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= Ytterbium = Ytterbium is a chemical element with symbol Yb and atomic number 70 . It is the fourteenth and penultimate element in the lanthanide series , which is the basis of the relative stability of its + 2 oxidation state . However , like the other lanthanides , its most common oxidation state is + 3 , seen in its oxide , halides and other compounds . In aqueous solution , like compounds of other late lanthanides , soluble ytterbium compounds form complexes with nine water molecules . Because of its closed @-@ shell electron configuration , its density and melting and boiling points differ from those of the other lanthanides . In 1878 , the Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac separated in the rare earth " erbia " another independent component , which he called " ytterbia " , for Ytterby , the village in Sweden near where he found the new component of erbium . He suspected that ytterbia was a compound of a new element that he called " ytterbium " ( in total , four elements were named after the village , the others being yttrium , terbium and erbium ) . In 1907 , the new earth " lutecia " was separated from ytterbia , from which the element " lutecium " ( now lutetium ) was extracted by Georges Urbain , Carl Auer von Welsbach , and Charles James . After some discussion , Marignac 's name " ytterbium " was retained . A relatively pure sample of the metal was obtained only in 1953 . At present , ytterbium is mainly used as a dopant of stainless steel or active laser media , and less often as a gamma ray source . Natural ytterbium is a mixture of seven stable isotopes , which altogether are present at concentrations of 3 parts per million . This element is mined in China , the United States , Brazil , and India in form of the minerals monazite , euxenite , and xenotime . The ytterbium concentration is low , because the element is found among many other rare earth elements ; moreover , it is among the least abundant ones . Once extracted and prepared , ytterbium is somewhat hazardous as an eye and skin irritant . The metal is a fire and explosion hazard . = = Characteristics = = = = = Physical properties = = = Ytterbium is a soft , malleable and ductile chemical element that displays a bright silvery luster when in its pure form . It is a rare earth element , and it is readily attacked and dissolved by the strong mineral acids . It reacts slowly with cold water and it oxidizes slowly in air . Ytterbium has three allotropes labeled by the Greek letters alpha , beta and gamma ; their transformation temperatures are − 13 ° C and 795 ° C , although the exact transformation temperature depends on the pressure and stress . The beta allotrope exists at room temperature , and it has a face @-@ centered cubic crystal structure . The high @-@ temperature gamma allotrope has a body @-@ centered cubic crystalline structure . The alpha allotrope has a hexagonal crystalline structure and is stable at low temperatures . Normally , the beta allotrope has a metallic electrical conductivity , but it becomes a semiconductor when exposed to a pressure of about 16 @,@ 000 atmospheres ( 1 @.@ 6 GPa ) . Its electrical resistivity increases ten times upon compression to 39 @,@ 000 atmospheres ( 3 @.@ 9 GPa ) , but then drops to about 10 % of its room @-@ temperature resistivity at about 40 @,@ 000 atm ( 4 @.@ 0 GPa ) . In contrast with the other rare @-@ earth metals , which usually have antiferromagnetic and / or ferromagnetic properties at low temperatures , ytterbium is paramagnetic at temperatures above 1 @.@ 0 kelvin . However , the alpha allotrope is diamagnetic . With a melting point of 824 ° C and a boiling point of 1196 ° C , ytterbium has the smallest liquid range of all the metals . Contrary to most other lanthanides , which have a close @-@ packed hexagonal lattice , ytterbium crystallizes in the face @-@ centered cubic structure . As a result , its density ( 6 @.@ 973 g / cm3 ) is significantly lower than , e.g. , those of the neighboring elements thulium ( 9 @.@ 32 g / cm3 ) and lutetium ( 9 @.@ 841 g / cm3 ) . The melting and boiling points of ytterbium are also significantly lower than those of thulium and lutetium . These properties stem from the closed @-@ shell electron configuration of ytterbium ( [ Xe ] 4f14 6s2 ) , which causes only the two 6s electrons to be available for metallic bonding ( in contrast to the other lanthanides where three electrons are available ) . = = = Chemical properties = = = Ytterbium metal tarnishes slowly in air . Finely dispersed ytterbium readily oxidizes in air and under oxygen . Mixtures of powdered ytterbium with polytetrafluoroethylene or hexachloroethane burn with a luminous emerald @-@ green flame . Ytterbium reacts with hydrogen to form various non @-@ stoichiometric hydrides . Ytterbium dissolves slowly in water , but quickly in acids , liberating hydrogen gas . Ytterbium is quite electropositive , and it reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with hot water to form ytterbium ( III ) hydroxide : 2 Yb ( s ) + 6 H2O ( l ) → 2 Yb ( OH ) 3 ( aq ) + 3 H2 ( g ) Ytterbium reacts with all the halogens : 2 Yb ( s ) + 3 F2 ( g ) → 2 YbF3 ( s ) [ white ] 2 Yb ( s ) + 3 Cl2 ( g ) → 2 YbCl3 ( s ) [ white ] 2 Yb ( s ) + 3 Br2 ( g ) → 2 YbBr3 ( s ) [ white ] 2 Yb ( s ) + 3 I2 ( g ) → 2 YbI3 ( s ) [ white ] The ytterbium ( III ) ion absorbs light in the near infrared range of wavelengths , but not in visible light , so the mineral ytterbia , Yb2O3 , is white in color and the salts of ytterbium are also colorless . Ytterbium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions that contain the colorless Yb ( III ) ions , which exist as nonahydrate complexes : 2 Yb ( s ) + 3 H2SO4 ( aq ) → 2 [ Yb ( H2O ) 9 ] 3 + ( aq ) + 3 SO2 − 4 ( aq ) + 3 H2 ( g ) = = = Yb ( II ) vs. Yb ( III ) = = = Although usually trivalent , ytterbium readily forms divalent compounds . This behavior is unusual to most lanthanides , which almost exclusively form compounds with an oxidation state of + 3 . The + 2 state has a valence electron configuration of 4f14 because the fully filled f @-@ shell gives more stability . The yellow @-@ green ytterbium ( II ) ion is a very strong reducing agent and decomposes water , releasing hydrogen gas , and thus only the colorless ytterbium ( III ) ion occurs in aqueous solution . Samarium and thulium also behave this way in the + 2 state , but europium ( II ) is stable in aqueous solution . Ytterbium metal behaves similarly to europium metal and the alkaline earth metals , dissolving in ammonia to form blue electride salts . = = = Isotopes = = = Natural ytterbium is composed of seven stable isotopes : 168Yb , 170Yb , 171Yb , 172Yb , 173Yb , 174Yb , and 176Yb , with 174Yb being the most abundant isotope , at 31 @.@ 8 % of the natural abundance ) . 27 radioisotopes have been observed , with the most stable ones being 169Yb with a half @-@ life of 32 @.@ 0 days , 175Yb with a half @-@ life of 4 @.@ 18 days , and 166Yb with a half @-@ life of 56 @.@ 7 hours . All of its remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives that are less than two hours and most of these have half @-@ lives are less than 20 minutes . Ytterbium also has 12 meta states , with the most stable being 169mYb ( t1 / 2 46 seconds ) . The isotopes of ytterbium range in atomic weight from 147 @.@ 9674 atomic mass unit ( u ) for 148Yb to 180 @.@ 9562 u for 181Yb . The primary decay mode of ytterbium isotopes lighter than the most abundant stable isotope , 174Yb , is electron capture , and the primary decay mode for those heavier than 174Yb is beta decay . The primary decay products of ytterbium isotopes lighter than 174Yb are thulium isotopes , and the primary decay products of ytterbium isotopes with heavier than 174Yb are lutetium isotopes . = = Occurrence = = Ytterbium is found with other rare earth elements in several rare minerals . It is most often recovered commercially from monazite sand ( 0 @.@ 03 % ytterbium ) . The element is also found in euxenite and xenotime . The main mining areas are China , the United States , Brazil , India , Sri Lanka , and Australia ; and reserves of ytterbium are estimated as one million tonnes . Ytterbium is normally difficult to separate from other rare earths , but ion @-@ exchange and solvent extraction techniques developed in the mid- to late 20th century have simplified separation . Known compounds of ytterbium are rare and have not yet been well characterized . The abundance of ytterbium in the Earth 's crust is about 3 mg / kg . As an even @-@ numbered lanthanide , in accordance with the Oddo @-@ Harkins rule , ytterbium is significantly more abundant than its immediate neighbors , thulium and lutetium , which occur in the same concentrate at levels of about 0 @.@ 5 % each . The world production of ytterbium is only about 50 tonnes per year , reflecting the fact that ytterbium has few commercial applications . Microscopic traces of ytterbium are used as a dopant in the Yb : YAG laser , a solid @-@ state laser in which ytterbium is the element that undergoes stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation . = = Production = = It is somewhat difficult to separate ytterbium from other lanthanides due to its similar properties . As a result , the process is somewhat long . First , minerals such as monazite or xenotime are dissolved into various acids , such as sulfuric acid . Ytterbium can then be separated from other lanthanides by ion exchange , as can other lanthanides . The solution is then applied to a resin , which different lanthanides bond to in different matters . This is then dissolved using complexing agents , and due to the different types of bonding exhibited by the different lanthanides , it is possible to isolate the compounds . Ytterbium is separated from other rare earths either by ion exchange or by reduction with sodium amalgam . In the latter method , a buffered acidic solution of trivalent rare earths is treated with molten sodium @-@ mercury alloy , which reduces and dissolves Yb3 + . The alloy is treated with hydrochloric acid . The metal is extracted from the solution as oxalate and converted to oxide by heating . The oxide is reduced to metal by heating with lanthanum , aluminium , cerium or zirconium in high vacuum . The metal is purified by sublimation and collected over a condensed plate . = = Compounds = = The chemical behavior of ytterbium is similar to that of the rest of the lanthanides . Most ytterbium compounds are found in the + 3 oxidation state and its salts in this oxidation state are nearly colorless . Like europium , samarium , and thulium , the trihalides of ytterbium can be reduced to the dihalides by hydrogen , zinc dust , or by the addition of metallic ytterbium . The + 2 oxidation state only occurs in solid compounds and reacts in some ways similarly to the alkaline earth metal compounds ; for example , ytterbium ( II ) oxide ( YbO ) shows the same structure as calcium oxide ( CaO ) . = = = Halides = = = Ytterbium forms both dihalides and trihalides with the halogens fluorine , chlorine , bromine , and iodine . The dihalides are susceptible to oxidation to the trihalides at room temperature and disproportionate to the trihalides and metallic ytterbium at high temperature : 3 YbX2 → 2 YbX3 + Yb ( X = F , Cl , Br , I ) Some ytterbium halides are used as reagents in organic synthesis . For example , ytterbium ( III ) chloride ( YbCl3 ) is a Lewis acid and can be used as a catalyst in the Aldol and Diels – Alder reactions . Ytterbium ( II ) iodide ( YbI2 ) may be used , like samarium ( II ) iodide , as a reducing agent for coupling reactions . Ytterbium ( III ) fluoride ( YbF3 ) is used as an inert and non @-@ toxic tooth filling as it continuously releases fluoride ions , which are good for dental health , and is also a good X @-@ ray contrast agent . = = = Oxides = = = Ytterbium reacts with oxygen to form ytterbium ( III ) oxide ( Yb2O3 ) , which crystallizes in the " rare @-@ earth C @-@ type sesquioxide " structure which is related to the fluorite structure with one quarter of the anions removed , leading to ytterbium atoms in two different six coordinate ( non @-@ octahedral ) environments . Ytterbium ( III ) oxide can be reduced to ytterbium ( II ) oxide ( YbO ) with elemental ytterbium , which crystallizes in the same structure as sodium chloride . = = History = = Ytterbium was discovered by the Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac in the year 1878 . While examining samples of gadolinite , Marignac found a new component in the earth then known as erbia , and he named it ytterbia , for Ytterby , the Swedish village near where he found the new component of erbium . Marignac suspected that ytterbia was a compound of a new element that he called " ytterbium " . In 1907 , the French chemist Georges Urbain separated Marignac 's ytterbia into two components : neoytterbia and lutecia . Neoytterbia would later become known as the element ytterbium , and lutecia would later be known as the element lutetium . The Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach independently isolated these elements from ytterbia at about the same time , but he called them aldebaranium and cassiopeium ; the American chemist Charles James also independently isolated these elements at about the same time . Urbain and Welsbach accused each other of publishing results based on the other party . The Commission on Atomic Mass , consisting of Frank Wigglesworth Clarke , Wilhelm Ostwald , and Georges Urbain , which was then responsible for the attribution of new element names , settled the dispute in 1909 by granting priority to Urbain and adopting his names as official ones , based on the fact that the separation of lutetium from Marignac 's ytterbium was first described by Urbain ; after Urbain 's names were recognized , neoytterbium was reverted to ytterbium . The chemical and physical properties of ytterbium could not be determined with any precision until 1953 , when the first nearly pure ytterbium metal was produced by using ion @-@ exchange processes . The price of ytterbium was relatively stable between 1953 and 1998 at about US $ 1 @,@ 000 / kg . = = Applications = = = = = Source of gamma rays = = = The 169Yb isotope ( with a half @-@ life of 32 days ) , which is created along with the short @-@ lived 175Yb isotope ( half @-@ life 4 @.@ 2 days ) by neutron activation during the irradiation of ytterbium in nuclear reactors , has been used as a radiation source in portable X @-@ ray machines . Like X @-@ rays , the gamma rays emitted by the source pass through soft tissues of the body , but are blocked by bones and other dense materials . Thus , small 169Yb samples ( which emit gamma rays ) act like tiny X @-@ ray machines useful for radiography of small objects . Experiments show that radiographs taken with a 169Yb source are roughly equivalent to those taken with X @-@ rays having energies between 250 and 350 keV . 169Yb is also used in nuclear medicine . = = = World 's most stable atomic clock = = = Ytterbium clocks hold the record for stability with ticks stable to within less than two parts in 1 quintillion ( 2 × 10 − 18 ) . The clocks developed at the National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) rely on about 10 @,@ 000 rare @-@ earth atoms cooled to 10 microkelvin ( 10 millionths of a degree above absolute zero ) and trapped in an optical lattice — a series of pancake @-@ shaped wells made of laser light . Another laser that " ticks " 518 trillion times per second provokes a transition between two energy levels in the atoms . The large number of atoms is key to the clocks ' high stability . = = = Doping of stainless steel = = = Ytterbium can also be used as a dopant to help improve the grain refinement , strength , and other mechanical properties of stainless steel . Some ytterbium alloys have rarely been used in dentistry . = = = Ytterbium as dopant of active media = = = The ytterbium + 3 ion is used as a doping material in active laser media , specifically in solid state lasers and double clad fiber lasers . Ytterbium lasers are highly efficient , have long lifetimes and can generate short pulses ; ytterbium can also easily be incorporated into the material used to make the laser . Ytterbium lasers commonly radiate in the 1 @.@ 06 – 1 @.@ 12 µm band being optically pumped at wavelength 900 nm – 1 µm , dependently on the host and application . The small quantum defect makes ytterbium a prospective dopant for efficient lasers and power scaling . The kinetic of excitations in ytterbium @-@ doped materials is simple and can be described within the concept of effective cross @-@ sections ; for most ytterbium @-@ doped laser materials ( as for many other optically pumped gain media ) , the McCumber relation holds , although the application to the ytterbium @-@ doped composite materials was under discussion . Usually , low concentrations of ytterbium are used . At high concentrations , the ytterbium @-@ doped materials show photodarkening ( glass fibers ) or even a switch to broadband emission ( crystals and ceramics ) instead of efficient laser action . This effect may be related with not only overheating , but also with conditions of charge compensation at high concentrations of ytterbium ions . Much progress has been made in the power scaling Lasers and Amplifiers produced with ytterbium ( Yb ) doped optical fibers . Power levels have increased from the 1 kW regimes due to the advancements in components as well as the Yb doped fibers themselves . Fabrication of Low NA , Large Mode Area ( LMA ) fibers enable achievement of near perfect beam qualities ( M2 < 1 @.@ 1 ) at power levels of 1 @.@ 5 kW to greater than 2 kW at ~ 1064 nm in a broadband configuration . Ytterbium @-@ doped LMA fibers also have the advantages of a larger mode field diameter ( MFD ) which negates the impacts of nonlinear effects such as stimulated Brillouin scattering ( SBS ) and stimulated Raman scattering ( SRS ) , which limit the achievement of higher power levels , and provides a distinct advantage over single mode ytterbium @-@ doped fibers . In order to achieve even higher power levels in ytterbium @-@ based fiber systems all factors of the fiber must be considered . These can only be achieved via optimization of all the ytterbium fiber parameters , ranging from the core background losses to the geometrical properties , in order to reduce the splice losses within the cavity . Power scaling also requires optimization of matching passive fibers within the optical cavity . The optimization of the ytterbium @-@ doped glass itself through host glass modification of various dopants also plays a large part in reducing the background loss of the glass , improvements in slope efficiency of the fiber and improved photodarkening performance . All of which contribute to increased power levels in 1 µm systems . = = = Others = = = Ytterbium metal increases its electrical resistivity when subjected to high stresses . This property is used in stress gauges to monitor ground deformations from earthquakes and explosions . Visible light waves oscillate faster than microwaves , and therefore optical clocks can be more precise than caesium atomic clocks . The Physikalisch @-@ Technische Bundesanstalt ( PTB ) is working on several such optical clocks . The model with one single ytterbium ion caught in an ion trap is highly accurate . The optical clock based on it is exact to 17 digits after the decimal point . A pair of experimental atomic clocks based on ytterbium atoms at the National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) has set a new record for stability . NIST physicists report in the August 22 , 2013 issue of Science Express that the ytterbium clocks ' ticks are stable to within less than two parts in 1 quintillion ( 1 followed by 18 zeros ) , roughly 10 times better than the previous best published results for other atomic clocks . The clocks would be accurate within a second for a period comparable to the age of the universe . Currently , ytterbium is being investigated as a possible replacement for magnesium in high density pyrotechnic payloads for kinematic infrared decoy flares . As ytterbium ( III ) oxide has a significantly higher emissivity in the infrared range than magnesium oxide , a higher radiant intensity is obtained with ytterbium @-@ based payloads in comparison to those commonly based on magnesium / Teflon / Viton ( MTV ) . = = Precautions = = Although ytterbium is fairly stable chemically , it is stored in airtight containers and in an inert atmosphere such as a nitrogen @-@ filled dry box to protect the metal from air and moisture . All compounds of ytterbium are treated as highly toxic , although initial studies appear to indicate that the danger is minimal . Ytterbium compounds are , however , known to cause irritation to the human skin and eyes , and some might be teratogenic . Metallic ytterbium dust can spontaneously combust , and the resulting fumes are hazardous . Ytterbium fires cannot be extinguished using water , and only dry chemical class D fire extinguishers can extinguish the fires .
= Phil Hartman = Philip Edward " Phil " Hartman ( September 24 , 1948 – May 28 , 1998 ; born Hartmann ) was a Canadian @-@ American actor , voice actor , comedian , screenwriter , and graphic artist . Born in Brantford , Ontario , Hartman and his family moved to the United States in 1958 . After graduating from California State University , Northridge , with a degree in graphic arts , he designed album covers for bands like Poco and America . Feeling the need for a more creative outlet , Hartman joined the comedy group The Groundlings in 1975 and there helped comedian Paul Reubens develop his character Pee @-@ wee Herman . Hartman co @-@ wrote the screenplay for the film Pee @-@ wee 's Big Adventure and made recurring appearances on Reubens ' show Pee @-@ wee 's Playhouse . Hartman garnered fame in 1986 when he joined the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live . He won fame for his impressions , particularly of President Bill Clinton , and he stayed on the show for eight seasons . Given the moniker " The Glue " for his ability to hold the show together and help other cast members , Hartman won a Primetime Emmy Award for his SNL work in 1989 . In 1995 , after scrapping plans for his own variety show , he starred as Bill McNeal in the NBC sitcom NewsRadio . He had voice roles on The Simpsons , from seasons 2 – 10 as Lionel Hutz , Troy McClure , and others , and appeared in the films Houseguest , Sgt. Bilko , Jingle All the Way , Small Soldiers and the English dub of Kiki 's Delivery Service . Hartman had been divorced twice before he married Brynn Omdahl in 1987 ; the couple had two children together . However , their marriage was fractured , due in part to Brynn 's drug use . On May 28 , 1998 , Brynn shot and killed Hartman while he slept in their Encino , Los Angeles , home , then committed suicide several hours later . In the weeks following his death , Hartman was celebrated in a wave of tributes . Dan Snierson of Entertainment Weekly opined that Hartman was " the last person you 'd expect to read about in lurid headlines in your morning paper ... a decidedly regular guy , beloved by everyone he worked with " . Hartman was posthumously inducted into Canada 's Walk of Fame in 2012 and the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2014 . = = Early life = = Hartman was born Philip Edward Hartmann ( later dropping one " n " ) on September 24 , 1948 in Brantford , Ontario , Canada . He was the fourth of eight children of Doris Marguerite ( Wardell ) and Rupert Loebig Hartmann , a salesman specializing in building materials . His parents were Catholic and raised their children in that faith . As a middle child , Hartman found affection hard to earn and stated : " I suppose I didn 't get what I wanted out of my family life , so I started seeking love and attention elsewhere . " He and his family moved to the United States in 1958 , gaining American citizenship in 1990 . The family first lived in Connecticut , and later moved to the West Coast . There , Hartman attended Westchester High School and frequently acted as the class clown . After graduating , Hartman studied art at Santa Monica City College , dropping out in 1969 to become a roadie with a rock band . He returned to school in 1972 , this time studying graphic arts at California State University , Northridge . He developed his own graphic arts business , which he operated on his own , creating over 40 album covers for bands including Poco and America , as well as advertising and the logo for Crosby , Stills & Nash . In the late 1970s , Hartman made his first television appearance on an episode of The Dating Game ; he won but was stood up by his date . = = Career = = = = = Early career ( 1975 – 1985 ) = = = Working alone as a graphic artist , Hartman frequently amused himself with " flights of voice fantasies " . Eventually he felt he needed a more social outlet and in 1975 , aged 27 , developed this talent by attending evening comedy classes run by the California @-@ based improvisational comedy group The Groundlings . While watching one of the troupe 's performances , Hartman impulsively decided to climb on stage and join the cast . After several years of training , paying his way by re @-@ designing the group 's logo and merchandise , Hartman formally joined the cast of The Groundlings ; by 1979 he had become one of the show 's stars . Hartman met comedian Paul Reubens and the two became friends , often collaborating on writing and comedic material . Together they created the character Pee @-@ wee Herman and developed The Pee @-@ wee Herman Show , a stage performance which also aired on HBO in 1981 . Hartman played Captain Carl on The Pee @-@ wee Herman Show and returned in the role for the children 's show Pee @-@ wee 's Playhouse . Reubens and Hartman made cameos in the 1980 film Cheech & Chong 's Next Movie . Hartman co @-@ wrote the script of the 1985 feature film Pee @-@ wee 's Big Adventure and had a cameo role as a reporter in the film . Although he had considered quitting acting at the age of 36 due to limited opportunities , the success of Pee @-@ wee 's Big Adventure brought new possibilities and changed his mind . After a creative falling @-@ out with Reubens , Hartman left the Pee @-@ Wee Herman project to pursue other roles . In addition to his work with Reubens , Hartman recorded a number of voice @-@ over roles . These included appearances on The Smurfs , Challenge of the GoBots , The 13 Ghosts of Scooby @-@ Doo , and voicing characters Henry Mitchell and George Wilson on Dennis the Menace . Additionally Hartman developed a strong persona providing voice @-@ overs for advertisements . = = = Saturday Night Live ( 1986 – 1994 ) = = = After appearing in the 1986 films Jumpin ' Jack Flash and ¡ Three Amigos ! , Hartman successfully auditioned for NBC 's variety show Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) and joined the cast and writing staff . He told the Los Angeles Times , " I wanted to do [ SNL ] because I wanted to get the exposure that would give me box @-@ office credibility so I can write movies for myself . " In his eight seasons with the show Hartman became known for his impressions , and performed as over 70 different characters . Hartman 's original Saturday Night Live characters included Eugene , the Anal Retentive Chef and Unfrozen Caveman Lawyer . His impressions included Frank Sinatra , Ronald Reagan , Ed McMahon , Barbara Bush , Charlton Heston , Phil Donahue and Bill Clinton ; the last was often considered his best @-@ known impression . Hartman first performed his Clinton impression on an episode of The Tonight Show . When he met Clinton in 1993 Hartman remarked , " I guess I owe you a few apologies " , adding later that he " sometimes [ felt ] a twinge of guilt about [ his Clinton impression ] " . Clinton showed good humor and sent Hartman a signed photo with the text : " You 're not the president , but you play one on TV . And you 're OK , mostly . " For his Clinton impression , Hartman copied the president 's " post @-@ nasal drip " and the " slight scratchiness " in his voice , as well as his open , " less intimidating " hand gestures . Hartman opted against wearing a larger prosthetic nose when portraying Clinton , as he felt it would be distracting . He instead wore a wig , dyed his eyebrows brighter and used makeup to highlight his nose . One of Hartman 's more famous sketches as Clinton saw the president visit a McDonald 's restaurant and explain his policies by eating other customers ' food . The writers told him that he was not eating enough during rehearsals for the sketch – by the end of the live performance , Hartman had eaten so much he could barely speak . Backstage at SNL , Hartman was called " the Glue " , a name coined by Adam Sandler , according to Jay Mohr 's book Gasping for Airtime . However , according to a biography on Hartman 's life entitled You Might Remember Me : The Life and Times of Phil Hartman written by Mike Thomas , author and staff writer for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , the nickname was created by SNL cast member and Hartman 's frequent on @-@ screen collaborator Jan Hooks . Hartman often helped other cast members . For example , he aided Jan Hooks in overcoming her stage fright . SNL creator Lorne Michaels explained the reason for the name : " He kind of held the show together . He gave to everybody and demanded very little . He was very low @-@ maintenance . " Michaels also added that Hartman was " the least appreciated " cast member by commentators outside the show , and praised his ability " to do five or six parts in a show where you 're playing support or you 're doing remarkable character work " . Hartman won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Variety , Music or Comedy Program for SNL in 1989 , sharing the award with the show 's other writers . He was nominated in the same category in 1987 , and individually in 1994 for Outstanding Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program . After his co @-@ stars Jon Lovitz , Dennis Miller , Jan Hooks and Dana Carvey had left , Hartman said he felt " like an athlete who 's watched all his World Series teammates get traded off into other directions ... It was hard to watch them leave because I sort of felt we were all part of the team that saved the show . " This cast turnover contributed to his leaving the show in 1994 . Hartman had originally planned to leave the show in 1991 , but Michaels convinced him to stay to raise his profile ; his portrayal of Clinton contributed to this goal . Jay Leno offered him the role of his sidekick on The Tonight Show but Hartman opted to stay on SNL . NBC persuaded him to stay on SNL by promising him his own comedy – variety show entitled The Phil Show . He planned to " reinvent the variety form " with " a hybrid , very fast @-@ paced , high energy [ show ] with sketches , impersonations , pet acts , and performers showcasing their talents " . Hartman was to be the show 's executive producer and head writer . Before production began , however , the network decided that variety shows were too unpopular and scrapped the series . In a 1996 interview , Hartman noted he was glad the show had been scrapped , as he " would 've been sweatin ' blood each week trying to make it work " . In 1998 , he admitted he missed working on SNL , but had enjoyed the move from New York City to Southern California . = = = NewsRadio ( 1995 – 1998 ) = = = Hartman became one of the stars of the NBC sitcom NewsRadio in 1995 , portraying radio news anchor Bill McNeal . He signed up after being attracted by the show 's writing and use of an ensemble cast , and joked that he based McNeal on himself with " any ethics and character " removed . Hartman made roughly $ 50 @,@ 000 per episode of NewsRadio . Although the show was critically acclaimed , it was never a ratings hit and cancellation was a regular threat . After the completion of the fourth season , Hartman commented , " We seem to have limited appeal . We 're on the edge here , not sure we 're going to be picked up or not " , but added he was " 99 percent sure " the series would be renewed for a fifth season . Hartman had publicly lambasted NBC 's decision to repeatedly move NewsRadio into different timeslots , but later regretted his comments , saying , " this is a sitcom , for crying out loud , not brain surgery " . He also stated that if the sitcom were cancelled " it just will open up other opportunities for me " . Although the show was renewed for a fifth season , Hartman died before production began . Ken Tucker praised Hartman 's performance as McNeal : " A lesser performer ... would have played him as a variation on The Mary Tyler Moore Show 's Ted Baxter , because that 's what Bill was , on paper . But Hartman gave infinite variety to Bill 's self @-@ centeredness , turning him devious , cowardly , squeamish , and foolishly bold from week to week . " Hartman was posthumously nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 1998 for his work on NewsRadio , but lost to David Hyde Pierce . = = = The Simpsons ( 1991 – 1998 ) = = = Hartman provided the voices for numerous characters on the Fox animated series The Simpsons , appearing in 52 episodes . He made his first appearance in the second season episode " Bart Gets Hit by a Car " . Although he was originally brought in for a one @-@ time appearance , Hartman enjoyed working on The Simpsons and the staff wrote additional parts for him . He voiced the recurring characters Lionel Hutz and Troy McClure , as well as several one @-@ time and background characters . His favorite part was that of McClure , and he often used this voice to entertain the audience between takes while taping episodes of NewsRadio . He remarked , " My favorite fans are Troy McClure fans . " He added " It 's the one thing that I do in my life that 's almost an avocation . I do it for the pure love of it . " Hartman was popular among the staff of The Simpsons . Showrunners Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein stated that they enjoyed his work , and used Hartman as much as possible when working on the show . To give Hartman a larger role , they developed the episode " A Fish Called Selma " , which focuses on Troy McClure and expands the character 's backstory . The Simpsons creator Matt Groening said that he " took [ Hartman ] for granted because he nailed the joke every time " , and that his voice acting could produce " the maximum amount of humor " with any line he was given . Before his death , Hartman had expressed an interest in making a live action film about Troy McClure . Many of The Simpsons production staff expressed enthusiasm for the project and offered to help . Hartman said he was " looking forward to [ McClure 's ] live @-@ action movie , publicizing his Betty Ford appearances " , and " would love nothing more " than making a film and was prepared to buy the film rights himself in order to make it happen . = = = Other work = = = Hartman 's first starring film role came in 1995 's Houseguest , alongside Sinbad . Other films included Greedy , Coneheads , Sgt. Bilko , So I Married an Axe Murderer , CB4 , Jingle All the Way , Kiki 's Delivery Service , and Small Soldiers , the last of which was his final theatrically released film . At the same time , he preferred working on television . His other television roles included appearances on episodes of Seinfeld , The John Larroquette Show , The Dana Carvey Show , and the HBO TV film The Second Civil War as the President of the United States . He appeared as the kidnapper Randy in the third season cliffhanger finale of 3rd Rock from the Sun — a role reportedly written especially for him , but he died before filming of the concluding episode could take place . Executive producer Terry Turner decided to recast the part , reshoot and air the finale again , noting : " I have far too much respect for [ Hartman ] to try to find some clever way of getting around this real tragedy . " Hartman made a considerable amount of money from television advertising , earning $ 300 @,@ 000 for a series of four commercials for the soft drink Slice . He also appeared in advertisements for McDonalds ( as Hugh McAttack ) and 1 @-@ 800 @-@ Collect ( as Max Jerome ) . Hartman wrote a number of screenplays that were never produced . In 1986 he began writing a screenplay for a film titled Mr. Fix @-@ It , and completed the final draft in 1991 . Robert Zemeckis was signed to produce the film , with Gil Bettman hired to direct . Hartman called it " a sort of a merger of horror and comedy , like Beetlejuice and Throw Momma From the Train " , adding , " It 's an American nightmare about a family torn asunder . They live next to a toxic dump site , their water supply is poisoned , the mother and son go insane and try to murder each other , the father 's face is torn off in a terrible disfiguring accident in the first act . It 's heavy stuff , but it 's got a good message and a positive , upbeat ending . " Zemeckis could not secure studio backing , however , and the project collapsed . Another movie idea involving Hartman 's Groundlings character Chick Hazard , Private Eye also fell through . = = Style = = In contrast to his real @-@ life personality , which was described as " a regular guy and , by all accounts , one of show business ' most low @-@ key , decent people " , Hartman often played seedy , vain or unpleasant characters as well as comedic villains . He noted that his standard character was a " jerky guy " , and described his usual roles as " the weasel parade " , citing Lionel Hutz , Bill McNeal , Troy McClure and Ted Maltin from Jingle All the Way as examples . Hartman enjoyed playing such roles because he " just want [ ed ] to be funny , and villains tend to be funny because their foibles are all there to see . " He often played supporting roles , rather than the lead part . He said " throughout my career , I 've never been a huge star , but I 've made steady progress and that 's the way I like it , " and " It 's fun coming in as the second or third lead . If the movie or TV show bombs , you aren 't to blame . " Hartman was considered a " utility player " on SNL with a " kind of Everyman quality " which enabled him to appear in the majority of sketches , often in very distinct roles . Jan Hooks stated of his work on SNL : " Phil never had an ounce of competition . He was a team player . It was a privilege for him , I believe , to play support and do it very well . He was never insulted , no matter how small the role may have been . " He was disciplined in his performances , studying the scripts beforehand . Hooks added : " Phil knew how to listen . And he knew how to look you in the eye , and he knew the power of being able to lay back and let somebody else be funny , and then do the reactions . I think Phil was more of an actor than a comedian . " Film critic Pauline Kael declared that " Phil Hartman and Jan Hooks on Saturday Night Live are two of the best comic actors I 've ever seen . " Writer and acting coach Paul Ryan noted Hartman 's work ethic with his impressions . He assembled a collection of video footage of the figure he was preparing to impersonate and watched this continually until he " completely embodied the person " . Ryan concluded that " what made [ Hartman 's impressions ] so funny and spot on was Phil 's ability to add that perfect touch that only comes from trial and error and practicing in front of audiences and fellow actors . " Hartman described this process as " technical . " Journalist Lyle V. Harris said Hartman showed a " rare talent for morphing into ... anybody he wanted to be . " Ken Tucker summarized Hartman 's comedic style : " He could momentarily fool audiences into thinking he was the straight man , but then he 'd cock an eyebrow and give his voice an ironic lilt that delivered a punchline like a fast slider — you barely saw it coming until you started laughing . " Hartman claimed that he borrowed his style from actor Bill Murray : " He 's been a great influence on me – when he did that smarmy thing in Ghostbusters , then the same sort of thing in Groundhog Day . I tried to imitate it . I couldn 't . I wasn 't good enough . But I discovered an element of something else , so in a sick kind of way I made myself a career by doing a bad imitation of another comic . " = = Personal life = = Hartman married Gretchen Lewis in 1970 and they divorced sometime before 1982 . He married real estate agent Lisa Strain in 1982 , and their marriage lasted three years . Strain told People that Hartman was reclusive off screen and " would disappear emotionally ... he 'd be in his own world . That passivity made you crazy . " Hartman married former model and aspiring actress Brynn Omdahl ( born Vicki Jo Omdahl ) in November 1987 , having met her on a blind date the previous year . Together they had two children , Sean and Birgen Hartman . The marriage had difficulties — Brynn reportedly felt intimidated by her husband 's success and was frustrated she could not find any on her own , although neither party wanted a divorce . Hartman considered retiring to save the marriage . He tried to get Brynn acting roles but she became progressively more reliant on narcotics and alcohol , entering rehab several times . Because of his close friendship with SNL associate Jan Hooks , Brynn joked on occasion that Hooks and Hartman were married " on some other level " . Stephen Root , Hartman 's NewsRadio co @-@ star , felt that few people knew " the real Phil Hartman " as he was " one of those people who never seemed to come out of character , " but he nevertheless gave the impression of a family man who cared deeply for his children . In his spare time , Hartman enjoyed driving , flying , sailing , marksmanship and playing the guitar . = = Death = = On the evening of May 27 , 1998 , Brynn Hartman visited the Italian restaurant Buca di Beppo in Encino , California , with producer and writer Christine Zander , who said she was " in a good frame of mind . " After returning to the couple 's nearby home , Brynn started a " heated " argument with her husband , who threatened to leave her if she started using drugs again , after which he then went to bed . While Hartman slept , Brynn entered his bedroom sometime before 3 : 00 a.m. local time on May 28 with a .38 caliber handgun and fatally shot him twice in the head once in his side . She was intoxicated and had recently taken cocaine . Brynn drove to the home of her friend Ron Douglas and confessed to the killing , but he did not initially believe her . The pair drove back to the house in separate cars , after which Brynn called another friend and confessed a second time . Upon seeing Hartman 's body , Douglas called 911 at 6 : 20 a.m. Police subsequently arrived and escorted Douglas and the Hartmans ' two children from the premises , by which time Brynn had locked herself in the bedroom and committed suicide by shooting herself in the mouth . Los Angeles police stated Hartman 's death was caused by a " domestic discord " between the couple . A friend stated that Brynn allegedly " had trouble controlling her anger ... She got attention by losing her temper . " A neighbor of the Hartmans told a CNN reporter that the couple had been experiencing marital problems : " It 's been building , but I didn 't think it would lead to this " , and actor Steve Guttenberg said they had been " a very happy couple , and they always had the appearance of being well @-@ balanced . " Other causes for the incident were later suggested . Before committing the act , Brynn was taking the antidepressant drug Zoloft . A wrongful @-@ death lawsuit was filed in 1999 by Brynn 's brother , Gregory Omdahl , against the drug 's manufacturer , Pfizer , and her child 's psychiatrist Arthur Sorosky , who provided samples of Zoloft to Brynn . Hartman 's friend and former SNL colleague Jon Lovitz has accused Hartman 's former NewsRadio co @-@ star Andy Dick of re @-@ introducing Brynn to cocaine , causing her to relapse and suffer a nervous breakdown . Dick claims to have known nothing of her condition . In 2006 , Lovitz claimed that Dick had approached him at a restaurant and said , " I put the Phil Hartman hex on you ; you 're the next one to die . " The following year at the Laugh Factory comedy club in Los Angeles , Lovitz and Dick had a further altercation over the issue . Dick asserts that he is not at fault in relation to Hartman 's death . Brynn 's sister Katharine Omdahl and brother @-@ in @-@ law Mike Wright raised the two Hartman children . Hartman 's will stipulated that each child will receive their inheritance over several years after they turn 25 . The total value of Hartman 's estate was estimated at $ 1 @.@ 23 million . In accordance with Hartman 's will , his body was cremated by Forest Lawn Memorial Park and Mortuary , Glendale , California , and his ashes were scattered over Santa Catalina Island 's Emerald Bay . = = = Response and legacy = = = Hartman was widely mourned in Hollywood . NBC executive Don Ohlmeyer stated that Hartman " was blessed with a tremendous gift for creating characters that made people laugh . Everyone who had the pleasure of working with Phil knows that he was a man of tremendous warmth , a true professional and a loyal friend . " Guttenberg expressed shock at Hartman 's death , and Steve Martin said he was " a deeply funny and very happy person . " Matt Groening called him " a master " , and director Joe Dante said , " He was one of those guys who was a dream to work with . I don 't know anybody who didn 't like him . " Dan Snierson of Entertainment Weekly concluded that Hartman was " the last person you 'd expect to read about in lurid headlines in your morning paper " and " a decidedly regular guy , beloved by everyone he worked with . " In 2007 , Entertainment Weekly ranked Hartman the 87th greatest television icon of all time , and Maxim named Hartman the top Saturday Night Live performer of all time . Rehearsals for The Simpsons were canceled on the day of Hartman 's death , as was that night 's performance by The Groundlings . The season five premiere episode of NewsRadio , " Bill Moves On , " finds Hartman 's character , Bill McNeal , has died of a heart attack , while the other characters reminisce about his life . Lovitz joined the show in his place from the following episode . A special episode of Saturday Night Live commemorating Hartman 's work on the show aired on June 13 , 1998 . Rather than substituting another voice actor , the writers of The Simpsons retired Hartman 's characters , and the season ten episode " Bart the Mother " ( his final appearance on the show ) was dedicated to him , as was his final film , Small Soldiers . At the time of his death , Hartman was preparing to voice Zapp Brannigan , a character written specifically for him on Groening 's second animated series Futurama . Even though the role was made for Hartman , he still insisted on auditioning and according to Groening , he ' nailed it ' . After Hartman 's death , Futurama 's lead character Philip J. Fry was named in his honor , and Billy West took over the role of Brannigan . Though executive producer David X. Cohen credits West with using his own take on the character , West later said that he purposely tweaked Zapp 's voice to better match Hartman 's intended portrayal . Hartman was also planning to appear with Lovitz in the indie film The Day of Swine and Roses , scheduled to begin production in August 1998 . Laugh.com and Hartman 's brother , John Hartmann , published the album Flat TV in 2002 . The album is a selection of comedy sketches recorded by Hartman in the 1970s that had been kept in storage until their release . Hartmann commented : " I 'm putting this out there because I 'm dedicating my life to fulfilling his dreams . This [ album ] is my brother doing what he loved . " In 2013 , Flat TV was optioned by Michael " Ffish " Hemschoot 's animation company Worker Studio for an animated adaptation . The deal came about after Michael T. Scott , a partner in the company , posted a hand @-@ written letter he had received from Hartman in 1997 on the internet , leading to a correspondence between Scott and Paul Hartmann . In 2007 , a campaign was started on Facebook by Alex Stevens and endorsed by Hartman 's brother , Paul Hartmann , to have Hartman inducted to Canada 's Walk of Fame . Amongst the numerous events to publicize the campaign , Ben Miner , of the Sirius XM Radio channel Laugh Attack , dedicated the month of April 2012 to Hartman . The campaign ended in success and Hartman was inducted to the Walk of Fame on September 22 , 2012 , with Paul accepting the award on his late brother 's behalf . Hartman was also awarded the Cineplex Legends Award . In June 2013 , it was announced that Hartman would receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , which was unveiled on August 26 , 2014 . Additionally , a special prize at the Canadian Comedy Awards was named for Hartman . Beginning with the 13th Canadian Comedy Awards in 2012 , the Phil Hartman Award was awarded to " an individual who helps to better the Canadian comedy community . " In 2015 , Rolling Stone magazine ranked Hartman as one of the top @-@ ten greatest Saturday Night Live cast members throughout the show 's forty @-@ year history , coming in seventh on their list of all one @-@ hundred @-@ and @-@ forty @-@ one players . Hartman has been cited as an influence by Bill Hader and Mike Myers . = = Filmography = = = = = Film = = = = = = Television = = = = = = Video games = = =
= SMS Bussard = SMS Bussard ( " His Majesty 's Ship Bussard — Buzzard " ) was an unprotected cruiser of the Imperial German Navy , built in the 1880s . She was the lead ship of her class , which included five other vessels . The cruiser 's keel was laid in 1888 , and she was launched in January 1890 and commissioned in October of that year . Intended for overseas duty , Bussard was armed with a main battery of eight 10 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns , and could steam at a speed of 15 @.@ 5 knots ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) . Bussard served abroad for the majority of her career , first in the East Asia Division in the mid @-@ 1890s , and in German East Africa for the first decade of the 20th century . She had a relatively peaceful career ; her only major action came while stationed in Asia in 1894 . There , she assisted in suppressing a local revolt in Samoa . In 1910 , she returned to Germany , where she remained in service for only two more years ; she was stricken in October 1912 and scrapped the following year in Hamburg . = = Design = = Bussard was 82 @.@ 6 meters ( 271 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 12 @.@ 5 m ( 41 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 45 m ( 14 @.@ 6 ft ) forward . She displaced 1 @,@ 868 t ( 1 @,@ 838 long tons ; 2 @,@ 059 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two horizontal 3 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines powered by four coal @-@ fired cylindrical boilers . These provided a top speed of 15 @.@ 5 kn ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) and a range of approximately 2 @,@ 990 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 540 km ; 3 @,@ 440 mi ) at 9 kn ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . She had a crew of 9 officers and 152 enlisted men . The ship was armed with eight 10 @.@ 5 cm K L / 35 guns in single pedestal mounts , supplied with 800 rounds of ammunition in total . They had a range of 8 @,@ 200 m ( 26 @,@ 900 ft ) . Two guns were placed side by side forward , two on each broadside in sponsons , and two side by side aft . The gun armament was rounded out by five revolver cannon . She was also equipped with two 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes , both of which were mounted on the deck . = = Service history = = Bussard was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Danzig under the contract name " C " . She was launched on 23 January 1890 ; fitting @-@ out work was completed quickly , and the new cruiser was ready for commissioning into the Imperial fleet on 7 October 1890 . She thereafter served on overseas stations in the German Empire . Early in her career , Bussard served on the East Asia Station with the East Asia Division . In July 1893 , she and her sister ship Falke assisted in the suppression of a local revolt led by Mata 'afa Iosefo in Samoa . They were joined by the old British corvette HMS Curacao , and the three vessels bombarded rebel positions on 7 July , forcing their surrender . Mata 'afa was taken to Apia , the capital , while Bussard remained behind to ensure the demilitarization of his supporters . In 1898 , Bussard returned to Germany , arriving in the Elbe River in March . On the return voyage , she carried several tropical birds for the Berlin Zoological Garden . After her arrival , Bussard went into drydock at the Kaiserliche Werft in Danzig for reconstruction . The barque rig was cut down to a top @-@ sail schooner rig . A new , larger conning tower structure was built . Work was completed by 1900 , when Bussard returned to service . She was sent to China in response to the Boxer Rebellion earlier that year . While en route to China on 6 August 1900 , a boiler room exploded aboard Bussard , due to a blown out manhole gasket ; the explosion killed three sailors and seriously wounded another three men . After arriving in China , Bussard took part in the attack on the Taku Forts , along with her sisters Seeadler and Geier . Her crew suffered no casualties during the campaign . As of 1901 , Bussard was assigned to the East Africa Station in German East Africa , along with the unprotected cruiser Schwalbe . The only other German warships in Africa at the time were the gunboats Habicht and the elderly Wolf ; these two ships were stationed in German West Africa . Bussard remained on the East Africa station in 1904 , and Schwalbe was replaced by her sister Sperber . During this period , Hans Paasche served as the ship 's navigation officer ; he held this position for two years . By 1908 , Sperber had been transferred to German West Africa , and another of Bussard 's sisters , Seeadler , took her place alongside Bussard . Bussard remained in Africa until 1910 , when she returned to Germany for a second and final time . She remained in active service for only a brief time ; she was stricken from the naval register on 25 October 1912 and was broken up for scrap the following year in Hamburg .
= Blue men of the Minch = The blue men of the Minch , also known as storm kelpies or in Scottish Gaelic as na fir ghorma , fear gorm or sruth nam fear gorm , are mythological creatures inhabiting the stretch of water between the northern Outer Hebrides and mainland Scotland , looking for sailors to drown and stricken boats to sink . They appear to be localised to the Minch and surrounding areas , unknown in other parts of Scotland and without counterparts in the rest of the world . Apart from their blue colour , the mythical creatures look much like humans , and are about the same size . They have the power to create storms , but when the weather is fine they float sleeping on or just below the surface of the water . The blue men swim with their torsos raised out of the sea , twisting and diving as porpoises do . They are able to speak , and when a group approaches a ship its chief may shout two lines of poetry to the master of the vessel and challenge him to complete the verse . If the skipper fails in that task then the blue men will attempt to overturn the ship and capsize it . Suggestions to explain the mythical blue men include that they may be a personification of the sea , or originate with the Picts , whose painted bodies may have given the impression of men raising themselves out of the water if they were seen crossing the sea in boats that might have resembled kayaks . The genesis of the blue men may alternatively lie with the North African slaves the Vikings took with them to Scotland , where they spent the winter months close to the Shiant Isles in the Minch . = = Etymology = = The Minch , a strait that separates the northwest Highlands of Scotland and the northern Inner Hebrides from the northern Outer Hebrides , is home to the blue men . According to lexicographer Edward Dwelly , in the Scottish Gaelic terms for the blue men – na fir ghorma , fear gorm and sruth nam fear gorm – the word gorm refers to any shade of blue and fear can be translated as " man " , na fir representing the plural " the men " . The blue men are also styled as storm kelpies . The most common water spirits in Scottish folklore , kelpies are usually described as powerful horses , but the name is attributed to several different forms and fables throughout the country . The name kelpie may be derived from the Scottish Gaelic calpa or cailpeach , meaning " heifer " or " colt " . = = Folk beliefs = = = = = Description and common attributes = = = The mythical blue men may have been part of a tribe of " fallen angels " that split into three ; the first became the ground dwelling fairies , the second evolved to become the sea inhabiting blue men , and the remainder the " Merry Dancers " of the Northern Lights in the sky . The legendary creatures are the same size as humans but , as the name implies , blue in colour . Writer and journalist Lewis Spence thought they were the " personifications of the sea itself " as they took their blue colouration from the hue of the sea . Their faces are grey and long in shape and some have long arms , which are also grey , and they favour blue headgear ; at least one account claims that they also have wings . The tempestuous water around the Shiant Isles 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) to the north of Skye , an area subject to rapid tides in all weathers , flows beside the caves inhabited by the blue men , a stretch of water known as the Current of Destruction owing to the number of ships wrecked there . Although other storm kelpies are reported as inhabiting the Gulf of Corrievreckan , described by poet , writer and folklorist Alasdair Alpin MacGregor as " the fiercest of the Highland storm kelpies " , the blue men are confined to a very restricted area . According to Donald A. Mackenzie they have no counterparts elsewhere in the world or even in other areas of Scotland ; such limited range is rare for beliefs in spirits and demons . Folklorist and Tiree minister John Gregorson Campbell states that they were unknown in Argyll on the nearby coast of the mainland for instance , although Church of Scotland minister John Brand , who visited Quarff in Shetland in mid @-@ 1700 , recounts a tale of what may have been a blue man in the waters around the island . In the form of a bearded old man it rose out of the water , terrifying the passengers and crew of a boat it was following . In traditional tales the blue men have the power to create severe storms , but when the weather is fine they sleep or float just under the surface of the water . They swim with their torso from the waist upwards raised out of the sea , twisting and diving in a similar way to a porpoise . To amuse themselves the creatures play shinty when the skies are clear and bright at night . They are able to speak and converse with mariners and are especially vocal when soaking vessels with water spray , roaring with laughter as vessels capsize . When the blue men gather to attack passing vessels their chief , sometimes named as Shony , rises up out of the water and shouts two lines of poetry to the skipper , and if he cannot add two lines to complete the verse the blue men seize his boat . Mackenzie highlights the following exchange between the skipper of a boat and the chief of the blue men : The quick responses took the blue chief by surprise ; defeated and unable to do any damage to the vessel , the blue men returned to their underwater caves , allowing the vessel free passage through the strait . The blue men may alternatively board a passing vessel and demand tribute from its crew , threatening that if it is not forthcoming they will raise up a storm . = = = Capture and killing = = = No surviving tales mention attempts to kill the demons , but a Gregorson Campbell story tells of the capture of a blue man . Sailors seize a blue man and tie him up on board their ship after he is discovered " sleeping on the waters " . Two fellow blue men give chase , calling out to each other as they swim towards the ship : On hearing his companions ' voices the captured spirit breaks free of his bonds and jumps overboard as he answers : Sailors thus believed that all blue men have names by which they address each other . = = Origins = = Mackenzie 's explanation of the legend of the blue men was based partly on research into the Annals of Ireland and goes back to the times of Harald Fairhair , the first Norse king , and his battles against the Vikings . The Scottish Gaelic term fear gorm , meaning " blue men " , is the descriptor for a negro according to Dwelly . Thus sruth nam fear gorm , one of the blue men 's Gaelic names , literally translates as " stream of the blue men " , or " river , tide or stream of the blue negro " . Around the 9th century the Vikings took Moors they had captured and were using as slaves to Ireland . The Vikings spent winter months near the Shiant Isles , and Mackenzie attributes the story of the blue men to " marooned foreign slaves " . He quotes an excerpt from historian Alan Orr Anderson 's Early sources of Scottish history , A.D. 500 to 1286 : These were the blue men [ fir gorma ] , because Moors are the same as negroes ; Mauritania is the same as negro @-@ land [ literally , the same as blackness ] . More recent newspaper reports have repeated Mackenzie 's hypothesis . Historian Malcolm Archibald agrees the legend originates from the days Norsemen had North African slaves , but speculates that the myth may have originated with the Tuareg people of Saharan Africa , who were known as the " blue men of the desert " . The origin of the blue men of the Minch may alternatively lie with " tattooing people " specifically the Picts , whose Latin name picti means " painted people " . If they were seen crossing the water in boats resembling the kayaks of the Finn @-@ men they may have given simple islanders and mariners the impression of the upper part of the body rising out of the water .
= Krake = Krake ( German for " octopus " ) is a steel Dive Coaster roller coaster at Heide Park in Soltau , Lower Saxony , Germany manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard . It is the first roller coaster of its kind in Germany . At a cost of 12 million euros , the roller coaster features floorless trains , 476 m ( 1 @,@ 562 ft ) of track , and a maximum height of 41 m ( 135 ft ) . The attraction officially opened to the public on April 16 , 2011 . = = History = = Speculation that Heide Park would be getting a new roller coaster began in late 2009 after it was revealed that the park was working on a project code named " Ungetüm 2011 " ( translates to " Monster 2011 " ) . In September 2010 , track pieces from manufacture Bolliger & Mabillard began to be delivered to the park which then led to rumours that the new roller coaster would be a Dive Coaster . On October 31 , 2010 , Heide Park officially announced Germany 's first Dive Coaster , Krake . Construction was handled by RCS , a German construction company . Beginning with the splashdown area , construction later progressed into the Immelman loop and station areas . In late January 2011 , the final piece of track ( top of the first drop ) was installed . After testing and a ribbon cutting ceremony , Krake opened on April 16 , 2011 . After the original advertised octopus mouth ( where riders would drop through ) that was to be placed at the bottom of the first drop was never built , the public began to question why the park didn 't follow through with what they advertised . In response , the mouth was constructed during the following off @-@ season . = = Experience = = = = = Queue = = = Krake 's queue is divided into two sections . The first section is only used during busier days and isn 't paved , but rather filled in with gravel . The second section is a paved path that leads the roller coaster 's station . = = = Ride = = = Krake is based on a pirate theme and features riders being " eaten " by an octopus . Once the floor drops and the front gate opens , the train is dispatched straight into the 41 @-@ metre ( 135 ft ) lift hill . Once at the top , the train continues going straight for a short period before making a left turn into the holding brake . After about three seconds , the train descends the 87 @-@ degree drop and reaches a speed of 103 km / h ( 64 mph ) . At the bottom , the train enters the " monster 's " mouth , followed by a splashdown . Then , the train goes through an Immelmann loop . After going over an airtime hill , the train makes a banked right turn into the final brake run . The train makes a left turn into the brake run before entering the station . One cycle lasts just under two minutes . = = Characteristics = = = = = Track = = = The steel track of Krake is approximately 476 m ( 1 @,@ 562 ft ) long , and the height of the lift is approximately 41 m ( 135 ft ) high . The colour of the track is black while the supports are dark brown . Also , the entire track weighs a total of about 700 tonnes ( 690 long tons ; 770 short tons ) . = = = Trains = = = Krake operates with three floorless steel and fiberglass trains . Each train has three cars that can seat six riders in a single row for a total of 18 riders per train . The seats are black and each have a brown over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraint . On each train , there are a pair of tubes that allow the water to be shot into the air as the train reaches the bottom of the first drop . Also , the trains for the roller coaster were manufactured in Switzerland . = = Reception = = Jurnan Schilder 's review from Theme Park Tourist was mostly positive but said that the story of the ride could have been further improved , " [ The story ] could have been developed more fully to improve the waiting experience and to make the rollercoaster make a little more sense " , and overall rated the roller coaster four out of five stars for its " wow " factor . = = = Awards = = = The roller coaster has never placed in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards .
= Madness ( band ) = Madness are an English ska band from Camden Town , London , that formed in 1976 . One of the most prominent bands of the late 1970s and early 1980s 2 Tone ska revival , they continue to perform with their most recognised line @-@ up of seven members . Madness achieved most of their success in the early to mid @-@ 1980s . Both Madness and UB40 spent 214 weeks on the UK singles charts over the course of the decade , holding the record for most weeks spent by a group in the 1980s UK singles charts . However , Madness achieved this in a shorter time period ( 1980 – 1986 ) . Madness have had 15 singles reach the UK top ten , one UK number one single ( " House of Fun " ) and two number ones in Ireland , " House of Fun " and " Wings of a Dove " . = = Career = = = = = 1976 – 1978 : Formation = = = The core of the band formed as The North London Invaders in 1976 , and included Mike Barson ( Monsieur Barso ) on keyboards and vocals , Chris Foreman ( Chrissy Boy ) on guitar and Lee Thompson ( Kix ) on saxophone and vocals . They later recruited John Hasler on drums and Cathal Smyth ( better known as Chas Smash ) on bass guitar . Later in the year , they were joined by lead vocalist Dikron Tulane . This six @-@ piece line @-@ up lasted until part way through 1977 , when Graham McPherson ( better known as Suggs ) took over the lead vocals after seeing the band perform in a friend 's garden . Dikron went on to be an actor under the name Dikran Tulaine . Smyth , who left after an argument with Barson , was replaced by Gavin Rodgers , Barson 's girlfriend 's brother . McPherson was kicked out of the band for too often choosing to watch Chelsea instead of rehearsing . Thompson left the band after Barson criticised his saxophone playing . By 1978 , the band had allowed McPherson to return , after filling in temporarily for Hasler ( who had taken over vocals when McPherson was removed ) . Thompson returned after patching things up with Barson . Drummer Daniel Woodgate ( Woody ) and bass player Mark Bedford ( Bedders ) also joined the band , replacing Garry Dovey and Rodgers , respectively . After briefly changing their name to Morris and the Minors , the band renamed itself as Madness in 1979 , paying homage to one of their favourite songs by ska / reggae artist Prince Buster . The band remained a sextet until late 1979 , when Chas Smash rejoined and officially became the seventh member of Madness as a backing vocalist and dancer . = = = 1979 – 1981 : Early success = = = During 1979 , the band began to attract a live following in London , being regulars at the Dublin Castle in Camden Town . The band 's first commercial recording was the Lee Thompson composition " The Prince " . The song , like the band 's name , paid homage to their idol , Prince Buster . The song was released through 2 Tone Records , the label of The Specials founder Jerry Dammers . The song was a surprise hit , peaking in the UK music charts at number 16 . A performance of " The Prince " on popular UK music show Top of the Pops helped Madness gain public recognition . Madness then toured with fellow 2 Tone bands The Specials and The Selecter , before recording their debut album . That debut album , One Step Beyond ... was released by Stiff Records . The album included a re @-@ recording of " The Prince " and its B @-@ side " Madness " , and the band 's second and third singles : " One Step Beyond " and " My Girl " . The title song was a cover of the B @-@ side of the 1960s Prince Buster hit " Al Capone " . One Step Beyond ... stayed in the British charts for 78 weeks , peaking at number 2 . After the release of " My Girl " , the band felt that they had exhausted the material from One Step Beyond ... , and did not want to release any more singles from the album . However , Dave Robinson , head of Stiff Records , disagreed . Eventually , a compromise was made , and the band decided to release an EP featuring one album track and three new tracks . The result was the Work Rest and Play EP , which was headlined by the song " Night Boat to Cairo " , from the One Step Beyond album . The EP reached number 6 in the UK singles chart . Live recordings of Madness performances as well as those by other 2 Tone bands were used in the documentary film and soundtrack album Dance Craze . In 1980 , the band 's second album , Absolutely reached number 2 in the UK album charts . Absolutely spawned some of the band 's biggest hits , most notably " Baggy Trousers " , which peaked at number 3 in the UK singles chart . " Embarrassment " reached number 4 in the charts , and the instrumental song " The Return of the Los Palmas 7 " climbed to number 7 . Although the album reviews were generally less enthusiastic than those of One Step Beyond ... , they were mostly positive . Robert Christgau gave the album a favourable B- grade , but Rolling Stone awarded the album just one out of five stars . Rolling Stone was particularly scathing of the ska revival in general , stating that " The Specials wasn 't very good " and Madness were simply " the Blues Brothers with English accents " . A drama @-@ documentary film entitled Take It or Leave It was released in 1981 , featuring the band members playing themselves in a re @-@ creation of their early days to the then @-@ current period . = = = 1981 – 1983 : Change of direction = = = In 1981 , the band 's third studio album , 7 , reached number 5 in the UK album charts and contained three hit singles : " Grey Day " ( no . 4 , April 1981 ) , " Shut Up " ( no . 7 , September 1981 ) , and " Cardiac Arrest " ( no . 14 , February 1982 ) . In an article in 1979 , Chris Foreman explained that the band 's music would move with the times , and change styles as time goes on . This was shown to be the case , as unlike the two ska @-@ filled , fast @-@ paced albums that preceded it , 7 was something of a change in direction . Suggs ' vocal performance changed significantly , and his strong accent from the previous albums had been watered down . The album strayed from the ska @-@ influenced sound of One Step Beyond ... and Absolutely , and moved towards a pop sound ; a trend that continued with subsequent albums . Near the end of 1981 , Madness released one of their most recognised songs : a cover of Labi Siffre 's 1971 hit " It Must Be Love " . The song climbed to number 4 in the UK , and in 1983 , the song peaked at number 33 in the US charts . In 1982 , Madness released their only number 1 hit to date , " House of Fun " , which they played live on the 1980s series The Young Ones , and also reached number 1 in the album charts with their first compilation , Complete Madness . In November 1982 , they released their fourth studio album , The Rise & Fall , which was well received in the UK , but did not get an American release . Instead , many of its songs were included on the US compilation Madness , including " Our House " , which was their most internationally successful single to date . " Our House " reached number 5 in the UK music charts and number 7 in the US charts ; it was also performed live on The Young Ones . Many reviewers compared The Rise & Fall to The Kinks ' Village Green Preservation Society , and it is at times retrospectively considered a concept album . The album also featured " Primrose Hill " , which was more similar to The Beatles song " Strawberry Fields Forever " , containing similar psychedelic imagery and a layered arrangement . = = = 1983 – 1986 : Decline and breakup = = = In 1983 , their single " Wings of a Dove " peaked at number 2 in the UK charts , followed by " The Sun & The Rain " ( no . 5 , November 1983 ) . Their following album , Keep Moving , peaked at number 6 in the UK album charts , and two singles from that album reached the top 20 in the UK music charts . The album received some good reviews , with Rolling Stone magazine giving the album four out of five stars , applauding the band 's changing sound . This was an improvement as the last album reviewed by the magazine , Absolutely , was heavily criticised . On 5 October 1983 the band were rehearsing and discussing a possible television series , which was being written for them by Ben Elton and Richard Curtis . Barson then informed the band that he would not be able to take part , as he was tired of the music business and wanted to spend more time with his wife . They had recently relocated to Amsterdam . Barson agreed to finish recording the album Keep Moving ; he left after playing for the last time with the band at the Lyceum Ballroom on 21 December 1983 . After leaving the band James Mackie took Barson 's place appearing with Madness on the US hit television show Saturday Night Live on 14 April 1984 . After leaving the band , Barson returned to the UK for the filming of two music videos as he had played on the tracks , " Michael Caine " and " One Better Day " . He officially left the band in June 1984 , following the release of " One Better Day " , however finished live performance with the band in 1983 , Paul Carrack took Barson 's place whilst the band toured America in early 1984 . The six remaining members left Stiff Records and formed their own label , Zarjazz Records , which was a sub @-@ label of Virgin Records . In 1985 , the label released the band 's sixth album , Mad Not Mad . Barson 's keyboard parts were filled by synthesisers and Steve Nieve joined the band to take his place . In later years , frontman Suggs described the album as a " polished turd " . The album reached number 16 in the UK charts , which was the band 's lowest position on the album charts to date . Despite the poor chart showing , the album was listed as number 55 in NME 's All Time 100 Albums . The singles for the album fared even worse , with " Yesterday 's Men " peaking at number 18 in the UK charts . The subsequent singles , " Uncle Sam " and " Sweetest Girl " , failed to make the top 20 , which was a first for Madness singles . Madness were not only running their own label at the time , but also had their own recording studio , Liquidator Studios . The studio is still located on Caledonian Road in North London , in what was once the premises of their fan club office . They built a 24 @-@ track professional studio in the cellar . The ground floor has always been an office and chill out area , while a room upstairs is used for song mixing . The band have recorded a number of demos and b @-@ sides at Liquidator , as well as The Madness album in 1988 . Other acts to use the studio include Feargal Sharkey , The Farm , Apollo 440 , The Potato 5 , The Nutty Boys , The Deltones and The Butterfield 8 . The studio is still regularly used by musicians , including members of Madness themselves . The band then attempted to record a new album , and 11 demo tracks were recorded . However , " musical differences " arose between band members , and in September 1986 , the band announced that they were to split . Barson rejoined the band for a farewell single , " ( Waiting For ) The Ghost Train " , but did not appear in the music video . The band officially split following the release of the single , which reached a high of number 18 in the UK . In 1988 , four members of the band – Suggs , Chas Smash , Lee Thompson and Chris Foreman – continued under the name The Madness . After one self @-@ titled album and two singles that failed to make the top 40 , the band split . = = = 1992 – 2003 : Reunion and Our House musical = = = Towards the end of 1991 , " It Must Be Love " was re @-@ released and eventually reached number 6 in the UK singles chart in February 1992 . Following that , the singles compilation Divine Madness was released and peaked at number 1 in the album charts . Madness then announced plans for a reunion concert , Madstock ! , which was held at Finsbury Park , London on 8 and 9 August of that year . The original line @-@ up reunited , performing together for the first time since Barson left the band in 1984 . Over 75 @,@ 000 fans attended the weekend festival , and the dancing of the crowd caused some nearby tower blocks to shake perceptibly as they resonated with the frequency of the music . After the Finsbury Park comeback , a live album was released , and the associated single , " The Harder They Come " ( a cover of Jimmy Cliff 's 1973 song ) reached number 44 in the UK , with the album reaching number 22 . The band continued to reunite for annual UK Christmas season tours and held three more Madstock ! festivals ; in 1994 , 1996 and 1998 . Also in 1998 , Madness returned to America for their first tour there since 1984 . The live album Universal Madness was recorded at the Universal Amphitheatre in L.A. and released the following year . In 1999 , Madness released their first studio album since 1986 , entitled Wonderful . The album reached number 17 in the UK album charts , and the lead single , " Lovestruck " , gave the band their first new top 10 hit in the UK since 1983 . Neither of the two subsequent singles from the album , " Johnny The Horse " and " Drip Fed Fred " , entered the top 40 of the UK charts . From 28 October 2002 to 16 August 2003 , a musical based on Madness songs , Our House , ran at the Cambridge Theatre in London . Madness played a role in the executive production of the show , and Suggs played a role in the production for a period , playing the central character 's father . It won an Olivier Award for best new musical of 2003 , and the performance was released on DVD on 1 November 2004 . There was also a previous musical based on Madness songs , One Step Beyond ! , written by Alan Gilbey . The musical had a brief run at the Theatre Royal Stratford East in 1993 and a run at Putney Arts Theatre , London in 2012 . = = = 2004 – 2010 : The Dangermen and The Liberty of Norton Folgate = = = In 2004 , the band played a series of low @-@ key concerts as The Dangermen , performing covers of classic reggae and ska songs . A lot of the songs were those played by the band when they were first forming , and the band performed the songs as a celebration of their 25th anniversary . This led to the release of the album The Dangermen Sessions Vol . 1 on V2 Records in August 2005 . During the sessions which produced the album , in mid @-@ 2005 , guitarist Chris Foreman announced his departure , citing " the petty , time consuming bollocks that goes on in the band " as his reason for leaving . The band completed the album without him , and on release , it peaked at no . 11 in the UK album charts , which was the band 's highest studio album chart position in 21 years . Although two singles were released , neither was a major success in the UK . The more successful of the two , " Shame & Scandal " , reached number 38 , but was more successful in France where it peaked at number 12 . " Girl Why Don 't You ? " did not chart and the band left the V2 record label shortly after . At this time , Kevin Burdette joined as the band 's guitarist for live appearances and also appeared in the videos for both " Sorry " and " NW5 " in early 2007 . The six remaining original members of Madness began working on their first original album in seven years . In March 2007 , the non @-@ LP single " Sorry " was released on the band 's own record label Lucky 7 Records , peaking in the UK charts at number 23 . The single included a version featuring UK hip hop artists Sway DaSafo and Baby Blue . The new Madness song " NW5 " ( then still titled " NW5 ( I Would Give You Everything ) " ) and a re @-@ recorded version of " It Must Be Love " were featured in the German film Neues vom Wixxer in . The two songs were released in Germany as a double A @-@ Side , and both of them were turned into music , which – besides members of the film 's cast – featured Suggs , Chas Smash , Woody and stand @-@ in guitarist Burdette . A re @-@ recorded version of " NW5 " was released as a single on 14 January 2008 in the UK reaching no . 24 – this recording featured original Madness guitarist Chris Foreman , who had rejoined the band in time for the 2006 Christmas tour , but had not participated in the original recording of the song . In June 2008 , Madness played the majority of their new album The Liberty of Norton Folgate at London 's Hackney Empire for three nights . The Hackney Empire performances were recorded and sold to fans as they left the show on USB wristbands . Madness played two dates in December 2008 , firstly in Manchester on 18 December , and secondly a return gig to The O2 in London on the 19th . In December 2008 the band also announced that for their 30th anniversary in 2009 , they would be staging a fifth Madstock festival in London 's Victoria Park on 17 July 11 years after the last Madstock concert . It was originally rumoured that the newly reformed The Specials would make an appearance after finishing their reunion tour . However , this did not occur , although original Specials keyboardist Jerry Dammers – who was not part of the reunion line @-@ up – was announced as a support act with The Spatial AKA Orchestra shortly before the festival . Dammers would support Madness again during their 2009 Christmas tour , when he opened each night with a DJ set . Through late March and early April 2009 the band played a series of festival and separate headlining dates across Australia . The lead @-@ up single from their latest album , entitled " Dust Devil " , was released on 11 May on Lucky 7 Records . Alfie Allen and Jaime Winstone co @-@ starred in the music video . The single charted at No. 64 on the UK singles charts and at No. 1 on the UK Independent charts on 17 May 2009 . The new album , entitled The Liberty of Norton Folgate , was released a week later , on 18 May 2009 . It charted at No. 5 in the UK album charts . The band continued to play various festivals , including Pinkpop , Splendour , and Glastonbury . On 27 September 2009 , the band also played a free concert on a closed @-@ off Regent Street in association with Absolute Radio . On Friday 28 August , Madness played the Rock en Seine festival near Paris , on the same night where Oasis brothers Noel and Liam Gallagher engaged in a physical altercation , resulting in the split of the band . As Oasis cancelled their headlining slot , Madness , even though having played earlier in the evening , were asked to replace them . They accepted the invitation and both of their sets during the festival were said to have been well received . As in previous years , the band embarked on a Christmas tour of the UK ( also playing one concert in Dublin ) , playing at various medium @-@ sized venues . Mark Bedford took a break from the band and was replaced by Graham Bush for the tour . Some members of the band appeared in Catherine Tate 's Nan 's Christmas Carol . They first posed as carol singers , then played " Baggy Trousers " over the credits . On 18 January 2010 , Madness released a fourth single , " Forever Young " , from The Liberty of Norton Folgate . The single failed to chart . During an interview with RTÉ 2fm radio host Dave Fanning on 24 May 2010 , drummer Daniel Woodgate stated that the members of the band were in the final stages of preparing songs for the follow @-@ up to The Liberty of Norton Folgate . The band hope to be able to start recording the album later on in 2010 . In September 2010 , Madness were awarded the Idol Award at the Q Awards in London . Guitarist Chris Foreman stated in his acceptance speech that Madness were recording a new album . Madness toured the UK throughout November and December 2010 with their final show at London 's Earl 's Court , where they played a new song from their upcoming album . However , two concerts , in Hull and Sheffield , were cancelled due to a heavy snowfall , although they were later rescheduled for 5 and 6 February 2011 respectively . = = = 2011 – 2015 : Oui Oui Si Si Ja Ja Da Da = = = In June 2011 , the band performed at Meltdown Festival at the Royal Festival Hall , curated by inspiration Ray Davies , who also introduced the band on stage . The concert served as the premiere of three new songs – " 1978 " , " Can 't Keep a Good Thing Down " and " Death of a Rude Boy " . The summer of 2012 saw two notable performances . In June , the band performed at the Queen 's Diamond Jubilee concert at Buckingham Palace . The band performed " Our House " and " It Must Be Love " from the roof of the palace with accompanying animations projected onto the palace front . In August , the band was the first to perform at the closing ceremony of the London Olympic Games . Departed bass player Mark ' Bedders ' Bedford rejoined the band for both performances . In August 2012 , Madness released " Death of a Rude Boy " as a free teaser track from their new album . Madness ' 10th studio album Oui Oui Si Si Ja Ja Da Da was released on 29 October 2012 and entered the UK album charts at no.10. In January 2013 the album re @-@ entered the chart at no . 16 on the back of the airplay success of the single " Never Knew Your Name " . From the start of 2013 Mark Bedford increased his performances with the band building to his full @-@ time return to the group , which meant a close to the four years Graham ' Bushers ' Bush had spent with the band . On 22 March 2013 the band performed outside the BBC Television Centre in a live broadcast for BBC Four . This was followed by Goodbye Television Centre , a celebration of 50 years of the television centre , marking the closure of the grade II listed building and the last show to be broadcast from it . Following that the band was the closing act to the new year celebration of 2014 in Dublin , Ireland . On 22 March 2014 Suggs confirmed to music @-@ news.com that Madness were writing a new album which he stated " the band plan to record in the summer and release by the end of 2014 " . In October 2014 , Cathal Smyth , aka Chas Smash , took a break from Madness to pursue a solo career . His solo album , A Comfortable Man , was released on 11 May 2015 . Madness is continuing with just six members . In February 2015 the band announced the Grandslam tour , taking in 20 outdoor venues . = = = 2016 : Can 't Touch Us Now = = = 18th May 2016 - Madness announced their new album Can 't Touch Us Now which is due to be released 21st October 2016 and a tour to follow in December 2016 . Madness officially opened the rebuilt pier at Hastings on 21st May 2016 with a concert . = = Associated acts = = = = = The Fink Brothers = = = The Fink Brothers were a short @-@ lived alter ego created by Madness members Suggs and Chas Smash , working under the aliases Angel and Ratty Fink . = = = = Single = = = = = = = The Madness = = = The Madness was a line @-@ up of Madness without Mark Bedford , Daniel Woodgate and Mike Barson , active between 1988 and 1989 . Formed by Suggs , Chas Smash , Lee Thompson and Chris Foreman in 1988 , they distinguished this line @-@ up from the previous Madness line @-@ up only by adding the word " The " to the band 's name . The Guinness Book of British Hit Singles and many on @-@ line discographies consider this band to be the same as " Madness " . Lee Thompson and Chris Foreman also alluded to this view on their album Crunch ! , which was dedicated to " the good ship Madness and all who sailed in her ( 1979 to 1989 ) " . = = = = Singles = = = = = = = = Album = = = = 1988 : The Madness UK No. 65 = = = The Nutty Boys = = = The Nutty Boys were Lee Thompson and Chris Foreman of Madness . The name " The Nutty Boys " was actually the name of their album , while the new band was called " Crunch ! " . The posters for their first concert mistakenly listed the band as " The Nutty Boys " instead of " Crunch ! " , and the name accidentally stuck . While the members of the band Madness were nicknamed " The Nutty Boys " as a whole , this section lists only the work released by Thompson and Foreman under " The Nutty Boys " name in the early 1990s . = = = = Single = = = = = = = = Album = = = = 1990 : Crunch ! = = = Crunch ! = = = Crunch ! were also Lee Thompson and Chris Foreman . At this point , the band formally corrected the earlier mistake and officially adopted their original name of " Crunch " . = = = = Single = = = = = = Collaborations = = Madness collaborated with Elvis Costello in 1983 on a version of their song " Tomorrow 's ( Just Another Day ) " . It was released as a bonus track to the 12 " copy of the single . In later years , Barson stated that Costello 's " Watching the Detectives " was the main influence on the song " My Girl " . For Wonderful in 1999 , Ian Dury laid down vocals on the track " Drip Fed Fred " which was released as the last single from the album . It was to be Dury 's last recording before his death . Ill health prevented Dury from actively promoting the single , although he did appear on the National Lottery Show , but for a later performance on TFI Friday , the song was reworked to incorporate Phill Jupitus on vocals . Live , Madness have collaborated with artists such as UB40 and Prince Buster , notably at their first Madstock concert . They have also played live frequently with members of the other 2 Tone bands , such as The Specials . In May 2008 , Suggs and Carl performed live with Pet Shop Boys at London 's Heaven collaborating on a new composition of " My Girl " . A few days afterwards , Pet Shop Boys posted their own version of the track on their official website . In late 2010 , the band collaborated in the Cage Against The Machine project , in which numerous artists performed John Cage 's 4 ′ 33 ″ for a charity single intended to prevent the winner of The X Factor claiming the Christmas Number 1 . The title refers to the previous year 's successful campaign to get Rage Against the Machine 's " Killing in the Name " to chart above X Factor winner Joe McElderry . = = Lyrical themes = = Frequent themes in Madness ' songs included childhood memories ( e.g. , " Baggy Trousers " , and " Our House " ) and petty crime ( e.g. , " Shut Up " , and " Deceives the Eye " ) . Although Madness were seen by some as somewhat of a humorous band with catchy , bouncy songs , many of their songs took a darker tone ( such as the singles " Grey Day " and " Tomorrow 's ( Just Another Day ) " ) and they sometimes tackled what were , at the time , controversial issues in their lyrics . " Embarrassment " ( from the Absolutely album ) was written by Lee Thompson , and reflected the unfolding turmoil following the news that his teenage sister had become pregnant and was carrying a black man 's child . Madness discussed animal testing in the song " Tomorrow 's Dream " . The band criticised the National Health Service in " Mrs. Hutchinson " , which told the story of a woman who , after several misdiagnoses and mistreatment , became terminally ill . The story was based on the experiences of Mike Barson 's mother . Madness ' final single prior to disbanding , " ( Waiting For ) The Ghost Train " , commented on apartheid in South Africa . = = Skinhead controversy = = Early in their career , Madness were linked to skinheads ; members of a British working @-@ class subculture that the media often stereotyped as racist ( although many skinheads , including the original generation , are non @-@ racist or anti @-@ racist ) . Not only was Madness , along with other 2 Tone bands , popular with skinheads , but it was said that the band members themselves were associated with the subculture . The band 's relationship with the skinheads varied at times . Barson was particularly displeased with the band 's skinhead association , often finding it disappointing that so many were present at performances . Prior to becoming a full member of the band , Chas Smash had been involved in fights with skinheads at performances . In one particular incident on 18 November 1979 , Madness were supported by Red Beans and Rice , who featured a black lead singer , and the band was prevented from completing the performance due to the racist chants from certain members of the skinhead filled audience . Suggs later came on stage to show his displeasure at their behaviour , but this did not stop much of the audience from Nazi saluting at the end of the show . = = Awards = = The band 's first notable musical award came in 1983 when Chris Foreman and Cathal Smyth won an Ivor Novello Award for Best Song for the international hit " Our House " . Madness received another Ivor Novello Award 17 years later for an " Outstanding Song Collection " . In 2005 , they were awarded the MOJO " Hall of Fame " Award , notably for being " an artist 's artist " . In 2007 , a campaign took place by fans of Madness for the band to be awarded a Brit Award . Many fans and critics feel they have been overlooked over their past 30 years in the music industry . In July 2009 , Madness were awarded the ' Silver Clef ' Icon Award . In September 2010 , Madness were awarded the ' Idol Award ' at the 2010 Q Awards in London . = = Members = = Members of the classic lineup are listed in bold . Current members Chris Foreman – guitar ( 1976 – 1986 , 1992 – 2005 , 2006 – present ) Mike Barson – keyboards , pianos , vibraphone , and backing vocals ( 1976 – 1984 , 1992 – present ) Lee Thompson – saxophone , percussion , and backing vocals ( 1976 – 1977 , 1978 – 1986 , 1992 – present ) Graham " Suggs " McPherson – lead vocals ( 1977 , 1978 – 1986 , 1992 – present ) Daniel Woodgate – drums , percussion ( 1978 – 1986 , 1992 – present ) Mark Bedford — bass guitar ( 1978 – 1986 , 1992 – 2009 , 2012 , 2013 @-@ present ) Former members John Hasler – drums , lead vocals ( 1976 – 1978 ) Dikron Tulane – lead vocals ( 1976 – 1977 ) Gavin Rodgers – bass guitar ( 1977 – 1978 ) Garry Dovey – drums ( 1977 – 1978 ) Graham Bush – bass guitar ( 2009 – 2013 ) Norman Watt @-@ Roy - bass guitar ( 1994 @-@ 1996 ) ( live ) Paul Carrack - keyboards , vocals ( 1984 ) ( live ) James Mackie - keyboards ( 1984 ) ( live ) Steve Nieve – keyboards , and synthesisers ( 1984 – 1986 ) Terry Disley - keyboards ( 1986 ) ( live ) Seamus Beaghan — keyboards , and organ ( 1986 ) Kevin Burdette – guitar ( 2005 – 2006 ) Chas Smash – trumpet , backing vocals , dancing , harmonica , acoustic guitar , bass guitar ( 1976 – 1977 , 1979 – 1986 , 1992 – 2014 ) = = = Timeline = = = = = Tours = = 1979 Two Tone Tour 1980 Absolutely Tour 1981 Seven Tour 1982 Complete Madness Tour 1983 Rise and Fall Tour 1984 Keep Moving Tour 1985 Mad Not Mad Tour 1992 Christmas Madness 1993 The Man In The Mad Suit 1995 Mad Dogs 1999 The Maddest Show On Earth 2003 Welcome To The Wonderful World Of Madness 2006 To The Edge Of The Universe & Beyond 2007 On Board the Nutty Express 2010 Do Not Adjust Your Nut 2012 Charge of The Mad Brigade 2013 Oui oui si si ja ja da da 2014 ALL FOR THE M.A.D.H.E.A.D 2015 Grandslam Madness 2011- present House of fun weekend It 's exclusive to Butlins Minehead = = Discography = = 1979 : One Step Beyond ... ( UK No. 2 ) 1980 : Absolutely ( UK No. 2 ) 1981 : 7 ( UK No. 5 ) 1982 : The Rise & Fall ( UK No. 10 ) 1984 : Keep Moving ( UK No. 6 ) 1985 : Mad Not Mad ( UK No. 16 ) 1988 : The Madness ( UK No. 66 ) 1999 : Wonderful ( UK No. 17 ) 2005 : The Dangermen Sessions Vol . 1 ( UK No. 11 ) 2009 : The Liberty of Norton Folgate ( UK No. 5 ) 2012 : Oui Oui Si Si Ja Ja Da Da ( UK No. 10 ) 2016 : Can 't Touch Us Now
= Murano ( skyscraper ) = The Murano is a residential skyscraper in Center City , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , United States . Part of a condominium boom occurring in the city , the Murano was announced in 2005 and was developed jointly by Thomas Properties Group and P & A Associates . The building , named after Murano , Italy , was completed in 2008 at a cost of US $ 165 million . The site , previously occupied by a parking lot , was the location of the Erlanger Theatre from 1927 to 1978 . The blue glass and concrete , 43 @-@ story , 475 feet ( 145 m ) skyscraper was designed by Solomon Cordwell Buenz and Associates . Murano 's condos range between 740 square feet ( 69 m2 ) and 2 @,@ 625 square feet ( 240 m2 ) and were designed to be loft @-@ like with each featuring a balcony . The building features ground level retail space and an adjacent parking garage . Located in the West Market Street neighborhood of Center City , a neighborhood that first saw residential development in 2002 , the building struggled to fill its units during the late @-@ 2000s recession . In July 2009 the Murano 's owners held a successful auction on forty of the building 's units . Thomas Properties Group lowered the price for the remaining unsold units based on what the forty units went for at the auction . = = History = = The Murano was announced in 2005 when Philadelphia , Pennsylvania was experiencing a condominium boom that had begun in the late 1990s ; between 1998 and 2004 more than 70 Center City office and manufacturing buildings had been converted into rental and condominium apartments . The project was jointly developed by Thomas Properties Group of Los Angeles and P & A Associates of Philadelphia . The planned site of the Murano was on West Market Street in Center City , an area which had not had any residential development until 2002 when 2121 Market Street was converted into apartments . Construction began around the end of 2005 . Built by construction firm Turner Construction Company , the US $ 165 million Murano was completed in 2008 with residents first moving in on June 18 . The building was completed with seventy percent of its units sold . As of December 31 , 2008 , sales on 111 units had been closed and an additional 14 units were under contract of sale . In 2008 and 2009 the late @-@ 2000s recession hurt the condominium market , with citywide sales declining 64 percent and high @-@ end condo sales declining 24 percent . Analysts believed the Murano was overpriced based on the neighborhood , with potential buyers unwilling to take a chance on the developing West Market Street neighborhood during a recession . In 2009 , Thomas Properties Group was looking to quickly fill up the tower to help pay for condo fees and maintenance costs . On June 27 , Thomas Properties Group auctioned off 40 units in the tower . The 40 units went for between US $ 335 @,@ 000 and US $ 796 @,@ 000 , priced at nearly 20 percent less than the units sold before the auction . Thomas Properties Group priced the 137 remaining unsold units according to what similar units went for during the auction . = = Architecture and features = = Located at 21st and Market Streets , the 43 @-@ story , 475 feet ( 145 m ) Murano is named after Murano , Italy , a town famous for its glass . Designed by Solomon Cordwell Buenz and Associates , the Murano has 302 condos that include one to three bedroom condos that range from 740 square feet ( 69 m2 ) to 2 @,@ 625 square feet ( 240 m2 ) . Also included are penthouses that range from 1 @,@ 660 square feet ( 150 m2 ) to 2 @,@ 625 square feet ( 240 m2 ) . The condominiums are designed to be loft @-@ like and each feature a balcony . The curved facade features floor @-@ to @-@ ceiling blue windows separated at intervals by bands of white concrete . The Murano contains 570 @,@ 000 square feet ( 53 @,@ 000 m2 ) including 9 @,@ 000 square feet ( 840 m2 ) of ground floor retail space . Adjacent to the building on 21st Street is a parking garage . The developers planned to put ground level retail in the parking garage but say they were dissuaded by residents who feared the shops would attract the homeless . Philadelphia Inquirer architecture critic Inga Saffron praised how the concrete bands break up the glass and " serve as a bridge , linking the Murano visually to its older neighbors " . However , she criticized how the building doesn 't connect physically to its neighbors , such as lack of access to John F. Kennedy Boulevard and lack of shops on the ground floor of the parking garage . Saffron believed shops in the parking garage would have helped create a connection between West Market Street and the Logan Square neighborhood .
