only an able military leader , but a man who , had he survived , was qualified to heal the national strife which has been raised by designing and ambitious men .
Despite the damage caused by the war , Atlanta recovered from its downfall relatively quickly ; as one observer noted as early as November 1865 , " A new city is springing up with marvelous rapidity " .
= = Legacy = =
In 1880 , Atlanta ranked among the fifty largest cities in the United States . The battlefield is now urban , residential , and commercial land , with many markers memorializing notable events of the battle , including McPherson 's place of death . The marker was erected in 1956 by the Georgia Historical Commission . To commemorate the 140th anniversary of the battle , in 2004 , two new markers were erected in the Inman Park neighborhood . The Atlanta Cyclorama building , built in 1921 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places , is a museum located in Grant Park containing a panoramic painting of the battle .
One notable establishment destroyed by Union soldiers was the Potter ( or Ponder ) House , built in 1857 , and owned by Ephraim G. Ponder , a holder of 65 slaves before the war . In the battle , it was used by Confederate sharpshooters until Union artillery inflicted heavy damage . It was never rebuilt . One of Ponder 's slaves , Festus Flipper , was the father of Henry Ossian Flipper , who later became the first African American cadet to graduate from the United States Military Academy at West Point .
In 1962 , two years short of the centennial of the battle , the country music singer / songwriter Claude King of Shreveport , Louisiana , released the hit song , " The Burning of Atlanta " .
= = = Memoirs and primary sources = = =
Sherman , William T. , Memoirs of General W.T. Sherman , 2nd ed . , D. Appleton & Co . , 1913 ( 1889 ) . Reprinted by the Library of America , 1990 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 940450 @-@ 65 @-@ 3 .
U.S. War Department , The War of the Rebellion : a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies . Washington , DC : U.S. Government Printing Office , 1880 – 1901 .
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