= Backmasking = Backmasking is a recording technique in which a sound or message is recorded backward onto a track that is meant to be played forward . Backmasking is a deliberate process , whereas a message found through phonetic reversal may be unintentional . Backmasking was popularised by the Beatles , who used backward instrumentation on their 1966 album Revolver . Artists have since used backmasking for artistic , comedic and satiric effect , on both analogue and digital recordings . The technique has also been used to censor words or phrases for " clean " releases of explicit songs . Backmasking has been a controversial topic in the United States since the 1970s and 1980s , when allegations from Christian groups of its use for Satanic purposes were made against prominent rock musicians , leading to record @-@ burning protests and proposed anti @-@ backmasking legislation by state and federal governments . = = History = = = = = Development = = = In 1877 , Thomas Edison invented the phonograph , a device allowing sound to be recorded and reproduced on a rotating cylinder with a stylus ( or " needle " ) attached to a diaphragm mounted at the narrow end of a horn . Emile Berliner invented the familiar lateral @-@ cut disc phonograph record in 1888 . His design overtook the Edison phonograph in the 1920s , partly because Berliner 's patent expired in 1918 , leaving others free to use his invention . In addition to recreating recorded sounds by placing the stylus on the cylinder or disc and rotating it in the same direction as during the recording , one could hear different sounds by rotating the cylinder or disc backwards . In 1878 , Edison noted that , when played backwards , " the song is still melodious in many cases , and some of the strains are sweet and novel , but altogether different from the song reproduced in the right way " . The backwards playing of records was advised as training for magicians by occultist Aleister Crowley , who suggested in his 1913 book Magick ( Book 4 ) that an adept " train himself to think backwards by external means " , one of which was to " listen to phonograph records , reversed " . In the movie Gold Diggers of 1935 , the end of the dancing pianos musical number " The Words Are in My Heart " is filmed in reverse motion with the accompanying instrumental score incidentally being reversed . The 1950s saw two new developments in audio technology : the development of musique concrète , an avant @-@ garde form of electronic music , which involves editing together fragments of natural and industrial sounds ; and the concurrent spread of the use of tape recorders in recording studios . These two trends led to tape music compositions , composed on tape using techniques including reverse tape effects . The Beatles , who incorporated the techniques of concrète into their recordings , were responsible for popularizing the concept of backmasking . Singer John Lennon and producer George Martin both claimed they discovered the backward recording technique during the recording of 1966 's Revolver ; specifically the album tracks " Tomorrow Never Knows " and " I 'm Only Sleeping " , and the single " Rain " . Lennon stated that , while under the influence of marijuana , he accidentally played the tapes for " Rain " in reverse and enjoyed the sound . The following day he shared the results with the other Beatles , and the effect was used first in the guitar solo for " Tomorrow Never Knows " and later in the coda of " Rain " . According to Martin , the band had been experimenting with changing the speeds of and reversing the " Tomorrow Never Knows " tapes , and Martin got the idea of reversing Lennon 's vocals and guitar , which he did with a clip from " Rain " . Lennon then liked the effect and kept it . Regardless , " Rain " was the first song to feature a backmasked message : " Sunshine … Rain … When the rain comes , they run and hide their heads " ( listen ; the last line is the reversed first verse of the song ) . = = = Sayings = = = The Beatles were involved in the spread of backmasking both as a recording technique and as the center of a controversy . The latter has its roots in an event in 1969 , when WKNR @-@ FM DJ Russ Gibb received a phone call from a student at Eastern Michigan University who identified himself as " Tom " . The caller asked Gibb about a rumor that Beatle Paul McCartney had died , and claimed that the Beatles song " Revolution 9 " contained a backward message confirming the rumor . Gibb played the song backwards on his turntable , and heard " Turn me on , dead man … turn me on , dead man … turn me on , dead man … " . Gibb began telling his listeners about what he called " The Great Cover @-@ up " , and to the original clue were added various others , including the alleged backmasked message " Paul is a dead man , miss him , miss him , miss him " , in " I 'm So Tired " . The " Paul is dead " rumor popularized the idea of backmasking in popular music . After Gibb 's show , many more songs were found to contain phrases that sounded like known spoken languages when reversed . Initially , the search was done mostly by fans of rock music ; but , in the late 1970s , during the rise of the Christian right in the United States , fundamentalist Christian groups began to claim that backmasked messages could bypass the conscious mind and reach the subconscious , where they would be unknowingly accepted by the listener . In 1981 , Christian DJ Michael Mills began stating on Christian radio programs that Led Zeppelin 's " Stairway to Heaven " contained hidden messages that were heard by the subconscious . In early 1982 , the Trinity Broadcasting Network 's Paul Crouch hosted a show with self @-@ described neuroscientist William Yarroll , who argued that rock stars were cooperating with the Church of Satan to place hidden subliminal messages on records . Also in 1982 , fundamentalist Christian pastor Gary Greenwald held public lectures on dangers of backmasking , along with at least one mass record @-@ smashing . During the same year , thirty North Carolina teenagers , led by their pastor , claimed that singers had been possessed by Satan , who used their voices to create backward messages , and held a record @-@ burning at their church . Allegations of demonic backmasking were also made by social psychologists , parents and critics of rock music , as well as the Parents Music Resource Center ( formed in 1985 ) , which accused Led Zeppelin of using backmasking to promote Satanism . = = = Legislation = = = One result of the furor was the firing of five radio DJs who had encouraged listeners to search for backward messages in their record collections . A more serious consequence was legislation by the state governments of Arkansas and California . The 1983 California bill was introduced to prevent backmasking that " can manipulate our behavior without our knowledge or consent and turn us into disciples of the Antichrist " . Involved in the discussion on the bill was a California State Assembly Consumer Protection and Toxic Materials Committee hearing , during which " Stairway to Heaven " was played backwards , and William Yaroll testified . The successful bill made the distribution of records with undeclared backmasking an invasion of privacy for which the distributor could be sued . The Arkansas law passed unanimously in 1983 , referenced albums by The Beatles , Pink Floyd , Electric Light Orchestra , Queen and Styx , and mandated that records with backmasking include a warning sticker : " Warning : This record contains backward masking which may be perceptible at a subliminal level when the record is played forward . " However , the bill was returned to the state senate by Governor Bill Clinton and defeated . House Resolution 6363 , introduced in 1982 by Representative Bob Dornan ( R @-@ California ) , proposed mandating a similar label ; the bill was referred to the Subcommittee on Commerce , Transportation and Tourism and was never passed . Government action was also called for in the legislatures of Texas and Canada . With the advent of compact discs in the 1980s , but prior to the advent of sound editing technology for personal computers in the 1990s , it became more difficult to listen to recordings backwards , and the controversy died down . = = = Resurgence = = = Though the backmasking controversy peaked in the 1980s , the general belief in subliminal manipulation became more widespread in the United States during the following decade , with belief in Satanic backmasking on records persisting into the 1990s . At the same time , the development of sound editing software with audio reversal features simplified the process of reversing audio , which previously could only be done with full fidelity using a professional tape recorder . The Sound Recorder utility , included with Microsoft Windows from Windows 95 to Windows XP , allows one @-@ click audio reversal , as does popular open source sound editing software Audacity . Following the growth of the Internet , backmasked message searchers used such software to create websites featuring backward music samples , which became a widely used method of exploring backmasking in popular music . In January 2014 , the first backmasked video was released as part of a Grammy Awards promotional campaign . A customized video player allowed the user to watch a piece of film accompanied by a music soundtrack both forwards and backwards . The backwards content contained a hidden visual story and the words ' music unleashes you ' embedded into the reversed audio track . = = Use = = Backmasking has been used as a recording technique since the 1960s . In the era of magnetic tape sound recording , backmasking required that the source reel @-@ to @-@ reel tape actually be played backwards , which was achieved by first being wound onto the original takeup reel , then reversing the reels so as to use that reel as the source ( this would reverse the stereo channels as well ) . Digital audio recording has greatly simplified the process . Backmasked words are unintelligible noise when played forward , but when played backwards are clear speech . Listening to backmasked audio with most turntables requires disengaging the drive and rotating the album by hand in reverse ( though some can play records backwards ) . With magnetic tape , the tape must be reversed and spliced back in to the cassette . Compact discs were difficult to reverse when first introduced , but digital audio editors , which were first introduced in the late 1980s and became popular during the next decade , allow easy reversal of audio from digital sources . = = = Satanic backmasking = = = In the 1973 film The Exorcist , a tape of noises from the possessed victim was discovered to contain a message when the tape was played backwards . This scene might have inspired subsequent copycat musical effects . Although the Satanic backmasking controversy involved mainly classic rock songs , whose authors denied any intent to promote Satanism , backmasking has been used by heavy metal bands to deliberately insert messages in their lyrics or imagery . Bands have utilized Satanic imagery for commercial reasons . For example , thrash metal band Slayer included at the start of the band 's 1985 album Hell Awaits a deep backmasked voice chanting " Join Us " over and over . ( listen ) . However , Slayer vocalist Tom Araya states that the band 's use of Satanic imagery was " solely for effect " . Cradle of Filth , another band that has employed Satanic imagery , released a song entitled " Dinner at Deviant 's Palace " , consisting almost entirely of unusual sounds and a reversed reading of the Lord 's Prayer ( a backwards reading of the Lord 's Prayer is reportedly a major part of the Black Mass ) . Seattle @-@ based grunge band Soundgarden parodied the phenomenon of Satanic backmasking on their 1989 album Ultramega OK . When played backwards , the songs " 665 " and " 667 " reveal a song about Santa Claus . Marilyn Manson used this technique . For example , in the beginning of his song " Tourniquet " when played backwards , his voice is heard saying " This is my lowest point of vulnerability " as explained in his book The Long Hard Road Out of Hell . = = = Aesthetic use = = = Backmasking is often used for aesthetics , i.e. , to enhance the meaning or sound of a track . During the Judas Priest subliminal message trial , lead singer Rob Halford admitted to recording the words " In the dead of the night , love bites " backwards into the track " Love Bites " , from the 1984 album Defenders of the Faith . Asked why he recorded the message , Halford stated that " When you 're composing songs , you 're always looking for new ideas , new sounds . " Stanley Kubrick used " Masked Ball " , an adaptation by Jocelyn Pook of her earlier work " Backwards Priests " ( from the album Flood ) featuring reversed Romanian chanting , as the background music for the masquerade ball scene in Eyes Wide Shut . At the end of " Before I Forget " by Slipknot , lead singer Corey Taylor 's voice can be heard saying " ... You 're wasting it " which is in reference to how Rick Rubin , the producer of their album Vol . 3 : The Subliminal Verses , wanted Taylor to change the chorus vocal melody because he felt it wasn 't catchy ; however , Taylor stood his ground and the chorus stayed unchanged . One backmasking technique is to reverse an earlier part of a song . Missy Elliott used this technique in one of her songs , " Work It " , as did Jay Chou ( " You Can Hear " , from Ye Hui Mei ) , At the Drive @-@ In ( " 300 MHz " , from Vaya ) , and Lacuna Coil ( " Self Deception " , from Comalies ) . A related technique is to reverse an entire instrumental track . John Lennon originally wanted to do so with " Rain " , but objections by producer George Martin and bandmate Paul McCartney cut the backward section to 30 seconds . The Stone Roses have made heavy use of this technique in songs including " Don 't Stop " , " Guernica " , and " Simone " , which are all backwards versions of other Stone Roses tracks , sometimes overdubbed with new vocals that sound somewhat similar to the initial track when backmasked . Meanwhile , Klaatu used the reversed vocals from " Anus of Uranus " ( from their first album , 3 : 47 EST ) as the vocals for the song " Silly Boys " ( on their third album , Sir Army Suit ) . The lyrics for " Silly Boys " on the lyric sheet from Sir Army Suit are accordingly printed backwards . Danish band Mew 's 2009 album No More Stories ... contains a track , " New Terrain " , which , when listened to in reverse , reveals a new song , entitled " Nervous " . Artists often use backmasking of sounds or instrumental audio to produce interesting sound effects . One such sound effect is the reverse echo . When done on tape , such use of backmasking is known as reverse tape effects . One example is Matthew Sweet 's 1999 album In Reverse , which includes reversed guitar parts which were played directly onto a tape running in reverse . For live concerts , the guitar parts were played live on stage using a backward emulator . = = = Humorous and parody messages = = = A common use of backmasking is hiding a comedic or parodical message backwards in a song . The B @-@ side of the 1966 Napoleon XIV single " They 're Coming to Take Me Away , Ha @-@ Haaa ! " is a reversed version of the entire forwards record , entitled " ! aaaH @-@ aH , yawA eM ekaT oT gnimoC er 'yehT " . It reached # 3 in the US charts and # 4 in the UK . WWE wrestler Al Snow had a theme song that had backmasking in it . The song was mostly instrumental , but at one point a clearly audible voice can be heard saying a line of gibberish . When the song is played backward , the gibberish is actually saying " I AM IN CONTROL " . The message played on Al Snow 's character as an unstable mad man . The Beatles song " Free as a Bird " was originally composed and recorded in 1977 as a home demo by John Lennon . In 1995 a studio version of the recording , incorporating contributions from Paul McCartney , George Harrison and Ringo Starr , was released as a new single from The Beatles Anthology 1 project , 25 years after their break @-@ up and 15 years after the death of Lennon . In a humorous self @-@ parody and tribute to Lennon , the surviving Beatles inserted a backmasked clip of Lennon saying " Turned out nice again . " at the very end of the song . Pink Floyd dropped a backmasked message into " Empty Spaces " : ... Congratulations . You have just discovered the secret message . Please send your answer to Old Pink , care of the Funny Farm , Chalfont ... Roger ! Carolyne 's on the phone ! Okay . The first line may refer to former lead singer Syd Barrett , who is thought to have suffered a nervous breakdown years earlier . The first known instance of Pink Floyd having a backwards message is on the song " Bike " . When played backward , it produces a nonsense poem . In " Weird Al " Yankovic 's " Nature Trail to Hell " , from 1984 's " Weird Al " Yankovic in 3 @-@ D , Yankovic 's backmasked voice declares that " Satan eats Cheez Whiz " ( listen ) . Another early example can be found on the J. Geils Band track " No Anchovies , Please " , from 1980s album Love Stinks . The message , disguised as a foreign @-@ sounding language spoken under the narration , is , " It doesn 't take a genius to tell the difference between chicken shit and chicken salad . " Belgian act Poésie Noire included a satirical backmasked message on their 1988 album Tetra saying " You fucking asshole , play the record in the normal way " . Tenacious D includes the backmasked message " Eat Donkey Crap " at the end of " Karate " from their self @-@ titled first album . Electric Light Orchestra and Styx , following their involvement in the 1980s backmasking controversy , released songs that parody the allegations made against them . ELO , after being accused of Satanic backmasking on their 1974 album Eldorado , included backmasked messages in two songs on their next album , 1975 's Face The Music . " Down Home Town " begins with a voice twice repeating ( in reverse ) " Face the mighty waterfall " . And the opening instrumental " Fire On High " contains the backmasked message " The music is reversible , but time is not . Turn back ! Turn back ! Turn back ! Turn back ! " ( listen ) . In 1983 ELO released an entire album , Secret Messages , in response to the controversy . Among the many backmasked messages on the album are : " Welcome to the big show " ( 2x ) ; " Thank you for listening " ; " Look out there 's danger ahead " ; " Hup two three four " ; " Time After Time " ; and " You 're playing me backwards " . Styx also released an album in response to allegations of Satanic backmasking : 1983 's Kilroy Was Here , which deals with an allegorical group called the " Majority for Musical Morality " that outlaws rock music . A sticker on the album cover contains the message , " By order of the Majority for Musical Morality , this album contains secret backward messages " , and the song " Heavy Metal Poisoning " does in fact contain the backmasked Latin words " Annuit cœptis , Novus ordo seclorum " ( " [ God ] has favored our undertakings ; a new order for the ages " ) — part of the Great Seal which encircles the pyramid on the back of the American dollar bill . Iron Maiden 's 1983 album Piece of Mind features a short backwards message , included by the band in response to allegations of Satanism that were surrounding them at the time . Between the songs " The Trooper " and " Still Life " is inebriated drummer Nicko McBrain doing an impression of Idi Amin Dada : " ' What ho ' , sed de t 'ing wid de t 'ree bonce [ said the thing with the three heads ] . Don 't meddle wid t 'ings you don 't understand , " followed by a belch . Prince 's controversial song " Darling Nikki " includes the backmasked message , " Hello , how are you ? I am fine , because I know that the Lord is coming soon . " The Waitresses ' 1982 EP I Could Rule the World if I Could Only Get the Parts included a backwards masking warning on the cover and a message masked within the song " The Smartest Person I Know " : " Anyone who believes in backwards masking is a fool . " Some messages chastise or poke fun at the listener who is playing the song backwards . One such message was included by " Weird Al " Yankovic in " I Remember Larry " , from the 1996 album Bad Hair Day , on which Yankovic lightly chastises the listener with the backmasked remark , " Wow , [ you ] must have an awful lot of free time on your hands " ( listen ) . Similarly , the B @-@ 52 's song " Detour Through your Mind " , from the 1986 LP Bouncing off the Satellites , contains the message , " I buried my parakeet in the backyard . Oh no , you 're playing the record backwards . Watch out , you might ruin your needle . " A similar message comes from the Canadian band Frozen Ghost from their 1987 self @-@ titled debut album : " You are ruining your needle ! " Meanwhile , Christian rock group Petra included in their song " Judas Kiss " , from the 1982 album More Power to Ya , the message , " What are you looking for the devil for , when you ought to be looking for the Lord ? " Bloodhound Gang 's 1996 controversy @-@ begging track " Lift Your Head Up High ( And Blow Your Brains Out ) " mocked the Judas Priest controversy directly , and included the backmasked phrase " Devil child , wake up and eat Chef Boyardee Beefaroni " . The band Mindless Self Indulgence released a song titled " Backmaskwarning ! " , which contains the forward lyrics " Play that record backwards / Here 's a message yo for the suckas / Play that record backwards / And go fuck yourself " . The backwards messages in the song include , " clean your room " , " do your homework " , " don 't stay out too late " , and " eat your vegetables " . Backmasking was also parodied in a 2001 episode of the television series The Simpsons entitled " New Kids on the Blecch . " Bart Simpson joins a boy band called the Party Posse , whose song " Drop Da Bomb " includes the repeated lyric " Yvan eht nioj . " Lisa Simpson becomes suspicious and plays the song backward , revealing the backmasked message " Join the Navy " , which leads her to realize that the boy band was created as a subliminal recruiting tool for the United States Navy . = = = Critical or explicit messages = = = Backmasking has also been used to record statements perhaps too critical or explicit to be used forwards . Frank Zappa used backmasking to avoid censorship of the track " Hot Poop " , from We 're Only in It for the Money ( 1968 ) . The released version contains at the end of its side " A " the backmasked message " Better look around before you say you don 't care . / Shut your fucking mouth ' bout the length of my hair . / How would you survive / If you were alive / shitty little person ? " This profanity @-@ laced verse , originally from the song " Mother People " , was censored by Verve Records , so Zappa edited the verse out , reversed it , and inserted it elsewhere in the album as " Hot Poop " ( though even in the backward message the word " fucking " is censored ) . On the same album , a modified backmasking can be heard in " Harry , You 're a Beast " with Madge saying , " Don 't come in me , in me " repeatedly before she starts crying . In at least one bootleg version of the album , these words are very clear . Another example is found in Roger Waters ' 1991 album Amused to Death , on which Waters recorded a backward message , possibly critical of film director Stanley Kubrick , who had refused to let Waters sample a breathing sound from 2001 : A Space Odyssey . The message appears in the song " Perfect Sense Part 1 " , in which Waters ' backmasked voice says , " Julia , however , in light and visions of the issues of Stanley , we have changed our minds . We have decided to include a backward message , Stanley , for you and all the other book burners . " = = = Censorship = = = A further use of backmasking is to censor words and phrases deemed inappropriate on radio edits and " clean " album releases . For example , The Fugees ' clean version of the album The Score contains various backmasked profanities ; thus , when playing the album backwards , the censored words are clearly audible among the backward gibberish . When used with the word " shit " , this type of backmasking results in a sound similar to " ish " . As a result , " ish " became a euphemism for " shit " . In Britney Spears ' 2011 song " Till The World Ends " , Spears says " if you want this good shit " . However , on the official version , " shit " is reversed , creating the " ish " sound ; therefore , the official version says " if you want this good ish " . Backmasking is also used to censor the word " joint " in the video for " You Don 't Know How It Feels " by Tom Petty , resulting in the line " Let 's roll another tnioj " . = = Accusations = = Artists who have been accused of backmasking include Led Zeppelin , The Beatles , Pink Floyd , Electric Light Orchestra , Queen , Styx , Judas Priest , The Eagles , The Rolling Stones , Jefferson Starship , AC / DC , Black Oak Arkansas , Rush , Britney Spears , and Eminem . Electric Light Orchestra was accused of hiding a backward Satanic message in their 1974 album Eldorado . The title track , " Eldorado " , was said to contain the message " He is the nasty one / Christ , you 're infernal / It is said we 're dead men / Everyone who has the mark will live . " ELO singer and songwriter Jeff Lynne responded by calling this accusation ( and the related charge of being " devil @-@ worshippers " ) " skcollob " , and stating that the message " is absolutely manufactured by whoever said , ' That 's what it said . ' It doesn 't say anything of the sort . " The group included several backward messages in later albums in response to the accusations . In 1981 , Styx was accused of putting the backward message " Satan move through our voices " on the song " Snowblind " , from Paradise Theatre . Guitarist James Young called these charges " rubbish , " and responded , " If we want to make a statement , we 'll do it in a way that people can understand us and not in a way where you have to go out and buy a $ 400 tape player to understand us . " The vinyl reproduction of Paradise Theater had laser etching on side one , spelling out Styx at the top , and two ladies facing each other on the sides . But on side two , the side with the song ( Snow Blind ) it had a black label with a small hole cut out where you could place the eraser side of a pencil , and play the album backwards to hear the backward message . In 1983 , the band released a concept album , Kilroy Was Here , satirizing the Moral Majority . A well @-@ known alleged message is found in rock group Led Zeppelin 's 1971 song " Stairway to Heaven " . The backwards playing of a portion of the song purportedly results in words beginning with " Here 's to my sweet Satan " ( listen ) . Swan Song Records issued a statement to the contrary : " Our turntables only play in one direction — forwards . " Led Zeppelin vocalist Robert Plant denied the accusations in an interview : " To me it 's very sad , because ' Stairway To Heaven ' was written with every best intention , and as far as reversing tapes and putting messages on the end , that 's not my idea of making music . " Another widely known alleged message , " It 's fun to smoke marijuana , " in Queen 's song " Another One Bites the Dust " , is similarly disclaimed by the group 's spokesperson . = = = Subliminal persuasion = = = = = = = Fundamentalist Christian groups = = = = Various fundamentalist Christian groups have declared that Satan — or Satan @-@ influenced musicians — use backmasked messages to subliminally alter behavior . Pastor Gary Greenwald claimed that subliminal messages backmasked into rock music induce listeners towards sex and drug use . Minister Jacob Aranza wrote in his 1982 book Backward Masking Unmasked that rock groups " are using backmasking to convey satanic and drug related messages to the subconscious . " Christian DJ Michael Mills argued in 1981 that " the subconscious mind is being successfully affected by the repetition of beat and lyrics — being affected through a subliminal message . " Mills has toured America warning Christian parents about subliminal messages in rock music . Some Christian websites have claimed that backmasking is widely used for Satanic purposes . The web page for Alabama group Dial @-@ the @-@ Truth Ministries argues for the existence of Satanic backmasking in " Stairway to Heaven " , saying that the song contains the backward message , " It 's my sweet Satan ... Oh I will sing because I live with Satan . " = = = = PMRC = = = = In 1985 , Dr. Joe Stuessy testified to the United States Congress at the Parents Music Resource Center hearings that : The message [ of a piece of heavy metal music ] may also be covert or subliminal . Sometimes subaudible tracks are mixed in underneath other , louder tracks . These are heard by the subconscious but not the conscious mind . Sometimes the messages are audible but are backward , called backmasking . There is disagreement among experts regarding the effectiveness of subliminals . We need more research on that . Stuessy 's written testimony stated that : Some messages are presented to the listener backwards . While listening to a normal forward message ( often somewhat nonsensical ) , one is simultaneously being treated to a backwards message ( in other words , the lyric sounds like one set of words going forward , and a different set of words going backwards ) . Some experts believe that while the conscious mind is absorbing the forward lyric , the subconscious is working overtime to decipher the backwards message . = = = = Court cases = = = = Serial killer Richard Ramirez , on trial in 1988 , stated that AC / DC 's music , and specifically the song " Night Prowler " on Highway to Hell , inspired him to commit murder . Reverse speech advocate David John Oates claimed that " Highway to Hell " , on the same album , contains backmasked messages including " I 'm the law " , " my name is Lucifer " , and " she belongs in hell " . AC / DC 's Angus Young responded that " you didn 't need to play [ the album ] backwards , because we never hid [ the messages ] . We 'd call an album Highway To Hell , there it was right in front of them . " In 1990 , British heavy metal band Judas Priest was sued over a suicide pact made by two young men in Nevada . The lawsuit by their families claimed that the 1978 Judas Priest album Stained Class contained hidden messages , including the forward subliminal words " Do it " in the song " Better By You , Better Than Me " ( a cover version of a Spooky Tooth song ) , and various backward subliminal messages . The case was dismissed by the judge for insufficient evidence of Judas Priest 's placement of subliminal messages on the record , and the judge 's ruling stated that " The scientific research presented does not establish that subliminal stimuli , even if perceived , may precipitate conduct of this magnitude . There exist other factors which explain the conduct of the deceased independent of the subliminal stimuli . " Judas Priest members commented that if they wanted to insert subliminal commands in their music , messages leading to the deaths of their fans would be counterproductive , and they would prefer to insert the command " Buy more of our records . " = = = Skepticism = = = Skeptic Michael Shermer claims that the emergence of the " Paul is dead " phenomenon , including the alleged message at the end of " I 'm So Tired " , was caused by faulty perception of a pattern . Shermer argues that the human brain evolved with a strong pattern recognition ability that was necessary to process the large amount of noise in man 's environment , but that today this ability leads to false positives . Stanford University psychology professor Brian Wandell postulates that the observance of backward messages is a mistake arising from this pattern recognition facility , and argues that subliminal persuasion theories are " bizarre " and " implausible . " Rumors of backmasking in popular music have been described as auditory pareidolia . James Walker , president of Christian research group Watchman Fellowship , states that " You could take a Christian hymn , and if you played it backwards long enough at different speeds , you could make that hymn say anything you want to " ; Led Zeppelin publicist BP Fallon concurs , saying " Play anything backwards , and you 'll find something . " Eric Borgos of audio reversal website talkbackwards.com states that " Mathematically , if you listen long enough , eventually you 'll find a pattern " , while Jeff Milner recounts , " Most people , when I show them the site , say that they 're not able to hear anything , until , of course , I show them the reverse lyrics . " Audio engineer Evan Olcott claims that messages by artists including Queen and Led Zeppelin are coincidental phonetic reversals , in which the spoken or sung phonemes form new combinations of words when listened to backwards . Olcott states that " Actually engineering or planning a phonetic reversal is next to impossible , and even more difficult when trying to design it with words that fit into a song . " In 1985 , University of Lethbridge psychologists John Vokey and J. Don Read conducted a study using Psalm 23 from the Bible , Queen 's " Another One Bites the Dust " , and other sound passages made up for the experiment . Vokey and Read concluded that if backmasking does exist , it is ineffective . Participants had trouble noticing backmasked phrases when the samples were played forwards , were unable to judge the types of messages ( Christian , Satanic , or commercial ) , and were not led to behave in a certain way as a result of being exposed to the backmasked phrases . Vokey concluded that " we could find no effect of the meaning of engineered , backward messages on listeners ' behaviour , either consciously or unconsciously . " Similar results to Vokey and Read 's were obtained by D. Averill in 1982 . A 1988 experiment by T.E. Moore found " no evidence that listeners were influenced , consciously or unconsciously , by the content of the backward messages . " In 1992 , an experiment found that exposure to backward messages did not lead to significant changes in attitude . Psychology professor Mark D. Allen says that " delivering subliminal messages via backward masking is totally and ridiculously impossible " . The finding of backward Satanic messages has been explained as caused by the observer @-@ expectancy effect . The Skeptic 's Dictionary states that " you probably won 't hear [ backmasked ] messages until somebody first points them out to you . Perception is influenced by expectation and expectation is affected by what others prime you for . " In 1984 , S. B. Thorne and P. Himelstein found that " when vague and unfamiliar stimuli are presented , [ test subjects ] are highly likely to accept suggestions , particularly when the suggestions are presented by someone with prestige and authority . " Vokey and Read concluded from their 1985 experiment that " the apparent presence of backward messages in popular music is a function more of active construction on the part of the perceiver than of the existence of the messages themselves . "
= The Return of Harmony = " The Return of Harmony " is the collective name for the first and second episodes of the second season of the Canadian @-@ American animated television series My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic , as well as the twenty @-@ seventh and twenty @-@ eighth episodes of the series overall . Both episodes were directed by Jayson Thiessen and written by M.A. Larson . Part one of the episode aired in the United States on September 17 , 2011 on the Hub Network . Part two aired the following week , on September 24 . The episode received a Nielsen household rating of 0 @.@ 2 and was viewed by over 339 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the highest @-@ rated episode ever broadcast by the Hub at that point . This is also the last My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic episode to be produced by Studio B Productions . The series follows a unicorn pony named Twilight Sparkle as her mentor Celestia guides her to learn about friendship in Ponyville . Twilight becomes close friends with five other ponies : Applejack , Rarity , Fluttershy , Rainbow Dash , and Pinkie Pie . In the first part of the episode , a draconequus named Discord escapes from his stone prison and Twilight and her best friends discover that the Elements of Harmony have been stolen . They must retrieve them in order to save Equestria from eternal chaos , but they have to contend with Discord 's mind games first . In part two , Twilight is determined to find the Elements of Harmony after her best friends are hypnotically brainwashed by Discord and all of Equestria begins to fall into disarray . = = Plot = = = = = Part one = = = Cheerilee walks her students through Canterlot 's sculpture garden , where she shows her class a strange statue of a chimera @-@ like creature known as a draconequus , a creature that represents discord and a lack of harmony . The Cutie Mark Crusaders – Sweetie Belle , Apple Bloom , and Scootaloo – get into a fight over exactly what the statue represents . Soon , the statue begins to mysteriously pulse , though no pony notices at the moment . As the group moves away from the statue , small cracks appear along its surface and an evil chuckle is heard . Later , Twilight and her best friends Applejack , Fluttershy , Pinkie Pie , Rainbow Dash , and Rarity find strange phenomena occurring around Ponyville , such as cotton candy clouds dispensing chocolate milk , ears of corn in their husks instantly turning into popcorn , and Applejack 's apples turning bigger . However , Twilight 's magic is not strong enough to stop it , though they can get some of the phenomena somewhat under control . Soon , Spike coughs up a letter from Celestia , urging Twilight and her best friends to see her in Canterlot . On arrival , Celestia takes them to a grand hall with stained @-@ glass windows , including one heralding the ponies ' defeat of Nightmare Moon , and to the vault where the Elements of Harmony are kept . Celestia tells the ponies that the strange phenomena they have noticed is being caused by an old enemy of hers named Discord , the spirit of chaos and disharmony . Celestia tells of how Discord once ruled Equestria in an eternal state of chaos before she and Luna defeated him by turning him into a stone statue ( the Draconequus statue that stood in the sculpture garden ) . But he has recently escaped his prison and Celestia asks Twilight and her best friends to use the Elements of Harmony ( as they did to defeat Nightmare Moon previously ) to defeat Discord . However , as she offers the Elements to them , they are shocked to find that the box that normally holds the Elements is completely empty . Suddenly , an image of Discord on the stained @-@ glass windows comes to life , teasing the ponies and Celestia . Discord claims to have taken the Elements and alludes to where they can be located . Twilight believes Discord is referring to the hedge maze near the castle and the six race there . Discord appears in his true form and challenges the ponies to a game , telling them that the only rules are they are not allowed to fly or use magic ( enforcing this rule by making the unicorns ' horns and Pegasi 's wings vanish ) , and that if any of them leave the game , he automatically wins . Despite their handicap , the ponies enter the maze , but they are soon separated by Discord 's magic . He is able to individually test Applejack , Pinkie Pie , Rarity , and Fluttershy against their respected Elements , making them be momentarily hypnotized , lose some of their color , and become a polar opposite of their Element . Twilight encounters each of them after this point , aware of their personality shift , but oblivious to their encounter with Discord . Soon , they find Rainbow Dash , having regained her wings , flying away from the maze and betraying not only her Element of Loyalty , but also forfeiting the game by leaving ; the maze falls around them and Discord boasts his victory , warning of an incoming storm of chaos . = = = Part two = = = Twilight confronts Discord , accusing him of cheating since he destroyed the labyrinth before they could get to the end of the game . However , Discord counters this by reminding her that , while he had hinted at where the Elements were , he never said anything about them being in the labyrinth . As he disappears and teases the ponies with another storm of chocolate rain , Twilight realizes that a line from Discord 's riddle actually refers to Ponyville itself . Determined and with renewed hope , Twilight leads her best friends back to Ponyville , which Discord has altered in a chaotic manner : The day @-@ night cycle is haphazard and buildings float off the ground . Discord continues to taunt Twilight , but she is determined to get back to the library in town to find a way to defeat Discord while her best friends ' personalities continue to become more warped , losing even more of their color until they are completely monochrome . Managing to get them all into the library , Twilight and Spike locate the book about the Elements of Harmony and after a brief scuffle with the other ponies over the book , are surprised and delighted to find the book actually contains the Elements . She forces her best friends to wear the Elements , though they are more willing to help after she angrily states that the sooner they defeat Discord , the sooner they never have to see each other again ; Twilight also assigns Spike as the temporary Element of Loyalty because Rainbow Dash is not present . They go to face Discord , but the Elements fail to activate . The other four ponies and Spike quickly drop the elements and depart , leaving Twilight despondent and finally losing her own color . Twilight sadly returns to the library , preparing to pack and leave Ponyville , when she finds Spike coughing up scroll after scroll . Twilight is surprised to find these to be the friendship report letters that she had previously sent to Celestia , and the memories of her friendships in Ponyville make her regain her color . Inspired by this , she returns to her other four best friends and uses a memory spell to remind them of their friendship , cancelling Discord 's magic and returning them to normal . However , Rainbow Dash is still apart from the group and without her , the Elements will not activate . They find Rainbow Dash protecting a cloud , believing it to be her home of Cloudsdale . They start to give chase , but Rainbow flies away . They quickly use a hot @-@ air balloon , pulled along by Fluttershy , to catch up to Rainbow . At first , it seems that Rainbow has the upper hand , but as soon as Twilight reminds Fluttershy that if she gets away Discord will win , Fluttershy puts on an enormous burst of speed and the ponies eventually catch Rainbow and manage to tie her down long enough for Twilight to cast her memory spell . The ponies share a hug before remembering that Ponyville is still under Discord 's influence . The ponies collect the Elements and re @-@ approach Discord , who casually passes off their threat . However , with all six ponies restored , the Elements activate , firing a rainbow @-@ beam of light that engulfs Discord and Ponyville . In moments , Ponyville has been returned to normal and Discord is once again turned to stone . The ponies ' victory is celebrated by a large ceremony at Canterlot , led by Celestia , who praises their heroism and the power of their friendship and reveals a new stained @-@ glass window of the six ponies defeating Discord . = = Production = = " The Return of Harmony " was directed by James Wootton ( with assistance from supervising director Jayson Thiessen ) and written by M.A. Larson . John de Lancie guest stars in the episode as Discord . According to Thiessen , Lauren Faust had conceived of Discord while watching a series of Star Trek : The Next Generation episodes , using Q ( portrayed by de Lancie ) as a template . When it came time to consider voice actors for the role , the production team had considered using a stand @-@ in for de Lancie , but were surprised to learn that de Lancie himself was available for the role . Upon hearing the news , the team altered some elements of the episode to provide more allusion to his previous role , such as the flash of light when Discord would appear or disappear. de Lancie was later surprised by the large positive responses from the adult fans of the series , leading him to learn more about this fandom and participating as executive director of the documentary about the fandom Bronies : The Extremely Unexpected Adult Fans of My Little Pony. de Lancie has since re @-@ voiced Discord for later episodes of the series and promotions on The Hub . The episodes were the final to feature Lauren Faust as executive producer . Near the end of the first season , Faust announced that she had left the series , and for the second season , she stepped down as executive producer , to become consulting producer . Her involvement in the second season consisted mainly of story conception and scripts . Despite her decreased participation , she still has high hopes for the staff members , stating that " the gaps I have left are being filled by the same amazing artists , writers , and directors who brought you Season 1 . I 'm certain the show will be as entertaining as ever " . In addition , a new storyboard editor named Jim Miller was hired for the second season and a majority of the animation was " outsourced " to animation company Top Draw . According to Thiessen , this allowed for a greater pre @-@ production process for season two episodes . " The Return of Harmony " was the first episode of the second season . According to Thiessen , the Hub and its parent company Hasbro had " approved the season two before we were done with season one ; they knew they had something good on their hands . " He explained , " they saw [ the success ] of the show early on , which is [ … ] rare because usually a season will be one and aired before a network will renew it because they want to know what the numbers are , but they , I guess , a bit of a risk on their behalf , but I 'm glad they did . " The finale scene of the episode is a parody of the ending from the 1977 movie Star Wars Episode IV : A New Hope . According to Thiessen , the joke was an " afterthought " ; originally , there was going to be a more elaborate ending , but due to time constraints , a new finale was created . During the animation stage , one of the directors noted that the scene was " kind of like the ending to A New Hope " and so , the decision was made to create " scene for scene " parody of the original . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = The first part of " The Return of Harmony " aired on September 17 , 2011 and the second part aired on September 24 . The first part was viewed by over 339 @,@ 000 viewers , making it one of the highest @-@ rated episodes ever broadcast by The Hub . In addition , the first part received a 0 @.@ 2 Nielsen household rating in the United States , meaning that it was seen by 0 @.@ 2 percent of all households watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode received a 0 @.@ 1 18 @-@ 49 rating , meaning that it was viewed by 0 @.@ 1 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast . The episode was later beaten by " A Canterlot Wedding , " which scored a total viewership of 483 @,@ 000 and 475 @,@ 000 . = = = Reviews = = = Both parts of the episode received largely positive reviews from critics . Carina Belles from We Got This Covered , in a review of the first part , called the series " plain awesome " , noting that it was " basically Lord of the Rings , only with ponies . " Belles praised the expressing animation , writing that " the already incredible art has also improved , with a wider variety of styles being used . " A review from Republibot of the first part of the episode called the plot " an interesting revisit of the premise of the pilot [ ' Friendship Is Magic ' ] " . Furthermore , the review called John de Lancie 's performance " superb " and praised the animation . Reviews for part two were positive as well . Republibot gave the episode a largely positive review , however , the site did note that the episode " feels a bit rushed , even as a two @-@ parter " and that " Fluttershy 's and Rarity 's restoration sequences in particular feel rushed and inadvertently echo [ the mind wipe sequences from ] Men in Black . " Many reviews praised the series ' pop culture references . Carina Belles applauded the series for making subtle pop culture references , citing Pinkie Pie 's mention of " Chocolate Rain " , a reference to a popular Internet meme . Many reviews and critics positively commented on the episode 's ending , which featured a parody of the closing scenes to the original Star Wars . Cyriaque Lamar from i09 wrote positively of the scene , writing , " Honestly , modern My Little Pony fandom is one of those things I 'm live @-@ and @-@ let @-@ live about , even though it baffles me entirely [ but ] this morning 's episode of the show did a little homage to A New Hope . " i09 later named the scene one of " The Best Television Moments of 2011 " . John Farrier from Neatorama wrote , " It ’ s hard for Bronies to get respect from some quarters , but [ the closing Star Wars parody ] scene alone says much in favor of the show . " The entertainment site Dorkly , an affiliate of CollegeHumor , featured a video comparing the two scenes and wrote , " May the adorable be with you . " Topless Robot writer Anne Mathews named the Star Wars parody the " Nerdiest Easter Egg " in My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic , writing , " This scene is a direct shoutout to the fans and completely cements the creator Lauren Faust 's geek cred . The only thing missing is a Wookiee yell at the end ! " = = Home media release = = The two @-@ part episode is part of the Season 2 DVD set released by Shout Factory on May 14 , 2013 . It was also part of the " Cutie Mark Quests " DVD , which was released on June 30 , 2015 , alongside " The Show Stoppers " and , labelled as " Cutie Markless , " the two @-@ part season five premiere episode " The Cutie Map . "
= The Boat Race 1914 = The 71st Boat Race took place on 28 March 1914 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the previous year 's race . In this year 's race , umpired by former rower Frederick I. Pitman , Cambridge won by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 20 minutes 23 seconds . The victory took the overall record to 39 – 31 in Oxford 's favour . It would be the last race for six years following the outbreak of the First World War . = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2015 , broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1913 race by three @-@ quarters of a length , and led overall with 39 victories to Cambridge 's 30 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . Oxford 's coaches were G. C. Bourne who had rowed for the university in the 1882 and 1883 races , his son Robert Bourne ( who rowed four times from 1909 to 1912 ) , and Harcourt Gilbey Gold ( Dark Blue president for the 1900 race and four @-@ time Blue ) . Cambridge were coached by Stanley Bruce ( who had rowed in the 1904 race ) . For the eleventh year the umpire was old Etonian Frederick I. Pitman who rowed for Cambridge in the 1884 , 1885 and 1886 races . According to author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater , the Cambridge crew " rapidly developed into a crew which gave every promise of being quite sensationally fast . " Conversely , he noted that Oxford suffered " from a dearth of material " which , followed by constant changes in the crew order , resulted in a " merely eight good men in a boat — and nothing more " . = = Crews = = The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 9 @.@ 25 lb ( 80 @.@ 2 kg ) , 3 @.@ 25 pounds ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . The Oxford crew saw five participants return , including cox Henry Wells who was taking part in his fourth race . Cambridge 's crew also included five participants with Boat Race experience , including Sidney Swann who was making his fourth appearance in the event . Swann and Ewart Horsfall had both won gold medals in the men 's eight at the 1912 Summer Olympics , rowing for Leander Club . They defeated New College in the final for whom Arthur Wiggins , Beaufort Burdekin and Frederick Pitman rowed . = = Race = = Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . In bright sunshine , a light wind and smooth water , umpire Pitman started the race at 2 : 20 p.m. Although rating slower than Oxford , Cambridge took a lead and were three @-@ quarters of a length ahead by Craven Steps . They extended their lead to a length and a quarter by the Mile Post and continued to pull away as they passed below Hammersmith Bridge . According to Drinkwater , they took " things easy in the rough water " towards Barnes Bridge and went on to pass the finishing post four and a half lengths ahead , in a time of 20 minutes 23 seconds . It was Cambridge 's first victory since the 1908 race and took the overall record in the event to 39 – 31 in Oxford 's favour . Drinkwater concluded that while " Oxford were a poor crew ... individually they had quite a lot of talent " . By comparison , he noted that Cambridge " were a reasonably high @-@ class crew ... but they lacked quickness " . It was the last race until 1920 , as a result of the outbreak of the First World War , and first time since 1853 that there was a break in the annual tradition . During the conflict , at least 42 Blues were killed , including five of the 1914 participants : Dennis Ivor Day , cox L. E. Ridley , John Andrew Ritson and Gordon Garnett of the Cambridge crew , and Reginald William Fletcher from the Oxford boat .
= 200 ( Stargate SG @-@ 1 ) = " 200 " is the sixth episode of the science fiction television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 's tenth season , and the 200th episode of the series overall . Unlike the more serious nature of the season 's story arc , " 200 " is a light @-@ hearted parody of both Stargate SG @-@ 1 and other sci @-@ fi shows , as well as popular culture like The Wizard of Oz . " 200 " won the 2007 Constellation Award for Best Overall 2006 Science Fiction Film or Television Script , and was nominated for the 2007 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form . The episode also marks the first time original SG @-@ 1 member Jack O 'Neill ( Richard Dean Anderson ) is seen since the beginning of Season 9 . The episode received a 1 @.@ 9 average household rating , one of the few episodes of the season that surpassed the average rating of Stargate SG @-@ 1 's previous season . " 200 " also received near @-@ universal praise for its humor and writing . Despite the strong performance of the episode , the Sci @-@ Fi Channel announced soon after the episode 's airing it would not be renewing the series for another season . = = Plot = = Martin Lloyd ( Willie Garson ) , an extraterrestrial turned Hollywood writer , returns to Stargate Command looking for assistance from SG @-@ 1 with his script for the movie adaptation of the television show Wormhole X @-@ Treme , first featured earlier in the series in the episode " Wormhole X @-@ Treme ! " . The team , especially Lt. Colonel Mitchell ( Ben Browder ) , is reluctant to help . Mitchell is excited about his next off @-@ world mission because it marks his 200th trip through the Stargate . However , when technical glitches prevent the team from setting off on their mission , they are stuck in the briefing room under the orders of General Landry ( Beau Bridges ) , because the Pentagon believes a successful science fiction film about intergalactic wormhole travel will serve as a good cover story to keep the real Stargate program a secret . The notes session quickly devolves into the team members pitching their own versions of a successful sci @-@ fi film , including a zombie invasion ( from Mitchell ) , a previously unseen mission where O 'Neill became invisible ( from Carter ) , " tributes " to The Wizard of Oz and Farscape ( from Vala ) , and Teal 'c as a private investigator ( from Teal 'c himself ) . Also featured are a vignette of the team 's mental image of a " younger and edgier " SG @-@ 1 ( sparked by the studio 's suggestion to replace the original Wormhole X @-@ Treme cast ) , a suggested scene by Martin that turns out to be both scientifically inaccurate and highly derivative of Star Trek , a re @-@ imagined version of the SG @-@ 1 pilot episode where all the characters are marionettes in the style of the television series Thunderbirds , and an imagined wedding that features the return of General O 'Neill ( Richard Dean Anderson ) . Ultimately , the planning session is all for naught , as the studio decides to cancel the movie in favor of renewing the series . At the end of the episode , the focus shifts ten years into the future , where the Wormhole X @-@ Treme cast and crew are celebrating their 200th episode , as well as renewed plans for a movie . = = Production = = Executive producer Robert C. Cooper originally proposed they write a normal script for the 200th episode . However it soon became clear that deciding who would have the privilege of writing the 200th episode would be problematic . This led to the idea to create a sketch episode in the manner of Saturday Night Live , with each writer creating a vignette . The episode took shape when the writers thought to bring back Wormhole X @-@ Treme and the character of Martin , and frame the whole episode as a notes session . By the end of the writing process the episode had turned into " an homage to the cast , crew , and die @-@ hard fans . " Stargate producers were not sure actor Richard Dean Anderson would return for the episode , so they devised many scenes where Anderson was " in " the episode but not actually shown . However , Anderson was willing to return and appeared in several scenes . In the DVD special Stargate SG @-@ 1 : Behind the 200th Cooper said , " it was a big deal for us to have [ him ] back for the 200th episode . We obviously didn 't think we could do it without him . " Despite the markedly different content of the episode , " 200 " took no longer to shoot than a normal episode , mainly because much of the filming took place on the briefing room set . On the other hand , the episode was much more expensive than a typical one , due to the unusual sequences . For example , the marionettes used in an elaborate spoof of the series were created by the Chiodo brothers , who also made the puppets for Team America : World Police ; each puppet cost about US $ 25 @,@ 000 , and the wires pulling each puppet had to be readded by CGI in post production because they didn 't show up well enough . Several existing sets were used as stand @-@ ins ; for example , the bridge of the Odyssey was used for a Star Trek : The Original Series spoof , while a set from the sister production Stargate : Atlantis was used as the chamber of the Wizard of Oz . In an interview about the tenth season of Stargate , Cooper and series co @-@ creator Brad Wright stated that there was a fine line between the humor of regular episodes turning into camp . While jokes for the joke 's sake are usually limited in normal episodes , the line between humor and camp is deliberately crossed frequently in " 200 " . The producers even talked about recreating a part of Blazing Saddles that breaks the fourth wall , but they could not afford the horses . The producers made sure that the episode was well @-@ publicized , dropping hints that Anderson 's character O 'Neill would return for the episode . Joe Mallozzi , executive producer for the series , also hinted that series fans would finally meet the Furlings , an enigmatic race referenced in the second season episode " The Fifth Race " but never seen . Despite the outlandish scenes filmed for the episode , many of the writers ' favorite moments did not make it to production due to time constraints . For example , Cooper noted that a Gilligan 's Island skit was cut from the script . = = Cultural references = = Most of the episode is devoted to references and allusions to other works , as well as the show itself . The title sequence is deliberately shorter than most other episodes , poking fun at shows like Lost as well as the Sci @-@ Fi Channel itself , which had shortened SG @-@ 1 's Season 9 opening but changed it back after fans demanded it . When Martin learns that his main actor has backed out of the movie , the SG @-@ 1 team offers various suggestions for how to replace him or work around his non @-@ availability — a reference to Michael Shanks 's absence from the sixth season of Stargate SG @-@ 1 . Anderson himself also pokes fun at the ending of the eighth season episode " Moebius " , which was intended to be the series finale before the ninth season was announced . The final scene of " 200 " , which features interviews with the Wormhole X @-@ Treme cast , was added as an afterthought , and contains comments from the real cast which were used out of context as an inside joke . The episode also riffs on other science fiction shows . Early in the episode , Dr. Jackson asks why anyone would make a movie version of a TV series that lasted only three episodes — Teal 'c responds that it had strong DVD sales . This is a reference to the series Firefly , which Fox executives decided to cancel after airing only three episodes ( although 14 episodes had been filmed , and 11 of them were actually aired — 8 more after the cancellation announcement had been made ) . The high number of DVDs of these episodes that sold afterwards justified making a feature film based on the series , Serenity . ( Firefly is again referenced when Lloyd refuses to use footage from the Wormhole X @-@ Treme series for the movie , saying that " it 's a movie , not a clip show . " This is an allusion to Joss Whedon 's insistence that the movie Firefly would not use footage from the original series because it is " not a clip show " . ) In addition , one of the sequences is a parody of the original Star Trek series , with SG @-@ 1 standing in for the crew of the Enterprise . Brad Wright , the co @-@ creator of the series , fills in as the engineer Montgomery Scott . The episode also pokes good @-@ humored fun at the series Farscape , including its habit of inventing swear words . The Farscape sequence itself is an in @-@ joke , since the Stargate : SG @-@ 1 actors Ben Browder and Claudia Black had both starred in the earlier series ( and indeed Black reprises her original role of Aeryn Sun , though Browder plays a different character , Stark , while Michael Shanks portrays Browder 's Farscape character , John Crichton ) . Several other shows and movies are parodied , including the The Wizard of Oz ( the story is re @-@ told with the members of the SG @-@ 1 team as the adventurers in Oz . The writers based the parody on a fan painting they had hanging in their office ) . The episode also makes fun of 24 's " ticking clock of jeopardy " , and an entire sequence is enacted with all the characters played by marionettes , in the style of Thunderbirds and Team America : World Police . = = Reception = = The episode won the 2007 Constellation Award for Best Overall 2006 Science Fiction Film or Television Script , and was nominated for the 2007 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form . Richard Dean Anderson also won a SyFy Genre Award for his guest appearance in the episode . The episode was generally well received . IGN declared the episode " one of the smartest and funniest hours of television to grace the small screen yet this season . " They went on to applaud the decision not only to parody other works but the show itself . Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune agreed , but also noted that " you don 't need to be a longtime fan of the long @-@ running program to enjoy its jibes at sci @-@ fi clichés or expedient writing . " Eclipse Magazine noted that although the episode was " not a work of comic genius " , " 200 " was the best comedy episode of the series . The highly publicized debut of the episode garnered a 1 @.@ 9 average household rating , a 36 % jump from the previous episode , and the first episode of the tenth season to reach or exceed the previous season 's rating of 1 @.@ 8 ; Stargate SG @-@ 1 at that point was averaging about 3 @.@ 3 million viewers per regular episode in the United States . = = = Cancellation = = = Shortly after this episode was aired , Gateworld announced that the Sci @-@ Fi Channel had decided not renew Stargate SG @-@ 1 for the coming year . The Channel later confirmed this decision , at the same time announcing that Stargate Atlantis had been picked up for another season . Many fans denounced Gateworld 's cancellation announcement , both the timing of it ( apparently it had been made while the cast and crew were celebrating the episode 's airing ) — and the decision itself , on the ground that , while ratings were not as high as they had been in previous seasons , the series was still drawing an audience of a respectable size . ( For example , it had a season average of 2 million viewers in Australia , half of them in the 18 – 49 demographic . ) Sci Fi responded that the cancellation decision had not been based on ratings so much as a feeling the series had run its course . Some of the main characters in SG @-@ 1 re @-@ appear later in episodes of Atlantis and Universe and in the direct @-@ to @-@ DVD sequel films , Stargate : The Ark of Truth and Stargate : Continuum .
= Environmental impact of aviation in the United Kingdom = The environmental impact of aviation in the United Kingdom is increasing due to the increasing demand for air travel in the country . In the past 25 years the UK air transport industry has seen sustained growth , and the demand for passenger air travel in particular is forecast to increase more than twofold , to 465 million passengers , by 2030 . Two airports ; London Heathrow Airport and London Gatwick Airport , are amongst the top ten busiest airports in the world for international passenger traffic . Whilst more than half of all passengers travelling by air in the UK currently travel via the five London area airports , regional airports have experienced the most growth in recent years , due to the success of ' no @-@ frills ' airlines over the last decade . The ability of the existing airport infrastructure to meet forecast demand is limited , and government policy published in 2003 supports the development of additional airport capacity by 2030 to address this . The strategy is generally based on making the best use of existing facilities , although an additional five new runways nationwide are considered to be necessary , three of them at the London airports of Stansted , Heathrow and , towards the end of the timeframe involved , Gatwick . This policy is designed to be a balanced and measured approach to the future of the air transport industry ; one that recognises both an economic advantage in providing for growth in demand for air travel and also the need to address the consequent environmental impacts . The strategy has been criticised by the House of Commons Environmental Audit Select Committee , by environmentalist and campaign groups , and in research papers , for implementing a predict and provide model that overstates the economic advantages whilst paying insufficient heed to the environmental consequences . Support for airport expansion is based on an economic case that regards the air transport industry not only as an important industry in its own right , but also as a facilitator of growth for the economy as a whole . One study predicts that the government 's strategy will realise an additional £ 13 billion per annum in Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) by 2030 . Another study which is critical of the government approach , and which favours addressing environmental impacts through increased taxation of air transport , indicates a negative economic benefit resulting from airport expansion . In 2006 the industry was responsible for over 6 per cent of all UK carbon emissions , a figure that is set to rise as demand increases . Under current strategies of emissions reduction and growth in air transport , air travel in the UK could account for up to 50 per cent of the UK carbon budget by 2050 . Industry attempts to address this issue are longer term efforts based on technological and operational improvements , whilst government policy is based on the inclusion of air transport within emissions trading schemes . Critics advocate a shift in government policy to address environmental impacts by constraining the growth in demand for air travel , primarily through the use of economic instruments to price air travel less attractively . Local environmental issues include noise and air quality , and the impact of these , particularly in the case of the former , is subject to debate . Government policy generally is that these are local issues best addressed locally , and has introduced legislation designed to facilitate this . = = Air transport framework = = Air transport in the United Kingdom is a growth industry . In the period 1981 to 2006 the number of terminal passengers increased by 400 per cent and air transport movements by 250 per cent . Although the transport of freight declined slightly year on year between 2004 and 2006 , in the decade since 1996 air freight has increased by 31 per cent . During the period in which government policy was being formulated the number of passengers exceeded 200 million , and in 2006 the industry handled over 236 million passengers ( up 3 per cent from the previous year ) , with nearly 2 @.@ 4 million air transport movements ( up 1 @.@ 8 per cent ) . = = = Infrastructure = = = Air traffic services for all UK airspace is provided by National Air Traffic Services ( NATS ) , which also provides air traffic control at 15 airports . The largest airport operator is BAA Limited , owner of six UK airports including London Heathrow airport . In some cases airport ownership is in the hands of local government authorities rather than private businesses , and the largest UK owned operator , Manchester Airports Group , operator of Manchester Airport , Bournemouth Airport , East Midlands Airport , and Humberside Airport , is owned by a consortium of 10 Manchester area local authorities . Whilst the number of airports in the UK runs into hundreds , many are smaller aerodromes dealing with general aviation rather than air transport . In terms of the latter , statistics are collected from 59 main airports , and the largest concentration of services is located in the London and South East of England areas . Heathrow is the largest airport in the country , handling over 67 million terminal passengers in 2006 , making it the third busiest airport in the world , and the busiest if measured by the number of international passengers . Nearly a third of all overseas residents visiting the UK enter the country via this airport , which also handles more than a fifth of all overseas visits by UK residents . Even though there are no dedicated freight services operating out of Heathrow , the practise of transporting cargo in the holds of passenger aircraft means that this airport still accounts for more than half of all freight handled by UK airports . Gatwick airport , with 34 million terminal passengers , is the second largest in the country , eighth busiest in the world for international passenger traffic , and lays claim to the busiest single runway airport in the world . Between them the five London airports handle nearly 137 million terminal passengers , 59 per cent of the national total . Stansted and East Midlands airports have both experienced large growth in freight handling over the past decade , and these two airports are the major hubs for express freight operations . Outside of London and the South East , the use of regional airports has increased dramatically in recent years , with the amount of air traffic using these facilities doubling in the period 1995 to 2005 . To illustrate this growth , in the five years from 2001 passenger numbers at the regional airports of Exeter International Airport , Bristol International Airport , and Newcastle Airport increased by 191 per cent , 113 per cent , and 60 per cent respectively . In the same period the largest airports experienced some of the slowest growth , with Heathrow passenger numbers increasing by 11 per cent , and those of Gatwick increasing by less than 10 per cent . = = = Airlines = = = The majority of all passengers travelling by air to or from the UK are carried by UK airlines , of which there are around forty , and at the end of 2006 the UK air transport fleet numbered 963 aircraft , flying just under 1 @.@ 2 million flights and averaging over eight hours of flying daily . Together the two largest airlines as measured by passenger numbers ; British Airways and easyJet , account for nearly half of the 127 million passengers flown on UK airlines . In terms of capacity , both available and used , British Airways is again the largest airline , whilst easyJet is pushed into third place by Virgin Atlantic Airways . British Airways passenger flights also account for over 50 per cent of all cargo carried by UK airlines , and when combined with its cargo operations the airline carries over 60 per cent of all cargo carried by UK airlines . The advent in the mid @-@ 1990s of ’ no @-@ frills ’ carriers , such as easyJet , has had a significant impact on air travel in the UK . In 2005 these airlines carried 77 @.@ 5 million passengers , up from just 4 @.@ 3 million in 1996 . They are responsible for the growth of regional airports , operating from 35 airports in 2006 compared to 10 in 1996 , and increasing the choice of international destinations , serving 150 in 2006 , compared to 12 a decade earlier . The annual rate of growth in the overall demand for air travel has remained stable since 1975 , averaging 5 @.@ 8 per cent annually . Recent growth is being serviced by the no @-@ frills airlines at the expense of traditional carriers which , since 2000 , have experienced flat or declining traffic levels . In response , traditional carriers have lowered costs to compete more effectively on price , leading to lower prices on the short haul routes serviced by this sector , especially in business fares . They have also limited or reduced capacity and in some cases launched no @-@ frills subsidiaries of their own . = = = Passenger travel = = = Just over a fifth of all terminal passengers are travelling on domestic routes only , whilst half are travelling between the UK and the rest of the European Union ( EU ) . Of the latter , travel between the UK and Spain , France , Germany and Italy account for around half , with Spain almost matching the other three combined in terms of passenger numbers . Outside of the EU , the USA , the Far East , Switzerland and the Middle East together account for just over half of all passengers flying between the UK and the rest of the world , with the USA exceeding the other three combined in terms of passenger numbers . Air travel is the most popular mode of transport for visitors both to and from the UK . In 2005 it was used for 80 per cent of all visits by UK residents travelling overseas and by 74 per cent of all inbound visits . Just over a quarter of all passengers are travelling on business . The advent of no @-@ frills carriers has had a significant effect on passenger travel profiles , with strong growth in business travel from regional airports , and increasing inbound traffic generated for the purposes of non @-@ UK residents visiting friends and relatives based in the UK . Whilst these carriers have been perceived to democratise air travel , providing the opportunity for lower income groups to travel more often , the main result is actually that middle and higher income groups travel more often , and often for shorter trips . Researchers have been raising concern about the globally increasing hypermobility of individuals , involving frequent and often long distance air travel and the resulting environmental and climate impacts . = = = Capacity = = = The availability of airport capacity has been identified as an important constraint on the ability to meet the increasing demand for air travel . In many cases airport capacity is already fully used in meeting current demand . At Heathrow and Gatwick airports the runways are full for " … virtually the whole day " . In 2003 the runway at Birmingham airport was expected to reach full capacity by 2009 at the latest , whilst terminal capacity at Edinburgh airport had reached its limit . Government forecasts that year predicted that by 2030 the number of passengers could rise to between 400 million passengers per annum ( mppa ) and 600 mppa , representing a two to threefold increase , and a figure of 500 mppa by 2030 was regarded by the government as robust . In 2006 the government reported that at 228 mppa the demand for air travel the previous year was in line with the 2003 forecast , but also revised the forecast demand for 2030 downwards to 465 mppa as a result of capacity constraints , even taking into account proposed airport developments . = = = Government and regulation = = = The law governing aviation in the UK is defined by the Civil Aviation Act 1982 , which is updated periodically with amendments , the latest being the Civil Aviation Act 2006 . The government department responsible for legislating changes in national policy and long term strategy relating to aviation is the Department for Transport ( DfT ) . At the operational level the independently run Civil Aviation Authority ( CAA ) regulates economic , safety , and consumer protection aspects , as well as airspace policy , although these responsibilities are being increasingly ceded to the European Aviation Safety Agency ( EASA ) . International aspects of air transport are regulated by agreements made within the International Civil Aviation Organisation ( ICAO ) as established by the Chicago Convention , whilst most new legislation is now made at the European level through the European Civil Aviation Conference ( ECAC ) . As a consequence , other than in airport development , there are few aspects of the air transport industry in which the government can act in isolation . = = Airport development strategy = = Whilst airport development in the UK is subject to local planning authority processes , the government regards airports as an important part of the national infrastructure and which therefore requires their development to be planned with a strategic approach . To support this , the government began a three @-@ year public consultation process with the publication in December 2000 of The Future of Aviation consultation document . This outlined the issues underpinning air transport and sought views on how they should be addressed in any future policy . One of the main questions asked was whether policy should focus on meeting demand or whether it should focus instead on limiting the negative effects of air transport . Another key issue for which views were sought was how the industry might best meet the environmental costs it incurs . Between July 2002 and February 2003 a further seven regional consultation documents were published . These focussed on the economic , environmental , social and airspace appraisals relating to options for future airport development specific to the regions , and together they generated half a million responses . During the Spring of 2003 workshops based on a consultation document titled Aviation and the Environment - Using Economic Instruments were held to seek stakeholder views on the desirability and effectiveness of various financial measures that might address the environmental impacts of aviation . The consultation process ended in December 2003 with the publication of The Future of Air Transport White Paper which detailed the government 's conclusions . The White Paper does not in itself authorise or preclude any development , but seeks instead to define a " national strategic framework for the future development of airport capacity " over the next 30 years . The principal conclusion is that the two extremes of failing to provide additional airport capacity , and encouraging growth without regard for the wider impacts , are equally unacceptable options . Instead a " balanced and measured approach " to the future of air transport in the UK is adopted . This approach is designed to cater for the forecast growth in demand , thus supporting economic prosperity nationally and enabling ordinary people to travel at reasonable cost , whilst at the same time managing and mitigating the environmental impacts of aviation and ensuring that the costs associated with them are reflected in the price of air travel . The strategy seeks to minimise new airport development by making best use of existing facilities , and specific policies include : = = = Subsequent developments = = = In December 2006 the government published the Air Transport White Paper Progress Report 2006 to report on progress made in " … delivering a sustainable future for aviation . " The report re @-@ iterates the government ’ s commitment to the strategy defined in the original White Paper , stating that it " … strikes the right balance between economic , social and environmental goals . " It also reports that ; the extra runway at Edinburgh airport is now thought unlikely to be needed before 2020 ; Bristol airport does not currently see a case to support extending its runway , although the option will be kept under review ; the additional runway at Stansted airport is not expected to be operational before 2015 ; and the runway extension at Liverpool airport is now being proposed for early next decade . Elsewhere , recent forecasts conducted for Birmingham airport indicate that a new runway will not be required there before 2030 . Following the publication of the White Paper , the Project for the Sustainable Development of Heathrow ( ' Project Heathrow ' for short ) was set up to examine how expansion at Heathrow could best be accomplished within the constraints of the stringent environmental limits the White Paper required . A provisional assessment indicates that increased usage of the existing runways could be realised without increasing the number of people affected by noise if ' mixed mode ' operations ( the simultaneous use of both runways for arrivals and departures ) are phased in gradually as noisier aircraft are retired . Indications ahead of the Project Heathrow environmental assessment indicate that increased noise and deterioration in air quality are likely to significantly constrain traffic using a new third runway . These issues are to be addressed as part of a three @-@ month consultation beginning in December 2007 , and considerable opposition is being mobilised against the expansion of Heathrow . = = Economic impact = = The aviation industry and the government have together commissioned two significant studies into the economic impact of air transport , both undertaken by the consultancy Oxford Economic Forecasting ( OEF ) . The first ; The Contribution of the Aviation Industry to the UK Economy , was published in 1999 and was used as a source of economic information in The Future of Air Transport White Paper . The second study ; The Economic Contribution of the Aviation Industry in the UK , co @-@ sponsored by the national tourist agency VisitBritain , was published in October 2006 to extend and update the earlier report , and was used as a source in the Air Transport White Paper Progress Report 2006 . Both studies concluded that whilst aviation is an important industry in its own right , the most important contribution is as " … a facilitator of growth for the economy as a whole . " Environmental groups dispute the economic benefits that are claimed for air transport , and the OEF reports have been specifically challenged . The Aviation Environment Federation ( AEF ) , publishing the Rebuttal of Oxford Economic Forecasting Report , has labelled the 2006 OEF report " biased and misleading " . AirportWatch , an umbrella movement for national environmental organisations and airport community groups opposed to aviation expansion , has produced a critique of the 2006 OEF report and the DfT ’ s reliance on economic research that has been " … sponsored by the aviation industry . " In response to government policy supporting further growth in aviation , Friends of the Earth ( FoE ) published Pie in the Sky in September 2006 . This study concludes that the economic benefits of aviation have been exaggerated , and that the costs arising from environmental damage , as well as to other sectors of the economy , are ignored . Also published in 2006 , the Environmental Change Institute study Predict and decide - Aviation , climate change and UK policy re @-@ examined the economic arguments made in favour of aviation , concluding that restricting future growth would not necessarily be detrimental to the economy , and could potentially result in some economic benefits . = = = Direct economic impact = = = In terms of direct impact on the UK economy , air transport is an £ 11 @.@ 4 billion industry , a figure which represents 1 @.@ 1 per cent of the country ’ s economy . It employs 186 @,@ 000 people ( full @-@ time equivalents ) , and indirectly supports an additional 334 @,@ 000 jobs , although the inclusion of indirect employment as an economic benefit of air transport is disputed . In terms of productivity the aviation industry in 2004 was the third most productive , after the oil / gas extraction and utilities sectors , exceeding the national average by a factor of two and a half . The industry is also very capital intensive , accounting for up to 3 @.@ 5 per cent of total UK business investment in the period 2000 to 2004 . Air transport was directly responsible for £ 3 @.@ 6 billion in tax and national insurance contributions in 2004 / 5 , which includes £ 0 @.@ 9 billion raised in Air Passenger Duty ( APD ) , a figure set to double after APD rates were doubled in February 2007 . Because of the global nature of the industry , article 15 of the Chicago Convention effectively prevents the imposition of fuel duty on aviation , and the industry does not pay Value Added Tax ( VAT ) . Environmental groups argue that these , along with duty @-@ free sales , are iniquitous tax concessions valued at £ 9 billion annually . Despite generating £ 6 @.@ 9 billion in exports in 2004 , representing 3 per cent of all UK exports and 7 per cent of the total export of services , the patronage in the UK of air transport services provided by overseas airlines resulted in a £ 3 @.@ 3 billion balance of payments deficit attributable to the industry . = = = Indirect economic impact = = = The government ’ s response to the challenges of an increasingly global economy is to build a " strong , modern knowledge economy " , and the 2006 OEF study concludes that the UK economy is " … set to become increasingly dependent on aviation as the structure of the economy evolves . " The availability of air transport services is regarded as an important factor in facilitating business activities , with benefits being realised in sales and marketing activities , customer and supplier relationships , the ability to serve a wider market , access to emerging markets , and more efficient production . Within industry sectors that are likely to support the development of a knowledge based economy , such as pharmaceuticals , banking and finance , communication services , computer services etc . , there is conflicting evidence about a correlation between growth in a sector and that sector ’ s use of air travel , although survey results show that knowledge based services and high @-@ tech manufacturing businesses are more dependent on air transport for sales than their more traditional economy counterparts . The most successful example of the country ’ s economic evolution is the international financial services industry based in London . Within this sector aviation services are seen as critically important for both businesses and their clients , even in the era of video @-@ conferencing . London ’ s air transport services are widely regarded within the London business community surveyed by the OEF to provide a competitive advantage over the rest of Europe , and expansion of airport capacity in the South East has significant support . Whilst these economic contributions are not disputed by environmental groups , they are not considered as sufficient justification to support further growth in air transport services which would primarily service increased demand for leisure travel rather than a business travel market which is already well served . Transport links generally are regarded as an important factor which affects a company ’ s decision on where to locate , and thus invest , although the latest survey shows quality of telecommunications moving above transport in importance . Survey evidence indicates that a quarter of companies regard access to air services as an important factor in the decision of where in the UK to locate operations , whilst one in ten companies report that the absence of good air transport links has affected their decision to invest in the UK . The survey has been criticised as suffering from a poor response rate and therefore open to bias , though this issue has been recognised and rationalised by the report 's authors . Tourism is an industry where the influence of air transport services is more obvious . In 2005 some 22 million overseas visitors arrived by air , spending around £ 12 billion ( 1 @.@ 1 per cent of GDP ) and supporting 170 @,@ 000 jobs in the tourist industry . In the same year air travel also accounted for 36 million trips abroad by UK tourists , and UK tourists as a whole spend twice as much abroad as overseas visitors spend in the UK . This has led to the assertion that aviation represents a " net negative effect " on the UK tourism industry , and that restraining demand for air travel would encourage more domestic tourism , with the consequent economic benefit of reducing the tourism deficit . Exports and imports by air in 2005 were estimated at £ 62 @.@ 7 billion and £ 59 @.@ 6 billion respectively , with a significant majority of air freight operations being conducted with countries outside of the EU , and express freight operations transporting 5 per cent by value of all UK exports in 2004 . Whilst export / import facilities provide opportunities for international trade and competition , they are not without negative effect , and British horticulture is one example of domestic industry damaged by cheap imports . = = = Forecast economic impact = = = Attempts to quantify the economic impact of growth in the air transport sector generate results which depend on assumptions made , and therefore the viewpoint of the organisation making the analysis . The OEF study has produced a figure of £ 2 @.@ 5 billion per annum of additional GDP by 2015 for Heathrow , or £ 7 billion per annum by 2030 if a third runway is built there . Full implementation of the White Paper runway proposals resulted in a forecast yield of an additional £ 13 billion per annum in GDP by 2030 . Calculations done for the AEF , based on a new runway at Stansted , and which assume increased taxation of the industry , result in a negative economic benefit . = = Environmental impact = = External costs , also referred to as hidden costs , are quantifications of the environmental and climate impacts of air transport . Whilst setting a financial value on all such impacts is difficult to do precisely , figures have been produced for the most significant . In 2000 the government valued the annual cost of climate change induced by greenhouse gas emissions from UK air transport at £ 1 @.@ 4 billion , rising to £ 4 @.@ 8 billion per annum by 2030 . The impact of noise was costed at around £ 25 million per annum in 2000 , and for the same year the impact on air quality was costed at between £ 119 million and £ 236 million per annum . Based on figures produced by the European Environment Agency the AEF has calculated a much higher total external cost for 2000 of around £ 6 billion . = = = Global environmental impact = = = Whilst carbon emissions from all UK activities other than aviation had declined by 9 per cent in the 10 years between 1990 and 2000 , carbon emissions from aviation activities doubled in the same period . Air transport in the UK accounted for 6 @.@ 3 per cent of all UK carbon emissions in 2006 . When the radiative forcing impact of other emissions are taken into account the total impact of emissions attributable to aviation is estimated to be twice that of its carbon emissions alone . Although the government has committed to reducing total UK carbon emissions by 60 per cent from existing levels by 2050 , its policy is based on the use of " … economic instruments to ensure that growing industries are catered for within a reducing total . " Even if this reduction in total carbon emissions is achieved , research published in February 2006 concluded that aviation could account for between 24 per cent and 50 per cent of the UK 's carbon budget by 2050 . The government recognises that there are no viable alternative aviation fuels , and whilst it accepts that the exemption of aviation fuel from fuel tax is anomalous , it sees no scope for a unilateral approach in addressing this . The strategy adopted in the White Paper seeks to mitigate the global impact of air transport primarily through emissions trading schemes . Although the Kyoto Protocol implemented emissions trading as a means to reduce emissions at national levels , the global nature of air transport means that all air travel is excluded from this mechanism . The government is seeking to redress this through the International Civil Aviation Organisation ( ICAO ) , which has been working on the environmental issue since 1998 , but progress is slow . In the meantime efforts are being made to include aviation in the EU Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) with an original target to implement this by 2008 . In 2006 the government re @-@ affirmed this policy as the best approach for addressing the climate change impacts of aviation , and current proposals aim at accomplishing this for all flights within the EU by 2011 , with the scheme being extended to include all flights to and from the EU the following year . The aviation industry is seeking to reduce its climate change impacts by becoming more fuel efficient , and in the last 40 years fuel efficiency has more than doubled . In June 2005 , Sustainable Aviation ; a joint initiative involving a number of UK airlines , airports , manufacturers and the air traffic service provider NATS , was launched with a vision statement relating to environmental issues of " … removing or minimising any negative impacts on the local and global environment … " . One of its commitments is to achieve , by means of airframe , engine and air traffic management improvements , a 50 % reduction in CO 2 emissions , and an 80 % reduction in NOx emissions in new aircraft of 2020 relative to new aircraft in 2000 . These are however long term aspirations , and whilst progress is being made in engine development , the more immediate efforts of Sustainable Aviation to address climate change are directed towards supporting research , common reporting of emissions , emissions trading , and personal offsetting . Critics of an expansionist policy consider the EU ETS to be too late and to price carbon too low to adequately mitigate the climate change impact of aviation emissions . Instead they advocate addressing these impacts by constraining demand for air travel . The study Predict and Decide - Aviation , climate change and UK policy , noting that a 10 per cent increase in fares generates a 5 to 15 per cent reduction in demand , recommends that the government should seek an alternative aviation policy based on managing demand rather than providing for it . This would be accomplished via a strategy that presumes " … against the expansion of UK airport capacity " and constrains demand by the use of economic instruments to price air travel less attractively . In another study the levying of £ 9 billion of taxes is calculated to constrain the forecast growth in demand by 2030 to 315 million passengers , reducing the annual rate of growth to 2 per cent . The environmental message is echoed in the ninth report of the House of Commons Environmental Audit Select Committee , published in July 2006 , which labels the government strategy a predict and provide model and expresses scepticism about the timescale and efficiency of the EU ETS . It recommends instead that the government rethinks its airport expansion policy and considers ways , particularly via increased taxation , in which future demand can be managed in line with industry performance in achieving fuel efficiencies , so that emissions are not allowed to increase in absolute terms . = = = Local environmental impact = = = Under the provisions of the Civil Aviation Act aircraft in flight are specifically exempted from trespass and nuisance controls , which denies any form of redress to those living near airports who are disturbed by noise . Government sanctioned measurements of noise near airports take an average sound level , measured in decibels ( dB ) , over a 16 ‑ hour day , and are expressed as an LAeq figure . Officially , 57 dB LAeq is the threshold at which noise levels become disturbing , 63 dB LAeq represents moderate disturbance , whilst 69 dB LAeq represents high disturbance . Technological improvements in aircraft design means that aircraft are becoming quieter . Taking Heathrow as an example , between 1990 and 2004 the area around the airport affected by noise levels of 57 db LAeq and above fell by 60 per cent , whilst the number of people similarly affected fell by 51 per cent . Campaign groups dispute the methodology used to measure noise , asserting that it is flawed in a number of ways . Amongst other issues they point to the World Health Organisation view that annoyance begins at 50 db LAeq whilst serious annoyance begins at 55 dB LAeq , and they assert that the LAeq measurement does not give sufficient weight to the increasing incidence of noise events . Their conclusion is that noise levels , and the number of people affected , have increased rather than decreased . This is borne out by the latest survey of attitudes to noise published in November 2007 which reports that , compared with over 20 years ago , more people today are annoyed by the same level of noise as measured by LAeq . Whilst this may be attributable to changing attitudes , the report concludes that the contribution of aircraft numbers to annoyance has increased , and that an alternative method of estimating levels of annoyance that takes this into account would appear to be more relevant than the LAeq measurement . The report has attracted criticism in peer reviews , and one such review , characterising the survey as inconclusive , counsels " ... against using the detailed results and conclusions [ ... ] in the development of government policy . " Air quality around airports is another major issue and a 2006 study found that levels of nitrogen dioxide exceeds EU guidelines at more than two thirds of airports surveyed . Whilst aircraft contribute to the problem the study states that " … cars , buses and taxis ferrying passengers to and from these sites are dominant sources of pollution . " Birmingham airport dismissed the findings , asserting that the results were skewed by M42 motorway traffic unrelated to the airport , whilst studies at Southampton Airport attribute 5 @.@ 55 per cent of total pollutants to airport activities , the majority of the remainder being generated by non @-@ airport related road traffic . The government recognises Heathrow as the only UK airport where national and European air quality limits are being exceeded . A provision of the original Civil Aviation Act allows designated airports to be required to provide facilities for consultation with affected parties , where local environmental concerns can be raised , and some 51 airports have been so designated . A 2000 consultation by the government re @-@ iterated its policy that generally , local issues arising from airport operations are best addressed locally . To support this the Civil Aviation Act was extended in 2006 to give all airports the authority to mandate measures to address noise and air quality issues beyond their boundaries , and to impose financial penalties on aircraft which fail or are unable to adhere to such measures . The Civil Aviation Act 2006 also extends the provisions of section 78 of the original act , augmenting the powers of the Secretary of State to intervene directly in operations at designated airports ; currently Heathrow , Gatwick and Stansted , " … for the purpose of avoiding , limiting or mitigating the effect of noise and vibration connected with aircraft landing or taking off . " The largest airports also implement voluntary schemes to assist local communities in coping with the local impacts of airport operations . Birmingham International Airport , for example , has been operating a sound insulation scheme since 1978 , in which 7 @,@ 600 properties are eligible for sound proof glazing paid for by the airport . Schemes are also available to residents most affected by noise around Heathrow , designed to protect property prices ahead of any development of a third runway , assist with relocation costs for people who wish to move , and provide sound insulation for private and communal property currently affected by noise . In both cases local residents have also set up campaign groups ; Birmingham Airport anti @-@ Noise Group , and HACAN Clearskies at Heathrow , to represent themselves over local environmental issues arising from airport operations . Even the smallest of airports engaged in air transport operations ; Gloucestershire Airport , has attracted organised opposition to its plans to extend the main runway there , and the umbrella group AirportWatch lists over 20 local airport campaign groups .
= Eremoryzomys = Eremoryzomys polius , also known as the gray rice rat or the Marañon oryzomys , is a rodent in the tribe Oryzomyini of the family Cricetidae . Discovered in 1912 and first described in 1913 by Wilfred Osgood , it was originally placed in Oryzomys and named Oryzomys polius . In 2006 , a cladistic analysis found that it was not closely related to Oryzomys in the strict sense or to any other oryzomyine then known , so that it is now placed in its own genus , Eremoryzomys . The Brazilian genus Drymoreomys , named in 2011 , is probably the closest relative of Eremoryzomys . Eremoryzomys has a limited distribution in the dry upper valley of the Marañón River in central Peru , but may yet contain more than one species . A large , long @-@ tailed rice rat , with head and body length of 138 to 164 mm ( 5 @.@ 4 to 6 @.@ 5 in ) , Eremoryzomys polius has gray fur and short ears . There are well @-@ developed ungual tufts of hair on the hindfeet . Females have eight mammae . The rostrum ( front part of the skull ) is long and robust and the braincase is rounded . The bony palate is relatively short . The IUCN assesses the conservation status of the species as " Data Deficient " ; it is poorly known but may be threatened by habitat destruction . = = Taxonomy = = The first two specimens of Eremoryzomys polius were collected by Wilfred Osgood and M.P. Anderson in 1912 . The next year , Osgood described these animals as a new species in the genus Oryzomys , Oryzomys polius . Osgood wrote that he was unable to find any species closely related to O. polius and compared it with O. xanthaeolus ( currently Aegialomys xanthaeolus ) " for convenience " . Its relationships remained obscure ever afterward and it was never assigned to any of the several groups of species recognized within Oryzomys . In 2006 , Marcelo Weksler published a large @-@ scale cladistic analysis of Oryzomyini ( " rice rats " ) , the tribe to which O. polius belongs . He used both morphological data and molecular characters from the IRBP gene . In all of his analyses , O. polius was found to be part of clade D , one of four large groups within Oryzomyini , as the sister group to a clade containing all the other species of clade D. Clade D was supported by two shared derived ( synapomorphic ) molecular characters and by seven morphological synapomorphies — the tail has a different color above and below ; the parietal bone extends to the side of the skull ; the incisive foramina ( openings in the palate ) extend back between the first molars ; the posterolateral palatal pits ( perforations of the palate near the third molars ) are complex ; the sphenopalatine vacuities ( openings in the mesopterygoid fossa , the gap behind the end of the palate ) are large ; the pattern of the arterial circulation in the head is derived ; and the posteroloph ( a crest at the back ) is present on the third upper molar . Two other molecular synapomorphies supported the clade of all members of clade D except O. polius , coupled with three morphological traits — in these species , but not in O. polius , the first upper molar has an additional small root at the outer ( labial ) side ; the first lower molar has additional small roots ; and the second upper molar has the mesoflexus ( one of the valleys between the cusps and crests ) divided in two . In Weksler 's analysis , species placed in Oryzomys did not form a coherent ( monophyletic ) group , but instead were found at various positions across the oryzomyine tree , and he suggested that most of these species , including O. polius , should be placed in new genera . Later in 2006 , Weksler and others described ten new genera for species formerly placed in Oryzomys , including Eremoryzomys for polius ; thus , the species is now known as Eremoryzomys polius . In reference to its " isolated distribution " , they incorporated the Greek word eremia " lonely place " into the generic name . The 2008 IUCN Red List , citing Pacheco , commented that Eremoryzomys may in fact include more than one species . In 2011 , a new oryzomyine , Drymoreomys albimaculatus , was described from southeastern Brazil , and phylogenetic analysis of morphological and molecular data suggested that this animal is the closest known relative of Eremoryzomys . Eremoryzomys is now one of about 28 genera in the tribe Oryzomyini , which includes well over a hundred species distributed mainly in South America , including nearby islands such as the Galápagos Islands and some of the Antilles . Oryzomyini is one of several tribes recognized within the subfamily Sigmodontinae , which encompasses hundreds of species found across South America and into southern North America . Sigmodontinae itself is the largest subfamily of the family Cricetidae , other members of which include voles , lemmings , hamsters , and deermice , all mainly from Eurasia and North America . = = Description = = Eremoryzomys polius is a large , long @-@ tailed rice rat that in color resembles some North American woodrats ( Neotoma ) . The fur is grayish above and lighter below , where the hairs are gray at the bases but white at the tips . The external ears ( pinnae ) are short and the tail is dark above and light below . The hindfeet have well @-@ developed ungual tufts ( patches of hair ) along the plantar margins and between all of the digits , a character shared only with Sooretamys angouya among oryzomyines . The squamae , small structures resembling scales that cover the soles of the hindfeet in many oryzomyines , are well developed . The claw of the first digit extends nearly to the end of the first phalanx of the second toe and the claw of the fifth toe extends slightly beyond the first phalanx of the fourth toe . As in most oryzomyines , the female has eight mammae . Head and body length is 138 to 164 mm ( 5 @.@ 4 to 6 @.@ 5 in ) . In Osgood 's original two specimens , an old female and an adult female , tail length is 188 and 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 4 and 7 @.@ 1 in ) , respectively ; hindfoot length is 30 and 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 and 1 @.@ 2 in ) ; and greatest skull length is 37 and 34 @.@ 7 mm ( 1 @.@ 46 and 1 @.@ 37 in ) . Eremoryzomys polius has 12 thoracic , 7 or 8 lumbar , and 35 or 36 caudal vertebrae ; the presence of 12 thoracic vertebrae is a putative synapomorphy of Oryzomyini . = = = Skull = = = In the skull , the rostrum ( front part ) is long and robust . The nasal bones are short , not extending further back than the lacrimals , and the premaxillaries extend about as far back as the nasals . The zygomatic notch , an extension at the front of the zygomatic plate , is present . The plate 's back margin is level with the front of the first upper molar . A strong jugal bone is present in the zygomatic arch ( cheekbone ) , so that the maxillary and squamosal bones , which form the front and back parts of the arch , respectively , do not overlap when seen from the side . The narrowest part of the interorbital region ( located between the eyes ) is to the front and the region 's margins exhibit strong beading . Various crests develop on the rounded braincase , especially in old animals . The parietal bones form part of the roof of the braincase and , unlike in some other rice rats , also extend to the sides of the braincase . The interparietal bone at the back of the braincase is narrow and wedge @-@ shaped , so that the parietal and occipital bones meet extensively . The incisive foramina are very long , extending well between the molars . The posterolateral palatal pits are well @-@ developed and recessed into a fossa ( depression ) . The bony palate is relatively short , with the mesopterygoid fossa extending forward to the end of the molar row or even between the third molars . The roof of the fossa is perforated by large sphenopalatine vacuities . Usually , an alisphenoid strut is present ; this extension of the alisphenoid bone separates two foramina ( openings ) in the skull , the masticatory – buccinator foramen and the foramen ovale accessorium . The condition of various grooves and foramina of the skull indicates that the pattern of the arterial circulation of the head is derived . The subsquamosal fenestra , an opening at the back of the skull determined by the shape of the squamosal bone , is large and the mastoid bone is perforated by a fenestra ( opening ) . The squamosal lacks a suspensory process that contacts the tegmen tympani , the roof of the tympanic cavity , a defining character of oryzomyines . In the mandible , the mental foramen , an opening in the mandible just before the first molar , opens to the outside , not upwards as in a few other oryzomyines . The upper and lower masseteric ridges , which anchor some of the chewing muscles , usually join into a single crest at a point below the first molar and do not extend forward beyond the molar . There is no distinct capsular process of the lower incisor , a trait Eremoryzomys shares with only a few other oryzomyines . = = = Molars = = = The molars are bunodont ( with the cusps higher than the connecting crests ) and brachydont ( low @-@ crowned ) . On the upper first and second molar , the outer and inner valleys between the cusps and crests do not interpenetrate . Many accessory crests are present , including the mesolophs and mesolophids . The anterocone and anteroconid , the front cusps on the upper and lower first molar , are not divided into smaller outer and inner cusps . Small accessory roots are absent from the molars , so that each of the three upper molars has two roots on the outer side and one on the inner side and each of the lower molars has one root at the front and one at the back . = = Distribution and status = = As far as now known , Eremoryzomys polius is confined to a small area in central Peru , at an altitude of 760 to 2 @,@ 100 m ( 2 @,@ 490 to 6 @,@ 890 ft ) , but the species may range more widely . It occurs in forest in the dry lowlands of the upper parts of the basin of the Marañón River , east of the main mountain range of the Andes . The biogeographical pattern indicated by the relationship between Eremoryzomys and the Brazilian Drymoreomys is unusual . While there are some similar cases of relationships between Andean and Atlantic Forest animals , these involve inhabitants of humid forests in the Andes ; Eremoryzomys , in contrast , lives in an arid area . Because E. polius is so poorly known , the 2008 IUCN Red List assesses it as " Data Deficient " . It is threatened by habitat destruction for cattle pasture and is not known from any protected areas .
= No Such Thing as Vampires = " No Such Thing as Vampires " is the pilot episode of the American paranormal romance television drama Moonlight , which premiered on CBS on September 28 , 2007 in the United States . It was written by series creators / executive producers Trevor Munson and Ron Koslow , and directed by executive producer Rod Holcomb . The pilot introduces Mick St. John ( Alex O 'Loughlin ) , a private investigator who has been a vampire for over fifty years ; Beth Turner ( Sophia Myles ) , St. John 's love interest ; Josef Kostan ( Jason Dohring ) , St. John 's mentor and friend ; and Coraline Duvall ( Shannyn Sossamon ) , St. John 's ex @-@ wife and sire . The series , originally titled Twilight , was commissioned by Warner Bros. Television as a presentation lasting 14 – 20 minutes . Alex O 'Loughlin , Shannon Lucio , Rade Šerbedžija and Amber Valletta were cast in the lead roles , and Rod Holcomb was hired as director . The project was renamed Moonlight when picked up by CBS for the 2007 – 2008 American television season . David Greenwalt joined the staff in May 2007 as showrunner and executive producer alongside Joel Silver ; however , health reasons forced Greenwalt to leave the series . All of the original actors save for the male lead role were recast in June 2007 , and Sophia Myles , Jason Dohring and Shannyn Sossamon replaced them . With an almost entirely different cast , a retooled , full @-@ length pilot for television audiences was re @-@ shot . Although received poorly by critics , the pilot managed to finish first among total viewers and adults 18 – 49 for its night . Many critics criticized the acting and the writing ; one said that it had the " worst writing of the new season " . A few found that even though the series did not seem great , it " had potential " . Jason Dohring 's performance was praised , and one critic wished that he had " a bit more screen time " . = = Plot = = Mick St. John , a private investigator , dreams of being interviewed by a woman off @-@ camera , where he reveals that he is 90 years old , and that unlike other vampires , he has standards and does not hunt women , children or innocents . Mick 's job leads him to the scene of the murder of a young woman , where Beth , a reporter for the online newspaper BuzzWire , notices two large puncture wounds on the woman 's neck . While walking around the scene , she meets Mick and tells him he looks very familiar , but he insists that they do not know each other . Beth gives the murder article a vampire theme , using the puncture wounds as inspiration . The article makes Josef , a 400 @-@ year @-@ old vampire friend of Mick 's , concerned for the safety of vampires . To get more information on the murder , Mick goes to the morgue , where his friend Guillermo ( Jacob Vargas ) supplies him with blood . Mick does not detect any traces of vampire contact on the dead woman , eliminating them as her reason of death . Mick then comes across Beth at the dead woman 's apartment , where they find a necklace with a vial of blood inside . Professor Ellis ( Rudolf Martin ) , a lecturer of the dead woman , gives a eulogy at her funeral . Chloe , a friend of the dead woman , attacks Ellis and slashes his neck , whose blood Mick recognizes as the blood in the vial . Beth tracks down Chloe , who explains that the professor has a vampire @-@ worshipping blood cult , and he believes that he is a vampire . Later , Mick finds Chloe 's dead body , who was murdered by Ellis . Knowing that Beth has gone to Ellis 's class , he rushes to save her . After the class , Beth talks to Ellis about vampires and the young woman 's murder , but he discovers that she is wearing a wire . Ellis attacks Beth and although she escapes , she is kidnapped by the professor 's teaching assistant . Mick tracks down the assistant , defeats him , and takes an unconscious Beth to his apartment . In flashbacks to 22 years in the past , Mick investigates the case of a missing girl . In a domestic fight between Mick and his ex @-@ wife Coraline over the kidnapped girl , Mick stabs Coraline 's heart with the leg of a broken chair . He lights the house on fire and rescues the girl , leaving Coraline to the fire . It is revealed that the little girl has grown up to be Beth , and that Mick has tried to watch over her and keep her safe over the years . In the present , Beth wakes up and remembers that Mick was stabbed by the assistant , and that he was the one who saved her as a child . Mick dismisses the claims as being caused by her head injury . Thanking him for saving her , she hugs him . = = Production = = Trevor Munson conceived the character of Mick Angel in 2004 and spent two and a half years writing a novel featuring the character . The story was adapted into a feature film script , and Bruce Willis was considered as a possibility for the lead role . The script was shown to Nina Tassler at CBS , who paired Munson with Ron Koslow , creator of Beauty and the Beast , to rewrite the script as a television series . The series was titled Twilight , and Koslow and Munson wrote the pilot , which Warner Bros. Television initially commissioned as a presentation lasting 14 – 20 minutes in January 2007 . Joel Silver and Gerard Bocaccio were hired to be executive producers on the project under the former 's production banner , Silver Pictures , in the same month . Alex O 'Loughlin and Shannon Lucio were cast in the presentation , and Rod Holcomb was hired as director . The project was renamed Moonlight when picked up by CBS on May 14 , 2007 , prior the upfronts . David Greenwalt , creator of Miracles and co @-@ creator of Angel , joined the staff in May 2007 as showrunner and executive producer alongside Silver . CBS hired Greenwalt during the pilot process to restructure the original concept by Koslow and Munson , however health reasons forced him to leave the series , and Chip Johannessen took over showrunner duties in August 2007 . All of the original actors save for the lead role of Mick St. John were recast in June 2007 : Shannon Lucio , Rade Šerbedžija and Amber Valletta were originally cast in the roles of Beth Turner , Josef Kostan and Coraline Duvall respectively before Sophia Myles , Jason Dohring and Shannyn Sossamon replaced them . With an almost entirely different cast , a retooled , full @-@ length pilot for television audiences was re @-@ shot . To promote the series , Silver , along with the rest of the main cast , attended the Comic @-@ Con International in San Diego on July 27 , 2007 , where the show was featured . Joel Silver approached Dohring " out of the blue and said , ' There 's a role , and I 'm making it younger ' " . Dohring read two pages of script featuring Josef , and was interested by the character 's " dark " and " sharp " personality . Dohring had to go through the normal audition process and was not sure if he would have gotten the role without Silver , who had " pushed it all the way through to the end " . Munson explained that the goal of the casting changes was " to lighten the show up a bit " . He believed the changes granted the studio 's and network 's wish to " make it a little younger and hipper " . O 'Laughlin felt that the whole cast 's becoming " a little bit younger " especially effected the character Josef , as the originally chosen actor , Šerbedžija , was twice Jason Dohring 's age . The creators and the network were concerned that Josef , whose relationship with Mick was important , would appear as more of a " father figure " rather than as a friend . O 'Laughlin supported the recasting of Josef with a younger actor due to the resulting " level of ease in that age difference " . = = Reception = = " No Such Thing as Vampires " finished first among total viewers and adults 18 – 49 for its night . It was seen by 8 @.@ 54 million American viewers , and received a 5 @.@ 7 household rating and a 10 % share of all televisions in use . The critical responses to the pilot were overall unfavorable . Several critics compared it detrimentally with the television series Angel , as well as other vampire related media , including Forever Knight , Buffy the Vampire Slayer , Blood Ties , The Night Stalker , Dark Shadows and the works of Anne Rice . Tim Goodman of The San Francisco Chronicle considered it as a " flat @-@ out awful " pilot of what " may well be the worst new fall show " . Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette described the pilot as " a weak , generic private @-@ eye drama with a vampire story overlay " , and Matthew Gilbert of the Boston Globe felt that it came close to a " full @-@ on nightmare " . The writing of the pilot was criticized as " ponderous " , and having " familiar , conventional plots " . One critic claimed it did not offer much " to inspire an actor " , while another thought it had the " worst writing of the new season " . The dialogue was described as " groan @-@ inducing " . Tom Shales of The Washington Post criticized the series creators ' decision to make St. John a private investigator , and felt that they " appear eager to avoid what makes their show unique " . Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times saw promise in the series , but remarked it got " lost between concept and execution , and instead of suspense we get silliness , as if the creators were determined to use only the clichés of both genres " . The acting of the pilot was criticized as " sub @-@ par " and " woeful " . Robert Bianco of USA Today felt that Moonlight had a " less adept cast " than Angel . Matthew Gilbert of the Boston Globe depreciated the chemistry between O 'Loughlin and Myles as " artificial " , and said that they " exchange lines of dialogue with a stilted rhythm and no natural flow " . O 'Loughlin was described as a " flatliner " , and " passable in the lead role " , while Sossamon 's appearance was said to be " preposterously not @-@ scary " . Travis Fickett of IGN praised the actors , however , and felt that O 'Loughlin did " a decent job " , and that Myles was " perhaps the most promising aspect of the show " . Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune commended Myles as " reasonably good " . Not all reviews , however , were negative . Sarah Stegall of SF Scope gave the pilot a decent review , and said that if Moonlight could survive " the Friday night time slot " and the " thwarted expectations of [ vampire ] fans who were expecting Blade " , she thought it would " rock " . Kara Howland of TV Guide gave the pilot a positive review , and thought it was a " solid start " . Several critics praised Jason Dohring 's portrayal of Josef . One said that he gave the pilot " a small burst of energy " , while another said that he made it " crackle with a bit of wit " . Dohring was described as " a welcome presence " , and one critic wished for " a bit more screen time " . Travis Fickett of IGN praised the action scenes , and noted that " once the action gets started , it plays well " .
= Bikini = A bikini is a two @-@ piece swimsuit with a bra top and underwear . Bikini bottoms can range from full pelvic coverage to a thong or G @-@ string . The name for the bikini design was coined in 1946 by Parisian engineer Louis Réard , the designer of the bikini . He named the swimsuit after Bikini Atoll , where testing on the atomic bomb was taking place . Fashion designer Jacques Heim , also from Paris , re @-@ released a similar design earlier that same year , the Atome . More revealing than a one @-@ piece swimsuit , the bikini was slow to be adopted , and in many countries it was banned from beaches and public places . The Vatican declared it sinful . While still considered risqué , the bikini gradually became a part of popular culture when film stars — Brigitte Bardot , Raquel Welch , Ursula Andress and others — began wearing them on public beaches and in film . The bikini design had become common in Western countries by the mid @-@ 1960s as beachwear , swimwear and underwear . By the late 20th century it had also become common as sportswear , particularly in sports such as beach volleyball and bodybuilding . By the early 2000s bikinis had become a US $ 811 million business annually , and boosted spin @-@ off services such as bikini waxing and sun tanning . = = Etymology and terminology = = While the two @-@ piece swimsuit as a design existed in classical antiquity , the modern design first attracted public notice in Paris on July 5 , 1946 . French mechanical engineer Louis Réard introduced a design he named the " bikini " , taking the name from the Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean , which is Marshallese for coconut place . Four days earlier , the United States had initiated its first peace @-@ time nuclear weapons test at Bikini Atoll as part of Operation Crossroads . Réard hoped his swimsuit 's revealing style would create an " explosive commercial and cultural reaction " similar to the explosion at Bikini Atoll . By making an inappropriate analogy with words like bilingual and bilateral containing the Latin prefix " bi- " ( meaning " two " in Latin ) , the word bikini was first back @-@ derived as consisting of two parts , [ bi + kini ] by Rudi Gernreich , who introduced the monokini in 1964 . Later swimsuit designs like the tankini and trikini further cemented this false assumption . Over time the " – kini family " ( as dubbed by author William Safire ) , including the " – ini sisters " ( as dubbed by designer Anne Cole ) , expanded into a variety of swimwear , often with an innovative lexicon , including the monokini ( also numokini or unikini ) , seekini , tankini , camikini , hikini ( also hipkini ) , minikini , and microkini . The Language Report , compiled by lexicographer Susie Dent and published by the Oxford University Press ( OUP ) in 2003 , considers lexicographic inventions like bandeaukini and camkini , two variants of the tankini , important to observe . Although " bikini " was originally a registered trademark of Réard , it has since become genericized . Variations of the term are used to describe stylistic variations for promotional purposes and industry classifications , including monokini , microkini , tankini , trikini , pubikini , bandeaukini and skirtini . A man 's brief swimsuit may also be referred to as a bikini . Similarly , a variety of men 's and women 's underwear types are described as bikini underwear . = = History = = = = = In antiquity = = = Archaeologist James Mellaart described the earliest bikini @-@ like costume in Çatalhöyük , Anatolia in the Chalcolithic era ( around 5600 BC ) , where a mother goddess is depicted astride two leopards wearing a costume somewhat like a bikini . The two @-@ piece swimsuit can be traced back to the Greco @-@ Roman world , where bikini @-@ like garments worn by women athletes are depicted on urns and paintings dating back to 1400 BC . In Coronation of the Winner , a mosaic in the floor of a Roman villa in Sicily that dates from the Diocletian period ( 286 – 305 AD ) , young women participate in weightlifting , discus throwing , and running ball games dressed in bikini @-@ like garments ( technically bandeaukinis in modern lexicon ) . The mosaic , found in the Sicilian Villa Romana del Casale , features ten maidens who have been anachronistically dubbed the " Bikini Girls " . Other Roman archaeological finds depict the goddess Venus in a similar garment . In Pompeii , depictions of Venus wearing a bikini were discovered in the Casa della Venere , in the tablinum of the House of Julia Felix , and in an atrium garden of Via Dell 'Abbondanza . = = = Bikini precursors in the West = = = Swimming or bathing outdoors was discouraged in the Christian West , so there was little demand or need for swimming or bathing costumes until the 18th century . The bathing gown of the 18th century was a loose ankle @-@ length full @-@ sleeve chemise @-@ type gown made of wool or flannel that retained coverage and modesty . In 1907 , Australian swimmer and performer Annette Kellerman was arrested on a Boston beach for wearing form @-@ fitting sleeveless one @-@ piece knitted swimming tights that covered her from neck to toe , a costume she adopted from England , although it became accepted swimsuit attire for women in parts of Europe by 1910 . In 1913 , designer Carl Jantzen made the first functional two @-@ piece swimwear . Inspired by the introduction of females into Olympic swimming he designed a close @-@ fitting costume with shorts for the bottom and short sleeves for the top . During the 1920s and 1930s , people began to shift from " taking in the water " to " taking in the sun " , at bathhouses and spas , and swimsuit designs shifted from functional considerations to incorporate more decorative features . Rayon was used in the 1920s in the manufacture of tight @-@ fitting swimsuits , but its durability , especially when wet , proved problematic . Jersey and silk were also sometimes used . By the 1930s , manufacturers had lowered necklines in the back , removed sleeves , and tightened the sides . With the development of new clothing materials , particularly latex and nylon , swimsuits gradually began hugging the body through the 1930s , with shoulder straps that could be lowered for tanning . Women 's swimwear of the 1930s and 1940s incorporated increasing degrees of midriff exposure . Teen magazines of late 1940s and 1950s featured similar designs of midriff @-@ baring suits and tops . However , midriff fashion was stated as only for beaches and informal events and considered indecent to be worn in public . Hollywood endorsed the new glamor in films like Neptune 's Daughter in which Esther Williams wore provocatively named costumes such as " Double Entendre " and " Honey Child " . Wartime production during World War II required vast amounts of cotton , silk , nylon , wool , leather , and rubber . In 1942 , the United States War Production Board issued Regulation L @-@ 85 , cutting the use of natural fibers in clothing and mandating a 10 % reduction in the amount of fabric in women 's beachwear . To comply with the regulations , swimsuit manufacturers removed skirt panels and other attachments , while increasing production of the two @-@ piece swimsuit with bare midriffs . At the same time , demand for all swimwear declined as there was not much interest in going to the beach , especially in Europe . = = = Modern bikini = = = With the fabric shortage still in place and in an endeavour to resurrect swimwear sales , two French designers – Jacques Heim and Louis Réard – almost simultaneously launched their new two @-@ piece swimsuit ranges in 1946 . Heim launched his two @-@ piece swimsuit in Paris which he called the atome , after the smallest known particle of matter . He advertised the Atome as the world 's " smallest bathing suit " . At about the same time , Louis Réard created a competing two @-@ piece swimsuit design , which he called the bikini . Although briefer than the two @-@ piece swimsuits of the 1930s , the bottom of Heim 's new two @-@ piece beach costume still covered the wearer 's navel . Réard 's bikini undercut Heim 's atome in its brevity . His initial design consisted of a bra and two triangular pieces of newspaper @-@ type print fabric connected by strips of material . He sliced the top off Heim 's bottoms . The Bikini , with a total area of 30 square inches ( 200 cm2 ) of cloth , was advertised as " smaller than the smallest swimsuit " . When he was unable to find a model willing to showcase his revealing design , Réard hired Micheline Bernardini , a 19 @-@ year old nude dancer from the Casino de Paris . Bernardini received 50 @,@ 000 fan letters , many of them from men . Réard said that " like the [ atom ] bomb , the bikini is small and devastating " . Fashion writer Diana Vreeland described the bikini as the " atom bomb of fashion " . In advertisements he declared the swimsuit could not be a genuine bikini " unless it could be pulled through a wedding ring . " French newspaper Le Figaro wrote , " People were craving the simple pleasures of the sea and the sun . For women , wearing a bikini signaled a kind of second liberation . There was really nothing sexual about this . It was instead a celebration of freedom and a return to the joys in life . " Heim 's atome was more attuned to the sense of propriety of the 1940s and a bigger hit than Réard 's design but Réard 's was the design that won the public 's imagination over time . Though Heim 's design was the first worn on the beach and sold more swimsuits , it was Réard 's description of the two @-@ piece swimsuit as a bikini that stuck . Modern bikinis were first made of cotton and jersey . = = = Social resistance = = = Despite the garment 's initial success in France , worldwide women still stuck to traditional one @-@ piece swimsuits , and , his sales stalling , Réard went back to designing and selling orthodox knickers . In 1950 , American swimsuit mogul Fred Cole , owner of mass market swimwear firm Cole of California , told Time that he had " little but scorn for France 's famed Bikinis . " Réard himself would later describe it as a " two @-@ piece bathing suit which reveals everything about a girl except for her mother 's maiden name . " Fashion magazine Modern Girl Magazine in 1957 stated that " it is hardly necessary to waste words over the so @-@ called bikini since it is inconceivable that any girl with tact and decency would ever wear such a thing " . In 1951 , Eric Morley organized the Festival Bikini Contest , a beauty contest and swimwear advertising opportunity at that year 's Festival of Britain . The press , welcoming the spectacle , referred to it as Miss World , a name Morley registered as a trademark . The winner was Kiki Håkansson of Sweden , who was crowned in a bikini . After the crowning , Håkansson was condemned by the Pope , while Spain and Ireland threatened to withdraw from the pageant . In 1952 , bikinis were banned from the pageant and replaced by evening gowns . As a result of the controversy , the bikini was explicitly banned from many other beauty pageants worldwide . Though some regarded the bikini and beauty contests as bringing freedom to women , they were opposed by some feminists as well as religious and cultural groups who objected to the degree of exposure of the female body . The bikini was banned on the French Atlantic coastline , Spain , Italy , Portugal and Australia , and was prohibited or discouraged in a number of US states . The United States Motion Picture Production Code , also known as the Hays Code , enforced from 1934 , allowed two @-@ piece gowns but prohibited the display of navels in Hollywood films . The National Legion of Decency , a Roman Catholic body guarding over American media content , also pressured Hollywood and foreign film producers to keep bikinis from being featured in Hollywood movies . As late as 1959 , Anne Cole , one of the United States ' largest swimsuit designers , said , " It 's nothing more than a G @-@ string . It 's at the razor 's edge of decency . " The Hays Code was abandoned by the mid @-@ 1960s , and with it the prohibition of female navel exposure , as well as other restrictions . The influence of the National Legion of Decency also waned by the 1960s . = = = Rise to popularity = = = Increasingly common glamour shots of popular actresses and models on either side of the Atlantic played a large part in bringing the bikini into the mainstream . During the 1950s , Hollywood stars such as Ava Gardner , Rita Hayworth , Lana Turner , Elizabeth Taylor , Tina Louise , Marilyn Monroe , Esther Williams , and Betty Grable took advantage of the risqué publicity associated with the bikini by posing for photographs wearing them — pin @-@ ups of Hayworth and Williams in costume were especially widely distributed in the United States . In 1950 , Elvira Pagã walked at the Rio Carnival , Brazil in a golden bikini , starting the bikini tradition of the carnival . In Europe , 17 @-@ year @-@ old Brigitte Bardot wore scanty bikinis ( by contemporary standards ) in the French film Manina , la fille sans voiles ( " Manina , the girl unveiled " ) . The promotion for the film , released in France in March 1953 , drew more attention to Bardot 's bikinis than to the film itself . By the time the film was released in the United States in 1958 it was re @-@ titled Manina , the Girl in the Bikini . Bardot was also photographed wearing a bikini on the beach during the 1953 Cannes Film Festival . Working with her husband and agent Roger Vadim she garnered significant attention with photographs of her wearing a bikini on every beach in the south of France . Similar photographs were taken of Anita Ekberg and Sophia Loren , among others . According to The Guardian , Bardot 's photographs in particular turned Saint @-@ Tropez into the beachwear capital of the world , with Bardot identified as the original Cannes bathing beauty . Bardot 's photography helped to enhance the public profile of the festival , and Cannes in turn played a crucial role in her career . Brian Hyland 's novelty @-@ song hit " Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yellow Polka Dot Bikini " became a Billboard No. 1 hit during the summer of 1960 : the song tells a story about a young girl who is too shy to wear her new bikini on the beach , thinking it too risqué . Playboy first featured a bikini on its cover in 1962 ; the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue debut two years later featured Babette March in a white bikini on the cover . Ursula Andress , appearing as Honey Rider in the 1962 British James Bond film , Dr. No , wore a white bikini , which became known as the " Dr. No bikini " . It became one of the most famous bikinis of all time and an iconic moment in cinematic and fashion history . Andress said that she owed her career to that white bikini , remarking , " This bikini made me into a success . As a result of starring in Dr. No as the first Bond girl , I was given the freedom to take my pick of future roles and to become financially independent . " The bikini finally caught on , and by 1963 , the movie Beach Party , starring Annette Funicello and Frankie Avalon , led a wave of films that made the bikini a pop @-@ culture symbol , though Funicello was barred from wearing Réard 's bikini unlike the other young females in the films . In 1965 , a woman told Time that it was " almost square " not to wear a bikini ; the magazine wrote two years later that " 65 % of the young set had already gone over " . Raquel Welch 's deer skin bikini in One Million Years B.C. , advertised as " mankind 's first bikini " , ( 1966 ) was later described as a " definitive look of the 1960s " . Her role wearing the leather bikini raised Welch to a fashion icon and the photo of her in the bikini became a best @-@ selling pinup poster . Stretch nylon bikini briefs and bras complemented the adolescent boutique fashions of the 1960s , allowing those to be minimal . DuPont introduced lycra ( DuPont 's name for spandex ) in the same decade . Spandex expanded the range of novelty fabrics available to designers which meant suits could be made to fit like a second skin without heavy linings . " The advent of Lycra allowed more women to wear a bikini , " wrote Kelly Killoren Bensimon , a former model and author of The Bikini Book , " It didn 't sag , it didn 't bag , and it concealed and revealed . It wasn 't so much like lingerie anymore . " Increased reliance on stretch fabric led to simplified construction . It allowed designers to create the string bikini , and allowed Rudi Gernreich to create the topless monokini . Alternative swimwear fabrics such as velvet , leather , and crocheted squares surfaced in the early ' 70s . = = = Mass acceptance = = = Réard 's company folded in 1988 , four years after his death . By the end of the century , the bikini had become the most popular beachwear around the globe . According to French fashion historian Olivier Saillard , this was due to " the power of women , and not the power of fashion " . As he explains , " The emancipation of swimwear has always been linked to the emancipation of women " , though one survey indicates 85 % of all bikinis never touch the water . By 1988 the bikini made up nearly 20 % of swimsuit sales , more than any other model in the US , though one @-@ piece suits made a comeback during the 1980s and early 1990s . In 1997 , Miss Maryland Jamie Fox became the first contestant in 50 years to compete in a two @-@ piece swimsuit at the Miss America Pageant . Actresses in action films like Blue Crush ( 2002 ) and Charlie 's Angels : Full Throttle ( 2003 ) made the two @-@ piece " the millennial equivalent of the power suit " , according to Gina Bellafonte of The New York Times , According to Beth Dincuff Charleston , research associate at the Costume Institute of the Metropolitan Museum of Art , " The bikini represents a social leap involving body consciousness , moral concerns , and sexual attitudes . " By the early 2000s , bikinis had become a $ 811 million business annually , according to the NPD Group , a consumer and retail information company , and had boosted spin @-@ off services like bikini waxing and the sun tanning industries . = = = Outside the Western world = = = The 1967 film An Evening in Paris is mostly remembered because it featured Bollywood actress Sharmila Tagore as the first Indian actress to wear a bikini on film . She also posed in a bikini for the glossy Filmfare magazine . The costume shocked a conservative Indian audience , but it also set in motion a trend carried forward by Zeenat Aman in Heera Panna ( 1973 ) and Qurbani ( 1980 ) , Dimple Kapadia in Bobby ( 1973 ) , and Parveen Babi in Yeh Nazdeekiyan ( 1982 ) . Indian women wear bikinis when they vacation abroad or in Goa without the family . Despite the conservative ideas prevalent in India , bikinis have become more popular . In summer , when women take up swimming , often in a public space , a lot of tankinis , shorts and single @-@ piece swimsuits are sold . The maximum sales for bikinis happen in the winter , the honeymoon season . By the end of the first decade of 21st century , the Chinese bikini industry became a serious international threat for the Brazilian bikini industry . Huludao , Liaoning , China set the world record for the largest bikini parade in 2012 , with 1 @,@ 085 participants and a photo shoot involving 3 @,@ 090 women . For most parts of the Middle East , bikinis are either banned or is highly controversial . In 1966 , In 1973 , when Lebanese magazine Ash @-@ Shabaka printed a bikini @-@ clad woman on the cover they had to make a second version with only the face of the model . In 2011 , Huda Naccache ( Miss Earth 2011 ) , when she posed for the cover of Lilac ( based in Israel ) became the first bikini @-@ clad Arab model on the cover of an Arabic magazine . = = Bikini variants = = While the name " bikini " was at first applied only to beachwear that revealed the wearer 's navel , today the fashion industry considers any two @-@ piece swimsuit a bikini . Modern bikini fashions are characterized by a simple , brief design : two triangles of fabric that form a bra and cover the woman 's breasts and a third that forms a panty cut below the navel that covers the groin and the buttocks . Bikinis can and have been made out of almost every possible clothing material , and the fabrics and other materials used to make bikinis are an essential element of their design . Modern bikinis were first made of cotton and jersey . DuPont 's introduction of Lycra ( spandex ) in the 1960s completely changed how bikinis were designed and worn , as according to Kelly Killoren Bensimon , a former model and author of The Bikini Book , " the advent of Lycra allowed more women to wear a bikini ... it didn 't sag , it didn 't bag , and it concealed and revealed . It wasn 't so much like lingerie anymore . " Alternative swimwear fabrics such as velvet , leather , and crocheted squares surfaced in the early 1970s . In a single fashion show in 1985 , there were two @-@ piece suits with cropped tank tops instead of the usual skimpy bandeaux , suits that resembled bikinis from the front and one @-@ pieces from the back , suspender straps , ruffles , and deep navel @-@ baring cutouts . Metal and stone jewelery pieces are now often used to dress up look and style according to tastes . To meet the fast pace of demands , some manufacturers now offer made @-@ to @-@ order bikinis ready in as few as seven minutes . The world 's most expensive bikini was designed in February 2006 by Susan Rosen ; containing 150 carats ( 30 g ) of diamond , it was valued at £ 20 million . = = = Major variants = = = Bikini variations have grown to include a large number of more or less revealing styles — string bikinis , monokinis ( topless or top and bottom connected ) , Trikinis ( three pieces instead of two ) , tankinis ( tank top , bikini bottom ) , camikinis ( camisole top , bikini bottom ) , bandeaukini ( bandeau top , bikini bottom ) , skirtini ( bikini top , skirt bottom ) , " granny bikini " ( bikini top , boy shorts bottom ) , hikinis ( also hipkini ) , seekinis ( transparent ) , minikinis , microkinis , miniminis , slingshots ( or suspender bikinis ) , thong bottoms , tie @-@ sides ( a variety of string bikini ) and teardrops . = = Bikini in sport = = Bikinis have become a major component of marketing various women 's sports . It is an official uniform for beach volleyball and is widely worn in athletics and other sports . Sports bikinis have gained popularity since the 1990s . However , the trend has raised some criticism as an attempt to sell sex . Female swimmers do not normally wear bikinis in competitive swimming . The International Swimming Federation ( FINA ) voted to prohibit female swimmers from racing in bikinis in its meeting at Rome in 1960 . = = = Beach volleyball = = = In 1994 , the bikini became the official uniform of women 's Olympic beach volleyball . In 1999 , the International Volleyball Federation ( FIVB ) standardized beach volleyball uniforms , with the bikini becoming the required uniform for women . That regulation bottom is called a " bun @-@ hugger " , and players names are often written on the back of the bottom . The uniform made its Olympic debut at Sydney 's Bondi Beach in the 2000 Summer Olympics amid some criticism . It was the fifth largest television audience of all the sports at the 2000 Games . Much of the interest was because of the sex appeal of bikini @-@ clad players along with their athletic ability . Bikini @-@ clad dancers and cheerleaders entertain the audience during match breaks in many beach volleyball tournaments , including the Olympics . Even indoor volleyball costumes followed suit to become smaller and tighter . However , the FIVB 's mandating of the bikini ran into problems . Some sports officials consider it exploitative and impractical in colder weather . It also drew the ire of some athletes . At the 2006 Asian Games at Doha , Qatar , only one Muslim country – Iraq – fielded a team in the beach volleyball competition because of concerns that the uniform was inappropriate . They refused to wear bikinis . The weather during the evening games in 2012 London Olympics was so cold that the players sometimes had to wear shirts and leggings . Earlier in 2012 , FIVB had announced it would allow shorts ( maximum length 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) above the knee ) and sleeved tops at the games . Richard Baker , the federation spokesperson , said that " many of these countries have religious and cultural requirements so the uniform needed to be more flexible " . The bikini remains preferred by most players and corporate sponsors . Competitors Natalie Cook and Holly McPeak support the bikini as a practical uniform for a sport played on sand during the heat of summer . Olympic gold medal winner Kerry Walsh said , " I love our uniforms . " According to fellow gold medalist Misty May @-@ Treanor and Walsh it does not restrict movement . A feminist viewpoint sees the bikini uniform as objectification of women athletes . US beach volleyball player Gabrielle Reece described the bikini bottoms as uncomfortable with constant " yanking and fiddling . " Many female beach volleyball players have suffered injuries by over @-@ straining the abdominal muscles while many others have gone through augmentation mammoplasty to look appealing in their uniforms . Australian competitor Nicole Sanderson said about match break entertainment that " it 's kind of disrespectful to the female players . I 'm sure the male spectators love it , but I find it a little bit offensive . " Sports journalism expert Dr. Kimberly Bissell conducted a study on the camera angles used during the 2004 Summer Olympic Games beach volleyball games . Bissell found that 20 % of the camera angles were focused on the women 's chests , and 17 % on their buttocks . Bissell theorized that the appearance of the players draws fans attention more than their actual athleticism . Sports commentator Jeanne Moos commented , " Beach volleyball has now joined go @-@ go girl dancing as perhaps the only two professions where a bikini is the required uniform . " British Olympian Denise Johns argues that the regulation uniform is intended to be " sexy " and to attract attention . Rubén Acosta , president of the FIVB , says that it makes the game more appealing to spectators . = = = Bodybuilding = = = From the 1950s to mid @-@ 1970s , men 's contest formats were often supplemented with women 's beauty contests or bikini shows . The winners earned titles like Miss Body Beautiful , Miss Physical Fitness and Miss Americana , and also presented trophies to the winners of the men 's contest . In the 1980s , the Ms Olympia competition started in the USA and in the UK the NABBA ( National Amateur Body Building Association ) renamed Miss Bikini International to Ms Universe . In 1986 , the Ms Universe competition was divided into two sections – " physique " ( for a more muscular physique ) and " figure " ( traditional feminine presentation in high heels ) . In November 2010 the IFBBF ( International Federation of BodyBuilding & Fitness ) introduced a women 's bikini contest for women who do not wish to build their muscles to figure competition levels . Costumes are regulation " posing trunks " ( bikini briefs ) for both men and women . Female bodybuilders in America are prohibited from wearing thongs or T @-@ back swimsuits in contests filmed for television , though they are allowed to do so by certain fitness organizations in closed events . For men , the dress code specifies " swim trunks only ( no shorts , cut @-@ off pants , or Speedos ) . " = = = Other sports = = = Women in athletics often wear bikinis of similar size as those worn in beach volleyball . Amy Acuff , a US high @-@ jumper , wore a black leather bikini instead of a track suit at the 2000 Summer Olympics . Runner Florence Griffith @-@ Joyner mixed bikini bottoms with one @-@ legged tights at the 1988 Summer Olympics , earning her more attention than her record breaking performance in the women 's 200 meters event . In the 2007 South Pacific Games , the rules were adjusted to allow players to wear less revealing shorts and cropped sports tops instead of bikinis . At the West Asian Games in 2006 , organizers banned bikini @-@ bottoms for female athletes and asked them to wear long shorts . String bikinis and other revealing clothes are common in surfing , though most surfing bikinis are more robust with more coverage than sunning bikinis . Surfing Magazine printed a pictorial of Kymberly Herrin , Playboy Playmate March 1981 , surfing in a revealing bikini , and eventually started its annual bikini issue . The Association of Surfing Professionals often pairs female surf meets with bikini contests , an issue that divides the female pro @-@ surfing community into two parts . It has often been more profitable to win the bikini contest than the female surfing event . = = Bikini body = = In 1950 , American swimsuit mogul Fred Cole , owner of Cole of California , told Time that bikinis were designed for " diminutive Gallic women " , as because " French girls have short legs ... swimsuits have to be hiked up at the sides to make their legs look longer . " In 1961 , The New York Times reported the opinion that the bikini is permissible for people are not " too fat or too thin " . In the 1960s etiquette writer Emily Post decreed that " [ A bikini ] is for perfect figures only , and for the very young . " In The Bikini Book by Kelly Killoren Bensimon , swimwear designer Norma Kamali says , " Anyone with a tummy " should not wear a bikini . Since then , a number of bikini designers including Malia Mills have encouraged women of all ages and body types to take up the style . The 1970s saw the rise of the lean ideal of female body and figures like Cheryl Tiegs . Her figure remained in vogue in the 21st century . The fitness boom of the 1980s led to one of the biggest leaps in the evolution of the bikini . According to Mills , " The leg line became superhigh , the front was superlow , and the straps were superthin . " Women 's magazines used terms like " Bikini Belly " , and workout programs were launched to develop a " bikini @-@ worthy body " . The tiny " fitness @-@ bikinis " made of lycra were launched to cater to this hardbodied ideal . Movies like Blue Crush and TV reality shows like Surf Girls have merged the concepts of bikini models and athletes together , further accentuating the toned body ideal . One survey commissioned by Diet Chef , a UK home delivery service , reported by Daily Mail and The Today Show and ridiculed by More magazine , showed that women should stop wearing bikinis by the age of 47 . Yearly Spring Break festivities , which mark the start of the bikini season in North America , trigger many with eating disorders because of the over @-@ promotion of the bikini body ideal . In 1993 , Suzy Menkes , then Fashion Editor of the International Herald Tribune , suggested that women had begun to " revolt " against the " body ideal " and bikini " exposure . " She wrote , " Significantly , on the beaches as on the streets , some of the youngest and prettiest women ( who were once the only ones who dared to bare ) seem to have decided that exposure is over . " Nevertheless , professional beach volleyball player Gabrielle Reece , who competes in a bikini , claims that " confidence " alone can make a bikini sexy . = = Bikini underwear = = Certain types of underwear are described as bikini underwear and designed for men and women . For women , bikini or bikini @-@ style underwear is underwear that is similar in size and form to a regular bikini . It can refer to virtually any undergarment that provides less coverage to the midriff than traditional underwear , panties or knickers , especially suited to clothing such as crop tops . For men , bikini briefs are undergarments that are smaller and more revealing than men 's regular briefs . Men 's bikini briefs can be low- or high @-@ side that are usually lower than true waist , often at hips , and usually have no access pouch or flap , legs bands at tops of thighs . String bikini briefs have front and rear sections that meet in the crotch but not at the waistband , with no fabric on the side of the legs . Swimwear and underwear have similar design considerations , both being form @-@ fitting garments . The main difference is that , unlike underwear , swimwear is open to public view . The swimsuit was , and is , following underwear styles , and at about the same time that attitudes towards the bikini began to change , underwear underwent a redesign towards a minimal , unboned design that emphasized comfort first . = = = History = = = As the swimsuit was evolving , the underwear started to change . Between 1900 and 1940 , swimsuit lengths followed the changes in underwear designs . In the 1920s women started discarding the corset , while the Cadole company of Paris started developing something they called the " breast girdle " . During the Great Depression , panties and bras became softly constructed and were made of various elasticized yarns making underwear fit like a second skin . By 1930s underwear styles for both women and men were influenced by the new brief models of swimwear from Europe . Although the waistband was still above the navel , the leg openings of the panty brief were cut in an arc to rise from the crotch to the hip joint . The brief served as a template for most all variations of panties for the rest of the century . Warner standardized the concept of Cup size in 1935 . The first underwire bra was developed in 1938 . Beginning in the late thirties skants , a type of skanty men 's briefs , were introduced , featuring very high @-@ cut leg openings and a lower rise to the waistband . Howard Hughes designed the push @-@ up bra worn by Jane Russell in The Outlaw in 1943 . In 1950 Maidenform introduced the first official bust enhancing bra . By the 1960s , the bikini swimsuit influenced panty styles and coincided with the cut of the new lower rise jeans and pants . In the seventies , with the emergence of skintight jeans , thong versions of the panty became mainstream , since the open , stringed back eliminated any tell @-@ tale panty lines across the rear and hips . By the 1980s the design of the French @-@ cut panty pushed the waistband back up to the natural waistline and the rise of the leg openings was nearly as high ( French Cut panties come up to the waist , has a high cut leg , and usually are full in the rear ) . As with the bra and other type of lingerie , manufacturers of the last quarter of the century marketed panty styles that were designed primarily for their sexual allure . From this decade sexualization and eroticization of the male body was on the rise . The male body was celebrated through advertising campaigns for brands such as Calvin Klein , particularly by photographers Bruce Weber and Herb Ritts . Male bodies and men 's undergarments were commodified and packaged for mass consumption , and swimwear and sportswear were influenced by sports photography and fitness . Over time , swimwear evolved from weighty wool to high @-@ tech skin @-@ tight garments , eventually cross @-@ breeding with sportswear , underwear and exercise wear , resulting in the interchangeable fashions of the 1990s . = = Men 's bikini = = The term men 's bikini is sometimes used to describe swim briefs . Men 's bikinis can have high or low side panels , and string sides or tie sides . Most lack a button or flap front . Unlike swim briefs , bikinis are not designed for drag reduction and generally lack a visible waistband . Suits less than 1 @.@ 5 inches wide at the hips are less common for sporting purposes and are most often worn for recreation , fashion , and sun tanning . The posing brief standard to bodybuilding competitions is an example of this style . Male punk rock musicians have performed on the stage wearing women 's bikini briefs . Former Australian prime minister Tony Abbott was a fitness fanatic noted for wearing " speedos " or " budgie smugglers " . The 2000 Bollywood film Hera Pheri shows men sunbathing in bikinis , who were mistakenly believed to be women from a distance . Swimsuits shown in men 's wear collections by Giorgio Armani , Dolce & Gabbana and Paul Smith have tended to be throwbacks to the designs of the 1930s and ' 40s . Gianni Versace 's ads contain heroic depictions of Miami bathers . The Greek designer Nikos Apostolopoulos makes his bathing suits ( for both sexes , but with the focus on the male ) anatomical creations , cut and stitched to outline the body . Male bikini tops , a visual gag , also exist . A mankini is a type of sling swimsuit worn by men . The term is inspired by the word bikini . It was popularized by Sacha Baron Cohen when he donned one in the film Borat . = = Bikini waxing = = Bikini waxing is the epilation of pubic hair beyond the bikini line by use of waxing . The bikini line delineates the part of the pubic area covered by a swimsuit bottom . In the context of waxing , it is generally understood to describe any pubic hair visible beyond the boundaries of a swimsuit . = = Bikini tan = = The tan lines created by the wearing of a bikini while tanning are known as a bikini tan . A 1969 innovation of tan @-@ through swimwear uses fabric which is perforated with thousands of micro holes that are nearly invisible to the naked eye , but which let enough sunlight through to produce a line @-@ free tan . As bikinis leave most of the body exposed to potentially dangerous UV radiation , overexposure can cause sunburn , skin cancer , as well as other acute and chronic health effects on the skin , eyes , and immune system . As a result , medical organizations recommend that bikini wearers protect themselves from UV radiation by using broad @-@ spectrum sunscreen , which has been shown to protect against sunburn , skin cancer , wrinkling and sagging skin . Certain sunscreen ingredients can cause harm if they penetrate the skin over time .
= Solomon Creek = Solomon Creek is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Luzerne County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 8 @.@ 8 miles ( 14 @.@ 2 km ) long and flows through Fairview Township , Hanover Township , and Wilkes @-@ Barre . The creek is affected by acid mine drainage and has significant loads of iron , aluminum , and manganese . The creek 's named tributaries are Spring Run , Sugar Notch Run , and Pine Creek . The Solomon Creek watershed is located in the Anthracite Valley section of the ridge @-@ and @-@ valley geographical province . Major rock formations in the watershed include the Mauch Chunk Formation , the Spechty Kopf Formation , and the Catskill Formation . Solomon Creek was first settled by Native Americans around 8000 to 6000 B.C.E. A settler arrived at the confluence of the creek with the Susquehanna River by 1774 . In the 1800s , more people began arriving in the watershed to exploit its natural resources . Anthracite mining was especially prevalent in the watershed in the 19th and 20th centuries , to the point that numerous streams were altered or destroyed and the Laurel Run mine fire started . Solomon Creek was devoid of fish in the 1970s . However , since then several fish species , including brook trout , have inhabited the creek and its tributaries . A number of varieties of aquatic insects are also present . = = Course = = Solomon Creek starts on western Penobscot Mountain in northern Fairview Township and flows west down the mountain for a short distance before turning northwards , paralleling Pennsylvania Route 309 and briefly Pennsylvania Route 437 . The creek then enters Hanover Township . It picks up Pine Creek and cuts a gap through Wilkes @-@ Barre Mountain and then through Ashley . Upon leaving Ashley , it heads into Wilkes @-@ Barre , picking up Sugar Notch Run and Spring Run . The creek soon turns west into Hanover Township again , having flowed 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) by this point . It enters the Susquehanna River at Hanover Green . = = = Tributaries = = = Sugar Notch Run , Pine Creek and Spring Run are two tributaries of Solomon Creek . Sugar Notch Run is 3 @.@ 46 miles ( 5 @.@ 57 km ) long , Pine Creek is 7 @.@ 68 miles ( 12 @.@ 36 km ) long , and Spring Run is 2 @.@ 93 miles ( 4 @.@ 72 km ) long . Spring Run is an intermittent stream . There are two other ephemeral tributaries that are not officially named , but are known locally as Sulfur Run and the Lee Park tributary . Historically , Solomon Creek had at least seven tributaries , including one named Buttonwood Creek . However , several tributaries largely disappeared by the late 1890s due to mining in the watershed . = = Hydrology = = Solomon Creek has an orange color as it flows past Wilkes @-@ Barre , due to acid mine drainage . The tributaries Sugar Notch Run and Spring Run lose most of their discharge ( 75 % in the case of Spring Run ) when passing over subterranean mine pools . The discharge of the creek is 3 @.@ 39 cubic feet per second . Between 1938 and 1989 , the highest recorded discharge of the creek was 2450 cubic feet per second . This occurred on August 18 , 1955 . The discharge was not higher than 1610 cubic feet per second on any other year during that time period . The daily load of aluminum in Solomon Creek ranges from 8 @.@ 8 pounds ( 4 @.@ 0 kg ) at a site below Pine Creek to 87 @.@ 9 pounds ( 39 @.@ 9 kg ) at the Buttonwood Tunnel . The average load is 29 @.@ 6 pounds ( 13 @.@ 4 kg ) per day . The lowest load of iron is 0 pounds ( 0 kg ) per day at the site below Pine Creek and Solomon Creek at Sugar Notch Run and the highest is 9 @,@ 624 pounds ( 4 @,@ 365 kg ) per day at the Buttonwood Tunnel . The average is 2 @,@ 305 @.@ 5 pounds ( 1 @,@ 045 @.@ 8 kg ) per day . The Solomon Creek boreholes and the Nottingham @-@ Buttonwood Airshaft are the second @-@ largest and third @-@ largest sources of iron discharge in the Coal Region , contributing 9 @.@ 07 % and 7 @.@ 85 % of the iron load in the region , respectively . The daily load of manganese ranges between 0 @.@ 7 pounds ( 0 @.@ 32 kg ) above Pine Creek and 1 @,@ 086 pounds ( 493 kg ) at the Buttonwood Tunnel and the average daily load is 260 @.@ 1 pounds ( 118 @.@ 0 kg ) . The load of acidity in the creek ranges from 0 at site SR to 1 @,@ 506 @.@ 1 pounds ( 683 @.@ 2 kg ) per day at the Buttonwood Tunnel . The average load of acidity per day is 628 @.@ 9 pounds ( 285 @.@ 3 kg ) . The alkalinity load ranges from 288 @.@ 4 pounds ( 130 @.@ 8 kg ) on Sugar Notch Run to 135 @,@ 660 @.@ 8 pounds ( 61 @,@ 534 @.@ 7 kg ) at the Buttonwood Tunnel . The average daily load of alkalinity is 23 @,@ 716 pounds ( 10 @,@ 757 kg ) . At a large number of sites within the Solomon Creek watershed in 2011 , the water temperature ranged from 34 ° F ( 1 ° C ) at site SC12 to 70 ° C ( 158 ° F ) at sites above , below , and on Sugar Notch Run . At these same sites , the pH ranged from 4 @.@ 5 at a site on Sugar Notch Run to 7 @.@ 5 two sites on an unnamed tributary , one site below Sugar Notch Run , and a site on another unnamed tributary . The iron concentration ranged from 0 at over 20 sites to 36 milligrams per liter at an acid mine drainage discharge in the watershed . The concentration of dissolved oxygen ranged from 0 at eight sites to 13 milligrams per liter at SU01 , and on Pine Creek northeast of Pennsylvania Route 309 and below Unnamed Tributary 4 . There are six locations in the Solomon Creek watershed where mine drainage is discharged . Ten miles ( sixteen kilometers ) of the streams on the creek 's watershed are rendered devoid of life by mine drainage . According to Robert Hughes , the Eastern Pennsylvania Coalition for Abandoned Mine Reclamation 's executive director , the water level of Solomon Creek has risen since the middle of the 19th century . There are large amounts of sediment along the creek . Sediment piles are over 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) on the creek at Division Street and 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) or 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in the Brookside area . Sewage is discharged into the creek at several locations . It has been discharged into the creek since at least 1909 . Additionally , there are debris dams in various areas on the creek . = = Geology = = Solomon Creek is located at the edge of the ridge and valley geographic province , in the Anthracite Valley section . There is a ridge in the creek 's watershed called the Wilkes @-@ Barre Mountain . On the ridge , the Mauch Chunk Formation exists , with red shale , sandstone , and siltstone . Other significant rock formations in the watershed include the Pocono Formation with olive and gray rocks and the Spechty Kopf formation . Under the Spechty Kopf formation lie rocks of the Catskill Formation . The watershed is located in the Wyoming Coal Basin , the southwestern sub @-@ basin of the Northern Anthracite Coal Field . The creek 's headwaters have glacial deposition from the Wisconsonian glacial period . At the headwaters of the tributary Spring Creek , there is a rock formation of light gray conglomerate called Prospect Rock . It is 1 @,@ 394 feet ( 425 m ) above sea level and 2 @.@ 25 miles ( 3 @.@ 62 km ) southeast of Wilkes @-@ Barre 's Public Square . An unconformity lies between the Catskill Formation and the Spechty Kopf Formation . The sandstone in the latter formation are mostly cross @-@ bedded , although some areas have planar bedding . The Llewellyn Formation , containing conglomerate and sandstone is found in the Spring Run and Sugar Notch Run sub @-@ watersheds . The upper part of Solomon Creek is located in the Pocono Plateau . The lowest elevation in the watershed is 560 feet ( 170 m ) on the western side of the creek 's floodplain . The highest elevation is 2 @,@ 148 feet ( 655 m ) on Haystack Mountain . The elevation of the creek 's mouth is 594 feet ( 181 m ) above sea level . The creek 's source is just under 1 @,@ 840 feet ( 560 m ) above sea level . There are 14 coal seams in the Solomon Creek watershed . The deepest seam is the Bottom Red Ash . Other seams included the Middle Red Ash , the Top Red Ash , the Checker Bed , the Pittston Bed , the Ross Bed , the Skidmore Bed , the Kidney Bed , the Snake Island Bed , the Hillman Bed , and the Abbott Bed . There are also three numbered beds called the # 2 , # 3 , and # 4 beds . Historically , parts of the seams were within 50 feet ( 15 m ) of the surface , but they were completely mined . Areas along the banks of the creek are covered in coal ash , coal silt , sand , and gravel . There are gravel bars and point bars in the lower reaches of the creek . The lower reaches of Solomon Creek have a 0 @.@ 2 % grade . In the Solomon Gap , there are piles coal ash that is pink and orange due to oxidation . These piles rise as high as 60 feet ( 18 m ) to 100 feet ( 30 m ) . Similarly @-@ colored coal is found in sediment and gravel bars in the creek . = = = Soils = = = Soils in the Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 207 , in the Solomon Creek watershed , include the Arnot Rock outcrop complex . On hills with a grade higher than 25 % , the steep variety of this soil appears . It is a dark brown silt loam with a bedrock depth of 12 inches ( 30 cm ) . It has fast runoff and 3 % to 40 % of the surface is covered with boulders . The regular variety of this soil , which occurs on slopes with a grade of 8 % to 25 % , is the same , but has a bedrock depth of 18 inches ( 46 cm ) and slower runoff . = = Watershed = = The area of Solomon Creek 's watershed is 18 @.@ 2 square miles . The watershed area is 60 % forested land and 26 % developed land . Nearly 7 % of the land is considered disturbed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . This includes abandoned coal mines and quarries . In specific , 6748 acres are forest , 1839 acres are considered " low @-@ intensity development " by the Environmental Protection Agency , 1174 acres are considered " high @-@ intensity development " by the Environmental Protection Agency 509 acres are devoted to hay or pastureland , and 492 acres are considered " transition " by the Environmental Protection Agency . Crops are grown on 336 acres , quarries occupy 215 acres , wetland makes up 77 acres , coal mines make up 64 acres , and grass occupies 22 acres . There are a total of 26 @.@ 66 miles ( 42 @.@ 91 km ) stream miles in the watershed . Deciduous forest occupies much of the southern part of the watershed . Most of the agricultural land is located on a floodplain at the mouth of the creek . There are nine municipalities in the Solomon Creek watershed . Most of the watershed is in Ashley , Laurel Run , Wilkes @-@ Barre Township , and Hanover Township . Smaller parts of the watershed are in Wilkes @-@ Barre , Bear Creek Township , Fairview Township , Rice Township , and Sugar Notch . In the 2000 United States Census , there were 928 households in the Solomon Creek area and an average household size of 4 @.@ 6 people . This indicates a population of 4269 for the Solomon Creek watershed . There is a higher @-@ than @-@ average concentration of people over 65 years of age in the watershed . Major roads in the watershed include Interstate 81 and Pennsylvania Route 309 . There are five designated sub @-@ watersheds of the Solomon Creek watershed . They are the upper and lower Solomon Creek watershed , the Pine Creek watershed , the Spring Run watershed , and the Sugar Notch Run watershed . Neighboring watersheds include those of Little Wapwallopen Creek and Big Wapwallopen Creek . = = History = = Native Americans settled in the Solomon Creek watershed by approximately 8000 B.C. to 6000 B.C. Ebenezer Hibbard was an early European settler on the creek , living there by 1772 . The creek is named after a person with the surname of Solomon , who settled at the mouth of the creek in 1774 . In the early 1800s , Europeans first realized the natural resources of the watershed . In the early 1800s , there was a tavern called Inman 's Tavern and several cabins in the Solomon Gap . In the mid @-@ 1800s , the population of the watershed increased significantly due to coal mining and timbering opportunities . The first road in Fairview Township , the Wilkes @-@ Barre and Hazleton Turnpike , started at Solomon Creek . There are waterfalls called Solomon 's Falls on Solomon Creek . They were called a " beautiful cascade " by Philadelphia 's Portfolio in 1809 , although a 1909 book stated that the waterfalls were no longer " picturesque " or " delightful " . The falls were between 50 feet ( 15 m ) and 60 feet ( 18 m ) . In 1809 , Richard and Israel Inman constructed a gristmill at the foot of Solomon 's Falls . It was converted to a house in 1833 and destroyed in 1850 . A gristmill on the creek in Hanover Township had been built by 1812 and was run by George Mesinger . It was destroyed in 1840 . In 1845 , William Petty constructed the gristmill called Petty Mill in Hanover Township . This mill burned down in 1887 . The Wyoming Division Canal , which was constructed in the 1830s , started at Solomon Creek . Construction of the Ashley Planes in the Solomon Creek gap began in 1837 . They were used until 1848 . An iron @-@ producing forge operated on the creek in Ashley until 1839 . There was also a sawmill on it until 1839 . A powder mill operated on Solomon Creek , but was replaced with a brewery by 1885 . A slaughterhouse discharged its waste into the creek in the early 20th century . The creek was used as the water supply for the Huber Breaker from the 1930s to the 1970s . The Wilkes @-@ Barre and Hazleton Railway passed over Solomon Creek . Mining has been done in the Solomon Creek watershed in the past , causing considerable environmental damage . The mining began in the beginning of the 1800s and continued until the 1970s . However , there was one strip mining permit in the watershed in the late 1990s . Starting in 1967 , the mine pools under the creek stopped having water pumped out of them . This led to them flooding and damaging buildings in the watershed in 1972 during Hurricane Agnes . To remedy the problem of the flooding , the Buttonwood Tunnel and three boreholes known as the South Wilkes @-@ Barre Boreholes were created . The water quality of the creek was assessed in 1970 as part of Operation Scarlift . A 1977 study by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission observed brook trout inhabiting the watershed , although the stream was listed as impaired on account of the mining . A plan called the Solomon Creek Cold Water Conservation Plan was initiated in the summer of 2011 and continued into 2012 . A mine fire known as the Laurel Run mine fire started burning in the watershed of Solomon Creek since 1915 , when a miner accidentally left a carbide lamp hanging from a timber support in the Red Ash Coal Mine . The lamp caused the support to catch fire . The fire may continue into the 22nd century . The fire was contained in 1973 , but was not extinguished . Had the fire not been contained , it would have eventually spread under the entirety of the Wyoming Valley . The fire burns between 200 feet ( 61 m ) and 300 feet ( 91 m ) underground at a temperature of approximately 1 @,@ 000 ° F ( 538 ° C ) . The creek flooded in September 1850 . It was the most severe flood of the creek up to that time . In January 1996 , 400 buildings along Solomon Creek flooded by it due to melting snow . This was one of numerous floods on that area of the creek . = = = Alternate names = = = Solomon Creek was also been called Chester Creek and Solomon Creek by locals . It was called Moses Creek on maps of Pennsylvania created by William Scull in the 1770s . This last name may be named after an Indian , although it is not known for sure . = = Biology = = In 1975 , a study found no fish species on the creek . However , brook trout have been observed at seven locations on Solomon Creek . Brook trout are especially common on the tributary Sugar Notch Run . Trout reproduce everywhere in the tributary Pine Creek and reproduce in the main stem as far downstream as southern Wilkes @-@ Barre . Above of the South Wilkes @-@ Barre borehole , a number of other fish species have been observed . These include blacknose dace , bluegill , creek chub , fallfish , minnows , northern hog sucker , and white sucker . However , there are no species of fish downstream of the borehole . Out of 46 sites on the creek , 30 had sufficient macroinvertebrate concentrations to support trout . 2 @.@ 6 stream miles in the watershed are home to brook trout fisheries . This area is in Hanover Township , Laurel Run , and Bear Creek Township . The most common aquatic insects at the headwaters of unimpaired streams in the watershed of Solomon Creek are alderflies , caddis flies , dragonflies , mayflies , and stoneflies . Three sites in the watershed are considered " suboptimal " according to the WVSOS system . 20 sites are considered " marginal " and the remainder are " poor " . = = Recreation = = The Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 207 are located in the southeastern part of the Solomon Creek Watershed . They take up 6 @.@ 7 % of the watershed . Parts of Pinchot State Forest are also in the watershed ; the forest occupies 12 @.@ 6 % of it . Two of the trails in the 139 @-@ acre Sugar Notch Trail System are located in the sub @-@ watershed of Sugar Notch Run . The creek is stocked with trout in some places . There are ATV trails in the watershed .
= Frozen ( Madonna song ) = " Frozen " is a song by American singer Madonna from her seventh studio album Ray of Light ( 1998 ) . It was released as the lead single from the album on February 23 , 1998 , by Maverick Records . The song was also included on the compilation albums GHV2 ( 2001 ) and Celebration ( 2009 ) . " Frozen " was written by Madonna and Patrick Leonard , and it was produced in collaboration with William Orbit . Musically constructed as a mid @-@ tempo electronic ballad , " Frozen " talks about a cold and emotionless human being . In 2005 , a judge in Belgium ruled that " Frozen " was plagiarized from a song by Salvatore Acquaviva , and it was banned from the region . This ruling was overturned in 2014 , lifting the Belgium ban on the song . " Frozen " received acclaim from music critics , some of whom deemed it an album standout . It was described as being a masterpiece , and its melodic beat and sound were defined as " cinematic " . The song was a worldwide chart success , peaking at number two on the US Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Madonna 's sixth number @-@ two single and the artist with most number @-@ two hits in the history of that chart , while it reached number one on the Hot Dance Club Play chart . It ultimately peaked at number one in the United Kingdom , Italy , Spain and Finland , and also within the top @-@ five in other countries , such as Australia , Italy , Sweden and Switzerland . The accompanying music video for " Frozen " was directed by Chris Cunningham in a desert in California , portraying Madonna as an ethereal , witchy , melancholy persona , shapeshifting into a flock of birds and a black dog . The music video received a MTV Video Music Award for " Best Special Effects " in 1998 . To promote Ray of Light , the singer performed the song in several occasions including on Wetten dass .. ? . Additionally , it was included in three of Madonna 's concert tours . " Frozen " has been covered by a number of artists , such as Talisman and Thy Disease . = = Background = = After Madonna gave birth to her daughter Lourdes , in 1996 , she enrolled in Kabbalah and started studying Hinduism and yoga , all of which helped her " step outside [ myself ] and see the world from a different perspective . " The singer was inspired by these activities , as she began introspecting herself . " That was a big catalyst for me . It took me on a search for answers to questions I 'd never asked myself before " , she said to Q magazine . During the same year , Madonna began writing and producing Ray of Light with British electronic musician William Orbit . " I was a huge fan of William 's earlier records . [ ... ] I also loved all the remixes he did for me and I was interested in fusing a kind of futuristic sound but also using lots of Indian and Moroccan influences and things like that , and I wanted it to sound old and new at the same time " , Madonna said . When asked about its producing process , she said , I was so obsessed with the movie The Sheltering Sky and that whole Moroccan / orchestral / super @-@ romantic / man @-@ carrying @-@ the @-@ woman @-@ he @-@ loves @-@ across @-@ the @-@ desert vibe . So I told [ Patrick Leonard ] that I wanted something with a tribal feel , something really lush and romantic . When he started playing some music , I just turned the [ digital audio tape ] on and started free @-@ associating and came up with the melody . A low quality snippet of " Frozen " was leaked by fans on January 23 , 1998 , after it debuted on radio in Singapore , and posted it on the Internet . They said they knew what they were doing was wrong , but that they hoped it would simply generate interest from Madonna . The song was played on the US radios , including the WKTU New York radio . Warner Bros. Records enlisted the Recording Industry Association of America 's Anti @-@ Piracy Unit to delete the Internet downloads to the song . Erik Bradley , musical director of Chicago B96 , classified " Frozen " as a " the mark of a smash . Clearly , American pop radio needs Madonna " , after his station leaked it in the United States . According to Jon Uren , marketing director of Warner Music Europe , the song also had " fantastic " early support across Europe . Shortly after the song leaked , a remix version of " Frozen " was broadcast by the BBC website , and also was previewed on the soundtrack at the 1998 Versace fashion spring parade . = = Composition = = " Frozen " is a mid @-@ tempo electronic ballad which has a layered sound enhanced by synthesizers and strings , arranged by Craig Armstrong . It was composed using common time in the key of F minor , with a moderate tempo of 102 beats per minute . " Frozen " has a basic sequence of Fm – E ♭ – D ♭ – E ♭ as its chord progression . The chorus , however , has the chord progression of Fm – B ♭ m – D ♭ – A ♭ . Madonna 's vocals range from the lower octave of F3 to the higher note of A ♭ 4 . The song begins with austere , classical strings while the chord progression emphasizes tonic , submediant and flattened leading @-@ tone chords . For the second phrase , which includes a dramatic crescendo , rhythm and ambient electronic effects are added gradually . Santiago Fouz @-@ Hernández and Freya Jarman @-@ Ivens , authors from Madonna 's Drowned Worlds , commented that the song is strongly inspired by different forms of classical music , notably contemporary classical music such as neoromanticism , as well as Italian opera composers and pieces such as Puccini 's Madama Butterfly and Verdi 's Aïda . Madonna 's vocals throughout the song lack vibrato , and have drawn comparisons to medieval music . Lyrically , the song is about a cold and emotionless man . In the first verse , Madonna enters in a medium range , ' You only see what your eyes want to see ' . In the chorus , dance rhythm and ambient sounds are added . In the second verse , more visceral lyrics are added , like ' Love is a bird , she needs to fly ' . During the bridge , a broad , string lines provide instrumental commentary on the lyrics . The song ends with a string ostinato that simply fades away , without fully resolving to the tonic chord . In an interview with The New York Times , Madonna commented that the lyrics to " Frozen " is built around " Retaliation , revenge , hate , regret , that 's what I deal with in " Frozen " . Everyone 's going to say , ' That 's a song about Carlos ' [ her ex @-@ boyfriend ] , but it 's not really ; it 's just about people in general " . = = Plagiarism case = = In November 2005 , a Belgian judge seated in Mons ruled that the opening four @-@ bar theme to " Frozen " was plagiarized from the song " Ma vie fout le camp " ( " My Life 's Getting Nowhere " ) , composed by Salvatore Acquaviva . The judge subsequently ordered the withdrawal from sales of all remaining discs , and forbade any further playing of the song on Belgian TV and radio . The judge also ordered Warner Bros. , EMI and Sony to spread the decision within fifteen days to media outlets on pain of a penalty of € 125 @,@ 000 for non @-@ compliance with the court order . Acquaviva 's lawyer , Victor Vicent Dehin , said : " We tried to reach a friendly agreement ... but they didn 't want to negotiate so I sued for plagiarism . They have stolen a song , so they have to pay the value of the song . " No award damages for the song were granted . Salvatore Acquaviva had explained to the court that Madonna heard " Ma vie fout l 'camp " during a trip to Mouscron in the late 1970s . She had been recruited to be a dancer during a tour with French singer Patrick Hernandez , whose discs were produced in Mouscron . Dehin also stated that the lawsuit was just the first step , and the next discussion would be about the copyright gains Madonna obtained with " Frozen " . Subsequently , the song was omitted from the track listing on the Belgian pressings of Celebration in 2009 . However , Madonna performed the song during the Sticky & Sweet Tour in Werchter , with Bert Bieseman , marketing manager of Belgian branch of Warner Bros. stating that " Madonna is not afraid of a more or less riot " . Acquaviva commented about the case : Madonna planning to perform " Frozen " in Werchter ? I didn 't expect anything else , you know . I don 't even mind . It just would be nice because I would finally get some money after all these years , because the case is still going on . I 'm certainly not going to the concert . My lawyer is following the case . I 'm really going to follow Madonna 's concert with interest , because she really can 't perform the song . Yet , I think we won 't immediately take steps . The court 's decision is subject to various interpretations . The song can 't be played on the radio or be sold , but have we arguments enough for the concert to be over ? We won 't bring additional spectacle to the show . Unnecessary scandals , with Madonna it 's guaranteed . In February 2014 , a Belgian court revealed the verdict on the case and proclaimed that Madonna did not plagiarize Acquaviva 's work for " Frozen " . The court spoke of a " new capital offense " in the file : composer Edouard Scotto Di Suoccio and societies Tabata Atoll Music and Music in Paris had also filed a complaint for plagiarism . According to them , both " Ma vie fout le camp " and " Frozen " originated in the song " Blood Night " which they composed in 1983 . After all three tracks in the case were compared , the final ruling was that the songs were " not sufficiently ' original ' to claim " that any plagiarism had taken place . This ruling ended the eight @-@ year ban of the song that was in place in Belgium since 2005 . = = Critical reception = = " Frozen " was generally acclaimed by music critics . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine gave the song a positive review , praising its production and claiming it was " one of the great pop masterpieces of the 1990s . Its lyrics are uncomplicated but its statement is grand . " David Browne from Entertainment Weekly had said the song was a " wuthering @-@ beats melodrama that 's often breathtaking . " Billboard 's Paul Verna described the song as " smashing " . In a separate review , Larry Flick called it a " stunning foray into the realm of electronica [ which ] [ ... ] underground purists and unwavering popstars will equally applaud " . Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone commented positively about the " arctic melancholy " of the song . Stephen Thompson from the The A.V. Club approved the song 's melodic beat and the sound , but he did dismiss the lyrics . The Baltimore Sun 's J.D. Considine called it a word @-@ focused , emotionally nuanced ballad . Jon Pareles from The New York Times was impressed how Madonna , dulcet and careful , performed the song . Joan Anderman from The Boston Globe said that on Ray of Light , only " Frozen " achieves a " state of divine balladry " , recalls the " emotional pitch " and simmers the " beauty of 1986 's ' Live to Tell ' with a dark , lush string section , the smash and patter of a lone drum , and an ominous , pulsing buzz " . Bryan Lark , writing for The Michigan Daily , called the song " gorgeous " and one of the album 's best tracks , along with " The Power of Good @-@ Bye " . He further commented that both songs prove that she still likes to get into the groove , and explain why this is a techno album and not part of the " Moods " series . Sputnikmusic gave the song a positive review , impressed by how " interesting percussion backing , beautiful use of strings with techno effects and Madonna at her soothing best " . Stephen Sears from Idolator noted that Madonna has a history of releasing albums with " killer singles " as " Frozen " , and commented that " Not since ' Live To Tell ' had a Madonna ballad carried such emotional weight — and this time it was done with a new level of sonic grandeur " . Jose F. Thomas from Allmusic rated the song two stars out of five , describing the song as " chilly " . In 2003 , Madonna fans were asked to vote for their " Top 20 Madonna singles of all @-@ time " , by Q magazine . " Frozen " was allocated the number ten spot on the list . Billboard also allocated " Frozen " at number 25 on a list containing Madonna 's 40 hits , stating that the song marked a sonic change in Madonna 's career . Rolling Stone also ranked the song as Madonna 's sixth best song of all time according to a readers ' poll , saying that the song is " striking the perfect balance of pop accessibility , sophisticated balladry and cutting @-@ edge electronic textures " . VH1 's Mark Graham included " Frozen " on his list of his favorite songs from Madonna at number 36 . = = Commercial performance = = In the United States , " Frozen " debuted at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 , and reached the second position of the chart on the issue dated April 4 , 1998 , behind the K @-@ Ci & JoJo song " All My Life " . The song became the sixth single by Madonna to peak at the two position , surpassing Elvis Presley for the most number @-@ two songs . " Frozen " topped the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart , while reaching number eight on the Hot Adult Contemporary chart . " Frozen " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in April 1998 , and was ranked at number 32 on the Hot 100 year @-@ end chart of the same year . According to Billboard , the song was played 99 @,@ 000 times in the United States . In Canada , the song reached a peak of number two on the RPM Singles Chart in its seventh week , being held off from the top position by Natalie Imbruglia 's " Torn " . In the United Kingdom , " Frozen " entered the UK Singles Chart at number one on March 7 , 1998 . It was later certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . According to Official Charts Company , the song has sold 525 @,@ 000 copies . In Belgium 's region of Flanders , the song debuted at number 23 on February 22 , 1998 , and reached a peak of number three . Similarly in Wallonia , " Frozen " debuted at number 29 and later reached number two . In the Netherlands , the track debuted at number 27 on the Dutch Top 40 , and reached a peak of two on March 7 , 1998 . The song reached a peak of number two in Germany , where it remained for six weeks , before spending a total of nineteen weeks on the chart . On the Swiss Singles Chart , " Frozen " debuted at number four on the issue dated March 1 , 1998 . After one week , the song reached number two , remaining there for eight weeks . The song peaked at number one in Spain . In Australia , " Frozen " debuted on the ARIA Singles Chart at its peak of number five on March 1 , 1998 . The next week it descended at number nine , returning at its peak on March 15 , 1998 , and stayed there for another three weeks . It was present for a total of 16 weeks on the chart , and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . In New Zealand , the song had a similar run as in Australia , by debuting at its peak of number five on the RIANZ Singles Chart . It was present for a total of 12 weeks on the chart . = = Music video = = Directed by British artist Chris Cunningham , the music video for " Frozen " was filmed at Cuddeback Lake within the Mojave Desert in California during January 7 – 11 , 1998 . Madonna thought that there are a lot of magical , mystical powers in the desert and that it is a magical place to be . It was inspired by the film The English Patient and Martha Graham 's work . The music video premiered on February 16 , 1998 on MTV at 4 p.m. The black goth gown outfit Madonna wears on the video was designed by Olivier Theyskens , and provided by then @-@ new collaborator , designer Arianne Phillips . In an interview with MTV News , Cunningham stated about his work with Madonna , saying that he thought Madonna became interested to work with him after seeing his Aphex Twin @-@ directed music video , " Come to Daddy " ( 1997 ) . Madonna stated that she and her team thought of filming the video in Iceland , as the idea to the video was to go someplace cold and where there is snow , but declined the idea . She thought : 'You know what , I 'm going to be freezing . I 'm going to be miserable , I 'll be complaining all day , I 'll be sorry that I ever chose a cold place . So I said , ' Let 's do it in the desert , it 'll be warm , ' and it would be sort of the opposite , because even though you think of deserts as being hot , they 're still sort of frozen in terms of there 's no vegetation and they 're very desolate . I thought that that would still work as a visual , but then we got there and it was like 20 degrees below zero , it was bitterly cold , and I was barefoot . I was barefoot for the entire video , and then it started pouring rain and everyone got really sick , and it just actually turned out to be a really miserable experience . The video introduces a sober , contemplative side of Madonna , revealing a mature mysticism . It begins with the camera skimming along a cracked , desiccated desert floor , and within seconds Madonna appears , sprawled on the ground wearing a black dress . Her hands are covered with mehndi and an enigmatic symbol on one palm . In the video she slowly gestures and sways her arms toward the sky in the video , desperately pleading to her cold lover cited in the song . At one point Madonna falls , and as she hits the ground , she transforms into a flock of large , dark birds . Later , she transforms into a black dog . Three Madonnas also appear walking and crawling amid the desert throughout the video . As the song progresses , the sky darkens , and Madonna levitates from the ground . Her form then changes to a shiny black liquid , which runs along the desert floor and appears to be absorbed by the tattooed hands of another Madonna , who is curled up on the crenellated ground . The video ends with a desperate and melancholy Madonna . Jim Glauner from MTV News commented that from the first scene from the video , the viewer discovers that this is not " Holiday " ( 1983 ) . Matthias Groß of Madonna On the Couch : A psychoanalytic view on Madonna 's music videos , argumented that it is interesting to look at the video as a dream , and noted that in the video , Madonna was presented as a witch or an uncanny creature , by the technique of the central perspective . He concluded that the viewers find themselves in control of their view , of the situation in general , and are conveyed the impression to follow a realistic depiction of a mere melancholic woman in the desert , according to him . Henry Keazor and Thorsten Wübbena of Rewind , Play , Fast Forward : The Past , Present and Future of the Music Video said that the large panels of cloth that gather and wind around Madonna gain an even more obvious independent movement quality . Billboard considered it Madonna 's third best video noting that it " conveys the song 's bleak heartbreak perfectly " with Madonna 's persona in the video . = = Live performances = = Before the release of Ray of Light , Madonna appeared on several television shows and events to promote the album , and would sometimes perform the song . Madonna first performed " Frozen " on the Sanremo Music Festival on January 24 , 1998 . The following month , on February 21 , she performed the song on the BBC 1 's The National Lottery Show . Additionally , that same month , she appeared and performed the song on the German TV show Wetten dass .. ? . On April 29 , 1998 , Madonna made an unannounced appearance at the 9th annual Rainforest Foundation Benefit Concert at New York City 's Carnegie Hall , where she performed " Frozen " with the East Harlem Violin Project , while wearing a Versace dress . Jon Pareles from The New York Times felt that during this performance Madonna had " turned herself into America 's answer to Björk " . Later that occasion , she wore a cowboy hat and joined various artists in a rendition of The Beatles ' " With A Little Help From My Friends " and " Twist & Shout " . " Frozen " has also been included on three of Madonna 's concert tours . For the 2001 Drowned World Tour , " Frozen " was included on the show 's second segment known as Geisha @-@ Anime . As the " Paradise ( Not for Me ) " video interlude ended , Madonna appeared on stage as a kabuki @-@ like figure , wearing a short black wig and dressed in a red and black , hand @-@ painted kimono created by designer Jean @-@ Paul Gaultier , with enormous sleeves creating a span of about fifty feet . As the song progresses , she gradually breaks loose from the sleeves and dances , with synchronized karate moves distributed along all sides of the stage , by herself and with her dancers . A samurai dancer also appeared on a raised platform above her during the performance while the backdrops displayed silhouettes of burning trees against racing , blood @-@ red clouds . MusicOMH praised the performance , for " having a recognisable beat unlike the studio recording " . The performance of the song on August 26 , 2001 , at The Palace of Auburn Hills was recorded and released in the live video album , Drowned World Tour 2001 . On the Re @-@ Invention World Tour in 2004 , " Frozen " was performed as the last song of the tour 's French Baroque @-@ Marie Antionette Revival opening segment . After an energetic performance of " Nobody Knows Me " , Madonna performed the song standing alone on the middle of the stage , wearing a gold jewel @-@ encrusted corset created by designer Christian Lacroix , as the backdrop screens displayed the video of a naked male and a naked female wrestling , caressing and intertwining in water , with their faces and genitals darkened by shadows so as to preserve their androgyny . Sal Sinquemani from Slant Magazine gave the performance a negative review , commenting that Madonna should never do a performance like this . For the second European leg of Madonna 's Sticky & Sweet Tour in 2009 , the performance of " Hung Up " was removed from the setlist and was replaced by an up @-@ beat version of " Frozen " . This performance was included on the show 's fourth and final Rave segment , where it was set between the performances of " Like a Prayer " and " Ray of Light " . The video backdrops used for this performance featured outtakes from the song 's original music video directed by Chris Cunningham . Harris praised the version saying , " I never imagined when I made it in my little purple room in Glasgow in my flat that it would reach far and wide as it has – it ’ s always a privilege . " " Frozen " was not performed by Madonna until her Rebel Heart Tour in 2015 , and on October 1 , she performed an acoustic version of the song during the Detroit concert at the Joe Louis Arena . On October 19 , she repeated the performance on the San Jose concert at the SAP Center . = = Covers and usage in media = = A rock cover was recorded by Jeff Scott Soto with the Talisman band for their 1998 album Truth . A reviewer from Melodic Rock was positive with the version and called it a " moody version with the backing vocals and accompanying keyboards intact . " Polish industrial metal band Thy Disease used parts of the original strings and vocals in a cover on their 2001 album , Devilsh Act of Creation . German gothic rock / industrial rock band Girls Under Glass released their cover on the Frozen EP in 2001 . The following year , Mad 'House also re @-@ recorded it for the tribute album Absolutely Mad . Gene Loves Jezebel recorded their cover version which appeared on two albums , A Tribute to Madonna : Virgin Voices and Tribute to Madonna : Like a Virgin . Doom Kounty Electric Chair gave the song a " dark rock " feel with their cover , released in 2004 . Italian rock band Absinth Effect recorded a cover version of " Frozen " for their debut album in 2009 . In May 2013 , contestant Olympe sang the song on the second season of French version of The Voice : la plus belle voix , allowing him to reach the show 's semi @-@ finale . His coach , Jenifer , welcomed the performance warmly . Jérôme Vermelin from Metronews.fr said " Without piano , but in a spectacular setting , the young singer from Amiens shows his pitched voice with disconcerting facility . And his look ? The mixture of great and pure sincerity ? Although the formula may seem repetitive , it is not difficult to be captivated " . Hanane Abdelouahed from TF1 commented that with the rendition , he " has taken the track from the queen of pop " . Although it was not performed by the show 's cast , the song was included on the episode " The Power of Madonna " , on the TV series Glee , in 2010 . = = Track listings and formats = = = = Credits and personnel = = Madonna – songwriter , producer Patrick Leonard – songwriter , producer , remixer , arranger William Orbit – producer Marius De Vries – keyboards , programming Craig Armstrong – string arrangement Credits and personnel adapted from Ray of Light album liner notes . = = Charts = = = = Certifications = =
= Strawberry Fields Forever = " Strawberry Fields Forever " is a song by the English rock band the Beatles . The song was written by John Lennon and credited to the Lennon – McCartney songwriting partnership . It was inspired by Lennon 's memories of playing in the garden of Strawberry Field , a Salvation Army children 's home near where he grew up in Liverpool . The song was the first track recorded during the sessions for the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band ( 1967 ) , and was intended for inclusion on the album . Instead , with the group under record @-@ company pressure to release a single , it was issued in February 1967 as a double A @-@ side with " Penny Lane " . The combination reached number two in the United Kingdom , breaking the band 's four @-@ year run of chart @-@ topping singles there , while " Strawberry Fields Forever " peaked at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 in America . Lennon considered the song his greatest accomplishment . The track incorporates reverse @-@ recorded instrumentation and tape loops , and was created from the editing together of two separate versions of the song – each one entirely different in tempo , mood and musical key . The song was later included on the US Magical Mystery Tour LP ( although not on the British double EP package of the same name ) . " Strawberry Fields Forever " is one of the defining works of the psychedelic rock genre and has been covered by many artists . The Beatles made a promotional film clip for the song that is similarly recognised for its influence in the medium of music video . The Strawberry Fields memorial in New York 's Central Park is named after the song . = = Background and writing = = Strawberry Field was the name of a Salvation Army children 's home just around the corner from Lennon 's childhood home in Woolton , a suburb of Liverpool . Lennon and his childhood friends Pete Shotton , Nigel Walley , and Ivan Vaughan used to play in the wooded garden behind the home . One of Lennon 's childhood treats was the garden party held each summer in Calderstones Park , near the home , where a Salvation Army band played . Lennon 's aunt Mimi Smith recalled : " As soon as we could hear the Salvation Army band starting , John would jump up and down shouting , ' Mimi , come on . We 're going to be late . ' " Lennon 's " Strawberry Fields Forever " and McCartney 's " Penny Lane " shared the theme of nostalgia for their early years in Liverpool . Although both referred to actual locations , the two songs also had strong surrealistic and psychedelic overtones . Producer George Martin said that when he first heard " Strawberry Fields Forever " , he thought it conjured up a " hazy , impressionistic dreamworld " . The Beatles had just retired from touring after one of the most difficult periods of their career , including the " more popular than Jesus " controversy and the band 's unintentional snubbing of Philippines First Lady Imelda Marcos . Lennon talked about the song in 1980 : " I was different all my life . The second verse goes , ' No one I think is in my tree . ' Well , I was too shy and self @-@ doubting . Nobody seems to be as hip as me is what I was saying . Therefore , I must be crazy or a genius – ' I mean it must be high or low ' " , and explaining that the song was " psycho @-@ analysis set to music " . Lennon began writing the song in Almería , Spain , during the filming of Richard Lester 's How I Won the War in September – October 1966 . The earliest demo of the song , recorded in Almería , had no refrain and only one verse : " There 's no one on my wavelength / I mean , it 's either too high or too low / That is you can 't you know tune in but it 's all right / I mean it 's not too bad " . He revised the words to this verse to make them more obscure , then wrote the melody and part of the lyrics to the refrain ( which then functioned as a bridge and did not yet include a reference to Strawberry Fields ) . He then added another verse and the mention of Strawberry Fields . The first verse on the released version was the last to be written , close to the time of the song 's recording . For the refrain , Lennon was again inspired by his childhood memories : the words " nothing to get hung about " were inspired by Aunt Mimi 's strict order not to play in the grounds of Strawberry Field , to which Lennon replied , " They can 't hang you for it . " The first verse Lennon wrote became the second in the released version , and the second verse Lennon wrote became the last in the release . = = Musical structure = = The song was originally written on acoustic guitar in the key of C major . The recorded version is approximately in B @-@ flat major ; owing to manipulation of the recording speed , the finished version is not in standard pitch ( some , for instance consider that the tonic is A ) . The introduction was played by McCartney on a Mellotron , and involves a I – ii – I – ♭ VII – IV progression . The vocals enter with the chorus instead of a verse . In fact we are not " taken down " to the tonic key , but to " non @-@ diatonic chords and secondary dominants " combining with " chromatic melodic tension intensified through outrageous harmonisation and root movement " . The phrase " to Strawberry " for example begins with a somewhat dissonant G melody note against a prevailing F minor key , then uses the semi @-@ tone dissonance B ♭ and B notes ( the natural and sharpened 11th degrees against the Fm chord ) until the consonant F note is reached on " Fields " . The same series of mostly dissonant melody notes cover the phrase " nothing is real " against the prevailing F # 7 chord ( in A key ) . A half @-@ measure complicates the meter of the verses , as well as the fact that the vocals begin in the middle of the first measure . The first verse comes after the refrain , and is eight measures long . The verse ( for example " Always , no sometimes ... " ) starts with an F major chord in the key of B ♭ ( or E chord in the key of A ) ( V ) , which progresses to G minor , the submediant , a deceptive cadence . According to Alan Pollack , the " approach @-@ avoidance tactic " ( i.e. , the deceptive cadence ) is encountered in the verse , as the leading @-@ tone , A , appearing on the words " Always know " , " I know when " " I think a No " and " I think I disagree " , never resolves into a I chord ( A in A key ) directly as expected . Instead , at the end of the verse , the leading note , harmonized as part of the dominant chord , resolves to the prevailing tonic ( B ♭ ) at the end of the verse , after tonicizing the subdominant ( IV ) E ♭ chord , on " disagree " . In the middle of the second chorus , the " funereal brass " is introduced , stressing the ominous lyrics . After three verses and four choruses , the line " Strawberry Fields Forever " is repeated three times , and the song fades out with guitar , cello , and swarmandal instrumentation . The song fades back in after a few seconds into the " nightmarish " ending , with the Mellotron playing in a haunting tone – one achieved by recording the Mellotron " Swinging Flutes " setting in reverse – scattered drumming , and Lennon murmuring , after which the song completes . = = Recording = = The working title was " It 's Not Too Bad " , and Geoff Emerick , the sound engineer , remembered it being " just a great , great song , that was apparent from the first time John sang it for all of us , playing an acoustic guitar . " Recording began on 24 November 1966 , in Abbey Road 's Studio Two on a 4 @-@ track machine . It took 45 hours to record , spread over five weeks . The song was meant to be on the band 's 1967 album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , but was released as a single instead . The band recorded three distinct versions of the song . After Lennon played the song for the other Beatles on his acoustic guitar , the band recorded the first take . Lennon played an Epiphone Casino ; McCartney played a Mellotron , a new home instrument purchased by Lennon on 12 August 1965 ( with another model hired in after encouragement from Mike Pinder of The Moody Blues ) ; George Harrison played electric guitar , and Ringo Starr played drums . The first recorded take began with the verse , " Living is easy … " , instead of the chorus , " Let me take you down " , which starts the released version . The first verse also led directly to the second , with no chorus between . Lennon 's vocals were automatically double @-@ tracked from the words " Strawberry Fields Forever " through the end of the last verse . The last verse , beginning " Always , no sometimes " , has three @-@ part harmonies , with McCartney and Harrison singing " dreamy background vocals " . This version was soon abandoned and went unreleased until the Anthology 2 compilation in 1996 . Four days later the band reassembled to try a different arrangement . The second version of the song featured McCartney 's Mellotron introduction followed by the refrain . They recorded five takes of the basic tracks for this arrangement ( two of which were false starts ) with the last being chosen as best and subjected to further overdubs . Lennon 's final vocal was recorded with the tape running fast so that when played back at normal speed the tonality would be altered , giving his voice a slurred sound . This version was used for the first minute of the released recording . After recording the second version of the song , Lennon wanted to do something different with it , as Martin remembered : " He 'd wanted it as a gentle dreaming song , but he said it had come out too raucous . He asked me if I could write him a new line @-@ up with the strings . So I wrote a new score ( with four trumpets and three cellos ) and we recorded that , but he didn 't like it . " Meanwhile , on 8 and 9 December , another basic track was recorded , using a Mellotron , electric guitar , piano , backwards @-@ recorded cymbals , and the swarmandel ( or swordmandel ) , an Indian version of the zither . After reviewing the tapes of Martin 's version and the original , Lennon told Martin that he liked both versions , although Martin had to tell Lennon that the orchestral score was at a faster tempo and in a higher key ( B major ) than the first version ( A major ) . Lennon said , " You can fix it , George " , giving Martin and Emerick the difficult task of joining the two takes together . With only a pair of editing scissors , two tape machines , and a vari @-@ speed control , Emerick compensated for the differences in key and speed by increasing the speed of the first version and decreasing the speed of the second . He then spliced the versions together , starting the orchestral score in the middle of the second chorus . ( Since the first version did not include a chorus after the first verse , he also spliced in the first seven words of the chorus from elsewhere in the first version . ) The pitch @-@ shifting in joining the versions gave Lennon 's lead vocal a slightly other @-@ worldly " swimming " quality . Some vocalising by Lennon is faintly audible at the end of the song , picked up as leakage onto one of the drum microphones ( close listening shows Lennon making other comments to Ringo ) . In the " Paul is Dead " hoax these were taken to be Lennon saying " I buried Paul . " In 1974 , McCartney said , " That wasn 't ' I buried Paul ' at all – that was John saying ' cranberry sauce ' … That 's John 's humour … If you don 't realise that John 's apt to say cranberry sauce when he feels like it , then you start to hear a funny little word there , and you think , ' Aha ! ' " Shortly before his death in 1980 , Lennon expressed dissatisfaction with the final version of the song , saying it was " badly recorded " and accusing McCartney of subconsciously sabotaging the recording . = = Release = = When manager Brian Epstein pressed Martin for a new Beatles ' single , Martin told Epstein that the group had recorded " Strawberry Fields Forever " and " Penny Lane " , which in Martin 's opinion were their two finest songs to date . Epstein said they would issue the songs as a double A @-@ side single , as they had done with their previous single , " Yellow Submarine " / " Eleanor Rigby " . The single was released in the US on 13 February 1967 , and in the United Kingdom on 17 February 1967 . Following the Beatles ' usual philosophy that songs released on a single should not appear on new albums , which wasn 't always the case , both songs were ultimately left off Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . Martin later stated that this was a " dreadful mistake " , even though both were given a belated album appearance on side two of the LP of " Magical Mystery Tour " . It was released as a double EP in the UK , but in the USA the LP had the whole soundtrack on side one with the 1967 singles released on side two ; however , the US LP version is now the CD version . For the first time since " Love Me Do " in 1962 , a single by the Beatles failed to reach number one in the UK charts . It was held at number two by Engelbert Humperdinck 's " Release Me " . In a radio interview at the time , McCartney said he was not upset because Humperdinck 's song was a " completely different type of thing " . Starr said later that it was " a relief " because " it took the pressure off " . " Penny Lane " reached number one in the US , while " Strawberry Fields Forever " peaked at number eight . In the US , both songs were included on the Magical Mystery Tour LP , which was released as a six @-@ track double @-@ EP in the UK . The song was the opening track of the compilation album 1967 – 1970 , released in 1973 , and also appears on the Imagine soundtrack issued in 1988 . In 1996 , three previously unreleased versions of the song were included on the Anthology 2 album : Lennon 's original home demo , an altered version of the first studio take , and the complete take seven , of which only the first minute was heard in the master version . In 2006 , a newly mixed version of the song was included on the album Love . This version builds from an acoustic demo ( which was run at the actual recorded speed ) and incorporates elements of " Hello , Goodbye " , " In My Life " , " Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band " , " Penny Lane " and " Piggies " . = = Promotional film = = The Beatles produced a promotional film clip for " Strawberry Fields Forever " , which served as an early example of what became known as a music video . It was filmed on 30 and 31 January 1967 at Knole Park in Sevenoaks , Kent . The clip was directed by Peter Goldmann , a Swedish television director who had been recommended to the Beatles by their mutual friend Klaus Voormann . One of the band 's assistants , Tony Bramwell , served as producer . Bramwell recalls that , inspired by Voormann 's comment on hearing " Strawberry Fields Forever " – that " the whole thing sounded like it was played on a strange instrument " – he spent two days dressing up a large tree in the park to resemble " a piano and harp combined , with strings " . Writing for Mojo magazine in 2007 , John Harris remarked that Bramwell 's set design reflected the " collision of serenity and almost gothic eeriness " behind the finished song . The film features reverse film effects , stop motion animation , jump @-@ cuts from daytime to night @-@ time , and the Beatles playing and later pouring paint over the upright piano . During the same visit to Knole Park , the band shot part of the promotional film for " Penny Lane " . In 2015 , the promo film was included in the three @-@ disc versions ( titled 1 + ) of the Beatles ' compilation 1 . = = Critical reception = = Among initial reviews of the single , the NME 's Derek Johnson confessed to being both fascinated and confused by " Strawberry Fields Forever " , writing : " Certainly the most unusual and way @-@ out single The Beatles have yet produced – both in lyrical content and scoring . Quite honestly , I don 't really know what to make of it . " Time magazine hailed the song as " the latest sample of the Beatles ' astonishing inventiveness " . " Strawberry Fields Forever " has continued to receive acclaim from music critics . Richie Unterberger of AllMusic describes the song as " one of The Beatles ' peak achievements and one of the finest Lennon @-@ McCartney songs " . Ian MacDonald wrote in Revolution in the Head that it " shows expression of a high order … few if any [ contemporary composers ] are capable of displaying feeling and fantasy so direct , spontaneous , and original . " In 2004 , this song was ranked number 76 on Rolling Stone 's list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . In 2010 , Rolling Stone placed it at number three on the 100 Greatest Beatles Songs . " Strawberry Fields Forever " was ranked as the second @-@ best Beatles song by Mojo , after " A Day in the Life " . The song is ranked as the 8th greatest of all time by Acclaimed Music . XFM radio placed the song 73rd in their list of the 100 Best British Songs and 176th in their Top 1000 Songs of All Time list . = = Cultural influence = = Paul Revere & the Raiders were among the most successful US groups during 1966 and 1967 , having their own Dick Clark @-@ produced television show , Where the Action Is . Mark Lindsay ( singer / saxophonist ) heard the song on the radio , bought it , and then listened to it at home with his producer at the time , Terry Melcher . When the song ended Lindsay said , " Now what the fuck are we gonna do ? " later saying , " With that single , the Beatles raised the ante as to what a pop record should be " . It has been written by Steven Gaines in the biography Heroes and Villains that Brian Wilson of the Beach Boys heard the single while he was underway with his legendary unfinished album , Smile . Later , the event was claimed by Gaines to have been one of many factors that accelerated Wilson 's already plummeting emotional state and the project 's imminent collapse , as Wilson could not find a way to complete the album to his satisfaction , and by the Beach Boys ' former manager Jack Rieley 's account , feared that what he had accomplished over the last several months of recording would sound dated to contemporary rock audiences . In 2014 , Wilson stated that he thought " Strawberry Fields Forever " was " a weird record " , but denied that it had " weakened " him . The promotional films for " Strawberry Fields Forever " and " Penny Lane " were selected by New York 's MoMA as two of the most influential music videos of the late 1960s . Both were originally broadcast in the US on 25 February 1967 , on the variety show The Hollywood Palace , with actor Van Johnson as host . The Ed Sullivan Show and other variety shows soon dropped their time constraints to allow for psychedelic music performances . A cartoon based on the song was the final episode produced for The Beatles animated television series . " Strawberry Fields Forever " figures prominently in the Spanish film Living Is Easy with Eyes Closed ( 2013 ) , in which a fictional story is told of Lennon 's true , original development of the song in 1966 in Spain . = = Cover versions = = The song has been covered a number of other times , notably by Peter Gabriel in 1976 on the musical documentary All This and World War II , and by Ben Harper for the soundtrack of the film I Am Sam . Vanilla Fudge , the debut album by American rock band Vanilla Fudge , also contains a brief homage to " Strawberry Fields Forever " at the end of their cover of " Eleanor Rigby " ( the homage is entitled " ELDS " on CD versions of the album , and CD versions of the album in fact additionally spell out an acrostic of the song as an homage , with portions of preceding tracks entitled " STRA " , " WBER " and " RYFI " ) . Todd Rundgren 's version of the song was released on his 1976 album Faithful . The song was also covered by Jim Sturgess and Joe Anderson for the 2007 movie Across the Universe . Los Fabulosos Cadillacs recorded a ska version of the song featuring Debbie Harry for their album Rey Azúcar , which was a hit throughout Latin America . " Strawberry Fields Forever " has also been covered by Richie Havens ( at the Woodstock Festival ) , Trey Anastasio , the Bee Gees , the Bobs , Campfire Girls , Eugene Chadbourne , Justin Currie , Design , Noel Gallagher , Richie Havens , Hayseed Dixie , Laurence Juber , David Lanz , Cyndi Lauper , Zlatko Manojlović , Marilyn Manson , Me First and the Gimme Gimmes , Mother 's Finest , Odetta , Andy Partridge , Plastic Penny , Pip Pyle , the Residents , Miguel Ríos , the Runaways , the Shadows , Gwen Stefani , Tomorrow , Transatlantic , Michael Vescera , the Ventures , Cassandra Wilson , Otomo Yoshihide , XTC , Ultraviolet Sound Sandy Farina , the Deviants , and Karen Souza . The song returned to the charts 23 years later when British dance group Candy Flip released an electronic version of the song . The song was generally well @-@ received , AllMusic describing it as " funkier and more club @-@ happy than the Beatles ' original " and was a commercial success on both sides of the Atlantic , reaching number three in the UK pop charts and number eleven on the US Modern Rock Tracks chart . In the realm of contemporary or experimental classical music , the vocal melody for " Strawberry Fields Forever " is referenced as source material for the piano score of composer Alvin Lucier 's 1990 composition " Nothing is Real " in which the piano part , recorded in real time , is subsequently played back through a small speaker located within a teapot . Following instructions in the notated score , the pianist then raises and lowers the teapot lid , changing the acoustic filtering properties of the teapot as a resonator while attempting to filter specific frequencies as notated in the score . = = Personnel = = According to Ian MacDonald : The Beatles John Lennon – vocals , acoustic guitar , bongos , Mellotron Paul McCartney – Mellotron , bass , electric guitar , timpani , bongos George Harrison – electric slide guitar , swarmandal , timpani , maracas Ringo Starr – drums , percussion Additional musicians and production staff = = Chart positions = =
= Hannah Montana 2 : Meet Miley Cyrus = Hannah Montana 2 : Meet Miley Cyrus is a double album released on June 26 , 2007 by Walt Disney Records and Hollywood Records . The first disc serves as the soundtrack album for the second season of the television series Hannah Montana , while the second disc serves as the debut studio album by its primary actress and pop princess Miley Cyrus . All twenty tracks are performed by young Cyrus , although the first disc is credited to her character Hannah Montana . In the vein of the original soundtrack Hannah Montana ( 2006 ) , The lyrical themes revolve largely around " girl power " , teen romance , and the double life that Cyrus ' character lives on the program . Hannah Montana 2 : Meet Miley Cyrus debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 325 @,@ 000 copies , and has since been certified quadruple @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for exceeding shipments of four million units . The album charted well on national record charts throughout Europe and Oceania , appearing in the top @-@ twenty in several countries . It received a multi @-@ platinum certification in Canada , single @-@ platinum certifications in Australia and Sweden , and gold certifications in Mexico , Spain , and the United Kingdom and Sold more than 10 million . " Nobody 's Perfect " was released as the only single from Hannah Montana 2 on May 15 , 2007 . The track peaked at number 27 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 . " See You Again " was later released as the lead single from Meet Miley Cyrus . It reached number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Cyrus ' first single to enter the top ten on the chart and right now is one of the eight Miley Cyrus 's songs to enter the top 10 . Its follow @-@ up single " Start All Over " peaked at number 68 in the United States . The soundtrack was further promoted with Cyrus ' headlining Best of Both Worlds Tour . = = Background and composition = = During production of the first season of Hannah Montana , Cyrus commented that " right now we 're just all really focused on making Hannah Montana the show as good as it can be , but hopefully in the future there may be a Hannah Montana soundtrack [ or ] a Miley Cyrus album . " The series itself premiered through the Disney Channel on March 24 , 2006 , and became an immediate commercial success ; with 5 @.@ 4 million viewers , the pilot episode earned the channel the highest ratings in its history at the time . The following month , it was reported that an accompanying soundtrack and Cyrus ' debut studio album had both begun production , the latter of which was scheduled to be released in early 2007 . The first soundtrack Hannah Montana ( 2006 ) debuted at number one with first @-@ week sales of 286 @,@ 000 copies , becoming the first television soundtrack to debut in the peak position of the chart . In the series , Cyrus portrays the character Miley Stewart , a teenager who lives the secret double life as the pop star Hannah Montana . She stated that " most songs for the first season reflect the show , with Miley or Hannah making sure the other doesn 't get caught or whatever , " opining that the tracks provided series producers with the opportunity to " make sure that everyone understood the characters " . By comparison , Cyrus described material used during the second season as " more speaking out to the fans . " Heather Phares from AllMusic described Cyrus ' vocals on her personal tracks as being " lower and throatier " with " more organic and rock @-@ oriented " instrumentation . Throughout the record , Kathi Kamen Goldmark from Common Sense Media noted the inclusion of " positive , self @-@ empowering messages for tween girls " . Hannah Montana 2 continued to discuss Cyrus ' double life on the program , notably in the tracks " Rock Star " and " Old Blue Jeans " . Friendships are addressed during " Right Here " , " You and Me Together " , and " True Friend " . The songs " Nobody 's Perfect " , " Make Some Noise " , and " Life 's What You Make It " discuss maintaining an optimistic outlook in life . Meet Miley Cyrus explored " more serious objects " including teen romances . Its closing track " I Miss You " is a dedication to Cyrus ' late grandfather . Hannah Montana 2 was later reissued as a two @-@ disc special edition subtitled the Rock Star Edition . It included a remix of the track " We Got the Party " with the Jonas Brothers , an acoustic version of " One in a Million " , and a DVD of live performances . Meet Miley Cyrus was omitted from the re @-@ released pressings . = = Singles and promotion = = " Nobody 's Perfect " was originally released on March 20 , 2007 , with the reissue of the original Hannah Montana soundtrack . The track was later serviced as the lead single from Hannah Montana 2 , and was individually released on May 15 . The song peaked at number 27 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 . Despite not releasing official follow @-@ up singles , several tracks from the soundtrack charted in the United States . " Life 's What You Make It " was the highest @-@ peaking track from the record , having entered the chart at number 25 . " Rock Star " , " Make Some Noise " , and " True Friend " charted in the lower ends of the Billboard Hot 100 , having respectively reached numbers 81 , 92 , and 99 . " See You Again " was serviced as the lead single from Meet Miley Cyrus . It peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming her first track to reach the top @-@ ten in the United States . Its " Rock Mafia Remix " was included on Cyrus ' second studio album Breakout ( 2008 ) , and was released on May 20 , 2008 as an individual single . " Start All Over " was later released as the second single from the record ; the track peaked at number 68 in the United States . Its accompanying music video was premiered on January 29 , 2008 . " G.N.O. ( Girl 's Night Out ) " was not released as an official single from Meet Miley Cyrus , although it was promoted with a performance at the 2007 Disney Channel Games and charted at number 91 in the United States . 5 songs from Hannah Montana 2 have charted in the Hot 100 and 3 from Meet Miley Cyrus . Cyrus embarked on the nationwide Best of Both Worlds Tour in 2007 and 2008 . It primarily served as a promotional tool for Hannah Montana 2 : Meet Miley Cyrus ; however , " Just Like You " , " Pumpin ' Up the Party " , " I Got Nerve " , and " The Best of Both Worlds " from the original Hannah Montana soundtrack were also included in its set list . The tour proved commercially successful , having grossed $ 54 million by its conclusion , while its 2008 film adaption Hannah Montana & Miley Cyrus : Best of Both Worlds Concert earned $ 70 million . The latter was released as a Walmart @-@ exclusive CD / DVD set , titled Best of Both Worlds Concert , in March 2008 . = = Critical reception = = Hannah Montana 2 : Meet Miley Cyrus scored 71 out of 100 on Metacritic which indicates generally positive reviews . Writing for AllMusic , Heather Phares expressed concern that Cyrus was " in danger of being overshadowed by the role she plays " , but complimented that incorporation of " shiny , synth @-@ driven pop and strummy acoustic ballads " , praising the album . She also noted Cyrus ' " East Northumberland High " as the standout track from both discs . Kathi Kamen Goldmark from Common Sense Media opined that releasing Hannah Montana 2 and Meet Miley Cyrus as a single project was a value for the younger audience it attracted . However , she criticized its production for being " synthesized and over @-@ processed " , and added that the records would " irritate anyone with more mature musical taste . " However , Bob Smithouser and Bob Waliszewski from PluggedIn provided a more favorable review , stating that the album was " a great pick for [ Cyrus ' ] tween fan base " and compared its musical style to that of Ashlee Simpson . Shirley Halperin from Entertainment Weekly shared a similar sentiment , further comparing its sound to those of Hilary Duff and Avril Lavigne . She opined that the first disc " delivers pure pop candy and impresses with R & B @-@ tinged ballads " , while the second disc was notable for its " risk @-@ taking " lyrics . = = Commercial performance = = In the United States , Hannah Montana 2 : Meet Miley Cyrus debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 326 @,@ 000 copies . In doing so , it surpassed the first @-@ week sales of the original Hannah Montana soundtrack , which opened with 281 @,@ 000 units the previous year . The record was later certified quadruple @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for exceeding shipments of four million copies . Hannah Montana 2 : Meet Miley Cyrus opened at number three on the Canadian Albums Chart , and was recognized with a platinum certification in the country . In March 2008 , Hannah Montana 2 : Meet Miley Cyrus reached number six the same week that Best of Both Worlds Concert reached number 10 in its second week of availability . In doing so , Cyrus became the first person to two records in the top @-@ ten of the Billboard 200 since Ray Charles accomplished this in 2004 . It also charted at number 18 on the Top 100 Mexico , where it was later certified gold . Hannah Montana 2 : Meet Miley Cyrus performed well throughout Europe . Its highest peak in the continent was on the Norwegian VG @-@ lista , where it reached number eight . The record also reached the top twenty on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 , the Danish Tracklisten , the Portuguese Albums Chart , and the Swedish Sverigetopplistan . It charted lower on the German Media Control Charts , the Swiss Hitparade , and the French SNEP , where it respectively reached numbers 47 , 69 , and 178 . The record peaked at number 46 on the Spanish PROMUSICAE and was awarded with a gold certification , and was also certified gold in the United Kingdom by the British Phonographic Industry . The album reached number 50 on the Swedish Sverigetopplistan , and eventually earned platinum recognition . In Oceania , Hannah Montana 2 : Meet Miley Cyrus respectively charted at numbers 20 and 6 on the Australian ARIA Charts and the Official New Zealand Music Chart . In the former country , it was certified platinum . = = Track listing = = Credits adapted from the liner notes of Hannah Montana 2 : Meet Miley Cyrus . = = Credits and personnel = = Credits adapted from AllMusic . = = Charts = = = = Sales and certifications = = ! scope = " row " \| Mexico ( AMPROFON ) \| Gold \| 50 @,@ 000 ^ \| - = = Disney 's Karaoke Series = = Disney 's Karaoke Series : Hannah Montana 2 is a karaoke album released by Walt Disney Records on September 16 , 2008 . It is composed of eight tracks from Hannah Montana 2 , which are credited to Hannah Montana . Each track is included in both instrumental and vocal versions . = = = Track listing = = = = = Artist Karaoke Series = = Artist Karaoke Series is a karaoke album released by Walt Disney Records on May 20 , 2008 . It is composed of eight instrumental tracks from Meet Miley Cyrus , which are credited to Miley Cyrus . = = = Track listing = = =
= Hurricane Estelle ( 1986 ) = Hurricane Estelle was the first major hurricane of the above @-@ average 1986 Pacific hurricane season . It formed as a tropical depression formed well southwest of the Baja California Peninsula on July 16 , and strengthened into a tropical storm within 24 hours . Located within a favorable environment , Estelle intensified into a hurricane on July 18 . It attained major hurricane status ( Category 3 intensity or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale ) two days later . After peaking in intensity at Category 4 strength , Estelle slowly weakened . By July 24 , Estelle was no longer a hurricane while passing south of Hawaii . It completely dissipated on July 26 after further deteriorating to a tropical depression . The arrival of the hurricane prompted a hurricane watch for Hawaii , and 200 people evacuated from their homes . Hurricane Estelle produced high waves offshore Hawaii , causing $ 2 million in damage and two deaths . The remnants of the storm also produced intermittent showers across the state , though there was no major damage . = = Meteorological history = = Based on data from satellite imagery and weather reports from the cargo ships Hamburg Express and Aleksander Vermishev , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center ( EPHC ) upgraded a tropical disturbance into a tropical depression . At this time , the depression was located 390 mi ( 630 km ) west of Clipperton Island , a small remote island in the Pacific Ocean , at 1200 UTC July 16 . Moving towards the west beneath a high pressure area , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Estelle 12 hours after formation . Upon being named sea surface temperatures along the storm 's path were 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) , and thus Estelle began to rapidly intensify . The EPHC reported that Estelle had intensified a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale on 1200 UTC July 17 , 24 hours after first forming . Shortly after attaining hurricane intensity , an eye began to appear on weather satellite imagery . Based on this , the EPHC re @-@ assessed the intensity of the system at 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . Continuing to intensity , Hurricane Estelle became the first major hurricane of the 1986 Pacific hurricane season on 0000 UTC July 18 . As its motion accelerated , Estelle peaked intensity at 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . Moving west , Hurricane Estelle emerged into the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility while still a major hurricane . Shortly thereafter , Estelle 's forward motion increased to close to 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) . As such , forecasters noted the path of a potential landfall on the Big Island . Due to a shearing environment from a trough , Estelle weakened as it continued to approach Hawaii . A possible re @-@ curve towards the island never materialized , and the hurricane veered to west and passed south of the islands . Estelle weakened to a tropical storm on July 23 while passing south of Hawaii , and two days later it weakened to a depression . The tropical cyclone dissipated on July 27 . = = Preparations , impact , and observation = = On July 22 , the National Weather Service issued a hurricane watch and high @-@ surf advisory for the Island of Hawaii as the storm was anticipated to produce life @-@ threatening waves throughout the island chain . Gale warnings and small craft advisories were also issued . Hurricane Estelle was described by meteorologists as " small but dangerous " . More than 200 people evacuated from their homes near the shoreline , but others refused to leave . However , the hurricane watch was dropped on July 24 when Estelle weakened to a tropical storm . Due to its rapid motion , Estelle kept pace with a large swell of water that it generated . In combination with a high spring tide and peripheral winds generated by Estelle , 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) to 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) waves crashed on the shores of the Big Island on the afternoon of July 22 . Five homes were destroyed and another five sustained extreme damage . Twelve other homes received minor damage . Three beachfront divisions were destroyed . Dozens of other places in Vacation Land were also damaged . On Maui , waves washed away a dirt road on the eastern part of the island between Kipahulu and Kaupo . After Estelle passed by the islands , moisture related to the tropical cyclone caused heavy rainfall in the Ka 'u and Puna districts on the Big Island . On July 22 , a wind gust of 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) was recorded near Kalapana Sand Beach . The total damage was around $ 2 million ( 1986 USD ) . Two drownings were reported on Oahu that occurred on July 23 , due to rough surf caused by Estelle . Although isolated showers were initially recorded in the southern portion of the state , after Hurricane Estelle dissipated , its moisture became entrapped in a trough over the islands , causing significant rainfall and thunderstorms over the archipelago . Some areas in Hawaii received 5 in ( 130 mm ) to 10 in ( 250 mm ) . The rains in Hawaii had cleared up by July 29 . Estelle was a well @-@ observed storm , with Reconnaissance Aircraft flying into the hurricane to provide a fix on its location . It also passed near NOAA Buoy 51004 on July 22 , providing valuable meteorological data for its future path .
= Field hockey pitch = A hockey pitch is the playing surface for the game of field hockey . Historically , the game was played on natural turf ( grass ) but nowadays is predominantly played on an artificial turf . The transition onto artificial pitches came during the 1970s and was made mandatory for major competitions in 1976 . All the lines , markings and goal specifications are outlined by the International Hockey Federation in " The Rules of Hockey " . All line markings on the pitch form part of the area which they define . For example , a ball on the side line is still in the field of play ; a ball on the line of the penalty circle is in the penalty circle ; a foul committed over the 23 @-@ metre ( 25 @-@ yard ) line has occurred in the 23 @-@ metre area . A ball must completely cross a boundary line to be out of play , and a ball must wholly cross the goal line before a goal is scored . Due to the original formulation of the rules in England , the standard dimensions of a hockey pitch were originally expressed in imperial units . The rules are now expressed explicitly in metric dimensions ( since 1998 ) although the use of the imperial terms remains common in some countries . = = Field of play = = The hockey pitch is rectangular in shape . The longer perimeter edges are called the side line , the opposing shorter edges are referred toe back line and the portion of this between the goal posts is known as the goal line . The side line must measure 91 @.@ 40 m ( 100 yd ) and the back line should measure 55 @.@ 00 m ( 60 yd ) . There must be a minimum run @-@ off of 2 m at the sidelines and 3 m at the backlines which may be a different surface for the final metre . All line markings must be white and 75 millimetres wide . In each corner of the pitch , a corner flag of no more than 300 mm square is attached to a post of height 1 @.@ 20 – 1 @.@ 50 m . Historically , the pitch dimensions were imperial and were replaced by metric equivalents in 1998 . The first recorded rules represented what London clubs were using at the time . Surbiton Hockey Club 's minutes from 1876 stated that pitches were to be " 100 – 150 yards ( 91 – 137 m ) long and 50 – 80 yards ( 46 – 73 m ) wide " . Rules by the Hockey Association of England in 1886 specified " 100 yards long by 55 to 60 yards ( 50 to 55 m ) wide " . In 1905 , the International Rules Board allowed the width of the pitch to be " up to 66 yards ( 60 m ) " but this decision was reversed in 1909 . In 1975 , the current width of 60 yards was written into the rules . On artificial surfaces , the field of play should be coloured green , ultramarine blue or signal blue . It is permitted for the run @-@ off portion of the pitch to be an alternative colour . = = Goal = = Goals consist of two upright posts placed equidistant from the centre of the backline , joined at the top by a horizontal crossbar . The inner edges of the posts must be 3 @.@ 66 metres ( 4 yd ) apart , and the lower edge of the crossbar must be 2 @.@ 14 metres ( 7 ft ) above the ground . The goalposts and crossbar must be white and rectangular in shape with width 50 millimetres ( 2 in ) and a depth of 50 to 75 millimetres ( 2 to 3 in ) . A backboard of height 460 millimetres ( 18 in ) extends for the width of the goal and a sideboard of the same height must extend for at least 1 @.@ 20 m ; the goal must be at least this deep at ground level and at least 0 @.@ 90 m deep at crossbar level . Affixed to these boards , the posts and crossbar is a net to stop the ball . The first hockey goals were " 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) tall posts placed 6 yards ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) apart " but were reduced to 4 yards ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) apart in the 1886 rules . In 1987 , a rule was introduced so that at penalty corners " the first hit at goal should not cross the goal @-@ line higher than 18 inches ( 460 mm ) " . This saw the introduction of a sideboard and backboard to the goals which are now mandatory . = = Circle = = A goal is scored when the ball passes completely over the goal line but only if the ball was played ( by a defensive or offensive player ) in the penalty circle . Additionally , the circle marks the area a goalkeeper may play the ball with any part of his body and the area where an infringement by a defender results in a penalty corner . The terminology circle ( or D ) is widely used although the area is actually formed by a 3 @.@ 66 @-@ metre ( 4 yd ) straight line , parallel to the goal line , connected to two 14 @.@ 63 @-@ metre ( 16 yd ) quadrant arcs . The 1876 rules stated that " no goals shall be allowed if the ball be hit from a distance of more than 15 yards ( 14 m ) from the nearest goalpost " . A visible " striking circle " with " radius of 15 yards " was codified in 1886 . The radius of the circle was increased to 16 yards ( 15 m ) in 1951 for men 's hockey and 1968 for women 's hockey . Any free @-@ hit within 5 m of the circle must be taken back to 5 m from the circle ; a broken circle 5 m from the penalty circle denotes this location and became mandatory in 2000 . A penalty spot is centrally positioned directly in front of the goal and used for a penalty stroke . The spot is 150 mm in diameter and its centre is 6 @.@ 475 m from the outside of the goal line . Penalty strokes were introduced in 1963 for deliberately stopping a certain goal ; they were originally taken 8 yards ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) from goal . In 1973 , a stroke could also be awarded for a deliberate foul in the circle and the spot was moved to 7 yards ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) from goal the following year . = = Other markings = = A half @-@ way line , parallel to the back line , divides the pitch in two . The start of each period of play and resumption of play following a goal starts with all players in the half they are defending . The line was also used for the obselete offside rule . Each half of the pitch is then divided again by a line , referred to as the 23 metre line or 25 yard line , positioned 22 @.@ 90 m from each back line . Historically , this was first used to resume play after the ball passed over the back line and marked by flags at the side of the pitch . In 1949 , deliberate defensive offenses in this area resulted in a penalty corner . From 1961 , players on the defensive team who were not involved at the penalty corner stood behind this line ( this was then moved to the half @-@ way line two years later ) . The line was also used for the offside rule between 1987 until the rule was abolished in 1996 . Nowadays , there are detailed rules regarding fouls and free @-@ hits in the 23 metre region of the pitch . Since 2015 , the 23 metre line has also been used for the attacking team to resume play when it has gone over the back line ( this replaced long corners ) . There are additional markings 300 mm long and perpendicular to the back line that denote distances of 10 m and 5 m from each goal post . These are relevant at a penalty corner ; the former is the mark from which the attacking team takes the penalty corner and the latter is the closest position which a defender may stand . These marks had been 5 and 10 yards ( 4 @.@ 6 and 9 @.@ 1 m ) in earlier versions of the rules . There is a similar mark 5 m from along the side line ( from where long corners were formally taken ) and a mark 14 @.@ 6 m along the side line indicating the level of the top of the penalty circle . There are also 150 mm long markings where the goal posts are situated . = = Artificial playing surface = = Historically , the game was developed on natural grass turf . However , in 1976 , the International Hockey Federation ( FIH ) made artificial pitches mandatory at all major competitions . The 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal was the first of these ; however at this time few players had seen nor played on synthetic pitches . Although it is still permissible to play on natural turf all national competitions and international matches must be played on an artificial surface . Elite @-@ level competitions , such as the Olympic Games and World Cup , require a water @-@ based playing surface . However , due to water conservation efforts , this is not seen as a long @-@ term sustainable option and alternative elite surfaces that do not require water are being researched . There are three main types of artificial hockey surface : Unfilled or water @-@ based - artificial fibres that are densely packed for stabilisation , requires irrigation or watering to avoid pitch wear Dressed or sand @-@ dressed - artificial fibres can be less densely packed and sand supports the fibres for part of the pile depth Filled or sand @-@ filled - artificial fibres can be longer and less densely packed and sand supports the fibres for 100 % of the pile depth On water @-@ based pitches , shorter fibres and wetted turf reduce friction and increase the speed at which the game can be played . However , these pitches require watering before , during and after the game and maintenance costs are significant . Sand @-@ dressed pitches cost more than sand @-@ filled pitches but are preferable for hockey as there is an absence of sand close to the playing surface . However , a multi @-@ purpose surface suitable for sports including association football and tennis is often required and hockey may not be the predominant sport . There are many different specifications and categorisations for artificial turf including shock absorption , surface rebound , friction , and strength outlined by the International Hockey Federation . Recently , longer @-@ pile third @-@ generation or 3G pitches have become popular , especially for football , but these do not usually meet the FIH 's test criteria ; they are often too inconsistent and slow . = = = Criticism = = = The World Hockey magazine reported on the first hockey tournament played on an artificial pitch in 1975 — a trial event in Montreal prior to the Olympics — and said the surface had " enormous benefits " . Steve Ruskin , of Sports Illustrated , said that " A slow , analytical game gave way to one of nonstop , true @-@ hop action . " However , it has been stated that the decision to make artificial surfaces mandatory greatly favoured more affluent Western countries who could afford these new pitches . Before the switch to an artificial surface the Indian men 's hockey team were dominant , winning seven of the eight Olympic gold medals between 1928 and 1964 . In 1996 , Indian hockey player Ajit Pal Singh stated that despite its size " [ India ] can afford only 12 or so AstroTurf fields " . Sardara Singh , captain of the Indian men 's hockey team , said that " hockey players in India play on astroturf [ sic ] for the first time at the age of 19 or 20 and find it hard to adapt . " However , the Pakistan hockey team have performed well following the change of surface despite the country being worse off economically and having fewer artificial pitches . When describing the change of surface , Ruskin said that " for India it was like starting over , with all nations even in field hockey . "
= French battlecruiser proposals = In the years before the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , the French Navy considered several proposals for battlecruisers . The Navy issued specifications for a battlecruiser design to complete part of the 28 capital ships to be built by 1920 . Three designs , one by P. Gille and two by Lieutenant Durand @-@ Viel , were completed in 1913 . All three designs were similar to contemporary battleship designs , specifically the Normandie class , which introduced a quadruple gun turret for the main battery , which was adopted for all three proposals . The first two called for the same 340 mm ( 13 in ) gun used on all French dreadnoughts , though the third proposed a much more powerful 370 mm ( 15 in ) gun . Though the design studies were complete , the French Navy did not authorize or begin construction of any battlecruisers before the start of the war . = = Background = = In the Naval Law of 30 March 1912 , the French Navy called for a total force of 20 capital ships to be built by 1920 . The Technical Branch subsequently issued a set of somewhat vague requirements for battlecruiser designs . The requirements stipulated a displacement of 28 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 28 @,@ 000 long tons ; 31 @,@ 000 short tons ) , a speed of 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) , an armament of eight 340 mm ( 13 in ) guns , and a crew of not more than 1 @,@ 200 officers and enlisted men . Numerous proposals were submitted to the Technical Branch , but only two were evaluated further . The first was prepared by P. Gille , a naval engineer overseeing the construction of the Normandie @-@ class battleship Flandre , and the second by then @-@ Lieutenant Durand @-@ Viel , a student at the Naval College . As the proposals were only design studies , none were authorized and no ships were built . = = Gille 's design = = In 1911 , Gille went to Britain to observe the construction of the new Orion @-@ class battleships and Lion @-@ class battlecruisers . The latter ships prompted Gille to decide the French Navy ought to build battlecruisers as well , since Britain and Germany had already begun acquiring them , and they would prove useful as a fast division of the French fleet . Gille decided that his proposed ship would need a top speed of 28 to 29 kn ( 52 to 54 km / h ; 32 to 33 mph ) to retain an advantage over foreign battleships , the latest of which had estimated speeds of 22 to 23 kn ( 41 to 43 km / h ; 25 to 26 mph ) . They would also need enough armor and a main battery powerful enough to fight in the line of battle . The limitations that weight imposed on the design , however , restricted the amount of armor possible , and so the traditional French practice of armoring the entire side of the ship would be impossible . = = = Characteristics = = = Gille 's battlecruiser design called for a displacement of 28 @,@ 247 t ( 27 @,@ 801 long tons ; 31 @,@ 137 short tons ) on a hull that was 205 meters ( 673 ft ) long between perpendiculars , with a beam of 27 m ( 88 ft 7 in ) at the waterline and an average draft of 9 @.@ 03 m ( 29 ft 8 in ) . The freeboard forward was 7 @.@ 15 m ( 23 ft 5 in ) , and aft was 4 @.@ 65 m ( 15 @.@ 3 ft ) . The hull lines of the ships proved to be highly efficient in tank tests during the design process . Due to the extreme weight of the main battery turrets at the bow and stern , the hull had to be strengthened to handle the strain . Very strong longitudinal bracing was incorporated , and the inner and outer skins of the hull was thickened to reinforce the bracings . The ships ' expected metacentric height was 1 @.@ 03 m ( 3 ft 5 in ) , comparable to the British Lion class . Each ship would be crewed by 41 officers and 1 @,@ 258 enlisted men . The ships would have been equipped with four sets of steam turbines rated at 80 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 60 @,@ 000 kW ) powered by fifty @-@ two coal @-@ fired Belleville boilers . Each propeller shaft was connected to a high @-@ pressure turbine , a medium @-@ pressure geared turbine , and a low @-@ pressure turbine for forward steaming , and a direct drive turbine for steaming in reverse . The ships ' top speed was to have been 28 knots . The ships would have been supplied with 2 @,@ 833 t ( 2 @,@ 788 long tons ; 3 @,@ 123 short tons ) of coal and 630 t ( 620 long tons ; 690 short tons ) of fuel oil for supplementary oil firing . At maximum speed , the ships could have cruised for 1 @,@ 660 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 070 km ; 1 @,@ 910 mi ) ; at 20 @.@ 3 kn ( 37 @.@ 6 km / h ; 23 @.@ 4 mph ) , the range increased to 4 @,@ 240 nmi ( 7 @,@ 850 km ; 4 @,@ 880 mi ) , an at a more economical 15 kn ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) , the range grew to 6 @,@ 300 nmi ( 11 @,@ 700 km ; 7 @,@ 200 mi ) . The ships ' main armament was composed of twelve 340mm / 45 Modèle 1912 guns in three quadruple turrets , the same as in the contemporary French battleships of the Normandie class . One turret was placed forward , and the other two were placed in a superfiring pair , all on the centerline . The guns had a range of 16 @,@ 000 m ( 17 @,@ 000 yd ) and had a rate of fire of two rounds per minute . The shells were 540 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 190 lb ) armor @-@ piercing rounds and were fired with a muzzle velocity of 800 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . A secondary battery of twenty @-@ four 138 @.@ 6 mm / 55 Modèle 1910 guns mounted in casemates was planned for defense against torpedo boats . These guns fired a 36 @.@ 5 kg ( 80 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 830 m / s ( 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ) . The armament was rounded out by six torpedo tubes of undetermined diameter , all submerged in the ships ' hulls . The armor protecting both the main armored belt amidships and the main battery turrets was 270 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The lower armored deck was 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick , with 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor plating on the sloped sides . The casemate guns were protected with 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) of steel armor . The ships were also equipped with a 20 mm thick torpedo bulkhead . = = Durand @-@ Viel 's designs = = In 1913 , the Naval College had several of its students submit design studies for a fast capital ship . The class was given a displacement of 27 @,@ 500 t ( 27 @,@ 100 long tons ; 30 @,@ 300 short tons ) as a limit on size ; all of the officers opted to design either fast or slow battleships , with the exception of Lieutenant Durand @-@ Viel , who chose instead to create a design for a battlecruiser . Durand @-@ Viel drew up a pair of designs , which were evaluated by the General Staff in June 1914 . He saw his ships forming a fast division of the battle fleet capable of encircling an enemy squadron ; as with Gille 's design , this required heavy armament and armor to permit the ships to engage battleships . = = = Project " A " characteristics = = = Durand @-@ Viel 's first battlecruiser design , " A " , was built on a displacement of 27 @,@ 500 t ( 27 @,@ 100 long tons ; 30 @,@ 300 short tons ) . The hull was 210 meters ( 690 ft ) long at the waterline , with a beam of 27 m ( 89 ft ) at the waterline and an average draft of 8 @.@ 7 m ( 29 ft ) . The ships would have been equipped with four sets of direct drive turbines rated at 74 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 55 @,@ 000 kW ) powered by twenty @-@ four double @-@ ended Belleville boilers that burned both coal and oil . The ships ' top speed was to have been 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) . The ships would have been supplied with 1 @,@ 810 t ( 1 @,@ 780 long tons ; 2 @,@ 000 short tons ) of coal and 1 @,@ 050 t ( 1 @,@ 030 long tons ; 1 @,@ 160 short tons ) of fuel oil . The ships could have cruised for 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ; 4 @,@ 000 mi ) at 16 kn ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) , with enough fuel for an additional six hours for combat speeds . The ships ' main armament was composed of eight 340mm / 45 Modèle 1912 guns in two quadruple turrets , the same as in the contemporary French battleships of the Normandie class . Both turrets were placed on the centerline , on either end of the ship . A secondary battery of twenty @-@ four 138 @.@ 6 mm Modèle 1910 guns mounted in casemates was planned for defense against torpedo boats . Four 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) saluting guns were also to be equipped . The armament was rounded out by four 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , all submerged in the ships ' hulls . The main armored belt amidships was 280 mm ( 11 in ) thick , slightly thinner than the belt on the Normandie @-@ class battleships . The rest of the ship 's armor was very similar to that of the Normandie class . = = = Project " B " characteristics = = = Durand @-@ Viel 's second battlecruiser design , " B " , was built on the same displacement as the first design . The heavier weight of the increased main battery was offset by a reduction in the armor protection for the secondary guns and improved performance of the ship 's propulsion system . The hull was 208 meters ( 682 ft ) long at the waterline , with a beam of 27 m at the waterline and an average draft of 8 @.@ 7 m . Two engine systems were considered : four direct drive turbines rated at 63 @,@ 000 shp ( 47 @,@ 000 kW ) or four geared turbines rated at 80 @,@ 000 shp ( 60 @,@ 000 kW ) . Steam was provided by eighteen Belleville boilers , ten of which that burned both coal and oil , and eight that were oil @-@ fired only . The ships ' top speed was to have been 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) for the first variant and 27 knots for the second . The ships would have been supplied with the same fuel allotment as the " A " design , with the same radius of action as well . The ships ' main armament was composed of eight 370 mm ( 15 in ) guns in two quadruple turrets . Both turrets were placed on the centerline , on either end of the ship . The gun fired a 880 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 940 lb ) shell that was capable of penetrating 300 mm ( 12 in ) of armor plate at a range of 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . A secondary battery for defense against torpedo boats consisted of twenty @-@ eight 138 @.@ 6 mm guns , of a new semi @-@ automatic design , mounted in casemates . Four 47 mm saluting guns were also to be installed . The should would also to have carried four 450 mm torpedo tubes , all submerged in the ships ' hulls . The ships ' armor system was identical to the " A " design .
= Chinese classifier = The modern Chinese varieties make frequent use of what are called classifiers or measure words . One of the basic uses of classifiers is in phrases in which a noun is qualified by a numeral . When a phrase such as " one person " or " three books " is translated into Chinese , it is normally necessary to insert an appropriate classifier between the numeral and the noun . For example , in Standard Mandarin , the first of these phrases would be 一个人 yī ge rén , where yī means " one " , rén means " person " , and ge is the required classifier . There are also other grammatical contexts in which classifiers are used , including after the demonstratives 这 ( 這 ) zhè ( " this " ) and 那 nà ( " that " ) ; however , when a noun stands alone without any such qualifier , no classifier is needed . There are also various other uses of classifiers : for example , when placed after a noun rather than before it , or when repeated , a classifier signifies a plural or indefinite quantity . The terms " classifier " and " measure word " are frequently used interchangeably ( as equivalent to the Chinese term 量词 ( 量詞 ) liàngcí , which literally means " measure word " ) . Sometimes , however , the two are distinguished , with classifier denoting a particle without any particular meaning of its own , as in the example above , and measure word denoting a word for a particular quantity or measurement of something , such as " drop " , " cupful " , or " liter " . The latter type also includes certain words denoting lengths of time , units of currency , etc . These two types are alternatively called count @-@ classifier and mass @-@ classifier , since the first type can only meaningfully be used with count nouns , while the second is used particularly with mass nouns . However , the grammatical behavior of words of the two types is largely identical . Most nouns have one or more particular classifiers associated with them , often depending on the nature of the things they denote . For example , many nouns denoting flat objects such as tables , papers , beds , and benches use the classifier 张 ( 張 ) zhāng , whereas many long and thin objects use 条 ( 條 ) tiáo . The total number of classifiers in Chinese may be put at anywhere from a few dozen to several hundred , depending on how they are counted . The classifier 个 ( 個 ) , pronounced gè or ge in Mandarin , apart from being the standard classifier for many nouns , also serves as a general classifier , which may often ( but not always ) be used in place of other classifiers ; in informal and spoken language , native speakers tend to use this classifier far more than any other , even though they know which classifier is " correct " when asked . Mass @-@ classifiers might be used with all sorts of nouns with which they make sense : for example , 盒 hé ( " box " ) may be used to denote boxes of objects , such as lightbulbs or books , even though those nouns would be used with their own appropriate count @-@ classifiers if being counted as individual objects . Researchers have differing views as to how classifier – noun pairings arise : some regard them as being based on innate semantic features of the noun ( for example , all nouns denoting " long " objects take a certain classifier because of their inherent longness ) , while others see them as motivated more by analogy to prototypical pairings ( for example , " dictionary " comes to take the same classifier as the more common word " book " ) . There is some variation in the pairings used , with speakers of different dialects often using different classifiers for the same item . Some linguists have proposed that the use of classifier phrases may be guided less by grammar and more by stylistic or pragmatic concerns on the part of a speaker who may be trying to foreground new or important information . Many other languages of the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area exhibit similar classifier systems , leading to speculation about the origins of the Chinese system . Ancient classifier @-@ like constructions , which used a repeated noun rather than a special classifier , are attested in Old Chinese as early as 1400 BCE , but true classifiers did not appear in these phrases until much later . Originally , classifiers and numbers came after the noun rather than before , and probably moved before the noun sometime after 500 BCE . The use of classifiers did not become a mandatory part of Chinese grammar until around 1100 CE . Some nouns became associated with specific classifiers earlier than others , the earliest probably being nouns that signified culturally valued items such as horses and poems . Many words that are classifiers today started out as full nouns ; in some cases their meanings have been gradually bleached away so that they are now used only as classifiers . = = Usage = = In Chinese , a numeral cannot usually quantify a noun by itself ; instead , the language relies on classifiers , commonly also referred to as measure words . When a noun is preceded by a number , a demonstrative such as this or that , or certain quantifiers such as every , a classifier must normally be inserted before the noun . Thus , while English speakers say " one person " or " this person " , Mandarin Chinese speakers say 一个人 ( yí ge rén , one @-@ CL person ) or 这个人 ( zhè ge rén , this @-@ CL person ) , respectively . If a noun is preceded by both a demonstrative and a number , the demonstrative comes first . ( This is just as in English , e.g. " these three cats " . ) If an adjective modifies the noun , it typically comes after the classifier and before the noun . The general structure of a classifier phrase is demonstrative – number – classifier – adjective – noun The tables below give examples of common types of classifier phrases . While most English nouns do not require classifiers or measure words ( except in rare cases like " five head of cattle " ) , nearly all Chinese nouns do ; thus , in the first table , phrases that have no classifier in English have one in Chinese . On the other hand , when a noun is not counted or introduced with a demonstrative , a classifier is not necessary : for example , there is a classifier in 三辆车 ( sān liàng chē , three @-@ CL car , " three cars " ) but not in 我的车 ( wǒ @-@ de chē , me @-@ possessive car , " my car " ) . Furthermore , numbers and demonstratives are often not required in Chinese , so speakers may choose not to use one — and thus not to use a classifier . For example , to say " Zhangsan turned into a tree " , both 张三变成了一棵树 ( Zhāngsān biànchéng -le yì kē shù , Zhangsan become PAST one CL tree ) and 张三变成了树 ( Zhāngsān biànchéng -le shù , Zhangsan become PAST tree ) are acceptable . The use of classifiers after demonstratives is in fact optional . Likewise , in colloquial speech and in certain idioms , classifiers are sometimes not used even in numeral phrases . It is also possible for a classifier alone to qualify a noun , the numeral ( " one " ) being omitted , as in 买匹马 mǎi pī mǎ " buy CL horse " , i.e. " buy a horse " . = = = Specialized uses = = = In addition to their uses with numbers and demonstratives , classifiers have some other functions . A classifier placed after a noun expresses a plural or indefinite quantity of it . For example , 书本 ( shū @-@ běn , book @-@ CL ) means " the books " ( e.g. on a shelf , or in a library ) , whereas the standard pre @-@ nominal construction 一本书 ( yì běn shū , one @-@ CL book ) means " one book " . Many classifiers may be reduplicated to mean " every " . For example , 个个人 ( gè @-@ ge rén , CL @-@ CL person ) signifies " every person " . Finally , a classifier used along with 一 ( yī , " one " ) and after a noun conveys a meaning close to " all of " or " the entire " or " a _ _ _ ful of " . The sentence 天空一片云 ( tiānkōng yí piàn yún , sky one @-@ CL cloud ) , meaning " the sky was full of clouds " , uses the classifier 片 ( piàn , slice ) , which refers to the sky , not the clouds . = = Types = = The vast majority of classifiers are those that count or classify nouns ( nominal classifiers , as in all the examples given so far , as opposed to verbal classifiers ) . These are further subdivided into count @-@ classifiers and mass @-@ classifiers , described below . In everyday speech , people often use the term " measure word " , or its literal Chinese equivalent 量词 liàngcí , to cover all Chinese count @-@ classifiers and mass @-@ classifiers , but the types of words grouped under this term are not all the same . Specifically , the various types of classifiers exhibit numerous differences in meaning , in the kinds of words they attach to , and in syntactic behavior . Chinese has a large number of nominal classifiers ; estimates of the number in Mandarin range from " several dozen " or " about 50 " , to over 900 . The range is so large because some of these estimates include all types of classifiers while others include only count @-@ classifiers , and because the idea of what constitutes a " classifier " has changed over time . Today , regular dictionaries include 120 to 150 classifiers ; the 8822 @-@ word Syllabus of Graded Words and Characters for Chinese Proficiency ( Chinese : 汉语水平词汇与汉字等级大纲 ; pinyin : Hànyǔ Shuǐpíng Cíhuì yú Hànzi Děngjí Dàgāng ) lists 81 ; and a 2009 list compiled by Gao Ming and Barbara Malt includes 126 . The number of classifiers that are in everyday , informal use , however , may be lower : linguist Mary Erbaugh has claimed that about two dozen " core classifiers " account for most classifier use . As a whole , though , the classifier system is so complex that specialized classifier dictionaries have been published . = = = Count @-@ classifiers and mass @-@ classifiers = = = Within the set of nominal classifiers , linguists generally draw a distinction between " count @-@ classifiers " and " mass @-@ classifiers " . True count @-@ classifiers are used for naming or counting a single count noun , and have no direct translation in English ; for example , 一本书 ( yì běn shū , one @-@ CL book ) can only be translated in English as " one book " or " a book " . Furthermore , count @-@ classifiers cannot be used with mass nouns : just as an English speaker cannot ordinarily say * " five muds " , a Chinese speaker cannot say * 五个泥 ( wǔ ge nì , five @-@ CL mud ) . For such mass nouns , one must use mass @-@ classifiers . Mass @-@ classifiers ( true measure words ) do not pick out inherent properties of an individual noun like count @-@ classifiers do ; rather , they lump nouns into countable units . Thus , mass @-@ classifiers can generally be used with multiple types of nouns ; for example , while the mass @-@ classifier 盒 ( hé , box ) can be used to count boxes of lightbulbs ( 一盒灯泡 yì hé dēngpào , " one box of lightbulbs " ) or of books ( 一盒教材 yì hé jiàocái , " one box of textbooks " ) , each of these nouns must use a different count @-@ classifier when being counted by itself ( 一盏灯泡 yì zhǎn dēngpào " one lightbulb " ; vs. 一本教材 yì běn jiàocái " one textbook " ) . While count @-@ classifiers have no direct English translation , mass @-@ classifiers often do : phrases with count @-@ classifiers such as 一个人 ( yí ge rén , one @-@ CL person ) can only be translated as " one person " or " a person " , whereas those with mass @-@ classifiers such as 一群人 ( yì qún rén , one @-@ crowd @-@ person ) can be translated as " a crowd of people " . All languages , including English , have mass @-@ classifiers , but count @-@ classifiers are unique to certain " classifier languages " , and are not a part of English grammar apart from a few exceptional cases such as head of livestock . Within the range of mass @-@ classifiers , authors have proposed subdivisions based on the manner in which a mass @-@ classifier organizes the noun into countable units . One of these is measurement units ( also called " standard measures " ) , which all languages must have in order to measure items ; this category includes units such as kilometers , liters , or pounds ( see list ) . Like other classifiers , these can also stand without a noun ; thus , for example , 磅 ( bàng , pound ) may appear as both 三磅肉 ( sān bàng ròu , " three pounds of meat " ) or just 三磅 ( sān bàng , " three pounds " , never * 三个磅 sān ge bàng ) . Units of currency behave similarly : for example , 十元 ( shí yuán , " ten yuan " ) , which is short for ( for example ) 十元人民币 ( shí yuán rénmínbì , " ten units of renminbi " ) . Other proposed types of mass @-@ classifiers include " collective " mass @-@ classifiers , such as 一群人 ( yì qún rén , " a crowd of people " ) , which group things less precisely ; and " container " mass @-@ classifiers which group things by containers they come in , as in 一碗粥 ( yì wǎn zhōu , " a bowl of porridge " ) or 一包糖 ( yì bāo táng , " a bag of sugar " ) . The difference between count @-@ classifiers and mass @-@ classifiers can be described as one of quantifying versus categorizing : in other words , mass @-@ classifiers create a unit by which to measure something ( i.e. boxes , groups , chunks , pieces , etc . ) , whereas count @-@ classifiers simply name an existing item . Most words can appear with both count @-@ classifiers and mass @-@ classifiers ; for example , pizza can be described as both 一张比萨 ( yì zhāng bǐsà , " one pizza " , literally " one pie of pizza " ) , using a count @-@ classifier , and as 一块比萨 ( yí kuài bǐsà , " one piece of pizza " ) , using a mass @-@ classifier . In addition to these semantic differences , there are differences in the grammatical behaviors of count @-@ classifiers and mass @-@ classifiers ; for example , mass @-@ classifiers may be modified by a small set of adjectives ( as in 一大群人 yí dà qún rén , " a big crowd of people " ) , whereas count @-@ classifiers usually may not ( for example , * 一大个人 yí dà ge rén is never said for " a big person " ; instead the adjective must modify the noun : 一个大人 yí ge dà rén ) . Another difference is that count @-@ classifiers may often be replaced by a " general " classifier 个 ( 個 ) , gè with no apparent change in meaning , whereas mass @-@ classifiers may not . Syntacticians Lisa Cheng and Rint Sybesma propose that count @-@ classifiers and mass @-@ classifiers have different underlying syntactic structures , with count @-@ classifiers forming " classifier phrases " , and mass @-@ classifiers being a sort of relative clause that only looks like a classifier phrase . The distinction between count @-@ classifiers and mass @-@ classifiers is often unclear , however , and other linguists have suggested that count @-@ classifiers and mass @-@ classifiers may not be fundamentally different . They posit that " count @-@ classifier " and " mass @-@ classifier " are the extremes of a continuum , with most classifiers falling somewhere in between . = = = Verbal classifiers = = = There is a set of " verbal classifiers " used specifically for counting the number of times an action occurs , rather than counting a number of items ; this set includes 次 cì , 遍 biàn , 回 huí , and 下 xià , which all roughly translate to " times " . For example , 我去过三次北京 ( wǒ qù @-@ guo sān cì Běijīng , I go @-@ PAST three @-@ CL Beijing , " I have been to Beijing three times " ) . These words can also form compound classifiers with certain nouns , as in 人次 rén cì " person @-@ time " , which can be used to count ( for example ) visitors to a museum in a year ( where visits by the same person on different occasions are counted separately ) . Another type of verbal classifier indicates the tool or implement used to perform the action . An example is found in the sentence 他踢了我一脚 tā tī le wǒ yī jiǎo " he kicked me " , or more literally " he kicked me one foot " . The word 脚 jiǎo , which usually serves as a simple noun meaning " foot " , here functions as a verbal classifier reflecting the tool ( namely the foot ) used to perform the kicking action . = = Relation to nouns = = Different classifiers often correspond to different particular nouns . For example , books generally take the classifier 本 běn , flat objects take 张 ( 張 ) zhāng , animals take 只 ( 隻 ) zhī , machines take 台 tái , large buildings and mountains take 座 zuò , etc . Within these categories are further subdivisions — while most animals take 只 ( 隻 ) zhī , domestic animals take 头 ( 頭 ) tóu , long and flexible animals take 条 ( 條 ) tiáo , and horses take 匹 pǐ . Likewise , while long things that are flexible ( such as ropes ) often take 条 ( 條 ) tiáo , long things that are rigid ( such as sticks ) take 根 gēn , unless they are also round ( like pens or cigarettes ) , in which case in some dialects they take 枝 zhī . Classifiers also vary in how specific they are ; some ( such as 朵 duǒ for flowers ) are generally only used with one item , whereas others ( such as 条 ( 條 ) tiáo for long and flexible things , one @-@ dimensional things , or abstract items like news reports ) are much less restricted . Furthermore , there is not a one @-@ to @-@ one relationship between nouns and classifiers : the same noun may be paired with different classifiers in different situations . The specific factors that govern which classifiers are paired with which nouns have been a subject of debate among linguists . = = = Categories and prototypes = = = While mass @-@ classifiers do not necessarily bear any semantic relationship to the noun with which they are used ( e.g. box and book are not related in meaning , but one can still say " a box of books " ) , count @-@ classifiers do . The precise nature of that relationship , however , is not certain , since there is so much variability in how objects may be organized and categorized by classifiers . Accounts of the semantic relationship may be grouped loosely into categorical theories , which propose that count @-@ classifiers are matched to objects solely on the basis of inherent features of those objects ( such as length or size ) , and prototypical theories , which propose that people learn to match a count @-@ classifier to a specific prototypical object and to other objects that are like that prototype . The categorical , " classical " view of classifiers was that each classifier represents a category with a set of conditions ; for example , the classifier 条 ( 條 ) tiáo would represent a category defined as all objects that meet the conditions of being long , thin , and one @-@ dimensional — and nouns using that classifier must fit all the conditions with which the category is associated . Some common semantic categories into which count @-@ classifiers have been claimed to organize nouns include the categories of shape ( long , flat , or round ) , size ( large or small ) , consistency ( soft or hard ) , animacy ( human , animal , or object ) , and function ( tools , vehicles , machines , etc . ) . On the other hand , proponents of prototype theory propose that count @-@ classifiers may not have innate definitions , but are associated with a noun that is prototypical of that category , and nouns that have a " family resemblance " with the prototype noun will want to use the same classifier . For example , horse in Chinese uses the classifier 匹 pǐ , as in 三匹马 ( sān pǐ mǎ , " three horses " ) — in modern Chinese the word 匹 has no meaning . Nevertheless , nouns denoting animals that look like horses will often also use this same classifier , and native speakers have been found to be more likely to use the classifier 匹 the closer an animal looks to a horse . Furthermore , words that do not meet the " criteria " of a semantic category may still use that category because of their association with a prototype . For example , the classifier 颗 ( 顆 ) kē is used for small round items , as in 一颗子弹 ( yì kē zǐdàn , " one bullet " ) ; when words like 原子弹 ( yuánzǐdàn , " atomic bomb " ) were later introduced into the language they also used this classifier , even though they are not small and round — therefore , their classifier must have been assigned because of the words ' association with the word for bullet , which acted as a " prototype " . This is an example of " generalization " from prototypes : Erbaugh has proposed that when children learn count @-@ classifiers , they go through stages , first learning a classifier @-@ noun pair only ( such as 条鱼 tiáo yú , CL @-@ fish ) , then using that classifier with multiple nouns that are similar to the prototype ( such as other types of fish ) , then finally using that set of nouns to generalize a semantic feature associated with the classifier ( such as length and flexibility ) so that the classifier can then be used with new words that the person encounters . Some classifier @-@ noun pairings are arbitrary , or at least appear to modern speakers to have no semantic motivation . For instance , the classifier 部 bù may be used for movies and novels , but also for cars and telephones . Some of this arbitrariness may be due to what linguist James Tai refers to as " fossilization " , whereby a count @-@ classifier loses its meaning through historical changes but remains paired with some nouns . For example , the classifier 匹 pǐ used for horses is meaningless today , but in Classical Chinese may have referred to a " team of two horses " , a pair of horse skeletons , or the pairing between man and horse . Arbitrariness may also arise when a classifier is borrowed , along with its noun , from a dialect in which it has a clear meaning to one in which it does not . In both these cases , the use of the classifier is remembered more by association with certain " prototypical " nouns ( such as horse ) rather than by understanding of semantic categories , and thus arbitrariness has been used as an argument in favor of the prototype theory of classifiers . Gao and Malt propose that both the category and prototype theories are correct : in their conception , some classifiers constitute " well @-@ defined categories " , others make " prototype categories " , and still others are relatively arbitrary . = = = Neutralization = = = In addition to the numerous " specific " count @-@ classifiers described above , Chinese has a " general " classifier 个 ( 個 ) , pronounced gè in Mandarin . This classifier is used for people , some abstract concepts , and other words that do not have special classifiers ( such as 汉堡包 hànbǎobāo " hamburger " ) , and may also be used as a replacement for a specific classifier such as 张 ( 張 ) zhāng or 条 ( 條 ) tiáo , especially in informal speech . In Mandarin Chinese , it has been noted as early as the 1940s that the use of 个 is increasing and that there is a general tendency towards replacing specific classifiers with it . Numerous studies have reported that both adults and children tend to use 个 when they do not know the appropriate count @-@ classifier , and even when they do but are speaking quickly or informally . The replacement of a specific classifier with the general 个 is known as classifier neutralization ( " 量词个化 " in Chinese , literally " classifier 个 @-@ ization " ) . This occurs especially often among children and aphasics ( individuals with damage to language @-@ relevant areas of the brain ) , although normal speakers also neutralize frequently . It has been reported that most speakers know the appropriate classifiers for the words they are using and believe , when asked , that those classifiers are obligatory , but nevertheless use 个 without even realizing it in actual speech . As a result , in everyday spoken Mandarin the general classifier is " hundreds of times more frequent " than the specialized ones . Nevertheless , 个 has not completely replaced other count @-@ classifiers , and there are still many situations in which it would be inappropriate to substitute it for the required specific classifier . There may be specific patterns behind which classifier @-@ noun pairs may be " neutralized " to use the general classifier , and which may not . Specifically , words that are most prototypical for their categories , such as paper for the category of nouns taking the " flat / square " classifier 张 ( 張 ) zhāng , may be less likely to be said with a general classifier . = = = Variation in usage = = = It is not the case that every noun is only associated with one classifier . Across dialects and speakers there is great variability in the way classifiers are used for the same words , and speakers often do not agree which classifier is best . For example , for cars some people use 部 bù , others use 台 tái , and still others use 辆 ( 輛 ) liàng ; Cantonese uses 架 gaa3 . Even within a single dialect or a single speaker , the same noun may take different measure words depending on the style in which the person is speaking , or on different nuances the person wants to convey ( for instance , measure words can reflect the speaker 's judgment of or opinion about the object ) . An example of this is the word for person , 人 rén , which uses the measure word 个 ( 個 ) gè normally , but uses the measure 口 kǒu when counting number of people in a household , and 位 wèi when being particularly polite or honorific , and 名 míng in formal , written contexts ; likewise , a group of people may be referred to by massifiers as 一群人 ( yì qún rén , " a group of people " ) or 一帮人 ( yì bāng rén , " a gang / crowd of people " ) : the first is neutral , whereas the second implies that the people are unruly or otherwise being judged poorly . Some count @-@ classifiers may also be used with nouns that they are not normally related to , for metaphorical effect , as in 一堆烦恼 ( yì duī fánnǎo , " a pile of worries / troubles " ) . Finally , a single word may have multiple count @-@ classifiers that convey different meanings altogether — in fact , the choice of a classifier can even influence the meaning of a noun . By way of illustration , 三节课 sān jié kè means " three class periods " ( as in " I have three classes today " ) , whereas 三门课 sān mén kè means " three courses " ( as in " I signed up for three courses this semester " ) , even though the noun in each sentence is the same . = = Purpose = = In research on classifier systems , and Chinese classifiers in particular , it has been asked why count @-@ classifiers ( as opposed to mass @-@ classifiers ) exist at all . Mass @-@ classifiers are present in all languages since they are the only way to " count " mass nouns that are not naturally divided into units ( as , for example , " three splotches of mud " in English ; * " three muds " is ungrammatical ) . On the other hand , count @-@ classifiers are not inherently mandatory , and are absent from most languages . Furthermore , count @-@ classifiers are used with an " unexpectedly low frequency " ; in many settings , speakers avoid specific classifiers by just using a bare noun ( without a number or demonstrative ) or using the general classifier 个 gè . Linguists and typologists such as Joseph Greenberg have suggested that specific count @-@ classifiers are semantically " redundant " , repeating information present within the noun . Count @-@ classifiers can be used stylistically , though , and can also be used to clarify or limit a speaker 's intended meaning when using a vague or ambiguous noun ; for example , the noun 课 kè " class " can refer to courses in a semester or specific class periods during a day , depending on whether the classifier 门 ( 門 ) mén or 节 ( 節 ) jié is used . One proposed explanation for the existence of count @-@ classifiers is that they serve more of a cognitive purpose than a practical one : in other words , they provide a linguistic way for speakers to organize or categorize real objects . An alternative account is that they serve more of a discursive and pragmatic function ( a communicative function when people interact ) rather than an abstract function within the mind . Specifically , it has been proposed that count @-@ classifiers might be used to mark new or unfamiliar objects within a discourse , to introduce major characters or items in a story or conversation , or to foreground important information and objects by making them bigger and more salient . In this way , count @-@ classifiers might not serve an abstract grammatical or cognitive function , but may help in communication by making important information more noticeable and drawing attention to it . = = History = = = = = Classifier phrases = = = Historical linguists have found that phrases consisting of nouns and numbers went through several structural changes in Old Chinese and Middle Chinese before classifiers appeared in them . The earliest forms may have been Number – Noun , like English ( i.e. " five horses " ) , and the less common Noun – Number ( " horses five " ) , both of which are attested in the oracle bone scripts of Pre @-@ Archaic Chinese ( circa 1400 BCE to 1000 BCE ) . The first constructions resembling classifier constructions were Noun – Number – Noun constructions , which were also extant in Pre @-@ Archaic Chinese but less common than Number – Noun . In these constructions , sometimes the first and second nouns were identical ( N1 – Number – N1 , as in " horses five horses " ) and other times the second noun was different , but semantically related ( N1 – Number – N2 ) . According to some historical linguists , the N2 in these constructions can be considered an early form of count @-@ classifier and has even been called an " echo classifier " ; this speculation is not universally agreed on , though . Although true count @-@ classifiers had not appeared yet , mass @-@ classifiers were common in this time , with constructions such as " wine – six – yǒu " ( the word 酉 yǒu represented a wine container ) meaning " six yǒu of wine " . Examples such as this suggest that mass @-@ classifiers predate count @-@ classifiers by several centuries , although they did not appear in the same word order as they do today . It is from this type of structure that count @-@ classifiers may have arisen , originally replacing the second noun ( in structures where there was a noun rather than a mass @-@ classifier ) to yield Noun – Number – Classifier . That is to say , constructions like " horses five horses " may have been replaced by ones like " horses five CL " , possibly for stylistic reasons such as avoiding repetition . Another reason for the appearance of count @-@ classifiers may have been to avoid confusion or ambiguity that could have arisen from counting items using only mass @-@ classifiers — i.e. to clarify when one is referring to a single item and when one is referring to a measure of items . Historians agree that at some point in history the order of words in this construction shifted , putting the noun at the end rather than beginning , like in the present @-@ day construction Number – Classifier – Noun . According to historical linguist Alain Peyraube , the earliest occurrences of this construction ( albeit with mass @-@ classifiers , rather than count @-@ classifiers ) appear in the late portion of Old Chinese ( 500 BCE to 200 BCE ) . At this time , the Number – Mass @-@ classifier portion of the Noun – Number – Mass @-@ classifier construction was sometimes shifted in front of the noun . Peyraube speculates that this may have occurred because it was gradually reanalyzed as a modifier ( like an adjective ) for the head noun , as opposed to a simple repetition as it originally was . Since Chinese generally places modifiers before modified , as does English , the shift may have been prompted by this reanalysis . By the early part of the Common Era , the nouns appearing in " classifier position " were beginning to lose their meaning and become true classifiers . Estimates of when classifiers underwent the most development vary : Wang Li claims their period of major development was during the Han Dynasty ( 206 BCE – 220 CE ) , whereas Liu Shiru estimates that it was the Southern and Northern Dynasties period ( 420 – 589 CE ) , and Peyraube chooses the Tang Dynasty ( 618 – 907 CE ) . Regardless of when they developed , Wang Lianqing claims that they did not become grammatically mandatory until sometime around the 11th century . Classifier systems in many nearby languages and language groups ( such as Vietnamese and the Tai languages ) are very similar to the Chinese classifier system in both grammatical structure and the parameters along which some objects are grouped together . Thus , there has been some debate over which language family first developed classifiers and which ones then borrowed them — or whether classifier systems were native to all these languages and developed more through repeated language contact throughout history . = = = Classifier words = = = Most modern count @-@ classifiers are derived from words that originally were free @-@ standing nouns in older varieties of Chinese , and have since been grammaticalized to become bound morphemes . In other words , count @-@ classifiers tend to come from words that once had specific meaning but lost it ( a process known as semantic bleaching ) . Many , however , still have related forms that work as nouns all by themselves , such as the classifier 带 ( 帶 ) dài for long , ribbon @-@ like objects : the modern word 带子 dàizi means " ribbon " . In fact , the majority of classifiers can also be used as other parts of speech , such as nouns . Mass @-@ classifiers , on the other hand , are more transparent in meaning than count @-@ classifiers ; while the latter have some historical meaning , the former are still full @-@ fledged nouns . For example , 杯 ( bēi , cup ) , is both a classifier as in 一杯茶 ( yì bēi chá , " a cup of tea " ) and the word for a cup as in 酒杯 ( jiǔbēi , " wine glass " ) . It was not always the case that every noun required a count @-@ classifier . In many historical varieties of Chinese , use of classifiers was not mandatory , and classifiers are rare in writings that have survived . Some nouns acquired classifiers earlier than others ; some of the first documented uses of classifiers were for inventorying items , both in mercantile business and in storytelling . Thus , the first nouns to have count @-@ classifiers paired with them may have been nouns that represent " culturally valued " items such as horses , scrolls , and intellectuals . The special status of such items is still apparent today : many of the classifiers that can only be paired with one or two nouns , such as 匹 pǐ for horses and 首 shǒu for songs or poems , are the classifiers for these same " valued " items . Such classifiers make up as much as one @-@ third of the commonly used classifiers today . Classifiers did not gain official recognition as a lexical category ( part of speech ) until the 20th century . The earliest modern text to discuss classifiers and their use was Ma Jianzhong 's 1898 Ma 's Basic Principles for Writing Clearly ( 马氏文通 ) . From then until the 1940s , linguists such as Ma , Wang Li , and Li Jinxi treated classifiers as just a type of noun that " expresses a quantity " . Lü Shuxiang was the first to treat them as a separate category , calling them " unit words " ( 单位词 dānwèicí ) in his 1940s Outline of Chinese Grammar ( 中国文法要略 ) and finally " measure words " ( 量词 liàngcí ) in Grammar Studies ( 语法学习 ) . He made this separation based on the fact that classifiers were semantically bleached , and that they can be used directly with a number , whereas true nouns need to have a measure word added before they can be used with a number . After this time , other names were also proposed for classifiers : Gao Mingkai called them " noun helper words " ( 助名词 zhùmíngcí ) , Lu Wangdao " counting markers " ( 计标 jìbiāo ) , and Japanese linguist Miyawaki Kennosuke called them " accompanying words " ( 陪伴词 péibàncí ) . In the Draft Plan for a System of Teaching Chinese Grammar ( 暂拟汉语教学语法系统 ) adopted by the People 's Republic of China in 1954 , Lü 's " measure words " ( 量词 liàngcí ) was adopted as the official name for classifiers in China . This remains the most common term in use today . = = = General classifiers = = = Historically , 个 gè was not always the general classifier . Some believe it was originally a noun referring to bamboo stalks , and gradually expanded in use to become a classifier for many things with " vertical , individual , [ or ] upright qualit [ ies ] " , eventually becoming a general classifier because it was used so frequently with common nouns . The classifier gè is actually associated with three different homophonous characters : 个 , 個 ( used today as the traditional @-@ character equivalent of 个 ) , and 箇 . Historical linguist Lianqing Wang has argued that these characters actually originated from different words , and that only 箇 had the original meaning of " bamboo stalk " . 个 , she claims , was used as a general classifier early on , and may have been derived from the orthographically similar 介 jiè , one of the earliest general classifiers . 箇 later merged with 介 because they were similar in pronunciation and meaning ( both used as general classifiers ) . Likewise , she claims that 個 was also a separate word ( with a meaning having to do with " partiality " or " being a single part " ) , and merged with 个 for the same reasons as 箇 did ; she also argues that 個 was " created " , as early as the Han Dynasty , to supersede 个 . Nor was 个 the only general classifier in the history of Chinese . The aforementioned 介 jiè was being used as a general classifier before the Qin Dynasty ( 221 BCE ) ; it was originally a noun referring to individual items out of a string of connected shells or clothes , and eventually came to be used as a classifier for " individual " objects ( as opposed to pairs or groups of objects ) before becoming a general classifier . Another general classifier was 枚 méi , which originally referred to small twigs . Since twigs were used for counting items , 枚 became a counter word : any items , including people , could be counted as " one 枚 , two 枚 " , etc . 枚 was the most common classifier in use during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period ( 420 – 589 CE ) , but today is no longer a general classifier , and is only used rarely , as a specialized classifier for items such as pins and badges . Kathleen Ahrens has claimed that 隻 ( zhī in Mandarin and jia in Taiwanese ) , the classifier for animals in Mandarin , is another general classifier in Taiwanese and may be becoming one in the Mandarin spoken in Taiwan . = = = Variety = = = Northern dialects tend to have fewer classifiers than southern ones . 個 ( ge ) is the only classifier found in the Dungan language . All nouns could have just one classifier in some dialects , such as Shanghainese , Standard Mandarin Shanxi dialect , Shandong dialects . Some dialects such as Northern Min , certain Xiang dialects , Hakka Chinese , and some Yue Chinese use 隻 for the noun referring to people , rather than 個 ( ge ) .
= Scott Brown = Scott Philip Brown ( born September 12 , 1959 ) is an American attorney and politician . He was a United States Senator from Massachusetts , 2010 to 2013 . Prior to his term in the Senate , Brown served as a member of the Massachusetts General Court , first in the State House of Representatives ( 1998 – 2004 ) and then in the State Senate ( 2004 – 2010 ) . Brown served 35 years in the Army National Guard , retiring in 2014 with the rank of colonel . Brown is currently working as a political contributor for Fox News Channel and as an on @-@ call host for select Fox News Channel shows , including Fox & Friends . Brown is a member of the Republican Party , and faced the Democratic candidate , Massachusetts Attorney General Martha Coakley , in the 2010 special election to succeed U.S. Senator Ted Kennedy for the remainder of the term ending January 3 , 2013 . While initially trailing Coakley in polling by a large margin , Brown saw a sudden late surge in the polls and posted a surprise win to become the first Republican elected to the U.S. Senate from Massachusetts since Edward Brooke in 1972 . Brown ran for a full Senate term in 2012 , but lost to Democratic challenger Elizabeth Warren . He subsequently joined the board of directors of Kadant paper company , joined Fox News as a commentator , and joined Nixon Peabody where he provided legal services . Prior to entering the state legislature , he had experience as a town selectman and assessor . He is a practicing attorney , with expertise in real estate law , and served as defense counsel in the Judge Advocate General 's Corps of the Massachusetts Army National Guard . Brown is a graduate of Wakefield Memorial High School ( 1977 ) , Tufts University ( 1981 ) , and Boston College Law School ( 1985 ) . Brown later reestablished residence in New Hampshire , and beginning in April 2014 campaigned for the United States Senate in the 2014 election . Brown won the Republican nomination by a significant margin , but was defeated in the race by incumbent Democrat Jeanne Shaheen in the general election . = = Early life and education = = Brown is of English ancestry , from a family that has been in New Hampshire since the colonial era . His earliest American ancestor was 17th century immigrant Francis Matthews , who sailed from Devonshire , England . Brown is part of a 9th generation New Hampshire family and was born on September 12 , 1959 at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard located on Seavey 's Island in Kittery , Maine but after his parents divorced , when he was a young child , his mother moved him from Portsmouth , NH to Wakefield , Massachusetts . He often spent his summers in Newburyport , Massachusetts , where his father served as a city councilor for 18 years . He also spent summers in Portsmouth , New Hampshire during his youth . Brown 's father , Claude Bruce Brown , and mother , Judith Ann “ Judi ” ( née Rugg ) , divorced when he was about a year old . His father and his grandfather were Republicans . His father has said that young Scott became interested in running for political office in the mid @-@ 1960s while accompanying him on a campaign for state office . Brown recalls holding campaign signs for his father . Brown had a difficult childhood ; after her divorce , his working mother received welfare benefits . Brown experienced sexual abuse from a camp counselor who threatened to kill the 10 @-@ year @-@ old boy if he told anyone – which he did not disclose , even to his family , until his autobiography Against All Odds ( 2011 ) – and physical abuse from his stepfathers . During various periods of his childhood , Brown lived with his grandparents and his aunt . He shoplifted many times , and was arrested for stealing record albums and brought before Judge Samuel Zoll in Salem , Massachusetts at the age of 12 . Zoll asked Brown if his siblings would like seeing him play basketball in jail and required Brown to write a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ word essay on that question as his punishment . Brown later said , " that was the last time I ever stole . " He graduated from Wakefield High School in 1977 . He received a Bachelor of Arts in History , cum laude from Tufts University in 1981 and a Juris Doctor from Boston College Law School in 1985 . During his undergraduate career at Tufts , Brown was a member of the Kappa Chapter of Zeta Psi International Fraternity . = = Early career = = = = = Army National Guard service = = = Brown has said the rescue efforts of Army National Guard during the Northeastern United States blizzard of 1978 impressed him . He joined the Massachusetts Army National Guard when he was 19 , receiving his basic training at Fort Dix , New Jersey , and attending Reserve Officers ' Training Corps ( ROTC ) classes at the campus of Northeastern University . He was trained in infantry , quartermaster , and airborne duties , and in 1994 he joined the Judge Advocate General 's Corps ( JAG ) . He was active in the Guard for 35 years rising to the rank of colonel . As the Army National Guard 's head defense attorney in New England , Brown defended Guard members who had disciplinary difficulties such as positive drug tests , and provided estate planning and real estate advice to those who are about to deploy to war zones . He spent ten days to two weeks with the Guard in Kazakhstan and a week in Paraguay . He was awarded the Army Commendation Medal for meritorious service in homeland security shortly after the September 11 attacks . He credits his military experience with causing him to focus on veteran 's issues as well as issues of war and peace . He has served on the Veterans and Federal Affairs Committee , the Hidden Wounds of War Commission , and the Governor 's Task Force on Returning Veterans during his career as a legislator . On May 2 , 2011 , Brown announced that he would soon go to Afghanistan for training as part of his Army National Guard service . When deployed in August 2011 for a week of training , he spent most of his time in Kabul . On August 1 , 2012 , Brown was promoted to Colonel in a private ceremony presided over by fellow senator John McCain . He officially retired from the Army on May 13 , 2014 after 35 years of service , and was awarded the Legion of Merit . = = = Modeling = = = In June 1982 , Brown , then a 22 @-@ year @-@ old law student at Boston College , won Cosmopolitan magazine 's " America 's Sexiest Man " contest . After two weeks on a crash diet of " three cans of tuna a day " and intensive workouts he was featured in the magazine 's centerfold , posing nude but strategically positioned so that according to Brown , " You don 't see anything " . In the accompanying interview , he referred to himself as " a bit of a patriot " and stated that he had political ambitions . The Cosmopolitan appearance and its $ 1 @,@ 000 fee helped pay for law school , and began for Brown a " long , lucrative " part @-@ time catalog and print modeling career in New York and Boston during the 1980s . Brown took a leave of absence from Boston College and further pursued his modeling career in New York where he was represented by Wilhelmina Models while taking classes at the Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law . He returned to Boston , after nearly two years , to continue his studies at Boston College and continued to work as a model represented by Boston agent , Maggie Trichon of Maggie Inc . = = State political career = = Brown " caught the political bug " in 1992 when he was elected property assessor of Wrentham , Massachusetts . In 1995 , he was elected to the Wrentham Board of Selectmen . He successfully ran for the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1998 , representing the 9th Norfolk District for three terms . Brown again moved up the ladder of state politics to the state Senate in March 2004 when he won a special election to replace Democrat Cheryl Jacques . Brown was re @-@ elected for a full term in November 2004 , and again in November 2006 , running without opposition the second time . He won re @-@ election in November 2008 , defeating Democratic candidate Sara Orozco by a 59 – 41 percent margin . Following his re @-@ election , Brown was one of five Republicans in the 40 @-@ seat Massachusetts Senate . In the Massachusetts Senate , Brown served on committees dealing with consumer protection , professional licensing , education , election laws , public safety , and veterans ' affairs . In February 2007 , a controversy arose after Brown 's appearance at King Philip Regional High School in Wrentham , Massachusetts as part of a debate on gay marriage . The high school students had launched a Facebook group attack on Brown and had made a derogatory remark about his daughter , Ayla . During his presentation , Brown defended himself and his daughter by directly quoting several vulgar statements they had made and announcing the names of the students who had written the statements . Critics questioned whether Brown should have quoted the profane comments in front of a high school audience . In January 2010 , The Boston Globe reported that during six terms in the Legislature , three each in the House and Senate , Brown had a modest record of legislative initiatives , but he had carved out a niche as a leading advocate for veterans . Richard Tisei of Wakefield , Massachusetts , the leader of the Republican minority in the state Senate , called Brown " the acknowledged expert on veterans ' issues . " State Senator Jack Hart , a Democrat of South Boston , said : " He does his homework , he 's comprehensive in his approach , and on veterans ' issues , he 's one of them and has done a very good job on their behalf . " Brown lists among his achievements as a legislator his authorship of a 2007 law that created a check @-@ off box on state income tax forms for veterans to indicate whether they served in Iraq or Afghanistan . The state uses the information to notify veterans of available services and benefits , including the Welcome Home Bonus that provides $ 1 @,@ 000 for those returning from active duty in Afghanistan or Iraq . = = U.S. Senate = = = = = 2010 election = = = On September 12 , 2009 ( his 50th birthday ) , Brown announced his run for the U.S. Senate seat that became vacant with the death of Ted Kennedy , saying the state " needs an independent thinker . " Washington Post columnist Kathleen Parker said that Brown 's political positions did not fall neatly into party lines , and called Brown " mainstream in a nation that defines itself as mostly conservative . " Boris Shor , political scientist at the Harris School of Public Policy , described Brown as a liberal Republican by national standards , but well @-@ suited for his Massachusetts constituency . Shor explained the support Brown was receiving from the conservative national GOP as due to their " decentralized decision " to support the candidate most likely to win . Brown won a landslide victory in the Republican primary on December 8 , 2009 , defeating late entrant and perennial candidate Jack E. Robinson by a margin of 89 percent to 11 percent . Brown 's opponents in the general election were Democratic nominee , Attorney General Martha Coakley , and independent Joseph L. Kennedy ( no relation to the Kennedy family ) . At the outset , he faced overwhelming odds because he was relatively unknown compared to Coakley , he was running as a Republican in a very Democratic state , and much of his campaigning had to be done during the Christmas and New Year 's season when citizens do not generally pay much attention to politics . No Republican had been elected to the U.S. Senate from Massachusetts since Edward Brooke in 1972 . He polled far behind Coakley for several months , but closed the gap in the early weeks of January . One week before the January special election , a controversy arose over a Coakley approved television ad . The ad referenced the conscientious objector amendment Brown had sponsored for inclusion in a 2005 proposed state measure on patients ' rights . This amendment would have allowed individual healthcare workers and hospitals to refuse to provide emergency contraceptive care ( the morning @-@ after pill ) to rape victims if they objected due to a religious belief . After the amendment failed , Brown did vote for the main bill which , along with other patient rights , requires healthcare workers and hospitals to provide such care . Coakley 's ad featured a male voice that said , " Brown even favors letting hospitals deny emergency contraception to rape victims , " over the ad 's graphic which had the words , " Deny care to rape victims . " Brown 's daughter Ayla called the Coakley ad " completely inaccurate and misleading " , and stated that her father would never deny care to a rape victim . Brown criticized Coakley for running what he described as attack ads . In the 2010 Senate race , although Brown was not endorsed by the Greater Boston Tea Party group , the group organized a fund @-@ raising breakfast for him in Boston . The Tea Party Express also endorsed Brown and bought ads on the national cable networks supporting Brown . When told that at various times he has been labeled a conservative , moderate and a liberal Republican , he responded " I 'm a Scott Brown Republican . " According to Politifact , while Brown was a Massachusetts legislator , he voted about 90 percent with the state Republican leadership ; however , Republican Leadership in the Massachusetts legislature is generally considered far more moderate than the national Republican Party . A week before the general election , Brown raised $ 1 @.@ 3 million from over 16 @,@ 000 donors in a 24 @-@ hour moneybomb . His campaign office stated it raised $ 5 million over the period from January 11 – 15 . Charlie Cook of the Cook Political Report stated on January 17 that he would put his " finger on the scale " for Brown as the favorite . The Rothenberg Political Report released a statement that " the combination of public and private survey research and anecdotal information now strongly suggests that Republican Scott Brown will defeat Democrat Martha Coakley in tomorrow 's race " . Suffolk University 's polling of three bellwether counties on January 18 had Brown leading Coakley by double @-@ digit margins . Brown won the January 19 election , performing well in traditional Republican strongholds and holding rival Coakley 's margins down in many Democratic precincts . On election night , after Coakley conceded , Brown gave a victory speech that stated , " It all started with me , my truck , and a few dedicated volunteers . It ended with Air Force One making an emergency run to Logan . I didn 't mind when President Obama came here and criticized me – that happens in campaigns . But when he criticized my truck , that 's where I draw the line . " = = = 2012 election = = = October 2011 polling showed Brown 's approvals had fallen and he faced a competitive re @-@ election if matched against Democrat Elizabeth Warren . However , his numbers in early March 2012 showed he led Warren by 8 points in the polls . In March 2012 , Brown 's lead had narrowed to 2 @.@ 3 % , within the margin of error . As of September 2012 , several polls showed Warren with a lead over Brown ( with one still giving Brown an edge ) . On November 6 , 2012 , Brown was defeated by Warren in the general election . Warren was able to garner 54 % of the vote , while Brown won 46 % . = = = 2014 election = = = After much anticipation by the media , Brown announced that he would run for U.S. Senate from the state of New Hampshire . Born at Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery , Maine , to parents who lived near downtown Portsmouth , Brown then spent his early childhood in Portsmouth , New Hampshire and later in Wakefield , Massachusetts following his parents ' divorce . He has also been a taxpayer and owned a home in Rye , New Hampshire for more than two decades . In December 2013 , he sold his primary home in Massachusetts and expressed to the Rye town clerk " his intention to establish residency and register to vote " . Polling done by various agencies in April and May 2014 showed incumbent Senator Jeanne Shaheen leading Brown by 3 to 5 points . A poll conducted in May by the Republican Governors Association showed Brown leading Jeanne Shaheen by 5 points . In late August , a WMUR / UNH poll showed Shaheen leading Brown by two points , 46 to 44 . Polling in the final few weeks of the election suggested Brown had pulled ahead of Shaheen , with weekly polls by NH1 News , New England College , and Vox Populi showing Brown leading by a margin of 1 – 4 percentage points for the three consecutive weeks leading up to the election . There were five total debates during the election , three of which were televised . The televised U.S. Senate Debates , were hosted by WMUR @-@ TV , NECN , and NH1 News . The WMUR Debate was moderated by George Stephanopoulos of ABC and Josh McElveen of WMUR @-@ TV and was held at Saint Anselm College in Goffstown . The NH1 News Debate was moderated by Wolf Blitzer of CNN and Paul Steinhauser of NH1 and was held at the NH1 Media Center in Concord . The NECN Debate was moderated by Chuck Todd of NBC and was held at the Capitol Center for the Arts in Concord . Brown was defeated by Shaheen by a margin of 51 @.@ 5 % to 48 @.@ 5 % . = = = Tenure = = = Brown was sworn in to office on February 4 , 2010 , by Vice President Joe Biden , in his capacity as President of the Senate , on the floor of the Senate . As a Class I Senator , his term lasted until January 3 , 2013 . Brown was among the speakers at the Conservative Political Action Conference ( CPAC ) in Washington , D.C. , introducing former Massachusetts governor Mitt Romney . Despite his appearance at CPAC , where he alluded to his election as making " big government spenders ... [ not ] feel good at all " , Brown refused to rule out a vote for a Democratic " jobs bill " proposal , and has praised both Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid of Nevada and former senior Senator and current Secretary of State John Kerry of Massachusetts for indicating their willingness to work with him across party lines . Brown was one of five Republican senators to vote for cloture on the jobs bill . The motion passed in the Senate 62 – 30 on February 22 , 2010 . In an up or down vote on the bill itself on February 24 , 2010 , Brown voted for final passage , helping to pass the bill 70 – 28 . According to the Washington Post , Brown voted with the majority of Republicans 80 % of the time . In the same poll , " 56 % of Massachusetts voters believed he has kept his promise to be an independent voice in the U.S. Senate . " Brown 's views on the 2011 budget cuts and his departures from GOP consensus placed him at odds with some of his fellow Republicans and prominent Tea Party conservatives , including Glenn Beck . He said he opposed these measures because he believed that they would have a negative impact on low income families and children . In late June 2010 , Brown was ranked as " the most popular officeholder in Massachusetts " according to a poll conducted by the Boston Globe . 55 % of those polled had favorable opinions of Brown nearly five months after his January 19 , 2010 , special election victory to finish the term of the late Senator Edward Kennedy . 50 % of respondents generally approved of how Brown had handled his new position . On March 30 , 2011 , the Democratic Senate Campaign Committee released a poll showing that Brown remained the " most popular politician in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts , with an approval rating of 73 percent . " Brown 's " ' re @-@ elect ' score was comfortably above 50 percent , which is unusual for a Republican in an overwhelmingly Democratic state . " = = = Committee assignments = = = Brown 's committee assignments were as follows . Committee on Armed Services Subcommittee on Airland ( Ranking Member ) Subcommittee on Emerging Threats and Capabilities Subcommittee on Strategic Forces Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Subcommittee on Disaster Recovery Subcommittee on Federal Financial Management , Government Information and International Security ( Ranking Member ) Subcommittee on Oversight of Government Management , the Federal Workforce , and the District of Columbia Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship Committee on Veterans ' Affairs Caucus memberships Senate Oceans Caucus = = Political positions = = Brown describes himself as socially moderate and fiscally conservative . He identifies himself as a " Reagan Republican " . He has said , " I 'm going to be the only person down there who is going to be the independent voter and thinker ... I 've always been the underdog in one shape or form . " = = = Fiscal policy = = = Brown is a signer of Americans for Tax Reform ’ s Taxpayer Protection Pledge . In a letter to the editor of the Boston Globe written on January 8 , 2012 , Brown wrote , " With out @-@ of @-@ control government spending and rising debt and deficits , politicians in Washington have proven time and time again that they cannot manage hard @-@ earned taxpayer money responsibly . So why should we give them even more ? " Brown opposes a proposed multibillion @-@ dollar tax on banks to recoup bailout money and prescribing of bank executive compensation . Brown , discussing the proposal through a spokesperson , said that he is " opposed to higher taxes , especially in the midst of a severe recession " . He also opposes it on the grounds that the tax would likely be passed onto consumers in the form of higher service and ATM fees . In September 2010 , Brown opposed a Senate bill creating a $ 30 billion government fund aimed at encouraging lending to small businesses . The bill combines the fund with $ 12 billion in new tax breaks . Brown criticized the bill for including a provision much like the Troubled Asset Relief Program , stating : " Banks making lending decisions with government funds is not the way to get our economy moving again . " On December 12 , 2010 , The Boston Globe reported that " [ c ] ampaign contributions to [ Brown ] from the financial industry spiked sharply during a critical three @-@ week period last summer as the fate of the Wall Street regulatory overhaul hung in the balance and Brown used the leverage of his swing vote to win key concessions sought by firms . " Brown received more than ten times the amount of contributions from the financial services industry as House Financial Services Committee chairman ( and author of the legislation ) Barney Frank during the same period . According to the Globe : Brown ’ s efforts benefited large Massachusetts companies such as MassMutual Financial Group , Liberty Mutual Insurance , Fidelity Investments , and State Street Corp. , whose executives and political action committees contributed $ 29 @,@ 000 to Brown during the three @-@ week period he was extracting the concessions from Democrats . They also benefited major out @-@ of @-@ state institutions such as Goldman Sachs , UBS , and JPMorgan Chase . Those and other out @-@ of @-@ state financial interests gave Brown a total of $ 50 @,@ 000 during the period . In December 2011 , with a temporary payroll tax cut set to expire at the end of the month , the Senate considered the Middle Class Tax Cut Act of 2011 , which would extend the tax cut for 113 million workers or families and fund the plan by a 3 @.@ 25 percent surtax on incomes over $ 1 million . Brown voted against proceeding to take up the bill ( i.e. , voted against cloture that would end the filibuster ) . He announced that his opposition was to the surtax on high incomes . = = = Foreign policy = = = Brown supported President Barack Obama 's decision to send 30 @,@ 000 more troops to fight in Afghanistan . He cited Stanley McChrystal 's recommendations as a reason for his support . He also advocates that suspected terrorists be tried in military tribunals and not civilian courts . He also supported the limited use of " enhanced interrogation techniques " , including waterboarding against non @-@ citizen terrorist suspects . He supports a two @-@ state solution for the Israeli – Palestinian conflict in which Israel and a new , independent Palestinian state would co @-@ exist side by side . = = = Veterans services = = = In 2007 , Brown wrote a law establishing a check off box on State income tax forms to allow a filer to indicate if he or she is a veteran of the Iraq or Afghanistan wars . The measure 's purpose is to locate and inform returning veterans of benefits they qualify for . Known as the " Welcome Home " bonus , it was passed with bipartisan support . Brown also amended the Dodd – Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act , with Senator Jack Reed ( RI ) , to create a dedicated military liaison office within the newly formed Consumer Financial Protection Bureau , which aside from defending against unscrupulous lenders , also ensures protection of military families against fraudulent life insurance policies . The measure passed the United States Senate 99 to 1 . = = = Health care = = = Brown supported the 2006 Massachusetts health care reform , which requires all residents to have health insurance , with a state @-@ subsidized plan created for those who cannot afford to insure themselves . Brown does not support President Obama 's health care reform plan in its current form as approved by the Democratic @-@ led House and Senate . He has stated this plan is fiscally unsound , and during his campaign notably pledged to be the 41st vote to filibuster the bill in the Senate . Brown voted for a state measure on patients ' rights that , among other provisions , requires emergency rooms to provide what is known as the morning @-@ after pill to rape victims to prevent an unwanted pregnancy from developing . In consideration of health care workers who might have a religious objection to administering this medication , Brown attached what became known as the Conscientious Objector amendment which would have exempted these workers , as well as religious hospitals , from being required to provide this medication . However , Brown 's amendment also required that all hospitals still had to provide a means for the patient to receive the medication , either by providing another healthcare worker willing to administer the medication , or , in the case of religious hospitals , to provide transportation to another facility , and in a timely manner . The amendment did not pass . Brown remains in favor of allowing religious hospitals to refuse to provide emergency contraception on moral or religious grounds , as he stated in the January 5 , 2010 candidate debate . = = = Energy policy = = = Brown supports expanding solar , wind , and nuclear power , and offshore drilling exploration as a means to reduce the country 's dependence on foreign oil . But , when faced with the controversial issue of whether an offshore wind farm should be allowed in the waters off the Cape Cod coast in Massachusetts , a major tourist destination and boating location , he expressed opposition , saying he believed it would hinder tourism and boating in the area . = = = Congressional ethics = = = Brown is an avid supporter of bipartisan cooperation among members of Congress . He has said that his goal in Congress is " to work in a bipartisan and bicameral manner . " According to a Congressional Weekly study , in 2011 Brown was the second @-@ most bipartisan U.S. Senator , voting with his own party only 54 % of the time . By comparison , his partner in the Massachusetts Senate delegation , Senator John Kerry , voted with his own party 96 % of the time , and the entire Massachusetts delegation to the House of Representatives voted with their party over 90 % of the time . During the second half of 2011 , Brown wrote the 2011 version of the STOCK Act , a move to ban insider trading in Congress . The act , which was co @-@ written with Senator Kirsten Gillibrand ( D @-@ NY ) , would prohibit asset trading by members of Congress ( and their staff ) who have advance knowledge of their assets ' behavior due to their involvement in Congress . The bill was verbally supported by President Barack Obama during his third State of the Union address , and passed a major procedural hurdle in the Senate by a vote of 93 – 2 on January 30 , 2012 . = = = Social issues = = = Brown refers to the currently legalized same @-@ sex marriage in New Hampshire as a settled issue , which he does not wish to change . Brown has said he personally believes marriage is between a man and a woman , but would still oppose a constitutional amendment banning gay marriage . He is in favor of civil unions . He opposes ending the Defense of Marriage Act , but otherwise favors leaving the issue to the states to decide . After initially claiming neutrality on " don 't ask , don 't tell " , the ban on openly gay military personnel , he joined a handful of Republicans who broke with their party to repeal the ban in December 2010 . Brown has supported a presumption of shared parenting after divorce and was a co @-@ sponsor of Fathers and Families HB 1460 . He also voted for reauthorization of the Violence Against Women Act in 2012 . Brown has stated that Roe v. Wade is settled law and is self @-@ described as pro @-@ choice . He is against intact dilation and evacuation abortions ( known legally as " partial birth abortion " ) and has spoken in favor of parental consent for minors who seek an abortion . He said he would not use abortion as a litmus test in Supreme Court confirmations . He opposes federal funding for elective abortion in accordance with the Hyde Amendment . After the Massachusetts Sensible Marijuana Policy Initiative was passed in 2008 and subsequently implemented , he proposed in the State Senate to enact higher fines for " drugged driving " . In 2012 , he opposed a state initiative to legalize the use of medicinal marijuana in Massachusetts . He also said efforts should be made to end drug trade in Afghanistan . = = = Crime and security = = = Brown supports strengthening New Hampshire sex offender penalties , the death penalty , the right to bear arms ( with some restrictions such as licenses and background checks ) and strengthening border enforcement and creating an employment verification system with penalties for companies that hire illegal immigrants . Brown voted against the DREAM Act . = = = Internet / censorship = = = Brown opposed the PROTECT IP Act and the Stop Online Piracy Act . = = = Gun control = = = Following the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in December 2012 , Brown became the first GOP Senator to support a federal ban on assault weapons . During campaigning in September 2014 , he said he would not propose new legislation if he returned to Congress and would listen to all viewpoints if others presented a bill . = = Organizational associations and honors = = Brown was a 35 @-@ year member of the Army National Guard , retiring as a colonel in the Judge Advocate General 's Corps . Brown was awarded the Army Commendation Medal for meritorious service in organizing the National Guard to quickly support homeland security following the terrorist attacks of September 11 , 2001 . He has also completed Airborne School and been awarded the Meritorious Service Medal . Brown has received the Public Servant of the Year Award from the United Chamber of Commerce for his leadership in reforming the state 's sex offender laws and protecting victims ' rights . Brown 's family has helped raise funds for such non @-@ profit organizations as Horace Mann Educational Associates ( HMEA , Inc . ) , Wrentham Developmental Center , Charles River Arc , and the Arc of Northern Bristol County , all for the care and support of those with developmental disabilities . He has also been recognized by the National Federation of Independent Businesses ( NFIB ) for his work in creating an environment that encourages job growth and expansion in Massachusetts . The Boston Globe selected Brown as the 2010 Bostonian of the Year , citing his " profound impact on national politics in the last year " . = = Post @-@ Senate career = = On February 13 , 2013 , Fox News Channel hired Brown as an on @-@ air contributor . In February 2014 , it was reported that Brown was no longer under contract with Fox News ; however Brown 's contract was renewed . Following Brown 's defeat in the 2012 U.S Senate race there was wide speculation that he would run again in 2013 due to John Kerry resigning from the other Massachusetts Senate seat to become Secretary of State . However , on February 1 , 2013 , he ruled out undertaking a third U.S. Senate campaign in less than four years . In March 2013 Brown joined Nixon Peabody , a company which provides legal and lobbying services . Nixon Peabody reported that Brown would be working with the financial services and commercial real estate industries . In April 2014 Brown left the company . This work later received media attention when Lawrence Lessig with the Mayday PAC called Brown a lobbyist during the 2014 Senate election campaign . Brown 's campaign denied the claim and said that Lessig had breached the honor code of Harvard University in making it . While visiting the Iowa State Fair in August 2013 , Brown stated he was considering a 2016 presidential run . On August 21 , 2013 , Brown , during an interview on WBZ 's NightSide With Dan Rea radio program , said he won 't be a candidate for Massachusetts governor in 2014 . In September 2013 , Brown joined the advisory board of Global Digital Solutions , a wireless communications and small arms manufacturer and exporter . In early February 2014 , Brown 's email list was used to promote " a video from a doctor warning against flu vaccines , fluoridated water , and excessive exercising , among other questionable medical claims . " The email generated news coverage . Brown subsequently cut ties with the vendor that sent the email . On March 13 , 2014 , Brown began seeking campaign staff while aggressively courting New Hampshire ’ s political elite , marking what local Republicans consider serious steps toward launching a Senate campaign against Democratic Senator Jeanne Shaheen . On April 2 , 2014 , a local New Hampshire station reported that Brown " confirmed and announced on NH Today that he is running for the US Senate in NH " against Democratic Incumbent Jeanne Shaheen , and would announce the next week . = = = Subsequent activity = = = Brown had stated that win or lose in his 2014 New Hampshire Senatorial bid , he planned to remain a New Hampshire resident for the rest of his life . In January 2015 , it was revealed that shortly after losing to Shaheen , Brown , age 55 , filed an application to the Massachusetts State Retirement Board to claim a state pension . Brown has not ruled out running for office again in the future . Brown is also working as a contributor for Fox News Channel and as an on @-@ call host for Fox & Friends . Brown served as a featured speaker at the 2015 Republican Leadership Summit in Nashua , New Hampshire . Brown continues to play an active role in politics , campaigning and fundraising with senatorial and congressional candidates and meeting with Republican candidates for President in New Hampshire . In 2015 , Brown used his Facebook page to promote AdvoCare , a company that uses multi @-@ level marketing to sell nutrition , weight @-@ loss , energy , and sports performance products . He said that he had lost 30 pounds in 24 days on the regimen . He later added that neither he nor his wife were " paid spokesrepresentatives for Advocare , " although he was confirmed as being an independent representative of the company . Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington has requested a Federal Trade Commission investigation of Brown 's non @-@ disclosure of financial interest in AdvoCare . In February 2016 , Brown endorsed Donald Trump 's presidential election bid . = = Personal life = = Brown is married to NH1 News reporter Gail Huff , whom he met through modeling . They have two daughters , Ayla , an American Idol semi @-@ finalist and 2010 graduate of Boston College , and Arianna , a competitive equestrian and pre @-@ medical student at Syracuse University . Besides their primary home in Rye , New Hampshire , the couple owns three rental condos in Boston , and a timeshare on the Caribbean island of Aruba . = = = Religion = = = Brown and his family are members of the Christian Reformed Church in North America . They also have a relationship with a community of Cistercians , more commonly known as Trappistine , Roman Catholic nuns at Mount St. Mary 's Abbey in Wrentham , Massachusetts . The Brown family has " assisted efforts to raise $ 5 @.@ 5 million " to replace the order 's candy factory with a new greener facility with solar panels and a wind turbine .
= Piece of Me = " Piece of Me " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her fifth studio album , Blackout ( 2007 ) . It was released on November 27 , 2007 by Jive Records as the second single from the album . The song was written and produced by Swedish producers Bloodshy & Avant and Klas Åhlund as a response to the media scrutiny and sensationalism of Spears ' private life , which they had seen by working with her over the years . " Piece of Me " was the last song to be recorded for Blackout . The self @-@ manifesto song 's lyrics are written like a biography retelling her mishaps . Musically , " Piece of Me " is an electro song that runs through a down @-@ tempo dance beat . Spears ' voice is heavily synthesized , and constantly shifts in pitch . Backing vocals are provided by Bloodshy and Avant and Robyn . Most music critics cited it as one of the highlights from Blackout . Rolling Stone ranked the song at number fifteen on their list of the 100 Best Songs of 2007 . It was also commercially successful , peaking at number one in Ireland and reaching top ten positions in Australia , Austria , Canada , Denmark , Finland , New Zealand , Sweden and the United Kingdom . In the United States , it became the second single from the album to have peaked at the top of the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart . The music video , directed by Wayne Isham , portrayed Spears ' life at the time and showed her with her friends disguising themselves in order to confuse the paparazzi . Isham 's concept was to have Spears confidently parodying her situation . It received mixed reviews from critics , most arguing her body was digitally altered . The video was nominated in three categories at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards and won all of them , including Video of the Year . " Piece of Me " was performed at The Circus Starring Britney Spears ( 2009 ) and the Femme Fatale Tour ( 2011 ) . The song also shares a title with Spears ' Las Vegas residency show , Britney : Piece of Me , where it is also performed . = = Background = = " Piece of Me " was co @-@ written and produced by the Swedish duo Christian Karlsson and Pontus Winnberg , professionally known as Bloodshy & Avant , along with Klas Åhlund . While recording with Spears over the years , Karlsson and Winnberg often saw first @-@ hand how her regular activities were interrupted by the paparazzi , including one experience in Hamburg which Winnberg deemed as " really scary " . For Blackout , Spears worked with them on " Radar " , " Freakshow " and " Toy Soldier " . When the album was considered to be finished , Bloodshy & Avant were persuaded by her A & R Teresa LaBarbera Whites to work on a new track . Winnberg commented that it had always been an unwritten rule not to write songs about Spears ' personal life since the label rejected " Sweet Dreams My LA Ex " , a response track to Justin Timberlake 's " Cry Me a River " . However , the duo wrote " Piece of Me " with Åhlund and sent it to Spears , who loved it . Bloodshy & Avant worked on the track at Bloodshy & Avant Studios in Stockholm , Sweden , and Spears recorded her vocals at Chalice Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California . Winnberg stated that Spears was extremely psyched when she came to the studio , where she recorded the song in about half an hour as she had learned the lyrics by heart in her car . " Piece of Me " was later mixed by Niklas Flyckt at Mandarine Studios in Stockholm . On October 31 , 2007 , during a radio interview with Ryan Seacrest , Spears talked about the song , saying , " Wherever you go , there 's a lot of people who ask questions , and sometimes you don 't know their intentions and stuff like that . So , it is kind of a cute way of putting it out there . You know , like , ' You want a piece of me ? ' , you know , in a cool , cute and clever way . It is a cute song [ ... ] I like it " . = = Composition = = " Piece of Me " is described as being backed by a " electro instrumental track " and performed in an insistent pop groove . The song is composed in the key of C ♯ minor with a time signature in common time . The melody runs through a down @-@ tempo dance beat . Spears ' vocals span over two octaves from D ♯ 3 to D ♯ 5 . They are heavily synthesized and are constantly pitch @-@ shifted . The track consists of over @-@ the @-@ top vocal distortions , causing a split sound effect , making it difficult to discern which voice is Spears ' . Background vocals were also provided by Swedish pop singer Robyn . Christian Karlsson and Pontus Winnberg sing the line " Extra ! Extra ! " during the chorus and writer Klas Åhlund sings the repeated " piece of me " line in a robotized voice . Dave De Sylvia of Sputnikmusic drew comparisons to the songs in Robyn 's Robyn ( 2005 ) , specifically to her single " Handle Me " . The lyrics of " Piece of Me " are written as a reaction to the scrutiny of Spears ' private life in the media . They deal with fame and living under the spotlight . During the first verse , Spears sings the hookline " You want a piece of me ? " , that is repeated throughout the song . According to Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times , the line " could be an accusation or an invitation or a threat " . " Piece of Me " is constructed in the common verse @-@ chorus pattern . " Piece of Me " is written like a biography retelling Spears ' mishaps , sung in a nearly spoken manner . Alex Fletcher of Digital Spy compared the lyrics to Amy Winehouse 's " Rehab " ( 2006 ) . Bill Lamb of About.com said that " Piece of Me " makes Michael Jackson 's " Scream " ( 1995 ) " sound like a whimper . " = = Critical reception = = Alex Fletcher of Digital Spy gave " Piece of Me " four stars , calling it " a two fingered @-@ salute to the media hounds and an electro @-@ thudding cry of defiance , warning us that this popstrel is not for turning . [ The opening line ] poops from a great height on anything Lily Allen has ever penned and reveals that it 's been Spears who 's been laughing hardest during her year of zany media antics " . Peter Robinson of The Observer and Margeaux Watson of Entertainment Weekly named " Piece of Me " one of the standout tracks of the album . Dennis Lim of Blender called it one of the best tracks of Blackout along with " Gimme More " . Laura Herbert of BBC News said that the song is " without doubt the best track on the whole album . [ ... ] It 's a masterpiece . " Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times said " [ Bloodshy & Avant ] evoke the horror , the exhilaration and ( finally ) the boredom of [ Spears ' ] overexamined life . It ’ s brilliant " . Tom Ewing of Pitchfork Media suggested that " the hypertreatment of the voice , the way it edges into the music , suggests that the price of fame is identity erasure . We understand her through a filter , and that 's how we have to hear her too . The multiple backing vox fragment identity further , turn the song more universal " . Dave De Sylvia of Sputnikmusic also picked it as one of the album 's highlights . Melissa Maerz of Rolling Stone named it the best track of the album along with " Freakshow " , deeming it as a " tabloid @-@ bashing banger " . Jim Abbott of the Orlando Sentinel said that " Musically , songs such as ' Piece of Me , ' ' Radar ' and ' Break the Ice ' are one @-@ dimensional , robotic exercises . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic commented that " Bloodshy & Avant try desperately to craft a defiant anthem for this tabloid fixture , as she couldn 't be bothered to write one on her own " . Chris Wasser from the Irish Independent said the song " drowns slowly under cloggy production and a lyrical theme that for all of its close connection with the trials and tribulations Spears has had to deal with , weren 't even penned by the singer who could have very easily recorded her fairly unchallenging input on Blackout in less than a week . " The song was later included in Rolling Stone 's 100 Best Songs of 2007 at number fifteen . = = Chart performance = = On November 17 , 2007 , " Piece of Me " debuted at number sixty @-@ five on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 . On February 9 , 2008 , the song peaked at number 18 . It was the second consecutive single from Blackout to reach number one on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . The song shipped over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , earning a platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . As of March 2015 , " Piece of Me " has sold 1 @.@ 9 digital downloads in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan . It is her sixth best @-@ selling digital single in the country . In Canada , the song entered the Canadian Hot 100 at number thirty @-@ seven on November 17 , 2007 . On April 26 , 2008 , it reached its peak position of number five . " Piece of Me " was certified platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for paid digital downloads of 40 @,@ 000 . On February 4 , 2008 , " Piece of Me " debuted at the Australian Singles Chart at number two . The song has shipped over 70 @,@ 000 copies in Australia , earning a platinum certification by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . In New Zealand , the song debuted at number thirty @-@ four on December 31 , 2007 . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for sales over 7 @,@ 500 copies . In the United Kingdom , " Piece of Me " debuted at number sixty @-@ nine on the UK Singles Chart on December 23 , 2007 ( for the week ending December 29 , 2007 ) . After its physical release , the track peaked at number two on January 13 , 2008 ( for the week ending date January 19 , 2008 ) . According to The Official Charts Company , the song has sold 250 @,@ 000 copies there . In Ireland , the song debuted at number twenty @-@ seven on the Irish Singles Chart December 20 , 2007 . On January 10 , 2008 , it peaked at number one and stayed in the position for two weeks . " Piece of Me " achieved similar success through Europe , peaking inside the top ten in the European Hot 100 Singles chart , Austria , Denmark , Finland and Sweden and reaching the top forty in Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , Czech Republic , Italy and the Netherlands . = = Music video = = = = = Development = = = The music video for " Piece of Me " was filmed on November 27 and November 28 , 2007 , at the nightclub and restaurant Social Hollywood in Los Angeles , California . It was directed by Wayne Isham , who had previously worked with Spears in the music video of " I 'm Not a Girl , Not Yet a Woman " . British national newspaper Daily Mail reported that the video cost $ 500 @,@ 000 , her most expensive music video since the music video for " Toxic " . In some scenes of the music video , Spears wore a purple satin dress from American designer Marina Toybina . Spears reportedly arrived twelve hours late to the set , after spending the day with her sons Sean Preston and Jayden James . Isham talked about the situation , saying , " She was late . People made a big thing about it , [ but ] how could she not be late , when you have 50 , 65 , 75 people running down the street chasing her car ? That was a long day for the crew . It was literally a 20 @-@ hour day for the crew . She was there for the last six hours of it . She got there late , showed up and just kicked ass " . He also explained the concept of the music video : " On [ the music video ] , I really just wanted to put the mirror back onto the whole experience . You can see that she had that kind of confidence . And , literally , every take became a more and more confident take , so that she could have fun with what was going on . Not being over @-@ the @-@ top sarcastic , but ... having a laugh at everything that was going on around her , with confidence . [ ... ] The very last dance of the piece , she had her hair up , and I go , ' Can you just do one for me with your hair down ? ' She dropped her hair down . You 'll see we intercut with her hair up and her hair down . That was the last piece . She just rocked it from her heart . She choreographed that last dance at the very end . She did that on her own and said , ' Let 's go for it ' " . = = = Synopsis = = = The video begins with four blonde women changing their clothes , putting make up on and dancing in a bedroom . Outside , several paparazzi are taking pictures of the situation through the window . Spears appears in front of a multi @-@ colored , illuminated background wearing a short brown fur vest , a sequined black bra and ripped low @-@ rise jeans . There are also intercut scenes of Spears wearing a white fur vest tearing down tabloid covers such as In Touch Weekly and creating positive ones , such as " It 's Britney , Bitch " and " Exceptional Earner " . One tabloid in particular is labeled " Rats Weakly " , likely a pun of Star ( magazine ) when written backwards . During the first chorus , Spears joins the four women , all wearing matching blond bob wigs , dark sunglasses and black trench coats being hounded by paparazzi . Then they enter a nightclub , with Spears wearing a purple satin dress . Spears starts flirting with a man and guides him into the women 's bathroom , where she discovers he has a hidden camera in his chest . She writes " Sucker " in his forehead . There is a dance sequence until the song ends , in which Spears and the four women dance in the bathroom . At the end , the women are seen back at the bedroom watching an entertainment news program , in which the " Britney invasion " from earlier is reported . The final scene shows a close @-@ up of Spears smirking . = = = Reception = = = The music video received mixed reviews from critics , with some arguing that Spears ' body was digitally altered . The Daily Telegraph commented " Britney – presumably with the help of some serious digital remastering – has turned back the clock , looking every part the young starlet that gave us ' Oops ' " . Dose said " shockingly , it 's not that bad . Well , not that bad for everyone 's favourite panty protesting , deposition skipping , weave wearing pop @-@ tard " . On August 17 , 2008 , it was announced that the video was nominated for Best Female Video , Best Pop Video and Video of the Year at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards . The ceremony was held on September 7 , 2008 , and Spears won all three categories . On October 18 , 2008 , during a live interview with New York 's Z100 , she explained that she was shocked when she won , saying , " It 's a cool video , but I think by far I 've done videos that are way better , so I was really shocked that it got [ Video of the Year ] . It was just inspiring , though , because now , going forward with the videos that I 'm doing now , I can really go there and do something crazy and see what happens " . = = = International version = = = An international version of the video was also officially released . This version is almost exactly the same as the original , with the only difference being that some early shots were Spears dances in front of the multicolored background are replaced by shots of Spears with a short blonde bob wig wearing a purple dress and in front of a black background with flashing lights . = = = MTV alternate video = = = On November 27 , 2007 , MTV launched the contest " Britney Spears Wants a Piece of You " , in which fans could direct a separate video for the song , using footage of interviews and performances from Spears . Using the MTV Video Remixer , fans could mix and create a mash up of the footage . The winning video premiered on TRL on December 20 , 2007 , and MTV . Jive Records and Spears herself picked the winner . The winner also received a Haier Ibiza Rhapsody device along with a one @-@ year subscription to Rhapsody , as well as Spears ' entire discography released in the United States . = = Live performances = = " Piece of Me " was performed at 2009 's The Circus Starring Britney Spears as the second song of the show . At the end of the performance of " Circus " , Spears took off her red jacket that represented a ringmaster , to reveal a black corset encrusted with Swarovski crystals , fishnet stockings and high @-@ heeled laced up boots , designed by Dean and Dan Caten . While smoke surrounded her , she entered a cage in the middle of the stage while " Piece of Me " began . During the performance , Spears represented a slave , that attempted to escape from her dancers . " Piece of Me " was also performed at 2011 's Femme Fatale Tour . Following " 3 " , Spears climbed into a small platform and started performing the song while floating over the stage . The male dancers below her were dressed as policemen , and took off their shirts to reveal S & M bondage harnesses . Shirley Halperin of The Hollywood Reporter named it one of the best performances of the show along with " 3 " and " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " , stating that " ironically enough , [ they ] were the ones with fewest frills . " The song is currently performed live at Spears ' Las Vegas residency show , Britney : Piece of Me . = = Track listings = = = = Credits and personnel = = Lead Vocals - Britney Spears Writers – C. Karlsson , P. Winnberg & Klas Åhlund Producers – Bloodshy & Avant Recording – Bloodshy & Avant Mixing – Niklas Flyckt Keyboard , programming , bass , piano and guitar – Bloodshy & Avant Background vocals – Robyn , Christian Karlsson Mastering – Tom Coyne = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = =
= Not Myself Tonight = " Not Myself Tonight " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Christina Aguilera for her sixth studio album , Bionic ( 2010 ) . It was released by RCA Records as the lead single from the album on April 6 , 2010 . Produced by Polow da Don and co @-@ written in collaboration with Ester Dean , Jason Perry and Greg Curtis , " Not Myself Tonight " is an electropop and electro @-@ R & B song , which explores Aguilera 's adoption of different personas on the dance floor . " Not Myself Tonight " received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics : some of whom praised the song 's musical style , while others criticize its lyrics . The song peaked at number 23 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 . It peaked at number 14 on the Pop Songs chart , and number one on the Hot Dance Club Songs . Elsewhere , the song peaked inside the top twenty of the singles charts in Canada , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom . The track was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments exceeding 35 @,@ 000 copies . An accompanying music video for " Not Myself Tonight " was directed by Hype Williams , and was released on April 28 , 2010 . Serving as an homage to the music video for Madonna 's " Express Yourself " , the video was S & M @-@ themed . To promote the song , Aguilera performed " Not Myself Tonight " at the 2010 MTV Movie Awards , VH1 Storytellers and The Oprah Winfrey Show , amongst others . = = Background and release = = After the birth of her son , Max Bratman , Aguilera stated in an interview with Ryan Seacrest that her forthcoming album would include a totally new aspect of herself as an artist , because of the pregnancy with her son . During an interview with People in 2008 , Aguilera stated that she was going to start recording new material for her forthcoming album at her home in Beverly Hills . Aguilera listened to a lot of electronic music during her pregnancy , and she was inspired to include the genre on Bionic . Aguilera originally considered servicing the track " Glam " as the lead single from Bionic . However , after the conclusion of a day @-@ long countdown on her website on March 23 , 2010 , it was announced that " Not Myself Tonight " would be released as the official lead single instead . The single cover was simultaneously released , featuring a black @-@ and @-@ white image depicting Aguilera as a devil , dressed in a black leather suit with devil ears and a tail . Tamar Anitai from MTV Buzzworthy compared Aguilera 's look on the cover to Madonna and Lady Gaga . The lyrics of " Not Myself Tonight " were released the following day , and an eighteen @-@ second snippet of the song was previewed on March 26 . On March 30 , the track was streamed in its entirety through Aguilera 's official website . The single officially impacted US contemporary hit radio on April 6 , 2010 . = = Composition = = " Not Myself Tonight " is an uptempo electropop and electro @-@ R & B song , which incorporates elements from tribal house . Written in the key of G minor , it has a moderate tempo of 120 beats per minute . Aguilera 's vocals on the track span from the low @-@ note of G3 to the high @-@ note of D5 . Aguilera opted to explore and create a " fresh , sexy feel using both electronic and organic elements with subject matter ranging from playful to introspective " in the track ; the track features " dripping " synthesizers , " pulsing " basslines and house drums in its instrumentation . Eric Henderson from Slant Magazine compared " Not Myself Tonight " to Britney Spears songs " Gimme More " and " If U Seek Amy " for having similar musical style . Lyrically , " Not Myself Tonight " talks about Aguilera adopting a new persona and new musical experiments . At the beginning , Aguilera admits that " Tonight I 'm feeling a little out of control " . At the pre @-@ chorus , she sings " The old me 's gone and I feel brand new , and if you don 't like it , fuck you " , which takes aim at anyone who dismisses her new style ; meanwhile , she declares her musical departure from her previous 1940s and 1950s inspired album Back to Basics ( 2006 ) at the chorus with the line , " I 'm not myself tonight , tonight I 'm not the same girl " . The song also evokes sexual theme , with lyrics such as " I 'm dancin ' a lot , I 'm takin ' shots and I 'm feelin ' fine / I 'm kissin ' all the boys and girls " . Writing for Billboard magazine , Michael Menachem opined that Aguilera channeled a " more ' Euro @-@ glamorous ' version " of her previous alter ego " Xtina " , featured in her 2002 hit " Dirrty " from Stripped . = = Critical reception = = Upon its release , " Not Myself Tonight " received mixed critical reception . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic picked " Not Myself Tonight " as one of the highlights from Bionic , while Michael Menachem from Billboard complimented Aguilera 's vocal delivery and suggested that the track proved that " the current dance @-@ pop craze would be incomplete without [ Aguilera ] " . Digital Spy editor Nick Levine gave the single a four out of five stars rating , writing that " on first listen , it feels a bit too ordinary to be trailing such a potentially audacious long @-@ player . However , after a few spins it becomes clear that this is far from a flop " . Sarah @-@ Louise James from the UK Daily Star lauded the musical style of " Not Myself Tonight " but opined that it was overshadowed by the accompanying S & M @-@ inspired music video . On a negative side , Mesfin Fekadu from The Boston Globe mockingly described the single as " mediocre at best . " Fraser McAlpine writing for BBC Music praised the song 's composition yet criticized its lyrics for " [ not ] escaping the feeling that she 's only getting up in our collective grill once again with the sexy and the [ atti ] ' tude " . Gavin Martin from the Daily Mirror wrote that " Not Myself Tonight " " shows the post @-@ natal Aguilera has pumped up her sex appeal . And , although her top @-@ shelf strategy is hardly startling in its originality , it 's accomplished with more class than her obvious competitors " . On behalf of The Village Voice , Drew Hinshaw criticized Aguilera 's vocals and lyrics on the song . Likewise , Dan Martin from NME opined that with the new musical style of Bionic and its lead single , Aguilera had very little chance to explore her vocal ability . Writing for Drowned in Sound , Richard Wink concerned that " Not Myself Tonight " showcased an " apparent identity crisis " that Aguilera experienced during the production of Bionic ; he questioned whether the alter ego " Xtina " was " the character that represents a freewheeling , risk taking , carefree party girl " or the contrasting " mask a desperate popstar wears when they are struggling to maintain relevance " . = = Commercial performance = = During its first week on U.S. radio , " Not Myself Tonight " became the most added song on Mainstream Top 40 ( 886 plays in its first six days ) and Rhythmic Radio stations in the United States , debuting at number 27 on the Mainstream Top 40 ( Pop Songs ) chart . Digitally , it sold 77 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , entering the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 23 , becoming Aguilera 's third solo highest chart debut behind 2008 's " Keeps Gettin ' Better " , which debut at number 7 , and 2006 's " Ain 't No Other Man " , which opened at number 19 . The single became a success on the Hot Dance Club Songs , peaking atop the chart . As of March 2011 , " Not Myself Tonight " has sold 368 @,@ 000 copies in the US . The track managed to peak at number 11 and 12 on the Canadian Hot 100 and the UK Singles Chart , respectively . In Australia , " Not Myself Tonight " debuted and peaked at number 22 , remaining at its peak position for a further week . Meanwhile , in New Zealand , the single charted at number 32 on the New Zealand Singles Chart and managed to remain on the chart for only one week . The single fared better in South Korea , debuting at number 4 on the Gaon International Digital Chart . = = Music video = = The music video for " Not Myself Tonight " was filmed from April 7 to April 9 , 2010 in Los Angeles , directed by Hype Williams . It officially premiered on Vevo on April 30 , 2010 . On working with Williams and the new looks she developed in the video , Aguilera stated , " ... someone with that much of a catalog under his belt and success as a video maker , he 's like a legend . So again entering into the collaborating factor , I didn 't know what to expect ... and he 's probably thinking the same about me . And when we walked away from working with each other , it was just a love connection . I wanted to maintain and keep consistent with the look of the album packaging and book , and I really wanted to keep all that in line , and so he really paid attention , and I think it 's really iconic and classic . We totally made magic together on a creative level , it was absolutely amazing . He really got in and listened to where my music was at " . Aguilera revealed that some of the inspiration for the music video came from her work in Burlesque , stating , " There is dancing , and I learned so much also as a dancer doing the ' Burlesque ' film , moving my body in ways that were , I feel , never as precise before [ ... ] I really fell in love and I adapted that in the dancing for ' Not Myself Tonight , ' but it was really , really fun to take what I learned from the movie . " She further elaborated , " A lot of that [ video ] was based on my visual inspiration . I took Hype into my salon area in my home ... it 's like my creative den . He took the ideas and then took other ideas and related to the ideas , and it just was really iconic imagery . " The video itself features a strong sexual theme with scenes of S & M and bondage , as well as scenes in a church and several prestigious @-@ looking buildings . Aguilera wore several hairstyles and outfits , including many which were dominatrix @-@ style . According to Aguilera , the music video of " Not Myself Tonight " is a tribute to Madonna , citing her music videos as its major influence , most notably " Express Yourself " ( 1989 ) . She viewed the visual for " Express Yourself " as " really strong and empowering which [ she ] always try to incorporate through my expression of sexuality . " Several critics further noted that the S & M @-@ inspired theme of the music video for " Not Myself Tonight " was also resembled other Madonna music videos such as " Human Nature " and " Like a Prayer " . MTV News ' Gil Kaufman also opined that Aguilera recalled her " Dirrty " video for sharing the same sexual depiction . James Montgomery of MTV News called the video " jaw @-@ dropping " . Tanner Stransky from Entertainment Weekly commented that the video was similar to visuals by Lady Gaga and Madonna , further noting that Aguilera " did indeed seem desperate " in the " unoriginal " clip , saying that " maybe she should have gone in a totally different direction to avoid comparisons " . On behalf of Rolling Stone , Daniel Kreps stated that " Aguilera assumes no less than a dozen different guises , all scantily clad , ranging from carbon copies of Lady Gaga ( borrowing heavily from her unique wardrobe ) , Madonna , Beyoncé , Gwen Stefani , the girls from Robert Palmer 's " Simply Irresistible " video and Michelle Pfeiffer 's S & M @-@ inspired Catwoman from Batman Returns . Despite the video 's attempt to shock , it 's unlikely Aguilera will ever out @-@ Gaga Gaga or out @-@ controversy Madonna . ... Hopefully next time she steps in front of the lens she 'll be more herself and less like everyone else " . NME ranked the " Not Myself Tonight " music video at number 8 on its list of the " 50 Worst Music Videos Ever " . = = Live performances = = Aguilera first performed the song live on The Oprah Winfrey Show on May 7 , 2010 , in a black one @-@ piece and long black trench coat with high boots , accompanied by green laser lights and smoke . She ad @-@ libbed several times during the performance , at one point explaining the song 's concept , stating to the audience , " This song is all about letting go and expressing yourself ! " On June 8 , 2010 , Aguilera performed the song on The Today Show . She also performed the song on Live With Regis and Kelly on June 10 , 2010 , and as a part of her concert on CBS 's The Early Show on June 11 , 2010 . Aguilera performed " Not Myself Tonight " in a medley with " Bionic " and " Woohoo " at the 2010 MTV Movie Awards . The song was also included on Aguilera 's set for VH1 Storytellers . = = Formats and track listings = = = = Charts = = = = Certifications and sales = = = = Release history = =
= Space Station Silicon Valley = Space Station Silicon Valley is a platform video game developed by DMA Design and published by Take @-@ Two Interactive . It was originally released for the Nintendo 64 in October 1998 , and was ported for the Game Boy Color in 1999 , and for the PlayStation in 2000 under the name Evo 's Space Adventures . Players control Evo , a robot reduced to a crawling microchip after a ship crash , and are tasked with taking control of animals to solve puzzles and defeat enemies . The game began development in September 1995 , as part of a publishing deal with BMG Interactive . When this deal fell through , the development team turned their focus to the Nintendo 64 , which allowed for a more advanced environment and model processing . The hardware also shaped the game 's humour and style , with a soft focus look leading to a style akin to Plasticine models . The game 's distinct British humour was also used to distinguish it from other games . Similarly , the game 's music was created to resemble B movies . Upon release , Space Station Silicon Valley was acclaimed by many reviewers , with praise particularly directed at the intuitive mechanics , innovative level design , and comical concepts . It won numerous awards , including Game of the Month and Most Innovative Game from IGN . Despite this , the game performed poorly commercially , and was unable to secure enough sales to warrant a sequel . = = Gameplay = = Space Station Silicon Valley is a platform game that is viewed from a third @-@ person perspective . Players traverse several different environments to advance through the game . During the game , players control Evo — a robot who is reduced to a crawling microchip during a ship crash , and is losing energy at a steady rate without protection . In order to survive , players attack animals , which disables them and allows players to assume control of their bodies . Each animal possesses different characteristics , including survival rate and special attacks , and uses different abilities ; for example , large animals such as bears are able to destroy ice blocks , which other animals are incapable of doing so . Some animals are also unable to survive in certain unfamiliar environments , forcing players to enter the body of another . The animals are used to solve puzzles and defeat enemies in each level , collecting Evo 's power cells to maintain energy . During the game , players are frequently accompanied by the voice of Dan Danger , a human who is trapped in the destroyed spaceship . Dan assigns missions to players , occasionally commenting on their performance . The game is set on a space station — the titular Silicon Valley , which consists of four environments : Euro Eden , Arctic Kingdom , Jungle Safari , and Desert Adventure . The environments are unlocked as players progress through the game . Each environment consists of numerous sub @-@ levels , ranging from six to ten , each of which task players with certain objectives ; examples include activating switches , disabling electric fences , and gathering a set amount of objects . As players progress through the levels , they collect the scattered remains of Evo 's protective shell suit , eventually re @-@ assembling them for the final level . Each level also contains a hidden objective , such as collecting a souvenir or making an animal perform a certain act ; as players complete the hidden objectives , they are rewarded with a gold trophy , and collecting all trophies unlocks a bonus level . = = Plot = = In the year 2001 , the space station Silicon Valley was launched , housing numerous animals . Seven minutes after its launch , it vanished . Believed to have disappeared forever , it reappears in the year 3000 , and the many expeditions sent to retrieve the space station vanished without explanation . Following this , the duo of Dan Danger and Evo were sent to investigate ; they discover that the animal cargo has evolved and merged with the station 's technology , resulting in animals such as an electronically @-@ powered fox with motorised wheels , and a steam @-@ powered hippopotamus . Evo sets out to fix the control station , which is on a collision course with Earth . Upon arriving at the control room , Evo confronts the Evil Brain , who is fascinated by Evo 's abilities and wants to keep him to complete the collection of robotic animals . The Evil Brain threatens to destroy the Earth , but is quickly defeated by Evo . Despite this , Evo is unable to stop the space station from spinning out of control ; it collides with Earth , landing in New York Harbor . The robotic animals escape and flee around New York City , and Evo sets out to terminate them before they terrorise the planet . = = Development = = Space Station Silicon Valley began development in September 1995 , as part of a three @-@ game publishing deal between developer DMA Design and BMG Interactive , the other games being Grand Theft Auto ( 1997 ) and Tanktics ( 1998 ) . All three games were planned to be released on Microsoft Windows , PlayStation and Sega Saturn , as they were the most popular platforms at the time . Following Take @-@ Two Interactive 's acquisition of BMG Interactive in March 1998 , Take @-@ Two acquired the publishing rights to the game , and the team instead changed focus to develop the game for the Nintendo 64 , upon discovering that Windows was incapable of processing the models and environments intended for use . Every member of the team that developed Space Station Silicon Valley began working at DMA Design at the beginning of development , in September 1995 . Development began using the new DirectX libraries , following the release of Windows 95 . The levels were designed and edited using Silicon Graphics computers , which were transferred directly to the Nintendo 64 development boards . The team found the Nintendo 64 to be more advanced than previous hardware ; programmer Grant Salvona described the development kits as " the most powerful hardware available in the building " . The game 's humour and style was shaped by hardware limitations ; when the hardware rendered the character models in soft focus , the team noted that they resembled Plasticine models , and continued to create the game with a look and style akin to Wallace and Gromit . The game was presented with " distinctive ' British ' humour " to distinguish from other games ; lead programmer Leslie Benzies and artist Aaron Garbut often presented the team with other Nintendo 64 games , such as Super Mario 64 ( 1996 ) , to identify the differences . The team ensured that each level felt distinct , while maintaining a coherent style . This diversity was achieved using the development tools , which allowed various members of the team to experiment in creating designs . Manual text writer Brian Baglow said that the game 's music provided freedom to the team , as it " doesn 't necessarily have to fit the action on the screen " . He explained that the audio was designed to fit with the " cheesy , slightly twisted B @-@ movies animation kind of feel " . Baglow found that creating the music on a cartridge instead of a CD prompted the team to discover new techniques of working within the boundaries of the former , stating that " people who are doing music for CD @-@ based systems get very , very lazy " . While similar body @-@ swapping games already existed , such as Paradroid ( 1985 ) , they had little influence on the development of Space Station Silicon Valley . The team were instead influenced by other games in development at DMA , including Grand Theft Auto and Body Harvest ( 1998 ) . Unlike those games , Space Station Silicon Valley does not take place in an open world ; " they 're a bugger to make , " explained creative director Gary Penn . The objective of the team was to create a game where players were encouraged to try new things to see the outcome . The original concept for the game was that players would eat robots and become increasingly larger , retrospectively described by creative director lead artist Jamie Bryan as being similar to Cubivore : Survival of the Fittest ( 2002 ) . Another early idea was for the in @-@ game animals to consist of different parts , and destroying one animal would allow players to swap some features with their existing body ; this was quickly discarded , as the team realised it would require extensive testing . The game was developed with little interference from upper management ; programmer Obbe Vermeij said that " only after 18 months was there a push to get everything together into a finished game " . Space Station Silicon Valley entered beta in August 1998 , and was first released for Nintendo 64 on October 21 , 1998 . Baglow attributed the lengthy development cycle to the scale of the game , stating that " it 's got to be fun " . A Game Boy Color version of the game — a 2D remake of the original version — was released in Europe in late 1999 ; IGN 's Tim Jones was critical of the port , criticising the gameplay and level design . The game was also ported to the PlayStation by Runecraft in June 2000 , under the title Evo 's Space Adventures , although the original development team had little input besides providing the models , codes and textures ; a review by JeuxVideo.com criticised the port 's poor gameplay and graphics , and it has elsewhere been described as " one of the laziest ports in the history of video games " . = = Reception = = Space Station Silicon Valley was well received by critics . Review aggregator Metacritic calculated an average score of 83 out of 100 based on 10 reviews , for the Nintendo 64 version . Metacritic ranks the game within the top 10 Nintendo 64 games released in 1998 . Praise was particularly directed at the game 's intuitive mechanics , innovative level design , and comical concepts . The game was also applauded for the originality of its concept ; IGN 's Matt Casamassina called Space Station Silicon Valley " maybe the most original game to hit Nintendo 64 " , and Next Generation named it " one of the very best Nintendo 64 has to offer " . Critics lauded the gameplay . Casamassina of IGN called it " nearly flawless " , while Next Generation named it " a satisfying challenge " . A reviewer from Game Revolution noted that the game " keeps the emphasis on gameplay " , particularly appreciating the attention to detail , however noted inconveniences in the camera . Lauren Fielder of GameSpot felt that the game 's puzzles were very simple to decipher , but noted that the game accomplishes its goal of entertaining and amusing players . Andrew Reiner of Game Informer found the game " monotonous " , and the missions to be " immensely boring " . A reviewer for Next Generation named the level design " superb " , praising the variety and open @-@ ended approach of the levels . Dan Hsu of Electronic Gaming Monthly echoed similar remarks , applauding the game 's preparation for contingencies , and Daily Radar 's Max Everingham described the levels as " innovative " . Game Revolution disliked the inability to save the game mid @-@ level , but otherwise appreciated the variety of the levels , while a reviewer for Game Informer found the levels to be " fairly small " . Game Revolution wrote that the game has " some of the best sound yet " for a Nintendo 64 game , praising the variety of the musical tracks . IGN 's Casamassina found the music " very well executed " and " very entertaining " , likening it to " ' futuristic space pop ' and elevator @-@ like tunes " , and named the sound effects " equally satisfying " . Conversely , Electronic Gaming Monthly 's Hsu found the music " ultra @-@ annoying " . For the PlayStation version of the game , in which the original music is replaced , John Szczepaniak of Hardcore Gaming 101 said that it " sucks " , writing that " the elevator style music is made even more obnoxious , and some of the really good tunes ... have been replaced with awful generic heavy metal " . IGN 's Casamassina found that the game " lacks the graphic finesse of a title like Banjo @-@ Kazooie " , but praised it nonetheless , while GameSpot 's Lauren Fielder called the graphics " nothing special " . Game Revolution praised the graphics , particularly applauding the smooth textures and vibrant colour palette , as well as the detail of the character movement . Next Generation felt that the game " doesn 't push Nintendo 64 's hardware to the limits " , and noted some occasional frame rate slowdown , but appreciated the " cute " and simplistic design . Jon Storm of Game Informer called the graphics " lame " , criticising the lack of detail in the environments and characters . In a retrospective feature , Craig Owens of Nintendo Gamer wrote that the game 's " chunky , angular " art style conveys the " experimental , unpredictable tone " . Electronic Gaming Monthly presented Space Station Silicon Monthly the Silver Editor 's Choice Award . It was named IGN 's Game of the Month for October 1998 , and in February 1999 it won Most Innovative Game from IGN , who praised it for capturing " old @-@ school " gameplay mechanics . In January 2007 , IGN placed the game fifth on a list of " Underrated and Underappreciated Games " , and in April 2009 placed it on a list of " Nintendo 64 Treasures " , stating that it " remains one of the great unsung heroes " of the console . Despite its critical success , the game failed to match expected sales , and was unable to earn enough money to warrant a sequel . The team attributed the poor commercial performance to the game 's simultaneous launch with The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time , which was Nintendo 's marketing focus at the time .
= Mr. Eko = Mr. Eko Tunde is a fictional character , played by Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje on the ABC television series Lost . He is introduced in the second season episode " Adrift " as one of the plane @-@ crash survivors from the plane 's tail section . Flashbacks reveal that he became the leader of a gang of guerrillas to save his brother when he still lived in Nigeria . He assumed his brother 's identity and became a priest after his brother was killed in a botched drug smuggle ; Eko killed two guerrillas in defense , was ostracized , and left Nigeria to become a priest in Australia . After investigating the alleged miracle of a girl who came back to life after drowning in Australia in 2004 , Eko boarded Oceanic Airlines Flight 815 . This plane crashed and left Eko , along with a few other survivors , on a deserted island . Lost creators Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse were fans of Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje 's work on HBO 's Oz , and asked him to portray the character . Although Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje was not initially interested in joining the cast , he was persuaded by Cuse and Lindelof , but for a shorter period than they had in mind . Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje had a lot of influence on his character , changing the character 's name and making adjustments to Eko 's personality . After appearing on the show for one season , Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje asked Cuse and Lindelof to write his character out of the show because he did not feel at home in Hawaii . They decided a " shocking and emotional death " would be the best way for the character to depart : after seeing his brother on the island , Eko chases him until he stumbles upon the smoke monster , which brutally murders him . Mr. Eko received many positive responses from critics and fans , who were disappointed that the character was killed after one season . A toy figure of Mr. Eko was included in a second series of Lost toy figures distributed by McFarlane Toys . = = Appearances = = = = = Prior to the crash = = = Originally from Nigeria , Mr. Eko was born on January 31 , 1968 . He grew up always looking after his younger brother , Yemi ( Adetokumboh M 'Cormack ) , with whom he lived in a small village . As revealed in " The 23rd Psalm " , one day , when Eko is playing with the local children , a gang of guerrillas raids the village in search of young recruits . When Yemi refuses to shoot an elderly man , Eko steps in and shoots him himself , sparing Yemi from the same fate . Impressed by his actions , the guerrillas take Eko away with them and draw him away from his religious lifestyle and into the criminal life , where Eko adopted the title " Mr. " He grows up to be a fearless drug lord and a vicious leader of a guerrilla group , while his brother becomes an honoured priest . Years after his abduction , Eko returns to his home village to ask Yemi to help him smuggle heroin , which Eko has hidden in a large number of Virgin Mary statues and intends to fly out of the country . Yemi refuses until Eko threatens his associates will burn the church down if he does not sign documents that allow him and his henchmen to appear as priests . As Eko and his men assemble at the airfield on the day the shipment is ready to be smuggled , it is revealed Yemi has tipped off the military and now tries to convince Eko not to go through with his plans . When the military arrives , Yemi is killed in the ensuing gun battle and Eko is kicked off the plane . After the plane leaves , Eko is mistaken for Yemi and released back to his village . Feeling guilty over Yemi 's death , Eko assumes his role as the village priest . One day , Eko encounters a gang of guerrillas who made a deal with Yemi : they 'll take 80 % of the vaccines delivered to the village in exchange for the village 's safety . Soon afterward , the guerrillas arrive at the church and attempt to cut off Eko 's hands . However , Eko fights back and kills them , much to the shock of the village . The church is thus boarded up and Eko is ostracized until he leaves for London . After leaving England , Eko assumes his brother 's identity , serving as a priest in Australia under the name Father Tunde . A monsignor asks him to investigate a reported miracle of a young lady who has come back to life after drowning . The girl 's father , Richard Malkin , dismisses the miracle as an act of incompetence by the undertaker , claiming the girl was suffering from severe hypothermia and the doctor misdiagnosed her as a result . Eko soon prepares to board Oceanic Airlines Flight 815 ; shortly after buying a ticket , he encounters the girl whom the investigation is about . She tells Eko she saw Yemi as she was " between places " , and his brother had a message for him to have faith . = = = After the crash = = = After the crash , Eko lands with the tail @-@ section survivors in the ocean , a short distance from the beach . On the group 's first night on the island , the Others kidnap a few of the survivors . Eko kills two of them while resisting a kidnap attempt ; feeling guilty , Eko remains mute for the following forty days . In " Adrift " , Eko beats Jin @-@ Soo Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) , James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) , and Michael Dawson ( Harold Perrineau ) unconscious when they arrive on their beach and hauls them into a pit . When their innocence is proven , Eko and the tail @-@ section survivors head to the camp of the other fuselage survivors . After their arrival in " What Kate Did " , John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) shows Eko an orientation video from the DHARMA Initiative . Eko watches it and fits in with the remaining fuselage survivors . In " The 23rd Psalm " , Eko discovers a Virgin Mary statue in Charlie Pace 's ( Dominic Monaghan ) possession and he demands to be taken to the Beechcraft where it came from , knowing his brother 's body is there . Eko and Charlie decide to burn the plane along with all the heroin @-@ filled statues . On his fiftieth day on the island , Eko baptizes baby Aaron and his mother Claire Littleton ( Emilie De Ravin ) . As he discovers the survivors hold one of the others named " Henry Gale " ( Michael Emerson ) captured in the Swan hatch , he requests to speak him . Eko confesses to him about killing two people on the first night of the crash and expresses his condolences before leaving . Following his confession , Eko starts building a church down the beach with Charlie 's help . However , after Ana Lucia Cortez ( Michelle Rodriguez ) and Yemi tell him to help Locke in a dream in " ? " , Eko abandons the church and ventures into the jungle with Locke , claiming to hunt down the escaped " Henry Gale " . Eko manages to coax Locke into taking him to the " ? " he drew on a map , resulting in the discovery of the Pearl station . After watching the station 's orientation video , Eko vows to continue pushing the button in the hatch , despite Locke 's protests . In the season 2 finale " Live Together , Die Alone " , Locke and Desmond Hume ( Henry Ian Cusick ) initiate a lockdown and lock Eko out of the computer room . Desperate not to let the timer run out , Eko goes to the stash of dynamite from the Black Rock , a ship which wrecked on the island before the plane . Eko 's attempt to blow open the blast door has no effect except to knock him unconscious , and he is thus unable to prevent the timer 's reaching zero . As a result , the station implodes . Although Eko survives the implosion , he is dragged away by a polar bear . Locke and Charlie later rescue him and pull him to safety . In " The Cost of Living " , Eko awakens to find Yemi in his tent , telling him he needs to confess before finding his tent is on fire . Searching for Yemi , he soon decides to follow Locke , Desmond , Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) , Nikki and Paulo ( Kiele Sanchez , and Rodrigo Santoro ) to the Pearl station . While waiting outside , he sees Yemi again , and follows the apparition to give his confession . Upon learning it is merely a deception , Eko grows angry and chases Yemi into the jungle , where he confronts the " Monster " . After being thrown about by the Monster , Eko is finally thrown to the ground . Fatally wounded , he whispers " I saw the Devil " to Locke before dying , although Locke , for whatever reason , decides to tell Sayid he said , " We 're next . " As he dies , we see an image of Eko and Yemi as happy children , walking into the distance . In one of the flashforwards in the final episode of the fourth season , Hurley is seen sitting at a table with a chessboard on it across from a seemingly empty seat . Before he leaves , Hurley says : " Checkmate , Mr. Eko . " = = Personality = = When creating the character , the producers envisioned Mr. Eko as " the one character who comes to terms with living on the island , and not being consumed with trying to get off " . Being introduced as a " tailie " , a person on the tail section of the plane , Eko is a mysterious and complex character . MSNBC said the character is " always fighting a battle , an internal struggle as to whether the life he led was worthy of pride or shame " . Portrayer Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje explained Mr. Eko 's dedication to pushing the button in the hatch with seeing the hatch as the answer to the mystery of life . Described as a " natural leader " , Mr. Eko is a " strong , silent type , a man of few words " . Jon Bonné of MSNBC said , he is " a dude you don 't mess with " . When Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje was at a bank in Hawaii , a fan said his character was a criminal pretending to be a priest , to which Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje replied : " No , actually , I 'm a priest pretending to be a criminal " . = = Development = = The character of Mr. Eko was created to explore the spiritual element of the show , and to add an African character , which the producers thought would provide " cultural variety " to the cast . Lost creators Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse 's first choice for the actor to portray Eko was Lance Reddick , after they had seen him as Cedric Daniels on HBO 's The Wire . However , after it was made clear Reddick was unavailable due to the filming schedule of The Wire , Cuse and Lindelof decided to contact Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje , because they were big fans of his work on the HBO prison drama Oz . At the time , Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje was filming Get Rich or Die Tryin ' and , being unfamiliar with Lost , had no intention of joining the cast . While the producers succeeded in persuading Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje to take the role , he did not want to make a long @-@ term commitment to the show and was therefore only hired for a short period of time . Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje accepted the part mostly because it was an opportunity to play a character with a different faith than his Buddhism , and because he enjoyed the idea of being on a deserted island ( he had lived on a deserted island four years prior to being cast on the show ) . Two weeks after he was hired , Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje moved to Oahu , Hawaii , where filming took place . While Mr. Eko was created as a more passive character , the idea changed when the producers first saw Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje play the character . Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje explained : " once they saw me on the screen without a shirt , all 6 foot 2 and using a stick beating three guys up , they knew this guy wasn 't going to be just a passive priest " . Eventually , Cuse and Lindelof decided to combine their original idea for the character with Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje 's character on Oz . Originally , the character was named " Emeka " , and later " Omecca " , but after Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje was cast , the name was changed to " Eko " , in order to be consistent with Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje 's own Nigerian tribal lineage . Eko refers to the City of Legos ( Lagos ) in Nigeria , coming from Eleko , Lord of Lagos . Adding " Mr. " in front of the character 's name was also a suggestion made by Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje . While at first Cuse and Lindelof thought this was " the silliest thing in the world " , they changed their minds after repeating the name a few times , realizing there " was something really cool about it " . The character first appeared in " Adrift " , where he was only shown briefly , knocking down three of the show 's main characters with a stick . Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje was given the stick and told to " knock those three guys out " . Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje felt " there 's no better way to make an entrance " . The religious scripture on the stick was a suggestion of Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje . After he had been on the show for one season , Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje felt uncomfortable living in Hawaii and wanted to return to his residence in London , England . He discussed Mr. Eko 's departure with Lindelof and Cuse , and the three decided the character would die somewhere in the first six episodes of the third season . They also found a " shocking and emotional death " would be the best way to write the character off the show . Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje felt Eko 's death in " The Cost of Living " made the character " complete " , commenting : " The Cost of Living " was " such a well @-@ written episode that I knew I would be able to sew him up in a season " , although Cuse later said he would have preferred the character to remain on the show a little longer . In 2008 , Cuse and Lindelof made hints there were possibilities of the character 's returning . However , despite Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje 's wishes to return for the sixth season , the producers stated he would not be returning . The actor was eventually offered a guest role in the series finale , but turned it down due to salary disagreements . = = Reception = = Overall , the character was positively received . The first week he was on the show , Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje received a lot of fanmail , much to his surprise . Craig Berman of MSNBC called Mr. Eko " one of the most creatively complex characters on the island " . The Los Angeles Times depicted him as " the island 's favorite ' tailie ' " . IGN named him the third best character from the first three seasons of Lost , behind Hurley and Locke . Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje 's performance was praised by critics ; Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle said he was " probably the best actor in the cast " . In 2006 , Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje shared the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series with the cast of Lost ; they were also named " Entertainers of the Year " by Entertainment Weekly . He was also nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor on Television in 2005 , but lost the award to Masi Oka of Heroes . Generally , critics and fans were disappointed Mr. Eko was killed after being on the show for only one season . Kristin Dos Santos of E ! called Mr. Eko " the best character of the show " , and was therefore very disappointed with his death . In response to Mr. Eko 's death , Christine Fenno of Entertainment Weekly stated " I 'll miss Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje — his acting was up there with Terry O 'Quinn 's , Elizabeth Mitchell 's , and Michael Emerson 's . I guess he was the sacrifice the island demanded " . Writing for Zap2it , Rick Porter said that his death " sucked hard , and loud , and long " . IGN listed Eko 's death as number one on its list of " Top 10 Lost Deaths " .
= Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink = Jerrel Floyd Hasselbaink ( born 27 March 1972 ) , known as Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink , is a Dutch former professional footballer , now manager of Championship club Queens Park Rangers . A striker , he began his career with Telstar and AZ , before leaving the Netherlands for Portuguese club Campomaiorense in August 1995 . He joined Boavista the following year , and won the Taça de Portugal with the club in 1997 . Later that year he was signed by English side Leeds United for a £ 2 million fee , and went on to win the Premier League Golden Boot award in 1998 – 99 . He was sold on to Spanish club Atlético Madrid for £ 10 million in 1999 , and reached the final of the Copa del Rey with Atlético despite the club also suffering relegation from La Liga . Hasselbaink returned to the Premier League with Chelsea for a club record £ 15 million fee in May 2000 . He scored 23 league goals in his first season , which earned him a second Premier League Golden Boot . He also played in the 2002 FA Cup Final and made a career high second @-@ place league finish in 2003 – 04 . He moved to Middlesbrough on a free transfer in July 2004 , and played in the final of the UEFA Cup in 2006 . He signed with Charlton Athletic in July 2006 , before joining Cardiff City in August 2007 . He played on the losing side in the 2008 FA Cup Final before retiring . He also scored nine goals in 23 matches in a four @-@ year international career for the Netherlands national team , and appeared at the 1998 FIFA World Cup . In May 2013 he was appointed manager of Royal Antwerp in the Belgian Second Division , where he stayed for one season . In November 2014 , he was hired by Burton Albion , and in his first season he led them to their first ever promotion to League One as champions of League Two . In December 2015 , he was appointed manager of Queens Park Rangers . = = Club career = = = = = Netherlands = = = Hasselbaink was born on 27 March 1972 in Paramaribo , Suriname ( then part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands ) to Frank Ware and Cornelli Hasselbaink ; he was the youngest of six children . At the age of three Hasselbaink was run over by a moped which broke his right leg . In October 1978 , his mother took him and three siblings to live in Zaandam , Netherlands ; his father remained in Suriname and rarely contacted the family . The next year Hasselbaink began playing youth football for Gestaagt Volharding Overwint ( GVO ) , initially as a goalkeeper . He later played for Zaansche Football club ( ZFC ) and Zaanlandia as a right winger . He joined a street gang as a teenager and spent three months in a youth detention facility for stealing . After his release he joined the youth team at DWS , but was dismissed from the club for stealing the watch of a first @-@ team player . He began his senior career with Telstar , while still a gang member , and had disciplinary issues at the club due to his persistent lateness . He made his Eerste Divisie debut on 27 October 1990 , in a 2 – 0 defeat at VVV @-@ Venlo . Head coach Niels Overweg sacked him after he turned up late to a match . He began training with AZ , where his brother Carlos was playing , and impressed enough to win a professional contract . However Head coach Henk Wullems opted not to renew his contract in 1993 , despite Hasselbaink making 46 appearances for the club . He had an unsuccessful trial with FC Eindhoven , and after failing to agree terms with PEC Zwolle he instead spent the 1993 – 94 season training with HFC Haarlem . He then played amateur football for Neerlandia whilst he looked abroad for a professional contract , spending time in Austria with Admira Wacker . = = = Portugal = = = He signed for newly promoted Portuguese Primeira Divisão side Campomaiorense in August 1995 after impressing trainer Manuel Fernandes on a trial . The chairman wanted to keep his signing a secret , and so told the press that he had simply signed a player called " Jimmy " , but after his signing was revealed the name stuck and he was known as Jimmy rather than Jerrel for the rest of his career . He failed to score in his first four games and missed a penalty in his fifth game after insisting on taking the penalty ahead of regular taker Stanimir Stoilov , however he made amends for the miss later in the game by scoring both goals a 2 – 0 win over Gil Vicente . The small club could not survive in the top @-@ flight and were relegated in the 1995 – 96 season . Hasselbaink was signed by Boavista for a € 300 @,@ 000 fee in summer 1996 . The 1996 – 97 season was chaotic for the club , as the chairman sacked two managers , Zoran Filipović and João Resende Alves , before ending the campaign with Rui Casaca . As a result , the " Panthers " only managed a seventh @-@ place finish , but ended the campaign on a high note by winning the Taça de Portugal . Hasselbaink had a good season individually , finishing as the league 's second highest scorer behind Porto 's Mário Jardel . He scored his first professional hat @-@ trick at the club , in a 3 – 1 victory over Marítimo at the Estádio do Bessa ; he later scored a hat @-@ trick in a 7 – 0 win over Gil Vicente , as did teammate Nuno Gomes . Though head coach Casaca left Hasselbaink on the bench due to his arranged transfer to Leeds , Hasselbaink entered the final of the Taça de Portugal as a late substitute for Erwin Sánchez as Boavista held on to a 3 – 1 win over Benfica . = = = Leeds United = = = Leeds United manager George Graham signed Hasselbaink in the summer of 1997 for a fee of £ 2 million . He scored on his Premier League debut in a 1 – 1 draw with Arsenal at Elland Road on 9 August , though initially he struggled to adapt to the pace of the English game . He scored only five league goals before Christmas , but ended the campaign with 26 goals in all competitions following a strong second half of the season . The following season , Hasselbaink 's 18 goals in 36 appearances made him joint @-@ winner ( with Michael Owen and Dwight Yorke ) of the Premier League Golden Boot as Leeds finished fourth in the league under the stewardship of new manager David O 'Leary , thus winning the " Whites " a place in the following year 's UEFA Champions League qualification stages . However he and his agent were dissatisfied with the contract offered by the club , and though he still had two years to run on his existing deal he was sold on . O 'Leary claimed that " What he is looking for I don 't think any club in the country could afford and I don 't think there is anyone on that kind of money over here ( in England ) " . = = = Atlético Madrid = = = Hasselbaink was bought by Spanish club Atlético Madrid for £ 10 million in the middle of 1999 . The " Red @-@ and @-@ Whites " lost the first three La Liga games of the 1999 – 2000 season , but after Hasselbaink scored his first goal for the club to secure a point at Real Zaragoza he continued to score important goals for the club . On 30 October , he scored twice in the Madrid derby as Atlético beat Real Madrid at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium for the first time in nine years . He also scored against Barcelona at Camp Nou , in a 2 – 1 league defeat . Manager Claudio Ranieri aimed to qualify for the Champions League , but resigned in February following poor results . Despite this Hasselbaink shared the league 's Silver Boot award with Catanha ( Málaga CF ) , scoring only three goals fewer than top @-@ scorer Salva Ballesta ( Racing de Santander ) . Atlético reached the final of the Copa del Rey at the Mestalla Stadium , but lost 2 – 1 to Espanyol ; Hasselbaink scored a late consolation goal . The club 's league form did not improve following Ranieri 's departure , and his successor Radomir Antić failed to prevent the club from being relegated into the Segunda División . A relegation clause in his four @-@ year contract allowed Hasselbaink to leave the club in the summer . = = = Chelsea = = = Hasselbaink returned to the Premier League in May 2000 , when he was signed by Chelsea , for a club record fee of £ 15 million , which matched the then @-@ transfer record for an English club ; he signed a four @-@ year contract . He scored on his " Blues " debut , helping them to win the 2000 FA Charity Shield with a 2 – 0 win over Manchester United at Wembley Stadium . Manager Gianluca Vialli was sacked in September , and Hasselbaink 's former Madrid boss Claudio Ranieri was appointed as his replacement . Hasselbaink later stated he was " dismayed " at Vialli 's sacking , and that the players hated Ranieri and fitness coach Roberto Sassi 's running @-@ focused training methods . Despite this Hasselbaink scored 23 goals in 35 league appearances in the 2000 – 01 season , including four goals in a 6 – 1 win against Coventry City on 21 October ; he finished the season as the winner of the Premier League Golden Boot . At the start of the 2001 – 02 season he earned the distinction of scoring the first competitive goal at Southampton 's new St Mary 's Stadium as Chelsea won 2 – 0 on 25 August . On 13 March , he scored a hat @-@ trick as Chelsea defeated Tottenham Hotspur 4 – 0 . He formed both a good friendship and a productive partnership with Icelandic striker Eiður Guðjohnsen , scoring 29 goals in all competitions whilst Guðjohnsen scored 23 goals in a season which also saw Chelsea reach the FA Cup final after overcoming Norwich City , West Ham United , Preston North End , Tottenham Hotspur , and Fulham . Hasselbaink was a doubt for the final due to a hamstring injury , and was substituted on 68 minutes at the Millennium Stadium as Chelsea lost 2 – 0 to rivals Arsenal . His total of 23 league goals was one fewer than Golden Boot winner Thierry Henry . In summer 2002 the cause of his hamstring injury was discovered , and he underwent an operation to relieve a blockage in the arteries of his right leg which had been severely restricting circulation . During his recovery he appeared as a pundit for ITV 's coverage of the 2002 FIFA World Cup . Ranieri initiated a squad rotation system for the 2002 – 03 season , but focused the team around Gianfranco Zola , which limited Hasselbaink 's playing time . Barcelona manager Louis van Gaal agreed an £ 8 million transfer for Hasselbaink in the January transfer window after months of negotiations but was sacked before the transfer went through and the deal subsequently collapsed . Though the attack was focused on Zola throughout the season Hasselbaink managed to score 15 goals in 44 games , only one goal less than Zola . In the 2003 – 04 season he scored 18 goals in all competitions which , despite the arrival of new strikers Adrian Mutu and Hernán Crespo , made him top @-@ scorer at the club for the third time in four years . On 27 March , his 32nd birthday , Hasselbaink came on as a 60th @-@ minute substitute for Geremi Njitap and scored a hat @-@ trick as Chelsea came from behind to beat Wolverhampton Wanderers 5 – 2 at Stamford Bridge . Chelsea finished the season in second place and reached the semi @-@ finals of the Champions League ; Hasselbaink played in both legs of the semi @-@ final defeat to AS Monaco , as Chelsea lost 5 – 3 on aggregate . = = = Middlesbrough = = = In July 2004 , Hasselbaink turned down approaches from Fulham , Celtic and Rangers and instead joined Middlesbrough on a two @-@ year contract after a free transfer . Due to several other internationals being signed by the club at the time , he predicted that Middlesbrough could qualify for the Champions League . On 14 August , he scored on his debut for the club in a 2 – 2 draw with Newcastle United at the Riverside Stadium . In the 2004 – 05 season he finished as the club 's top @-@ scorer with 13 goals in 36 Premier League games , including a hat @-@ trick in a 4 – 0 win over Blackburn Rovers at Ewood Park on 16 October . A seventh @-@ place league finish was enough for the club to qualify for the following year 's UEFA Cup . In the 2005 – 06 season he scored ten goals in 22 league games and scored eight goals in 22 cup appearances . He helped Steve McClaren 's " Boro " to defeat Skoda Xanthi ( Greece ) , Grasshopper Club Zürich ( Switzerland ) , Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk ( Ukraine ) , Litex ( Bulgaria ) , VfB Stuttgart ( Germany ) , A.S. Roma ( Italy ) , FC Basel ( Switzerland ) and Steaua București ( Romania ) en route to the UEFA Cup final . In the final Middlesbrough were beaten 4 – 0 by Spanish club Sevilla at the Philips Stadion . The cup final proved to be Hasselbaink 's last appearance for the club , as new manager Gareth Southgate decided to release him in July 2006 . = = = Charlton Athletic = = = After a potential move to Celtic of the Scottish Premier League broke down , Hasselbaink joined his fourth Premier League team , Charlton Athletic , on a free transfer in July 2006 . Soon after joining the club , he was charged by the FA with improper conduct and / or bringing the game into disrepute for his claiming Chelsea paid players a bonus after the 2004 Champions League win over Arsenal ; a Premier League inquiry into what would have been illegal bonus payments found no evidence to support the claims , which were denied by Chelsea . He scored his first goal for the " Addicks " against his old team Chelsea in a 2 – 1 defeat at Stamford Bridge on 9 September . After seven games without a goal , Hasselbaink scored against yet another of his former clubs , Middlesbrough on 13 January , a game which Middlesbrough went on to win 3 – 1 . He was released by Charlton at the end of the 2006 – 07 season having scored only four goals in 29 games , with half of his goal tally coming against League One side Chesterfield in the League Cup . = = = Cardiff City = = = Hasselbaink was on the verge of joining Championship side Leicester City in August 2007 , but the club later withdrew their offer . Instead Cardiff City chairman Peter Ridsdale , who worked with Hasselbaink at Leeds United , brought him to Cardiff on a one @-@ year deal , putting him in a veteran strike partnership with Robbie Fowler . Manager Dave Jones said that Hasselbaink initially took time to settle and become match fit but despite being a demanding player his professionalism was ultimately a positive influence . On 19 September , Hasselbaink scored his first goal for Cardiff with a 20 @-@ yard low drive in the 2 – 1 league defeat to Watford at Ninian Park . He was nominated for the Player of the Round in the Fifth Round of the FA Cup after scoring an impressive goal against Wolverhampton Wanderers . He remained as a regular starter for the " Bluebirds " throughout the 2007 – 08 season , and made appearances in five of the six matches Cardiff played to reach the FA Cup final . In the final Cardiff lost 1 – 0 to Portsmouth ; Hasselbaink played 70 minutes before being substituted for Steve Thompson . As the season finished he entered talks to extend his stay at Cardiff , however he left the club in July 2008 following a dispute over pay . = = International career = = Hasselbaink came to the attention of Netherlands manager Guus Hiddink whilst playing in England for Leeds United , and made his international debut on 27 May 1998 in a 0 – 0 draw in a friendly with Cameroon at the GelreDome in Arnhem ; he came on as a 61st @-@ minute substitute for Marc Overmars . On 1 June he scored his first goal in a 5 – 1 friendly victory over Paraguay , and a few days later scored his second goal in another 5 – 1 friendly victory over Nigeria . He was part of the Dutch squad for the 1998 FIFA World Cup in France , as back @-@ up to established international strikers Patrick Kluivert , Dennis Bergkamp and Pierre van Hooijdonk and wingers Boudewijn Zenden and Marc Overmars . With other strikers not fully fit , Hasselbaink started the opening game against Belgium at the Stade de France , but missed a scoring opportunity in the 0 – 0 draw and was taken off for Bergkamp after 65 minutes . Kluivert was sent off in the match but Bergkamp was played as the only striker in the next game against South Korea , and van Hooijdonk was taken off the bench to replace him . In the third group game against Mexico at the Stade Geoffroy @-@ Guichard Hasselbaink came on for Bergkamp after 78 minutes , which was to be his last appearance at the tournament as Kluivert returned from suspension to leave Hasselbaink as Hiddink 's fourth choice forward ; Netherlands ended the tournament in fourth place . Hiddink resigned and was replaced by his assistant Frank Rijkaard , who rarely picked Hasselbaink at international level . He next played on 18 August 1999 , alongside Kluivert and Ruud van Nistelrooy in a friendly against Denmark ; he was taken off for Clarence Seedorf and the game ended 0 – 0 . He next appeared six months later , playing ten minutes against Germany and 70 minutes against Scotland , and despite van Nistelrooy being injured Hasselbaink was not selected for UEFA Euro 2000 as the five forwards chosen were Bergkamp , Kluivert , van Hooijdonk , Roy Makaay and Peter van Vossen . He had been part of the 25 man initial squad but , along with André Ooijer and Winston Bogarde , was not chosen for the final 22 . Louis van Gaal rated Hasselbaink more highly than Rijkaard , meaning more chances at international level when van Gaal took over as manager in July 2000 . Hasselbaink scored against Spain in a 2 – 1 win at the Estadio de La Cartuja on 15 November 2000 but both he and Spanish captain Fernando Hierro were sent off for fighting late in the game . On 24 March 2001 , he scored in a 5 – 0 win over Andorra at the Mini Estadi , and four days later converted a penalty in a draw with Portugal at the Estádio das Antas . On 25 April he scored in his third successive World Cup qualifying game , in a 4 – 0 win over Cyprus at the Philips Stadion . He later played against Estonia ( twice ) , England , the Republic of Ireland and Denmark ; he scored a penalty past Denmark in a 1 – 1 draw at Telia Parken . Netherlands did not qualify for the 2002 FIFA World Cup as they finished four points behind Portugal and Ireland . Dick Advocaat replaced van Gaal as national team manager in January 2002 , and Hasselbaink remained in contention . On 21 August , he came on as a substitute in a 1 – 0 win over Norway at the Ullevaal Stadion , and on 7 September he scored in a 3 – 0 victory over Belarus , the opening qualifying game for UEFA Euro 2004 ; this was his last appearance for Netherlands . = = Style of play = = Hasselbaink was a quick sprinter and had a powerful shot , able to shoot with his left @-@ foot despite being primarily right @-@ footed . Tom Sheen , sports reporter for The Independent and Chelsea supporter , wrote that " [ Hasselbaink ] possessed one of the best strikes ever seen at Stamford Bridge , was an expert free @-@ kick taker , great with both feet and decent in the air " . = = Coaching career = = In October 2009 , Hasselbaink trained with Conference South side Woking to help keep himself fit and do some coaching . He then worked with Chelsea 's under @-@ 16 squad and coached at the Nike Academy while taking his UEFA ' B ' and ' A ' licences . From July 2011 to January 2013 he was a member of the coaching staff at Nottingham Forest , leaving the club when manager Sean O 'Driscoll was sacked . = = = Royal Antwerp = = = In May 2013 , Hasselbaink was announced as the new manager of newly relegated Belgian Second Division club Royal Antwerp . He stated that the club was " a two or three year project " and he aimed to win promotion by playing attacking football with younger players on a reduced budget . He made a number of signings for the club , including former England under @-@ 19 international John Bostock . He led the club to a seventh @-@ place finish in the 2013 – 14 season , before turning down a new deal at the club in May 2014 . = = = Burton Albion = = = On 13 November 2014 , Hasselbaink was appointed manager at League Two side Burton Albion . He signed a two @-@ and @-@ half @-@ year contract , and stated that he was attracted to Burton by the club 's stability . Four days after his appointment he took charge of his first game at Burton , a 3 – 1 win at Wycombe Wanderers which moved the club into fourth in the table . He was nominated for the League Two Manager of the Month award in January for going unbeaten in the month and leading the club to victories over promotion rivals Shrewsbury Town and Bury ; however Chris Wilder of Northampton Town won the award . On 18 April , Burton won 2 – 1 away at Morecambe to earn promotion to League One for the first time in their history . Two weeks later , Burton came from 2 – 1 down , with ten men following the dismissal of goalkeeper Jon McLaughlin , to defeat Cambridge United 3 – 2 at the Abbey Stadium and win the League Two title . At the time of his departure Burton were top of League One . = = = Queens Park Rangers = = = On 4 December 2015 , Hasselbaink was appointed as manager of Championship club Queens Park Rangers ; he signed on a rolling contract , alongside his assistant David Oldfield . Eight days later , he took charge of them for the first time , in a goalless draw against Burnley at Loftus Road . After the game he commented that his team were low on confidence , and needed to be given room to express themselves and " play with freedom " . Despite the sale of leading scorer Charlie Austin earlier the same day , Hasselbaink earned his first win in charge of the " Hoops " on 16 January 2016 , a 3 – 0 victory at Rotherham United . He guided them to a 12th @-@ place finish , and spoke of his expectations of a busy summer in the transfer market . = = = Race issues in management = = = Hasselbaink is one of disproportionately few black football managers in England . After being hired by QPR , he was asked by Talksport if he felt that he had added responsibilities as a black manager , to which he answered : Shortly afterwards , Port Vale chairman Norman Smurthwaite revealed that he had rejected Hasselbaink for the vacant managerial position at his club in 2014 , out of fear that racist elements of their support would abuse him . = = Personal life = = Hasselbaink has four daughters . He is the younger brother of Carlos Hasselbaink , and uncle of Nigel Hasselbaink , both professional footballers . = = Career statistics = = = = = Club = = = = = Managerial statistics = = As of match played 7 May 2016 . = = Honours = = = = = As a player = = = Boavista Taça de Portugal winner : 1996 – 97 Atlético Madrid Copa del Rey runner @-@ up : 1999 – 2000 Chelsea FA Charity Shield winner : 2000 FA Cup runner @-@ up : 2001 – 02 Premier League runner @-@ up : 2003 – 04 Middlesbrough UEFA Cup runner @-@ up : 2005 – 06 Cardiff City FA Cup runner @-@ up : 2007 – 08 Individual Premier League Golden Boot winner : 1998 – 99 ( shared ) , 2000 – 01 = = = As a manager = = = Burton Albion Football League Two champion : 2014 – 15
= Kauri gum = Kauri gum is a fossilized resin detracted from kauri trees ( Agathis australis ) , which is made into crafts such as jewellery . Kauri forests once covered much of the North Island of New Zealand , before Māori and European settlers caused deforestation , causing several areas to revert to sand dunes , scrubs , and swamps . Even afterward , ancient kauri fields continued to provide a source for the gum and the remaining forests . Kauri gum formed when resin from a kauri trees leaked out through fractures or cracks in the bark , hardening with the exposure to air . Lumps commonly fell to the ground and became covered with soil and forest litter , eventually fossilising . Other lumps formed as branches forked or trees were damaged , which released the resin . = = Uses = = The Māori had many uses for the gum , which they called kapia . Fresh gum was used as a type of chewing gum ( older gum was softened by soaking and mixing with juice of the puha thistle ) . Highly flammable , the gum was also used as a fire @-@ starter , or bound in flax to act as a torch . Burnt and mixed with animal fat , it made a dark pigment for moko tattooing . Kauri gum was also crafted into jewellery , keepsakes , and small decorative items . Like amber , kauri gum sometimes includes insects and plant material . Kauri gum was used commercially in varnish , and can be considered a type of copal ( the name given to resin used in such a way ) . Kauri gum was found to be particularly good for this , and from the mid @-@ 1840s was exported to London and America . Tentative exports had begun a few years earlier , however , for use in marine glue and as fire @-@ kindlers ; gum had even made up part of an export cargo to Australia in 1814 . Since the kauri gum was found to mix more easily with linseed oil , at lower temperatures , than other resins , by the 1890s , 70 percent of all oil varnishes made in England used kauri gum . It was used to a limited extent in paints during the late 19th century , and from 1910 was used extensively in the manufacture of linoleum . From the 1930s , the market for gum dropped as synthetic alternatives were found , but there remained niche uses for the gum in jewellery and specialist high @-@ grade varnish for violins . Kauri gum was Auckland 's main export in the second half of the 19th century , sustaining much of the early growth of the city . Between 1850 and 1950 , 450 @,@ 000 tons of gum were exported . The peak in the gum market was 1899 , with 11 @,@ 116 tons exported that year , with a value of £ 600 @,@ 000 ( $ 989 @,@ 700 ) . The average annual export was over 5 @,@ 000 tons , with the average price gained £ 63 ( $ 103 @.@ 91 ) per ton . = = Appearance = = The gum varied in color depending on the condition of the original tree . It also depended on where the gum had formed and how long it had been buried . Colors ranged from chalky @-@ white , through red @-@ brown to black ; the most prized was a pale gold , as it was hard and translucent . The size of each lump also varied greatly . Swamps tended to yield the small nuggets known as " chips " , whereas the hillsides tended to produce larger lumps . The majority were the size of acorns , although some were found which weighed a few pounds ; the largest ( and rarest ) were reported to weigh half a hundredweight . Kauri gum shares a few characteristics with amber , another fossilised resin found in the Northern Hemisphere , but where amber can be dated as millions of year old , carbon @-@ dating suggests the age of most kauri gum is a few thousand years . = = Gumfields = = Most of the gumfields were in Northland , Coromandel and Auckland , the site of the original kauri forests . Initially , the gum was readily accessible , commonly found lying on the ground . Captain Cook reported the presence of resinous lumps on the beach at Mercury Bay , Coromandel , in 1769 , although he suspected it came from the mangroves , and missionary Samuel Marsden spoke of their presence in Northland in 1819 . By 1850 , most of the surface @-@ lying gum had been picked up , and people began digging for it . The hillsides yielded shallow @-@ buried gum ( about 1 m ) , but in the swamps and beaches , it was buried much further down ( 4 m or below ) . = = Gum @-@ diggers = = Gum @-@ diggers were men and women who dug for kauri gum , a fossilised resin , in the old kauri fields of New Zealand at the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries . The gum was used mainly for varnish . The term may be a source for the nickname " Digger " given to New Zealand soldiers in World War I. In 1898 , a gum @-@ digger described " the life of a gum @-@ digger " as " wretched , and one of the last [ occupations ] a man would take to . " Gum @-@ diggers worked in the old kauri fields , most of which were then covered by swamp or scrub , digging for the gum . Much of the population was transient , moving from field to field , and they lived in rough huts or tents ( which were called " whares " , after the Maori for ' house ' ) . It was extremely hard work and not very well paid , but it attracted many Maori and European settlers , including women and children . There were many Dalmatians , who had first come to work the South Island goldfields in the 1860s . They were transient workers , rather than settlers , and much of their income was sent out of the country , resulting in much resentment from the local workforce . In 1898 , the " Kauri Gum Industry Act " was passed , which reserved gum @-@ grounds for British subjects , and requiring all other diggers to be licensed . By 1910 , only British subjects could hold gum @-@ digging licences . Gum @-@ digging was the major source of income for settlers in Northland , and farmers often worked the gumfields in the winter months to subsidise the poor income from their unbroken land . By the 1890s , 20 @,@ 000 people were engaged in gum @-@ digging , of which 7000 worked full @-@ time . Gum @-@ digging was not restricted to settlers or workers in the rural areas ; Auckland families would cross the Waitemata Harbour by ferry at weekends to dig in the fields around Birkenhead , causing damage to public roads and private farms , and leading to local council management of the problem . = = = Gumdigging methods = = = Most gum was dug from the ground using gum @-@ spears ( pointed rods to probe for gum ) and " skeltons " , defined as blade @-@ edged spades for cutting through old wood and roots as well as soil . Once the gum was retrieved it would need to be scraped and cleaned . Digging in swamps was more complicated ; a longer spear ( up to 8m ) was often used , often fitted with a hooked end to scoop out the lumps . Scrub was often cleared first with fire ; some got out of control and swamp fires could burn for weeks . Holes were often dug by teams in both hills and swamps — often up to 12m deep — and some wetlands were drained to aid in the excavation of gum . As field gum became scarce , " bush gum " was obtained by purposely cutting the bark of kauri trees and returning months later to retrieve the hardened resin . Due to the damage caused to the trees by the cutting the practice was banned in state forests in 1905 . Gum chips , small lumps useful for the manufacture of linoleum , were difficult to find , and by 1910 , the process of washing and sieving to retrieve the chips became common . The process was later mechanised . = = Gum merchants = = Gumdiggers generally sold their gum to local gumbuyers , who transported it to Auckland ( generally by sea ) for sale to merchants and exporters . There were six major export firms in Auckland who dealt in gum , employing several hundred workers who graded and rescraped the gum for export , packing them in cases made from kauri timber . As early as the 1830s and 1840s , merchants , including Gilbert Mair and Logan Campbell , were buying gum from local Māori for £ 5 ( $ 8 @.@ 25 ) a ton , or trading it for goods . The majority of the gum was exported to America and London ( from whence it was distributed throughout Europe ) , although smaller amounts were sent to Australia , Hong Kong , Japan and Russia .
= Golubac Fortress = The Golubac Fortress ( Serbian : Голубачки град or Golubački grad , Hungarian : Galambóc vára , Bulgarian : Гълъбец , Romanian : Cetatea Golubăț , Turkish : Güvercinlik Kalesi ) was a medieval fortified town on the south side of the Danube River , 4 km downstream from the modern @-@ day town of Golubac , Serbia . The fortress , which was most likely built during the 14th century , is split into three compounds which were built in stages . It has ten towers , most of which started square , and several of which received many @-@ sided reinforcements with the advent of firearms . Golubac Fortress has had a tumultuous history . Prior to its construction it was the site of a Roman settlement . During the Middle Ages , it became the object of many battles , especially between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary . It changed hands repeatedly , passing between Turks , Bulgarians , Hungarians , Serbs , and Austrians , until 1867 , when it was turned over to the Serbian Knez , Mihailo Obrenović III . Now , it is a popular tourist attraction in the region and a sightseeing point on Danube boat tours . = = Location = = Golubac , in the Braničevo District of north @-@ eastern Serbia and on the modern @-@ day border with Romania , marks the entrance to the Đerdap national park . It is strategically located on the embankment of the Danube River where it narrows to form the Iron Gate gorge , allowing for the regulation and taxation of traffic across and along the river . In the Middle Ages , this was done with the aid of a strong chain connected to Babakaj , a rock on the far side of the river . = = History = = Golubac 's early history is uncertain . Inscriptions and evidence of older defensive structures in the area show the presence of a Roman settlement , sometimes named " Columbaria , " long before the creation of Golubac . From 803 to 1018 , the area belonged to the First Bulgarian Empire , to Byzantium from then until 1193 , and the Second Bulgarian Empire until 1257 . The area remained in Bulgarian hands from then until the Ottoman conquest in the 15th century , with control of the region changing many times between Hungarians , Bulgarians and Serbs before then . It is also unclear whether the medieval fortress was built by Bulgarians , Serbs or Hungarians , or how many towers it had originally . However , an Orthodox chapel built as part of one tower shows that it , at least , was built by a local noble . There is also uncertainty about when construction started , although it is generally agreed that the majority of the fortress was built early in the 14th century . The first known record of Golubac is in Hungarian sources from 1335 , when it was occupied by Hungarian military . Sometime between 1345 and 1355 , Serbian Tsar Stefan Dušan toured the Braničevo region , which was part of Serbia . He also visited Golubac , which was under the command of Castellan Toma , Voivode of Transylvania . After Dušan 's death , the House of Rastislalić gained influence in Braničevo , later winning independence . According to Serbian chroniclers , Knez Lazar evicted the last Rastislalić feudal lord , Radič Branković , in 1379 , then presented outlying villages to monasteries in Wallachia . By the time of the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 , Golubac was held by Serbia . It is unclear when or how it changed hands , though one source puts it later than 1382 . After the battle , the fortress was lost to Sultan Bayezid I , marking the first possession by the Ottoman Empire . In 1391 , Golubac switched hands twice . Hungarian Timişoaran Comes Péter Perényi won it , but shortly afterwards lost it again to the Turks . Later , it returned once again to the Kingdom of Hungary . The first extended Serbian possession of Golubac began in 1403 when Sigismund , King of Hungary , ceded it as a personal fiefdom to Despot Stefan Lazarević after he became a Hungarian vassal . When the issue of Stefan 's successor came up in 1426 , he and Sigismund met in May in Tata to discuss it . A contract was written stating that Sigismund would accept Đurađ Branković as successor on the condition that Golubac , Belgrade , and Mačva were returned to Hungary when Stefan died . After Stefan 's death in 1427 , Sigismund hurried to have the clauses of the Tata contract fulfilled , and Belgrade and Mačva were handed over without a problem . However , Golubac 's commander , Voivode Jeremija , demanded a compensation of 12 @,@ 000 ducats . When Sigismund refused to pay , Jeremija handed Golubac to the Turks , who turned it into the pasha 's residence . Despite gaining Golubac , Sultan Murad II was not pleased with the increased Hungarian influence elsewhere in Serbia , so he sent his army to attack . One squad came from Golubac and targeted nearby Serbian and Hungarian settlements in the Braničevo region . In response , Đurađ personally travelled to Golubac , promising forgiveness to Jeremija and urging him to return the fortress by any means possible . The Voivode refused , and attacked the Despot when he and his escort attempted to enter the walls . These betrayals were followed in 1428 by the Battle of Golubac . Around April 1428 , Sigismund amassed an army of 25 @,@ 000 infantry , 6 @,@ 000 Wallachian archers led by Prince Dan II , 200 Italian artillery , and a number of Polish cavalry on the far side of the Danube , then attacked Golubac and the Turks . He also had ships attacking from the river , one of which was commanded by Cecília Rozgonyi wife of Timișoaran Comes István Rozgonyi . Murad rushed to help the besieged Turks , arriving in late May . Sigismund , who did not wish to fight the bigger army , finalised a treaty by early June . Once part of the Hungarian army had withdrawn to the far side of the river , however , the Turkish commander Sinan Bey attacked their rear , capturing and killing those who remained , among them the Polish knight Zawisza Czarny . Sigismund was nearly caught with the rest of his army ; the intervention of Cecília Rozgonyi is solely responsible for his rescue . During this and other fights resulting from Stefan 's death , southern and eastern Serbia , including the Monastery of Daljša near Golubac , suffered heavily . It was after this fighting , however , that Sigismund was first referred to as " our Emperor " , in the memoir of a Daljšan monk , in contrast to the Turkish " pagan emperor " . The Ottoman Empire retained control of Golubac throughout its occupation of the Serbian Despotate . After years of fighting , which resulted in the Hungarian army expelling the Ottomans from Serbia , the Peace of Szeged restored the Despotate late in the summer of 1444 . Included in the redefined territory , after much discussion , was Golubac Fortress . However , the Turks once again conquered it after the death of Đurađ Branković in 1456 . In 1458 , Matthias Corvinus of Hungary regained the fortress , but lost it to Mehmed II that same year . The years 1481 – 82 led to more fighting between the Hungarians and Turks . During the fall of 1481 , while Golubac was held by the Ottoman Empire , Timișoaran Comes Pál Kinizsi undertook an expedition against the Turks in the Temes area . On November 2 , 1481 , he turned his army of 32 @,@ 000 men south towards the Danube , pushing to Kruševac . At Golubac , a thousand Turkish cavalry were killed or taken prisoner , 24 ships were sunk , and Mihaloğlu İskender Bey , pasha of Ottoman @-@ held Smederevo and leader of the Turkish army , was beheaded at the gate by Jakšić , one of Kinizsi 's men . The Turks were forced to retreat and leave the fortress behind . Kinizsi 's foray was only a raid , however , and shortly after he returned to Temes . The Turks , who had suffered heavily but did not lose any land , retook Golubac and quickly improved its fortifications . Golubac was held by the Habsburg Monarchy between 1688 and 1690 and 1718 and 1739 . Serb rebels controlled it during Kočina Krajina in 1788 – 91 , and again from 1804 – 13 , during the First Serbian Uprising . Afterwards , it fell back under Ottoman control until 1867 when it , along with Kalemegdan and other towns in Serbia , was given to Knez Mihailo of Serbia . = = = In recent years = = = From the late 19th century into the early mid @-@ 20th century , bloodsucking flies sometimes referred to as " Golubac mosquitoes " thrived in the area . They were particularly dangerous to livestock , some years killing off entire herds of cattle . After World War I , a road was constructed that went through both of the fort 's portcullises . This road is the shortest link between Serbia and eastern parts of the Balkan peninsula . Between 1964 – 72 , a hydroelectric dam was built in the Iron Gate gorge , significantly elevating the river 's water level . As a result , the lower edge of the slope and corresponding parts of the fortress are now flooded . From the beginning of the 21st century , much of the fort has been overgrown , making most of the sections higher on the hill inaccessible . During the spring of 2005 , a public project to restore the fort was started . Most of the plants were removed and certain parts , like the fountain in the moat raised in honour of knight Zawisza Czarny , were repaired . The walls , towers and stone stairs are in good condition , but the wooden floors and steps have rotted out , making most of the upper floors impassable . Golubac has also gained popularity as a tourist attraction . Two key reasons are the major road that passes through it , and its proximity to Lepenski Vir , making the two locales a touristic whole . = = Architecture = = Golubac consists of three main compounds guarded by 10 towers and 2 portcullises , all connected by fortress walls 2 – 3 metres thick . In front of the fortress , the forward wall ( I ) doubled as the outer wall of the moat , which connected to the Danube and was likely filled with water . A settlement for common people was situated in front of the wall . As is the case with many fortresses , Golubac 's structure was modified over time . For years , there were only five towers . Later , four more were added . The towers were all built as squares , a sign of the fortress ' age , showing that battles were still fought with cold steel . Once firearms came into use , the Turks fortified the western towers with cannon ports and polygonal or cylindrical reinforcements up to two metres thick . After the Hungarian raid in 1481 , they added the final tower , complete with cannon embrasures and galleries . = = = Upper compound = = = The upper compound ( A ) is the oldest part of the fortress . It includes the citadel ( tower 1 ) and the Serbian Orthodox chapel ( tower 4 ) . Although it remains uncertain , the chapel has led many to believe that this section was built by a Serbian noble . Later , during either Serbian or Hungarian rule , the fortress was expanded to include the rear and forward compounds . = = = Rear compound = = = The rear compound ( D ) is separated from the upper compound by both a wall connecting towers 2 and 4 , and a steep rock 3 – 4 metres high . Next to tower 5 is a building ( VII ) which was probably used as a military barracks and for ammunition storage . = = = Forward compound = = = The forward compound was split into lower ( C ) and upper ( B ) parts by a wall linking towers 4 and 7 . The entrance ( II ) is in the lower part , guarded by towers 8 and 9 . Tower 8 has , in turn , been fortified with a cannon port . Opposing the entrance was a second portcullis that led to the rear compound . Along the path was a ditch 0 @.@ 5 metres wide and 0 @.@ 75 metres deep which then became a steep decline . At the outer end of the lower part , and connected to the 9th tower with a low wall , is tower 10 , which the Turks added to act as a lower artillery tower . It controlled passage along the Danube and guarded the entrance to the harbour , which was probably situated between towers 5 and 10 . There are remains connected to tower 8 which probably formed a larger whole with it , but the lower part did not otherwise contain buildings . In the wall that separated the upper and lower parts was a gate that led to the upper part . The upper part did not have buildings , but there remains a pathway to the stairs up to gate IV , which is 2 metres off the ground , right next to tower 3 . = = = Towers = = = The first nine towers are 20 – 25 metres high . In all ten towers , the floors and stairs inside were made of wood , while external stairs were made of stone . Half of the towers ( 1 , 2 , 4 , 5 , 10 ) have all four sides and are completely made of stone , while the other half ( 3 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ) lack the side facing the interior of the fort . Tower 1 , nicknamed " Hat Tower " ( Šešir @-@ kula ) , is one of the oldest towers , and doubles as citadel and dungeon tower . It has an eight @-@ sided base with a circular spire rising from it and a square interior . The next tower to the west , tower 2 , is completely circular in shape . The third tower has a square base , with the open side facing the dungeon tower to the north . On the top floor is a terrace that overlooks the Danube and the entrance to the Iron Gate gorge . Down the slope from tower 3 is tower 4 , which also has a square base . The ground floor has a Serbian Orthodox chapel that was built into the tower , rather than being added later . The last tower along this wall , tower 5 , is the only tower to remain completely square . The top tower along the front wall of the forward compound , tower 6 , has a square base which was reinforced with a six @-@ sided foundation . Working west , the square base of tower 7 was reinforced with a circular foundation . Tower 8 , on the upper side of the front portcullis , has an irregular , but generally square , base . It is also the shortest of the first nine towers . Guarding the other side is tower 9 , which has a square base reinforced by an eight @-@ sided foundation . The last tower is the cannon tower . It has only one floor and is the shortest of all ten towers . It was built with an eight @-@ sided base and cannon ports to help control traffic on the Danube . Tower 10 is almost identical to the three artillery towers added to Smederevo fortress . = = Reconstruction plan 2014 = = The Government of the Republic of Serbia has applied to the reconstruction project fortress Blace with IPA funds of the European Union in the framework of the international project " Cultural Route - Fortresses on the Danube " .The funds were provided through these funds in the amount of 6 , 5 million.Preliminary reconstruction project fortress is by architect Marina Jovin , professional consultants on the project were Siniša Temerin and archaeologist Dr Miomir Korac .Rebuilding will take three years . = = Significance = = Considering the age and location of the Golubac Fortress , it is both large and well @-@ preserved . Its placement at the head of the Iron Gate gorge allowed for easy control of river traffic . It was the last military outpost on that stretch of the Danube river , which caused it to frequently be part of the final line of defense between Hungary and the Ottoman Empire , especially during the periods when Serbia was Ottoman @-@ held . The importance of the fortress is further indicated by the attention it received from Sigismund and Murad II , rather than just fighting between locals and commanders of nearby cities . The Golubac Fortress was declared a Monument of Culture of Exceptional Importance in 1979 , and it is protected by the Republic of Serbia .
= Space Run = Space Run is a tower defense video game developed by PassTech Games and published by Focus Home Interactive . It was released for Microsoft Windows on June 13 , 2014 , and later released for OS X and Linux . The player assumes the role of a cargo ship pilot , and must build modules and weapons to defend their cargo from attacking ships and other hazards . The game received mixed reviews from critics , and a sequel was announced in March 2016 . = = Gameplay = = The player acts as pilot for a cargo ship , performing space runs for various corporations . The ship is a flat platform made up of hexagonal tiles . The player places weapons and modules on the tiles in order to defend the ship from enemies and hazards . Different structures have varying placement requirements , or may require more than one tile to be placed . For example , most weapons must be placed facing outward into empty space , while some require power to be supplied by an adjacent power source . Modules and weapons are built using a resource represented by a lug nut . This resource slowly accrues on its own , but destroyed targets drop varying amounts that can be collected by moving the cursor over them . Each corporation provides a different type of cargo , which must be placed or arranged according to its characteristics . One corporation provides simple cargo crates , as well as a mechanic module that can produce more cargo crates during the mission in order to increase the mission reward . Another corporation provides passenger modules , which must face outward , limiting space for weapons . Each mission has a timed duration that the player must beat , with two tiers of time bonus . The player is rewarded with space credits dependent on the amount of cargo that survived the mission and how quickly they completed it . Reputation , displayed as stars , is rewarded based whether or not the player met cargo or time thresholds . Space credits are used between missions in order to purcase special abilities and bonuses for modules , while gaining reputation unlocks new modules . = = Plot = = The player plays the role of Buck Mann , a space runner down on his luck . A former military pilot and racer , Buck begins to accept jobs from large corporations when his money runs out . Accompanied by the android , Adaam @-@ 12 , he first accepts a job from the Big Cargo corporation carrying simple cargo containers . Shortly afterwards , the Nuclear Star corporation approaches him to carry nuclear waste . After several runs , Buck Mann attracts the attention of the pirates Brown Beard and Captain Black , who continuously harass him as his missions become more and more lucrative . = = Development = = Space Run is developed by one @-@ man studio PASSTECH Games , located in Lyon , France . Programmer Sylvain Passot founded the studio in October 2012 . Passot has said that Space Run was inspired by Galaxy Trucker , a boardgame by Vlaada Chvatil , as well as accessible games like Plants vs. Zombies . A sequel named Space Run Galaxy was announced in March 2016 . Galaxy will include new boss battles and cargos , as well as new online features . = = Reception = = Space Run received mixed reviews upon release . It received an aggregate score of 73 from Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from critics , while GameRankings assigned a score of 75 % . GameSpot gave the game an 8 out of 10 , praising the game 's characters , art , voice acting and challenging gameplay . However , they noted that at times that spoken dialogue sometimes did not match the displayed text dialogue . A reviewer of PC Gamer scored the game 69 out of 100 , noting that Space Run attempts to reverse the typical tower defense concept , but ultimately relies on memorizing missions rather than clever design . The reviewer considered the best part of the game to be the time bonus , which is necessary to earn full reputation .
= Cigars of the Pharaoh = Cigars of the Pharaoh ( French : Les Cigares du Pharaon ) is the fourth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . Commissioned by the conservative Belgian newspaper Le Vingtième Siècle for its children 's supplement Le Petit Vingtième , it was serialised weekly from December 1932 to February 1934 before being published in a collected volume by Casterman in 1934 . The story tells of young Belgian reporter Tintin and his dog Snowy , who are travelling in Egypt when they discover a pharaoh 's tomb filled with dead Egyptologists and boxes of cigars . Pursuing the mystery of these cigars , they travel across Arabia and India , and reveal the secrets of an international drug smuggling enterprise . Following the publication of Tintin in America , Hergé had been keen to produce a mystery story , and had been inspired by the tabloid speculation surrounding an alleged Curse of the Pharaohs following the 1922 discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun . Cigars of the Pharaoh proved a commercial success in Belgium , and Hergé followed it with The Blue Lotus , a story which continues many of the plot elements that began in Cigars . The series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . In 1955 , Cigars of the Pharaoh was re @-@ drawn and coloured in Hergé 's distinctive ligne @-@ claire style by the cartoonist and his Studios Hergé team ; during this process a number of minor plot elements were changed . The comic was adapted for a 1991 episode of the Ellipse / Nelvana animated series The Adventures of Tintin . Critical reception of the story has been positive , with analysis being focused on its innovative narrative and stylistic choices , as well as its introduction of three recurring characters , the detectives Thomson and Thompson and villain Rastapopoulos . = = Synopsis = = Holidaying on a Mediterranean cruise ship , Tintin and his dog Snowy meet wealthy film director Rastapopoulos and eccentric Egyptologist Sophocles Sarcophagus . When two policemen ( Thomson and Thompson ) accuse Tintin of heroin smuggling , he escapes the ship and joins Sarcophagus on his search for the undiscovered tomb of the Pharaoh Kih @-@ Oskh . Tintin discovers that the tomb is full of boxes of cigars labelled with a mysterious symbol , but he and Sarcophagus fall unconscious after an unseen enemy gasses them . They are then taken aboard a ship inside wooden sarcophagi , captained by smuggler Allan , but to avoid the coastguard Allan orders Tintin and Snowy thrown overboard . They are rescued by a gunrunner who sails them to Arabia . Travelling by land , Tintin meets Sheikh Patrash Pasha , a big fan of his , and encounters Rastapopoulos filming a movie . The local army drafts Tintin and then arrests him as a spy , before Thomson and Thompson rescue him so that they can arrest him . However , when the army storms their hideout , Tintin manages to elude the policemen . Boarding a plane , he escapes Arabia but runs out of fuel over India , crashing into the jungle . He discovers Sarcophagus , who has become insane as the result of being injected with Rajaijah juice , " the poison of madness " . Tintin is hypnotised by a fakir and institutionalised in an asylum , which he soon escapes . Meeting the Maharaja of Gaipajama , the two become friends , with the Maharaja revealing that his family has long been fighting a criminal opium @-@ smuggling gang . The fakir appears and Tintin follows him , discovers the drug cartel 's hideout and is able to capture the cartel . Tintin recognises their Kih @-@ Oskh symbol and realises it is the same organisation that was operating in Egypt and Arabia . The fakir escapes , and with the masked leader of the conspiracy kidnaps the Maharaja 's son . Tintin pursues them in a sports car , rescuing the boy and capturing the fakir , while the leader falls into a chasm . Tintin returns to Gaipajama , where his return is celebrated . Unwrapping one of the cigars with the mysterious Kih @-@ Oskh symbol , Tintin explains to the Maharaja how opium was smuggled across the world in the cigars . = = History = = = = = Background = = = Georges Remi — best known under the pen name Hergé — was employed as editor and illustrator of Le Petit Vingtième ( " The Little Twentieth " ) , a children 's supplement to Le Vingtième Siècle ( " The Twentieth Century " ) , a staunchly Roman Catholic , conservative Belgian newspaper based in Hergé 's native Brussels which was run by the Abbé Norbert Wallez . In 1929 , Hergé began The Adventures of Tintin comic for Le Petit Vingtième , revolving around the exploits of fictional Belgian reporter Tintin . Wallez ordered Hergé to set his first adventure in the Soviet Union to act as anti @-@ socialist propaganda for children ( Tintin in the Land of the Soviets ) , to set his second adventure in the Belgian Congo to encourage colonial sentiment ( Tintin in the Congo ) , and to set his third adventure in the United States to use the story as a denunciation of American capitalism ( Tintin in America ) . For his fourth Adventure , Hergé was eager to write a mystery story . The 1930s saw mystery novels flourish across Western Europe with the success of authors like Agatha Christie and Ellery Queen . The decision to create a scenario around the tomb of Kih @-@ Oskh was influenced by the 1922 discovery of Pharaoh Tutankhamun 's tomb by Howard Carter and the surrounding tabloid claims regarding a Curse of the Pharaohs . Hergé returned to this theme for The Seven Crystal Balls ( 1948 ) . The name Kih @-@ Oskh was an allusion to the kiosks where Le Petit Vingtième was sold . The Kih @-@ Oskh symbol was described by Hergé as a distortion of the Taoist symbol of the Taijitu , with biographer Benoît Peeters thinking that it foreshadowed the " Yellow Mark " that featured in the Blake and Mortimer comic The Yellow " M " ( 1952 – 54 ) authored by Hergé 's later collaborator Edgar P. Jacobs . Hergé was aided in the production of Cigars of the Pharaoh by his assistant Paul " Jam " Jamin , who was heavily influenced by British magazines The Humorist and Punch . Hergé took influence from the published works of French adventurer and gunrunner Henry de Monfreid , particularly his books Secrets of the Red Sea and The Hashish Cruise . Having lived through the First World War , Hergé disliked arms dealers , and used Monfreid as the basis for the gunrunner character in Cigars . The idea of mummified bodies being lined up along a wall was adopted from Pierre Benoît 's 1919 book L 'Atlantide ( Atlantis ) , which had recently been made into a 1932 film by Georg Wilhelm Pabst . The wall paintings depicted on a cover of Le Petit Vingtième was based on a bas @-@ relief of Hathor and Seti I housed in the Louvre , Paris , while the throne featured in Tintin 's dream was adopted from that found in the tomb of Tutankhamun . The inclusion of the secret society operating the smuggling ring was influenced by right @-@ wing conspiracy theories about Freemasonry , with Hergé likely gaining information on the brotherhood from a 1932 article by Lucien Farnoux @-@ Reynaud in the radical magazine La Crapouillot ( The Mortar Shell ) . = = = Original publication , 1931 – 32 = = = On 24 November 1932 , Le Petit Vingtième published a fictional interview between Jamin and Tintin in which the reporter announced that he would be travelling to China via Egypt , India , Ceylon , and Indochina . On 8 December 1932 , the story began serialisation in the supplement under the title of The Adventures of Tintin , Reporter , in the Orient . As the story began in Egypt rather than China , Hergé briefly renamed the story to The Cairo Affair . The story was not following any plan or pre @-@ written plot , with Hergé as usual devising the story on a week @-@ by @-@ week basis . When the time came to assemble and publish the story in book form , Hergé decided to divide it into two volumes and to give them each a new title ; the first half , which is set in Egypt , Arabia , and India , he titled Cigars of the Pharaoh , while the second half , set in China , became The Blue Lotus . Cigars was the first of the Adventures published by Casterman , with whom Hergé had signed a contract in late 1933 , although much to his annoyance , they delayed publication until the autumn of 1934 , after the culmination of the summer holidays . In 1936 , they successfully requested that he produce several colour plates to be inserted into the reprint of the book . Cigars of the Pharaoh saw the introduction of several characters who would gain a recurring role in The Adventures of Tintin . The most notable are the two detectives , who were initially called " Agent X33 and Agent X33 bis . " In his 1941 Tintin play co @-@ written with Jacques Van Melkebeke , Tintin in India : The Mystery of the Blue Diamond , Hergé named them " Durant and Durand , " although he later renamed them " Dupont and Dupond . " The series ' English @-@ language translators , Michael Turner and Leslie Lonsdale @-@ Cooper , renamed them " Thomson and Thompson . " They were based on a combination of the stereotypical Belgian policeman of the 1930s with Hergé 's observations of his father and uncle , Alexis and Léon Remi . The series introduced Tintin 's adversary Roberto Rastapopoulos in Cigars of the Pharaoh , here depicted as a famous Hollywood film director . It is only in the successor volume , The Blue Lotus , that he is also revealed as the head of an international criminal organisation . His name was developed by one of Hergé 's friends ; Hergé thought it was hilarious and decided to use it . He devised Rastapopoulos as an Italian with a Greek surname , but the character fitted anti @-@ Semitic stereotypes of Jews ; Hergé was adamant that the character was not Jewish . A fourth recurring character introduced in this story was the Portuguese merchant Oliveira da Figueira , who would reappear in both the subsequent Adventures set in the Middle East , Land of Black Gold and The Red Sea Sharks . One of the core characters of the story was Sophocles Sarcophagus , an Egyptologist who is the stereotype of an eccentric professor . In this respect , he is a prototype for the character of Cuthbert Calculus , whom Hergé would introduce later in Red Rackham 's Treasure . It was during the serialisation of Cigars that Wallez was embroiled in a scandal after he was accused of defaming the Bureau of Public Works . The accusation resulted in a legal case being brought against the newspaper , and in response its owners demanded Wallez 's resignation , which was tended in August 1933 . Without Wallez , Hergé became despondent , and in March 1934 he tried to resign , but was encouraged to stay after his monthly salary was increased from 2000 and 3000 francs and his workload was reduced , with Jamin taking responsibility for the day @-@ to @-@ day running of Le Petit Vingtième . = = = Second version , 1955 = = = In the 1940s and 1950s , when Hergé 's popularity had increased , he and his team at Studios Hergé redrew many of the original black @-@ and @-@ white Tintin adventures in colour using the ligne claire ( " clear line " ) drawing style he had developed so that they visually fitted in with the new Tintin stories being created . The Studios reformatted and coloured Cigars of the Pharaoh in 1955 ; it was the last of the early works to undergo this process . In cutting down the length of the story , Hergé removed various isolated scenes that added nothing to the development of the plot , such as those in which Tintin confronts a bat , a crocodile , and snakes . The Arabian city that Tintin and Snowy searched for in the story was no longer identified as Mecca , while the Maharajah 's three advisers were removed . New elements were also inserted ; Hergé added a depiction of ancient Egyptian pyramids into the background . Hergé also retroactively added the character of Allan into the story ; he had originally been introduced in the later , 1941 adventure The Crab with the Golden Claws , where he was Rastapopoulos ' henchman . Hergé inserted an allusion to his friend and collaborator Edgar P. Jacobs into the story by including a mummified professor named E.P. Jacobini in the Egyptian tomb . Whereas the original version had included Sheikh Patrash Pasha showing Tintin a copy of Tintin in America , in the 1955 version this was changed to the earlier Tintin in the Congo , and Hergé would change it again for subsequent printings , this time to Destination Moon ( 1953 ) , an Adventure set chronologically after Cigars . Benoît Peeters exclaimed that with this scene , the reader can imagine Tintin 's surprise at encountering an adventure he had not yet had and which included the characters of Captain Haddock and Cuthbert Calculus whom he had not yet met . Another anachronism in this version appears when Snowy refers to Marlinspike Hall , the ancestral home of Captain Haddock , from the much later volumes of the series . Harry Thompson opined that the most important changes to the book were artistic , for in the late 1950s Hergé was at the peak of his artistic ability . = = = Later publications = = = Casterman republished the original black @-@ and @-@ white version in 1979 in a French @-@ language collected volume with The Blue Lotus and The Broken Ear , the second part of the Archives Hergé collection . In 1983 , they then published a facsimile version of the original . = = Critical analysis = = Jean @-@ Marc and Randy Lofficier considered Cigars of the Pharaoh to be graphically between Tintin in America and The Blue Lotus , as Hergé was expanding his " visual vocabulary " and making use of " unforgettable moments " such as the dream sequence in the tomb . Although recognising that Hergé was still devising his plot on a week @-@ by @-@ week basis , they thought that the work was an improvement on his earlier stories because of the inclusion of " mystery and fantasy " . Awarding it three stars out of five , they thought the book was a " surreal thriller , drenched and atmospheric . " Believing that the work not only dealt with madness , but also was madness , they thought the book evoked " a sense of dreamlike suspension of belief . " They also highlighted the inclusion of the Kih @-@ Oskh symbol throughout the book , describing it as being akin to a recurring musical theme , stating that it added " a note of pure oneirism . " Harry Thompson considered Cigars of the Pharaoh " almost completely unrecognisable from its predecessors " , praising its " inspired comic characters " and " observed character comedy " , which he thought escaped the sheer slapstick evident in the earlier Adventures . He also praised the elements of mystery and suspense that Hergé introduced , opining that it created " a genuine sense of fear without recourse to a deus ex machina . " More critically , he thought that the plot 's " glaring flaw " was the immediate transposition of events from Egypt to India , also believing that the inclusion of British colonialists as the antagonists made " partial amends " for the colonialist attitude displayed by Tintin in Tintin in the Congo . Michael Farr thought that Tintin was " a maturer hero " in Cigars , being more of a detective than a reporter . He thought that the dream sequence was " one of the most imaginative and disturbing scenes " in the series , illustrating Hergé 's " growing virtuosity with the medium . " He also praised the scenes set in the Indian colonial bungalow , commenting that it was " claustrophobic and sinisterly dramatic " and worthy of the work of Agatha Christie , opining that the car chase provided " a highly cinematic ending . " Overall , he thought it to be a narrative " rich in mystery and drama " which was as much of a landmark in the series as The Blue Lotus . Hergé biographer Benoît Peeters thought that that with Cigars , Hergé was engaging in the " novelesque " , and that the opening scene had echoes of Rodolphe Töpffer 's Mr Pencil . He also thought it the first of the Adventures to have a " semblance " or " narrative unity . " Fellow biographer Pierre Assouline thought that the story was difficult for the reader to follow , because the exoticism of the backdrop faded amid the fast pace of the narrative . Literary critic Tom McCarthy highlighted the prominent role of tobacco in the story , drawing on the ideas of French philosopher Jacques Derrida to suggest the potential symbolism of this . He also suggested that the inclusion of mummified Egyptologists in the story warns readers of the " dangers of mummification through interpretation . " = = Adaptations = = Cigars of the Pharaoh was adapted into a 1991 episode of The Adventures of Tintin television series by French studio Ellipse and Canadian animation company Nelvana . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , Thierry Wermuth voiced the character of Tintin . In 2010 , the television channel Arte filmed an episode of its documentary series , Sur les traces de Tintin ( On the traces of Tintin ) , in Egypt exploring the inspiration and setting of the Cigars of the Pharaoh .
= 21st Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry = The 21st Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry was an infantry regiment in the Union Army during the American Civil War . It was organized in Worcester , Massachusetts and mustered into service on August 23 , 1861 . After garrison duty at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis , Maryland , the regiment served with the Coast Division commanded by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside . The Coast Division was deployed in January 1862 for operations on the coast of North Carolina , and participated in the Battle of Roanoke Island and the Battle of New Bern among other engagements . Burnside 's division was recalled to Virginia in July 1862 . The 21st Massachusetts was then attached to the Army of the Potomac and participated in several of the largest battles of the Civil War , including the Second Battle of Bull Run , the Battle of Antietam , and the Battle of Fredericksburg . The most devastating engagement of the war for the 21st was the Battle of Chantilly , fought on September 1 , 1862 , during which the unit suffered 35 percent casualties . From March 1863 to January 1864 , the 21st served with Burnside in the Department of the Ohio , seeing action in Kentucky and eastern Tennessee . In May 1864 , the regiment rejoined the Army of the Potomac , participating in Lt. Gen. Ulysses Grant 's Overland Campaign and the Siege of Petersburg . The regiment was a favorite of Clara Barton , the famed battlefield nurse , who was also from Worcester County , Massachusetts . By the end of its three years of service , the 21st Massachusetts had been reduced from 1 @,@ 000 men to fewer than 100 . Of these losses , 152 were killed in action or died from wounds received in action , approximately 400 were discharged due to wounds , 69 were taken prisoner , and approximately 300 were discharged due to disease , resignation , or desertion . Those of the 21st who chose to re @-@ enlist at the end of their initial three @-@ year commitment were eventually consolidated with the 36th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry on October 21 , 1864 . = = Organization and early duty = = Following the First Battle of Bull Run on July 21 , 1861 ( the first major engagement of the war and a disastrous defeat for the untested Union army ) , citizens of the northern states began to realize that the Civil War would not end quickly . Additional troops would be needed beyond the 75 @,@ 000 volunteers that had been called out for 90 days of service . As a result , over the summer of 1861 , volunteers rushed to enlist for a term of three years . The 21st Massachusetts was among the " three year regiments " organized after the First Battle of Bull Run . The regiment was formed during July and August 1861 . The designated camp of assembly was the Agricultural Fair Grounds in Worcester . The majority of the companies were from Worcester County with nearly every town in that county represented on the regiment 's rolls . Hampden , Hampshire , and Franklin Counties were also represented . The first commanding officer of the 21st was Col. Augustus Morse , who was involved in the comb making industry in Leominster , Massachusetts and had been a major general in the Massachusetts Volunteer Militia prior to the war . According to Charles Walcott , the regimental historian , despite Morse 's decades of experience with the State Militia , he was , " entirely destitute of soldierly enthusiasm or spirit , wonderfully ignorant of military drill and maneuvres , and a wretched disciplinarian . " The regiment , originally numbering slightly more than 1 @,@ 000 men , departed Worcester on August 23 , 1861 . They were armed with inferior smoothbore muskets that had been converted from flintlock to percussion lock . After a brief , but tense , three @-@ day encampment in Baltimore , the regiment moved to the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis , Maryland , arriving on August 30 . The regiment garrisoned the Naval Academy for four months . It was a comfortable post . Maj. William S. Clark of the 21st wrote that the regiment was " delightfully situated , enjoying the very romance of war . " During their stay in Annapolis , the men of 21st assisted in the escape of a slave belonging to Maryland Governor Thomas Holliday Hicks . While the slave was hidden in a chimney in one of the Naval Academy barracks , Governor Hicks 's repeated demands for his return were refused by the officers of the regiment . On December 20 , 1861 , the 21st was assigned to the Coast Division commanded by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside for operations in North Carolina . The 21st was the first regiment selected by Brig. Gen. Jesse Reno for his brigade . The 21st Massachusetts would gain a great respect and affection for Reno , who first led their brigade and later the IX Corps of which the 21st was a part . = = North Carolina = = As the regiment prepared for departure , Colonel Augustus Morse decided to remain at the Naval Academy , feeling that garrison duty was , according to historian James Bowen , " more to his taste . " Lt. Col. Albert Maggi , an Italian by birth who had served under Giuseppe Garibaldi , took command of the regiment on January 2 , 1862 . Maggi had been openly insubordinate to Morse due to the latter 's lack of military discipline . His assumption of command , as well as the issue of new Enfield rifled muskets , improved the morale of the regiment . The 21st , about 960 strong , boarded the steamer Northerner on January 6 , 1862 . The fleet transporting Burnside 's North Carolina Expedition encountered harsh weather off the coast of Cape Hatteras . Prolonged poor weather and the shallowness of Hatteras Inlet resulted in weeks of delay as the fleet struggled to enter Pamlico Sound . Finally , just as most of the vessels began to run low on potable water , the fleet entered the sound and made for Roanoke Island on February 5 , 1862 . = = = Battle of Roanoke Island = = = Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan had ordered Burnside to make Roanoke Island his first target . Capture of the island would allow control of both Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds , opening up a possible southern invasion route to Richmond . Coordinating with a naval flotilla commanded by Admiral Louis M. Goldsborough , Burnside launched an amphibious assault ( one of the first of the Civil War ) resulting in the Battle of Roanoke Island on February 7 and 8 , 1862 . As the landing boats , each flying a national flag and packed with soldiers , made for the shore , Burnside noted that he had , " never seen a more beautiful sight . " After the landing , the 21st spent a cold , wet night on picket duty . On February 8 , it joined in the assault on the Confederate fort at the center of the island . Moving through swamps and knee @-@ deep water , Reno 's brigade , including the 21st , advanced around the Union left flank on the west side of the fort . After firing steadily on the fort for some time and taking moderate casualties , the 21st was ordered by Brig. Gen. Reno to storm the fort . According to the regimental historian , the 21st Massachusetts was the first regiment to mount the earthworks of the fort ; however , the honor was also claimed by the 9th New York . The Union forces were victorious in capturing the Confederate fort on Roanoke Island and took approximately 2 @,@ 500 Confederate soldiers prisoner . The 21st suffered 13 killed and 44 wounded , or eight percent casualties , during the engagement . After the battle , the 21st took up camp in the former Confederate fort , remaining there for nearly a month . During that time , Lt. Col. Maggi , determined to make the 21st as disciplined as a regiment of Regulars , enforced stern standards for drill and dress parades . After the near mutiny of one company , Maggi submitted his resignation . Maj. William S. Clark , a professor of chemistry at Amherst College , was promoted to lieutenant colonel and assumed command of the regiment on February 28 , 1862 . = = = Battle of New Bern = = = Burnside 's next target , according to McClellan 's orders , was the city of New Bern , North Carolina . The Coast Division boarded their transports on March 4 , made their way up the Neuse River , and disembarked about 16 miles ( 26 km ) down river of New Bern on March 12 . The 21st , numbering 675 men , led their brigade in the march on New Bern , discovering many abandoned fortifications . On March 14 , the division participated in the Battle of New Bern . The Confederate defenses were roughly centered on a brick yard converted into a makeshift fort . The 21st , approaching the enemy position , was soon ordered to assault the brick yard and the battery therein . Lt. Col. Clark led four companies of the 21st and temporarily occupied the brick yard . As they captured the battery , Clark stood atop one of the guns , urging his men forward . In their advanced position , the 21st suffered significant casualties and was soon forced to abandon the brickyard . However , the Union forces were eventually victorious , and the city of New Bern was captured . After the battle , Maj. Gen. Burnside presented the first cannon captured by the 21st to Amherst College in honor of 1st Lt. Frazar Stearns , son of the President of Amherst College , and adjutant of the 21st , who was killed during the engagement . Lt. Col. Clark received a promotion to colonel for his conduct during the Battle of New Bern . The regiment suffered 58 casualties , or eight percent ( 23 killed , 35 wounded ) . = = = Battle of Camden = = = Following the engagement at New Bern , the 21st was among the regiments selected for an expedition to destroy the Dismal Swamp Canal which would cripple the Confederacy 's shipbuilding activities at Norfolk , Virginia . A portion of Reno 's brigade was transported by steamers to Camden County and engaged in the relatively minor Battle of Camden on April 19 , 1862 . The 21st , at this stage , numbered 500 men , having lost numerous soldiers to disease while in an unsanitary camp at New Bern . After the Battle of Camden , Reno eventually abandoned the expedition against the canal and the brigade returned to New Bern on April 22 . In the course of the mission , the 21st Massachusetts had light casualties of three percent ( four killed , 11 wounded , and one missing ) . = = Northern Virginia Campaign = = The Coast Division 's next assignment was supposed to be the capture of Wilmington , North Carolina . However , the failure of McClellan 's Peninsular Campaign required the recall of the Coast Division to Virginia . The 21st broke their camp in New Bern and boarded schooners on July 2 , 1862 , while hearing conflicting rumors of McClellan 's success or defeat . They arrived in Newport News , Virginia , on July 9 . During July , two additional divisions were consolidated under Maj. Gen. Burnside 's command to form the IX Corps . At the beginning of August , Brig. Gen Jesse Reno assumed the command of the Corps and was ordered to support the advance of Maj. Gen. John Pope 's Army of Virginia towards Richmond . The 21st , along with the rest of the Corps , was quickly transported to Fredericksburg and then marched overland to join Pope 's forces on August 14 , 1862 , in the vicinity of Culpeper Court House , Virginia . As Gen. Robert E. Lee advanced on Pope 's position along the Rapidan River , Pope quickly withdrew his army north . The brigade to which the 21st belonged , now commanded by Col. Edward Ferrero , frequently found itself in the position of rear guard during this movement , skirmishing with the advancing Confederate cavalry . By the time the 21st reached Warrenton , Virginia , on August 27 , it was clear to the men that something was wrong . Pope was seen riding by the regiment , " looking warm and excited " , and the men learned that Lt. Gen. Thomas Jackson had flanked the Union army and was now in their rear . = = = Second Battle of Bull Run = = = The 21st , now numbering 425 men , crossed Bull Run on August 29 and discovered that Union forces had already engaged Jackson 's men in the Second Battle of Bull Run . Just after noon , the 21st 's brigade took up a position near the center of the Union lines . Over the course of the afternoon they witnessed several brigades advance into the woods in their front only to see them beaten back by the Confederates . Finally , the order came for Ferrero 's brigade , including the 21st , to advance , unsupported , into the woods . As the brigade stepped off , Brig. Gen. Reno ordered it to halt and personally protested the order to Maj. Gen. Pope . The order was rescinded and , according to Capt. Walcott of the 21st , " we thanked God that General Reno stood between us and General Pope . " After resting on their arms through the night , the 21st awoke to light fighting in their front . Over the course of the morning , Union forces gradually shifted to the left , including the 21st , and it became apparent that the Union right flank had collapsed . Meanwhile , Lee 's forces had joined Jackson 's and were pressing the Union left flank with a massive and rapid assault . Pope 's entire army was soon in retreat . Ferrero 's brigade was moved by Brig. Gen. Reno to a position on Henry House Hill to cover the Union retreat along the Centreville Turnpike . The brigade , with the 21st in the center , successfully held off Confederate advances from 7 to 9 pm , buying critical time for the Union army . Finally , under the cover of darkness , the brigade quietly retired across Bull Run . During this defeat for the Union army , the 21st suffered light casualties of seven wounded , or two percent . = = = Battle of Chantilly = = = As the Union army retreated towards Washington , it paused to re @-@ group at Centreville , Virginia . On August 31 , 1862 , Gen. Lee ordered Lt. Gen. Jackson to flank the Union right and to cut the Union army off from Washington . This flanking effort resulted in the Battle of Chantilly which would prove to be the most disastrous engagement of the entire war for the 21st Massachusetts . On September 1 , the regiment , now numbering 400 , marched northwest from Centreville with the rest of Ferrero 's brigade . Although the men did not know it , they were among the handful of brigades chosen by Pope to deflect Jackson 's flanking movement . Forming battle lines in a field not far from Chantilly Plantation , the 21st watched the 51st New York advance into thick woods to probe the enemy lines . Orders were soon given to Col. Clark to lead the 21st into the woods to support the 51st . The woods were very dense and the advance was disorderly . Making matters worse , a powerful thunderstorm burst out as the 21st entered the woodland . Unknowingly , the regiment obliqued far to the left and lost contact with the 51st New York . Encountering a body of troops in their front and unable to identify them through the torrential rain , Col. Clark presumed he had found the 51st , ordered the 21st to rest in place and sent officer Lt. Colonel Joseph Parker Rice forward to make contact . The troops were , in fact , men of Jubal Early 's brigade and , before this could be ascertained , the Confederates unleashed a devastating volley on the unsuspecting 21st . " In the sudden anguish and despair of the moment , " wrote Capt. Walcott , " the whole regiment seemed to be lying bleeding on the ground . " Col. Clark immediately ordered a withdrawal and the 21st left more than 100 dead or wounded in the woods . Reaching the open fields again , the 21st was ordered by Maj. Gen. Philip Kearny to fill a hole in the center of the Union line . As the 21st advanced , Kearny rode out in front of the regiment , strenuously urging them to hurry , and refuting warnings that Confederates were close by . Kearny was killed by a volley from a force of Confederates concealed just inside a nearby tree line . Now in very close range to the enemy , a tense standoff ensued with leveled muskets as the 21st and the Confederate regiment each demanded the surrender of the other . Finally , the Confederate regiment charged on the 21st . It was the first time and last time , according to the regimental historian , that the 21st gave wounds with the bayonet . The hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting was severe and great confusion resulted . Col. Clark was separated from the unit when most of the men around him were killed and he found himself lost in the Virginia countryside for four days before finding the unit again . This resulted in the mistaken printing of his obituary in Amherst . Jackson 's flanking maneuver was successfully deflected and the Battle of Chantilly was fought to a stalemate . But the 21st had suffered severely with 35 percent casualties ( 38 killed , 76 wounded , 26 missing ) . = = Maryland Campaign = = Early in September 1862 , the IX Corps , Reno commanding , returned to the Army of the Potomac . Gen. Lee , emboldened by his victories , invaded Maryland and McClellan moved the Army of the Potomac northwest from Washington to meet the Confederates . Portions of the armies clashed during the Battle of South Mountain , during which the 21st played only a small part . Psychologically , however , it was a devastating fight in that it saw the death of Maj. Gen. Reno , who had been the 21st 's brigade commander at the start of the war . " There was not a man in the 21st who did not love him , " Capt. Walcott of the 21st wrote , " he always stood with his men in battle . " = = = Battle of Antietam = = = As McClellan 's Army slowly advanced , Lee took up a defensive position in Sharpsburg , Maryland , along Antietam Creek . The 21st , leaving two companies behind at South Mountain for guard detail , now numbered only 150 men . On September 16 , the IX Corps took up a position on the left flank of the Union army , near a 125 feet ( 38 m ) stone bridge soon to be known as Burnside 's Bridge . The next day , McClellan began his attack with several advances by the Union right flank , far from the position of the 21st . For much of the day , the IX Corps could hear the fighting and awaited orders to take the bridge in their front . The 21st even was fortunate enough to have a mail call that morning , and the men sat down to read letters from home while fighting raged around the Dunker Church two miles ( 3 km ) away . Finally , orders came at noon and Ferrero 's brigade was moved closer to the bridge . It was a difficult target . On the opposite bank , a wooded bluff rose 100 feet ( 30 m ) above the creek . Concealed there was a small force of 400 Confederates who would successfully hold thousands of Union troops at bay for hours . The men of the 21st watched several successive charges on the bridge by brigades of the IX Corps , all of which were repulsed . Finally , Ferrero 's brigade was ordered forward . Reaching the bridge at a run , the 21st was ordered to take up a position next to the left abutment , supplying covering fire , while the 51st New York Infantry and the 51st Pennsylvania Infantry finally carried the position . As the Confederates retreated , Ferrero 's brigade was soon stationed at the top of the bluff . Later in the afternoon , around sunset , a Confederate counterattack nearly drove the IX Corps back across Antietam Creek . Ferrero 's brigade held the bluff , however , playing a key role in checking the counterattack , and taking severe casualties in the process . The 21st listed 10 killed and 35 wounded , casualties of 30 percent . = = Fredericksburg Campaign = = On November 7 , 1862 , Maj. Gen. McClellan was removed from command of the Army of the Potomac and replaced with Maj. Gen. Burnside . Over the course of November , Burnside moved the army south to Falmouth , Virginia , opposite the Rappahannock River from Fredericksburg . The 21st arrived in Falmouth on November 19 . Nearly a month passed before Burnside could organize a crossing of the river and an assault on the city and the heights beyond . The Battle of Fredericksburg took place on December 13 , 1862 . = = = Battle of Fredericksburg = = = The 21st crossed the Rappahannock on December 12 via the pontoon bridges that had been constructed by the Union army and spent the night along the west bank of the river . On the morning of the 13th , the regiment was ordered to the west part of the city , near the base of the heights . Here they removed the grey overcoats that had been issued to them for fear of being mistaken for Confederates . From this position , the 21st watched an assault by a portion of the II Corps over the open plain leading to heights and were shocked by the carnage that resulted from the failed attack . Just after this assault , Ferrero 's brigade was ordered to attack the heights and the 21st formed a line of battle on the open ground slightly after noon . The 21st advanced , according to Walcott , " under the best directed artillery fire we had ever suffered or seen . " Color bearers were repeatedly shot down . One , Sgt. Thomas Plunkett , was hit by an artillery shell that took off his right arm and left hand . Despite his wounds , he managed to keep the colors from falling . The flag is today in the collection at the Massachusetts State House and still bears the stains from Plunkett 's wounds . Plunkett was awarded the Medal of Honor for his bravery at Fredericksburg . The 21st did not reach the stone wall on Marye 's Heights but took shelter in a very slight depression in the terrain , remaining pinned in that position until night . Under the cover of darkness , the regiment retired , only to be ordered to the same spot the next morning , expecting a Confederate counterattack which never came . The regiment lost a third of its numbers at Frederickburg . = = Kentucky and Tennessee = = Following his failure at Fredericksburg , Burnside was reassigned to the Department of the Ohio . The IX Corps , which he had formerly commanded , was reassigned with him . The 21st Massachusetts boarded trains for Cincinnati on March 28 , 1863 . They were then transported to Mount Sterling , Kentucky , to combat Confederate guerrillas . In April , due to the reduced numbers of the regiment ( now about 200 ) several officers , being effectively without commands , chose to resign their commissions , including Col. William S. Clark . Command of the regiment passed to Lt. Col. George P. Hawkes . The regiment saw light duty around Lexington , Kentucky , during the summer of 1863 . In September , Burnside launched his effort to capture eastern Tennessee from Confederate hands . The 21st marched for Knoxville , Tennessee , on September 12 , 1863 . During the Knoxville Campaign , the 21st saw minor action , acting primarily in support of artillery due to their small numbers . = = Overland Campaign and Siege of Petersburg = = After roughly a month 's furlough back in Massachusetts during February and March 1864 , the 21st returned to the Army of the Potomac as part of a newly reorganized IX Corps , rejoining the army a day before the Battle of the Wilderness on May 4 , 1864 . Lt. Gen. Ulysses Grant had become general @-@ in @-@ chief of the Union army and intended to follow the Army of the Potomac in the field , relentlessly pushing Lee 's Confederate army over the course of the summer of 1864 . Walcott of the 21st wrote , " There was to be little of the romance or strategy of war in that horribly bloody work of that summer 's campaign in Virginia . " During this campaign , the 21st suffered heavy casualties during the Battle of Spotsylvania and the Battle of Bethesda Church . In the latter engagement , the 21st acted as rear guard and bore the brunt of a fierce attack but held their position . Grant 's Overland Campaign concluded with several assaults on Petersburg , Virginia , on June 15 – 18 , 1864 . The 21st again took considerable casualties during these attacks , particularly during the assault on June 17 . Maj. Henry Richardson , commanding the 21st , was wounded in the thigh during the engagement and was shortly thereafter sent home . Now numbering less than 100 men , the regiment had been reduced to a tenth of its original size . Company A , by this time , had only three men on its active roster . Following these failed assaults , both armies settled into trench warfare around Petersburg . There were numerous attempts , during the summer of 1864 , on the part of the Union army , to dislodge the Confederates from their lines . One of the most disastrous for the Union army was the Battle of the Crater during which explosives were detonated in a large mine tunneled beneath the Confederate entrenchments , temporarily creating a gap in their lines . Elements of the IX Corps , under the command of Maj. Gen. Burnside , were to charge through the gap , but instead became trapped in the enormous crater . Brig. Gen. James Ledlie 's division , of which the 21st was a part , led the attack . The division had been selected at the last minute over the United States Colored Troops who had actually trained for the operation . Unprepared , Ledlie 's division delayed in their attack , allowing the Confederates time to regroup . The 21st managed to advance , mingled with other regiments , to the furthest point penetrated by Union troops but by the afternoon they made the retreat " pell mell " with the rest of Burnside 's IX Corps . = = Consolidation with the 36th Massachusetts = = On August 18 , 1864 , the 21st 's three @-@ year enlistment came to an end . More than three @-@ quarters of the remaining men chose to re @-@ enlist . These men were consolidated into a battalion of three companies commanded by Capt. Orange S. Sampson . The day after their consolidation , the battalion participated in the Battle of Globe Tavern . The final engagement in which the remaining companies of the 21st participated as an independent unit was the Battle of Poplar Springs Church on September 30 , 1864 , during which the Union army attempted to extend its lines westward , further encircling Petersburg . Capt. Orange Sampson , commanding the 21st , was killed in this engagement . On October 21 , 1864 , the battalion was consolidated with the 36th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry . When the 36th was mustered out in June 1865 , the three companies that had belonged to the 21st were consolidated with the 56th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry . They were finally mustered out of service on July 8 , 1865 . = = Association with Clara Barton = = The Civil War nurse Clara Barton was born and raised in Oxford , Worcester County , Massachusetts , and knew many of the men in the 21st Massachusetts . More than 40 of them had been her students when she was a teacher before the war . She therefore took an acute interest in their welfare . During the Maryland Campaign , she visited frequently with the regiment and cared for its wounded during the Battle of Antietam . Sgt. Plunkett , the color bearer of the 21st who suffered such grievous wounds during the Battle of Fredericksburg , credited Barton with saving his life . She was at his side when he was first treated , personally arranged his transport home , and carried on correspondence with him after the war . Barton declared the 21st her favorite regiment and , in turn , the men of the 21st voted her a " daughter " of the regiment . = = Legacy = = After the war , Col. William S. Clark became a prominent figure in early American / Japanese relations . After establishing the Massachusetts Agricultural College ( now the University of Massachusetts Amherst ) , Clark was invited by the government of Japan to establish a similar institution , the Sapporo Agricultural College ( now the University of Hokkaido ) . Clark 's fame persists in Japan where he is a household name due to the revolutionary western ideas he brought to Hokkaido and the influence he had on the development of the island . His military experience during the Civil War was an important factor in earning the respect of his Japanese superiors . Today , the history of the 21st Massachusetts is interpreted by the Southern Piedmont Historical Reenactment Society ( SPHRS ) , a reenacting group based in North Carolina . While dedicated primarily to the history of the 49th North Carolina Infantry , the SPHRS does represent the 21st at living history events and reenactments throughout the year .
= Amador Valley High School = Amador Valley High School is a public high school in Pleasanton , California , United States , a city east of Oakland . The school was founded as Amador Valley Joint Union High School ( AVJUHS ) , which graduated its first class in 1923 . The school has been named a California Distinguished School , a National School of Character , and a National Blue Ribbon School . Amador Valley is one of four high schools in the Pleasanton Unified School District , which includes Foothill High School , Village High School , and Horizon High School . As of 2009 , Amador Valley offered its 2 @,@ 500 students 20 Advanced Placement courses , 23 varsity sports , a program to study local aquatic wildlife , and vocational training . A monthly school publication , the Amadon , reports on athletics , academic and extracurricular issues , and news of the school and community . Amador 's location allows it to be the launching point for parades and to host the site of the Amador Theater , Pleasanton 's central performing arts facility for more than 60 years . The Amador Theater has remained a part of the Amador Valley campus since the 1930s , despite major school construction in 1968 , 1997 , and 2004 . Amador is the rival of Foothill High School , across town . Student groups , including the Marching Band and Math Team , have toured out @-@ of @-@ state after achieving high rankings in Californian competitions . In national competitions such as We the People : The Citizen and the Constitution , the Amador Valley team has ranked in the top four places from 1994 to 1996 , 2006 to 2009 , 2011 , 2013 , and 2014 . Similarly , the Amador Valley Robotics Team , AVBotz , is recognized nationally as the best performing high @-@ school team in the autonomous underwater vehicle ( AUV ) competition hosted by the Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International ( AUVSI ) . = = History = = = = = Region and districts = = = Amador Valley High School , originally Amador Valley Joint Union High School , was named for its location in the Amador Valley ( part of the Tri @-@ Valley area of the San Francisco East Bay ) . The valley 's namesake was a wealthy Californio rancher , Don José María Amador . The school was founded on March 14 , 1922 , as part of the Amador Valley Joint Union High School District ( AVJUHSD ) , out of concerns of overcrowding and transportation for students traveling to nearby Livermore High School . Amador Valley 's first class graduated in 1923 . From 1922 to 1988 , the school was part of the AVJUHSD . Originally this district also taught students from nearby Dublin and served the local rural community . In the late 1930s , the Amador Theater was added to the main campus building . The " original " campus building ( c1922 ) was taken down in 1968 leaving only the theatre towards the front of the Amador Valley High School campus . The theater hosted school plays , band concerts , performances , lectures , and assemblies , and was the former home of the successful community theater group Cask and Mask , now known as The Masquers . The Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 led to the building of a series of freeways in the region , which led to increased population and an increase in student enrollment . In 1988 , voters approved the unification of several school districts in the region . On July 1 , 1988 , the AVJUHSD merged with the Pleasanton Joint School District to form the Pleasanton Unified School District . As of 2009 , the district contained two comprehensive high schools ( Amador Valley and Foothill ) , two continuation high schools ( Horizon and Village ) , three middle schools , seven elementary schools , and an adult education program . The school grounds are bordered on the east and southeast by Santa Rita Road , a Union Pacific railroad track on which the Altamont Commuter Express runs , and Arroyo Valle . To the north are several businesses and residential districts lie on the western border . The school is the launch point for the annual Pleasanton Hometown Holidays Celebration Parade and the annual Fall Festival Parade , a part of the Alameda County Fair since the 1940s . The Fall Festival parade , which features bands , floats , balloons , horses , and antique cars , starts on the Amador Valley parking lot , travels down Main Street , and ends near the fairgrounds . = = = Court battle = = = In 1978 , the AVJUHSD challenged the constitutionality of California Proposition 13 , which placed a cap on county real estate taxes . The proposition limited property tax assessments to the 1975 standard , eliminating $ 7 billion of the $ 11 @.@ 4 billion in property tax revenue collected each year . According to the Washington Post , the " severe " limitations this imposed on state funding forced local governments and most school districts in California to make " drastic cutbacks " . Furthermore , an article in the Los Angeles Times noted that Federal aid money for Californian schools , worth about $ 98 million each year , may be reduced if state @-@ funded programs are cut . A recent Congressional report had found that Proposition 13 would not result in any major " local spending " cuts . In order to receive Federal aid , the state needed to maintain present levels of spending on local programs or secure local matching funds . However , the enforcement of this spending was " flexible in many programs " and the Federal Impact Aid program for schools was therefore in jeopardy . The district held that the measure was " so drastic and far @-@ reaching that it was ' a revision ' of the state Constitution and not a mere amendment " . Ultimately , the district was unsuccessful in its suit . In their ruling , the judges distinguished between " amendment " and " revision . " The court confirmed that an initiative cannot " revise " the constitution ; Proposition 13 , however , was an amendment to the California Constitution and not a " revision " . In 2009 , Amador Valley was cited by dissenting Justice Carlos R. Moreno in arguing the non @-@ constitutionality of California Proposition 8 . = = = Development = = = The first class of eight students graduated in 1923 , and the school quickly became known for its municipal bands and sports teams , along with their cheerleaders . The school selected the Don as its mascot , in honor of the title used by Amador ; Don is a Spanish term used as a mark of high esteem for a distinguished nobleman or gentleman . Parents of Amador Valley students became involved with student activities . In 1927 , Pleasanton mothers decided to start a school lunch program to provide students with a better environment for learning . Parents donated pots and pans , and a newly hired cook prepared lunches , to be eaten at new tables and benches . The tables and benches were constructed by the custodian and the music teacher from wood of horse stalls formerly on the campus . This project led to the formation of a Parent @-@ Teacher Association ( PTA ) chapter at Amador Valley in the late 1920s . Much of the original Amador Valley High School building was demolished in 1968 leaving only the theatre to which a community fund raising effort restored . The following year , the school reached its maximum capacity , about 1 @,@ 895 students . To accommodate the larger student population , Dublin High School was founded . Both schools held classes on the Amador Valley campus during the 1968 – 69 school year . A continued influx of families to the Pleasanton region prompted the foundation of another high school , Foothill , in 1973 . Starting November 3 in 1986 , Amador Valley teachers went on a rolling strike to " protest a breakdown in negotiations for a new contract . " The school brought in substitutes to replace the picketing teachers . Amador Valley teachers are unionized under the California Teachers Association and the National Education Association . In March 1997 , the city passed Measure B , which granted the school district $ 69 million to replace old and crowded facilities and modernize the school campus . The renovations revived one of the school 's last original structures : the Amador Theater , the city 's most popular performing arts facility . The measure enabled the addition of renovated science classrooms , a multipurpose room , a library and media center , and a sound @-@ proofed music building . The parking lot and central quad were expanded , with more than 550 parking spaces in the new lot , and classrooms were equipped to be more energy efficient . In 1999 , responding to a directive from the California Superintendent of Education , the district identified character education as one of its goals . As selected by the community , six character traits ( responsibility , compassion , self @-@ discipline , honesty , respect , and integrity ) were listed as " expected behaviors " for Pleasanton . In 2004 , Amador Valley and the school district won national recognition ( National School of Character ) for its program emphasizing the Community of Character . In 2004 , a new two @-@ story building was completed , containing twenty @-@ four new classrooms . The following year , the Charles " Chuck " Volonte Aquatic Center was built for Amador Valley 's swimming , diving , and water polo teams . Lighting retrofits were added in December 2004 for improved energy efficiency and illumination . In 2005 , Amador Valley High School was the first high school to join the worldwide Go Green Initiative . In the same year , Pleasanton was selected as the " Go Green City of the Year . " = = Academics = = As of 2012 , Amador Valley operates on a 7 : 00 a.m. to 3 : 00 p.m. schedule . Most students do not take first period , with their schedules starting at 8 : 00 a.m. This includes seven periods of instruction , a lunch , and a brunch . Amador Valley is a closed campus ; students are not allowed to leave school supervision during school hours . = = = Enrollment = = = In the 2011 – 12 school year , Amador Valley High School had an enrollment of 2 @,@ 623 students and 170 faculty members , for a student @-@ faculty ratio of 15 : 1 . The student population at Amador Valley is predominantly White , with a large Asian minority and Hispanic and Latino Americans and African American minorities . Seven percent of Amador Valley students are involved in special education , three percent qualify for English language learner support , and two percent qualify for free or reduced price lunch . = = = Awards = = = The school has been deemed a three @-@ time California Distinguished School , a National School of Character , and a two @-@ time National Blue Ribbon School . Performance results for 2008 show Amador Valley with an Academic Performance Index ( API ) of 10 on a 10 @-@ point scale . The Daily Beast / Newsweek ranked Amador Valley High School 171th in 2013 , and 238th in 2012 , in its list of the Best High Schools in America . In 2008 , a team of Amador Valley students won the national UNICEF @-@ sponsored Junior 8 Competition . The team traveled to Toyako , Japan to attend the 2008 Group of Eight ( G8 ) Summit of World Leaders to collaborate on solutions to world problems . Eight of Amador Valley 's teachers — Mark Aubel , Debbie Emerson , Jon Grantham , Tom Hall , Debbie Harvey , Brian Ladd , Marla Silversmith , and Eric Thiel — have been recognized as a Pleasanton Unified School District teacher of the year ; one of those honorees , Brian Ladd , was also designated an Alameda County teacher of the year . = = = Programs = = = As of 2009 , Amador Valley curriculum offered 20 Advanced Placement ( AP ) classes , the most popular of which are AP Psychology , AP English Language and Composition , AP Calculus , AP Government , and AP United States History . Nearly half of Amador Valley students participate in the school 's AP Program . The average participant takes 4 @.@ 3 exams per year and 87 @.@ 5 percent of students receive at least one score of 3 or greater . The school offers the complete range of AP courses in the STEM fields ( science , technology , engineering , mathematics ) , as well as AP Language courses and their literature complements in English , French , German , Japanese , and Spanish . Amador Valley also offers AP courses in social sciences and visual and performing arts . The school offers specialized instruction through vocational education as part of the valley @-@ wide Regional Occupational Program . Courses offered include computer @-@ assisted drafting , electronics , welding , medical training , and auto body repair . The Amador Valley science department initiated Project Creek Watch in 1994 . The project provides students with resources for the long term study of Arroyo Valle ; these resources include information about the chemistry in the creek , images of the creek , a guide to flora and fauna , and student projects on aquatic species . " The goal is to let kids realize there are a number of different physical and biological components that allow these organisms ( in the creek ) to coexist , " said Eric Thiel , an Amador Valley Biology teacher and a co @-@ founder of the project . " I hope they walk away able to see how complex ecosystems are . " In 1999 , the project received a Golden Bell Award for excellence in education from the California School Boards Association . Research projects about the creek and other topics have won first place awards at the Tri @-@ Valley Science and Engineering Fair . In 2001 , Thiel and the school received a National Semiconductor " Internet Innovator Award " for the Project Creek Watch website . = = Extracurricular activities = = = = = Athletics = = = As of 2009 , the school offered 12 varsity sports teams for boys and 11 varsity sports teams for girls . These sports are run under the Amador Valley Athletics Boosters and include baseball , basketball , cross country , football , golf , lacrosse , soccer , softball , spirit squad , swimming / diving , tennis , track , volleyball , water polo and wrestling . Amador Valley competes in the East Bay Athletic League and has won four East Bay Athletic League Championships . The Amador Valley Booster Club also has hosted East Bay Special Olympics basketball tournaments , track meets , and volleyball competitions at Amador Valley High School since 2004 . The school coordinates parent and student volunteers , donates proceeds from snack sales , and provides facilities free of charge for three Special Olympic events : basketball , track , and volleyball . In 2006 , the Amador Valley Booster Club won " Volunteer Organization of the Year " from Special Olympics Northern California . In 2009 , the Booster Club provided over 200 volunteers to help with the logistics of the competition . The Amador Valley Varsity Boys ' and Girls ' basketball teams both host an annual eight @-@ team basketball tournament , the Amador Basketball Classic ( ABC ) , in the first two weeks of December . The ABC brings high school basketball players and teams from within the state and outside of the state to play in Pleasanton . Each team plays four games between Wednesday and Saturday . Taking place every year since December 1961 , the ABC is the longest @-@ running eight @-@ team basketball championship in California . The girls ABC tournament has been held since December 1994 . = = = Band and Color Guard = = = Amador Valley 's music program was founded in 1928 by Harry Tripp , a native of England . Tripp , the director of bands at Amador Valley , established an orchestra and a glee club , and recruited performers for parades and numerous operettas . The Amador Valley band program is now the largest student activity on campus and hosts the annual Campana Jazz Festival , named after Jim Campana , who led the band from 1959 to 1979 . Amador Valley 's band program consists of four concert bands : Wind Ensemble I , Wind Ensemble II , Wind Symphony , and Symphonic Band . At the annual California Music Educators Association Band Festivals , all four of Amador Valley 's concert bands regularly earn " Unanimous Superior " ratings . The Marching Band and Color Guard compete in the Western Band Association ( WBA ) circuit . The band practices a competitive field show , performed at football halftime shows and competitions . The Marching Dons are classified into WBA Class AAAAA . The Amador Valley Marching Dons have received sweepstakes ( highest score in combined AAAA and AAAAA classes ) and first place awards and earned sixth place in 2008 at the WBA Championship . In 2006 the marching band competed in the Bands of America Regional Competition for the first time , and placed fourth in the 2007 competition . In 2005 and 2009 , Amador Valley was invited to perform at the annual London New Year 's Day Parade . In 2014 , the Amador Valley Marching Dons earned fourth place at the WBA Grand Championships with their program , " The Forest , " receiving a school @-@ high score of 93 @.@ 15 . = = = Math Team = = = The Amador Valley Math Team hosts outreach events and participates in mathematics competitions . The Mathematical Association of America placed Amador Valley High School on its School Merit Roll for performance on the American Mathematics Competitions series . The Math Team placed fifth nationally on the 2008 Collaborative Problem @-@ Solving Contest and placed in the top 25 nationwide in the 2005 – 2009 Fall Startup Events . Amador Valley is the first high school in California to host a MathLeague.org tournament . The tournament was run by Amador Valley math teachers with help from the Amador Valley Math Team . The event served as a qualifier for MathLeague.org 's Northern California Championships and served as a tryout for the Bay Area American Regions Math League team . The math team was praised for " showing leadership in mathematics . " At the 2009 Northern California Championships , the Math Team placed second in Northern California to Lynbrook High School and received an invitation to MathLeague.org 's multi @-@ state championship in Kansas City . Amador Valley High School , the first to represent California at the Midwestern event , finished fifth in the championship out of the ten qualifying teams . The Math Team also hosts the Amador Valley Geometry Bee , modeled after the Scripps National Spelling Bee . This competition invites students from Amador Valley , Foothill High School , and the district 's three middle schools to compete in timed rounds . The style of the competition consists of rounds of 10 questions each , deviating from the traditional spelling bee format . The Math Team also hosts an event for parents and students , Family Math Night . This event lets parents preview course material with their students through hands @-@ on activities run by math team members . The goal of Family Math Night is " to help parents become comfortable assisting their students with math homework . " = = = Robotics Team = = = The Amador Valley Robotics Team , founded in 1999 , is the first and only high school team to compete in the Autonomous Underwater Vehicle ( AUV ) Competition hosted by the Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International ( AUVSI ) . Each year , with a minimal amount of outside technical assistance , the team develops an AUV to maneuver an underwater obstacle course . The team first entered the competition in 2000 with its Hammerhead AUV , weighing 98 kg ( 220 pounds ) . They placed seventh in the field of twelve . According to Daryl Davidson , the executive director of AUVSI , " The Amador group really broke the ice by being the first high school team at the competition ... It caught everybody off @-@ guard and their enthusiasm was very infectious . " At the 2001 competition , Amador Valley placed second to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with its Manta Ray AUV . The Manta Ray weighed less than 100 kg ( 220 pounds ) and featured a modular design . According to Jim Bales , technical director of the competition , the technical details of the Manta Ray impressed many judges and its performance surpassed a number of university teams . The Amador Valley Barracuda line , started in 2002 , " is propelled by two laterally mounted SeaBotix thrusters controlling speed and heading and two auxiliary thrusters aligned vertically controlling pitch and depth . " To guide the AUV autonomously , a pressure sensor , compass , camera , and hydrophone array return navigation input data to the software . The AUV uses a Beagle Board single @-@ board computer that runs Angstrom Linux . In 2008 , several fundamental changes were made to the robot . The control system was reorganized and the mission control software was revamped to improve communication and to limit overhead . A low @-@ level microcontroller @-@ based control system was added to free up system resources . This extra processing capability will be used for mission control and image processing tasks . = = = Speech and Debate = = = Amador Valley 's main Speech and Debate teams places a heavy emphasis on public speaking skills . The school 's Mock Trial team represented Alameda County at the California State Championships in 2007 , and competed as the wildcard in 2009 . The Mock Trial team has perennially been Alameda County finalists in this Constitutional Rights Foundation sponsored competition , holding the finalist title five of the six years from 2004 – 2009 . Alameda County Superior Court Judge George Hernandez , who presided over the final county round in 2007 , praised the level of preparedness of Amador Valley 's Mock Trial team . The national We the People : The Citizen and the Constitution competition takes place each spring in Washington , D.C .. The Amador Valley " We the People " team has represented the state of California at the national competition more than a dozen times since 1992 . The team earned the national title in 1995 , and took second place in the 1996 , 2006 , and 2007 competitions , in addition to placing third in 1994 . In 2008 and 2009 , the team placed fourth and third in the national competition , respectively , and then took second place again in 2011 , 2013 , and 2014 . Congressman Jerry McNerney and Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi congratulated the 2009 team on Capitol Hill . = = = Student outreach = = = Amador Valley 's Interact Club was founded in coordination with the local Rotary chapter , and is one of 33 @,@ 000 Rotary chapters in the world . Every year , the Interact Club coordinates several local fundraisers as well as nationwide campaigns in conjunction with Rotary events . Club members are a part of millions of worldwide Rotary and Interact members who work " locally , regionally , and internationally to combat hunger , improve health and sanitation , provide education and job training , promote peace , and eradicate polio under the motto Service Above Self . " Amador Valley 's Interact Club has been praised for its efforts to " educate , advocate and fundraise for life @-@ changing programs . " The Human Rights Club is a similar sort of outreach group , affiliated with Amnesty International and STAND . The club was founded in 2007 by Amador Valley student Shelby Margolin , the California state high school outreach coordinator on the national STAND leadership board . The club focuses on ways to address issues such as genocide , disease and poverty in Africa . The student group hosts educational seminars and keynote speakers in an annual Human Rights Conference in the hope of " raising awareness about and helping to end genocide . " = = = Other extracurricular activities = = = Additional Amador Valley clubs include Go Green , which encourages recycling on campus , and FISH Club , a non @-@ denominational Christian club . Around election years , Young Democrats and Young Republicans clubs are popular . The school 's Fashion Club hosts fashion shows , and the school 's Flight Club introduces students to aviation and aircraft . Cultural clubs at Amador Valley include Black Student Union , Muslim Student Association , and Multi Cultural Club . Other clubs at Amador Valley include Anime , Art of Movement , Astronomy , Bhangra , Book Club , California Scholastic Federation , DECA , Don Squad , Drama , Environmental , French , GO , Gay @-@ Straight Alliance , Interact , Junior State of America , Lumberjack , Model United Nations , Political Ideals , Puzzle , Rugby , Short Film , and Students Interested in Medical Sciences ( SIMS ) . = = Notable people associated with school = = = = = Alumni = = = Craig Billmeier – 2008 World Air Guitar Champion , 2006 and 2008 US National Air Guitar Champion Cary C. Chun – former commander of the United States Air Force 's 50th Space Wing Kevin Crow – former professional San Diego soccer player , manager , and coach Aliya Deri – National Vocabulary Champion in 2008 , Scripps National Spelling Bee Runner Up in 2005 Rick Kane – NFL player for the Detroit Lions and the Washington Redskins . Running back , career total 1 @,@ 486 yards . Class of ' 73 . Paul Korver – filmmaker and actor Joel Kribel – Former member of the PGA Tour , Web.com Tour and PGA Tour Canada . Greg Kragen – Former NFL player for 13 years for the Carolina Panthers , Kansas City Chiefs , and Denver Broncos . Went to one Pro Bowl and started in three Super Bowls . Kevin Laue – Division I Manhattan College basketball player with one hand , debuted in the 2009 – 2010 season . Former President George W. Bush asked to meet with Laue while he was a student at Amador Valley . Abby Martin – journalist & community activist ; host of Breaking the Set on RT Network ; founder of Media Roots ( mediaroots.org ) , a citizen journalism project . Tom Orloff – district attorney for Alameda County Scott Peters – Former NFL offensive lineman for the Arizona Cardinals Stephen Piscotty – Major League Baseball player for the St. Louis Cardinals . Donna Theodore – singer and actress , Theatre World Award and Drama Desk Award recipient for role in Shenandoah David Yost – actor known for his role of Billy Cranston on the television series Mighty Morphin Power Rangers = = = Staff = = = Jim Trimingham – Mayor of Pleasanton , member of the Immortal 21 = = = Online resources = = =
= West Highland White Terrier = The West Highland White Terrier , commonly known as the Westie or Westy , is a Scottish breed of dog with a distinctive white coat . The modern breed is descended from a number of breeding programs of white terriers in Scotland prior to the 20th century . Edward Donald Malcolm , 16th Laird of Poltalloch , is credited with the creation of the modern breed from his Poltalloch Terrier , but did not want to be known as such . Other related breeds included George Campbell , 8th Duke of Argyll 's Roseneath Terrier and Dr. Americ Edwin Flaxman 's Pittenweem Terriers . This breed of small white Scottish terriers was given its modern name for the first time in 1908 , with recognition by major kennel clubs occurring around the same time . The breed remains very popular in the UK , twice winner at Cruft 's , and is in the top third of all breeds in the US since the 1960s . It has been featured in television and film , including in Hamish Macbeth and in advertising by companies such as Cesar dog food and Scottish whisky Black & White . It is a medium @-@ sized terrier , although with longer legs than other Scottish breeds of terrier . It has a white double coat of fur which fills out the dog 's face , giving it a rounded appearance . The breed can be good with children , but does not always tolerate rough handling . The Westie is an active and intelligent breed , and is social with a high prey drive , as they were once used to hunt rodents . Several breed @-@ specific and nonspecific health issues appear in the breed , including a condition in young dogs nicknamed " westie jaw " which causes an overgrowth of bone in the jaw of the dog . It can also be prone to skin disorders , with a breed @-@ specific condition called hyperplastic dermatosis occurring . They are very energetic and need plenty of exercise . Cousin to the Cairn Terrier , the Westie was bred to hunt small rodents at places such as farms . = = Appearance = = Commonly , Westies have bright , deep @-@ set , almond @-@ shaped eyes that are dark in colour . Their ears are pointed and erect . Members of the breed typically weigh between 15 and 20 pounds ( 6 @.@ 8 and 9 @.@ 1 kg ) , and the average height is between 10 – 11 inches ( 25 – 28 cm ) at the withers . The body should be shorter than the height of the dog at the shoulder . They also have a deep chest , muscular limbs , a black nose , and a short , closely fitted jaw with " scissors " bite ( lower canines locked in front of upper canines , upper incisors locked over lower incisors ) . The Westie 's paws are slightly turned out to give it better grip than flat @-@ footed breeds when it climbs on rocky surfaces . In young puppies , the nose and footpads have pink markings , which slowly turn black as they age . They have a soft , dense , thick undercoat and a rough outer coat , which can grow to about 2 inches ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) long . The fur fills out the face to give a rounded appearance . As puppies develop into adults , their coarse outer coat is normally removed by either " hand @-@ stripping " , especially for dog @-@ showing , or otherwise clipping . = = Temperament = = The temperament of the West Highland White Terrier can vary greatly , with some being friendly towards children , whilst others prefer solitude . It will not tolerate rough handling such as a child pulling on its ears , and can be both food- and toy @-@ possessive . It is normally independent , assured , and self @-@ confident , and can make a good watchdog . It is a loyal breed that bonds with its owner , but is often always on the move , requiring good exercise ( 15 – 30 min ) . The Westie is highly social and is the most friendly and jolly of all the Scottish breeds of terriers . It is a hardy breed , and can be stubborn , leading to issues with training . A Westie may need to have its training refreshed on occasion during its lifetime . Having a typical terrier prey drive , it tends to be highly interested in toys , especially chasing balls . It does retain the instincts of an earth @-@ dog , including inquisitive and investigative traits , as well as natural instincts to both bark and dig holes . It is ranked 47th in Stanley Coren 's The Intelligence of Dogs . = = Health = = The American breed club puts the lifespan of the Westie at 12 to 16 years . A club survey puts the average lifespan at 11 @.@ 4 years . Veterinary clinic data from the UK show a typical lifespan of 10 @.@ 5 to 15 years . The French Kennel Club database gives 8 to 16 years , with a median of 13 years . The typical litter size is between three and five puppies . However , some litters may contain more than this , one of which was a Westie called Isobel , which gave birth to a litter of 11 puppies on 10 April 2012 . The breed is predisposed to conditions found in many breeds , such as abdominal hernias . Westie puppies may be affected by craniomandibular osteopathy , a disease also known as " lion jaw " , and is sometimes also referred to as " westie jaw " . The disease is an autosomal recessive condition , so a puppy can only be affected by it if both its parents are carriers of the faulty gene . The condition appears across many breeds , including several different types of terriers , as well as other unrelated breeds such as the Great Dane . It typically appears in dogs under a year old , and can cause problems for the dog to chew or swallow food . Radiographic testing can be conducted to diagnose the condition , in which the bones around the jaw thicken ; additionally , the blood may show increased calcium levels and enzyme levels . The condition often stops progressing by the time the dog is a year old , and in some cases can recede . It is normally treated with anti @-@ inflammatory medications , and the feeding of soft foods . In some cases , tube feeding may be necessary . However , if the animal still cannot eat and is in uncontrolled pain , then euthanasia may be the only medical option remaining . The breed is prone to skin disorders . About a quarter of Westies surveyed are affected by atopic dermatitis , a heritable chronic allergic skin condition . A higher proportion of males are affected compared to females . An uncommon but severe breed @-@ specific skin condition , hyperplastic dermatosis , may affect West Highland White Terriers , both juveniles and adults dogs . Affected dogs can suffer from red hyperpigmentation , lichenification , and hair loss . In the initial stages , this condition can be misdiagnosed as allergies or less serious forms of dermatitis . An inherited genetic problem that exists in the breed is globoid cell leukodystrophy . It is not breed @-@ specific , and can appear in Cairn Terriers and other breeds including Beagles and Pomeranians . It is a neurological disease where the dog lacks an enzyme called galactosylceramidase . The symptoms are noticeable as the puppy develops , and can be identified by the age of 30 weeks . Affected dogs have tremors , muscle weakness , and trouble walking . Symptoms slowly increase until limb paralysis begins to occur . Due to it being a hereditary condition , owners should avoid breeding affected animals to eliminate it from the breed . Another genetic condition that affects the breed is " white dog shaker syndrome " . As this condition is most commonly found in Westies and Maltese , the condition was originally thought to be connected to the genes for white coats , but the same condition has since been found in other nonwhite breeds including the Yorkshire Terrier and the Dachshund . The condition typically develops over one to three days , resulting in tremors of the head and limbs , ataxia , and hypermetria . Affected males and females can be affected for different lengths of time , with symptoms in females lasting between four and six weeks , while males can be affected the rest of their lives . Other less common conditions which appear in the breed include hydroxyglutaric aciduria , which is where elevated levels of alpha @-@ hydroxyglutaric acid are in the dog 's urine , blood plasma , and spinal fluid . It can cause seizures , muscle stiffness , and ataxia , but is more commonly found in Staffordshire Bull Terriers . A degeneration of the hip joint , known as Legg – Calvé – Perthes syndrome , also occurs in the breed . However , the chances of this condition occurring are much higher in some other breeds , such as the Australian Shepherd and the Miniature Pincher . The breed is also one of the least likely to be affected by a luxating patella , where the knee cap slips out of place . = = History = = Scottish white terriers were recorded as early as during the reign of James VI of Scotland , who reigned between 1567 and 1625 . The king ordered that a dozen terriers be procured from Argyll to be presented to the Kingdom of France as a gift . Sandy- and brindle @-@ coloured dogs were seen as hardier than those of other colours , and white dogs were seen as being weak . At various times during the breed 's existence , it has been considered a white offshoot of both the Scottish Terrier and the Cairn Terrier breeds . Reports of a ship from the Spanish Armada being wrecked on the island of Skye in 1588 indicated the ship carried white Spanish dogs , whose descendants were kept distinct from other breeds by Clan Donald , including the families of the Chiefs . Other families on Skye preserved both white and sandy @-@ coloured dogs . One such family was the Clan MacLeod , and it was reported by their descendants that at least two Chiefs kept white terriers , including " The Wicked Man " Norman MacLeod , and his grandson Norman , who became Chief after his death . George Campbell , 8th Duke of Argyll , chief of Clan Campbell , bred a breed of white Scottish terriers known as the " Roseneath Terrier " . Another breed of white Scottish terriers also appeared at this point , with Dr. Americ Edwin Flaxman from Fife developing his line of " Pittenweem Terriers " out of a female Scottish Terrier which produced white offspring . The dog seemed to produce these white puppies regardless of the sire to which she was bred , and after drowning over 20 of these offspring , he came upon the theory that it was an ancient trait of the Scottish Terrier that was trying to reappear . He rededicated his breeding program to produce white Scottish Terriers with the aim of restoring it to the same stature as the dark @-@ coloured breed . Flaxman is credited with classes being added to dog shows for white Scottish Terriers towards the end of the 19th century . The person most closely associated with developing the modern breed of West Highland White Terrier is Edward Donald Malcolm , 16th Laird of Poltalloch . Malcolm owned terriers used to work game ; the story told is that a reddish @-@ brown terrier was mistaken for a fox and shot . Following this , Malcolm decided to develop a white terrier breed , which became known as the " Poltalloch Terrier " . The first generation of Poltallochs had sandy @-@ coloured coats , and had already developed prick ears , which is a trait seen later in the modern breed . It is unknown if the Poltalloch Terriers and Pittenweem Terriers were interbred . In 1903 , Malcolm declared that he did not want to be known as the creator of the breed and insisted that his breed of white terriers be renamed . The term " West Highland White Terrier " first appears in Otters and Otter Hunting by L.C.R. Cameron , published in 1908 . The first breed club was set up in 1904 ; Niall Campbell , 10th Duke of Argyll , was the society 's first president . A second club was subsequently set up , with the Countess of Aberdeen as chairman . Edward Malcolm succeeded the Countess as the club 's second chairman . Kennel Club recognition followed in 1907 , and the breed appeared at Crufts for the first time in the same year . The Westie was imported into the United States in 1907 – 1908 , when Robert Goelet imported Ch . Kiltie and Ch . Rumpus Glenmohr . Initially , it was also known at the time as the Roseneath Terrier , and the Roseneath Terrier Club was recognised by the American Kennel Club in 1908 . The club was renamed during the following year to the West Highland White Terrier Club of America . The breed spent the period that immediately followed as being " in vogue " , becoming popular almost immediately upon its arrival in the US . Canadian Kennel Club recognition followed in 1909 . Until 1924 in the UK , Westie pedigrees were allowed to have Cairn and Scottish Terriers in them . By the time of Malcolm 's death in 1930 , a stable type had appeared with prick ears , a white coat , and a short back . In major conformation shows , the breed has been equally successful on both sides of the Atlantic . The first member of the breed to win a show championship was Ch . Morvan in 1905 , owned by Colin Young . The dog was registered at the time as a Scottish Terrier , and won the title at the Scottish Kennel Club show at the age of seven months . Because the breed was not yet recognised independently , the championship title was not retained when the dog was reregistered as a West Highland White Terrier . The first win at a major show came at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show in 1942 when Constance Winant 's Ch . Wolvey Pattern of Edgerstoune won the title of Best in Show . The same title was taken by Barbara Worcester 's Ch . Elfinbrook Simon in 1962 . It took a further 14 years before the breed took its first Best in Show title at Crufts , the UK 's major dog show . Ch . Dianthus Buttons , owned by Kath Newstead and Dorothy Taylor , took the title for the breed in 1976 . The most recent win for the breed at a major show was again at Crufts , this time in 1990 with the Best in Show title going to Derek Tattersall 's Ch . Olac Moon Pilot . The popularity of the breed during the early 20th century was such that dogs were being exchanged for hundreds of guineas . As of 2010 , the Westie is the third @-@ most popular breed of terrier in the UK , with 5 @,@ 361 puppies registered with the Kennel Club . However , this is a decrease in numbers since 2001 , when it was the most popular terrier breed , with 11 @,@ 019 new dogs registered . The breed 's position in the United States is more stable with it remaining in the top third of all breeds since around 1960 . It was ranked 30th @-@ most popular in 2001 , based on registrations with the American Kennel Club , which has varied around the 30s in the decade since , with it ranked 34th in 2010 . = = In popular culture = = = = = In public life = = = Muhammed Ali Jinnah , founder of Pakistan , was known to own a Westie . John Green ( author ) , novelist , co @-@ founder of the VlogBrothers , is known to own a Westie , called Willie ( or Fireball Wilson Roberts ) . = = = In branding = = = Black & White whisky have used both Scottish Terriers and Westies in their advertisements , and the breed is used as the mascot of the dog food brand Cesar . The Australian dog food manufacturer Mars Incorporated uses the West Highland White Terrier breed as the ' face ' of their ' My Dog ' brand . The Westie can be seen on ' My Dog ' packaging , website and television and print commercials . = = = In film = = = The film The Adventures of Greyfriars Bobby , released in the UK in February 2006 , cast a West Highland White Terrier as Bobby . The appearance of a Westie caused protests from the Skye Terrier breed club , which complained about the filmmaker 's use of an incorrect dog breed for the part . In the film Lethal Weapon 3 , Carrie Murtaugh played by Ebonie Smith , carried a Westie early in the movie when Martin Riggs ( played by Mel Gibson ) brings his laundry to the Murtaugh home . = = = In television = = = The titular character in the BBC Scotland @-@ produced television series Hamish Macbeth owned a Westie named " Wee Jock " . In the TV show Jeeves and Wooster , Bertie 's Aunt Agatha owns a Westie named MacIntosh .
= William McAloney = William Simpson " Bill " McAloney , GC , OBE ( 12 May 1910 – 31 August 1995 ) was a senior engineering officer in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) and an Australian exchange recipient of the George Cross , the highest civil decoration for heroism in the United Kingdom and formerly in the Commonwealth . Born in Adelaide , he worked as a mechanic before enlisting in the RAAF as an aircraft engine fitter in 1936 . In August the following year , he attempted to rescue the pilot of a crashed Hawker Demon aircraft engulfed in flames at an airfield in Hamilton , Victoria . The first on scene , McAloney rushed into the wreckage in an effort to extract the unconscious pilot . The pilot 's leg was trapped , however , and while struggling to free it one of the wing tanks burst , knocking McAloney unconscious . McAloney was pulled from the aircraft suffering severe burns and spent the next month in hospital . He was subsequently awarded the Albert Medal for his actions in the rescue attempt . McAloney sufficiently recovered to return to his work in the RAAF , and during the Second World War was primarily involved in engine repair and engineering staff work in Australia . Commissioned as a flying officer in 1942 , he saw service in Dutch New Guinea during late 1944 . He received a permanent commission in the RAAF in 1948 , and was advanced to squadron leader in 1950 . During the Malayan Emergency , he served as technical officer to both No. 90 Wing and No. 1 Squadron , based in Singapore . In 1960 , he was made Officer Commanding Engineering Squadron at the Aircraft Research and Development Unit , and was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire for his efforts in the post . McAloney retired in 1966 with the honorary rank of group captain . In 1971 , the Albert Medal was discontinued and living recipients of the decoration were invited to exchange their medal for the George Cross ; McAloney took up the offer and formally became a recipient of the latter . He died in 1995 at the age of 85 . = = Early life = = McAloney was born on 12 May 1910 in Adelaide , South Australia , the eldest son of William Samuel McAloney and his wife Mary ( née Murphy ) . The young McAloney was educated at Thebarton Technical High School and the Adelaide School of Mines . In 1925 , McAloney registered for compulsory military training in the Citizen Military Force , serving as a private with the 43rd Battalion until November 1929 . During this time , he gained employment as an automotive mechanic with Vrai Ltd , where he received on @-@ the @-@ job training in place of a formal apprenticeship . McAloney was employed with Vrai for three years , before he took a position with Adelaide Car Service . In 1931 , McAloney purchased a garage and engineering workshop in Wirrulla . He operated the establishment for the next five years , the business conducting work on various types of vehicle including cars , trucks and tractors . However , the business ultimately experienced financial difficulties and was forced to close . In a ceremony on 24 June 1935 , McAloney wed Dora Winifred Johnson ; the couple later had four daughters and three sons . = = Military career = = = = = Airman and Albert Medal = = = In light of his business closure , McAloney was forced to seek alternate employment and he consequently enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force on 1 July 1936 . Ranked aircraftman , he completed a fitters course and qualified as an aero fitter and turner before being attached to No. 1 Squadron at RAAF Base Laverton , Victoria , in September . He was employed in a maintenance role within the unit , working on the Jupiter Gipsy and Rolls @-@ Royce Kestrel engines of Bristol Bulldog and Hawker Demon aircraft respectively . During 1937 , McAloney completed a part @-@ time air gunner course . His first child , a son named William , was born later that year . On 31 August 1937 , three Hawker Demon aircraft of No. 1 Squadron were on a training flight , during which they landed at an air base in Hamilton , Victoria . The exercise coincided with the local agricultural show , and the planes briefly provided a stationary display for the public . Recommencing their journey , the first aircraft had already taken off when the second was seen to have difficulties . The pilot , Pilot Officer Kenneth McKenzie , had attempted a climbing turn when the aircraft 's engine stalled , sending the machine into a dive . McAloney — who was a passenger in the third aircraft — witnessed the incident and signalled for his pilot to stop . On doing this , McAloney immediately leapt out of his plane and ran across the airfield . Out of control , the second aircraft struck the ground and rapidly became engulfed in flames . The first on scene , McAloney dashed into the wreckage in an effort to extradite the two crew members , and was able to grab hold of McKenzie who was sprawled over the flaming main fuel tank . McAloney pulled McKenzie free of the cockpit and down on to the aircraft 's wing , though McKenzie 's leg became trapped in the wreckage . Despite this , McAloney continued his efforts to free McKenzie , burning his hands on the pilot 's smouldering clothes . At this point , one of the wing tanks burst , rendering McAloney unconscious . He was pulled from the aircraft suffering severe burns , and spent the next four weeks in hospital undergoing treatment . Both McKenzie and his observer @-@ gunner , Sergeant Norman Torrens @-@ Witherow , perished and it was later ascertained that , owing to the injuries sustained on impact , they would not have survived even if the rescue attempt had been successful . Although McAloney 's rescue attempt was unsuccessful , the president of the RAAF court of inquiry into the incident , Squadron Leader Charles Eaton , noted his " conspicuous gallantry " and the coroner publicly commended McAloney 's actions . McAloney 's efforts that day were ultimately recognised with the award of the Albert Medal , the announcement of which was widely circulated in the media . The notification and accompanying citation for the decoration was published in the London Gazette on 18 February 1938 , reading : Whitehall , February 4 , 1938 . His Majesty The KING has been graciously pleased to award the Albert Medal to Aircraftman William Simpson McAloney , Royal Australian Air Force , for conspicuous gallantry in attempting to rescue an officer from the burning wreckage of an aircraft at Hamilton , Victoria , on the 31st August , 1937 . Despite the fact that the aircraft was ablaze from nose to rudder , Aircraftman McAloney dashed into the flames and continued his efforts at rescue until pulled away in an unconscious condition , having received severe burns which necessitated his removal to hospital . The award of McAloney 's Albert Medal is unique , as he is the only member of the RAAF to receive the decoration . The award also proved to be the last Albert Medal bestowed upon a living Australian , with all such subsequent presentations until the medal 's discontinuation in 1971 being posthumous . = = = Second World War = = = McAloney was presented with his Albert Medal by the acting Governor @-@ General of Australia , William Vanneck , 5th Baron Huntingfield , in a ceremony at Parliament House , Melbourne on 31 May 1938 . McAloney recovered sufficiently from his injuries to return to his duties with the RAAF , and in September was attached to No. 1 Aircraft Depot for a period of three months . During this time he was promoted to leading aircraftman , before returning to service with No. 1 Squadron . He was formally transferred to No. 1 Aircraft Depot from August 1939 , and was advanced to corporal on 1 September that year . With the outbreak of the Second World War , McAloney received a rapid series of promotions over the following eighteen months , first to sergeant in April 1940 , flight sergeant in March 1941 , and finally to warrant officer in February 1942 . He was primarily consigned to engine repair and engineering staff work in Australia during the conflict . After making sergeant , he became No. 1 Aircraft Depot 's non @-@ commissioned officer in charge of overhaul and test work on the Rolls @-@ Royce Kestrel engine . His duties were expanded with his March 1941 promotion to include the overhaul , inspection and testing of both the Kestrel and Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin aircraft engines . In August 1941 , McAloney was posted to the Directorate of Equipment at RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne . In this capacity he advised on the procurement of equipment and spare parts for RAAF aircraft . He was further tasked with compiling a register of aeroplane equipment at RAAF flight training units and operational bases throughout Australia . The latter entailed McAloney visiting several Air Force units in Victoria , New South Wales and Queensland to check equipment stores . On 1 March 1942 , he was commissioned as a flying officer . Transferred to the Directorate of Equipment Administration in July , McAloney was made Officer Commanding Technical and Photographic Staffs and served as a liaison between his own directorate and that of Technical Services . Promoted to temporary flight lieutenant on 1 August 1943 , McAloney was sent to the Directorate of Technical Services from November as the specialist officer on American and gas turbine jet engines . The following November , he was dispatched to Dutch New Guinea to rectify issues being experienced with Pratt & Whitney engines in operations by aircraft of the 1st Tactical Air Force . He returned to Australia and his position with Technical Services in December , and saw out the remainder of the war in this post . McAloney decided he wanted to remain in the Air Force on the cessation of hostilities , and subsequently sought a permanent commission in the post @-@ war RAAF . Having continued on a short @-@ service commission in the meantime , his application was ultimately approved in September 1948 and he was granted the substantive rank of flight lieutenant . His younger brother , Robert Simpson McAloney , also saw service with the RAAF in the Second World War . He had enlisted in late 1937 and rose to the rank of warrant officer before his discharge in 1946 , his final posting being to No. 1 Communication Unit . = = = Post @-@ war and senior engineering officer = = = In mid @-@ 1946 , McAloney was involved in an investigation into a series of engine failures experienced by RAAF aircraft . The inquiry led him to visit operational and transport units throughout Australia , in an attempt to determine whether the issues were the result of substandard maintenance or defective components . He returned to his duties at the Directorate of Technical Services on the investigation 's conclusion . Made squadron leader in March 1950 , he attended a land / air warfare course the following year . McAloney was posted to Singapore in June 1952 as the technical officer to the Changi @-@ based No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing , formed specifically for service in the Malayan Emergency . The attachment proved short lived with the disbandment of No. 90 Wing in December , at which point McAloney transferred to No. 1 Squadron , then operating out of Tengah . McAloney returned to Australia in August 1953 , his next appointment being to the staff at the Department of Air in Melbourne . He possessed complete administrative control over matters pertaining to aircraft engines in this post , including the acquisition , repairs , modifications and financial expenditure on such . In 1956 , he completed a course in industrial mobilisation , later undertaking a unit in industrial electronics . With his January 1957 promotion to wing commander , McAloney was transferred to Maintenance Command , where he held a policy formulation position responsible for the servicing of aircraft . He served three years in this post , being made Officer Commanding Engineering Squadron at the Aircraft Research and Development Unit ( ARDU ) in October 1960 . The function of ARDU was to test aircraft from local and overseas manufacturers , evaluating whether they were suitable for acquisition by the RAAF . McAloney 's role focused on the supervision of maintenance for test aircraft , along with completing modifications and fitting specialised equipment trialled at ARDU . The introduction into service of the Mirage IIIO fighter coincided with his time in this post . He was set to retire from the RAAF on reaching the age limit for his rank in 1964 , but his appointment was extended a further two years owing to the shortage of technical officers . For his service with ARDU , McAloney was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the 1966 New Year Honours List . The recommendation for the honour credited McAloney with enhancing the safety record at ARDU , and commended his constant efforts during the adoption of the Mirage and his actions to ensure the serviceability of the diverse variety of aircraft at the unit . He retired from the RAAF on 9 December 1966 and , in recognition of his 30 years of service , was granted the honorary rank of group captain . = = Later life = = McAloney retired to his home in Sandringham , Victoria , where he indulged his passions in gardening and golf . In 1971 , owing to the decline in status and significance of the Albert Medal , the British Government announced that living recipients of the decoration would be invited to exchange their medals for the George Cross , and henceforth formally become recipients of the latter award . All six living Australian Albert Medal recipients at the time opted to accept the offer , McAloney and four others travelling to London to receive their awards . The five men , Jack Chalmers , Stanley Gibbs , Robert Kavanaugh , Dick Richards and McAloney , were presented with their George Crosses at an investiture ceremony in Buckingham Palace by Queen Elizabeth II on 12 July 1972 . Aged 85 , Bill McAloney died on 31 August 1995 ; the 58th anniversary of his rescue attempt . Remembered as " pleasant and fatherly – almost gracious " , he was survived by his wife and six of their seven children . Two of McAloney 's sons served with the Australian Army in the Vietnam War , Paul Simpson completing two tours as a corporal with the 6th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment , and John Douglas as a lieutenant with the 4th and 5th Battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment . John McAloney was decorated with the Military Cross for rescuing one of his men who had been wounded , and then personally clearing several caves defended by Viet Cong despite sustaining a wound himself . He rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel and commanded the 1st Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment in the mid @-@ 1980s before his death in 1991 .
= Amanita ravenelii = Amanita ravenelii , commonly known as the pinecone Lepidella , is a species of fungus in the family Amanitaceae . The fruit bodies are medium to large , with caps up to 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) wide , and a stem up to 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) long and 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . The warts on the whitish cap surface are large — up to 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) wide and 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 in ) high . The stem has a large bulb at its base , covered with whitish to brownish scales , that may root several centimeters into the soil . The ring on the stem is thick and cotton- or felt @-@ like . It is widely distributed in mixed and deciduous forests of the southeastern United States , where it grows solitarily or in groups on the ground in late summer and autumn . The mushrooms , which have an odor resembling bleaching powder , are not recommended for consumption . = = Taxonomy = = The species was first described scientifically by Miles Joseph Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis in 1859 as Agaricus ravenelii . Pier Andrea Saccardo transferred it to the genus Amanita in 1887 . It is in the subsection Solitariae , section Lepidella in the genus Amanita . Other North American species in the section Lepidella include A. abrupta , A. atkinsoniana , A. chlorinosma , A. cokeri , A. daucipes , A. mutabilis , A. onusta , A. pelioma , A. polypyramis , and A. rhopalopus . The specific epithet ravenelli honors the American mycologist Henry William Ravenel . The fungus is commonly known as the " pinecone Lepidella " . = = Description = = The cap is 8 – 17 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 6 @.@ 7 in ) wide , initially hemispherical to almost round , later becoming convex to flattened . It is fleshy , white to yellowish @-@ white , usually dry , but occasionally slightly sticky with age . The universal veil remains as a pale yellow to brownish @-@ orange layer that breaks up into crowded , rather coarse , conical to truncate @-@ conical warts . The warts are up to 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) wide and 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 in ) high , becoming more scale @-@ like towards the cap margin with age . The margin is non @-@ striate ( without any grooves ) , and appendiculate ( with partial veil remnants hanging along the cap margin ) . The gills are free from attachment to the stem , crowded together , moderately broad , and yellowish @-@ white to pale yellow . Interspersed among the gills are short gills ( lamellulae ) that do not extend completely to the stem ; they are somewhat truncated ( abruptly terminated ) to attenuated ( tapering gradually ) . The stem is 10 – 25 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 9 @.@ 8 in ) long and 1 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) wide , and decreases slightly in thickness near the apex . It is solid ( i.e. , not hollow ) , white to pale yellow , and covered with tufts of soft woolly hairs or fibrils . It has a large basal bulb , swollen in the middle , which roots in the ground up to 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) . The partial veil is yellowish @-@ white to pale yellow , forming an ring which is thick , woolly , delicate , and soon falls away . The universal veil remains at the stem base as thick scales , curved downward , often forming irregular rings . The flesh is firm , and white to pale yellow . The mushroom tissue has an odor of chlorinated lime ( bleaching powder ) , or " old tennis shoes " . The edibility of Amanita ravenelii mushrooms have been described variously as unknown , " not recommended " , or poisonous . = = = Microscopic characteristics = = = The spores are ellipsoid , occasionally ovoid or obovoid , thin @-@ walled , hyaline , amyloid , and measure 8 – 11 by 5 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 µm . The spore deposit is white . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are 40 – 65 by 7 – 11 @.@ 5 µm , four @-@ spored , with clamps at their bases . Cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are occasionally seen as small , club @-@ shaped cells measuring 15 – 35 by 10 – 15 µm , on thin @-@ walled hyphae that are 3 – 7 µm in diameter . The cap cuticle , which is not clearly differentiated from the cap tissue , consists of thin @-@ walled , interwoven hyphae 2 @.@ 5 – 9 µm in diameter . The tissue of the universal veil on the cap consists of more or less parallel and erect rows of roughly spherical , and ellipsoid to broadly ellipsoid cells , up to 78 by 65 µm and spindle- to club @-@ shaped cells up to 125 by 30 µm . These latter cells are terminal or in short , terminal chains , and are borne on moderately abundant , thin @-@ walled , branched , interwoven , sometimes nearly coralloid hyphae , 3 – 9 @.@ 5 µm diameter with a few scattered oleiferous ( oil @-@ containing ) hyphae , 5 – 12 @.@ 5 µm diameter . The distribution of hyphae at the stem base is similar to that on the cap , but with more filamentous hyphae . Clamp connections are present . = = = Similar species = = = The fruit bodies of A. ravenelii are distinguished from A. chlorinosma by the presence of pale yellow to brownish orange , large , conical to truncate @-@ conical warts on the cap surface and a large basal bulb . The mushroom A. polypyramis is pure white , and lacks the pale yellow to brownish @-@ orange large conical warts typical of A. ravenelii . The North American species A. armillariiformis has a similar areolate cap surface , but unlike A. ravenelii , does not have a distinct basal bulb , and it is found in semi @-@ arid areas associated with aspen and old growth Douglas fir . Also from North America , A. mutabilis has pink tones on the cap and stem , and will turn pink when its flesh is cut ; it smells of anise . = = Habitat and distribution = = Amanita ravenelii is a mycorrhizal fungus , meaning it forms mutualistic associations with shrubs and trees . Mushrooms grow on the ground solitarily , scattered , or in groups in mixed coniferous and deciduous forests . Although the specific tree associations preferred by A. ravenelii are unknown , in general , Amanita from section Lepidella tend to associate with diploxylon pine ( that is , pines in subgenus Pinus ) , oak , and hickory . Amanita ravenelii is widely distributed in the southeastern United States , where their occurrence is " occasional to frequent " in the late summer and autumn months of August to November ; mushrooms been collected from the US states of Maryland , North Carolina , South Carolina , Indiana , Tennessee , and Virginia . It has also been reported growing in northern Baja California , Mexico . = = = Cited books = = = Jenkins DB . ( 1986 ) . Amanita of North America . Eureka , California : Mad River Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 916422 @-@ 55 @-@ 0 .
= HMS Andromeda ( 1897 ) = HMS Andromeda was one of eight Diadem @-@ class protected cruisers built for the Royal Navy in the 1890s . Upon completion in 1899 , the ship was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet where she helped to escort a royal yacht during its cruise through the Mediterranean Sea . After a refit , she was assigned to the China Station in 1904 and returned home three years later to be reduced to reserve . Andromeda was converted into a training ship in 1913 and remained in that role under various names until 1956 . That year she was sold for scrap and broken up in Belgium , the last Pembroke @-@ built ship still afloat . = = Design and description = = The Diadem class was designed to protect British merchant shipping from fast cruisers like the Russian Rurik and were smaller versions of the Powerful class . The ships had a length between perpendiculars of 435 feet ( 132 @.@ 6 m ) , a beam of 69 feet ( 21 @.@ 0 m ) and a draught of 25 feet 6 inches ( 7 @.@ 8 m ) . They displaced 11 @,@ 000 long tons ( 11 @,@ 000 t ) . The first batch of Diadems were powered by a pair of four @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , which were designed to produce a total of 16 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 300 kW ) and a maximum speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) using steam provided by 30 Belleville boilers . They carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 900 long tons ( 1 @,@ 930 t ) of coal and their hulls were sheathed with copper to reduce biofouling . Their complement numbered 677 officers and ratings . The main armament of the Diadem @-@ class ships consisted of 16 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) QF 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns . Four of these were on the forecastle and in the stern , all protected by gun shields . The remaining dozen guns were in armoured casemates on each broadside . The ships carried 200 rounds per gun . Protection against torpedo boats was provided by a dozen QF 12 @-@ pounder 3 in ( 76 mm ) , 12 @-@ cwt guns , for which 300 rounds per gun was provided , and 3 QF 3 @-@ pounder ( 1 @.@ 9 in ( 47 mm ) ) Hotchkiss guns . In addition , the ships carried a pair of Ordnance QF 12 @-@ pounder 8 @-@ cwt landing guns for use ashore . The ships were also armed with a pair of submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes . The sloped armoured deck ranged in thickness from 2 @.@ 5 to 4 inches ( 64 to 102 mm ) on the flat and slopes , respectively . The casemates were protected by 6 inches of Harvey armour while the gun shields had 2 to 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 51 to 114 mm ) of armour . The conning towers were protected by 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) walls and their roofs were 2 inches thick . The tubes protecting the ammunition hoists were also 2 inches thick . = = Construction and career = = Andromeda was the fifth ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy and was laid down on 2 December 1895 by Pembroke Dockyard . The ship was launched on 30 April 1897 by Lady Scourfield , wife of Sir Owen Scourfield Bt . She was fitted out at Pembroke Dock until 5 September 1898 and sailed later that month to Portsmouth Dockyard for completion . Upon completion on 5 September 1899 , she was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet under the command of Captain John Burr , who was relieved on 12 March 1901 by Captain Francis Foley . That month the ship was one of two cruisers tasked to escort the ocean liner HMS Ophir , commissioned as a royal yacht for the world tour of the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York ( later King George and Queen Mary ) , from Gibraltar to Malta , and then to Port Said . Captain Christopher Cradock was appointed in command on 24 March 1902 , and from 11 June that year Andromeda served as flagship to Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Baldwin Wake Walker , commander of the Cruiser Division of the Mediterranean Fleet . In May 1902 she visited Palermo to attend festivities in connection with the opening of an Agricultural Exhibition by King Victor Emmanuel , and the following month the ship was in Gibraltar for a coronation fête . Andromeda returned home later that year and began a lengthy refit . She was assigned to the China Station in 1904 and returned home three years later . The ship was reduced to reserve at Chatham Dockyard upon her return , but transferred to Devonport Dockyard shortly afterwards . Andromeda was assigned to the 9th Cruiser Squadron of the new reserve Third Fleet in 1912 . The following year the ship was converted to a boys ' training ship and renamed Powerful II on 23 September 1913 . She was later renamed Impregnable II in November 1919 and finally , HMS Defiance on 20 January 1931 , when she became part of the torpedo school . The ship was sold for scrap in 1956 and arrived at Burgt , Belgium , on 14 August to begin demolition .
= Cyclone Anne = Severe Tropical Cyclone Anne was one of the most intense tropical cyclones within the South Pacific basin during the 1980s . The cyclone was first noted on January 5 , 1988 as a weak tropical depression to the northeast of Tuvalu , in conjunction with the future Typhoon Roy in the North @-@ Western Pacific basin . Over the next few days , the system gradually developed while moving southwestward . Once it became a tropical cyclone , it was named Anne on January 8 . The next day , Anne rapidly intensified , becoming the fourth major tropical cyclone to affect Vanuatu within four years . On January 11 , Anne peaked in intensity while it was equivalent to a Category 5 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , and a Category 4 on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale . After turning southward on January 12 , Anne struck New Caledonia , becoming the strongest tropical cyclone to affect the French Overseas Territory . The system subsequently weakened as it started to interact with Tropical Cyclone Agi . Anne weakened into a depression and was last noted on January 14 to the south @-@ east of New Caledonia . Several islands within the Solomon Islands reported extensive property and crop damage . Within Vanautu , Anne brought heavy rains , flooding , and a storm surge . These effects damaged houses , crops , and property , especially on Ureparapara islands and the Torres Islands . Extensive damage was reported in New Caledonia after it was exposed to a prolonged period of storm force winds , with the eastern and southern coasts particularly affected . On January 12 , the system produced the highest daily rainfall totals since 1951 in several areas . Two people were killed after they attempted to cross a flooded river , and about 80 others were injured by the cyclone . Due to the impact of this storm , the name Anne was retired . = = Meteorological history = = On January 5 , 1988 , the Fiji Meteorological Service ( FMS ) started to monitor a shallow tropical depression that developed within the monsoon trough about 540 km ( 335 mi ) northeast of Tuvalu . At around the same time , a twin depression developed within the Northern Hemisphere monsoon trough , which eventually became Typhoon Roy . Over the next two days the Southern Hemisphere system developed further as it was steered towards the south @-@ southwest along an area of high pressure , before it became equivalent to a tropical storm while passing through the Tuvaluan islands . As a result , the United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) designated the system as Tropical Cyclone 07P and started to issue advisories on it . After organized further , the FMS named the storm Anne after it became equivalent to a modern @-@ day Category 2 on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale . On January 9 , the cyclone started to rapidly intensify while continuing to move towards the south @-@ southwest . Later that day , the JTWC upgraded the system to the equivalent of a Category 1 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) , and the FMS upgraded Anne to a Category 3 severe tropical cyclone on the Australian Scale . Early on January 10 , the cyclone passed through Temotu Province and about 55 km ( 35 mi ) to the northwest of Anuta Island . Later on January 10 , Anne directly passed over Vanuatu 's Torres Islands and came within 65 km ( 40 mi ) of Ureparapara in the Banks Islands . The cyclone continued to move to the south @-@ southwest and affected the northern islands of Vanautu . Early on January 11 , the FMS reported that Anne had peaked , with estimated 10 @-@ minute sustained winds near its center of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 4 severe tropical cyclone on the Australian scale . At around the same time the JTWC reported that Anne had peak 1 @-@ minute peak sustained winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , which made it equivalent to a Category 5 hurricane on the SSHWS . This made it one of the most intense tropical cyclones of the 1980s . Over the next day , Cyclone Anne turned south and rapidly weakened as it encountered upper @-@ level wind shear , approaching the French overseas territory of New Caledonia . Late on January 12 , Anne weakened into a modern @-@ day Category 2 tropical cyclone , before it made landfall on New Caledonia about 110 km ( 70 mi ) to the north @-@ northwest of Noumea . After the cyclone re @-@ emerged into the Coral Sea , the JTWC downgraded Anne to tropical storm status . Later on January 13 , Cyclone Anne started to interact with Cyclone Agi , which had rapidly moved south @-@ eastward towards the " relatively deeper " Anne . Agi had developed two days prior near the Louisiade Archipelago , about 1 @,@ 200 km ( 745 mi ) northwest of Cyclone Anne . Early on January 14 , Anne weakened into a depression and subsequently dissipated southeast of New Caledonia as it was caught up in the upper westerly flow . = = Preparations and impact = = During its early stages of development , Anne passed through the central islands of Tuvalu , causing minor damage to houses and crops such as bananas and coconuts . The storm passed to the north of Funafuti where strong gale force winds of 70 km / h ( 45 mph ) were recorded . The system subsequently affected the Solomon Island province of Temotu between January 9 – 10 while it had sustained winds of 150 km / h ( 95 mph ) . However , the cyclone 's center did not pass directly over any island , and the smaller islands escaped the destructive hurricane @-@ force winds . Because Anne moved through the province at about 30 km / h ( 20 mph ) , any gale and storm force winds that affected the islands were not prolonged . Anuta , Utupua , the Duff Islands and the Reef Islands all reported extensive damage to property and crops , with at least 25 houses and 5 classrooms damaged . The system affected the Northern Vanuatu Islands between January 10 – 11 and was the fourth major tropical cyclone to affect the island nation since 1985 , after Severe Tropical Cyclones Eric , Nigel and Uma . Ahead of Anne affecting Vanuatu , various alerts and warnings were issued including a hurricane warning . During January 10 , the cyclone directly passed over the Torres Islands and came within 65 km ( 40 mi ) of the Banks Islands , although it missed Vanuatu 's most populated districts around Port Vila and the rest of Espiritu Santo . Within Vanuatu , over 1600 people were made homeless while wind gusts of up to 225 km / h ( 140 mph ) were recorded . Torrential rain , flooding and storm surge caused damage to houses , crops and property while triggering a landslide on the island of Epi . The hardest hit area was Torba Province with severe damage recorded on the islands of Ureparapara and the Torres Islands , while extensive damage was recorded on the islands of Vanua Lava and Gaua . Within the province , virtually the whole population lost their houses , as well as their cash crops . There were reports of 4 – 5 m ( 13 – 16 ft ) tidal waves , washing away houses on the west coast of Ureparapara , while significant wave heights of over 11 m ( 36 ft ) were recorded . Within the province of Sanma , severe damage was recorded on Espiritu Santo after Anne flooded huts , unroofed school buildings , uprooted coconut trees and destroyed the main wharf . Overall the total damages from Anne in Vanuatu , were estimated at US $ 500 thousand . In conjunction with Tropical Cyclone Agi , Anne affected the whole of New Caledonia between January 11 – 15 , becoming the most powerful tropical cyclone to affect the French overseas territory in 12 years . Winds in Noumea reached up to 150 km / h ( 95 mph ) , although there was no serious damage there . Prolonged storm force winds left extensive damage to the island , with the eastern and southern coasts particularly affected . On January 12 , the system produced the highest daily rainfall totals since 1951 , with Noumea recording 262 mm ( 10 @.@ 3 in ) . Larger rainfall totals included 713 mm ( 28 @.@ 1 in ) in Goro and 519 mm ( 20 @.@ 4 in ) in Thio . Two people were killed after they attempted to cross a flooded river . Floods also swept away crops , huts and topsoil belonging to indigenous Melanesians that lived in coastal villages . Some areas reported crop damage between 90 and 100 % . Most of the roads within the territory were left unusable while all international flights to the territory were cancelled . About half of the houses in Poindimié were damaged or destroyed . The last wooden Royal Navy boat was scheduled to be sunk on January 12 , but was moved to January 19 due to the cyclones . Overall , there were about 80 injuries related to the cyclone in New Caledonia . = = Aftermath = = The aftermath of the cyclone was marked by a distinct lack of a quantitative assessment within the Solomon Islands ; with few boats or aircraft near the remote islands , relief measures were slow to get underway . However , 11 men aboard the United States Navy vessel USS Barbour County received Humanitarian Service Medals from the United States Department of Defense after aiding storm victims on Tikopia and Anuta from January 16 to 19 . With some residents forced to seek refuge in caves , the Government of Vanuatu asked the Australian , New Zealand and American governments for emergency food supplies and other assistance . In accordance , the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) dispatched two Hercules transport planes to help with recovery efforts . The first carried a helicopter that transported Vanuatu military forces , medical teams and supplies to the affected northern islands , especially remote villages inaccessible to larger aircraft . The other plane was used to transport more than 16 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 35 @,@ 000 lb ) of fuel and relief supplies including food and shelter provisions . The Royal New Zealand Air Force also provided a plane , which transported relief supplies from Espiritu Santo to the northern islands up to three times daily , with the bulk of supplies donated by Australia . The European Commission provided Vanuatu with € 100 @,@ 000 in emergency aid to purchase local foods , including rice , preserved meat , and fish , and to distribute it to Anne 's victims . The total cost of relief and reconstruction efforts was estimated between US $ 1 @.@ 2 – 2 million . Within the Paiti @-@ la @-@ Tonuatua area to the north of Noumea , New Caledonia Air Force helicopters rescued several people who had moved to the roofs of their houses . Despite the severe crop damage , no areas were declared disasters by January 20 . The South Pacific division of the Adventist Development and Relief Agency sent AU $ 5 thousand to New Caledonia for relief efforts . Emergency funding of F300 thousand was given to New Caledonia to help with the relief effort by the French Minister of the Interior and Minister of Overseas Territories . The European Commission also provided New Caledonia with € 85 thousand , which was distributed by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in the form of cash donations to the worst @-@ affected families . After the season , the name " Anne " was retired by the World Meteorological Organization .
= Gyroporus cyanescens = Gyroporus cyanescens , commonly known as the bluing bolete or the cornflower bolete , is a species of bolete fungus in the family Gyroporaceae . First described from France in 1788 , the species is found in Asia , Australia , Europe , and eastern North America , where it grows on the ground in coniferous and mixed forests . The yellowish to buff cap surface is fibrous and roughened , and reaches up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) in diameter . The thick stem , roughly the same color as the cap or lighter , is hollowed out into chambers . All parts of the mushroom turn an intense blue color within a few moments of bruising or cutting . The mushroom is edible , despite its hard stem . A less common variety occurs where the color change is to deep violet rather than blue . The bluing reaction results from the oxidation of a chemical called gyrocyanin . = = Taxonomy = = The species was first described scientifically by French botanist Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard in his 1788 Herbier de la France . Later synonyms include Boletus constrictus by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1801 , Leccinum constrictum by Samuel Frederick Gray in 1821 , Suillus cyanescens by Petter Karsten in 1882 , and Leucoconius cyanescens by Günther Beck von Mannagetta und Lerchenau in 1923 . The variety violaceotinctus was described by Roy Watling in 1969 from collections made in Michigan , USA . The specific epithethe aquarist 's " green water " is commonly described as a dense bloom of free @-@ floating single @-@ cell algae is derived from the Ancient Greek κύανoς , meaning " dark blue " , while the varietal epithet violaceotinctus means " having a violet tinge " . It is commonly known as the bluing bolete or the cornflower bolete . = = Description = = The cap of G. cyanescens is initially convex , but flattens out in maturity , sometimes becoming shallowly depressed ; it reaches a diameter of 4 – 12 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The cap is dry , and ranges in color from buff to yellowish to pale olive , occasionally with darker streaks of color . Its surface is uneven , sometimes with wrinkles and pits . The cap margin is initially curved inward , and sometimes splits in maturity . The flesh is whitish to pale yellow , and has a brittle texture . On the underside of the cap , the pore surface is white to yellowish , sometimes with olive or tan tinges . There are roughly two circular pores per millimeter , and the tubes that comprise the pores are 5 – 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) deep , but depressed around the top of the stem . Injury to the pores will cause them to stain first greenish yellow , then greenish blue or blue . The stem is 4 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long by 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , and is either roughly equal in width throughout its length , or has a basal or middle swelling . The stem tissue is hard and brittle ; it is initially stuffed with a soft pith that develops cavities , or becomes entirely hollow in maturity . Roughly the same color as the cap or lighter , the stem surface is dry and lacks reticulations . It is initially covered in coarse hairs that tend to disappear in maturity to leave a relatively smooth surface . All parts of the fruit body stain blue when cut or injured . The variety G. cyanescens var. violaceotinctus is nearly identical in appearance , but stains dark lilac to indigo when bruised . The odor and taste of the fruit bodies is indistinct . The color of the spore print is pale yellow . Spores are ellipsoid , smooth , hyaline ( translucent ) , and have dimensions of 8 – 10 by 5 – 6 µm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club shaped , two- to four @-@ spored , and measure 24 – 30 by 8 – 10 µm . Pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the inner walls of the tubes ) are light yellow brown in color , club shaped , infrequent , and measure 25 – 38 by 7 @.@ 2 µm ; the cheilocystidia ( found on the tube edge ) are colorless , numerous , and measure 32 – 47 by 7 – 10 µm . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae . = = = Similar species = = = Although there are a few lookalike species with similar overall appearance , in the field , Gyroporus cyanescens is typically readily recognized by its characteristic straw @-@ yellow color and nearly instantaneous dark blue bruising . G. phaeocyanescens is smaller , with a dull brownish @-@ yellow cap . Although its flesh has a bluing reaction to injury , its yellow pore surface does not . It has larger spores , measuring 9 – 15 by 5 – 7 µm . G. umbrinosquamosus , found along the Gulf Coast of the United States , is similar in appearance , but lacks the bluing reaction . Newly described from China in 2003 , G. brunneofloccosus closely resembles G. cyanescens , and was frequently confused with that species . It has a smaller fruit body , with a brownish cap up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter . Its staining reaction involves a change from light turquoise to dark turquoise or dark blue . Its spores are 5 – 8 @.@ 5 by 4 – 5 @.@ 3 µm . Suillus tomentosus has brownish pores that undergo a slower blue staining reaction . If the fruit bodies are not uprooted and only the top of the cap is examined , G. cyanescens can be confused with young Russula fellea mushrooms . = = = Uses = = = Gyroporus cyanescens is edible , and considered " choice " by several sources . The fruit bodies , even if mature , are typically free of insect larvae . Specimens collected in sandy soil , however , are difficult to clean , but cleaning may be facilitated by washing the fruit bodies in a bowl of water so that the sand sinks to the bottom . The blue color largely disappears after two minutes of sautéing . Cooked mushrooms have a meaty texture , and mild nutty flavor that is enhanced if fried to crispness . Drying the mushrooms strengthens the taste . The variety violaceotinctus is used in mushroom dyeing , and produces a light yellow , beige , gold , or brownish @-@ orange color depending on the mordant used . = = Ecology and distribution = = Gyroporus cyanescens is an ectomycorrhizal species that has a broad host range . Fruit bodies of Gyroporus cyanescens grow singly or scattered on the ground in deciduous and mixed forests . Often found in association with birch and poplar , the fungus tends to prefer sandy soil , and also frequents road banks and woodland edges . Fruiting occurs in summer and early autumn . Fruit bodies can be parasitized by the mold Sepedonium ampullosporum . Infection results in necrosis of the mushroom tissue , and a yellow color caused by the formation of large amounts of pigmented aleurioconidia ( single @-@ celled conidia produced by extrusion from the conidiophores ) . Gyroporus cyanescens is found in Asia , Australia , North America , and Europe . In China , it is known from Guangdong and Yunnan . The fungus appears in eucalypt woodland in Australia . In North America , it is widespread east of the Rocky Mountains . The geographical distribution ranges from eastern Canada to Florida , and west to Minnesota , although it has been occasionally reported from the Pacific Northwest . G. cyanescens var. violaceotinctus has been reported from Japan . = = Chemistry = = The identity of the chemical causing bluing upon tissue injury was reported in 1973 . The molecule , gyrocyanin , is a highly oxidized bis @-@ phenol @-@ substituted cyclopentenone that develops a blue color when it is oxidized . In contrast , the bluing of other boletes has been attributed to the oxidation of variegatic or xerocomic acid . Gyrocyanin is biosynthesized from intermediates supplied by the shikimate pathway , a metabolic route used by fungi for the synthesis of aromatic amino acids .
= Kingda Ka = Kingda Ka is a steel accelerator roller coaster located at Six Flags Great Adventure in Jackson , New Jersey , United States . It is the world 's tallest roller coaster , the world 's second fastest roller coaster , and was the second strata coaster ever built . It was built by Stakotra , a subcontractor to Intamin . The train is launched by a hydraulic launch mechanism to 128 miles per hour ( 206 km / h ) in 3 @.@ 5 seconds . At the end of the launch track , the train climbs the main top hat tower , reaching a height of 456 feet ( 139 m ) and spanning over a 3 @,@ 118 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 950 m ) track by the end of the ride . = = History = = Plans to build Kingda Ka were announced on September 10 , 2004 , at an event held for roller coaster enthusiasts and the media . The event revealed the park 's goal to build " the tallest and fastest roller coaster on earth " , reaching 456 feet ( 139 m ) and accelerating up to 128 miles per hour ( 206 km / h ) in 3 @.@ 5 seconds . On January 13 , 2005 , Kingda Ka 's tower construction was completed , and on May 21 , 2005 , the ride opened to the public . Kingda Ka became the " tallest " and " fastest " roller coaster in the world , taking both world records from Top Thrill Dragster at Cedar Point . It lost the title of world 's fastest when Formula Rossa at Ferrari World opened in November 2010 . Intamin designed both Kingda Ka and Top Thrill Dragster , and the two share a similar design and layout that differs primarily by the theme and the additional hill featured on Kingda Ka . Both rides were built by Stakotra and installed by Martin & Vleminckx . On August 29 , 2013 , Six Flags Great Adventure officially announced Zumanjaro : Drop of Doom for the 2014 season . The new attraction was attached to the Kingda Ka coaster . The drop tower features three gondolas integrated into the existing structure which is also be built by Intamin . Kingda Ka closed at the start of the 2014 season in order construct Zumanjaro : Drop of Doom on to Kingda Ka . Kingda Ka reopened on weekends on Memorial Day Weekend and fully reopened when Zumanjaro : Drop of Doom was completed on July 4 , 2014 . = = Ride experience = = Kingda Ka 's layout and experience is nearly identical to Top Thrill Dragster . After the train has been locked and checked , it moves slowly out of the station to the launch area . It passes through a switch track , which allows four trains ( on two tracks ) to load simultaneously . When the signal to launch is given , the train rolls back slightly ( to engage the catch car ) and the brakes on the launch track retract . There is a voice that says , " Arms down , head back , hold on " . The launch occurs five seconds after the hissing sound of the brake fins retracting or the warning voice . Kingda Ka 's horn previously sounded before each launch , but it was silenced due to noise complaints from nearby residents ; the horn now sounds only when Kingda Ka first launches after being idle for a length of time . When the train is in position , the hydraulic launch mechanism accelerates the train from 0 to 128 miles per hour ( 0 to 206 km / h ) in 3 @.@ 5 seconds . At the end of the launch track , the train climbs the main tower ( or top hat ) and rolls 90 degrees to the right before reaching a height of 456 feet ( 139 m ) . The train then descends 418 feet ( 127 m ) straight down through a 270 @-@ degree right @-@ hand spiral . The train climbs the second hill of 129 feet ( 39 m ) , producing a moment of weightlessness before being smoothly brought to a stop by the magnetic brakes ; it then makes a left @-@ hand U @-@ turn and enters the station . The ride lasts 28 seconds from the start of the launch . = = = Theme = = = Kingda Ka is themed as a mythical tiger , named for the 500 lb ( 230 kg ) Golden Tabby Bengal tiger who lived in an adjacent exhibit before moving to the park 's safari . The ride 's sign and station have a Nepalese style . The queue line is surrounded by bamboo , which augments the jungle theme . Jungle music is played during the wait and throughout the Golden Kingdom section of the park , which was built for the ride . The hydraulic launch motor is capable of producing 20 @,@ 800 peak horsepower ( 15 @.@ 5 MW ) . Because of the high speed and open nature of the trains , the ride will not operate in light rain . = = = Trains and station = = = Kingda Ka 's four trains are color @-@ coded for easy identification ( green , dark blue , teal , and orange ) and are numbered ; the four colors are also used for the seats and restraints . Each train seats 18 people ( two per row ) . The rear car has one row , while the rest have two . The rear row of each car is positioned higher than its front row for better visibility . Each of Kingda Ka 's trains has an extra row of seat mounts . The panels could be removed for the installation of additional seats in the future . This modification would increase the capacity of each train from 18 to 20 , and the hourly capacity of the coaster from 1400 to 1600 riders per hour . Kingda Ka 's station is prepared for this modification , with entrance gates for the currently @-@ nonexistent row of seats . Kingda Ka 's over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraint system consists of a thick , rigid lap bar and two thin , flexible over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraints . Because the over @-@ the @-@ shoulder portions of the restraint are not rigid , the hand grips are mounted to the lap bar . Kingda Ka 's restraints are also held down by a belt , in case the main locking system fails . To speed loading , riders are asked to secure their own restraints if possible . Kingda Ka 's station has two parallel tracks , with switch tracks at the entrance and exit . Each of the station 's tracks is designed to accommodate two trains , so each of the four trains can be operated from its own station . While all of the trains are mechanically identical and able to load and unload at each of the four individual station bays the original plan was for all trains to operate at the same time and for each train to load and unload at their own station . During normal operation , trains on one side are loaded while trains on the other side are launched . When both sides of the station are in use an employee directs riders in line to go to a particular side , where they can choose to sit in the front or rear of the train . During recent seasons it has become common that only one train bay ( the forward one on the side opposite of the parking lot ) be used for the loading , unloading , and dispatching of trains and that the other train or trains in operation on any given day wait either in the station behind a loading / unloading train or outside of the station on the brakes that follow the second hill . Two operators load , check and dispatch each train ; another launches the trains . Kingda Ka 's music is by Safri Duo ; almost their entire Episode II album is played in the queue and station . The other is the remix version of Survivor 's " Eye of the Tiger " , played by DJ Quicksilver . Both of these may be heard during the queue and in the station . = = = Rollbacks = = = A train may occasionally experience a rollback following a launch . A rollback occurs when the train fails to make it over the top of the tower and descends back down the side it was launched . Kingda Ka includes retractable magnetic brakes on its launch track to prevent a train from rolling back into the loading station . = = Incidents = = = = = Bolt failure = = = On June 8 , 2005 , a bolt failed inside a trough that the launch cable travels through . This caused the liner to come loose creating friction on the cable and preventing the train from accelerating to the correct speed . The rubbing of the cable against the inside of the metal trough caused sparks and shards of metal to fly out from the bottom of the train . The ride was closed for almost two months following the incident . Damage occurred to the launch cable which was frayed and required replacement , to the engine including minor damage to seals , and to many of the brake fins . The brake fins in the launch section are mounted to keep fast @-@ moving trains from moving backward into the station . However , the fast @-@ moving train being pulled forward caused an unexpected stress on a number of fins bending them forward . Not all required replacement , but there were more damaged brake fins than Six Flags had replacements for . Extra brake fins had to be ordered from the manufacturer , Intamin in Switzerland , and the ride had to undergo thorough testing following the repair . Kingda Ka reopened on August 4 . = = = Lightning strike = = = Kingda Ka was struck by lightning in May 2009 and suffered serious damage . The ride was closed for three months while being repaired and reopened on August 21 , 2009 . = = = Hurricane Irene = = = On August 27 , 2011 , Kingda Ka suffered unspecified damage shortly before Hurricane Irene . On Saturday , August 27 , Six Flags Great Adventure did not open due to the approaching hurricane . While it is unknown whether additional damage occurred due to the storm , the coaster was damaged to the extent that it could not run before Irene . Kingda Ka remained closed until the start of the 2012 operating season on April 5 . = = = Bird strike = = = Shortly before 5 : 00 pm on July 26 , 2012 , a young boy was sent to the hospital after suffering minor injuries from being struck by a bird during normal operation . The ride resumed normal operation shortly after the incident . = = Awards = = = = Records = =
= Ghosts I – IV = Ghosts I – IV is the sixth studio album by American industrial rock band Nine Inch Nails , released on March 2 , 2008 . The team behind the project included Nine Inch Nails front man Trent Reznor , studio @-@ collaborators Atticus Ross and Alan Moulder , and instrumental contributions from Alessandro Cortini , Adrian Belew , and Brian Viglione . Reznor described the music of Ghosts as " a soundtrack for daydreams " , a sentiment echoed by many critics who compared it with the work of Brian Eno and Robert Fripp . The songs are unnamed , and are identified only by their track listing and group number . The album is the first independent release from Nine Inch Nails following its split from Interscope Records , and is an almost entirely instrumental album . Ghosts was initially intended to be a five @-@ track EP , but the final release consists of four nine @-@ track EPs , totaling 36 tracks . The album was released under a Creative Commons license ( BY @-@ NC @-@ SA ) , and in a variety of differing packages and price points , including a US $ 300 " Ultra @-@ Deluxe Limited Edition " . Ghosts was initially released digitally on the official Nine Inch Nails website without any prior advertisement or promotion . Via the official Nine Inch Nails YouTube profile , a user @-@ generated " film festival " was announced , where fans were invited to visually interpret the album 's music and post their results . Critical reception of the album has been generally favorable , with its unorthodox release attracting positive comments from many critics . Much coverage of Ghosts I – IV has compared it to the digital @-@ download releases of Radiohead 's In Rainbows as well as Saul Williams ' The Inevitable Rise and Liberation of NiggyTardust ! , the latter produced by Reznor himself . The album was nominated for two 2008 Grammy Awards , in the categories " Best Rock Instrumental Performance " and " Best Box Set or Limited Edition Package " . These nominations represented the first time music released under a Creative Commons license had been nominated for a Grammy Award . = = Production = = = = = Recording and music = = = Nine Inch Nails front man Trent Reznor announced in 2007 that the band had completed its contractual obligations to its record label , Interscope Records , and would no longer be working with the company . He also revealed that the band would likely distribute its next album independently , possibly in a fashion similar to Saul Williams ' 2007 album The Inevitable Rise and Liberation of NiggyTardust ! , which Reznor produced . Following the Performance 2007 tour in support of the band 's previous album Year Zero ( 2007 ) , Reznor set out to make a record " with very little forethought " . Ghosts I – IV originated from an experiment : " The rules were as follows : 10 weeks , no clear agenda , no overthinking , everything driven by impulse . Whatever happens during that time gets released as ... something . " Reznor explained , " I 've been considering and wanting to make this kind of record for years , but by its very nature it wouldn 't have made sense until this point " . The core creative team behind the project was Reznor , Atticus Ross , and Alan Moulder . Live @-@ band member Alessandro Cortini and studio musicians Adrian Belew and Brian Viglione also contributed instrumental performances on select tracks . Reznor described the band 's early intentions for the project as " an experiment " , and explained the group 's process : " When we started working with the music , we would generally start with a sort of visual reference that we had imagined : a place , or a setting , or a situation . And then attempt to describe that with sound and texture and melody . And treat it , in a sense , as if it were a soundtrack . " The musicians created the album tracks through improvisation and experimentation . As a result , the initial plan to release a single EP of the material expanded to include the increasing amount of material . Viglione contributed percussion to tracks 19 and 22 . He stated that Reznor 's instructions to him were to " build a drumkit . Piece together any stuff that you want to bang on ; rent what you want to rent . Have fun and ... be creative — See where your mind and your ideas take you . " Viglione 's makeshift drum kit included a 50 @-@ gallon trash can , a pair of water cooler jugs , and a cookie tray with a chain across it . Alessandro Cortini is credited on a total of ten tracks from Ghosts for his contributions on guitar , bass guitar , dulcimer , and electronics . Cortini was brought onto the project two weeks into the process , and his involvement evolved from " first recording some extra parts to some tracks " and eventually into " a collaboration on [ the ] tracks noted in the booklet " . Adrian Belew was also brought on for select instrumental contributions , but as the project evolved Reznor expanded Belew 's involvement and shared writing credit with him on two tracks . Ghosts I – IV is an almost entirely instrumental album , with only a few tracks containing sampled vocals . Reznor described the album 's sound as " the result of working from a very visual perspective — dressing imagined locations and scenarios with sound and texture ; a soundtrack for daydreams . " PopMatters ' review of the album compared its musical style to that of Brian Eno and Robert Fripp , ultimately categorizing it as " dark ambient " . The review went on to describe the music as " a tonal painting , a collection of moods and not all of these moods are good ones . " National Public Radio compared the album to the music of Erik Satie and Brian Eno ; Rolling Stone 's review to Brian Eno , specifically the album 's sound to the instrumentals of Another Green World ( 1975 ) and the rhythm collages of My Life in the Bush of Ghosts ( 1981 ) . Robert Christgau also compared the album to the work of Brian Eno , summarizing Ghosts ' sound as " mental wallpaper " . Ghosts I – IV features a wide assortment of musical instruments , including piano , guitar , bass , synthesizer , marimba , tambourine , banjo , dulcimer , and xylophone , many of which were sampled and distorted electronically . Percussion instruments , contributed primarily by Brian Viglione , were constructed largely out of found objects and household items . = = = Artwork = = = Rob Sheridan acted as the album 's art director , in collaboration with Artist in Residence . Sheridan was also art director for the previous two Nine Inch Nails studio albums , With Teeth ( 2005 ) and Year Zero . Since Ghosts was released in a variety of versions , some of the versions feature somewhat differing ( or additional ) album art and related artwork . A 40 @-@ page PDF comes with each version of the album and contains a photograph for each of the 36 tracks . These photographs are also embedded into the ID3 tags of every downloadable track . = = Release = = Ghosts I – IV was released online on March 2 , 2008 , on the official Nine Inch Nails website in a number of different formats at various price points . The only prior advertisement or notice of the release was a post by Reznor two weeks prior on the site saying " 2 weeks ! " Ghosts was the first album released by Reznor 's independent label The Null Corporation . Retail copies of the album were distributed by RED Distribution on April 8 on CD and vinyl formats , and May 1 for the " Deluxe " and " Ultra @-@ Deluxe " editions . The smallest Ghosts package contains the first nine tracks , available for free online from either the official Nine Inch Nails website or officially from various BitTorrent trackers , including The Pirate Bay . The entire album was also made available for download directly from the band for US $ 5 . Physical copies of the album were available for pre @-@ sale online , with immediate access to the digital version . A two @-@ disc version includes two audio CDs and a 16 @-@ page booklet for $ 10 . A " Deluxe Edition " is available for $ 75 and includes two audio CDs , a data @-@ DVD containing multitrack files of the album , a Blu @-@ ray Disc with the album in high @-@ definition stereo and accompanying slide show , and a 48 @-@ page hardcover book with photographs . A $ 300 " Ultra @-@ Deluxe Limited Edition " included everything in the " Deluxe " edition , as well as a 4 @-@ LP 180 gram vinyl set in a fabric slipcase , and two exclusive limited edition Giclée prints , unique to each copy . These were limited to 2 @,@ 500 pieces , each copy numbered and signed by Trent Reznor . Reznor described the limited edition release as " the most luxurious physical package we 've ever created . " Finally , the album was also released on 4 @-@ LP 130 gram vinyl , set in a double gate fold package , for $ 39 . The album is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non @-@ Commercial Share Alike license , in effect allowing anyone to use or rework the material for any non @-@ profit purpose , as long as credit is provided and the resulting work is released under a similar license . Reznor explained this move by saying " It 's a stance we 're taking that we feel is appropriate [ ... ] with digital technology , and outdated copyright laws , and all the nonsense that 's going on these days " . Jim Guerinot , then manager of Nine Inch Nails , explained the unconventional release of the album as " [ not ] a reaction to what doesn ’ t exist today . [ ... ] it ’ s more just like , ' Hey , in a vacuum I can do whatever I want to do . ' " The digital @-@ release of the album reportedly required an extensive overhaul of the Nine Inch Nails website in order for the site to cope with the influx of traffic , online @-@ payments , and customer service needs of releasing the album . These upgrades cost Reznor approximately $ 20 @,@ 000 to implement . Despite these measures , upon the release of Ghosts the site crashed , and additional servers were necessary to handle the traffic . Reznor wrote in 2008 that " more volumes of Ghosts are likely to appear in the future . " In a 2009 interview with Trent Vanegas , he repeated his intention to make another Ghosts album in the near future . Portions of the album were used as the soundtrack to the 2014 documentary film Citizenfour . = = = Film festival = = = Nearly two weeks after the release of the album , Reznor organized and announced a user @-@ created " film festival " as an accompaniment to the album , hosted at the official Nine Inch Nails YouTube channel . It was revealed that the album was stripped of much artwork and song titles to provide a blank canvas for the project . Reznor explained that the endeavor was not meant as a contest , but as " an experiment in collaboration and a chance for us to interact beyond the typical one @-@ way artist @-@ to @-@ fan relationship . " Over 2 @,@ 000 video submissions were posted and over 13 @,@ 000 members joined the festival group , which started in March 2008 . = = = Live performances = = = Ghosts I – IV material was implemented into Nine Inch Nails live performances typically as a distinct section of instrumental songs mid @-@ way through the show . Ghosts material was performed in this manner primarily as part of the Lights in the Sky tour in 2008 , immediately after the album 's release . During these segments the music was largely acoustic , as opposed to the electric instrumentation of other Nine Inch Nails live sets . The Ghosts segment included instrumentation from a marimba , harmonium , glockenspiel , double bass , banjo and various homemade percussion instruments . The Ghosts section was later scrapped for the " NINJA " and " Wave Goodbye " tours , as Reznor felt the instrumental songs did not fit with the set lists . = = Reception = = = = = Sales and chart performance = = = The album 's initial release on the official Nine Inch Nails website suffered problems as the website was inundated with traffic , and was not fully operational until extra servers were added to handle the influx of downloads . A week after the album 's release , the official Nine Inch Nails site reported over 750 @,@ 000 purchase and download transactions , amassing over $ 1 @.@ 6 million in sales . Pre @-@ orders of the $ 300 " Ultra @-@ Deluxe Limited Edition " sold out in less than 30 hours of its release . Ghosts I – IV was the fourth most played album of 2008 on Last.fm , and was the best @-@ selling album on Amazon MP3 . The physical release of the album placed on numerous charts worldwide , including a peak position of number 14 on the Billboard 200 album chart . The album also reached the top spot on Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums chart . Internationally , Ghosts peaked at number 15 on the Australian ARIA Charts , number 58 in Austria , number 3 in Canada , number 26 in New Zealand , and number 60 on the UK Albums Chart . = = = Critical reception = = = Critical response to Ghosts I – IV was generally favorable , with an average rating of 69 / 100 based on 12 reviews on Metacritic . Seth Colter Walls of Newsweek described the album as " the kind of absorbing musical experience that the surviving ranks of know @-@ it @-@ all record @-@ store clerks would be pushing on customers , if only they could offer it for sale . " IGN gave the album a rating of 8 @.@ 7 out of 10 and wrote , " The music is so engrossing and encompassing that time ceases to be a factor — at least until the music finally stops . " PopMatters gave the album an 8 out of 10 and described the album as " 36 tracks , but no songs " , and went on to call it " dark , brooding [ ... ] haunting . " Pitchfork Media criticized the album by saying " nearly every one of the untitled instrumental sketches here feels emaciated and half @-@ finished " , and gave the work a 5 @.@ 0 out of 10 @.@ 0 . Blender also criticized the album , summarizing the review by saying " Nine Inch Nails return with no label oversight , no boundaries and no tunes . " The Washington Post stated , " There 's too much here . Yet it 's the most interesting NIN in years . " The review went on to describe each track as " the sonic equivalent of a silver orb hovering in your living room [ which then ] explodes into a million shiny balls of mercury that splash to the floor before trickling , magnetically , back into a large round mass . " The album 's unorthodox distribution methods also garnered the attention of various news agencies , such as Wired 's Eliot Van Buskirk , who labeled Ghosts as " a remarkably extensive release " . Ben Worthen of The Wall Street Journal hypothesized that " most business execs [ ... ] could learn a lot from [ Reznor 's ] experiments with online business models . " Many news agencies compared the release to Radiohead 's 2007 " pay what you want " digital release of In Rainbows , as well as the similar release of Saul Williams ' album The Inevitable Rise and Liberation of NiggyTardust ! the same year , which Reznor produced . Rolling Stone 's review called the album a " a new @-@ media showpiece " , while Tiny Mix Tapes said " the circumstances surrounding the release are so forward @-@ thinking that they could be considered just as key to appreciating the album as the music itself . " Financial website The Motley Fool wrote an article on the album 's release titled " Music Industry Gets Nailed Again " , forecasting that " Innovators like Nine Inch Nails are paving the way for new media business models that may bypass the middleman while making sure artists and fans are happy . " In its review of The Slip , however , PopMatters described Ghosts I – IV in retrospect as an " aimless batch of ... instrumentals packaged in a brilliant marketing scheme " and said that it was " basically a CD release with a couple of mail @-@ order special editions available for the ' true fans ' . " = = = Awards and recognitions = = = Ghosts was nominated for two Grammy Awards , under the categories Best Rock Instrumental performance for the track " 34 Ghosts IV " , and Best Boxed Set or Limited Edition Package for the " Ultra @-@ Deluxe " edition of the album . These nominations represented the first time music licensed under Creative Commons had been nominated for a Grammy Award . Following the release of Ghosts and the similar online release method of the band 's follow @-@ up , The Slip , Reznor was awarded the Webby Artist of the Year Award at the annual Webby Awards in 2009 . Rolling Stone magazine named Reznor number 46 in its " 100 People Who Are Changing America " list , concluding that he has " been more creative than anyone in embracing the post @-@ CD era " . = = Track listing = = All songs written and composed by Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross , except where noted . = = = Bonus tracks = = = Included with the " Deluxe " and " Ultra @-@ Deluxe " releases were two additional bonus tracks , accessible only by reconstructing them from multi @-@ track files provided on the DVD . The second bonus track features musical elements and a similar song structure to " Demon Seed " , track 10 from what would be the next Nine Inch Nails release , The Slip . = = Personnel = = Album credits as adapted from the liner notes of Ghosts I – IV : Trent Reznor – performance , production , art direction Atticus Ross – programming , arranging , production Adrian Belew – guitars ( 3 , 4 , 7 , 10 – 11 , 14 , 16 , 21 , 25 , 27 , 31 , 32 , 35 ) , electronics ( 25 ) , marimba ( 30 ) Alessandro Cortini – bass ( 4 ) , guitars ( 4 , 11 , 17 , 20 , 24 , 28 ) , dulcimer ( 22 ) , additional electronics ( 19 , 22 , 29 , 33 ) Brian Viglione – drums ( 19 , 22 ) Alan Moulder – engineering , mix engineering , production Tom Baker – mastering Rob Sheridan – art direction , photography , visual and physical elements Artist in Residence – art direction , photography , visual and physical elements Phillip Graybill – photography Tamar Levine – additional photography = = Chart positions = =
= Tropical Storm Felice = Tropical Storm Felice was a modest tropical cyclone that lightly impacted parts of the Gulf Coast of the United States in mid @-@ September 1970 . Spawned by an upper @-@ level trough over the Bahamas , the system crossed the Florida Keys and entered the Gulf of Mexico , where it gradually began to strengthen . Felice was a disorganized storm for its entire duration , plagued by dry air , a lack of deep thunderstorm activity , and an ill @-@ defined center of circulation , but nevertheless managed to peak as a high @-@ end tropical storm with winds just below Category 1 hurricane strength . Tracking northwestward , the storm brushed southern Louisiana on September 15 before making landfall northeast of Galveston , Texas , late that same day . Once ashore , Felice quickly deteriorated as it recurved into the central United States . While over southeastern Oklahoma , however , its remnants still closely resembled a formidable tropical cyclone . In advance of the cyclone , officials prompted residents in vulnerable communities to leave their homes , and temporary storm shelters were established . However , the effects from Felice were generally light . Beneficial rains fell over parts of southern Florida , while sections of coastal Louisiana experienced minimal gale @-@ force winds and above @-@ normal tides . Winds gusting to 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) at Galveston — and estimated near 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) elsewhere — caused scattered power outages and minor tree damage , while heavy rainfall totaling over 6 in ( 150 mm ) triggered some street flooding . Felice delayed the local rice harvest and damaged some hay that had been cut before the storm . Significant precipitation and gusty winds accompanied the system into northern Texas and Oklahoma . Overall , the storm left no fatalities or widespread property damage anywhere along its path . = = Meteorological history = = Developing as a tropical depression near Nassau in the Bahamas on September 12 , Felice had its origins in a persistent upper @-@ level trough over the area . The nascent depression tracked slowly toward the west @-@ southwest without much intensification , ultimately passing just north of Key West , Florida as it entered the Gulf of Mexico . Over the open waters of the Gulf , the system accelerated toward the west @-@ northwest along the southern periphery of a large ridge of high pressure to the north . While reconnaissance aircraft data on the storm suggested that the depression strengthened into a tropical storm midday on September 14 , the official Atlantic tropical cyclone database known as HURDAT indicates the disturbance attained tropical storm status at 0000 UTC on September 15 . Despite continued gradual intensification , Felice remained disorganized as it approached the northern Gulf Coast at forward speeds of up to 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) . The storm 's center came within range of the weather radar site at New Orleans , Louisiana , resulting in close observation of the storm 's progress . Felice suffered from restricted outflow and a nebulous circulation , marked by the appearance of two centers . Near daybreak on September 15 , a more distinct center had apparently formed 100 mi ( 160 km ) to the west @-@ northwest of the storm 's initial core , which reportedly dissipated . Operationally , forecasters at the National Hurricane Center believed a surge of southerly inflow transported a significant amount of atmospheric vorticity away from the old center of low pressure , allowing for a new surface @-@ based circulation to form . Indeed , a special off @-@ hour advisory was issued to identify the storm 's new location . However , post @-@ season analysis of Felice determined that due to the cyclone 's disheveled nature , as well as technical problems at the time of observation , the center relocation could not be conclusively proven ; as a result , the official storm path does not reflect any significant jogs . Felice moved nearly parallel to the southern coast of Louisiana as it began to show signs of improved structure . It reached its peak intensity as a high @-@ end tropical storm with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) at 0000 UTC on September 16 , while located about 100 mi south of Lafayette . Dry continental air from the north likely prevented Felice from reaching Category 1 hurricane strength . Even as a strong tropical storm , Felice lacked deep convection typical of mature tropical cyclones . Shortly after peaking , Felice moved ashore at High Island , Texas — about 30 mi ( 48 km ) to the northeast of Galveston — during the evening hours of September 15 local time . The storm rapidly deteriorated once over land and slowed in forward speed . Curving toward the northwest , Felice passed near Houston and weakened into a tropical depression . The diminishing system turned northward through north @-@ central Texas late on September 16 and entered southeastern Oklahoma by September 17 . Although Felice officially dissipated at 1200 UTC on September 17 , its remnants retained a structure very similar to that of a healthy tropical cyclone , as depicted by radar imagery from the National Severe Storms Laboratory in Norman . Distinct rainbands harbored a noticeable eye feature , which passed about 90 mi ( 140 km ) southeast of Norman . Two aircraft flew into the area to collect data on the unique storm ; notably , they found the system still had a warm core compared to its environment . Throughout the day on September 17 , the remnants of Felice continued to weaken . The residual surface low recurved toward the east @-@ northeast over Oklahoma and Arkansas before fully dissipating after September 19 . = = Preparations and impact = = As Felice neared the coast , gale warnings were in effect from Morgan City , Louisiana , to Galveston , while a hurricane watch extended from Morgan City to Port O 'Connor , Texas . Small craft advisories were also posted , cautioning light vessels to remain in port . All coastal advisories were discontinued by the early hours of September 16 . Residents in the path of the storm generally evacuated in a timely manner . Over 3 @,@ 000 fled the storm in Cameron Parish , Louisiana ; around half of the residents in the low @-@ lying southern part of the parish had already left before the mandatory evacuation was ordered . Farther west , one of two evacuation routes out of Sabine Pass , Texas had been rendered unusable a few days before the storm when a bridge was damaged in a maritime accident . As the remaining highway was considered susceptible to coastal flooding , officials quickly worked to evacuate 1 @,@ 300 people in Sabine Pass before the storm 's approach . The American Red Cross converted nine public schools into temporary storm shelters in and around Beaumont . Shelters were also set up in Houston and Baton Rouge , Louisiana , though they generally went unused . The post offices in Sabine Pass , Gilchrist , and Port Bolivar transferred money orders , first @-@ class parcels and postage stamps to the Beaumont office as a safety precaution . While crossing the Florida Keys on September 13 , the depression dropped modest but beneficial rainfall , generally totaling 1 to 3 in ( 25 to 75 mm ) , over the southern Florida Peninsula . The highest tides associated with Felice ran 3 @.@ 9 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above normal at Cameron , Louisiana . Rainfall in Louisiana was light , peaking at around 2 @.@ 5 in ( 65 mm ) in areas closest to the storm 's path . Coastal locations experienced gusty winds , occasionally blowing gale @-@ force ; an anemometer at Grand Chenier recorded northeasterly gusts up to 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) on the evening of September 15 . Though the winds may have had an impact on the quality of sugar cane crops in extreme southern areas of the state , no flooding or property damage was reported . Felice crossed the coast accompanied by appreciable rainfall , gusty winds , and heightened tides . At Crystal Beach , near where Felice made landfall , there was reportedly a distinct lull in the wind and rain coinciding with the storm 's poorly defined eye . Weather observers in Gilchrist and Humble estimated gusts at 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) from the east and southwest , respectively . Galveston endured sustained winds of 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) and gusts as high as 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) . The storm uprooted some newly planted palm trees in the city ; one tree struck a parked car . Isolated power outages affected parts of the area , including the east side of Galveston after an electrical transformer was hit by lightning . Elsewhere , Felice brought down numerous tree limbs and damaged utility lines . In Washington County to the north , the storm damaged trees and shrubs . Winds gusted to 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) at Houston . Heavy rains , accumulating 6 @.@ 73 in ( 171 mm ) , triggered minor urban flooding in downtown Galveston . Moderate to heavy rainfall affected a broad area along the storm 's path , with several reports of 5 in ( 130 mm ) or more . The precipitation resulted in a few instances of inconsequential flooding , but often proved beneficial as it helped relieve dry conditions throughout eastern Texas . Rice and hay crops sustained minor damage , the harvest of the former delayed by about a week . Along the coast , storm tides peaked at 3 @.@ 0 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal , with several reports of 2 and 3 @-@ ft deviations . As the weakening storm proceeded inland , it continued to drop heavy rainfall . Over 6 in ( 150 mm ) of rain fell over Denton County in northern Texas . In southeastern Oklahoma , the remnants of Felice produced rainfall rates up to 2 in ( 50 mm ) per hour , contributing to totals over 4 in ( 100 mm ) . Relatively strong winds , peaking around 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , occurred near the remnant center of circulation . The system continued to generate showers and thunderstorms over the central Mississippi River Valley , producing a swath of 3 inch or greater rainfall totals across northern Arkansas .
= USS New Jersey ( BB @-@ 16 ) = USS New Jersey ( BB @-@ 16 ) was the fourth of five Virginia @-@ class battleships of the United States Navy , and the first ship to carry her name . She was laid down at the Fore River Shipbuilding Company in Quincy , Massachusetts in May 1902 , launched in November 1904 , and commissioned into the fleet in May 1906 . The ship was armed with an offensive battery of four 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) guns and eight 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) guns , and she was capable of a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . New Jersey spent her entire career in the Atlantic Fleet . In late 1906 , she took part in the Second Occupation of Cuba , and she participated in the Jamestown Exposition in April – May 1907 . At the end of the year , she joined the Great White Fleet for its circumnavigation of the globe , which lasted into 1909 . The ship spent the following five years conducting peacetime training . In April 1914 , New Jersey took part in the occupied Veracruz during the Mexican Revolution . During World War I , she was used as a training ship , and after the war , she was tasked with transporting American soldiers back from Europe . New Jersey was decommissioned in 1920 and slated for destruction in bombing tests in 1923 . Martin NBS @-@ 1 bombers sank the ship on 5 September 1923 in a series of bomb attacks . = = Design = = New Jersey was 441 feet 3 inches ( 134 @.@ 49 m ) long overall and had a beam of 76 ft 3 in ( 23 @.@ 24 m ) and a draft of 23 ft 9 in ( 7 @.@ 24 m ) . She displaced 14 @,@ 948 long tons ( 15 @,@ 188 t ) as designed and up to 16 @,@ 094 long tons ( 16 @,@ 352 t ) at full load . The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft triple @-@ expansion steam engines rated at 19 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 000 kW ) and twelve coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers , generating a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . As built , she was fitted with heavy military masts , but these were quickly replaced by cage masts in 1909 . She had a crew of 812 officers and enlisted men . The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 inch / 40 Mark 4 guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline , one forward and aft . The secondary battery consisted of eight 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) / 45 guns and twelve 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) / 45 guns . The 8 @-@ inch guns were mounted in four twin turrets ; two of these were superposed atop the main battery turrets , with the other two turrets abreast the forward funnel . The 6 @-@ inch guns were placed in casemates in the hull . For close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats , she carried twelve 3 @-@ inch / 50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and twelve 3 @-@ pounder guns . She also carried two 1 @-@ pounder guns . As was standard for capital ships of the period , New Jersey carried four 21 in ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes , submerged in her hull on the broadside . New Jersey 's main armored belt was 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 6 in ( 152 mm ) elsewhere . The main battery gun turrets ( and the secondary turrets on top of them ) had 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) thick faces , and the supporting barbettes had the 10 in ( 250 mm ) of armor plating . The conning tower had 9 in ( 230 mm ) thick sides . = = Service history = = The keel for New Jersey was laid down at the Fore River Shipyard on 3 May 1902 . She was launched on 10 November 1904 ; the daughter of Franklin Murphy , then the Governor of New Jersey , christened the ship . She was commissioned into the US fleet on 12 May 1906 , Captain William Kimball in command . New Jersey began her initial training in the Atlantic and Caribbean , which was interrupted by a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt in Oyster Bay in September . On 21 September , the ship was deployed to Cuba to take part in the Second Occupation of Cuba ; she remained there until 13 October . New Jersey participated in the Jamestown Exposition from 15 April to 14 May 1907 , which commemorated the 300th anniversary of the founding of the Jamestown colony . An international fleet that included British , French , German , Japanese , and Austro @-@ Hungarian warships joined the US Navy at the event . New Jersey joined the Great White Fleet on 16 December 1907 , when they departed Hampton Roads to begin their circumnavigation of the globe . The purpose of the cruise was a show of naval strength , which was especially directed at Japan . Tensions between the two countries were high at the time , and the cruise served to defuse the situation . The fleet cruised south to the Caribbean and then to South America , making stops in Port of Spain , Rio de Janeiro , Punta Arenas , and Valparaíso , among other cities . After arriving in Mexico in March 1908 , the fleet spent three weeks conducting gunnery practice . The fleet then resumed its voyage up the Pacific coast of the Americas , stopping in San Francisco and Seattle before crossing the Pacific to Australia , stopping in Hawaii on the way . Stops in the South Pacific included Melbourne , Sydney , and Auckland . After leaving Australia , the fleet turned north for the Philippines , stopping in Manila , before continuing on to Japan where a welcoming ceremony was held in Yokohama . Three weeks of exercises followed in Subic Bay in the Philippines in November . The ships passed Singapore on 6 December and entered the Indian Ocean ; they coaled in Colombo before proceeding to the Suez Canal and coaling again at Port Said , Egypt . The fleet called in several Mediterranean ports before stopping in Gibraltar , where an international fleet of British , Russian , French , and Dutch warships greeted the Americans . The ships then crossed the Atlantic to return to Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909 , having traveled 46 @,@ 729 nautical miles ( 86 @,@ 542 km ; 53 @,@ 775 mi ) . There , they conducted a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt . New Jersey spent the next several years in the peacetime routine of the Atlantic Fleet , with various training maneuvers and gunnery practice in the Atlantic and Caribbean . During this period , she spent a year out of commission at Boston from 2 May 1910 to 15 July 1911 , and in the summers of 1912 and 1913 , she conducted training cruises for midshipmen from the United States Naval Academy . The ship was deployed to the Caribbean to protect American interests as the Mexican Revolution worsened in late 1913 . On 21 April 1914 , the United States occupied Veracruz in the aftermath of the Tampico Affair . On 13 August , New Jersey departed Mexican waters and steamed to Santo Domingo , where unrest gripped both the Dominican Republic and Haiti . After observing conditions in the two countries , the ship continued on , arriving in Hampton Roads on 9 October . She spent the next three years conducting her normal training routine . On 6 April 1917 , the United States declared war on Germany owing to the unrestricted submarine warfare campaign Germany initiated earlier that year . New Jersey was employed as a training ship for naval draftees , based in Chesapeake Bay . In November 1918 , Germany signed the Armistice that ended the war ; New Jersey was thereafter used to transport American soldiers back from Europe . In the course of four voyages between late 1918 and 9 June 1919 , she carried some 5 @,@ 000 soldiers . New Jersey was decommissioned on 6 August 1920 at the Boston Naval Shipyard , and was to be disposed of under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty signed in 1922 . New Jersey , along with her sister Virginia and the battleship Alabama were allocated for weapons tests conducted with the US Army Air Service , under the supervision of General Billy Mitchell . The bombing tests against New Jersey were conducted on 5 September 1923 in the Atlantic Ocean off Diamond Shoals , North Carolina , by Martin NBS @-@ 1 bombers of the 2nd Bombardment Group . Observers were aboard the Army transport ship St. Mihiel . Four of the NBS @-@ 1s attacked New Jersey with 600 @-@ pound ( 270 kg ) bombs at an altitude of 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , scoring four hits and several near @-@ misses , which caused significant flooding . Another attack was made , this time with 2 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 910 kg ) bombs at 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) , seven of which landed close to the ship . By this time , flooding had increased to the point that the casemate gun ports were submerged . Two more NBS @-@ 1s then attacked with two 1 @,@ 100 @-@ pound ( 500 kg ) bombs apiece ; the first two missed but the third was a direct hit . It caused a large explosion and New Jersey capsized and sank 24 minutes later .
= Nesomys narindaensis = Nesomys narindaensis is an extinct rodent that lived in northwestern Madagascar . It is known from subfossil skull bones and isolated molars found in several sites during field work that started in 2001 . First described in 2010 , it is placed in the genus Nesomys together with three smaller living species , which may differ in some details of molar morphology . The presence of N. narindaensis , a rare element in the local rodent fauna , suggests that the region was previously more humid . = = Taxonomy = = Remains of Nesomys narindaensis were found during fieldwork in northwestern Madagascar that started in 2001 . The species was described in a 2010 paper by Pierre Mein and colleagues , together with another extinct rodent , Brachytarsomys mahajambaensis . The specific name , narindaensis , where one of the sites where the species has been found is located . It is placed in the genus Nesomys , together with three smaller living species , N. audeberti , N. lambertoni , and N. rufus . Nesomys is classified in the exclusively Madagascan subfamily Nesomyinae of the family Nesomyidae , which includes various African rodents . = = Description = = Nesomys narindaensis is known from a damaged skull , missing part of the back , a mandible ( lower jaw ) with the first two molars ( m1 and m2 ) , and four isolated molars ( one first upper molar , M1 , one third upper molar , M3 , and two m2 ) . It is larger than each of the three living species , and the known material additionally differs from those in a few details that may not hold in larger samples . Total skull length is 61 @.@ 3 mm , longer than in the largest living species , N. lambertoni ( 50 @.@ 3 – 53 @.@ 8 mm ) . The width of the palate between the M1 is 8 @.@ 7 mm ( 7 @.@ 2 – 7 @.@ 9 mm in N. lambertoni ) and the length of the upper toothrow is 9 @.@ 04 and 9 @.@ 16 mm on the two sides of the skull ( 7 @.@ 2 – 7 @.@ 9 mm in N. lambertoni ) . M1 is flat @-@ crowned . The anteroloph , a crest at the front of the tooth , lacks a smaller accessory spur that is present in N. rufus . The paracone , one of the main cusps , is quite small ; this cusp is more prominent in N. rufus . The mesoloph , a crest on the middle of the tooth , is distinct but short and located further to the back than in N. rufus . M2 has a longer mesoloph . M3 is largely flat @-@ crowned , but the paracone is a bit more prominent than the rest . The valley between the cusps at the front is deeper than the valleys at the back . Each of the upper molars has three roots . The m1 is long and narrow . The anteroconid , the cusp at the front of the tooth , is oriented perpendicularly to the main axis of the tooth and on the lingual ( inner ) side is separated from the metaconid cusp . The protoconid , another cusp on the labial ( outer ) side , is connected at its back to a longitudinal crest , which in turn anchors the transverse mesolophid crest , and then joins the hypoconid labial cusp . In front of the hypoconid , an ectostylid ( a smaller cuspule ) is present . The entoconid cusp , located lingually , is relatively high and is separated from the mesolophid before it by a deep valley . Another crest , the posterolophid , is present behind the hypoconid . At the front of the m2 , crests known as the anterolophid and anterolabial cingulum are present before the protoconid and the metaconid . As on the m1 , a transverse mesolophid and an ectostylid are present . The hypoconid and the entoconid are present , as is the posterolophid behind them . Within the posterolophid , there is a small valley that is absent in N. rufus . Both m1 and m2 have two roots ; m3 is unknown . = = Distribution and ecology = = Remains of Nesomys narindaensis have been found at the sites of Antsingiavo , Ambongonambakoa , and Ambatomainty in northwestern Madagascar , which are late Pleistocene ( 126 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 years ago ) and Holocene ( less than 10 @,@ 000 years ago ) in age . Nesomys is a rare element of the rodent fauna , which is dominated by multiple species of Eliurus and Macrotarsomys . Modern Nesomys live on the ground in eastern ( N. audeberti and N. rufus ) and western ( N. lambertoni ) Madagascar . The only surviving western species , N. lambertoni , is restricted to a relict humid karst area ; the presence of N. narindaensis and Brachyuromys mahajambaensis suggests that the past environment in northwestern Madagascar was also more humid . Subfossil remains of Nesomys have been recorded from some other localities in northwestern Madagascar , but these have not been described .
= HMS Crescent ( 1931 ) = HMS Crescent was a C @-@ class destroyer which was built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . The ship was initially assigned to the Home Fleet , although she was temporarily deployed in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean during the Abyssinia Crisis of 1935 – 36 . Crescent was sold to the Royal Canadian Navy in late 1936 and renamed HMCS Fraser . She was stationed on the west coast of Canada until the beginning of World War II when she was transferred to the Atlantic coast for convoy escort duties . The ship was transferred to the United Kingdom ( UK ) in May 1940 and helped to evacuate refugees from France upon her arrival in early June . Fraser was sunk on 25 June 1940 in a collision with the anti @-@ aircraft cruiser HMS Calcutta while returning from one such mission . = = Design and construction = = Crescent displaced 1 @,@ 375 long tons ( 1 @,@ 397 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 865 long tons ( 1 @,@ 895 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Crescent carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 145 officers and men . The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Crescent had a single QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt AA gun between her funnels , and two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on the aft end of her forecastle deck . The 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) AA gun was removed in 1936 and the 2 @-@ pounders were relocated to between the funnels . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . Three depth @-@ charge chutes were fitted , each with a capacity of two depth charges . After World War II began this was increased to 33 depth charges , delivered by one or two rails and two throwers . Crescent was ordered on 30 January 1930 as part of the 1929 Naval Programme and laid down on 1 December 1930 at Vickers @-@ Armstrongs , Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness . She was launched on 29 September 1931 and completed on 15 April 1932 . = = Operational history = = After the ship commissioned on 21 April 1932 , she was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet . Crescent collided with her sister HMS Comet at Chatham on 21 July and was under repair until 27 August . Crescent was refitted at Chatham between 30 March and 6 May 1933 , before deploying to the West Indies between January and March 1934 . She was given another refit at Chatham from 27 July to 3 September 1934 . Crescent was detached from the Home Fleet during the Abyssinian Crisis , and deployed in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea from September 1935 to April 1936 . When the ship returned , she was refitted at Sheerness between 23 April to 13 June and placed briefly in reserve . = = = Transfer to the Royal Canadian Navy = = = Together with her sister HMS Cygnet , Crescent was sold to Canada on 20 October 1936 for a total price of £ 400 @,@ 000 . She was refitted again to meet Canadian standards , including the installation of ASDIC ( sonar ) , and taken over by them on 1 February 1937 . The ship was renamed as HMCS Fraser and commissioned into the RCN at Chatham on 17 February . Fraser was assigned to the Canadian Pacific Coast and arrived at Esquimalt on 3 May 1937 . She remained there until she was ordered to the East Coast on 31 August 1939 . When World War II began on 3 September , Fraser was transiting the Panama Canal and arrived at Halifax on 15 September . She and her sisters were employed as local escorts to ocean convoys sailing from Halifax . In November the Royal Navy 's North America and West Indies Station took operational control of the Canadian destroyers . The ship escorted the convoy bringing most of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division to Britain part way across the North Atlantic in mid @-@ December . In March 1940 she was ordered to join the Jamaica Force for Caribbean patrols before being reassigned to Western Approaches Command two months later . On 26 May she left Bermuda for Britain and arrived at Plymouth on 3 June where she was pressed into service evacuating Allied troops from various French ports on the Atlantic coast . Sometime in 1940 , the ship 's aft set of torpedo tubes was removed and replaced by a 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) AA gun . = = Loss = = On 25 June 1940 , Fraser , her sister HMCS Restigouche , and the cruiser Calcutta were returning from St. Jean de Luz after rescuing refugees trapped by the German Army ( Operation Ariel ) , when Fraser was rammed by Calcutta in the Gironde estuary . Struck forward of the bridge by the cruiser 's bow , Fraser was cut in half and sank immediately . All but 45 of the ship 's crew were rescued by Restigouche and other nearby ships . Many of the survivors from Fraser transferred that later summer to HMCS Margaree , and were lost when that vessel sank on 22 October 1940 as a result of a collision with the freighter MV Port Fairy .
= Interstate 80 in Iowa = Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) is a transcontinental Interstate Highway in the United States , stretching from San Francisco , California , to Teaneck , New Jersey . In Iowa , the highway travels west to east through the center of the state . It enters the state at the Missouri River in Council Bluffs and heads east through the southern Iowa drift plain . In the Des Moines area , I @-@ 80 meets up with I @-@ 35 and the two routes bypass Des Moines together . On the northern side of Des Moines , the interstates split and I @-@ 80 continues east . In eastern Iowa , it provides access to the University of Iowa in Iowa City . Northwest of the Quad Cities in Walcott is Iowa 80 , the World 's Largest Truckstop . I @-@ 80 passes along the northern edge of Davenport and Bettendorf and leaves Iowa via the Fred Schwengel Memorial Bridge over the Mississippi River into Illinois . Before I @-@ 80 was planned , the route between Council Bluffs and Davenport , which passed through Des Moines , was vital to the state . Two competing auto trails , the Great White Way and the River @-@ to @-@ River Road , sought to be the best path to connect three of the state 's major population centers . The two trails combined in the 1920s and eventually became U.S. Highway 32 ( US 32 ) in 1926 . US 6 , which had taken the place of US 32 , became the busiest highway in the state . In the early 1950s , plans were drawn up to build an Iowa Turnpike , to be the first modern four @-@ lane highway in the state , along the US 6 corridor . Plans for the turnpike were shelved when the Interstate Highway System was created in 1956 . Construction of I @-@ 80 took place over 14 years . The first section opened on September 21 , 1958 , in the western suburbs of Des Moines . New sections of interstate opened up regularly over the next twelve years , though construction in eastern Iowa was completed in 1966 . The final piece of I @-@ 80 in Iowa , the Missouri River bridge to Omaha , Nebraska , opened on December 15 , 1972 . By the 1980s , I @-@ 80 had fallen into disrepair in Iowa and across the country . Federal funding was freed up in 1985 to allow reconstruction of the highway . = = Route description = = Interstate 80 is the longest Interstate Highway in Iowa . It extends from west to east across the central portion of the state through the population centers of Council Bluffs , Des Moines and the Quad Cities . The majority of the highway runs through farmland , yet roughly one @-@ third of Iowa 's population live along the I @-@ 80 corridor . = = = Western Iowa = = = I @-@ 80 enters Iowa on a bridge over the Missouri River , where it leaves Omaha , Nebraska , to enter Council Bluffs . Almost immediately after landing on the Iowa side of the bridge , it meets I @-@ 29 at a Y interchange . From eastbound I @-@ 80 , northbound I @-@ 29 is accessed via a left exit . The two interstates travel together through southern Council Bluffs for three miles ( 5 km ) . The speed limit through this section is 55 miles per hour ( 90 km / h ) . The South 24th Street interchange serves a commercial area anchored by the Mid @-@ America Center and Horseshoe Casino . The South Expressway exit , which marks the southern end of Iowa Highway 192 ( Iowa 192 ) , is adjacent to a big box store commercial center . I @-@ 29 and I @-@ 80 diverge at another Y interchange ; I @-@ 29 heads south and I @-@ 80 heads to the northeast . East of the I @-@ 29 split , I @-@ 80 travels northeast for the next 20 miles ( 32 km ) . It passes through eastern Council Bluffs where it serves a shopping mall . Just after the Madison Avenue exit , the speed limit increases to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . Exit 8 is the first of many encounters with U.S. Highway 6 ( US 6 ) . The interstate leaves Council Bluffs and speed limits rise to the rural limit of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Here , I @-@ 80 roughly follows the course of Mosquito Creek past Underwood and Neola , both of which are served by interchanges . About two miles ( 3 km ) of Neola , I @-@ 80 curves to the east as it meets the eastern end of I @-@ 680 at a directional T interchange . For the next 50 miles ( 80 km ) , I @-@ 80 runs in more or less a straight line . Interchanges occur at regular intervals ; 3 to 6 miles ( 5 to 10 km ) of Pottwattamie and Cass county farmland separate each exit from the next . Near Avoca , it crosses the West Nishnabotna River and meets US 59 . East of the interchange , the interstate crosses the eastern branch of the West Nishnabotna . As I @-@ 80 approaches the area north of Atlantic , there are three interchanges , Iowa 173 , County Road N16 ( CR N16 ) , and US 71 , which serve the western , central , and eastern parts of the city , respectively . Iowa 173 , which serves Atlantic by way of Iowa 83 , also connects to Elk Horn and Kimballton . US 71 , which continues north towards Carroll , carries US 6 traffic to the interstate . At this point , US 6 begins the first of three instances when its traffic is routed along I @-@ 80 . In the eastern part of Cass County , the two routes meet the northern end of Iowa 148 . As I @-@ 80 and US 6 approach Adair , the highways curve slightly to the south to bypass the community . There are two interchanges in Adair ; both of the intersecting roads , at one time or another , carried US 6 . CR G30 , the White Pole Road , was the original alignment of US 6 , while CR N54 has not carried US 6 since 1980 . Further east is an interchange with Iowa 25 . About one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of the interchange is Freedom Rock . Each year for Memorial Day , the rock is repainted with a patriotic scene by local artist Ray " Bubba " Sorenson II . Near Dexter , I @-@ 80 and US 6 graze the northwestern corner of Madison County . After two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , the routes enter Dallas County and meet CR F60 , another former alignment of US 6 . = = = Central Iowa = = = Continuing east , the two routes follow a due @-@ east section of highway , where they pass Earlham . Near the CR F90 / CR P58 interchange , they start heading northeast towards Des Moines . At De Soto , US 6 splits away from I @-@ 80 at the interchange with US 169 . Tourists who want to see the covered bridges of Madison County ( made famous by the book The Bridges of Madison County ) and the birthplace of John Wayne , are directed to follow US 169 south to Winterset . Between De Soto and Van Meter , the interstate crosses the middle and north branches of the Raccoon River , which converge just south of the crossing of the North Raccoon . As the highway gets closer to Des Moines , it moves more sharply to the northeast . In southern Waukee , near the entrance ramp to the eastbound rest area , there is an overpass which carries Alice 's Road . A new interchange is planned for this location , which is scheduled to be open in late 2013 or early 2014 . As I @-@ 80 enters West Des Moines , the speed limit lowers to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) and the path of the interstate straightens out to the east at the Jordan Creek Parkway exit . The highway adds a third lane eastbound and drops the third lane westbound . Almost two miles ( 3 km ) to the east is the interchange with I @-@ 35 , which also marks the beginning of I @-@ 235 . Eastbound I @-@ 80 exits the freeway via a flyover ramp to northbound I @-@ 35 ; eastbound I @-@ 235 begins as the continuation of the I @-@ 80 freeway . Locally , this exit is called the West Mixmaster . I @-@ 80 shares the next 14 miles ( 23 km ) with I @-@ 35 on a six @-@ lane freeway where each direction 's three lanes are separated by a Jersey barrier . They begin their journey together by heading north ; they briefly run through West Des Moines and then cross into Clive at University Avenue . At the Clive – Urbandale city limits is the interchange with Hickman Road , which carries US 6 . Hickman Road serves a truck stop to the west and the Living History Farms visitor center to the east . The two interstates continue north through Urbandale where they pass Douglas Avenue . The Iowa 141 exit is at Rider Corner , the point where the I @-@ 35 / I @-@ 80 freeway curves 90 degrees to the east . East of the 86th Street exit , the freeway begins a slow descent towards the Des Moines River . Merle Hay Road , named for the first Iowan to die in World War I , carries Iowa 28 from the south to its northern end at the interstates . They cross the Des Moines River just south of the mouth of Beaver Creek . Four miles ( 6 km ) to the east is Iowa 415 and one mile ( 2 km ) further east is US 69 . Between the interchanges there is a fourth lane in each direction . At the end of their 14 miles ( 23 km ) together , I @-@ 35 exits to the north and I @-@ 235 's eastern end is to the south at the East Mixmaster . East of I @-@ 35 , I @-@ 80 meets up with US 65 on the outskirts of Altoona . The two routes only share the highway for one mile ( 2 km ) as US 65 splits away at the next exit . Here , US 6 rejoins I @-@ 80 for the second time and the interstate returns to its four @-@ lane configuration . After a third exit for Altoona , the interstate resumes its 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) rural limit . Near Colfax , the highways cross the South Skunk River . After an interchange with Iowa 117 , the highway is forced to the north to avoid crossing the river multiple times . As it returns south to its original line , it meets CR F48 , which was another former alignment of US 6 . At the Iowa 14 exit in Newton , US 6 exits off the interstate . East of Newton is an interchange that serves the Iowa Speedway . Five miles ( 8 km ) east of the speedway in an exit for Iowa 224 which connects to Kellogg . After this interchange , the highway curves to the northeast and descends a hill to cross the North Skunk River . Shortly after the river , it curves back to the east and climbs up the hill . As the road straightens out , it begins a 35 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 56 km ) stretch of straight higwhay . Between the river and the Iowa 146 exit south of Grinnell , the farmland that surrounds the interstate undulates . Just south of Malcom , it meets US 63 . Further east , at exit 201 for Iowa 21 , there are competing truck stops on either side of the freeway . A hotel is located on the northern side . = = = Eastern Iowa = = = Now in Iowa County , I @-@ 80 continues towards the eastern end of the 50 @-@ mile ( 80 km ) stretch of straight highway . It turns slightly to the southeast near the Ladora exit and straightens again at the Marengo interchange , where Kinze Manufacturing , a farm implement manufacturer , advertises its business to passing travelers by arranging farm implements into sculptures . A few miles east , in Williamsburg , is the northern end of Iowa 149 . The Williamsburg exit is the location of a Tanger Outlet Mall . The next interchange marks the southern end of US 151 . Both the Iowa 149 and US 151 interchanges serve the Amana Colonies which are located 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the north . As I @-@ 80 enters the Iowa City area , the speed limit drops to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . On the edge of Coralville is an interchange with US 218 and Iowa 27 . This interchange is also the beginning of I @-@ 380 , which heads north along US 218 and Iowa 27 towards Cedar Rapids and Waterloo . The I @-@ 80 / I @-@ 380 interchange was identified as the most likely location in Iowa for a semi @-@ trailer truck to overturn . According to the American Transportation Research Institute , 30 trucks rolled over at the interchange during the 8 @-@ year study period . The Iowa DOT has plans to replace the cloverleaf interchange with a turbine interchange , but the project would not take place until around 2025 . At the I @-@ 380 interchange , I @-@ 80 becomes a six @-@ lane freeway . The Coral Ridge Avenue exit provides access to US 6 , which passes beneath the interstate just before the interchange , and the eponymous shopping center located to the southeast . The First Avenue exit in Coralville and Dubuque Street exit in Iowa City direct University of Iowa traffic to different parts of the university campus . The Iowa River flows between the two interchanges and also marks the boundary between Coralville and Iowa City . On Iowa City 's east side are the Iowa 1 and Herbert Hoover Highway exits . Between them , the highway drops back to four lanes and the speed limit increases to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . As it enters Cedar County , it passes West Branch , the birthplace of and site of the library and museum of President Herbert Hoover . It approaches the Cedar River near the village of Rochester . Just east of the river crossing , Iowa 38 joins I @-@ 80 from the north . The county road that continues to the south from Iowa 38 leads to Moscow . The two highways travel together for four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) until they reach the Wilton area . Here , Iowa 38 exits to the south , while US 6 joins I @-@ 80 for the last time . Before reaching the Quad Cities , I @-@ 80 passes Walcott and Iowa 80 , which is self @-@ billed as the " World 's Largest Truckstop " . The 65 @-@ acre ( 26 ha ) truck stop has three restaurants , a gift shop , movie theater , museum , barber shop , and dentist on site . On average , the truck stop has served more than 1 @.@ 4 million customers per year since it opened in 1965 . As I @-@ 80 and US 6 approach the Quad Cities metropolitan area , the speed limit drops to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) for the final time . Just within the city limits of Davenport is the I @-@ 280 interchange . US 6 exits to the south to join I @-@ 280 while I @-@ 80 is joined by US 61 . I @-@ 80 and US 61 only share 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of freeway before US 61 exits to its own freeway heading north . In between the two exits is an interchange with Northwest Boulevard , which marks the eastern end of Iowa 130 . A couple miles east of the eastern US 61 interchange is the western end of I @-@ 74 . Because of a " turn off to stay on " interchange with I @-@ 74 and I @-@ 280 near Colona , Illinois , called " the Big X " , I @-@ 74 through traffic is urged to use I @-@ 80 around the Quad Cities to the Big X. At the Big X , traffic from both I @-@ 74 and I @-@ 80 must exit their respective freeways to continue on the same route . Near the Mississippi River , the interstate takes a sharp curve to the southeast to line up perpendicularly to the river . Just before the base of the bridge is an interchange with US 67 , the last exit in Iowa . I @-@ 80 ends its 306 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 492 km ) journey through Iowa over the Mississippi River on the Fred Schwengel Memorial Bridge . It enters rural Rock Island County , Illinois , and continues towards Chicago . = = = Services = = = The Iowa DOT operates 37 rest areas and one scenic overlook in 20 locations along its 780 miles ( 1 @,@ 260 km ) of interstate highway . Along I @-@ 80 , there are nine locations that have facilities for each direction of traffic . Parking areas are divided so passenger automobiles are separated from large trucks . Common among all of the rest stops are separate men 's and women 's restrooms , payphones with TDD capabilities , weather reporting kiosks , vending machines , and free wireless Internet . Many stations have family restrooms and dump stations for recreational vehicles . The first rest areas along Iowa 's interstates were built in the 1960s . They were modest facilities ; separate buildings housed the restrooms and vending machines . A few rest stops had another building with local tourist information . On August 4 , 1999 , the first modern rest area opened along eastbound I @-@ 80 near Wilton . The new facilities feature one large building housing as many as 28 more toilets than the older buildings , in addition to all the other common rest area amenities . They also feature artwork by local Iowa artists . Each new rest area is designed around a theme . For instance , the facility near Adair is a tribute to the life of Henry A. Wallace , the 33rd Vice President of the United States , who was born in nearby Orient . = = History = = Since before the primary highway system was created in 1920 , the Council Bluffs @-@ to @-@ Davenport , by way of Des Moines , corridor has always been important . Two roughly parallel auto trails , the Great White Way and the River @-@ to @-@ River Road , served cross @-@ state traffic . The two routes were merged into one route , the Whiteway Highway , in 1922 . Four years later , the Whiteway Highway would become US 32 . The US 32 designation was absorbed into an extended US 6 in 1931 . Previously , US 6 had existed only in the Northeastern United States . Within ten years , US 6 was the most @-@ traveled road in Iowa , with an average of " 1 @,@ 920 cars a day at any given rural point . " = = = Iowa Turnpike = = = In 1954 , Coverdale & Colpitts , a New York City @-@ based engineering firm working on behalf of the Iowa State Highway Commission , reported on the feasibility of building an east – west toll road , to be called the Iowa Turnpike , across the state . The firm found that the turnpike should closely parallel US 6 between Council Bluffs and Davenport . They concluded that the turnpike could be economically possible if $ 180 million ( $ 1 @.@ 59 billion in 2016 ) in revenue bonds were issued at interest rates no higher than 3 @.@ 5 % . In early March 1955 , the Iowa General Assembly debated the pros and cons on building a toll road . Proponents of the turnpike said it would be a self @-@ financing project . The feasibility report suggested tolls of 1 @.@ 5 cents per mile ( 0 @.@ 93 ¢ / km ) , which in 2016 is 13 cents per mile ( 8 @.@ 1 ¢ / km ) . It was estimated that in 1953 , the turnpike could have generated $ 5 @.@ 9 million ( $ 52 @.@ 2 million in 2016 ) . If traffic levels were not high enough to raise enough revenue , as the opponents of the project worried , the state would end up paying for the project , thus defeating the purpose of a toll road . The proposed highway was to run from Illinois Route 80 near Port Byron , Illinois , which ran along the eastern bank of the Mississippi River , over a new bridge into Iowa , to the South Omaha Bridge where US 275 crossed the Missouri River . The entire route was to be in close proximity to US 6 across the state . It was to be the first modern four @-@ lane highway in the state , with 12 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) lanes and an at least 15 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) grassy median . Sixteen interchanges were planned along the route . Most interchanges were to be located near population centers ; an option to build a seventeenth near Grinnell , if necessary , was included . Eight service areas , similar in quality to those found on the Pennsylvania and New Jersey turnpikes , were planned as well . On April 29 , 1955 , an enabling act , which created the Iowa Toll Road Authority , came into effect giving the Authority the power to further study the feasibility of building a turnpike across the state . Before any construction was to begin , the authority was tasked with developing working relationships with neighboring states ' toll road authorities . A provision in the enabling act prevented Iowa from issuing toll road bonds before neighboring states had issued similar bonds . Plans were stalled while Illinois 's toll road commission worked out litigation regarding the financing of its bonds . Illinois was the only neighboring state to have a toll @-@ road @-@ planning body . Construction on the Iowa Turnpike would never begin . In January 1956 , the Federal @-@ Aid Highway Act of 1956 ( H.R. 8836 ) was introduced in Congress . H.R. 8836 created the Interstate Highway System , a national system of controlled @-@ access highways . President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the bill into law on June 29 , 1956 . The new law was problematic for the Iowa Turnpike for a couple of reasons . Firstly , the law designated 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) of controlled @-@ access highway in Iowa , including a cross @-@ state route in the vicinity of the turnpike 's planned route . Secondly , the federal government was going to pay for ninety percent of the construction costs ; states were only required to match ten percent of costs ( however , tolls were generally prohibited ) . The Interstate Highway System 's completeness and financing rendered the Iowa Turnpike obsolete before it was ever constructed . = = = Construction = = = The first section of I @-@ 80 to open for traffic , 2 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) from the West Mixmaster to the Douglas Avenue interchange in Urbandale , opened on September 21 , 1958 . By the end of November 1959 , the new interstate extended around the north side of Des Moines to US 69 . Within a year , the East Mixmaster , where I @-@ 35 splits away to the north , was opened . By the end of 1960 , 40 miles ( 64 km ) from US 71 north of Atlantic to US 6 near Dexter , 20 miles ( 32 km ) from I @-@ 35 to US 6 west of Newton , and 28 miles ( 45 km ) from Iowa 38 near the Cedar River to US 61 in Davenport had opened to traffic . In eastern Iowa , new sections of road were opened in series . 1962 saw the eastern section extended 20 miles west to Iowa City and the central section was extended 25 miles east to Grinnell . Iowa City 's section of interstate was completed on November 15 , 1963 . A 60 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 97 km ) section , the longest section to be opened at one time , connected the two sections in October 1964 . The easternmost section of I @-@ 80 , from US 61 to US 67 at the Mississippi River , opened a month later . This gave travelers nearly 185 miles ( 298 km ) of uninterrupted freeway driving . Construction then moved to the western half of the state . A new 20 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 32 km ) section from US 71 west to US 59 north of Avoca opened in December 1965 . A year later , the interstate was 90 % completed when two stretches , a 50 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 80 km ) stretch from US 59 to I @-@ 29 , which included 16 miles ( 26 km ) of I @-@ 80N and the missing 25 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 40 km ) section between the western section and Des Moines , each opened to traffic . Sections of I @-@ 80 in the Council Bluffs area did not open for another couple years . A short section between Madison Avenue and US 6 opened in 1968 . The interstate was completed from the eastern junction with I @-@ 29 to I @-@ 80N in late December 1969 . On both sides of the state , the respective river crossings opened to traffic nearly two years later than the connecting highways . Near LeClaire , the Fred Schwengel Memorial Bridge over the Mississippi River opened in 1966 after the highway had been completed to US 67 , which runs at the foot of the bridge , in 1964 . The center span of the Mississippi River bridge was installed on June 29 , 1966 . The 237 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 72 m ) , 520 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 470 t ) piece was floated into place by barge . In Council Bluffs , the Missouri River crossing opened on December 15 , 1972 , while the approach to the bridge opened in November 1970 . The Missouri River bridge 's completion marked the end of the 14 years it took to construct Interstate 80 . = = = Reconstruction = = = As early as the 1980s , traffic levels on I @-@ 80 reached the road 's design capacity . As a result , the highway required significant repairs for which Iowa 's interstate maintenance program lacked funding . A 16 @.@ 2 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 26 @.@ 1 km ) section from CR F90 between Earlham and the western junction with I @-@ 35 needed $ 500 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @.@ 04 million in 2016 ) in annual repairs . Funds for needed interstate repair became available in 1985 when President Ronald Reagan signed a bill that freed up $ 7 billion ( $ 15 @.@ 4 billion in 2016 ) from the Highway Trust Fund , the national mechanism for funding repairs to the Interstate Highway System . Under the law , Iowa was slated to receive $ 200 million per year ( $ 440 million in 2016 ) for its interstates . Reconstruction across the state took place in phases . Road crews worked in roughly 15 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 24 km ) zones divided into smaller sections . In each section , one direction of highway was closed while the other direction became a two @-@ lane , two @-@ direction road . When one section was completed , the crew would move on to the next section , preventing the entire zone from being closed at once . Iowa was not alone in the required repairs to I @-@ 80 . The Automobile Association of America reported that nearly every state along I @-@ 80 had reports of road work . In Iowa , though , there were two sections in 1988 which were particularly troublesome for travelers . The I @-@ 680 interchange near Neola was closed , so I @-@ 680 @-@ bound traffic was forced to travel through Neola on Iowa 191 to reach that highway . Another bottleneck occurred near Williamsburg , where it was a two @-@ lane road for six miles ( 10 km ) . Another problem for travelers hoping to avoid the construction on I @-@ 80 was the lack of east – west , four @-@ lane highways in Iowa . At the time , the nearest interstates , I @-@ 70 and I @-@ 90 were far across state lines in Missouri and Minnesota , respectively . One traveler , interviewed by The Des Moines Register , who was traveling back to Iowa from New York , sought to avoid I @-@ 80 's construction woes entirely by driving through Canada . = = Exit list = =
= Cross Road Blues = " Cross Road Blues " ( more commonly known as " Crossroads " ) is a blues song written and recorded by American blues artist Robert Johnson in 1936 . Johnson performed it as a solo piece with his vocal and acoustic slide guitar in the Delta blues @-@ style . The song has become part of the Robert Johnson mythology as referring to the place where he supposedly sold his soul to the Devil in exchange for his musical talents , although the lyrics do not contain any specific references . Bluesman Elmore James revived the song with recordings in 1954 and 1960 – 1961 . English guitarist Eric Clapton with Cream popularized the song as " Crossroads " in the late 1960s . Their blues rock interpretation inspired many cover versions and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame included it as one of the " 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll " . Rolling Stone placed it at number three on the magazine 's list of the " Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time " in recognition of Clapton 's guitar work . = = Recording = = Little is known about Johnson 's life and musical career , although his recordings are well documented . In October 1936 , Johnson auditioned for music store owner and sometime talent scout H. C. Speir in Jackson , Mississippi ; Speir passed on Johnson 's contact information to Ernie Oertle , who was a representative for ARC Records . After a second audition , Oertle arranged for Johnson to travel to San Antonio , Texas , for a recording session . Johnson recorded 22 songs for ARC over three days from November 23 to 27 , 1936 . During the first session , he recorded his most commercially appealing songs . They mostly represented his original pieces and reflected current , piano @-@ influenced musical trends . The songs include " Terraplane Blues " ( his first single and most popular record ) along with " Sweet Home Chicago " and " I Believe I 'll Dust My Broom " , which became blues standards after others recorded them . A second and third recording date took place in San Antonio after a two @-@ day break . Johnson reached back into his long @-@ standing repertoire for songs to record . The material reflects the styles of country blues performers Charley Patton and Son House , who influenced Johnson in his youth . The songs are among Johnson 's most heartfelt and forceful and music historian Ted Gioia sees a shift in the lyrical themes : At the close of the San Antonio session , the darker , more apocalyptic side of Johnson 's work emerges ... [ he ] evokes the themes of damnation and redemption , darkness and light ... glimpses into the musician 's inner life , and all its attendant turmoils . " Cross Road Blues " was recorded during Johnson 's third session in San Antonio , on Friday November 27 , 1936 . The sessions continued at an improvised studio in Room 414 at the Gunter Hotel . ARC producers Art Satherley and Don Law supervised the recording and used a portable disc cutting machine . It is unknown what input , if any , they had into Johnson 's selection of material to record or how to present it . Two similar takes of the song were recorded . = = Lyrics and interpretation = = A crossroads or an intersection of rural roads is one of the few landmarks in the Mississippi Delta , a flat featureless plain between the Mississippi and Yazoo rivers . It is part of the local iconography and various businesses use the name , such as gas stations , banks , and retail shops . A crossroads is also where cars are more likely to slow down or stop , thus presenting the best opportunity for a hitchiker . In the simplest reading , Johnson describes his grief at being unable to catch a ride at an intersection before the sun sets . However , many see different levels of meaning and some have attached a supernatural significance to the song . Both versions of the song open with the protagonist kneeling at a crossroads to ask God 's mercy , while the second sections tells of his failed attempts to hitch a ride . In the third and fourth sections , he expresses apprehension at being stranded as darkness approaches and asks that his friend Willie Brown be advised that " I 'm sinkin ' down " . The first take of the song , which was used for the single , includes a fifth verse that is not included in the second take . In it he laments not having a " sweet woman " in his distress . The song has been used to perpetuate the myth of Johnson selling his soul to the Devil for his musical ability . The lyrics do not contain any references to Satan or a Faustian bargain , but they have been interpreted as a description of the singer 's fear of losing his soul to the Devil ( presumably in exchange for his talent ) . Music historian Elijah Wald believes that Johnson 's verses do not support the idea . Delta bluesman Tommy Johnson promoted himself as having made a deal with the Devil and Southern folklore identifies a crossroads or graveyard as the site of such a pact , which Wald identifies as likely sources of the myth . However , musicologist Robert Palmer points out that Johnson was " fascinated with and probably obsessed by supernatural imagery . " His song " Hellhound on My Trail " tells of trying to stay ahead of the demon hound which is pursuing him and in " Me and the Devil Blues " he sings , " Early this mornin ' when you knocked upon my door , and I said ' Hello Satan I believe it 's time to go ' " . These songs contribute to the Faustian myth ; how much Johnson promoted the idea is debated , although many agree " the ' devil angle ' made for good marketing " . Blues historian Samuel Charters sees the song as having elements of protest and social commentary . The second verse includes " the sun goin ' down now boy , dark gon ' catch me here " , a reference to the " sundown laws " or curfew during racial segregation in the United States . Signs in the rural South advised " Nigger , don 't let the sun set on you here " . Johnson may be expressing a real fear of trumped up vagrancy charges or even lynchings that still took place . Others suggest that the song is about a deeper and more personal loneliness . Writers Barry Lee Pearson and Bill McCulloch argue that the fifth verse in the single version captures the essence of the song : " left alone , abandoned , or mistreated , he stands at the crossroad , looking this way or that for his woman " . = = Composition = = " Cross Road Blues " reflects Johnson 's Delta blues roots and may have been in his repertoire since 1932 . It is the first recording to show his mastery of his mentor Son House 's style , particularly in his slide guitar work . Music historian Edward Komara identifies parts of " Straight Alky Blues " by Leroy Carr and Scrapper Blackwell ( 1929 ) along with Roosevelt Sykes ' subsequent adaptation as " Black River Blues " ( 1930 ) as melodic precedents . However , Johnson infuses their relaxed urban approach with a more forceful rural one . Komara terms Johnson 's guitar playing a " blues harp style " . It contrasts with Johnson 's finger @-@ picking " piano style " , which uses a boogie @-@ style accompaniment on the bass strings while playing melody and harmonies on the higher strings . Harp @-@ style playing employs sharp percussive accents on the bass strings ( an imitation of the sharp draw used by harmonica players ) and allows Johnson to explore different chordings and fills . Johnson uses this technique for " Terraplane Blues " , which shares many common elements with " Cross Road Blues " . The song 's structure differs from a well @-@ defined twelve @-@ bar blues . The verses are not consistent and range from fourteen to fifteen bars in length . Additionally , the harmonic progression is often implied rather than stated ( full IV and V chords are not used ) . Johnson uses a Spanish or open G tuning with the guitar tuned up to the key of B. This facilitates Johnson 's use of a slide , which features as prominently in the song as the vocal . The slide parts function more as a second " answer " vocal than accompaniment , with the tension underscoring the dark turmoil of the lyrics . Charters characterizes the song 's rhythm as ambiguous , imparting both a 44 and 88 feel . Music writer Dave Headlam elaborates on Johnson 's rhythm : Meter itself is a compositional and performance device which comes in and out of focus in repsponse to the fluid rthyms and changing accents in the lower beats . The irregular groupings extend to smaller beat divisions , with an interplay between triplet ' swing ' and duple divisions of the beat ... Johnson 's irregular rhythms and variation in support of the metric beat suggest a more personal , idiosyncratic vision . The two takes of the song are performed at moderate , but somewhat different tempos . Both begin slower and speed up ; the first is about 106 beats per minute ( bpm ) , while the second is about 96 bpm . Johnson prepares to go into the fifth section for the slower second take , but the engineer apparently cut him off because of the time limits of ten @-@ inch 78 rpm records . In addition to the slower tempo , Johnson sings the verses at a lower pitch , although both takes are in the same key . This allows for greater variation and nuance in the vocal . Together with refinements to some guitar parts , the differences serve to help further distinguish the second take from " Terraplane Blues " and give it more of its own character . = = Releases = = ARC and Vocalion Records issued the first take of " Cross Road Blues " in May 1937 on the then standard 78 rpm record . The single , with its flip side " Ramblin ' on My Mind " , sold poorly . The song remained out of print after its initial release until The Complete Recordings box set in 1990 . The second take was released in 1961 , when producer Frank Driggs substituted it for the original on Johnson 's first long @-@ playing record album compilation King of the Delta Blues Singers . This take was also included on the 1990 Complete Recordings ( at 2 : 29 , it is : 10 shorter than the original 2 : 39 single version ) . = = Elmore James versions = = American blues singer and guitarist Elmore James , who popularized Robert Johnson 's " Dust My Broom " , recorded two variations on " Cross Road Blues " . Both titled " Standing at the Crossroads " , they feature James ' trademark " Dust My Broom " amplified slide @-@ guitar figure and a backing ensemble . James ' lyrics focus on the lost @-@ love aspect of the song : James first recorded the song in August 1954 at Modern Records ' new studio in Culver City , California . Maxwell Davis supervised the session and a group of professional studio musicians provided the backup . The song was produced in a newer style that Modern used successfully for B.B. King and James ' slide guitar was placed further back in the mix . Flair Records , another of the Bihari brothers ' Modern labels , released the single , backed with " Sunny Land " . The song became a regional hit , but did not reach the national charts . Labels associated with Modern included " Standing at the Crossroads " on several James compilation albums , such as Blues After Hours ( Crown ) , The Blues in My Heart – The Rhythm in My Soul ( Custom Records ) , and Original Folk Blues ( Kent Records ) . In 1959 , producer Bobby Robinson signed James to his Fury / Fire / Enjoy group of labels . In addition to new material , Robinson had James revisit several of his older songs , including " Standing at the Crossroads " . James re @-@ recorded it at Beltone Studios in New York City in late 1960 or early 1961 during one of his last sessions . Studio musicians again provided the backup and the horn section included baritone saxophone by Paul Williams . Bell Records ' subsidiary labels released the song after James ' death in 1965 – Flashback Records released a single with a reissue of " The Sky Is Crying " and Sphere Sound Records included it on a James compilation album also titled The Sky Is Crying . Both the 1954 and 1960 – 1961 versions appear on numerous later James compilations . Homesick James , who recorded and toured with his cousin Elmore , also recorded a rendition titled " Crossroads " . Homesick derived his guitar style from Elmore , which music critic Bill Dahl describes as " aggressive , sometimes chaotic slide work " . Unlike Elmore , however , he uses most of the lyrics from Johnson 's second take , which had been first issued in 1961 . The July 23 , 1963 , recording session produced Homesick 's only single for Chicago @-@ based USA Records , " Crossroads " backed with " My Baby 's Sweet " . = = Eric Clapton / Cream interpretation = = = = = Background = = = In early 1966 , while still with John Mayall 's Bluesbreakers , Eric Clapton adapted the song for a recording session with an ad hoc studio group , dubbed Eric Clapton and the Powerhouse . Elektra Records producer Joe Boyd brought together Steve Winwood on vocals , Clapton on guitar , Jack Bruce on bass guitar , Paul Jones on harmonica , Ben Palmer on piano , and Pete York on drums for the project . Boyd recalled that he and Clapton reviewed potential songs ; Clapton wanted to record Albert King 's " Crosscut Saw " , but Boyd preferred to adapt an older country blues . Their attention turned to Robert Johnson songs and Boyd proposed " Crossroads " and Clapton chose " Traveling Riverside Blues " . For the recording , Clapton developed an arrangement using lyrics from both songs with an adaption of the guitar line from the latter . Biographer Michael Schumacher describes the Powerhouse 's performance as slower and more blues @-@ based than Cream 's . Winwood sings and Jones plays the riff on harmonica similar to what Clapton later used with Cream ( Jones also provides the instrumental solo ; Clapton plays rhythm guitar throughout the song ) . Elektra released the 2 : 32 recording , titled " Crossroads " , on the compilation album What 's Shakin ' in June 1966 . After the Powerhouse session , Clapton continued playing with Mayall . Author Marc Roberty lists " Crossroads " in a typical set for the Bluesbreakers in the spring of 1966 . = = = Cream version = = = " Crossroads " became a part of Cream 's repertoire when Clapton began performing with Jack Bruce and Ginger Baker in July 1966 . Their version features a prominent guitar riff with hard @-@ driving , upbeat instrumental backing and soloing . Clapton previously recorded " Ramblin ' on My Mind " with Mayall and " From Four Until Late " with Cream using arrangements that followed Johnson 's original songs more closely . However , he envisioned " Crossroads " as a rock song : It became , then , a question of finding something that had a riff , a form that could be interpreted , simply , in a band format . In ' Crossroads ' there was a very definite riff . He [ Johnson ] was playing it full @-@ chorded with the slide as well . I just took it on a single string or two strings and embellished it . Out of all of the songs it was the easiest for me to see as a rock and roll vehicle . Clapton simplifies Johnson 's guitar line and sets it to a straight eighth @-@ note or rock rhythm . He and Bruce on bass continuously emphasize the riff throughout the song to give it a strong and regular metric drive combined with Baker 's drumming . Johnson 's irregular measures are also standardized to typical twelve @-@ bar sections in which the I – IV – V blues progression is clearly stated . Clapton does not adapt Johnson 's slide guitar technique or open tuning ; instead he follows the electric guitar soloing approach of B.B. King and Albert King . However , he employs a Johnson guitar innovation , the duple shuffle pattern or boogie bass line , while singing ( Johnson only used it for two bars in " Cross Road Blues " ) . Clapton also simplifies and standardizes Johnson 's vocal lines . Schumacher calls Clapton 's vocal on " Crossroads " his best and most assured with Cream . In addition to Johnson 's opening and closing lyrics , he twice adds the same section from " Traveling Riverside Blues " : During the instrumental break , Cream takes an improvisational approach characteristic of their later live performances . Bruce 's bass lines blend rhythm and harmony and Baker adds fills and more complex techniques typical of drummers in jazz trios . However , the momentum is never allowed to dissipate and is constantly reinforced . = = = Recording and releases = = = Cream recorded the song on November 28 , 1966 , for broadcast on the BBC Guitar Club radio program . At less than two minutes in length , Clapton only sings the first and last sections , with his guitar solo replacing the middle " Traveling Riverside Blues " verse . It appeared on bootleg albums before finally being released in 2003 on BBC Sessions . On March 10 , 1968 , Cream recorded it again during a concert at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco . According to two music writers , the recording was edited from a much longer performance that was typical for the trio – in the notes for Clapton 's Crossroads box set , Anthony DeCurtis credits the trimming to engineer Tom Dowd , while critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine attributes the editing to producer Felix Pappalardi , who " cut together the best bits of a winding improvisation to a tight four minutes " , to allow the song 's drive more continuity.However , Clapton biographer Schumacher does not mentioning editing and adds " Given the passion of the solo performances on ' Crossroads , ' it seems almost miraculous that Cream is able to return to the song itself . " " Crossroads " became the opening number on the live half of Cream 's Wheels of Fire double album , released in August 1968 by Polydor Records in the UK and Atco Records in the US . After the group 's breakup , Atco issued the song as a single in January 1969 , which reached number 28 on the US Billboard Hot 100 pop chart and 17 on Cashbox . Both the original album and single credit the songwriter as Robert Johnson or R. Johnson , although Clapton and Cream extensively reworked the song . Cream played " Crossroads " during their final concert at the Royal Albert Hall on November 26 , 1968 . The expanded version of Cream 's Farewell Concert film released in 1977 contains the performance . During their 2005 reunion , Cream revisited the song at the Royal Albert Hall and it is included on the Royal Albert Hall London May 2 @-@ 3 @-@ 5 @-@ 6 , 2005 album and video . After Cream 's breakup in 1968 , Clapton continued to perform " Crossroads " in a variety of settings . Live recordings appear on Live at the Fillmore ( with Derek and the Dominos ) , Crossroads 2 : Live in the Seventies , The Secret Policeman 's Other Ball , and other albums . Clapton has also used the name for the Crossroads Centre , a drug rehabilitation centre he founded , and for the Crossroads Guitar Festivals to benefit the centre . = = Recognition and influence = = In 1986 , Robert Johnson 's " Cross Road Blues " was inducted into the Blues Foundation Hall of Fame . Writing for the foundation , Jim O 'Neal noted that " regardless of mythology and rock ' n ' roll renditions , Johnson 's record was indeed a powerful one , a song that would stand the test of time on its own " . In 1998 , it received a Grammy Hall of Fame Award to acknowledge its quality and place in recording history . In 1995 , the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame listed Cream 's " Crossroads " as one of the " 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll " . Rolling Stone magazine placed it at number three on its " Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time " . AllMusic 's Richard Gilliam identifies Cream 's " Crossroads " as the first recording to bring Robert Johnson to the attention of popular music audiences and allow reissues of his original recordings to sell over a million copies . By combining elements of hard rock and blues , he adds it inspired " a new generation of blues @-@ influenced artists " . Rock musicians have recorded numerous renditions based on Cream 's arrangement .
= History of Ipswich Town F.C. = Ipswich Town F.C. is an English association football club based in Ipswich , Suffolk and formed in 1878 . The side played amateur football until 1936 when the club turned professional and was elected into the Southern League . Ipswich Town were elected into Division Three of the Football League in place of Gillingham F.C. on 30 May 1938 . The club experienced league success during the early 1960s , winning the Football League Championship in 1961 – 62 , one season after winning promotion from the Second Division . A decade later , under the guidance of Bobby Robson , the club achieved success both in the FA Cup and in European competition , winning the UEFA Cup in 1981 . Ipswich Town have made a contribution to the history of the England national football team ; both Robson and Sir Alf Ramsey moved on from Ipswich to manage England , presiding over the nation 's best results in the World Cup : fourth place in 1990 and world champions in 1966 . = = Foundation to professionalism : 1878 – 1936 = = The club was founded on 16 October 1878 as an amateur side known as Ipswich A.F.C. , under the presidency of local MP Thomas Cobbold who had played football at Charterhouse School . George S Sherrington & J M Franks were elected joint Captains . Ipswich A.F.C. ' s first match was a 6 – 1 home victory over Stoke Wanderers at the Broom Hill ground on 2 November 1878 . This was followed by a 2 – 0 victory over Harwich in the club 's first away match . Losing only one game in 17 in its second season , the club was able to build enough interest to enrol players for a second team . Ipswich recorded their biggest ever victory during the 1880 – 81 season , a 15 – 0 defeat of East Stamford with one player , John Knights , registering a treble hat @-@ trick ; both achievements remain club records . The team moved to Portman Road , the current ground , in 1884 , and would share , until 1936 , the facilities with the East Suffolk Cricket Club who had played there since 1855 . The Cobbold family involvement continued when , in 1885 , Nathanael Fromanteel Cobbold was elected as a vice @-@ president of the club . Following his sudden death the following year , the position was then held by his nephew John Dupuis Cobbold . The club won their first trophy in the 1886 – 87 season , triumphing 2 – 1 against a team representing Ipswich School in the final of the Suffolk Challenge Cup . In 1888 the club merged with Ipswich Rugby Club to form Ipswich Town F.C. In 1890 , the club entered the qualifying rounds of the FA Cup for the first time and was knocked out in the final qualifying round by the 93rd Highlanders . The club experienced scant success in the Cup during the 1890s but won a number of local cup competitions , including the Suffolk Senior Cup and the Ipswich Charity Cup . Having received invitations to join from both the Southern League and the Norfolk and Suffolk League , Ipswich joined the latter in the 1899 – 1900 season , finishing fourth in their first league season . In 1907 , Ipswich became founder members of the Southern Amateur League . The club narrowly avoided relegation in many of the following seasons , and suffered a club record 15 – 1 defeat at the hands of the Corinthians at Portman Road on New Year 's Day , 1910 . The outbreak of the First World War and the commandeering of Portman Road by the Army curtailed the 1914 – 15 season and organised football did not return until the 1920 – 21 season . Just one year later , Ipswich Town became champions of the Southern Amateur League , clinching the title on the last day of the season . The club won the league a further three times , in 1929 – 30 , 1932 – 33 and 1933 – 34 , before becoming founder members of the Eastern Counties Football League at the end of the 1934 – 35 season . = = Early Football League : 1936 – 1955 = = In 1936 , local businessman Leonard P. Thompson threatened to lead a breakaway from the amateur club to create an entirely separate professional club , Ipswich United . John Murray Cobbold , the club President , called together rival factions for a meeting at the Town Hall on 1 May 1936 , at which it was agreed that Ipswich Town should turn professional . The club was unanimously elected to the Southern League for the 1936 – 37 season and former Irish international footballer Mick O 'Brien was appointed as the club 's first professional manager . The club 's first professional game at Portman Road resulted in a 4 – 1 win against Tunbridge Wells Rangers and the club went on to win the Southern League in their debut season . O 'Brien left after just one season following the death of his wife . Ipswich Town were managerless until 10 November 1936 when the club appointed Scott Duncan , who had left recently relegated Manchester United . He led Ipswich to third place in the 1937 – 38 season . Ipswich Town F.C. were elected to The Football League on 30 May 1938 by a margin of just two votes , at the expense of Gillingham F.C. , initially playing in Division Three ( South ) . The club 's last competitive match before the league was suspended due to the Second World War was a 1 – 1 draw with local rivals , Norwich City . Both John Murray Cobbold and director Robert Nevill Cobbold were killed during the war , the position of director being filled by John Cavendish Cobbold in 1948 . Despite the interruption due to the war , Duncan managed the club for over 500 games between 1937 and 1955 . Following three successive top @-@ eight finishes , the 1949 – 50 season ended with Ipswich in 17th position in Division Three ( South ) , the club 's lowest ever league finish . During the early 1950s striker Tom Garneys finished as club top @-@ scorer for four seasons in a row , and became the first professional Ipswich player to score four times in a game . During this period , Ipswich won the title and promotion to the Second Division in the 1953 – 54 season , during which eight consecutive wins were recorded . The club was relegated back to Division Three ( South ) the following year at the end of a poor season , the highlight of which was progress to the fifth round of the FA Cup , a run ended by First Division Preston North End . Duncan resigned but stayed on at the club in a secretarial role for a further three years . His replacement was a managerial novice , former England international and double Championship winner at Tottenham Hotspur , Alf Ramsey . = = Ramsey and champions of England : 1955 – 69 = = Alf Ramsey 's appointment led Billy Wright to comment , " In appointing Alf to become their manager Ipswich Town paid a tremendous tribute to intelligent football – and footballers who think ! " In Ramsey 's first season at the club , Ipswich scored 106 goals in 46 games and finished third in Division Three ( South ) . The following season , 1956 – 57 , the club won the Division Three ( South ) title for the second time and saw the emergence of local striker Ted Phillips who scored 46 times during the season ; this remains the highest number of goals scored by an Ipswich player in a season . During the same season , Ipswich played under floodlights for the first time , at Coventry City in September 1956 . At the end of that season that John Cavendish Cobbold was appointed as the club 's Chairman . Three seasons of mid @-@ table finishes followed as Ipswich established themselves in Division Two , along with moderate success in the FA Cup , most notably reaching the fifth round in the 1958 – 59 season . Ipswich had their most successful season to that point in 1960 – 61 , winning the Second Division and promotion to the top level of English football , ahead of Sheffield United and Liverpool . In the top flight , Ipswich became champions of the Football League at the first attempt in 1961 – 62 , with Ray Crawford joint English and European top scorer with Derek Kevan of West Bromwich Albion . Matt Busby described the title @-@ winners as " ... one of the First Division 's most attractive sides ... " . As English league champions , Ipswich qualified for European football for the first time . They met Maltese side Floriana in the European Cup , defeating them 14 – 1 on aggregate in the first round before losing to AC Milan in the second round ; it would be another 11 years before the club would qualify for Europe again . Ramsey quit the club in April 1963 to take charge of the England national football team , and Ipswich finished only four places above relegation in the 1962 – 63 season . To commemorate Ramsey 's success at the club , a statue of him was unveiled outside Portman Road in 2000 by Ray Crawford . Ramsey was replaced by Jackie Milburn , under whose leadership fortunes on the pitch declined . Two years after winning the league title , Ipswich dropped into the Second Division in 1963 – 64 , conceding 121 league goals in 42 games , still the highest number of goals conceded by Ipswich in a season . Patrick Mark Cobbold , John 's brother , joined the board of directors in 1964 and their mother , Lady Blanche Cobbold , became honorary president of the club . Milburn quit after just one full season and was replaced by Bill McGarry early in the 1964 – 65 season . The club remained in the Second Division for four years until McGarry guided Ipswich to promotion in the 1967 – 68 season , winning the division by a single point ahead of Queens Park Rangers . McGarry left to manage Wolves and was replaced by Bobby Robson in January 1969 . = = Robson and Europe : 1969 – 82 = = Bobby Robson 's appointment followed a chance encounter with Ipswich director Murray Sangster while scouting at Portman Road for Chelsea manager Dave Sexton . Robson had some experience of management from his time at Fulham , although he had been sacked after failing to avoid relegation from Division Two . Robson 's sides finished 18th and 19th in his first two seasons at Ipswich , but he kept the team in the top division , before finding greater success . Robson led the club to fourth place in the First Division and success in the Texaco Cup , beating local rivals Norwich City 4 – 2 , in the 1972 – 73 season . The fourth @-@ place finish meant Ipswich qualified for the 1973 – 74 UEFA Cup . In the first round , they were drawn against six @-@ time European champions Real Madrid . Following a 1 – 0 victory at Portman Road , Ipswich needed to defend their slim lead . Ipswich captain Mick Mills was reported in the Spanish press suggesting that " El Real no es invincible " ( " Real are not invincible " ) and a 0 – 0 draw at the Bernabéu secured Ipswich 's shock passage into the second round . The club fell at the quarter final stage but fourth place in the league enabled Ipswich to return to the tournament in the following season . In the 1974 – 75 season , Ipswich finished third in the First Division and were losing semi @-@ finalists in the FA Cup . Suffering from cancer and becoming less able to carry out his duties as Chairman , John Cobbold swapped roles with director Patrick Cobbold in 1976 . In the 1975 – 76 and 1976 – 77 seasons Ipswich finished in the top six of the league and in 1977 , they signed Paul Mariner from Plymouth for a club record £ 220 @,@ 000 . Mariner 's efforts ( including seven goals in the tournament ) helped the club to the second major honour in its history ; Roger Osborne scored the winning goal in a 1 – 0 victory over Arsenal in the FA Cup Final at Wembley Stadium . The club 's league fortunes dipped dramatically during the season finishing 18th , just three points above the relegation places , but the Cup success secured qualification for the following season 's European Cup Winners ' Cup . Over the next two seasons Robson brought Dutchmen Arnold Mühren and Frans Thijssen to the club while the team achieved two further top six finishes in the First Division . However , it was the 1980 – 81 season which , in Robson 's words , " ... helped put Ipswich on the map ... " . The club finished second in the league once more and were losing semi @-@ finalists in the FA Cup , but the real success of the season was victory in the UEFA Cup . Beating Michel Platini 's AS Saint @-@ Étienne 4 – 1 at the Stade Geoffroy @-@ Guichard in the quarter @-@ finals and a 2 – 0 aggregate victory over 1 . FC Koln in the semi @-@ final led Ipswich to the club 's first European final , played over two legs against AZ 67 Alkmaar . A 3 – 0 victory at Portman Road was followed by a 4 – 2 defeat at the Olympic Stadium in Amsterdam , resulting in a 5 – 4 aggregate victory over the Dutch side . Ipswich therefore began the 1981 – 82 UEFA Cup campaign as holders , but lost in the first round to Scottish opponents Aberdeen . Domestically , the club had continued success , finishing second in the First Division yet again , this time four points behind Liverpool . Robson 's achievements with Ipswich earned him an offer from the Football Association to become the England national coach ; he declined an offer of a ten @-@ year contract extension from Ipswich director Patrick Cobbold . On 7 July 1982 , two days after England were knocked out of the 1982 World Cup , Bobby Robson left Ipswich to succeed Ron Greenwood as coach of England . During his 13 @-@ year tenure at Ipswich , Robson brought in only 14 players from other clubs , relying instead on players developed through the club 's youth programmes . In 2002 , in recognition of Robson 's achievements with the club , a life @-@ size statue of him was unveiled opposite the Cobbold Stand at Portman Road . On 7 July 2006 , Robson was named as honorary president of Ipswich Town Football Club , the first since Lady Blanche Cobbold who had died in 1987 . = = After Robson : 1982 – 1995 = = Bobby Robson was replaced at Ipswich by his chief coach , Bobby Ferguson . Ferguson made the transition from coach to manager in July 1982 , but some success in the various cup competitions was offset by an end to the high league positions the club had enjoyed under Robson . In the three seasons from 1982 – 83 to 1984 – 85 , Ipswich reached the FA Cup quarter @-@ final and League Cup semi @-@ final in 1985 , but declined in the league , finishing 9th , 12th and 17th . In the following season , the team 's league form was even poorer , resulting in a 20th @-@ place finish and relegation to the Second Division . Ipswich finished fifth in the Second Division in the 1986 – 87 season to qualify for the play @-@ offs , but Ferguson resigned after losing to 2 – 1 on aggregate to Charlton Athletic . From 1987 to 1990 , Ipswich Town were managed by John Duncan , but achieved only mid @-@ table finishes each season with the club gaining a reputation as a " competent Second Division side " . Duncan was sacked in June 1990 and was replaced by John Lyall , whose 14 @-@ year reign as West Ham United manager had ended the previous summer . During that time the Hammers had won the FA Cup twice and finished third in the league . Lyall guided Ipswich to a mid @-@ table finish in the 1990 – 91 season but a considerable improvement the following season led to winning the Second Division championship . The team was promoted to join the inaugural season of the FA Premier League . After a good start to the season , Ipswich were in fourth place in the league in January 1993 , but a dip in form during the final weeks of the season saw the club finish 16th . The next season was almost a mirror of the previous ; Ipswich again made a good start , followed by a late slump in results . The club only avoided relegation when Sheffield United suffered a last @-@ gasp 3 – 2 defeat at Chelsea on the final day of the season . Lyall was sacked as Ipswich manager in December 1994 with the club at the bottom of the Premiership . His successor George Burley was unable to turn things around and Ipswich suffered a " humiliating " 9 – 0 defeat at Manchester United in early March , the biggest margin in a Premiership match . Relegation was confirmed soon afterwards and Ipswich ended the season having conceded 93 goals in 42 league games . Patrick Cobbold had left his role as club Chairman in 1991 , handing his position to John Kerr . His brother had died in 1983 and Patrick died suddenly in 1994 , but the Cobbold connection continued when Patrick and John 's nephew Major Philip William Hope @-@ Cobbold joined the board in 1995 . = = Europe and administration : 1995 – present = = Having served on the board of directors since 1986 , David Sheepshanks was appointed as club Chairman in 1995 . The next four seasons brought near @-@ misses as the club flirted with promotion ; in 1995 – 96 , Ipswich fell one place short of the First Division play @-@ off zone , and the ensuing three seasons brought successive semi @-@ final play @-@ off defeats . In 2000 , Ipswich qualified for the Division One play @-@ off final , the last such match at Wembley Stadium before the stadium was to be redeveloped . They beat Barnsley 4 – 2 securing their return to the Premiership after an absence of five years . Ipswich made only one major signing during the off @-@ season , buying Hermann Hreiðarsson from Wimbledon F.C. for a club record £ 4m two days before the season commenced . Television pundits Rodney Marsh and Mark Lawrenson both agreed relegation would be the obvious outcome . Ipswich surprised the doubters ; they sustained a high league position and narrowly missed out on qualification for the UEFA Champions League , when the team failed to win on the last day of the season against Derby County . The fifth @-@ place finish gained the club a UEFA Cup place and earned George Burley the title of FA Premier League Manager of the Year , an award that until 2010 had , in every other season , been given to the manager of the Premier League champions . Matteo Sereni and Finidi George arrived before the 2001 – 02 season to boost the squad for its foray into Europe . The club 's league form was poor , and 18 games into the campaign , Ipswich were bottom of the table with just one league victory . However , there was some relief in the UEFA Cup with a victory over Inter Milan 1 – 0 at home in the third round , despite which the tie was lost over two legs after a 4 – 1 defeat at the San Siro . From bottom of the table at Christmas , a run of seven wins from eight fixtures appeared to have secured the team 's league status , but another decline set in and relegation was confirmed on the final day of the season with a 5 – 0 defeat by Liverpool at Anfield . The loss of income due to relegation to the Championship contributed to the club going into financial administration , resulting in the sale of a number of players including Jamie Clapham , Darren Ambrose , and club captain Matt Holland . Ipswich had the consolation of again qualifying for the UEFA Cup , through UEFA 's Fair Play system , losing in the second round to Czech side Slovan Liberec . A poor start to the domestic season , leaving the club 19th in the table by mid @-@ October , resulted in George Burley being sacked after nearly eight years as manager . First team coach Tony Mowbray was in charge for four games as caretaker manager , winning once , but he was replaced as manager by the permanent appointment of former Oldham Athletic , Everton and Manchester City manager Joe Royle , whose managerial career had previously yielded four promotions and one FA Cup victory ; as a player , he had been named player of the year in his only full season at Ipswich 's local rivals Norwich City . When Royle became Ipswich manager , the club was struggling near the Division One relegation zone , but the change in management sparked a revival and Ipswich narrowly failed to reach the 2002 – 03 play @-@ offs . The club came out of administration during the 2003 – 04 season , and continued to challenge for promotion back to the Premier League . Ipswich finished that season in fifth place , but were beaten in the play @-@ off semi finals by West Ham United 2 – 1 on aggregate . Ipswich missed automatic promotion in the 2004 – 05 season , finishing third , only two points behind second @-@ placed Wigan Athletic . Again , they lost to West Ham United in the play off semi @-@ finals , this time by a 4 – 2 aggregate score . Although they had been pre @-@ season promotion favourites for the 2005 – 06 season , Ipswich finished 15th , the club 's lowest finish since 1966 , and Joe Royle resigned on 11 May 2006 . At a press conference held on 5 June 2006 , Jim Magilton was officially named as the new manager and former academy director Bryan Klug was appointed as first team coach . In Magilton 's first season , the club reached a final placing of 14th place in the table . That year , Ipswich became the first carbon neutral football club in England following a collaboration between the fans and the club 's main sponsor E.ON. In October 2007 , Ipswich agreed to sell a £ 44m stake in the club to British businessman Marcus Evans who became the majority owner and shareholder . 2007 – 08 brought further progress for Magilton and his side , who finished eighth in the final table . Magilton 's team failed to gain promotion or reach the play @-@ offs in the 2008 – 09 season , and on 22 April 2009 Magilton was sacked . His successor , Roy Keane , was appointed as manager the following day . Sheepshanks stood down as chairman after 14 years on 20 May 2009 . Ipswich started the 2009 – 10 season winless in the league after 14 games and bottom of the Championship , their worst ever start to a league season . Limited success throughout the year saw the club finish 15th in Keane 's first full season at the club . Keane 's second season at the club started well but by the start of 2011 , the club were 19th in the Championship , and he left the club on 7 January 2011 . First team coach Ian McParland stood in as caretaker manager for two matches , including a semi @-@ final first leg win in the League Cup against Arsenal , before Paul Jewell took the role on permanently in mid @-@ January 2011 . Ipswich finished 13th that season , and 15th the following , Jewell 's first full season at the club . The longest @-@ serving members of the Championship , Ipswich were bottom of the league by late October , and Jewell left the club by " mutual consent " , leaving Chris Hutchings in a caretaker role . After a single match , Hutchings was replaced by Mick McCarthy on a full @-@ time basis . McCarthy led Ipswich to finish in 14th position that season , and 9th in the following season . Despite losing their final match of the 2014 – 15 season , Ipswich finished in sixth place and secured a play @-@ off place where they played their local rivals Norwich City , losing 4 – 1 on aggregate . The following season Ipswich finished just outside the playoff places , in seventh place .
= Norepinephrine = Norepinephrine ( NE ) , also called noradrenaline ( NA ) or noradrenalin , is an organic chemical in the catecholamine family that functions in the human brain and body as a hormone and neurotransmitter . The name " noradrenaline , " derived from Latin roots meaning " at / alongside the kidneys , " is more commonly used in the United Kingdom ; in the United States , " norepinephrine , " derived from Greek roots having that same meaning , is usually preferred . " Norepinephrine " is also the International Nonproprietary Name given to the drug . Regardless of which name is used for the substance itself , parts of the body that produce or are affected by it are referred to as noradrenergic . Norepinephrine is synthesized and released by the central nervous system , and also by a division of the autonomic nervous system called the sympathetic nervous system . In the brain , norepinephrine is produced in closely packed brain cell neurons or nuclei that are small yet exert powerful effects on other brain areas . The most important of these nuclei is the locus coeruleus , located in the pons . In the sympathetic nervous system , norepinephrine is used as a neurotransmitter by sympathetic ganglia located near the spinal cord or in the abdomen , and it is also released directly into the bloodstream by the adrenal glands as sympathetic effector organs . Regardless of how and where it is released , norepinephrine acts on target cells by binding to and activating noradrenergic receptors located on the cell surface . The general function of norepinephrine is to mobilize the brain and body for action . Norepinephrine release is lowest during sleep , rises during wakefulness , and reaches much higher levels during situations of stress or danger , in the so @-@ called fight @-@ or @-@ flight response . In the brain , norepinephrine increases arousal and alertness , promotes vigilance , enhances formation and retrieval of memory , and focuses attention ; it also increases restlessness and anxiety . In the rest of the body , norepinephrine increases heart rate and blood pressure , triggers the release of glucose from energy stores , increases blood flow to skeletal muscle , reduces blood flow to the gastrointestinal system , and inhibits voiding of the bladder and gastrointestinal motility . A variety of medically important drugs work by altering the actions of norepinephrine systems . Norepinephrine itself is widely used as an injectable drug for the treatment of critically low blood pressure . Beta blockers , which counter some of the effects of norepinephrine , are frequently used to treat glaucoma , migraine , and a range of cardiovascular problems . Alpha blockers , which counter a different set of norepinephrine effects , are used to treat several cardiovascular and psychiatric conditions . Alpha @-@ 2 agonists often have a sedating effect , and are commonly used as anesthesia @-@ enhancers in surgery , as well as in treatment of drug or alcohol dependence . Many important psychiatric drugs exert strong effects on norepinephrine systems in the brain , resulting in side @-@ effects that may be helpful or harmful . = = Structure = = Norepinephrine is a catecholamine and a phenethylamine . Its structure differs from that of epinephrine only in that epinephrine has a methyl group attached to its nitrogen , whereas the methyl group is replaced by a hydrogen atom in norepinephrine . The prefix nor- is derived as an abbreviation of the word " normal " , used to indicate a demethylated compound . = = Biochemical mechanisms = = = = = Synthesis = = = Norepinephrine is synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine by a series of enzymatic steps in the adrenal medulla and postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system . While the conversion of tyrosine to dopamine occurs predominantly in the cytoplasm , the conversion of dopamine to norepinephrine by dopamine β @-@ monooxygenase occurs predominantly inside neurotransmitter vesicles . The metabolic pathway is : Phenylalanine → Tyrosine → L @-@ DOPA → Dopamine → Norepinephrine Thus the direct precursor of norepinephrine is dopamine , which is synthesized indirectly from the essential amino acid phenylalanine or the non @-@ essential amino acid tyrosine . These amino acids are found in nearly every protein and , as such , are provided by ingestion of protein @-@ containing food , with tyrosine being the most common . Phenylalanine is converted into tyrosine by the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase , with molecular oxygen ( O2 ) and tetrahydrobiopterin as cofactors . Tyrosine is converted into L @-@ DOPA by the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase , with tetrahydrobiopterin , O2 , and probably ferrous iron ( Fe2 + ) as cofactors . L @-@ DOPA is converted into dopamine by the enzyme aromatic L @-@ amino acid decarboxylase ( also known as DOPA decarboxylase ) , with pyridoxal phosphate as cofactor . Dopamine is then converted into norepinephrine by the enzyme dopamine β @-@ monooxygenase ( formerly known as dopamine β @-@ hydroxylase ) , with O2 and ascorbic acid as cofactors . Norepinephrine itself can further be converted into epinephrine by the enzyme phenylethanolamine N @-@ methyltransferase with S @-@ adenosyl @-@ L @-@ methionine as cofactor . = = = Degradation = = = In mammals , norepinephrine is rapidly degraded to various metabolites . The initial step in the breakdown can be catalyzed by either of the enzymes monoamine oxidase ( mainly monoamine oxidase A ) or COMT . From there the breakdown can proceed by a variety of pathways . The principal end products are either Vanillylmandelic acid or a conjugated form of MHPG , both of which are thought to be biologically inactive and are excreted in the urine . = = Functions = = = = = Cellular effects = = = Like many other biologically active substances , norepinephrine exerts its effects by binding to and activating receptors located on the surface of cells . Two broad families of norepinephrine receptors have been identified , known as alpha and beta adrenergic receptors . Alpha receptors are divided into subtypes α1 and α2 ; beta receptors into subtypes β1 , β2 , and β3 . All of these function as G protein @-@ coupled receptors , meaning that they exert their effects via a complex second messenger system . Alpha @-@ 2 receptors usually have inhibitory effects , but many are located pre @-@ synaptically ( i.e. , on the surface of the cells that release norepinephrine ) , so the net effect of alpha @-@ 2 activation is often a decrease in the amount of norepinephrine released . Alpha @-@ 1 receptors and all three types of beta receptors usually have excitatory effects . = = = = Storage , release , and reuptake = = = = Inside the brain norepinephrine functions as a neurotransmitter , and is controlled by a set of mechanisms common to all monoamine neurotransmitters . After synthesis , norepinephrine is transported from the cytosol into synaptic vesicles by the vesicular monoamine transporter ( VMAT ) . Norepinephrine is stored in these vesicles until it is ejected into the synaptic cleft , typically after an action potential causes the vesicles to release their contents directly into the synaptic cleft through a process called exocytosis . Once in the synapse , norepinephrine binds to and activates receptors . After an action potential , the norepinephrine molecules quickly become unbound from their receptors . They are then absorbed back into the presynaptic cell , via reuptake mediated primarily by the norepinephrine transporter ( NET ) . Once back in the cytosol , norepinephrine can either be broken down by monoamine oxidase or repackaged into vesicles by VMAT , making it available for future release . = = = Sympathetic nervous system = = = Norepinephrine is the main neurotransmitter used by the sympathetic nervous system , which consists of about two dozen sympathetic chain ganglia located next to the spinal cord , plus a set of prevertebral ganglia located in the chest and abdomen . These sympathetic ganglia are connected to numerous organs , including the eyes , salivary glands , heart , lungs , liver , gallbladder , stomach , intestines , kidneys , urinary bladder , reproductive organs , muscles , skin , and adrenal glands . Sympathetic activation of the adrenal glands causes the part called the adrenal medulla to release norepinephrine into the bloodstream , from which , functioning as a hormone , it gains further access to a wide variety of tissues . Broadly speaking , the effect of norepinephrine on each target organ is to modify its state in a way that makes it more conducive to active body movement , often at a cost of increased energy use and increased wear and tear . This can be contrasted with the acetylcholine @-@ mediated effects of the parasympathetic nervous system , which modifies most of the same organs into a state more conducive to rest , recovery , and digestion of food , and usually less costly in terms of energy expenditure . The sympathetic effects of norepinephrine include : In the eyes , an increase in production of tears , making the eyes more moist . , and pupil dilation through contraction of the iris dilator . In the heart , an increase in the amount of blood pumped . In brown adipose tissue , an increase in calories burned to generate body heat . Multiple effects on the immune system . The sympathetic nervous system is the primary path of interaction between the immune system and the brain , and several components receive sympathetic inputs , including the thymus , spleen , and lymph nodes . However the effects are complex , with some immune processes activated while others are inhibited . In the arteries , constriction of blood vessels , causing an increase in blood pressure . In the kidneys , release of renin and retention of sodium in the bloodstream . In the liver , an increase in production of glucose , either by glycogenolysis after a meal or by gluconeogenesis when food has not recently been consumed . Glucose is the body 's main energy source in most conditions . In the pancreas , increased release of glucagon , a hormone whose main effect is to increase the production of glucose by the liver . In skeletal muscles , an increase in glucose uptake . In adipose tissue ( i. e . , fat cells ) , an increase in lipolysis , that is , conversion of fat to substances that can be used directly as energy sources by muscles and other tissues . In the stomach and intestines , a reduction in digestive activity . This results from a generally inhibitory effect of norepinephrine on the enteric nervous system , causing decreases in gastrointestinal mobility , blood flow , and secretion of digestive substances . = = = Central nervous system = = = The noradrenergic neurons in the brain form a neurotransmitter system , that , when activated , exerts effects on large areas of the brain . The effects are manifested in alertness , arousal , and readiness for action . Noradrenergic neurons ( i.e. , neurons whose primary neurotransmitter is norepinephrine ) are comparatively few in number , and their cell bodies are confined to a few relatively small brain areas , but they send projections to many other brain areas and exert powerful effects on their targets . These noradrenergic cell groups were first mapped in 1964 by Annica Dahlström and Kjell Fuxe , who assigned them labels starting with the letter " A " ( for " aminergic " ) . In their scheme , areas A1 through A7 contain the neurotransmitter norepinephrine ( A8 through A14 contain dopamine ) . Noradrenergic cell group A1 is located in the caudal ventrolateral part of the medulla , and plays a role in the control of body fluid metabolism . Noradrenergic cell group A2 is located in a brainstem area called the solitary nucleus ; these cells have been implicated in a variety of responses , including control of food intake and responses to stress . Cell groups A5 and A7 project mainly to the spinal cord . The most important source of norepinephrine in the brain is the locus coeruleus , which contains noradrenergic cell group A6 and adjoins cell group A4 . The locus coeruleus is quite small in absolute terms — in primates it is estimated to contain around 15 @,@ 000 neurons , less than one millionth of the neurons in the brain — but it sends projections to every major part of the brain and also to the spinal cord . The level of activity in the locus coeruleus correlates broadly with vigilance and speed of reaction . LC activity is low during sleep and drops to virtually nothing during the REM ( dreaming ) state . It runs at a baseline level during wakefulness , but increases temporarily when a person is presented with any sort of stimulus that draws attention . Unpleasant stimuli such as pain , difficulty breathing , bladder distension , heat or cold generate larger increases . Extremely unpleasant states such as intense fear or intense pain are associated with very high levels of LC activity . Norepinephrine released by the locus coeruleus affects brain function in a number of ways . It enhances processing of sensory inputs , enhances attention , enhances formation and retrieval of both long term and working memory , and enhances the ability of the brain to respond to inputs by changing the activity pattern in the prefrontal cortex and other areas . The control of arousal level is strong enough that drug @-@ induced suppression of the LC has a powerful sedating effect . There is great similarity between situations that activate the locus coeruleus in the brain and situations that activate the sympathetic nervous system in the periphery : the LC essentially mobilizes the brain for action while the sympathetic system mobilizes the body . It has been argued that this similarity arises because both are to a large degree controlled by the same brain structures , particularly a part of the brainstem called the nucleus gigantocellularis . = = Pharmacology = = A large number of important drugs exert their effects by interacting with norepinephrine systems in the brain or body . Their uses include treatment of cardiovascular problems , shock , and a variety of psychiatric conditions . = = = Sympathomimetic and sympatholytic drugs = = = Sympathomimetic drugs mimic or enhance at least some of the effects of norepinephrine released by the sympathetic nervous system ; sympatholytic drugs , in contrast , block at least some of the effects . Both of these are large groups with diverse uses , depending on exactly which effects are enhanced or blocked . Norepinephrine itself is classified as a sympathomimetic drug : its effects when given by intravenous injection of increasing heart rate and force and constricting blood vessels make it very useful for treating medical emergencies that involve critically low blood pressure . = = = Beta blockers = = = These are drugs that block the effects of beta noradrenergic receptors while having little or no effect on alpha receptors . They are sometimes used to treat high blood pressure , atrial fibrillation and congestive heart failure , but recent reviews have concluded that other types of drugs are usually superior for those purposes . Beta blockers may be a viable choice for other cardiovascular conditions , though , including angina and Marfan syndrome . They are also widely used to treat glaucoma , either in pill form or in eyedrops . Because of their effects in reducing anxiety symptoms and tremor , they have sometimes been used by entertainers , public speakers and athletes to reduce performance anxiety , although they are not medically approved for that purpose and are banned by the International Olympic Committee . Unfortunately , the usefulness of beta blockers is limited by a range of serious side effects , including slowing of heart rate , a drop in blood pressure , asthma , and reactive hypoglycemia . The negative effects can be particularly severe in people who suffer from diabetes . = = = Alpha blockers = = = These are drugs that block the effects of noradrenergic alpha receptors while having little or no effect on beta receptors . Drugs belonging to this group can have very different effects , however , depending on whether they primarily block alpha @-@ 1 receptors , alpha @-@ 2 receptors , or both . Alpha @-@ 2 receptors , as described elsewhere in this article , are frequently located on norepinephrine @-@ releasing neurons themselves and have inhibitory effects on them ; consequently blockage of alpha @-@ 2 receptors usually results in an increase in norepinephrine release . Alpha @-@ 1 receptors are usually located on target cells and have excitatory effects on them ; consequently blockage of alpha @-@ 1 receptors usually results in blocking some of the effects of norepinephrine . Drugs such as phentolamine that act on both types of receptors can produce a complex combination of both effects . In most cases when the term " alpha blocker " is used without qualification , it refers to a selective alpha @-@ 1 antagonist . Selective alpha @-@ 1 blockers have a variety of uses . Because one of their effects is to relax the muscles in the neck of the bladder , they are often used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia , and to help with the expulsion of bladder stones . Their effects on the central nervous system make them useful for treating generalized anxiety disorder , panic disorder , and posttraumatic stress disorder . They may , however , have significant side @-@ effects , including a drop in blood pressure . Some antidepressants function partly as selective alpha @-@ 2 blockers , but the best @-@ known drug in that class is yohimbine , which is extracted from the bark of the African yohimbe tree . Yohimbine acts as a male potency enhancer , but its usefulness for that purpose is limited by serious side @-@ effects including anxiety and insomnia . Overdoses can cause a dangerous increase in blood pressure . Yohimbine is banned in many countries , but in the United States , because it is extracted from a plant rather than chemically synthesized , it is sold over the counter as a nutritional supplement . = = = Alpha @-@ 2 agonists = = = These are drugs that activate alpha @-@ 2 receptors or enhance their effects . Because alpha @-@ 2 receptors are inhibitory and many are located presynaptically on norepinephrine @-@ releasing cells , the net effect of these drugs is usually to reduce the amount of norepinephrine released . Drugs in this group that are capable of entering the brain often have strong sedating effects , due to their inhibitory effects on the locus coeruleus . Clonidine , for example , is used for the treatment of anxiety disorders and insomnia , and also as a sedative premedication for patients about to undergo surgery . Xylazine , another drug in this group , is also a powerful sedative and is often used in combination with ketamine as a general anaesthetic for veterinary surgery — in the United States it has not been approved for use in humans . = = = Stimulants and antidepressants = = = These are drugs whose primary effects are thought to be mediated by different neurotransmitter systems ( dopamine for stimulants , serotonin for antidepressants ) , but many also increase levels of norepinephrine in the brain . Amphetamine , for example , is a stimulant that increases release of norepinephrine as well as dopamine . Monoamine oxidase inhibitors are antidepressants that inhibit the metabolic degradation of norepinephrine as well as serotonin . In some cases it is difficult to distinguish the norepinephrine @-@ mediated effects from the effects related to other neurotransmitters . = = Diseases and disorders = = A number of important medical problems involve dysfunction of the norepinephrine system in the brain or body . = = = Sympathetic hyperactivation = = = Hyperactivation of the sympathetic nervous system is not a recognized condition in itself , but it is a component of a number of conditions , as well as a possible consequence of taking sympathomimetic drugs . It causes a distinctive set of symptoms including aches and pains , rapid heartbeat , elevated blood pressure , sweating , palpitations , anxiety , headache , paleness , and a drop in blood glucose . If sympathetic activity is elevated for an extended time , it can cause weight loss and other stress @-@ related body changes . The list of conditions that can cause sympathetic hyperactivation includes severe brain injury , spinal cord damage , heart failure , high blood pressure , kidney disease , and various types of stress . = = = Pheochromocytoma = = = A pheochromocytoma is a rarely occurring tumor of the adrenal medulla , caused either by genetic factors or certain types of cancer . The consequence is a massive increase in the amount of norepinephrine and epinephrine released into the bloodstream . The most obvious symptoms are those of sympathetic hyperactivation , including particularly a rise in blood pressure that can reach fatal levels . The most effective treatment is surgical removal of the tumor . = = = Stress = = = Stress , to a physiologist , means any situation that threatens the continued stability of the body and its functions . Stress affects a wide variety of body systems : the two most consistently activated are the hypothalamic @-@ pituitary @-@ adrenal axis and the norepinephrine system , including both the sympathetic nervous system and the locus coeruleus @-@ centered system in the brain . Stressors of many types evoke increases in noradrenergic activity , which mobilizes the brain and body to meet the threat . Chronic stress , if continued for a long time , can damage many parts of the body . A significant part of the damage is due to the effects of sustained norepinephrine release , because of norepinephrine 's general function of directing resources away from maintenance , regeneration , and reproduction , and toward systems that are required for active movement . The consequences can include slowing of growth ( in children ) , sleeplessness , loss of libido , gastrointestinal problems , impaired disease resistance , slower rates of injury healing , depression , and increased vulnerability to addiction . = = = ADHD = = = Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a psychiatric condition involving problems with attention , hyperactivity , and impulsiveness . It is most commonly treated using stimulant drugs such as methylphenidate ( Ritalin ) , whose primary effect is to increase dopamine levels in the brain , but drugs in this group also generally increase brain levels of norepinephrine , and it has been difficult to determine whether these actions are involved in their clinical value . Also there is substantial evidence that many people with ADHD show " biomarkers " involving altered norepinephrine processing . Several drugs whose primary effects are on norepinephrine , including guanfacine , clonidine , and atomoxetine , have been tried as treatments for ADHD , and found to have effects comparable to those of stimulants . = = = Autonomic failure = = = Several conditions , including Parkinson 's disease , diabetes and so @-@ called pure autonomic failure , can cause a loss of norepinephrine @-@ secreting neurons in the sympathetic nervous system . The symptoms are widespread , the most serious being a reduction in heart rate and an extreme drop in resting blood pressure , making it impossible for severely affected people to stand for more than a few seconds without fainting . Treatment can involve dietary changes or drugs . = = Comparative biology and evolution = = Norepinephrine has been reported to exist in a wide variety of animal species , including protozoa , placozoa and cnidaria ( jellyfish and related species ) , but not in ctenophores ( comb jellies ) , whose nervous systems differ greatly from those of other animals . It is generally present in deuterostomes ( vertebrates , etc . ) , but in protostomes ( arthropods , molluscs , flatworms , nematodes , annelids , etc . ) it is replaced by octopamine , a closely related chemical with a closely related synthesis pathway . In insects , octopamine has alerting and activating functions that correspond ( at least roughly ) with the functions of norepinephrine in vertebrates . It has been argued that octopamine evolved to replace norepinephrine rather than vice versa ; however , the nervous system of amphioxus ( a primitive chordate ) has been reported to contain octopamine but not norepinephrine , which presents difficulties for that hypothesis . = = History = = Early in the twentieth century Walter Cannon , who had popularized the idea of a sympatho @-@ adrenal system preparing the body for fight and flight , and his colleague Arturo Rosenblueth developed a theory of two sympathins , sympathin E ( excitatory ) and sympathin I ( inhibitory ) , responsible for these actions . The Belgian pharmacologist Zénon Bacq as well as Canadian and US @-@ American pharmacologists between 1934 and 1938 suggested that noradrenaline might be a sympathetic transmitter . In 1939 , Hermann Blaschko and Peter Holtz independently identified the biosynthetic mechanism for norepinephrine in the vertebrate body . In 1945 Ulf von Euler published the first of a series of papers that established the role of norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter . He demonstrated the presence of norepinephrine in sympathetically innervated tissues and brain , and adduced evidence that it is the sympathin of Cannon and Rosenblueth .
= Pin Malakul = Mom Luang Pin Malakul ( Thai : หม ่ อมหลวงปิ ่ น มาลากุล , 24 October 1903 – 5 October 1995 ) was a Thai educator and writer . His contributions to education in Thailand include the establishment of various institutions of higher education , the introduction of fixed class schedules , and the implementation of teacher @-@ training programmes . In his career he served as Director @-@ General of the Department of General Education , later becoming Permanent Secretary , and Minister , of Education . He was also a member of the Executive Board of UNESCO . His writings earned him the title of National Artist in 1987 , and the 100th anniversary of his birth was celebrated by the UNESCO in 2003 as recognition of his contribution to the advancement of education in Thailand and Southeast Asia . = = Personal life = = = = = Early life and education = = = Mom Luang Pin Malakul ( hereafter referred to as ML Pin ) was born on 24 October 1903 to Mom Rajawongse Pia ( MR Pia ) and Thanpuying Sa @-@ ngiam Malakul . He was the sixth of thirteen children ( although the fourth , and the only son , to survive past birth ) . His father , a nobleman and great @-@ grandson of King Buddha Loetla Nabhalai , had served as King Vajiravudh 's guardian during the king 's overseas studies and held posts including Ambassador to the United Kingdom . MR Pia 's work was instrumental in the establishment of higher education in Thailand ( then known as Siam ) and he later became the third Minister of Public Instruction under King Vajiravudh . ML Pin recalled in his autobiography that although his mother was a kind and loving figure , his father was rather strict and acted more like a teacher than a father , and that he was often fearful of him . A loyal servant of the crown , MR Pia introduced ML Pin to King Vajiravudh when he was seven years old . Another often @-@ recounted story from his childhood is that of how , before having learned to count , when his mother asked him to gather half a bunch of betel leaves for her , ML Pin set down to picking up one leaf with each hand at a time , separating them equally into two piles . At the age of four , ML Pin began receiving preliminary education from teachers who came to teach at the family home on Damrongrak Road , next to Varadis Palace . He enrolled at Suankularb Wittayalai School ( then known as Wat Ratchaburana School ) shortly before turning seven in 1910 , and after half a year his examination results placed him at Mathayom 1 level . In 1914 he was accepted into the Royal Pages School ( now Vajiravudh College ) . Half a year later , King Vajiravudh named him one of eight Royal Page Students ( นักเรียนมหาดเล ็ กรับใช ้ ) in the king 's personal service . Although he did not attend regular classes at the school afterwards , he passed exams at Mathayom 5 level ( grade 11 ) at the end of the school year . As a Royal Page Student , ML Pin 's duties included various tasks in the royal household as well as accompanying the king in his various activities . The Royal Page Students were involved in plays and sports games held in court and also in activities of the king 's scouting @-@ related paramilitary movement , the Wild Tiger Corps . ML Pin also became an editor of the Dusit Samit Magazine , part of the king 's Dusit Thani miniature city / micronation project . One memorable task appointed to him by the king was to determine the day of week King Naresuan left Ayutthaya for his famous elephant duel , a problem ML Pin was unable to solve at the time , but became the inspiration for his later development of the " Everlasting Calendar " . He lived in the royal court most of the time and received a salary of twenty to thirty baht . = = = Life in Europe = = = In 1922 , when ML Pin was eighteen years old , the Ministry of Public Instruction , in accordance with the king 's wishes , granted him a government scholarship for a tertiary education in ancient Eastern languages in the United Kingdom . He departed abroad the MS ' Jutlandia ' on 23 January 1922 and arrived in London on 7 March . During his first two years , ML Pin studied Pali and Sanskrit at the University of London School of Oriental and African Studies and lived with Mr and Mrs L J Marshall of 23 Portland Place in Brighton , from whom he also received additional instruction in mathematics , English , and French . Such was his talent in mathematics that Mr Marshall , who was head of Mathematics and Surveying at Brighton Technical College , wrote to the Superintendent of Siamese Government Students recommending that ML Pin major in mathematics instead and saying that his skills would undoubtedly warrant a university scholarship for mathematical studies . This , however , did not suit the requirements of the Ministry of Public Instruction , and so ML Pin did not continue his mathematics education . Nevertheless , his interest in the field did not waver , and he continued to produce works on the subject . Among these are his publication in 1927 in Samaggi Sara , the journal of Samaggi Samagom ( the Thai Association in the UK ) , of a formula which he called the " Everlasting Calendar " , upon which he later based the development of a set of slide rules which could be used to calculate the day of week for any given date , and his publication of Miscellaneous Problems , a collection of various mathematical problems he had worked on , later in 1960 . In England ML Pin formed close friendships with fellow Thai students Prince Dulbhakara Worawan , Visuddhi Krairiksh , and Phanom Thephasdin , the first of which with whom he had been friends since their time as Royal Page Students . He also developed a taste for opera and classical music , on which he recalled spending quite a disproportionate amount of his scholarship 's allowance , eventually building a collection of 317 records . ML Pin was accepted into Brasenose College of the University of Oxford in 1924 , where he studied in the Honour School of Oriental Studies for four years . He graduated with a BA degree on 28 June 1928 . He then enrolled in a one @-@ year course in education also at Oxford , according to the wishes of the Ministry of Public Instruction . He practice @-@ taught at The Latymer School during the school year , but fell ill during the winter and again near the end of the school year late in the spring of 1929 , which adversely affected his studies . He was later awarded the Oxbridge MA degree on 15 October 1931 . After finishing his studies , ML Pin accompanied Princess Kalyanga Sombati Kitiyakara on a one @-@ month trip in Europe . Upon return to London , he attended the First World Conference on Adult Education on behalf of Siam , but during the same time his health deteriorated further , and he was diagnosed with tuberculosis . Accordingly , his return trip to Siam had to be postponed in order for him to recover in Switzerland . There he spent almost two years in Davos and later Klosters , until September 1931 when he attended the League of Nations annual conference before returning to Siam via a Nippon Yusen ship departing from Naples , Italy . He finally arrived in Siam on 23 October 1931 , after spending over nine years abroad . = = = Marriage = = = ML Pin married Miss Dussadeemala Krairiksh , daughter of Chao Phraya Mahithon and Thanpuying Klip , on 7 March 1932 . They lived at the Krairiksh family home before building a house on the Damrongrak Road property , and finally settled at Soi Chaiyot on Sukhumvit Road in 1938 . They had no children . = = Work = = = = = Early years = = = Upon ML Pin 's return from Europe in 1931 , Public Instruction Minister Prince Dhani Nivat appointed him as a government official under Krom Vichakan , a department of the ministry . He also served the prince in a somewhat unofficial capacity , assisting the prince 's work and observing the ministry 's various goings @-@ on . Under the prince 's directions , ML Pin became an instructor in mathematics , Thai , and English at Chulalongkorn University , in addition to the various duties he performed for the ministry . In 1934 , he became head of the university 's teacher @-@ preparation programme and headmaster of the Horwang Secondary School of Chulalongkorn University , which served as the country 's first demonstration ( teacher training ) school . He began developing projects for the school , although few of them were realised at the time . One such project was the creation of the country 's first school workshop . In 1938 , Plaek Pibulsonggram , as President of Chulalongkorn University , assigned ML Pin the duty of overseeing the establishment of Chulalongkorn 's University Preparatory School according to the National Education Plan of BE 2479 ( 1936 CE ) . Although given a tight time frame of only three months , the new school was created on the location of Horwang School , and gradually absorbed the older school , the entire staff merging within a few years . ML Pin became the first director of the school , the country 's first coeducational school , now known as Triam Udom Suksa School . It is widely regarded as one of the best schools in the country . During his term as director , which lasted until 1944 , he developed and implemented a fixed class schedule system , along with a mechanical timetable used to assign teaching periods , which is still in use today . As World War II reached Thailand in December 1941 , Japanese troops raided and occupied the school , forcing teachers and students to evacuate and relocate to temporary locations around Bangkok , and later to various other provinces . At one point , ML Pin disguised himself as a janitor to smuggle important documents and cash out of the school . In 1942 , not long after the invasion , Prime Minister Pibulsonggram assumed the post of education minister himself , and appointed ML Pin as Director @-@ General of the Department of General Education . Although resources were limited due to the war , ML Pin was able to manage the budget and personnel to allow a countrywide 12 baht salary for rural local schoolteachers . During his term , every province was provided with at least one upper @-@ secondary school . He also became involved in frequent school migrations due to both the war and changing policy . One issue with which ML Pin was deeply concerned was that of the country 's teacher @-@ training system , an issue he stressed during an audience with King Ananda Mahidol after the war in 1946 , and would later address during his term as Permanent Secretary of Education . = = = As Permanent Secretary of Education = = = ML Pin became Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Education in 1946 . In this capacity , he oversaw the founding in 1949 of the Higher Teacher Training School at Prasanmit , now Srinakharinwirot University , and the drafting of the first national education plan . Administration @-@ wise , Krom Vichakan ( or the Department of Curriculum and Instruction Development ) was re @-@ created in 1952 and the Department of Teacher Education was created in 1954 , along with the expansion of the Higher Teacher Training School to become the College of Education , of which ML Pin served as president until 1956 . He later oversaw the creation of the College 's Prasanmit Primary Demonstration School . ML Pin also pioneered the field of distance education via the " educational radio " broadcasting station , which was set up at Thung Maha Mek Technical College in 1954 . Despite obstacles and limited support , the programme proved successful and continually developed , and is now under the authority of the Centre for Educational Technology . As permanent secretary , ML Pin acted as the head delegate for Thailand to the third UNESCO General Conference in Beirut in 1948 , where Thailand was an observer , and represented Thailand as the country filed for membership in 1949 and was accepted as the fifty @-@ fifth member state . He served as director and coordinator for the Seminar on Rural Adult Education in Mysore , India , that year , and regularly represented Thailand in subsequent UNESCO meetings . He was elected to two terms on the UNESCO Executive Board from 1952 to 1956 , during which he supported and helped advance UNESCO 's programmes for promotion of universal compulsory education in Asian countries . His representation also lead to cooperative projects between the UNESCO and Thailand , including the Thailand UNESCO Rulral Teacher Education Project and the Thailand UNESCO Fundamental Education Center at Ubon Ratchathani Province , among others . Even after his term ended as permanent secretary , ML Pin was still involved in UNESCO activities in Thailand . He facilitated the establishment of UNESCO 's regional office in Bangkok , which opened in 1961 , and was among the founders of the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization . = = = As Minister of Education = = = In 1957 Army Commander Sarit Dhanarajata executed a coup and installed Pote Sarasin as prime minister . ML Pin subsequently received " an offer he could not refuse " to join his cabinet as Minister of Education and of Culture . ML Pin was also included in the following cabinets of Thanom Kittikachorn and Sarit himself , with Sarit holding power as Thailand 's strongman leader until his death , after which he was succeeded by Thanom . Sarit pushed for a revival of the monarchy 's importance , which was aided by ML Pin 's royalist ideals , and school textbooks were revised to feature the monarchy prominently . ML Pin served as Minister of Education until 1969 , when general elections were held and the prime minister reshuffled the cabinet , replacing the six most senior members . ( The post of Minister of Culture was terminated in 1958 . ) As Minister of Education , ML Pin established the Regional Education Development Project including higher education , which aimed to study the needs and limitations of education systems in the provinces . Spanning over two years , results of the project included the improvement of cooperation between government officials and Muslim locals in the four southernmost provinces , recognition of the need for children living near the Malay and Cambodian borders to be able to learn the Thai language before starting school , and the experimental development of a curriculum based on learners ' needs and interests at Suranaree School . As part of the project , ML Pin made preparations for the founding of Chiang Mai University , planning the campus and beginning construction , but the authority over the project was ultimately transferred to the Office of the Educational Council . He served three terms as President of Silpakorn University from 1965 to 1971 , during which he founded the university 's Sanam Chandra Palace Campus . There he intended to established a collegiate university system following that used at Oxford , as advised when he was Permanent Secretary of Education by Prime Minister Pibulsonggram , and Thap Kaew College was opened in 1968 . However , the college system turned out to be unsuccessful , lacking support from both the student body and the government , and was dissolved . At Thap Kaew , ML Pin also arranged for the construction of the Sound Library , a remotely accessible on @-@ demand audio collection . King Bhumibol Adulyadej donated recordings of his speeches to the library , and later remote access via radio from Bangkok was developed , but the library was not maintained after ML Pin 's presidency ended and thus fell into disuse . As minister , ML Pin also oversaw the construction of the Bangkok Planetarium , which opened in 1964 , and of the new National Library building at Tha Vasukri , and the revival of the King 's Scholarship , among other things . After his ministerial term ended in 1969 , he served two terms as member of the Senate and another as a member of the National Legislation Assembly . = = Later life = = ML Pin spent much of his retirement working on various tributes to King Vajiravudh , who had died while ML Pin was studying in England . In 1970 he began working with a few others with the intent to secure and catalogue the king 's various literary works , some of which by then were at risk of disappearing . He and the group made records of Dusit Thani , obtaining old photographs and other documentation , and organised a " guided tour " of Dusit Thani of old in November that year , which was presented to Princess Bejaratana , among others . The group 's work continued , and the Fine Arts Department established it into an official committee , with ML Pin as chairman , to make preparations for the 100th anniversary of the king 's birth , which would be recognised by UNESCO . ML Pin lobbied for the construction of Vajiravudhanusorn Hall , a museum displaying the king 's works and duties , at the National Library . The hall was opened in 1981 , despite budget problems during construction , which ML Pin had to sell part of the property on Damrongrak Road to help fund . The committee also conducted research on the Wild Tiger Corps , and determined the location in Photharam District , Ratchaburi Province , of Ban Rai , where King Vajiravudh often set up camp with them . ML Pin initiated the construction there of a statue of the king in Wild Tiger Corps uniform , which was unveiled in 1988 , and the surrounding area was developed into Khai Luang Ban Rai scout camp , which also contains a medical station and kindergarten . He was also a member of the Committee for the Renovation of Sanam Chandra Palace , but did not live to see the restoration completed . ML Pin Malakul died on 5 October 1995 , at the age of ninety @-@ one . = = Literary works = = During his years as Royal Page Student , ML Pin closely served King Vajiravudh and became learned in Thai literature . He was a prolific writer and produced a great number of literary works , including 25 compilations of poetic works , 57 works on education , 58 plays , 8 travel writings , and 56 other works . Among these are the following works in English : Writings on education Seminar on Rural Adult Education Education during the Time when H.H. Prince Dhani Was Minister of Public Instruction Plays School in the Village Somsak in Trouble Others Miscellaneous Problems ( 1960 ) Miscellaneous Problems or An Autobiography of a Would @-@ be Mathematician ( 1972 ) The New Republic Dramatic Achievement of King Rama VI King Vajiravudh : Thailand 's Prolific Writer = = Awards and recognition = = ML Pin was awarded the title of National Artist in Literature by the National Culture Commission in 1987 for his diverse contributions to the domain of Thai literature . He received the ASEAN Award in 1992 " for his outstanding achievements and contributions to literature " . UNESCO celebrated the centenary of his birth in 2003 , recognizing the value and impact of his contributions to the development of education in Thailand and Southeast Asia , and to the literary arts and the safeguarding and conservation of historical monuments and sites . On the occasion , Darakarn Building , the headquarters of UNESCO in Bangkok , was rededicated as the Mom Luang Pin Malakul Centenary Building and Room 57 , Building 1 at Triam Udom Suksa School , ML Pin 's former office , was set up as an archive of his original works . ML Pin received various decorations and medals , including the Orders of Chula Chom Klao , the White Elephant , the Crown of Thailand and Ramkeerati , and the Dushdi Mala , Border Service , Chakrabarti Mala , Royal Cypher , Red Cross Commendation and Red Cross Awards Medals . Foreign decorations he received include the West German Federal Cross of Merit , Belgian Order of Leopold , Japanese Order of the Sacred Treasure , South Korean Order of Diplomatic Service Merit , and Republic of China Order of the Brilliant Star . He received honorary degrees from Chulalongkorn , Indiana , Silpakorn , Srinakharinwirot , Chiang Mai and Ramkhamhaeng Universities . He also served as Fellow and Honorary Fellow in Literature of the Royal Institute of Thailand and Honorary Member of the Education Society of Thailand . He was awarded the Elder Teacher 's Pin and named Exceptional Contributor to National Education by the Teacher 's Council of Thailand , and received the Golden Phra Kiao for outstanding contributions to the Thai language from Chulalongkorn University .
= Gnome Motion Picture Company = The Gnome Motion Picture Company was a film production company that is credited with three productions between 1910 and 1911 . The purpose of the company to was to produce stories about gnomes . Alice in Funnyland , The Birth of the Gnomes and Alice 's New Year 's Party were all productions that were most likely never released . Announcements in trade publications ceased in January 1911 and the company treasurer , Frederick Kalmbach , was later sued by the City of New York for taxes . Of the three planned productions , two official synopses were released in The Nickelodeon . Despite no evidence of an actual release , the American Film Institute still recognizes all three films as being released in January 1911 . = = History = = According to The Nickelodeon the " Gnome Motion Picture Company was formed to manufacture pictures under the Meredith @-@ Jones camera patents , now owned and controlled , together with several other patents , by the Animated Picture Patents Company . " The company 's incorporation announcement stated it had $ 30 @,@ 000 in capital and its directors were Frederick Kalmbach , James C. Hutchinson and H. Meredith Jones . The studio and offices were located at the southwest corner of Park and Tremont Ave in Bronx , New York City , New York . According to a report , Gnome purchased a Motiograph Moving Picture Machine and Hallberg 's Standard Automatic Electric Economizers for their productions . The company 's lead actress was Mildred Hutchinson and employed its staff to produce stories about fictional gnomes , specifically for child audiences . Hutchinson was a seasoned child actress at the time of the productions who had credits working with Edison , Vitagraph and Melies the age of six . Records surrounding the release suggest that Alice in Funnyland , The Birth of the Gnomes and Alice 's New Year 's Party were never released . The venture ultimately failed and the City of New York sued Frederick Kalmbach , the company treasurer , for unpaid taxes on an assessment of $ 3 @,@ 000 . Kalmbach said that the Gnome Motion Picture Company was no longer conducting business when the assessment was made and the case was dismissed by the judge in 1918 . The last record of the Gnome Motion Picture Company in trade publications , in both announcements and advertisements , comes from a January 14 issue of Moving Picture World which announces all three of the films would be delayed for a " few days " . The American Film Institute still identifies all three films as having been released in January 1911 by Gnome . The Moving Picture World 's Thomas Bedding provided the best recognition of the company . Bedding wrote , " The Gnome Company seem to be working on , what to our minds , is the most interesting phase of the Christmas sentiment . They are making fairy pictures for young people . We fully expect to see other makers follow suit , when they realize what the real Christmas sentiment is , namely one of lightness , brightness , joyousness . " Advertisements for the productions show the great desire of the company to produce the three films in the December 1910 season , but interest in the Christmas and New Year 's productions would have waned by mid @-@ January 1911 with the productions still not released . Ultimately , the Gnome Motion Picture Company represents an early attempt to cater film productions to children and during the Christmas season . = = Films = = = = = The Birth of the Gnomes = = = A published synopsis in The Nickelodeon reads as follows , " An old fairy realizing that her span of life is rapidly drawing to a close , brings to life a new race of people , called the Gnomes , who are governed by a new fairy . When the Gnomes appear , the old fairy informs them that their duties will be to perform acts of kindness to all people of the world . After thus admonishing them , the old fairy disappears , and the Gnomes start upon their career of well doing . Many beautiful acts of kindness are performed in the course of their travels , which is through wonderful scenery and in strange places . In one scene the Gnomes discover an old man bemoaning his fate , and him they magically transform to a youth of great beauty . Many other acts of kindness are performed , all of great interest . Finally , the band of Gnomes discover a balloon , and the fairy queen being helped into the basket by the Gnomes , is last seen flying away watched by her adoring subjects . " The film was billed at being 1000 feet in length and having a set release for December 12 , 1910 . Though an announcement stated that the release would be delayed to " Christmas week " . No release was ever confirmed in any trade publication after it was delayed into January 1911 . = = = Alice in Funnyland = = = A published synopsis in The Nickelodeon reads as follows , " The night before Christmas , Alice , a child of wealth , after going through the usual form of hanging up her stocking , is put to bed by her maid . Alice falls asleep and dreams . Enter Santa Claus and Gnomes who tell Alice to follow her and they will show her part of their Funnyland . Alice follows the little people under the special protection of a policeman two foot high . The little party are seen trotting through beautiful glens and dales until they reach Funnyland . Santa Claus tells her that if she is a good girl all the animals and toys here are hers ; as Alice touches each one they come to life . The teddy bear steps out to dance with Alice . As Alice removes the cover from Doll 's box the doll dances out , a little king gives a magical entertainment , a clown is very active and all the animals and dolls do some interesting act much to the surprise and delight of little Alice . At last , tired out , Alice falls asleep reclining upon the shoulders of Teddy bear . Then we see her again back in her own little bed . It is now Christmas morning . Her maid awakens and dresses her for the great event , takes her to the drawing room where she is welcomed by her parents to find that her dream has come true . " Originally the film was billed as being released for December 19 , 1910 and then it was later claimed to be December 26 , 1910 . This release was attributed in an issue of The Nickelodeon . However , the film was not released on December 19 because an advertisement in Moving Picture World in January 1911 said that the release would be delayed for a " few days " . It is unknown , and unlikely , if the film actually was released because no other publications , ads or materials surrounding the Gnome Motion Picture Company followed . = = = Alice 's New Year 's Party = = = Unlike the first two productions which were the subject of published synopses , Alice 's New Year 's Party was the subject of no detail in trade publications . This production was never given an exact release date , but was later affirmed to be set for a " Christmas week " release . The American Film Institute cites four bibliographic sources ending with an advertisement in Moving Picture World in January 1911 says that the releases would be delayed for a " few days " . The film does not appear to have ever been released .
= Peterloo Massacre = The Peterloo Massacre occurred at St Peter 's Field , Manchester , England , on 16 August 1819 , when cavalry charged into a crowd of 60 @,@ 000 – 80 @,@ 000 who had gathered to demand the reform of parliamentary representation . The end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 had resulted in periods of famine and chronic unemployment , exacerbated by the introduction of the first of the Corn Laws . By the beginning of 1819 , the pressure generated by poor economic conditions , coupled with the relative lack of suffrage in Northern England , had enhanced the appeal of political radicalism . In response , the Manchester Patriotic Union , a group agitating for parliamentary reform , organised a demonstration to be addressed by the well @-@ known radical orator Henry Hunt . Shortly after the meeting began local magistrates called on the military authorities to arrest Hunt and several others on the hustings with him , and to disperse the crowd . Cavalry charged into the crowd with sabres drawn , and in the ensuing confusion , 15 people were killed and 400 – 700 were injured . The massacre was given the name Peterloo in an ironic comparison to the Battle of Waterloo , which had taken place four years earlier . Historian Robert Poole has called the Peterloo Massacre one of the defining moments of its age . In its own time , the London and national papers shared the horror felt in the Manchester region , but Peterloo 's immediate effect was to cause the government to crack down on reform , with the passing of what became known as the Six Acts . It also led directly to the foundation of The Manchester Guardian ( now The Guardian ) , but had little other effect on the pace of reform . In a survey conducted by The Guardian in 2006 , Peterloo came second to the Putney Debates as the event from radical British history that most deserved a proper monument or a memorial . Peterloo is commemorated by a plaque close to the site , a replacement for an earlier one that was criticised as being inadequate as it did not reflect the scale of the massacre . = = Background = = = = = Suffrage = = = In 1819 , Lancashire was represented by two Members of Parliament ( MPs ) . Voting was restricted to the adult male owners of freehold land with an annual rental value of 40 shillings or more – the equivalent of about £ 80 in 2008 – and votes could only be cast at the county town of Lancaster , by a public spoken declaration at the hustings . Constituency boundaries were out of date , and the so @-@ called rotten boroughs had a hugely disproportionate influence on the membership of the Parliament of the United Kingdom compared to the size of their populations : Old Sarum in Wiltshire , with one voter , elected two MPs , as did Dunwich in Suffolk , which by the early 19th century had almost completely disappeared into the sea . The major urban centres of Manchester , Salford , Bolton , Blackburn , Rochdale , Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , Oldham and Stockport , with a combined population of almost one million , were represented by either the two county MPs for Lancashire , or the two for Cheshire in the case of Stockport . By comparison , more than half of all MPs were returned by a total of just 154 owners of rotten or closed boroughs . In 1816 , Thomas Oldfield 's The Representative History of Great Britain and Ireland ; being a History of the House of Commons , and of the Counties , Cities , and Boroughs of the United Kingdom from the earliest Period claimed that of the 515 MPs for England and Wales 351 were returned by the patronage of 177 individuals and a further 16 by the direct patronage of the government : all 45 Scottish MPs owed their seats to patronage . These inequalities in political representation led to calls for reform . = = = Economic conditions = = = After the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 , a brief boom in textile manufacture was followed by periods of chronic economic depression , particularly among textile weavers and spinners ( the textile trade was concentrated in Lancashire ) . Weavers who could have expected to earn 15 shillings for a six @-@ day week in 1803 , saw their wages cut to 5 shillings or even 4s 6d by 1818 . The industrialists , who were cutting wages without offering relief , blamed market forces generated by the aftershocks of the Napoleonic Wars . Exacerbating matters were the Corn Laws , the first of which was passed in 1815 , imposing a tariff on foreign grain in an effort to protect English grain producers . The cost of food rose as people were forced to buy the more expensive and lower quality British grain , and periods of famine and chronic unemployment ensued , increasing the desire for political reform both in Lancashire and in the country at large . = = = Radical mass meetings in Manchester = = = Economic conditions in 1817 led to a group who became known as Blanketeers to organise a march from Manchester to London so they could petition the Prince Regent for parliamentary reform . A crowd of 25 @,@ 000 including 5 @,@ 000 men who intended to march gathered in St Peter 's Fields . After the magistrates read the Riot Act , the crowd was dispersed by the King 's Dragoon Guards . The ringleaders were arrested and subsequently released when serious charges against them were not forthcoming . In April 1819 three leading Blanketeers were convicted of sedition and conspiracy when witnesses alleged they had advocated the principal towns of the kingdom should elect representatives to a National Convention to demand their rights and if refused enforce them ' sword in hand ' during a meeting in Stockport in September 1818 . By the beginning of 1819 pressure generated by poor economic conditions was at its peak and had enhanced the appeal of political radicalism among the cotton loom weavers of south Lancashire . In January 1819 , a crowd of about 10 @,@ 000 gathered at St Peter 's Fields to hear the radical orator Henry Hunt and called on the Prince Regent to choose ministers who would repeal the Corn Laws . The meeting , conducted in the presence of the cavalry , passed off without incident . In July 1819 , the town 's magistrates wrote to Lord Sidmouth warning they thought a ' general rising ' was imminent , the " deep distress of the manufacturing classes " was being worked on by the " unbounded liberty of the press " and " the harangues of a few desperate demagogues " at weekly meetings . " Possessing no power to prevent the meetings " the magistrates admitted they were at a loss as to how to stem the doctrines being disseminated . = = = August meeting = = = Against this background , a " great assembly " was organised by the Manchester Patriotic Union formed by radicals from the Manchester Observer . The newspaper 's founder Joseph Johnson was the union 's secretary . He wrote to Henry Hunt asking him to chair a meeting in Manchester on 2 August 1819 . Johnson wrote : Nothing but ruin and starvation stare one in the face [ in the streets of Manchester and the surrounding towns ] , the state of this district is truly dreadful , and I believe nothing but the greatest exertions can prevent an insurrection . Oh , that you in London were prepared for it . Unknown to Johnson and Hunt , the letter was intercepted by government spies and copied before being sent to its destination . The contents were interpreted to mean that an insurrection was being planned , and the government responded by ordering the 15th Hussars to Manchester . The mass public meeting planned for 2 August was delayed until 9 August . The Manchester Observer reported it was called " to take into consideration the most speedy and effectual mode of obtaining Radical reform in the Common House of Parliament " and " to consider the propriety of the ' Unrepresented Inhabitants of Manchester ' electing a person to represent them in Parliament " . The magistrates , led by William Hulton , had been advised by the acting Home Secretary , Henry Hobhouse , that " the election of a Member of Parliament without the King 's writ " was a serious misdemeanour , encouraging them to declare the assembly illegal as soon as it was announced on 31 July . The radicals sought a second opinion on the meeting 's legality which was that " The intention of choosing Representatives , contrary to the existing law , tends greatly to render the proposed Meeting seditious ; under those circumstances it would be deemed justifiable in the Magistrates to prevent such Meeting . " On 3 August Hobhouse conveyed the view of the Attorney @-@ General that the magistrates were incorrect to declare the 9 August meeting illegal as it was called to consider the election of a representative and it was not the intention to elect an MP that was illegal , but the execution of that intention . On 4 August Hobhouse advised against any attempt to forcibly prevent the 9 August meeting if it went ahead , or do anything beyond collecting evidence for subsequent prosecution unless the meeting got out of hand : even if they should utter sedition or proceed to the election of a representative Lord Sidmouth is of opinion that it will be the wisest course to abstain from any endeavour to disperse the mob , unless they should proceed to acts of felony or riot . We have the strongest reason to believe that Hunt means to preside and to deprecate disorder . " The meeting on 9 August was postponed after magistrates banned it to discourage the radicals but Hunt and his followers were determined to assemble and a meeting was organised for 16 August , with its declared aim solely " to consider the propriety of adopting the most LEGAL and EFFECTUAL means of obtaining a reform in the Common House of Parliament " . The press had mocked earlier meetings of working men because of their ragged , dirty appearance and disorganised conduct , but the organisers were determined that those attending the St Peter 's Field meeting would be neatly turned out and march to the event in good order . Samuel Bamford , a local radical who led the Middleton contingent , wrote that " It was deemed expedient that this meeting should be as morally effective as possible , and , that it should exhibit a spectacle such as had never before been witnessed in England . " Instructions were given to the various committees forming the contingents that " Cleanliness , Sobriety , Order and Peace " and a " prohibition of all weapons of offence or defence " were to be observed throughout the demonstration . Each contingent was drilled and rehearsed in the fields of the townships around Manchester adding to the concerns of the authorities . A royal proclamation forbidding the practice of drilling had been posted in Manchester on 3 August but on 9 August an informant reported to Rochdale magistrates that at Tandle Hill the previous day , 700 men were " drilling in companies " and " going through the usual evolutions of a regiment " and an onlooker had said the men " were fit to contend with any regular troops , only they wanted arms " = = Assembly = = = = = Preparations = = = St Peter 's Field was a croft ( an open piece of land ) alongside Mount Street which was being cleared to enable the last section of Peter Street to be constructed . Piles of brushwood had been placed at the end of the field nearest to the Friends Meeting House , but the remainder of the field was clear . Thomas Worrell , Manchester 's Assistant Surveyor of Paving , arrived to inspect the field at 7 : 00 am . His job was to remove anything that might be used as a weapon , and he duly had " about a quarter of a load " of stones carted away . Monday , 16 August 1819 , was a hot summer 's day , with a cloudless blue sky . The fine weather almost certainly increased the size of the crowd significantly ; marching from the outer townships in the cold and rain would have been a much less attractive prospect . The Manchester magistrates met at 9 : 00 am , to breakfast at the Star Inn on Deansgate and to consider what action they should take on Henry Hunt 's arrival at the meeting . By 10 : 30 am they had come to no conclusions , and moved to a house on the southeastern corner of St Peter 's Field , from where they planned to observe the meeting . They were concerned that it would end in a riot , or even a rebellion , and had arranged for a substantial number of regular troops and militia yeomanry to be deployed . The military presence comprised 600 men of the 15th Hussars ; several hundred infantrymen ; a Royal Horse Artillery unit with two six @-@ pounder ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) guns ; 400 men of the Cheshire Yeomanry ; 400 special constables ; and 120 cavalry of the Manchester and Salford Yeomanry . The Manchester & Salford Yeomanry were relatively inexperienced militia recruited from among local shopkeepers and tradesmen , the most numerous of which were publicans . Recently mocked by the Manchester Observer as " generally speaking , the fawning dependents of the great , with a few fools and a greater proportion of coxcombs , who imagine they acquire considerable importance by wearing regimentals , they were subsequently variously described as " younger members of the Tory party in arms " , and as " hot @-@ headed young men , who had volunteered into that service from their intense hatred of Radicalism " . Socialist writer Mark Krantz has described them as " the local business mafia on horseback " . The British Army in the north was under the overall command of General Sir John Byng . When he had initially learned that the meeting was scheduled for 2 August he wrote to the Home Office stating that he hoped the Manchester magistrates would show firmness on the day : I will be prepared to go there , and will have in that neighbourhood , that is within an easy day 's march , 8 squadron of cavalry , 18 companies of infantry and the guns . I am sure I can add to the Yeomanry if requisite . I hope therefore the civil authorities will not be deterred from doing their duty . The revised meeting date of 16 August , however , coincided with his visit to the horse races at York , a fashionable event at which Byng had entries in two races . He once again wrote to the Home Office , saying that although he would still be prepared to be in command in Manchester on the day of the meeting if it was thought really necessary , he had absolute confidence in his deputy commander , Lieutenant Colonel Guy L 'Estrange . = = = Meeting = = = The crowd that gathered in St Peter 's Field arrived in disciplined and organised contingents . Each village or chapelry was given a time and a place to meet , from where its members were to proceed to assembly points in the larger towns or townships , and from there on to Manchester . Contingents were sent from all around the region , the largest and " best dressed " of which was a group of 10 @,@ 000 who had travelled from Oldham Green , comprising people from Oldham , Royton ( which included a sizable female section ) , Crompton , Lees , Saddleworth and Mossley . Other sizable contingents marched from Middleton and Rochdale ( 6 @,@ 000 strong ) and Stockport ( 1 @,@ 500 – 5 @,@ 000 strong ) . Reports of the size of the crowd at the meeting vary substantially . Contemporaries estimated it from 30 @,@ 000 to as many as 150 @,@ 000 ; modern estimates are 60 @,@ 000 – 80 @,@ 000 . Scholar Joyce Marlow describes the event as " The most numerous meeting that ever took place in Great Britain " and elaborates that the generally accepted figure of 60 @,@ 000 would have been six per cent of the population of Lancashire , or half the population of the immediate area around Manchester . The assembly was intended by its organisers and participants to be a peaceful meeting ; Henry Hunt had exhorted everyone attending to come " armed with no other weapon but that of a self @-@ approving conscience " , and many were wearing their " Sunday best " clothes . Samuel Bamford recounts the following incident , which occurred as the Middleton contingent reached the outskirts of Manchester : On the bank of an open field on our left I perceived a gentleman observing us attentively . He beckoned me , and I went to him . He was one of my late employers . He took my hand , and rather concernedly , but kindly , said he hoped no harm was intended by all those people who were coming in . I said " I would pledge my life for their entire peaceableness . " I asked him to notice them , " did they look like persons wishing to outrage the law ? were they not , on the contrary , evidently heads of decent working families ? or members of such families ? " " No , no , " I said , " my dear sir , and old respected master , if any wrong or violence take place , they will be committed by men of a different stamp from these . " He said he was very glad to hear me say so ; he was happy he had seen me , and gratified by the manner in which I had expressed myself . I asked , did he think we should be interrupted at the meeting ? he said he did not believe we should ; " then , " I replied , " all will be well " ; and shaking hands , with mutual good wishes , I left him , and took my station as before . Although some observers , like the Rev. W. R. Hay , chairman of the Salford Quarter Sessions , claimed that " The active part of the meeting may be said to have come in wholly from the country " , others such as John Shuttleworth , a local cotton manufacturer , estimated that most were from Manchester , a view that would subsequently be supported by the casualty lists . Of the casualties whose residence was recorded , sixty @-@ one per cent lived within a three @-@ mile radius of the centre of Manchester . Some groups carried banners with texts like " No Corn Laws " , " Annual Parliaments " , " Universal suffrage " and " Vote By Ballot " . The first female reform societies were established in the textile areas in 1819 and women from the Manchester Female Reform Society , dressed in white , accompanied Hunt to the platform . The society 's president Mary Fildes rode in Hunt 's carriage carrying its flag . The only banner known to have survived is in Middleton Public Library ; it was carried by Thomas Redford , who was injured by a yeomanry sabre . Made of green silk embossed with gold lettering , one side of the banner is inscribed " Liberty and Fraternity " and the other " Unity and Strength " . At about noon , several hundred special constables were led onto the field . They formed two lines in the crowd a few yards apart , in an attempt to form a corridor through the crowd between the house where the magistrates were watching and the hustings , two waggons lashed together . Believing that this might be intended as the route by which the magistrates would later send their representatives to arrest the speakers , some members of the crowd pushed the waggons away from the constables , and pressed around the hustings to form a human barrier . Hunt 's carriage arrived at the meeting shortly after 1 : 00 pm , and he made his way to the hustings . Alongside Hunt on the speakers ' stand were John Knight , a cotton manufacturer and reformer , Joseph Johnson , the organiser of the meeting , John Thacker Saxton , managing editor of the Manchester Observer , the publisher Richard Carlile , and George Swift , reformer and shoemaker . There were also a number of reporters , including John Tyas of The Times , John Smith of the Liverpool Echo and Edward Baines Jr , the son of the editor of the Leeds Mercury . By this time St Peter 's Field , an area of 14 @,@ 000 square yards ( 11 @,@ 700 m2 ) , was packed with tens of thousands of men , women and children . The crowd around the speakers was so dense that " their hats seemed to touch " ; large groups of curious spectators gathered on the outskirts of the crowd . The rest of Manchester was like a ghost town , the streets and shops were empty . = = Cavalry charge = = William Hulton , the chairman of the magistrates watching from the house on the edge of St Peter 's Field , saw the enthusiastic reception that Hunt received on his arrival at the assembly , and it encouraged him to action . He issued an arrest warrant for Henry Hunt , Joseph Johnson , John Knight , and James Moorhouse . On being handed the warrant the Chief Constable , Jonathan Andrews , offered his opinion that the press of the crowd surrounding the hustings would make military assistance necessary for its execution . Hulton then wrote two letters , one to Major Thomas Trafford , the commanding officer of the Manchester and Salford Yeomanry Cavalry , and the other to the overall military commander in Manchester , Lieutenant Colonel Guy L 'Estrange . The contents of both notes were similar : Sir , as chairman of the select committee of magistrates , I request you to proceed immediately to no . 6 Mount Street , where the magistrates are assembled . They consider the Civil Power wholly inadequate to preserve the peace . I have the honour , & c . Wm . Hulton . The notes were handed to two horsemen who were standing by . The Manchester and Salford Yeomanry were stationed just a short distance away in Portland Street , and so received their note first . They immediately drew their swords and galloped towards St Peter 's Field . One trooper , in a frantic attempt to catch up , knocked down a woman in Cooper Street , causing the death of her son when he was thrown from her arms ; two @-@ year @-@ old William Fildes was the first casualty of Peterloo . Sixty cavalrymen of the Manchester and Salford Yeomanry , led by Captain Hugh Hornby Birley , a local factory owner , arrived at the house from where the magistrates were watching ; some reports allege that they were drunk . Andrews , the Chief Constable , instructed Birley that he had an arrest warrant which he needed assistance to execute . Birley was asked to take his cavalry to the hustings to allow the speakers to be removed ; it was by then about 1 : 40 pm . The route towards the hustings between the special constables was narrow , and as the inexperienced horses were thrust further and further into the crowd they reared and plunged as people tried to get out of their way . The arrest warrant had been given to the Deputy Constable , Joseph Nadin , who followed behind the yeomanry . As the cavalry pushed towards the speakers ' stand they became stuck in the crowd , and in panic started to hack about them with their sabres . On his arrival at the stand Nadin arrested Hunt , Johnson and a number of others including John Tyas , the reporter from The Times . Their mission to execute the arrest warrant having been achieved , the yeomanry set about destroying the banners and flags on the stand . According to Tyas , the yeomanry then attempted to reach flags in the crowd " cutting most indiscriminately to the right and to the left to get at them " - only then ( said Tyas ) were brickbats thrown at the military : " From this point the Manchester and Salford Yeomanry lost all command of temper " . From his vantage point William Hulton perceived the unfolding events as an assault on the yeomanry , and on L 'Estrange 's arrival at 1 : 50 pm , at the head of his hussars , he ordered them into the field to disperse the crowd with the words : " Good God , Sir , don 't you see they are attacking the Yeomanry ; disperse the meeting ! " The 15th Hussars formed themselves into a line stretching across the eastern end of St Peter 's Field , and charged into the crowd . At about the same time the Cheshire Yeomanry charged from the southern edge of the field . At first the crowd had some difficulty in dispersing , as the main exit route into Peter Street was blocked by the 88th Regiment of Foot , standing with bayonets fixed . One officer of the 15th Hussars was heard trying to restrain the by now out of control Manchester and Salford Yeomanry , who were " cutting at every one they could reach " : " For shame ! For shame ! Gentlemen : forbear , forbear ! The people cannot get away ! " Within ten minutes the crowd had been dispersed , at the cost of eleven dead and more than six hundred injured . Only the wounded , their helpers , and the dead were left behind ; a woman living nearby said she saw " a very great deal of blood " . For some time afterwards there was rioting in the streets , most seriously at New Cross , where troops fired on a crowd attacking a shop belonging to someone rumoured to have taken one of the women reformers ' flags as a souvenir . Peace was not restored in Manchester until the next morning , and in Stockport and Macclesfield rioting continued on the 17th . There was also a major riot in Oldham that day , during which one person was shot and wounded . = = Victims = = The exact number of those killed and injured at Peterloo has never been established with certainty . Sources claim 11 – 15 killed and 400 – 700 injured . The Manchester Relief Committee , a body set up to provide relief for the victims of Peterloo , gave the number of injured as 420 , while Radical sources listed 500 . The true number is difficult to estimate , as many of the wounded hid their injuries for fear of retribution by the authorities . Three of William Marsh 's six children worked in the factory belonging to Captain Hugh Birley of the Manchester Yeomanry , and lost their jobs because their father had attended the meeting . James Lees was admitted to Manchester Infirmary with two severe sabre wounds to the head , but was refused treatment and sent home after refusing to agree with the surgeon 's insistence that " he had had enough of Manchester meetings " . A particular feature of the meeting at Peterloo was the number of women present . Female reform societies had been formed in North West England during June and July 1819 , the first in Britain . Many of the women were dressed distinctively in white , and some formed all @-@ female contingents , carrying their own flags . Of the 654 recorded casualties , at least 168 were women , four of whom died either at St Peter 's Field or later as a result of their wounds . It has been estimated that less than 12 per cent of the crowd was made up of females , suggesting that women were at significantly greater risk of injury than men by a factor of almost 3 : 1 . Richard Carlile claimed that the women were especially targeted , a view apparently supported by the large number who suffered from wounds caused by weapons . Eleven of the fatalities listed occurred on St Peter 's Field . Others , such as John Lees of Oldham , died later of their wounds , and some like Joshua Whitworth were killed in the rioting that followed the crowd 's dispersal from the field . = = Reaction and aftermath = = = = = Public = = = The Peterloo Massacre has been called one of the defining moments of its age . Many of those present at the massacre , including local masters , employers and owners , were horrified by the carnage . One of the casualties , Oldham cloth @-@ worker and ex @-@ soldier John Lees , who died from his wounds on 9 September , had been present at the Battle of Waterloo . Shortly before his death he said to a friend that he had never been in such danger as at Peterloo : " At Waterloo there was man to man but there it was downright murder . " When news of the massacre began to spread , the population of Manchester and surrounding districts were horrified and outraged . After the events at Peterloo , many commemorative items such as plates , jugs , handkerchiefs and medals were produced ; they would be carried by radical supporters and may also have been sold to raise money for the injured . The People 's History Museum in Manchester has one of these Peterloo handkerchiefs on display . All the mementos carried the iconic image of Peterloo ; cavalrymen with swords drawn riding down and slashing at defenceless civilians . The reverse of the Peterloo medal carried a Biblical text : The wicked have drawn out the sword , they have cast down the poor and needy and such as be of upright conversation . Peterloo was the first public meeting at which journalists from important , distant newspapers were present and within a day or so of the event , accounts were published in London , Leeds and Liverpool . The London and national papers shared the horror felt in the Manchester region , and the feeling of indignation throughout the country became intense . James Wroe , editor of the Manchester Observer was the first to describe the incident at the " Peterloo Massacre " , coining his headline by combining St Peter 's Field with the Battle of Waterloo that had taken place four years earlier . He also wrote pamphlets entitled " The Peterloo Massacre : A Faithful Narrative of the Events " . Priced at 2d each , they sold out every print run for 14 weeks and had a large national circulation . Sir Francis Burdett , a reformist MP , was jailed for three months for publishing a seditious libel . Percy Bysshe Shelley was in Italy and did not hear of the massacre until 5 September . His poem , The Masque of Anarchy , subtitled Written on the Occasion of the Massacre at Manchester was sent for publication in the radical periodical The Examiner but because of restrictions on the radical press , was not published until 1832 , ten years after the poet 's death . = = = Political = = = The immediate effect of Peterloo was a crackdown on reform . The government instructed the police and courts to go after the journalists , presses and publication of the Manchester Observer . Wroe was arrested and charged with producing a seditious publication . Found guilty he was sentenced to twelve months in prison and fined £ 100 . Outstanding court cases against the Manchester Observer were rushed through the courts and a continual change of sub @-@ editors was not sufficient defence against a series of police raids , often on the suspicion that someone was writing a radical article . The Manchester Observer closed in February 1820 . Hunt and eight others were tried at York Assizes on 16 March 1820 , charged with sedition . After a two @-@ week trial , five defendants were found guilty . Hunt was sentenced to 30 months in Ilchester Gaol ; Bamford , Johnson , and Healey were given one year each , and Knight was jailed for two years on a subsequent charge . A civil case on behalf of a weaver wounded at Peterloo was brought against four members of the Manchester Yeomanry , Captain Birley , Captain Withington , Trumpeter Meagher , and Private Oliver , at Lancaster Assizes , on 4 April 1822 . All were acquitted , as the court ruled their actions had been justified to disperse an illegal gathering . The government declared its support for the actions taken by the magistrates and the army . The Manchester magistrates held a supposedly public meeting on 19 August , so that resolutions supporting the action they had taken three days before could be published . Cotton merchants Archibald Prentice ( later editor of The Manchester Times ) and Absalom Watkin ( a later corn @-@ law reformer ) , both members of the Little Circle , organised a petition of protest against the violence at St Peter 's Field and the validity of the magistrate 's meeting . Within a few days it had collected 4 @,@ 800 signatures . Nevertheless , the Home Secretary , Lord Sidmouth , on 27 August conveyed to the magistrates the thanks of the Prince Regent for their action in the " preservation of the public peace " . That public exoneration was met with fierce anger and criticism . During a debate at Hopkins Street Robert Wedderburn declared " The Prince is a fool with his Wonderful letters of thanks ... What is the Prince Regent or King to us , we want no King – he is no use to us . " In an open letter , Richard Carlile said : Unless the Prince calls his ministers to account and relieved his people , he would surely be deposed and make them all REPUBLICANS , despite all adherence to ancient and established institutions . For a few months following Peterloo it seemed to the authorities that the country was heading towards an armed rebellion . Encouraging them in that belief were two abortive uprisings , in Huddersfield and Burnley , during the autumn of 1819 , and the discovery and foiling of the Cato Street Conspiracy to blow up the cabinet that winter . By the end of the year , the government had introduced legislation , later known as the Six Acts , to suppress radical meetings and publications , and by the end of 1820 every significant working @-@ class radical reformer was in jail ; civil liberties had declined to an even lower level than they were before Peterloo . Historian Robert Reid has written that " it is not fanciful to compare the restricted freedoms of the British worker in the post @-@ Peterloo period in the early nineteenth century with those of the black South African in the post @-@ Sharpeville period of the late twentieth century " . One direct consequence of Peterloo was the foundation of the Manchester Guardian newspaper in 1821 , by the Little Circle group of non @-@ conformist Manchester businessmen headed by John Edward Taylor , a witness to the massacre . The prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would " zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty ... warmly advocate the cause of Reform ... endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and ... support , without reference to the party from which they emanate , all serviceable measures " . Events such as the Pentridge Rising , the March of the Blanketeers and the Spa Fields meeting , all serve to indicate the breadth , diversity and widespread geographical scale of the demand for economic and political reform at the time . Peterloo had no effect on the speed of reform , but in due course all but one of the reformers ' demands , annual parliaments , were met . Following the Great Reform Act of 1832 , the newly created Manchester parliamentary borough elected its first two MPs . Five candidates including William Cobbett stood , and the Whigs , Charles Poulett Thomson and Mark Philips , were elected . Manchester became a Municipal Borough in 1837 , and what remained of the manorial rights were purchased by the borough council . = = Commemoration = = The Skelmanthorpe Flag is believed to have been made in Skelmanthorpe , in the West Riding of Yorkshire , in 1819 . It was in part made to honour the victims of the Peterloo Massacre . The Free Trade Hall , home of the Anti @-@ Corn Law League , was built partly as a " cenotaph raised on the shades of the victims " of Peterloo . Until 2007 the massacre was commemorated by a blue plaque on the wall of the present building , the third to occupy the site , now the Radisson Hotel . It was regarded as a less than appropriate memorial because it under reported the incident as a dispersal , and the deaths were omitted completely . In a 2006 survey conducted by The Guardian , Peterloo came second to St. Mary 's Church , Putney , the venue for the Putney Debates , as the event from radical British history that most deserved a proper monument . A Peterloo Massacre Memorial Campaign was set up to lobby for a more appropriate monument to an event that has been described as Manchester 's Tiananmen Square . In 2007 Manchester City Council replaced the original blue plaque with a red one , giving a fuller account of the events of 1819 . It was unveiled on 10 December 2007 by the Lord Mayor of Manchester , Councillor Glynn Evans . Under the heading " St. Peter 's Fields : The Peterloo Massacre " , the new plaque reads : On 16 August 1819 a peaceful rally of 60 @,@ 000 pro @-@ democracy reformers , men , women and children , was attacked by armed cavalry resulting in 15 deaths and over 600 injuries . In 1968 , in celebration of its centenary , the Trades Union Congress commissioned British composer Sir Malcolm Arnold to write the Peterloo Overture . Other musical commemorations include " Ned Ludd Part 5 " on electric folk group Steeleye Span 's 2006 album Bloody Men , and Rochdale rock band Tractor 's suite of five songs written and recorded in 1973 , later included on their 1992 release Worst Enemies .
= Windsor Castle = Windsor Castle is a royal residence at Windsor in the English county of Berkshire . It is notable for its long association with the English and later British royal family and for its architecture . The original castle was built in the 11th century after the Norman invasion of England by William the Conqueror . Since the time of Henry I , it has been used by all monarchs , and is the longest @-@ occupied palace in Europe . The castle 's lavish early 19th @-@ century State Apartments were described by the art historian Hugh Roberts as " a superb and unrivalled sequence of rooms widely regarded as the finest and most complete expression of later Georgian taste " . Inside the castle walls is the 15th @-@ century St George 's Chapel , considered by the historian John Martin Robinson to be " one of the supreme achievements of English Perpendicular Gothic " design . Originally designed to protect Norman dominance around the outskirts of London and oversee a strategically important part of the River Thames , Windsor Castle was built as a motte @-@ and @-@ bailey , with three wards surrounding a central mound . Gradually replaced with stone fortifications , the castle withstood a prolonged siege during the First Barons ' War at the start of the 13th century . Henry III built a luxurious royal palace within the castle during the middle of the century , and Edward III went further , rebuilding the palace to make an even grander set of buildings in what would become " the most expensive secular building project of the entire Middle Ages in England " . Edward 's core design lasted through the Tudor period , during which Henry VIII and Elizabeth I made increasing use of the castle as a royal court and centre for diplomatic entertainment . Windsor Castle survived the tumultuous period of the English Civil War , when it was used as a military headquarters for Parliamentary forces and a prison for Charles I. At the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 , Charles II rebuilt much of Windsor Castle with the help of the architect Hugh May , creating a set of extravagant Baroque interiors that are still admired . After a period of neglect during the 18th century , George III and George IV renovated and rebuilt Charles II 's palace at colossal expense , producing the current design of the State Apartments , full of Rococo , Gothic and Baroque furnishings . Queen Victoria made a few minor changes to the castle , which became the centre for royal entertainment for much of her reign . Windsor Castle was used as a refuge for the royal family during the Luftwaffe bombing campaigns of the Second World War and survived a fire in 1992 . It is a popular tourist attraction , a venue for hosting state visits , and the preferred weekend home of Elizabeth II . Today , more than 500 people live and work in Windsor Castle – the largest inhabited castle in the world . = = Architecture = = Windsor Castle occupies 13 acres ( 5 @.@ 3 ha ) , and combines the features of a fortification , a palace , and a small town . The present @-@ day castle was created during a sequence of phased building projects , culminating in the reconstruction work after a fire in 1992 . It is in essence a Georgian and Victorian design based on a medieval structure , with Gothic features reinvented in a modern style . Since the 14th century , architecture at the castle has attempted to produce a contemporary reinterpretation of older fashions and traditions , repeatedly imitating outmoded or even antiquated styles . As a result , architect Sir William Whitfield has pointed to Windsor Castle 's architecture as having " a certain fictive quality " , the Picturesque and Gothic design generating " a sense that a theatrical performance is being put on here " , despite late 20th century efforts to expose more of the older structures to increase the sense of authenticity . Although there has been some criticism , the castle 's architecture and history lends it a " place amongst the greatest European palaces " . = = = Middle Ward = = = At the heart of Windsor Castle is the Middle Ward , a bailey formed around the motte or artificial hill in the centre of the ward . The motte is 50 feet ( 15 m ) high and is made from chalk originally excavated from the surrounding ditch . The keep , called the Round Tower , on the top of the motte is based on an original 12th @-@ century building , extended upwards in the early 19th century under architect Jeffry Wyatville by 30 ft ( 9 m ) to produce a more imposing height and silhouette . The interior of the Round Tower was further redesigned in 1991 – 3 to provide additional space for the Royal Archives , an additional room being built in the space left by Wyatville 's originally hollow extension . The Round Tower is in reality far from cylindrical , due to the shape and structure of the motte beneath it . The current height of the tower has been criticised as being disproportionate to its width ; archaeologist Tim Tatton @-@ Brown , for example , has described it as a mutilation of the earlier medieval structure . The western entrance to the Middle Ward is now open , and a gateway leads north from the ward onto the North Terrace . The eastern exit from the ward is guarded by the Norman Gatehouse . This gatehouse , which , despite its name , dates from the 14th century , is heavily vaulted and decorated with carvings , including surviving medieval lion masks , traditional symbols of majesty , to form an impressive entrance to the Upper Ward . Wyatville redesigned the exterior of the gatehouse , and the interior was later heavily converted in the 19th century for residential use . = = = Upper Ward = = = The Upper Ward of Windsor Castle comprises a number of major buildings enclosed by the upper bailey wall , forming a central quadrangle . The State Apartments run along the north of the ward , with a range of buildings along the east wall , and the private royal apartments and the King George IV Gate to the south , with the Edward III Tower in the south @-@ west corner . The motte and the Round Tower form the west edge of the ward . A bronze statue of Charles II on horseback sits beneath the Round Tower . Inspired by Hubert Le Sueur 's statue of Charles I in London , the statue was cast by Josias Ibach in 1679 , with the marble plinth featuring carvings by Grinling Gibbons . The Upper Ward adjoins the North Terrace , which overlooks the River Thames , and the East Terrace , which overlooks the gardens ; both of the current terraces were constructed by Hugh May in the 17th century . Traditionally the Upper Ward was judged to be " to all intents and purposes a nineteenth @-@ century creation ... the image of what the early nineteenth @-@ century thought a castle should be " , as a result of the extensive redesign of the castle by Wyatville under George IV . The walls of the Upper Ward are built of Bagshot Heath stone faced on the inside with regular bricks , the gothic details in yellow Bath stone . The buildings in the Upper Ward are characterised by the use of small bits of flint in the mortar for galletting , originally started at the castle in the 17th century to give stonework from disparate periods a similar appearance . The skyline of the Upper Ward is designed to be dramatic when seen from a distance or silhouetted against the horizon , an image of tall towers and battlements influenced by the picturesque movement of the late 18th century . Archaeological and restoration work following the 1992 fire has shown the extent to which the current structure represents a survival of elements from the original 12th @-@ century stone walls onwards , presented within the context of Wyatville 's final remodelling . = = = = State Apartments = = = = The State Apartments form the major part of the Upper Ward and lie along the north side of the quadrangle . The modern building follows the medieval foundations laid down by Edward III , with the ground floor comprising service chambers and cellars , and the much grander first floor forming the main part of the palace . On the first floor , the layout of the western end of the State Apartments is primarily the work of architect Hugh May , whereas the structure on the eastern side represents Jeffry Wyatville 's plans . The interior of the State Apartments was mostly designed by Wyatville in the early 19th century . Wyatville intended each room to illustrate a particular architectural style and to display the matching furnishings and fine arts of the period . With some alterations over the years , this concept continues to dominate the apartments . Different rooms follow the Classical , Gothic and Rococo styles , together with an element of Jacobethan in places . Many of the rooms on the eastern end of the castle had to be restored following the 1992 fire , using " equivalent restoration " methods – the rooms were restored so as to appear similar to their original appearance , but using modern materials and concealing modern structural improvements . These rooms were also partially redesigned at the same time to more closely match modern tastes . Art historian Hugh Roberts has praised the State Apartments as " a superb and unrivalled sequence of rooms widely regarded as the finest and most complete expression of later Georgian taste . " Others , such as architect Robin Nicolson and critic Hugh Pearman , have described them as " bland " and " distinctly dull " . Wyatville 's most famous work are those rooms designed in a Rococo style . These rooms take the fluid , playful aspects of this mid @-@ 18th @-@ century artistic movement , including many original pieces of Louis XV decoration , but project them on a " vastly inflated " scale . Investigations after the 1992 fire have shown though that many Rococo features of the modern castle , originally thought to have been 18th @-@ century fittings transferred from Carlton House or France , are in fact 19th @-@ century imitations in plasterwork and wood , designed to blend with original elements . The Grand Reception Room is the most prominent of these Rococo designs , 100 ft ( 30 m ) long and 40 ft ( 12 m ) tall and occupying the site of Edward III 's great hall . This room , restored after the fire , includes a huge French Rococo ceiling , characterised by Ian Constantinides , the lead restorer , as possessing a " coarseness of form and crudeness of hand ... completely overshadowed by the sheer spectacular effect when you are at a distance " . The room is set off by a set of restored Gobelins French tapestries . Although decorated with less gold leaf than in the 1820s , the result remains " one of the greatest set @-@ pieces of Regency decoration " . The White , Green and Crimson Drawing Rooms include a total of 62 trophies : carved , gilded wooden panels illustrating weapons and the spoils of war , many with Masonic meanings . Restored or replaced after the fire , these trophies are famous for their " vitality , precision and three @-@ dimensional quality " , and were originally brought from Carlton House in 1826 , some being originally imported from France and others carved by Edward Wyatt . The soft furnishings of these rooms , although luxurious , are more modest than the 1820s originals , both on the grounds of modern taste and cost . Wyatville 's design retains three rooms originally built by Hugh May in the 17th century in partnership with the painter Antonio Verrio and carver Grinling Gibbons . The Queen 's Presence Chamber , the Queen 's Audience Chamber and the King 's Dining Room are designed in a Baroque , Franco @-@ Italian style , characterised by " gilded interiors enriched with florid murals " , first introduced to England between 1648 – 50 at Wilton House . Verrio 's paintings are " drenched in medievalist allusion " and classical images . These rooms were intended to show an innovative English " baroque fusion " of the hitherto separate arts of architecture , painting and carving . A handful of rooms in the modern State Apartments reflect either 18th @-@ century or Victorian Gothic design . The State Dining Room , for example , whose current design originates from the 1850s but which was badly damaged during the 1992 fire , is restored to its appearance in the 1920s , before the removal of some of the gilded features on the pilasters . Anthony Salvin 's Grand Staircase is also of mid @-@ Victorian design in the Gothic style , rising to a double @-@ height hall lit by an older 18th @-@ century Gothic vaulted lantern tower called the Grand Vestibule , designed by James Wyatt and executed by Francis Bernasconi . The staircase has been criticised by historian John Robinson as being a distinctly inferior design to the earlier staircases built on the same site by both Wyatt and May . Some parts of the State Apartments were completely destroyed in the 1992 fire and this area was rebuilt in a style called " Downesian Gothic " , named after the architect , Giles Downes . The style comprises " the rather stripped , cool and systematic coherence of modernism sewn into a reinterpretation of the Gothic tradition " . Downes argues that the style avoids " florid decoration " , emphasising an organic , flowing Gothic structure . Three new rooms were built or remodelled by Downes at Windsor . Downes ' new roof of St George 's Hall is the largest green @-@ oak structure built since the Middle Ages , and is decorated with brightly coloured shields celebrating the heraldic element of the Order of the Garter ; the design attempts to create an illusion of additional height through the gothic woodwork along the ceiling . The Lantern Lobby features flowing oak columns forming a vaulted ceiling , imitating an arum lily . The new Private Chapel is relatively small , only able to fit thirty worshippers , but combines architectural elements of the St George 's Hall roof with the Lantern Lobby and the stepped arch structure of the Henry VIII chapel vaulting at Hampton Court . The result is an " extraordinary , continuous and closely moulded net of tracery " , complementing the new stained glass windows commemorating the fire , designed by Joseph Nuttgen . The Great Kitchen , with its newly exposed 14th @-@ century roof lantern sitting alongside Wyatville 's fireplaces , chimneys and Gothic tables , is also a product of the reconstruction after the fire . The ground floor of the State Apartments retains various famous medieval features . The 14th @-@ century Great Undercroft still survives , some 193 feet ( 59 m ) long by 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) wide , divided into 13 bays . At the time of the 1992 fire , the Undercroft had been divided into smaller rooms ; the area is now opened up to form a single space in an effort to echo the undercrofts at Fountains and Rievaulx Abbeys , although the floor remains artificially raised for convenience of use . The " beautifully vaulted " 14th @-@ century Larderie passage runs alongside the Kitchen Courtyard and is decorated with carved royal roses , marking its construction by Edward III . = = = Lower Ward = = = The Lower Ward lies below and to the west of the Round Tower , reached through the Norman Gate . Originally largely of medieval design , most of the Lower Ward was renovated or reconstructed during the mid @-@ Victorian period by Anthony Salvin and Edward Blore , to form a " consistently Gothic composition " . The Lower Ward holds St George 's Chapel and most of the buildings associated with the Order of the Garter . On the north side of the Lower Ward is St George 's Chapel . This huge building is the spiritual home of the Order of the Knights of the Garter and dates from the late 15th and early 16th century , designed in the Perpendicular Gothic style . The ornate wooden choir stalls are of 15th @-@ century design , having been restored and extended by Henry Emlyn at the end of the 18th century , and are decorated with a unique set of brass plates showing the arms of the Knights of the Garter over the last six centuries . On the west side , the chapel has a grand Victorian door and staircase , used on ceremonial occasions . The east stained glass window is Victorian , and the oriel window to the north side of it was built by Henry VIII for Catherine of Aragon . The vault in front of the altar houses the remains of Henry VIII , Jane Seymour and Charles I , with Edward IV buried nearby . The chapel is considered by historian John Robinson to be " one of the supreme achievements of English Perpendicular Gothic " design . At the east end of St George 's Chapel is the Lady Chapel , originally built by Henry III in the 13th century and converted into the Albert Memorial Chapel between 1863 – 73 by George Gilbert Scott . Built to commemorate the life of Prince Albert , the ornate chapel features lavish decoration and works in marble , glass mosaic and bronze by Henri de Triqueti , Susan Durant , Alfred Gilbert and Antonio Salviati . The east door of the chapel , covered in ornamental ironwork , is the original door from 1246 . At the west end of the Lower Ward is the Horseshoe Cloister , originally built in 1480 , near to the chapel to house its clergy . It houses the vicars @-@ choral , or lay clerks of the chapel . This curved brick and timber building is said to have been designed to resemble the shape of a fetlock , one of the badges used by Edward IV . George Gilbert Scott heavily restored the building in 1871 and little of the original structure remains . Other ranges originally built by Edward III sit alongside the Horseshoe , featuring stone perpendicular tracery . As of 2011 , they are used as offices , a library and as the houses for the Dean and Canons . Behind the Horseshoe Cloister is the Curfew Tower , one of the oldest surviving parts of the Lower Ward and dating from the 13th century . The interior of the tower contains a former dungeon , and the remnants of a sally port , a secret exit for the occupants in a time of siege . The upper storey contains the castle bells placed there in 1478 , and the castle clock of 1689 . The French @-@ style conical roof is a 19th @-@ century attempt by Anthony Salvin to remodel the tower in the fashion of Eugène Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc 's recreation of Carcassonne . On the opposite side of the chapel is a range of buildings including the lodgings of the Military Knights , and the residence of the Governor of the Military Knights . These buildings originate from the 16th century and are still used by the Knights , who represent the Order of the Garter each Sunday . On the south side of the Ward is King Henry VIII 's gateway , which bears the coat of arms of Catherine of Aragon and forms the secondary entrance to the castle . = = = Park and landscape = = = Windsor Castle 's position on top of steep ground has meant that the castle 's gardens are limited in scale . The castle gardens stretch east from the Upper Ward across a 20th @-@ century terrace . Windsor Castle is surrounded by extensive parkland . The immediate area stretching to the east of the castle is a 19th @-@ century creation known as the Home Park . The Home Park includes parkland and two working farms , along with many estate cottages mainly occupied by employees and the Frogmore estate . The Long Walk , a double lined avenue of trees , runs for 2 @.@ 65 miles ( 4 @.@ 26 km ) south of the castle , and is 240 ft ( 75 m ) wide . The original 17th @-@ century elms were replaced with alternating chestnut and plane trees . The impact of Dutch elm disease led to large @-@ scale replanting after 1945 . The Home Park adjoins the northern edge of the more extensive Windsor Great Park , occupying some 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 020 ha ) and including some of the oldest broadleaved woodlands in Europe . In the Home Park , to the north of the castle , stands a private school , St George 's , which provides choristers to the chapel . Eton College is located within about half a mile of the castle , across the River Thames . = = History = = = = = 11th and 12th centuries = = = Windsor Castle was originally built by William the Conqueror in the decade after the Norman conquest of 1066 . William established a defensive ring of motte and bailey castles around London ; each was a day 's march – about 20 miles ( 32 km ) – from the city and from the next castle , allowing for easy reinforcements in a crisis . Windsor Castle , one of this ring of fortifications , was strategically important because of its proximity to both the River Thames , a key medieval route into London , and Windsor Forest , a royal hunting preserve previously used by the Saxon kings . The nearby settlement of Clivore , or Clewer , was an old Saxon residence . The initial wooden castle consisted of a keep on the top of a man @-@ made motte , or mound , protected by a small bailey wall , occupying a chalk inlier , or bluff , rising 100 ft ( 30 m ) above the river . A second wooden bailey was constructed to the east of the keep , forming the later Upper Ward . By the end of the century , another bailey had been constructed to the west , creating the basic shape of the modern castle . In design , Windsor most closely resembled Arundel Castle , another powerful early Norman fortification , but the double bailey design was also found at Rockingham and Alnwick Castle . Windsor was not initially used as a royal residence ; the early Norman kings preferred to use the former palace of Edward the Confessor in the village of Old Windsor . The first king to use Windsor Castle as a residence was Henry I , who celebrated Whitsuntide at the castle in 1110 during a period of heightened insecurity . Henry 's marriage to Adela , the daughter of Godfrey of Louvain , took place in the castle in 1121 . During this period the keep suffered a substantial collapse – archaeological evidence shows that the southern side of the motte subsided by over 6 ft ( 2 m ) . Timber piles were driven in to support the motte and the old wooden keep was replaced with a new stone shell keep , with a probable gateway to the north @-@ east and a new stone well . A chemise , or low protective wall , was subsequently added to the keep . Henry II came to the throne in 1154 and built extensively at Windsor between 1165 and 1179 . Henry replaced the wooden palisade surrounding the upper ward with a stone wall interspersed with square towers and built the first King 's Gate . The first stone keep was suffering from subsidence , and cracks were beginning to appear in the stonework of the south side . Henry replaced the keep with another stone shell keep and chemise wall , but moved the walls in from the edge of the motte to relieve the pressure on the mound , and added massive foundations along the south side to provide additional support . Inside the castle Henry remodelled the royal accommodation . Bagshot Heath stone was used for most of the work , and stone from Bedfordshire for the internal buildings . = = = 13th century = = = King John undertook some building works at Windsor , but primarily to the accommodation rather than the defences . The castle played a role during the revolt of the English barons : the castle was besieged in 1214 , and John used the castle as his base during the negotiations before the signing of the Magna Carta at nearby Runnymede in 1215 . In 1216 the castle was besieged again by baronial and French troops under the command of the Count of Nevers , but John 's constable , Engelard de Cigogné , successfully defended it . The damage done to the castle during the second siege was immediately repaired in 1216 and 1221 by Cigogne on behalf of John 's successor Henry III , who further strengthened the defences . The walls of the Lower Ward were rebuilt in stone , complete with a gatehouse in the location of the future Henry VIII Gate , between 1224 and 1230 . Three new towers , the Curfew , Garter and the Salisbury towers , were constructed . The Middle Ward was heavily reinforced with a southern stone wall , protected by the new Edward III and Henry III towers at each end . Windsor Castle was one of Henry 's three favourite residences and he invested heavily in the royal accommodation , spending more money at Windsor than in any other of his properties . Following his marriage to Eleanor of Provence , Henry built a luxurious palace in 1240 – 63 , based around a court along the north side of the Upper Ward . This was intended primarily for the queen and Henry 's children . In the Lower Ward , the king ordered the construction of a range of buildings for his own use along the south wall , including a 70 ft ( 21 m ) long chapel , later called the Lady Chapel . This was the grandest of the numerous chapels built for his own use , and comparable to the Sainte @-@ Chapelle in Paris in size and quality . Henry repaired the Great Hall that lay along the north side of the Lower Ward , and enlarged it with a new kitchen and built a covered walkway between the Hall and the kitchen . Henry 's work was characterised by the religious overtones of the rich decorations , which formed " one of the high @-@ water marks of English medieval art " . The conversion cost more than £ 10 @,@ 000 . The result was to create a division in the castle between a more private Upper Ward and a Lower Ward devoted to the public face of the monarchy . Little further building was carried out at the castle during the 13th century ; the Great Hall in the Lower Ward was destroyed by fire in 1296 , but it was not rebuilt . = = = 14th century = = = Edward III was born at Windsor Castle and used it extensively throughout his reign . In 1344 the king announced the foundation of the new Order of the Round Table at the castle . Edward began to construct a new building in the castle to host this order , but it was never finished . Chroniclers described it as a round building , 200 ft ( 61 m ) across , and it was probably in the centre of the Upper Ward . Shortly afterwards , Edward abandoned the new order for reasons that remain unclear , and instead established the Order of the Garter , again with Windsor Castle as its headquarters , complete with the attendant Poor Knights of Windsor . As part of this process Edward decided to rebuild Windsor Castle , in particular Henry III 's palace , in an attempt to construct a castle that would be symbolic of royal power and chivalry . Edward was influenced both by the military successes of his grandfather , Edward I , and by the decline of royal authority under his father , Edward II , and aimed to produce an innovative , " self @-@ consciously aesthetic , muscled , martial architecture " . Edward placed William of Wykeham in overall charge of the rebuilding and design of the new castle and whilst work was ongoing Edward stayed in temporary accommodation in the Round Tower . Between 1350 and 1377 Edward spent £ 51 @,@ 000 on renovating Windsor Castle ; this was the largest amount spent by any English medieval monarch on a single building operation , and over one and a half times Edward 's typical annual income of £ 30 @,@ 000 . Some of the costs of the castle were paid from the results of ransoms following Edward 's victories at the battles of Crécy , Calais and Poitiers . Windsor Castle was already a substantial building before Edward began expanding it , making the investment all the more impressive , and much of the expenditure was lavished on rich furnishings . The castle was " the most expensive secular building project of the entire Middle Ages in England " . Edward 's new palace consisted of three courts along the north side of the Upper Ward , called Little Cloister , King 's Cloister and the Kitchen Court . At the front of the palace lay the St George 's Hall range , which combined a new hall and a new chapel . This range had two symmetrical gatehouses , the Spicerie Gatehouse and the Kitchen Gatehouse . The Spicerie Gatehouse was the main entrance into the palace , whilst the Kitchen Gatehouse simply led into the kitchen courtyard . The great hall had numerous large windows looking out across the ward . The range had an unusual , unified roof @-@ line and , with a taller roof than the rest of the palace , would have been highly distinctive . The Rose Tower , designed for the king 's private use , set off the west corner of the range . The result was a " great and apparently architecturally unified palace ... uniform in all sorts of ways , as to roof line , window heights , cornice line , floor and ceiling heights " . With the exception of the Hall , Chapel and the Great Chamber , the new interiors all shared a similar height and width . The defensive features , however , were primarily for show , possibly to provide a backdrop for jousting between the two @-@ halves of the Order of the Garter . Edward built further luxurious , self @-@ contained lodgings for his court around the east and south edges of the Upper Ward , creating the modern shape of the quadrangle . The Norman gate was built to secure the west entrance to the Ward . In the Lower Ward , the chapel was enlarged and remodelled with grand buildings for the canons built alongside . The earliest weight @-@ driven mechanical clock in England was installed by Edward III in the Round Tower in 1354 . William of Wykeham went on to build New College , Oxford and Winchester College , where the influence of Windsor Castle can easily be seen . The new castle was used to hold French prisoners taken in at Poitiers in 1357 , including John II , who was held for a considerable ransom . Later in the century , the castle also found favour with Richard II . Richard conducted restoration work on St George 's Chapel , the work being carried out by Geoffrey Chaucer , who served as a diplomat and Clerk of The King 's Works . = = = 15th century = = = Windsor Castle continued to be favoured by monarchs in the 15th century , despite England beginning to slip into increasing political violence . Henry IV seized the castle during his coup in 1399 , although failing to catch Richard II , who had escaped to London . Under Henry V , the castle hosted a visit from the Holy Roman Emperor in 1417 , a massive diplomatic event that stretched the accommodation of the castle to its limits . By the middle of the 15th century England was increasingly divided between the rival royal factions of the Lancastrians and the Yorkists . Castles such as Windsor did not play a decisive role during the resulting Wars of the Roses ( 1455 – 85 ) , which were fought primarily in the form of pitched battles between the rival factions . Henry VI , born at Windsor Castle and known as Henry of Windsor , became king at the young age of nine months . His long period of minority , coupled with the increasing tensions between Henry 's Lancastrian supporters and the Yorkists , distracted attention from Windsor . The Garter Feasts and other ceremonial activities at the castle became more infrequent and less well attended . Edward IV seized power in 1461 . When Edward captured Henry 's wife , Margaret of Anjou , she was brought back to be detained at the castle . Edward began to revive the Order of the Garter , and held a particularly lavish feast in 1472 . Edward began the construction of the present St. George 's Chapel in 1475 , resulting in the dismantling of several of the older buildings in the Lower Ward . By building the grand chapel Edward was seeking to show that his new dynasty were the permanent rulers of England , and may also have been attempting to deliberately rival the similar chapel that Henry VI had ordered to be constructed at nearby Eton College . Richard III made only a brief use of Windsor Castle before his defeat at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 , but had the body of Henry VI moved from Chertsey Abbey in Surrey to the castle to allow it to be visited by pilgrims more easily . Henry VII made more use of Windsor . In 1488 , shortly after succeeding to the throne , he held a massive feast for the Order of the Garter at the castle . He completed the roof of St George 's Chapel , and set about converting the older eastern Lady Chapel into a proposed shrine to Henry VI , whose canonisation was then considered imminent . In the event , Henry VI was not canonised and the project was abandoned , although the shrine continued to attract a flood of pilgrims . Henry VII appears to have remodelled the King 's Chamber in the palace , and had the roof of the Great Kitchen rebuilt in 1489 . He also built a three @-@ storied tower on the west end of the palace , which he used for his personal apartments . Windsor began to be used for international diplomatic events , including the grand visit of Philip I of Castile in 1506 . William de la Pole , one of the surviving Yorkist claimants to the throne , was imprisoned at Windsor Castle during Henry 's reign , before his execution in 1513 . = = = 16th century = = = Henry VIII enjoyed Windsor Castle , as a young man " exercising himself daily in shooting , singing , dancing , wrestling , casting of the bar , playing at the recorders , flute , virginals , in setting of songs and making of ballads " . The tradition of the Garter Feasts was maintained and became more extravagant ; the size of the royal retinue visiting Windsor had to be restricted because of the growing numbers . During the Pilgrimage of Grace , a huge uprising in the north of England against Henry 's rule in 1536 , the king used Windsor as a secure base in the south from which to manage his military response . Throughout the Tudor period , Windsor was also used as a safe retreat in the event of plagues occurring in London . Henry rebuilt the principal castle gateway in about 1510 and constructed a tennis court at the base of the motte in the Upper Ward . He also built a long terrace , called the North Wharf , along the outside wall of the Upper Ward ; constructed of wood , it was designed to provide a commanding view of the River Thames below . The design included an outside staircase into the king 's apartments , which made the monarch 's life more comfortable at the expense of considerably weakening the castle 's defences . Early in his reign , Henry had given the eastern Lady Chapel to Cardinal Wolsey for Wolsey 's future mausoleum . Benedetto Grazzini converted much of this into an Italian Renaissance design , before Wolsey 's fall from power brought an end to the project , with contemporaries estimating that around £ 60 @,@ 000 ( £ 295 million in 2008 terms ) had been spent on the work . Henry continued the project , but it remained unfinished when he himself was buried in the chapel , in an elaborate funeral in 1547 . By contrast , the young Edward VI disliked Windsor Castle . Edward 's Protestant beliefs led him to simplify the Garter ceremonies , to discontinue the annual Feast of the Garter at Windsor and to remove any signs of Catholic practices with the Order . During the rebellions and political strife of 1549 , Windsor was again used as a safe @-@ haven for the king and the Duke of Somerset . Edward famously commented whilst staying at Windsor Castle during this period that " Methink I am in a prison , here are no galleries , nor no gardens to walk in " . Under both Edward and his sister , Mary I , some limited building work continued at the castle , in many cases using resources recovered from the English abbeys . Water was piped into the Upper Ward to create a fountain . Mary also expanded the buildings used by the Knights of Windsor in the Lower Ward , using stone from Reading Abbey . Elizabeth I spent much of her time at Windsor Castle and used it a safe haven in crises , " knowing it could stand a siege if need be " . Ten new brass cannons were purchased for the castle 's defence . It became one of her favourite locations and she spent more money on the property than on any of her other palaces . She conducted some modest building works at Windsor , including a wide range of repairs to the existing structures . She converted the North Wharf into a permanent , huge stone terrace , complete with statues , carvings and an octagonal , outdoor banqueting house , raising the western end of the terrace to provide more privacy . The chapel was refitted with stalls , a gallery and a new ceiling . A bridge was built over the ditch to the south of the castle to enable easier access to the park . Elizabeth built a gallery range of buildings on the west end of the Upper Ward , alongside Henry VII 's tower . Elizabeth increasingly used the castle for diplomatic engagements , but space continued to prove a challenge as the property was simply not as large as the more modern royal palaces . This flow of foreign visitors was captured for the queen 's entertainment in William Shakespeare 's play , The Merry Wives of Windsor . = = = 17th century = = = James I used Windsor Castle primarily as a base for hunting , one of his favourite pursuits , and for socialising with his friends . Many of these occasions involved extensive drinking sessions , including one with Christian IV of Denmark in 1606 that became infamous across Europe for the resulting drunken behaviour of the two kings . The absence of space at Windsor continued to prove problematic , with James ' English and Scottish retinues often quarrelling over rooms . Charles I was a connoisseur of art , and paid greater attention to the aesthetic aspects of Windsor Castle than his predecessors . Charles had the castle completely surveyed by a team including Inigo Jones in 1629 , but little of the recommended work was carried out . Nonetheless , Charles employed Nicholas Stone to improve the chapel gallery in the Mannerist style and to construct a gateway in the North Terrace . Christian van Vianen , a noted Dutch goldsmith , was employed to produce a baroque gold service for the St George 's Chapel altar . In the final years of peace , Charles demolished the fountain in the Upper Ward , intending to replace it with a classical statue . In 1642 the English Civil War broke out , dividing the country into the Royalist supporters of Charles , and the Parliamentarians . In the aftermath of the battle of Edgehill in October , Parliament became concerned that Charles might advance on London . John Venn took control of Windsor Castle with twelve companies of foot soldiers to protect the route along the Thames river , becoming the governor of the castle for the duration of the war . The contents of St George 's Chapel were both valuable and , to many Parliamentary forces , inappropriately high church in style . Looting began immediately : Edward IV 's bejewelled coat of mail was stolen ; the chapel 's organs , windows and books destroyed ; the Lady Chapel was emptied of valuables , including the component parts of Henry VIII 's unfinished tomb . By the end of the war , some 3580 oz ( 101 kg ) of gold and silver plate had been looted . Prince Rupert of the Rhine , a prominent Royalist general , attempted to relieve Windsor Castle that November . Rupert 's small force of cavalry was able to take the town of Windsor , but was unable to overcome the walls at Windsor Castle – in due course , Rupert was forced to retreat . Over the winter of 1642 – 3 , Windsor Castle was converted into the headquarters for the Earl of Essex , a senior Parliamentary general . The Horseshoe Cloister was taken over as a prison for captured Royalists , and the resident canons were expelled from the castle . The Lady Chapel was turned into a magazine . Looting by the underpaid garrison continued to be a problem ; 500 royal deer were killed across the Windsor Great Park during the winter , and fences were burned as firewood . In 1647 Charles , then a prisoner of Parliament , was brought to the castle for a period under arrest , before being moved to Hampton Court . In 1648 there was a Royalist plan , never enacted , to seize Windsor Castle . The Parliamentary Army Council moved into Windsor in November and decided to try Charles for treason . Charles was held at Windsor again for the last three weeks of his reign ; after his execution in January 1649 , his body was taken back to Windsor that night through a snowstorm , to be interred without ceremony in the vault beneath St George 's Chapel . The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 saw the first period of significant change to Windsor Castle for many years . The civil war and the years of the Interregnum had caused extensive damage to the royal palaces in England . At the same time the shifting " functional requirements , patterns of movement , modes of transport , aesthetic taste and standards of comfort " amongst royal circles was changing the qualities being sought in a successful palace . Windsor was the only royal palace to be successfully fully modernised by Charles II in the Restoration years . During the Interregnum , however , squatters had occupied Windsor Castle . As a result , the " King 's house was a wreck ; the fanatic , the pilferer , and the squatter , having been at work ... Paupers had squatted in many of the towers and cabinets " . Shortly after returning to England , Charles appointed Prince Rupert , one of his few surviving close relatives , to be the Constable of Windsor Castle in 1668 . Rupert immediately began to reorder the castle 's defences , repairing the Round Tower and reconstructing the real tennis court . Charles attempted to restock Windsor Great Park with deer brought over from Germany , but the herds never recovered their pre @-@ war size . Rupert created apartments for himself in the Round Tower , decorated with an " extraordinary " number of weapons and armour , with his inner chambers " hung with tapisserie , curious and effeminate pictures " . Charles was heavily influenced by the works of Louis XIV of France , imitating French design at his palace at Winchester and the Royal Hospital at Chelsea . At Windsor , Charles created " the most extravagantly Baroque interiors ever executed in England " . Much of the building work was paid for out of increased royal revenues from Ireland during the 1670s . French court etiquette at the time required a substantial number of enfiladed rooms to satisfy court protocol ; the demand for space forced May to expand out into the North Terrace , rebuilding and widening it in the process . This new building was called the Star Building , because Charles II placed a huge gilt Garter star on the side of it . May took down and rebuilt the walls of Edward III 's hall and chapel , incorporating larger windows but retaining the height and dimensions of the medieval building . Although Windsor Castle was now big enough to hold the entire court , it was not built with chambers for the King 's Council , as would be found in Whitehall . Instead Charles took advantage of the good road links emerging around Windsor to hold his council meetings at Hampton Court when he was staying at the castle . The result became an " exemplar " for royal buildings for the next twenty @-@ five years . The result of May 's work showed a medievalist leaning ; although sometimes criticised for its " dullness " , May 's reconstruction was both sympathetic to the existing castle and a deliberate attempt to create a slightly austere 17th @-@ century version of a " neo @-@ Norman " castle . William III commissioned Nicholas Hawksmoor and Sir Christopher Wren to conduct a large , final classical remodelling of the Upper Ward , but the king 's early death caused the plan to be cancelled . Queen Anne was fond of the castle , and attempted to address the lack of a formal garden by instructing Henry Wise to begin work on the Maestricht Garden beneath the North Terrace , which was never completed . Anne also created the racecourse at Ascot and began the tradition of the annual Royal Ascot procession from the castle . = = = 18th century = = = George I took little interest in Windsor Castle , preferring his other palaces at St James 's , Hampton Court and Kensington . George II rarely used Windsor either , preferring Hampton Court . Many of the apartments in the Upper Ward were given out as " grace and favour " privileges for the use of prominent widows or other friends of the Crown . The Duke of Cumberland made the most use of the property in his role as the Ranger of Windsor Great Park . By the 1740s , Windsor Castle had become an early tourist attraction ; wealthier visitors who could afford to pay the castle keeper could enter , see curiosities such as the castle 's narwhal horn , and by the 1750s buy the first guidebooks to Windsor , produced by George Bickham in 1753 and Joseph Pote in 1755 . As the condition of the State Apartments continued to deteriorate , even the general public were able to regularly visit the property . George III reversed this trend when he came to the throne in 1760 . George disliked Hampton Court , and was attracted by the park at Windsor Castle . George wanted to move into the Ranger 's House by the castle , but his brother , Henry was already living in it and refused to move out . Instead , George had to move into the Upper Lodge , later called the Queen 's Lodge , and started the long process of renovating the castle and the surrounding parks . Initially the atmosphere at the castle remained very informal , with local children playing games inside the Upper and Lower Wards , and the royal family frequently seen as they walked around the grounds . As time went by , however , access for visitors became more limited . George 's architectural taste shifted over the years . As a young man , he favoured Classical , in particular Palladian styles , but the king came to favour a more Gothic style , both as a consequence of the Palladian style becoming overused and poorly implemented , and because the Gothic form had come to be seen as a more honest , national style of English design in the light of the French revolution . Working with the architect James Wyatt , George attempted to " transform the exterior of the buildings in the Upper Ward into a Gothic palace , while retaining the character of the Hugh May state rooms " . The outside of the building was restyled with Gothic features , including new battlements and turrets . Inside , conservation work was undertaken , and several new rooms constructed , including a new Gothic staircase to replace May 's 17th @-@ century version , complete with the Grand Vestibule ceiling above it . New paintings were purchased for the castle , and collections from other royal palaces moved there by the king . The cost of the work came to over £ 150 @,@ 000 ( £ 100 million in 2008 terms ) . The king undertook extensive work in the castle 's Great Park as well , laying out the new Norfolk and Flemish farms , creating two dairies and restoring Virginia Water Lake , and its grotto and follies . At the end of this period Windsor Castle became a place of royal confinement . In 1788 the king first became ill during a dinner at Windsor Castle ; diagnosed as suffering from madness , he was removed for a period to the White House at Kew , where he temporarily recovered . After relapses in 1801 and 1804 , his condition became enduring from 1810 onwards and he was confined in the State Apartments of Windsor Castle , with building work on the castle ceasing the following year . = = = 19th century = = = George IV came to the throne in 1820 intending to create a set of royal palaces that reflected his wealth and influence as the ruler of an increasingly powerful Britain . George 's previous houses , Carlton House and the Brighton Pavilion were too small for grand court events , even after expensive extensions . George expanded the Royal Lodge in the castle park whilst he was Prince Regent , and then began a programme of work to modernise the castle itself once he became king . George persuaded Parliament to vote him £ 300 @,@ 000 for restoration ( £ 245 million in 2008 terms ) . Under the guidance of George 's advisor , Charles Long , the architect Jeffry Wyatville was selected , and work commenced in 1824 . Wyatville 's own preference ran to Gothic architecture , but George , who had led the reintroduction of the French Rococo style to England at Carlton House , preferred a blend of periods and styles , and applied this taste to Windsor . The terraces were closed off to visitors for greater privacy and the exterior of the Upper Ward was completely remodelled into its current appearance . The Round Tower was raised in height to create a more dramatic appearance ; many of the rooms in the State Apartments were rebuilt or remodelled ; numerous new towers were created , much higher than the older versions . The south range of the ward was rebuilt to provide private accommodation for the king , away from the state rooms . The statue of Charles II was moved from the centre of the Upper Ward to the base of the motte . Sir Walter Scott captured contemporary views when he noted that the work showed " a great deal of taste and feeling for the Gothic architecture " ; many modern commentators , including Prince Charles , have criticised Wyatville 's work as representing an act of vandalism of May 's earlier designs . The work was unfinished at the time of George IV 's death in 1830 , but was broadly completed by Wyatville 's death in 1840 . The total expenditure on the castle had soared to the colossal sum of over one million pounds ( £ 817 million in 2008 terms ) by the end of the project . Queen Victoria and Prince Albert made Windsor Castle their principal royal residence , despite Victoria complaining early in her reign that the castle was " dull and tiresome " and " prison @-@ like " , and preferring Osborne and Balmoral as holiday residences . The growth of the British Empire and Victoria 's close dynastic ties to Europe made Windsor the hub for many diplomatic and state visits , assisted by the new railways and steamships of the period . Indeed , it has been argued that Windsor reached its social peak during the Victorian era , seeing the introduction of invitations to numerous prominent figures to " dine and sleep " at the castle . Victoria took a close interest in the details of how Windsor Castle was run , including the minutiae of the social events . Few visitors found these occasions comfortable , both due to the design of the castle and the excessive royal formality . Prince Albert died in the Blue Room at Windsor Castle in 1861 and was buried in the Royal Mausoleum built at nearby Frogmore , within the Home Park . The prince 's rooms were maintained exactly as they had been at the moment of his death and Victoria kept the castle in a state of mourning for many years , becoming known as the " Widow of Windsor " , a phrase popularised in the famous poem by Rudyard Kipling . The Queen shunned the use of Buckingham Palace after Albert 's death and instead used Windsor Castle as her residence when conducting official business near London . Towards the end of her reign plays , operas and other entertainments slowly began to be held at the castle again , accommodating both the Queen 's desire for entertainment and her reluctance to be seen in public . Several minor alterations were made to the Upper Ward under Victoria . Anthony Salvin rebuilt Wyatville 's grand staircase , with Edward Blore constructing a new private chapel within the State Apartments . Salvin also rebuilt the State Dining Room following a serious fire in 1853 . Ludwig Gruner assisted in the design of the Queen 's Private Audience Chamber in the south range . Blore and Salvin also did extensive work in the Lower Ward , under the direction of Prince Albert , including the Hundred Steps leading down into Windsor town , rebuilding the Garter , Curfew and Salisbury towers , the houses of the Military Knights and creating a new Guardhouse . George Gilbert Scott rebuilt the Horseshoe Cloister in the 1870s . The Norman Gatehouse was turned into a private dwelling for Sir Henry Ponsonby . Windsor Castle did not benefit from many of the minor improvements of the era , however , as Victoria disliked gaslight , preferring candles ; electric lighting was only installed in limited parts of the castle at the end of her reign . Indeed , the castle was famously cold and draughty in Victoria 's reign , but it was connected to a nearby reservoir , with water reliably piped into the interior for the first time . Many of the changes under Victoria were to the surrounding parklands and buildings . The Royal Dairy at Frogmore was rebuilt in a Tudorbethan style in 1853 ; George III 's Dairy rebuilt in a Renaissance style in 1859 ; the Georgian Flemish Farm rebuilt , and the Norfolk Farm renovated . The Long Walk was planted with fresh trees to replace the diseased stock . The Windsor Castle and Town Approaches Act , passed by Parliament in 1848 , permitted the closing and re @-@ routing of the old roads which previously ran through the park from Windsor to Datchet and Old Windsor . These changes allowed the Royal Family to undertake the enclosure of a large area of parkland to form the private " Home Park " with no public roads passing through it . The Queen granted additional rights for public access to the remainder of the park as part of this arrangement . = = = 20th century = = = Edward VII came to the throne in 1901 and immediately set about modernising Windsor Castle with " enthusiasm and zest " . Many of the rooms in the Upper Ward were de @-@ cluttered and redecorated for the first time in many years , with Edward " peering into cabinets ; ransacking drawers ; clearing rooms formerly used by the Prince Consort and not touched since his death ; dispatching case @-@ loads of relics and ornaments to a special room in the Round Tower ... destroying statues and busts of John Brown ... throwing out hundreds of ' rubbishy old coloured photographs ' ... [ and ] rearranging pictures " . Electric lighting was added to more rooms , along with central heating ; telephone lines were installed , along with garages for the newly invented automobiles . The marathon was run from Windsor Castle at the 1908 Olympics , and in 1911 the pioneering aviator Thomas Sopwith landed an aircraft at the castle for the first time . George V continued a process of more gradual modernisation , assisted by his wife , Mary of Teck , who had a strong interest in furniture and decoration . Mary sought out and re @-@ acquired items of furniture that had been lost or sold from the castle , including many dispersed by Edward VII , and also acquired many new works of art to furnish the state rooms . Queen Mary was also a lover of all things miniature , and a famous dolls ' house was created for her at Windsor Castle , designed by the architect Edwin Lutyens and furnished by leading craftsmen and designers of the 1930s . George V was committed to maintaining a high standard of court life at Windsor Castle , adopting the motto that everything was to be " of the best " . A large staff was still kept at the castle , with around 660 servants working in the property during the period . Meanwhile , during the First World War , anti @-@ German feeling led the members of the Royal Family to change their dynastic name from the German House of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha ; George decided to take the new name from the castle , and the Royal Family became the House of Windsor in 1917 . Edward VIII did not spend much of his reign at Windsor Castle . He continued to spend most of his time at Fort Belvedere in the Great Park , where he had lived whilst Prince of Wales . Edward created a small aerodrome at the castle on Smith 's Lawn , now used as a golf @-@ course . Edward 's reign was short @-@ lived and he broadcast his abdication speech to the British Empire from the castle in December 1936 , adopting the title of Duke of Windsor . His successor , George VI also preferred his own original home , the Royal Lodge in the Great Park , but moved into Windsor Castle with his wife Elizabeth . As king , George revived the annual Garter Service at Windsor , drawing on the accounts of the 17th @-@ century ceremonies recorded by Elias Ashmole , but moving the event to Ascot Week in June . On the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 the castle was readied for war @-@ time conditions . Many of the staff from Buckingham Palace were moved to Windsor for safety , security was tightened and windows were blacked @-@ out . There was significant concern that the castle might be damaged or destroyed during the war ; the more important art works were removed from the castle for safe @-@ keeping , the valuable chandeliers were lowered to the floor in case of bomb damage and a sequence of paintings by John Piper were commissioned from 1942 – 4 to record the castle 's appearance . The king and queen and their children Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret lived for safety in the castle , with the roof above their rooms specially strengthened in case of attack . The king and queen drove daily to London , returning to Windsor to sleep , although at the time this was a well @-@ kept secret , as for propaganda and morale purposes it was reported that the king was still residing full @-@ time at Buckingham Palace . The castle was also used as a storage facility ; for example , the only purified heavy water at the time was rescued from France in the face of the imminent French defeat in 1940 , and most of it was sent to the castle to be stored in the basement alongside the Crown Jewels . After the war the king revived the " dine and sleep " events at Windsor , following comments that the castle had become " almost like a vast , empty museum " ; nonetheless , it took many years to restore Windsor Castle to its pre @-@ war condition . In February 1952 , Elizabeth II came to the throne and decided to make Windsor her principal weekend retreat . The private apartments which had not been properly occupied since the era of Queen Mary were renovated and further modernised , and the Queen , Prince Philip and their two children took up residence . By the early 1990s , however , there had been a marked deterioration in the quality of the Upper Ward , in particular the State Apartments . Generations of repairs and replacements had resulted in a " diminution of the richness with which they had first been decorated " , a " gradual attrition of the original vibrancy of effect , as each change repeated a more faded version of the last " . A programme of repair work to replace the heating and the wiring of the Upper Ward began in 1988 . Work was also undertaken to underpin the motte of the Round Tower after fresh subsidence was detected in 1988 , threatening the collapse of the tower . = = = = 1992 fire = = = = On 20 November 1992 , a major fire occurred at Windsor Castle , lasting for 15 hours and causing widespread damage to the Upper Ward . The Private Chapel in the north @-@ east corner of the State Apartments was being renovated as part of a long term programme of work within the castle , and it is believed that one of the spotlights being used in the work set fire to a curtain by the altar during the morning . The fire spread quickly and destroyed nine of the principal state rooms , and severely damaged more than 100 others . Fire @-@ fighters applied water to contain the blaze , whilst castle staff attempted to rescue the precious artworks from the castle . Many of the rooms closest to the fire had been emptied as part of the renovation work , and this contributed to the successful evacuation of most of the collection . The fire spread through the roof voids and efforts continued through the night to contain the blaze , at great risk to the 200 fire @-@ fighters involved . It was not until late afternoon that the blaze began to come under control , although the fire continued during the night before being officially declared over the next morning . Along with the fire and smoke damage , one of the unintended effects of the fire @-@ fighting was the considerable water damage to the castle ; more than 1 @.@ 5 million gallons of water were used to extinguish it , which in many ways caused more complex restoration problems than the fire . Two major issues for Windsor Castle emerged following the fire . The first was a political debate in Britain as to who should pay for the repairs . Traditionally , as the property of the Crown , Windsor Castle was maintained , and if necessary repaired , by the British government in exchange for the profits made by the Crown Estate . Furthermore , like other occupied royal palaces , it was not insured on grounds of economy . At the time of the fire , however , the British press strongly argued in favour of the Queen herself being required to pay for the repairs from her private income . A solution was found in which the restoration work would be paid for by opening Buckingham Palace to the public at selected times of the year , and by introducing new charges for public access to the parkland surrounding Windsor . The second major issue concerned how to repair the castle . Some suggested that the damaged rooms should be restored to their original appearance , but others favoured repairing the castle so as to incorporate modern designs . The decision was taken to largely follow the pre @-@ fire architecture with some changes to reflect modern tastes and cost , but fresh questions emerged over whether the restoration should be undertaken to " authentic " or " equivalent " restoration standards . Modern methods were used at Windsor to reproduce the equivalent pre @-@ fire appearance , partially due to the cost . The restoration programme was completed in 1997 at a total cost of £ 37 million ( £ 67 million in 2015 terms ) . = = = 21st century = = = Windsor Castle , part of the Occupied Royal Palaces Estate , is owned by Queen Elizabeth II in right of the Crown , and day @-@ to @-@ day management is by the Royal Household . In terms of population , Windsor Castle is the largest inhabited castle in the world and the longest @-@ occupied palace in Europe , but it also remains a functioning royal home . As of 2006 , around 500 people were living and working in the castle . The Queen has increasingly used the castle as a royal palace as well as her weekend home and it is now as often used for state banquets and official entertaining as Buckingham Palace . In recent years , Windsor Castle has hosted visits from President Mbeki of South Africa , King Abdullah II of Jordan and President Chirac of France . The castle remains an important ceremonial location . The Waterloo ceremony is carried out in the presence of the Queen each year , and the annual ceremony of the Order of the Garter takes place in St George 's Chapel . While the queen is in residence , the Guard Mounting ceremony occurs on a daily basis . The Royal Ascot procession leaves the castle each year during the annual meeting . During the Queen 's tenure much has been done , not only to restore and maintain the fabric of the building , but also to transform it into a major British tourist attraction , containing a significant portion of the Royal Collection of art , which is managed from Windsor . Archaeological work has continued at the castle , following on from limited investigations in the 1970s , the work on the Round Tower from 1988 – 92 and the investigations following the 1992 fire . During 2007 , 993 @,@ 000 tourists visited the castle . This has had to be achieved in co @-@ ordination with security issues and the castle 's role as a working royal palace . In late 2011 two water turbines were installed along the River Thames to provide hydroelectric power to the castle and the surrounding estate . In April 2016 it was announced that the Royal Collection Trust is to fund a £ 27m project that will reinstate the original entrance hall of the castle to visitors , as well as a new cafe that will be housed in the 14th Century undercroft . The project will be completed at the end of 2018 , and will include a visitor centre and a dedicated learning centre .
= A Many Splendored Thing ( Homicide : Life on the Street ) = " A Many Splendored Thing " is the second season finale of the American police drama television series Homicide : Life on the Street , and the thirteenth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 27 , 1994 . In the episode , Pembleton and Bayliss investigate the S & M @-@ related murder of a young woman , which forces an uncomfortable Bayliss to confront his darker side . Meanwhile , Lewis is disturbed when a man commits murder over a $ 1 @.@ 49 pen , and a despairing Munch crashes Bolander 's date and ruins it by venting his own romantic woes . Written by Noel Behn and directed by John McNaughton , " A Many Splendored Thing " was not originally planned to close the second season , but the expected finale " Bop Gun " was changed to the season premiere to capitalize on a guest performance by Robin Williams . The homicide case in " A Many Splendored Thing " involving a man who committed murder over a pen was based on a similar real @-@ life killing that took place in Anne Arundel County , Maryland . The episode featured the second of two guest appearances by actress Julianna Margulies as Linda , Bolander 's romantic interest , as well an appearance by Adrienne Shelly as the owner of an S & M fashion store . " A Many Splendored Thing " marked the final appearance by Jon Polito , who had played Detective Steve Crosetti since the series debuted , but was dismissed reportedly because NBC officials were unhappy with his physical appearance . Polito was publicly critical of the show after his dismissal . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was seen by 11 @.@ 2 million household viewers , slight increase from the previous week 's episode , " Black and Blue " . It received generally positive reviews , and was identified by The Baltimore Sun as one of the ten best episodes of the series . " A Many Splendored Thing " was nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay of an Episodic Drama . = = Plot summary = = Pembleton ( Andre Braugher ) and Bayliss ( Kyle Secor ) investigate the murder of Angela Frandina , who was found strangled in her bed clutching a note reading , " Ed did it " , although it proves to be a false lead . Their investigation leads the detectives to discover Angela had several strange boyfriends and worked at an S & M fashion store and a phone sex hotline . The two detectives visit the Eastern Shores Marketing Phone Sex operation where they speak with the manager , Ed . Ed tells them about a boyfriend of Angela 's named Chris Novoselic ( Dan Garrett ) who used to spend time with her at an S & M club called ' The Eve of Destruction ' on Fayette Street . Pembleton and Bayliss go to the Eve of Destruction to question Novoselic . During questioning , Bayliss gets angry and loses his cool with Novoselic slamming the leather @-@ clad , multi @-@ pierced freak against the wall telling him that if he doesn 't start giving them some answers , he is gonna slap some cuffs on him , take him downtown and knock him around ' whereby Novoselic responds by telling Bayliss , ' If you do that , I might have to kiss you ! ' . Pembleton calms Bayliss and they leave . While driving , Bayliss claims to be disgusted by the sexual taboos , but Pembleton insists everybody has a darker side and that until Bayliss recognizes his own , his virtues can never truly be tested . Pembleton and Bayliss return to the S & M fashion store and ask about leather belts with bead patterns matching the marks on Angela 's neck . Store owner Tanya ( Adrienne Shelly ) tells them Angela 's neighbor Jeremy ( Scott Nielson ) has a jacket with a matching belt . After an interrogation , Jeremy confesses to choking and accidentally killing Angela with the belt during quirky and violent ( but consensual ) sex . As a thank you for solving the case , Tanya brings Bayliss a leather jacket as gift , which he reluctantly accepts . That night , Bayliss visits Baltimore 's red light district wearing the jacket , as a way to test himself as Pembleton suggested . He is approached by a prostitute but rejects her , thus passing the test . Lewis ( Clark Johnson ) and Crosetti ( Jon Polito ) investigate the fatal shooting of a man , who was apparently killed for a $ 1 @.@ 49 pen . Lewis believes there must be more to the story , refusing to believe a pen is worth killing for . When they search suspect Mitchell Forman 's ( Sal S. Koussa ) apartment , they find thousands of pens , many of which line the walls like bizarre decorations . Lewis later finds Forman at the police station , where he originally planned to turn himself in , but instead went up to the roof to commit suicide . Lewis lures Forman away from the ledge by enticing him with a beautiful golden pen , which belonged to Lewis ' deceased grandmother . Forman is taken into custody . Later , Lewis still cannot believe someone would kill over a pen , but Gee ( Yaphet Kotto ) suggests it is no worse than killing over a car or woman . Lewis , determined not to develop such a strong attachment to a material item , gives his grandmother 's pen to Felton ( Daniel Baldwin ) . Meanwhile , although Munch ( Richard Belzer ) is cynical and despairing over his recent break @-@ up with ex @-@ girlfriend Felicia , the normally @-@ grumpy Bolander ( Ned Beatty ) is unusually cheerful as a result of his budding romantic relationship with Linda ( Julianna Margulies ) , a much younger ( 26 @-@ year @-@ old ) waitress . Nervous about his first real date with her , Bolander asks Howard ( Melissa Leo ) to go on a double @-@ date with him , along with Howard 's boyfriend , prosecuting attorney Ed Danvers ( Željko Ivanek ) . The double date goes well until a lonely Munch crashes , joins the table and ruins the mood of the evening complaining about his romantic woes . Bolander , Munch and Linda leave together and walk to Fort McHenry , where Linda offers Munch words of encouragement . Impressed with her , Munch leaves Linda and Bolander alone , where they happily watch a fireworks show . = = Production = = " A Many Splendored Thing " was written by Noel Behn and directed by John McNaughton , who previously directed Homicide star Richard Belzer in the film Mad Dog and Glory ( 1993 ) . Like the other three second season episodes , the script for " A Many Splendored Thing " was already finished by the time the first season ended , but due to poor Nielsen ratings throughout the duration of the show , NBC executives asked for several refinements – including fewer episode subplots and less camera movements and jump cuts – before approving a second season . " A Many Splendored Thing " was the second season finale . The season premiere , " Bop Gun " , was originally meant to serve as the finale , but NBC decided to instead open the season with it , with the hopes of getting increased ratings from a guest appearance by actor Robin Williams . The title " A Many Splendored Thing " is a reference to the 1952 historical romance novel A Many @-@ Splendoured Thing and the subsequent film Love Is a Many @-@ Splendored Thing ( 1955 ) . The title refers to the episode 's theme of the many variations of love , as demonstrated by the sexual taboos from the world of Angela Frandina , the dysfunctional relationship of Munch and Felicia , the budding romance between Bolander and Linda , and the twisted love Mitchell Forman harbors for pens . The Forman case was inspired by a real @-@ life murder that took place in Anne Arundel County , Maryland , in which a 23 @-@ year @-@ old man shot another man 10 times in a doughnut shop when the victim refused to sell the shooter his pen . During the double date Munch crashes , Howard becomes depressed about the hopelessness of life and love , leaving unhappily with Danvers . This scene foreshadows the eventual break @-@ up of Howard and Danvers , which occurs at an unspecified time in the third season . The episode marked the final appearance by Jon Polito , who had been a regular cast member since the series debuted , but was dismissed reportedly because NBC officials were unhappy with his weight and physical appearance and did not believe he appealed to audiences . The departure was not amicable , as Polito publicly criticized the direction Homicide had taken in the second season and claimed he voiced concerns about the recent scripts to Fontana and Menaul . " A Many Splendored Thing " featured the second of two guest appearances by actress Julianna Margulies as Linda . A few months later , Margulies started her long @-@ running lead role as nurse Carol Hathaway on the medical drama series ER . She was cast in the part after having worked with Fontana on the unaired pilot of Philly Heat , an ABC miniseries he worked on about members of the Philadelphia Fire Department . Tom Fontana had offered Margulies a recurring role on Homicide , but she turned it down in favor of ER . " A Many Splendored Thing " also featured a guest appearances by Adrienne Shelly who played S & M fashion store owner Tanya Quinn , and Sal Koussa as murder suspect Mitchell Forman . Koussa was not a professional actor , and was working as a waiter at Ristorante i Ricchi , a Washington , D.C. favorite , when the episode was filmed . The songs " Hideaway " and " Out of Time " , both of which were written by Bernie McNabb and performed by Scarlet Bride , were featured in " A Many Splendored Thing " . Other featured songs include " Whoa " by Soul Asylum , the Donna Summer song " Bad Girls " , and a rendition of Italian composer Ottorino Respighi 's " Feste Romane " , as performed by the Oregon Symphony . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = NBC had renewed Homicide for a second season to assess how the show performed in the Nielsen ratings and make a determination whether to continue the series . The series premiere , " Bop Gun " , drew unusually large viewership numbers due to a guest appearance by Robin Williams , but the subsequent episodes had dropped in the ratings , making the viewership of " A Many Splendored Thing " particularly important for the future of the series . Fontana said if the episode performed well , " NBC 's going to have to do some hard thinking . " In its original American broadcast on January 27 , 1994 , " A Many Splendored Thing " was watched by 11 @.@ 2 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research , earning the episode an 11 @.@ 9 rating . That constituted a slight increase from the previous week 's episode , " Black and Blue " , which was seen by 10 @.@ 83 million households . It was the 37th highest rated television show of the week , tied with the Fox animated comedy series The Simpsons . " A Many Splendored Thing " faced unusually tough competition in its timeslot from the ABC news series Primetime Live , which did a special report about convicted murderer Richard Allen Davis . = = = Reviews = = = " A Many Splendored Thing " received generally positive reviews . It was identified by The Baltimore Sun as one of the ten best episodes of the series . Sun writers David Zurawik and Chris Kaltenbach particularly praised the creative pairing of Ned Beatty and Julianna Margulies , of whom they said , " somehow it is as touching a love story as you could want " . The Washington Post television reviewer Tom Shales strongly complimented the episode , especially for its serious and unflinching approach to disturbing and twisted events like the Forman murder : " Homicide is more than a superb cop show ; it 's a helpful guide on dealing with the madness of the modern world . It 's Attention Television – a program that grips one 's attention and rewards it . " The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution writer Drew Jubera said the episode " shifts deftly between the underbelly of cop work and the surprising moments of light that leak into these detectives ' lives " . Greg Paeth of The Cincinnati Post called it " another stunning installment of a cop drama that defines the genre " , and particularly praised the " perfect " performance of Ned Beatty . Baltimore Sun writer David Bianculli called the episode superb and said Adrienne Shelly left a " stunning impression in her performance . Bianculli said it left him " hungry for the next episode , " adding , " Personal plea to NBC : Please , please renew this series . " " A Many Splendored Thing " was nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay of an Episodic Drama , but ultimately lost to the Homicide episode " Bop Gun " . = = DVD release = = " A Many Splendored Thing " and the rest of the first and second season episodes were included in the four @-@ DVD box @-@ set " Homicide : Life on the Street : The Complete Seasons 1 & 2 " , which was released by A & E Home Video on May 27 , 2003 for $ 69 @.@ 95 .
= Court McGee = Courtney Scott McGee ( born December 12 , 1984 ) is an American mixed martial artist who competes in the welterweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship . A professional MMA competitor since 2007 , McGee mostly fought in local promotions in Utah before signing with the UFC in early 2010 . McGee was the winner of Spike TV 's eleventh season of The Ultimate Fighter in 2010 . = = Mixed martial arts career = = = = = Early career = = = Court McGee participated in high school wrestling at Layton High School placing 6th in the 5A State Division in 2002 and 3rd in the 5A State Division in 2003 , under Mike Hansen . Later in life , after an absence from the sport , McGee returned to Layton High School to become an assistant wrestling coach . McGee also holds a background in karate , in which he has amassed over 100 kumite . McGee started his MMA career in 2007 in his home state of Utah , compiling a record of 10 @-@ 1 , with two technical knockouts and five submission wins . Two notable fights occurred during this period , with a submission win over DaMarques Johnson and a loss to Jeremy Horn . In September 2008 , McGee faced Isidro Gonzalez at the " Throwdown Showdown " event in Orem , Utah . McGee won the match after a unanimous decision . McGee was scheduled to compete in December 2008 against Ray Lazama for the Gladiator Challenge Middleweight title . However , the bout never transpired for unknown reasons . McGee instead faced Dayle Jarvis in July 2009 . In what would turn out to be his final appearance on the local MMA circuit , McGee won by a Technical Knockout ( TKO ) over his opponent in under four minutes . = = = The Ultimate Fighter = = = In March 2010 , McGee was announced as part of the eleventh season of The Ultimate Fighter . In the elimination round , McGee narrowly defeated Seth Baczynski after going to a sudden victory round . McGee was later picked by Chuck Liddell as his sixth pick and twelfth overall . McGee was then defeated by the show 's number one pick Nick Ring in the sixth preliminary fight . After two rounds , the judges declared the fight a victory for Ring via majority decision ( 20 – 18 , 19 – 19 , 20 – 18 ) . Dana White and Chuck Liddell both stated that the fight should have gone to a third round . When Rich Attonito broke his hand , his spot in the quarter @-@ finals became open . Due to the controversial loss to Ring , White selected McGee to fight in his place . In the quarter @-@ finals , McGee was set to have a rematch with Ring , but Ring pulled out of the competition due to a knee injury . James Hammortree stepped in as Ring 's replacement . Early in the second round , McGee submitted Hammortree with a rare standing guillotine choke . In the semi @-@ finals he faced teammate Brad Tavares to earn a spot in the live finale . After a fairly even first two rounds , McGee dropped Tavares late in the third round with a left hook and locked in a fight @-@ ending rear naked choke . This advanced him to the TUF 11 finale where he faced Team Ortiz / Franklin fighter , Kris McCray in the main event . McGee spent half of his training camp away from his usual gym " Victory MMA " , instead preferring to stick with his Ultimate Fighter coach , Chuck Liddell at The Pit . McGee defeated McCray by submission in the second round with a rear naked choke , making him the winner of the Ultimate Fighter Season 11 , despite all the difficulties and bad luck he encountered on the show . McGee was also awarded the Submission of the Night award . = = = Ultimate Fighting Championship = = = McGee 's first post @-@ TUF fight was against UFC veteran , Ryan Jensen at UFC 121 . Early in the first round , McGee was hit with a stiff shot that dropped him and later suffered a minor cut below his eye . In the second round , Jensen began to visibly tire and after being hit , began to bleed from the nose . McGee won the second round after a takedown just before the bell . In the third round , McGee successfully executed a takedown and a full mount , where he secured an arm triangle choke to force the tapout at 1 : 21 of the final round . McGee was expected to face Jesse Bongfeldt on June 11 , 2011 at UFC 131 , but was reportedly forced out of the bout due to a knee injury . Matt Serra @-@ trained fighter Chris Weidman stepped up to take McGee 's place on the UFC 131 fight card against Bongfeldt . McGee faced Dongi Yang on September 17 , 2011 at UFC Fight Night 25 . He won the fight via unanimous decision . McGee faced Costas Philippou on March 3 , 2012 at UFC on FX 2 . He lost the fight via unanimous decision . McGee fought Nick Ring in a rematch at UFC 149 . McGee lost via a close unanimous decision . For the second time in a bout against Ring , the loss was regarded as controversial by many media sources . Stats after the fight showed that McGee outstruck Ring 32 @-@ 25 in the second round and 53 @-@ 16 in the final round . After the fight , McGee said " I felt like I had cage control , was more aggressive , out @-@ struck him and attempted a submission in the third round . I should not have left it in the hands of the judges and finished the fight . " McGee made his welterweight debut against Josh Neer on February 23 , 2013 at UFC 157 . McGee was victorious , winning a unanimous decision after three rounds . According to Fightmetric , McGee broke the record for most significant strikes landed in a welterweight fight , landing 166 in the three round affair . McGee faced fellow Ultimate fighter winner Robert Whittaker on August 28 , 2013 at UFC Fight Night 27 . He won the fight via split decision . McGee was expected to face Kelvin Gastelum on December 14 , 2013 at UFC on Fox 9 . However , Gastelum pulled out of the bout with a knee injury and was replaced by Ryan LaFlare . He lost the fight via unanimous decision . Following his loss to Ryan LaFlare , McGee was out of action for over 18 months recovering from a litany of injuries . He returned to face Márcio Alexandre Jr. on December 12 , 2015 at UFC 194 . McGee won the fight by unanimous decision . McGee faced Santiago Ponzinibbio on April 16 , 2016 at UFC on Fox 19 . He lost the bout via TKO in the first round . McGee is expected to face Dominique Steele on August 6 , 2016 at UFC Fight Night 92 . = = Personal life = = McGee and his wife Chelsea have two sons , Isaac and Crew Charles . The second son 's middle name was taken from McGee 's friend and Ultimate Fighter coach , Chuck Liddell 's first name . McGee is of Irish and Scottish descent . McGee is a former heroin addict and in 2005 , he was declared clinically dead after overdosing on heroin at his cousin 's house before he was resuscitated . McGee had to learn to walk , speak and function again after his first overdose . McGee said that his path into drug and alcohol abuse began when he started to hang out with " the wrong people - drinking , partying . " After suffering an injury to his clavicle and elbow , McGee became dependent to painkillers , which he later mixed with alcohol . McGee had taken cocaine and heroin before overdosing . After his near @-@ death experience , McGee suffered a couple of relapses . On an episode of The Ultimate Fighter , McGee said " I took one drink in Vegas and I ended up in Iowa four days later with no pants on and a long sleeve shirt , looking for meth . " Since April 2006 , McGee has been clean and uses his story to encourage those who may be struggling with addictions of their own . = = Championships and accomplishments = = Ultimate Fighting Championship The Ultimate Fighter 11 Middleweight Winner Submission of the Night ( One time ) vs. Kris McCray = = Mixed martial arts record = = = = = Mixed martial arts exhibition record = = = = = Boxing career = = In addition to his Mixed Martial Arts career , McGee has also compiled a 2 – 0 record as a professional boxer in the cruiserweight division . Both fights took place in 2008 , in between his MMA career . His first fight was against Francisco Antonio Alacantara in May 2008 . McGee defeated him via unanimous decision ( 40 – 35 , 40 – 36 , 39 – 36 ) in a four round fight , having defeated Hank Weiss in an MMA fight just days earlier . This was followed up by another unanimous decision victory ( 40 – 36 , 40 – 36 , 39 – 37 ) over Freddie Martinez . McGee revealed in June 2010 that this fight took place during his bachelor weekend . = = Boxing record = =
= Pennsylvania Route 287 = Pennsylvania Route 287 ( PA 287 ) is a 63 @.@ 9 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 102 @.@ 8 km ) state highway in the Tioga Valley of Pennsylvania . Route 287 begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 220 in the community of Larrys Creek in Piatt Township , Lycoming County to an intersection with Pennsylvania Route 49 just south of the New York state line in Lawrenceville , Tioga County . The route follows Larrys Creek through several isolated communities , including Salladasburg and English Center , before working its way towards Hoytville , where it meets Pennsylvania Route 414 . The route ends up in Wellsboro , where it meets U.S. Route 6 , and reaches Tioga . The alignment of Route 287 has been successor to a set of plank roads from Larrys Creek to Lawrenceville . The southern plank road , known as the Larrys Creek Plank Road , dates back to 1850 as short highway from Larrys Creek to Salladasburg , and was completely gone by 1900 . The second part followed the Tioga and Lawrenceville Plank Road , which although is named from Tioga to Lawrenceville , went from Wellsboro to Tioga . The portion to Lawrenceville was never constructed . The route also followed several postal routes in the area . In 1911 , the Sproul Road Bill was passed , and Route 287 became segments of Legislative Route 22 , Legislative Route 106 , and Legislative Route 353 . In 1924 , the northernmost portion was designated Route 4 and the Susquehanna Trail . This was changed to part of U.S. Route 220 in 1926 . In 1928 , U.S. Route 111 was designated , and along with Pennsylvania Route 84 , consisted of the alignment of Route 287 . Route 111 was redesignated as part of U.S. Route 15 . The highway was redesignated as Route 287 in 1961 when Route 84 was decommissioned in favor of Interstate 84 . The route was extended from Tioga to Lawrenceville in 2008 , when the construction of U.S. Route 15 was finished to the New York state line , and Route 287 was extended to Route 49 . = = History = = = = = Old roads = = = Much of the current @-@ day alignment for Route 287 has been constructed through many different post , plank and turnpike roads in Lycoming and Tioga counties . The earliest known plank road in the area of the current day highway dates back to 1810 , when a mail postal route was created along current day Route 287 from Wellsboro to Willardsburg ( later known as Tioga ) . The mail was delivered once a week on horseback for several years , with the service discontinued in 1818 . That year , the service was changed to a semi @-@ weekly service for delivery two times a week on horseback . In 1824 , this service was also discontinued when the mail route began to be used by coaches three times a week . This service was used and then decommissioned by 1835 , when a new system , which stretched from Wellsboro and past Willardsburg to the community of Lawrenceville , was established . This route followed the alignment of Route 287 , making stops in Middlebury Center , Holliday , Willardsburg and Mitchell 's Creek before ending in Lawrenceville . This mail route was truncated back to Willardsburg in 1840 , when the nearby Corning and Blossburg Railroad was completed . The stagecoach lines started working along the three @-@ day process for about ten years , when the nearby Tioga and Wellsboro Plank Road was completed , which made stagecoaches run daily . Along with numerous competition , the service was discontinued in 1872 , when the Lawrenceville and Wellsboro Railroad was completed . At that time , the stagecoach lines has ceased operation . By 1883 , the only piece of mail routes in the area of Tioga County was a piece near Middlebury Center , but was not as large as the process once was . Although the Corning and Blossburg Railroad had served as a good travel connection between Wellsboro and Lawrenceville ( the Tioga Valley ) , several communities in the Crooked Creek Valley felt they were not well accommodated . At that time , in locations where railroads were not a feasible option , the construction of plank roads became a highly popular option . In 1848 , the Pennsylvania State Legislature approved and chartered construction of a brand new plank road in the valley , to be called the Tioga and Elmira Plank Road , following the alignments of current @-@ day Route 287 , Pennsylvania Route 328 and New York State Route 328 to Elmira , New York . Construction was unable to start in 1848 , so a supplement to the charter was amended on April 5 , 1849 , which extended the work period to continue until 1856 . Yet another supplement was added in 1850 , when the Tioga and Lawrenceville Plank Road was chartered on May 14 . This new plank road also had the ability to extend their plank road down to Wellsboro , which repealed the acts of 1848 and 1849 . The plank road was contracted and completed in a timely fashion down to Wellsboro from Tioga . In 1851 , the plank road was complete from Wellsboro to Tioga , and the thoroughfare became highly used by people transporting lumber , agriculture and merchandise . This helped farmers and producers in the communities of Middlebury Center , Holliday and Delmar ( now the area of Wellsboro Junction ) . The plank road would eventually get worn out from use , and the route was eventually changed from a plank road to a high use turnpike . The 17 miles ( 27 km ) long piece of plank road , created in the original charter from Tioga to Lawrenceville , was never constructed . The southernmost portion of Route 287 was the location of a third plank road , this time beginning at the mouth of Larrys Creek in the eponymous community to the current day location of English Center . The road was first considered during the early 19th century ; James Williamson , a strong local entrepreneur lived in these areas and it is assumed that the road builders in this area of Lycoming County were in favor of his suggestions . On May 8 , 1850 , the Pennsylvania State Legislature chartered a brand new plank road along the riverbank of Larrys Creek . The stock of the plank road was 20 shares of $ 40 @.@ 00 ( 1850 USD ) . Williamson himself was awarded the job as contractor , and in 1850 , using full advantage of woodsmen who were unemployed , low wages , and wasted hemlock log trees , began construction . By 1851 , the plank road had been constructed all the way to the community of Salladasburg . With the 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) -wide plank road came several tollhouses along the entire route to pay charge for using the roadway . A movable barrier was also installed , so people could not gain access without payment . The plank road was finished and prospered for many years . The common transport on the road was bark and hides , along with hauling leather over to the Larrys Creek Railroad . On June 1 , 1889 , a major flood hit the area around the plank road , and when things were all said and done , it had experienced extensive damage . In places where damage had occurred , the road was replaced by graded dirt roads . In 1900 , the remains of the plank road remained only from Salladasburg to the Larrys Creek Railroad Station . Later that year , a petition was raised to make this remaining piece of road free to access . The case was closed in support of the motion and the plank road company shut down forever . = = = Designation of Route 84 = = = On May 31 , 1911 , the state of Pennsylvania signed the Sproul Road Bill , which started a drastic state takeover of highways around the commonwealth . Originally , only several routes were assigned around the state . The bill had approved a road from Wellsboro to the New York state line , which was designated as Legislative Route 22 . At the time , this was the only state @-@ maintained portion of Route 287 that was in use . By 1915 , more of Route 287 was taken over by the state , with the portion from the current @-@ day intersection with Pennsylvania Route 414 in Morris Township to the intersection with Pennsylvania Route 660 in Wellsboro becoming designated as Legislative Route 106 , where it reached Legislative Route 22 and 21 . In 1916 , the portion from Legislative Route 23 ( now the intersection with U.S. Route 220 ) in Larrys Creek to the community of Brookside was taken over as Legislative Route 353 . The designations remained in place until 1924 , when actual route designations were assigned in the commonwealth . The part that was later made as part of U.S. Route 15 , which was then changed to an alignment of Route 287 , was designated as Route 4 ( over the Susquehanna Trail ) . The route received another designation in 1926 , upon the creation of United States Highways across the country . The portion from Tioga to an intersection with the current day U.S. Route 15 was designated as part of U.S. Route 220 . This remained in place for only two years , and when the Pennsylvania Department of Highways redesignated highways across the entire commonwealth , the alignment of the U.S. Route 220 portion was redesignated as U.S. Route 111 , while the entire alignment of Route 287 from the Larrys Creek to Tioga was redesignated as Route 84 . The entire alignment of Route 84 consisted of an intersection with U.S. Route 220 in Larrys Creek to U.S. Route 111 in Tioga , where the highway terminated . In 1930 , the concurrent piece of Legislative Route 4 was decommissioned , and the alignment of the highway remained as U.S. Route 111 . The portion from Tioga north remained as Route 111 until 1936 , when the highway was renumbered to U.S. Route 15 . In that time , several intersections along Route 287 tied in with several former state highways . During the 1928 numbering , the intersection with Route 414 in Hoytville was designated as Route 893 , a local intersection in Antrim was designated as Route 961 , and the intersection in Somers Lane was designated as Route 826 . The routes were decommissioned in 1955 , 1946 , and 1941 respectively . After 1946 , when a mass decommissioning of state highways occurred , Route 84 remained in place for another 15 years , when the plans arose for Interstate 84 , which duplicated the state highway . Because of this duplication , Route 84 was reassigned as Route 287 . = = = U.S. Route 15 conversion = = = During the 1960s , plans developed to widen U.S. Route 15 for safety precautions . Construction progressed fast , reaching the Lycoming County line in 1968 . At the time , Route 287 terminated at an intersection with U.S. Route 15 at the Hammond Reservoir . Ten years later , Route 15 was completed up to Tioga , and that year , the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation extended Route 287 to the new interchange . At that point , U.S. Route 15 followed the northernmost alignment of PA 287 to Lawrenceville . This interchange was completed in late 2000 with an opening ceremony by then @-@ governor Tom Ridge . With the proposal for the brand new Interstate 99 following U.S. Route 15 's alignment , construction was upgraded once again , and a new alignment for U.S. Route 15 was started in 2005 . The alignment was constructed for the final 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from Tioga to the state line . With the alignment 's completion , Route 15 was realigned onto the newly opened freeway on October 1 , 2008 . The entire project cost $ 102 million ( 2008 USD ) , including one new interchange and the completion of the Route 287 interchange in Tioga . = = Route description = = = = = Lycoming County = = = Route 287 begins at an interchange with westbound U.S. Route 220 in the Piatt Township community of Larrys Creek . The route heads north , following a former plank road through the rural areas to the west of Williamsport . After a while , the roadway becomes moderately developed , following residential houses for a short distance . The route enters the community of Larrysville , where the route turns to the northwest through a line of forests . Route 287 intersects with Zinck Road , where the roadway becomes highly developed , following the route past residential homes and a large factory . The route crosses through a small patch of forests and enters Mifflin Township , where it intersects with Pennsylvania Route 973 . Route 973 becomes concurrent with Route 287 here , entering the community of Salladasburg , where the two highways fork . Route 287 continues northward on the right @-@ of @-@ way , while Route 973 heads to the northeast along Main Street . At an intersection with Dochter Street , a connector to Route 973 , Route 287 turns to the northwest and leaves Salladasburg . Route 287 continues northward after leaving Salladasburg , paralleling Route 973 for a short distance until the two highways turn away . Route 287 heads northward , passing through deep patches of forests . This alignment and surroundings remain the same for several miles , passing a few local roads . The deep forests begin to clear as the highway enters the community of Brookside . In Brookside , Route 287 winds along a deep field , intersecting with the southern terminus of Pennsylvania Route 184 , which heads to the northeast . The route turns to the northwest , paralleling with Hughes Road , which merges in soon after . The highway continues northward in the fields north of Brookside until after Hughes Road , where it enters deep forests once again . Route 287 winds around curves , until the intersection with Lick Run Road , where it turns to the northwest , entering the isolated community of English Center . In English Center , the route intersects with Little Pine Creek Road , where Route 287 turns to the north . The route returns to the deep forests , intersecting with Pennsylvania Route 284 . Route 287 turns to the northwest at that intersection , continuing through the deep forests . After several miles , the route turns to the northeast , passing to the west of a large pond . The forests began to clear as Route 287 enters the community of Pine Township , where the route continues northward , through fields and tree patches . At an intersection with Granger Lane , Route 287 crosses the county line into Tioga County . = = = Tioga County = = = After entering Tioga County , Route 287 continues to the north , entering the community of Texas , which mainly consists of large fields . The highway continues along this right @-@ of @-@ way , passing a large factory before entering the community of Mount Pleasant . At an intersection with Mount Pleasant Road , Route 287 turns to the northeast , bending around deep forests . The route crosses Hurney Hill Road , which is where the highway turns to the northwest . When the highway makes a curve to the northeast , Route 287 enters the community of Hoytville . In Hoytville , Route 287 intersects with Pennsylvania Route 414 , which becomes concurrent with Route 287 for a distance . Routes 287 and 414 continue to the northeast , working its way along the residential homes in Hoytville . A short distance later , the highways enter the highly developed area in Hoytville in Morris Township . At an intersection in the center of the community , Route 287 turns to the north while Route 414 turns to the south , with the two highways splitting . Route 287 turns to the northeast , leaving the downtown area of Morris Township . After Morris Township , most of the route becomes surrounded by forests , except for a distance with residential homes following the northbound lanes . The surroundings return to the deep forests in both directions , with Route 287 continuing northward for several miles . Route 287 begins to parallel a waterway , entering the community of Antrim , which is surrounded mainly by forests . After Antrim , the highway continues northward through the deep forests for several miles , until entering the community of Knapp . In Knapp , Route 287 continues to the northeast , passing several fields and intersecting with a local road towards Broughton Hollow . At an intersection with Dean Hill Road , the highway turns to the northeast through the fields , entering Coolidge Hollows , a small farming community . At an intersection with Sweetbriar Road , Route 287 turns to the north , passing some homes before turning to the northeast into the farmlands once again . Approaching the intersection with Shumway Hill Road , the highway makes a gradual bend to the northwest , passing a large pond to the west , where it gains the name of Central Avenue as the route enters the community of Wellsboro . Route 287 heads along Central Avenue through a highly developed business and residential community until the intersection with Pennsylvania Route 660 ( Main Street ) , where the highway turns eastward on a concurrency with Route 660 . Routes 287 and 660 continue to the northeast along Main Street in the center of the community , where the two highways intersect with U.S. Route 6 . At the U.S. Route 6 intersection , Route 660 turns along U.S. Route 6 East while Route 287 continues along U.S. Route 6 Westbound . Routes 6 and 287 head to the northeast through the community center , passing to the east of Wellsboro Cemetery before the two highways turn to the northwest along Tioga Street . At an intersection with Hillboldt Road , Route 287 and Route 6 leave Wellsboro . The two highways enter Stokesdale , a residential community before a fork in the highway , with Route 6 turning towards the west and Route 287 towards the north . Route 287 , after the split with Route 6 , heads to the northeast , entering the community of Wellsboro Junction . Wellsboro Junction is mainly fields , with the route heading as the main highway . After passing a few factories , Route 287 turns to the northeast and out of Wellsboro Junction . The highway passes a large pond , as well as a few residential homes . Route 287 continues along the rural alignment , entering a small community of residential homes and fields . The route continues to the northeast , entering the community of Middlebury Center , where it intersects with the terminus of Pennsylvania Route 249 and Mill Plank Road . The route turns to the northeast in the barren residential community . The route crosses over a river and heads on a straight northeast alignment , passing through a residential community . A short distance later , Route 287 turns to the northeast , paralleling a railroad . The route widens to three lanes where it passes a large field . Route 287 turns to the north , reaching the northern terminus of the nearby railroad . The route heads to the north , crossing the Tioga Dam along the Hammond Reservoir and entering the community of Crooked Creek . The route continues northward along the eastern shore of the reservoir , until the northern end of the reservoir , where it turns to the east , entering the municipality of Tioga . In Tioga , Route 287 heads along Wellsboro Street in a moderately developed part of the community until turning to the north on North Main Street . Route 287 continues along North Main Street until leaving Tioga . A short distance later , Route 287 interchanges with U.S. Route 15 ( the Appalachian Thruway ) . Route 287 continues along the former alignment of Route 15 into Mitchell Creek , a small community . The route heads northward , entering Beeman which consists of a local business center . In the center , Route 287 intersects with the western terminus of Pennsylvania Route 328 . The route intersects with Somers Lane before entering the community of Somers Lane , which is a barren area . The route heads to the northwest along the Tioga River , crossing another railroad , and soon over the river . After the river , Route 287 enters the municipality of Lawrenceville , where the highway intersects with Pennsylvania Route 49 's eastern terminus . At that intersection , Route 287 terminates , with the right @-@ of @-@ way continuing the short distance as State Route 1015 to the New York state line . = = Major intersections = =
= Storm Front ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) = " Storm Front " is the first and second episodes of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise . They were first broadcast on October 8 , and October 15 , 2004 , respectively , on the UPN network within the United States . They were written by executive producer Manny Coto , and directed by Allan Kroeker . The episodes resolved the cliffhanger at the end of the third season finale , " Zero Hour " . It was Coto 's first episodes as the new show runner for the series . Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship , Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , after destroying the Xindi weapon , Enterprise finds itself in the 20th century during World War II with Nazis in control of the North Eastern USA . Captain Archer ( Scott Bakula ) joins Silik ( John Fleck ) to stop the alien Nazis , restore the timeline , and end the Temporal Cold War . The episodes featured the return of several recurring characters , as well as stunt casting in the form of appearances by Golden Brooks , Joe Maruzzo and Steve Schirripa . These were the first episodes of the franchise to be shot on digitally rather than using film stock , and the filming of the two halves were completed together over 14 days . The first part was seen by 2 @.@ 84 million viewers , increasing to 3 @.@ 11 for the second episode . " Storm Front " was poorly received by the critics , with complaints directed at the pace of the episode , the ending of the Temporal Cold War and the general premise itself . = = Plot = = = = = Part I = = = Following the events of " Zero Hour " , Commander Charles " Trip " Tucker III ( Connor Trinneer ) and Ensign Travis Mayweather ( Anthony Montgomery ) survive the attacks by P @-@ 51 Mustangs on their shuttlepod and arrive back on Enterprise . Temporal Agent Daniels ( Matt Winston ) , near death , suddenly appears to Doctor Phlox ( John Billingsley ) in sickbay . He warns that an alien named Vosk ( Jack Gwaltney ) , the leader of a faction of the Temporal Cold War , has altered the timeline with catastrophic consequences . Enterprise was brought to the mid @-@ 20th century to end the Temporal Cold War between several factions including the Federation . On Earth , Captain Jonathan Archer ( Scott Bakula ) escapes from the Germans when American resistance fighters ambush his convoy . Wounded , he is taken to a Resistance safehouse in Brooklyn . With the Germans controlling the U.S. Eastern Seaboard , it is revealed that the aliens , known as the Na 'kuhl , have sworn allegiance to Nazi Germany . Further , they are providing them with advanced weapons and technology in exchange for material and supplies to build a conduit that will take them back to their own time period . Meanwhile , Silik ( John Fleck ) , the leader of the Suliban Cabal , had boarded Enterprise and manages to steal a shuttlepod to fly to Earth . Tucker and Mayweather are then sent to find Silik along with the shuttlepod . Archer contacts Sub @-@ commander T 'Pol ( Jolene Blalock ) using a stolen communicator and is transported back to Enterprise . Before dying , Daniels asks Archer to stop the Na 'Kuhl from using the conduit and becoming even more dangerous . On Earth , the away team find and destroy the shuttlepod , but are captured and taken in for interrogation . = = = Part II = = = Lieutenant Malcolm Reed ( Dominic Keating ) finds the point of divergence in the timeline : the 1916 murder of Lenin , where witnesses claimed Lenin 's killer " vanished into thin air . " The removal of Lenin prevents the October Revolution from successfully taking place , causing Hitler to not perceive Russia as a threat . The full weight of the Nazi war machine was therefore directed at Western Europe and the United States . Vosk seeks an alliance with Enterprise , releasing Mayweather and Tucker in hopes of forging a new understanding with Archer . Medical scans soon reveal that Tucker is actually Silik in disguise and he and Archer realize they need each other 's help . They enlist the help of the Resistance to destroy the shields of the Na 'kuhl complex and to help rescue Tucker . Before they can complete the mission , Silik is killed by a guard near the conduit , and Archer is nearly shot by a confused Tucker . With the alien shields down , Enterprise then completes an atmospheric entry , flying over New York City and destroying the alien facility with photon torpedoes . The episode ends with Daniels showing Archer the threads of the timeline resetting themselves back to normal , as the Temporal Cold War finally ends with the death of Vosk . Archer demands that Daniels should never visit or bother Enterprise again . With their mission completed , Enterprise finally arrives back in its proper time period , where the crew are welcomed and escorted by an entire squadron of Starfleet vessels . = = Production = = = = = Premise and writing = = = The decision to introduce a Nazi threat in Enterprise was decided upon when the producers were wrapping up the third season . Executive producer Brannon Braga explained afterwards that " I can 't remember who said ' Nazis , ' but we just somehow ended up with Nazis . Then that didn 't even feel like enough , so we decided to make them alien Nazis . " Only scene featuring the Nazis was filmed during the previous episode , " Zero Hour " . The intention was to resolve this quickly at the start of the fourth season and avoid a lengthy storyline . Further changes occurred prior to the start of the fourth season ; executive producers Braga and Rick Berman both took a step back from the show and brought in Manny Coto as the new showrunner for Enterprise . Coto found that after he got through the Nazi story leftover from season three , he would have greater freedom to connect the series to Star Trek : The Original Series . He described that cliffhanger as one in which the characters needed to be written out of , as there was no set plan in place on how to resolve it . He made the decision to switch the story from being purely @-@ time travel based to one which featured alternate history , while resolving the Temporal Cold War , and wrote the script for both parts himself . = = = Casting = = = Fleck and Winston resumed their recurring roles on Enterprise in both parts of " Storm Front " , as Silik and Daniels . J. Paul Boehmer resumed his role from " Zero Hour " as an SS Agent ; he had previously appeared as a Nazi in the Star Trek : Voyager episode " The Killing Game " , as well as the Vulcan Mestral in the Enterprise episode " Carbon Creek " . Two other actors who returned in " Storm Front " from previous Voyager appearances were Tom Wright who had appeared as Tuvix in the titular episode , and Christopher Neame who played Unferth in " Heroes and Demons " . There were also several Star Trek debuts in " Storm Front " , including Golden Brooks , better known for her main cast role in UPN 's Girlfriends ; and Joe Maruzzo and Steve Schirripa , who both appeared in HBO 's The Sopranos . These three appearances were described as " stunt casting " by UPN President Dawn Ostroff . Jack Gwaltney was cast as Vosk , the villain of the two @-@ parter . = = = Filming = = = Filming began on July 15 , 2004 , and marked the first occasion that an episode of the Star Trek franchise was shot digitally rather than using traditional film stock . Director of photography Marvin V. Rush later explained that this was an easy transition , and added that this made the filming process easier as a high @-@ definition monitor was available on set allowing departments , such as make @-@ up , to make immediate adjustments . Directing Enterprise once again was Allan Kroeker for the first half of " Storm Front " , who had helmed the previous episode " Zero Hour " . The production of the two parts intermingled over 14 days , with the second half directed by David Straiton . The initial two days of filming took place on the standing sets representing the Enterprise and the shuttlepod . The shoot moved to Stage 9 on the Paramount lot when it resumed after a weekend break , which had been set up to represent the interior of a New York City apartment . Subsequently , an area of the Paramount backlot was dressed to appear as the exterior areas of a Nazi occupied New York City . This included a reproduction of a boxing poster previously shown in The Original Series episode " The City on the Edge of Forever " , as well as a number of references to the production crew . A couple of locations which had appeared before in the franchise were shown , including a street corner shown in the Enterprise episode " Carpenter Street " , The Next Generation 's " Time 's Arrow " and the Voyager episode " 11 : 59 " . Furthermore , a bus stop from Voyager 's " Non Sequitur " was also re @-@ used . Most of the filming for the second half of the episode wasn 't on the standing sets . Scenes were shot elsewhere , including on site shooting at Griffith Park , which had previously been used in the Voyager episode " Future 's End " . Other locations used included the re @-@ dressed Paramount backlot , as well as an alleyway elsewhere on the same site . A night shoot was required for a firefight sequence featuring explosions and stunt work . Additional post production work was required to show Silik 's shapeshifting , although Fleck appeared in a number of scenes without the prosthetics he normally wears for that role . = = Reception = = = = = Broadcast = = = The first part of " Storm Front " debuted on October 4 , 2004 , at a gala evening on the Paramount lot hosted by Kevin Frazier . The screening was followed with a panel discussion featuring Coto , Braga , Kroeker , Rush , Bakula , supervising producer Peter Lauritson , and Sony executives Yasuhiko Mikami and Andrew Stucker . The fourth season of Enterprise was moved to Friday nights on UPN network . The first episode of " Storm Front " was broadcast on October 8 , watched by 2 @.@ 84 million viewers . When the second part was shown the following week , the number of viewers had increased to 3 @.@ 11 million . = = = Critical reception = = = Charlie McCollum for the Knight Ridder newspapers said that the first half fell flat on promises made to rejuvenate the series , adding that " Storm Front " represented " a confusing premise , flat production and recycled stories . " Jamahl Epsicokhan , at his website Jammer 's Reviews , gave both parts two and a half out of four stars . He wrote that the episode " inherits so much nonsensical time @-@ travel baggage from previous episodes ( including last season 's final 60 seconds ) that the premise is all but indefensible " and ultimately the episode " breaks down the entire temporal war ( at least I think it does ) to a single battle in Earth 's past , that revolves around a single sci @-@ fi MacGuffin : Vosk 's conduit that the Nazis are constructing for him . " At TrekNation , Michelle Erica Green described the first part as " thoroughly entertaining " but was uneasy that the series was producing something so " irrelevant " . However , she felt that the episodes were a refreshing change from the Xindi arc in the third season . She said that the second part inherited the same issues from past episodes , but that the opening was strong with the fake newsreel footage of Adolf Hitler arriving in New York City . She didn 't like that the Temporal Cold War storyline ended without any clear resolution , and the lack of character moments in the episode . KJB of IGN gave the first half 3 out of ten , adding that the first episode suffered from a lack of pace , and described it as " awful " . The second episode was rated four out of ten and called " thin on plot " , but Coto was praised for killing off " long term pain " Silik , adding that the Suiliban were " still the worst aliens ever created for the Trek franchise " . KJB closed on a hope that " With some of the conceptual flotsam flushed away , Coto may actually have a chance to give Enterprise a decent final run before its inevitable and grisly end . " Ronald B. Moore , Daniel Curry and David Takemura won the award for Best Visual Effects in a Broadcast Series at the Visual Effects Society Awards in 2004 for their work on the second part of " Storm Front " . The other nominees were the pilot episode of Stargate : Atlantis and " Lost City " , a two @-@ part episode of Stargate : SG @-@ 1 . = = Home media release = = Both parts of " Storm Front " released on home media in the United States on November 1 , 2005 , as part of the season four DVD box set of Enterprise . The Blu @-@ ray edition was released on April 1 , 2014 .
= Eustace Balfour = Colonel Eustace James Anthony Balfour ( 8 June 1854 – 14 February 1911 ) was a London @-@ based Scottish architect . The brother of one British Prime Minister and nephew of another , his career was built on family connections . His mother was the daughter of a Marquess , and his wife Frances , a noted suffragist , was the daughter of a Duke . Frances 's sister in @-@ law was Princess Louise , daughter of the reigning Queen Victoria . Balfour 's initial work was on English and Scottish country houses , but he won only one major commission in this field . However , his appointment as surveyor of the Grosvenor Estate in London gave him architectural control over much of Mayfair and Belgravia in the 1890s and 1900s , and the opportunity to design many buildings himself . Balfour was a senior officer of the Volunteer Force in London . His outspokenness on military matters was a factor in his appointment as an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to King Edward VII . A fastidious and somewhat withdrawn individual , Balfour succumbed to alcoholism in his fifties . This brought about his early death . = = Early life = = Balfour was born at Whittingehame House in East Lothian , the youngest of five sons son of James Maitland Balfour and his wife Lady Blanche Mary Harriet Gascoyne @-@ Cecil , daughter of James Gascoyne @-@ Cecil , 2nd Marquess of Salisbury . His paternal grandfather James Balfour was a nabob who had made the family 's fortune as a contractor supplying the Royal Navy in India and became a Tory Member of Parliament ( MP ) , while his mother 's father was a Conservative cabinet minister in the 1850s . Her brother , Robert Gascoyne @-@ Cecil , 3rd Lord Salisbury , was three times Prime Minister before being succeeded in 1902 by Eustace 's elder brother Arthur Balfour . Eustace Balfour was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College , Cambridge , where he graduated in 1873 . He then studied architecture under Basil Champneys , the designer of Newnham College , Cambridge , before setting up his own practice in 1879 , with an office in Addison Road , North Kensington which was also his home until his death . On 12 May 1879 he wed Lady Frances Campbell , the fifth daughter and tenth of twelve children of George Campbell , 8th Duke of Argyll . The couple had met at a ball given in London by Lord and Lady Goschen , and married soon afterwards in St John 's Presbyterian Church in London . Frances 's father was shocked at their haste . Out of respect for Balfour 's mother , who had died in 1878 , the wedding was modest , with no formal meal and no honeymoon . = = Architecture = = Balfour 's first years of architectural practice consisted of small projects for family and friends . These included the restoration of Inveraray Castle for his father @-@ in @-@ law the Duke of Argyll , an extension to his brother Arthur 's hunting lodge Strathconan House in Ross @-@ shire , and the church of St Mary Magdalene in the hamlet of Hatfield Hyde . The church , which is now in Welwyn Garden City , was originally known as Hyde Chapel . Built as a chapel of ease within the parish of Hatfield for Balfour 's uncle the Marquis of Salisbury , it became the parish church of Hatfield Hyde in 1928 . In 1885 , Balfour began a professional partnership with Hugh Thackeray Turner , which lasted until Balfour 's death . Balfour had been a member of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings since his undergraduate days in Cambridge , and Turner was the Society 's secretary . Together the two men were engaged to rebuild Ampton Hall in Suffolk , which had been destroyed by fire Their design , in a restrained Jacobean style , was Balfour 's only major country house commission . Work was scarce after Ampton 's completion in 1889 , and in 1890 Balfour applied for the post of surveyor for the 1st Duke of Westminster 's Grosvenor Estate , to succeed Thomas Cundy . He seemed unlikely to be selected , but Frances made a direct approach to the Duke ( who was also her uncle ) , and he got the job . Balfour 's social standing appears to have been a significant factor in his appointment . He was the son @-@ in @-@ law of a Duke , nephew of a Marquess , and his wife was the sister @-@ in @-@ law of Queen Victoria 's 4th daughter Princess Louise ( who had married her oldest brother John in 1871 ) . Balfour had a strong sense of social class , and Frances Balfour later described the 1st Duke of Westminster as having run the estate " not as today on commercial lines , but more as a Principality " . Even so , his brother Gerald 's wife Lady Elizabeth Balfour noted that when the surveyor called on the Duke in his professional role he was " never offered a chair and never expected one " . The post involved a lot of design work for Balfour , who seems to have been able to take whatever commissions he wanted , often delegating them to Turner . In the 1890s , Balfour and Turner appear to have been the most prolific designers of private houses on the estate , and in 1892 Balfour was made a Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects . Their own work included most of the wholly redeveloped Balfour Place in Mayfair , formerly known as Portugal Street and renamed for the architect . Balfour also supervised projects which were contracted to other designers . The Duke favoured the domestic revival style of architecture , and particularly insisted on red brick for dwelling houses . Balfour , who deplored the previously fashionable Gothic revivalism , laid down strict architectural guidelines , sometimes even redesigning the work of others . Balfour and Turner also designed Aldford House on Park Lane , an " ornate but stunted " free @-@ standing stone mansion for the diamond magnate Alfred Beit which was replaced in 1932 by a modernist apartment block designed by Val Myer . Their other most notable work was St Anselm 's Church in Davies Street , believed to have been mostly Turner 's work , which was regarded as eccentric . Using an arts and crafts @-@ style blending of influences , it had a plain frontage with a basilican interior , and some gothic tracery . When its demolition was planned in 1938 , it was dismissed by H. S. Goodhart @-@ Rendel as " a purely personal record of Thackeray Turner 's particular tastes " . However , the building was not in fact demolished . Instead , it was dismantled and reconstructed in altered form at Uppingham Avenue in Belmont as the church of St Anslelm Belmont . The parish describes it as " a genuinely recycled building " . Balfour held the surveyor 's post until 1910 , when he was succeeded by Edmund Wimperis . His second decade in the role was less significant than the first , because the death in 1899 of the 1st Duke brought the estate a bill for £ 600 @,@ 000 in death duties ( equivalent to £ 60 @.@ 9 million in 2016 ) . The resulting financial pressure meant that little rebuilding occurred until 1906 , and when it resumed Balfour 's influence was diminished . He had little affinity with the hedonistic young Hugh Grosvenor , 2nd Duke ( grandson of the 1st ) , who Edwin Lutyens and others had persuaded to adopt a less rigid architectural policy . = = Volunteer = = In 1882 , Balfour joined the Volunteer Force in 1882 , becoming a Lieutenant in 1883 , and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel in command of the London Scottish Regiment of Volunteers from 1894 to 1903 . He began to take a wider interest in defence issues , writing extensively on the subject , such as The Conditions and Requirements of the Volunteer Force ( 1886 ) . In July 1899 , as the Second Boer War loomed , Balfour offered to raise a thousand men to go and fight , but it was considered too early to begin that effort . His offer to the minister George Wyndham was ignored by the War Office , and Balfour reacted angrily , complaining that volunteers were " expected to be fit for service while we are vigorously debarred from seeing any " . Eventually 20 @,@ 000 volunteers were called up and fought in the war . However , Balfour 's need to liaise with the 2nd Duke of Westminster , who had just inherited the Grosvenor Estate , prevented him from joining his force when they travelled to South Africa at the end of 1899 . He remained in command of the London Scottish until 1900 , when he resigned in protest at financial controls that prevented payments to volunteers if there was an insufficient number of raised troops . At the end of December 1902 , Balfour was awarded the Volunteer Officers ' Decoration . Despite his differences with government , or possibly because of them , King Edward VII appointed Balfour in January 1903 as a military aide @-@ de @-@ camp for Volunteer Forces . = = Personal life and family = = Eustace and Frances Balfour had five children : Blanche Elizabeth Campbell Dugdale ( 1880 – 1948 ) , a biographer of her uncle the Prime Minister Arthur Balfour , and later a noted zionist Francis Cecil Campbell Balfour ( 1884 – 1965 ) , who became a colonial Governor in Sudan in the 1920s Oswald Herbert Campbell Balfour ( 1894 – 1953 ) , Military Secretary to the Governor @-@ General of Canada , 1921 – 23 Joan Eleanor Campbell Balfour ( died 1939 ) Alison Catherine Campbell Balfour ( died 3 September 1955 ) Accounts of their marriage diverge widely . Frances 's congenital hip dislocation left her in constant pain , and often irritable . The couple 's temperament and interests were opposites , France 's enthusiasm for politics and intellectual company contrasting with her husband 's lifelong passion for shooting and his later interest in the military . Hartley writes that theirs was " not a particularly happy marriage " . Knox confirms this view , noting that neither Blanche Dugdale 's memoirs nor Frances Balfour 's autobiography write much about their relationship with Eustace , and that Frances wrote at length about his brother Arthur who she " far preferred to Eustace " . Author Joan B. Huffman is more cautious , noting that crucial sources are unavailable since Frances destroyed all Eustace 's letters to her . However , Huffman records that she did support her husband when his sister Alice repeatedly challenged him over his drinking . = = Death = = Balfour 's drinking problem became serious around 1906 , and in 1909 his health began to deteriorate seriously . In December 1910 he returned to Whittingehame , where he died aged 56 at 6am on 14 February 1911 , surrounded by his family . Eustace was the third of the five Balfour bothers to die relatively young , Cecil and Francis having both been killed in accidents in the early 1880s . Balfour was buried at Whittingehame , with his parents and grandparents . Frances survived him by 20 years ( until 1931 ) , and was buried alongside him . Rudyard Kipling , a member like Balfour of the Savile Club in London , described him as " a large , loveable man , and one of the best of talkers " .
= Cerro Azul ( Chile volcano ) = Cerro Azul ( Spanish pronunciation : [ ˈsero aˈsul ] , blue hill in Spanish ) , sometimes referred to as Quizapu , is an active stratovolcano in the Maule Region of central Chile , immediately south of Descabezado Grande . Part of the South Volcanic Zone of the Andes , its summit is 3 @,@ 788 metres ( 12 @,@ 428 ft ) above sea level , and is capped by a summit crater that is 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) wide and opens to the north . Beneath the summit , the volcano features numerous scoria cones and flank vents . Cerro Azul is responsible for several of South America 's largest recorded eruptions , in 1846 and 1932 . In 1846 , an effusive eruption formed the vent at the site of present @-@ day Quizapu crater on the northern flank of Cerro Azul and sent lava flowing down the sides of the volcano , creating a lava field 8 – 9 square kilometres ( 3 – 3 @.@ 5 square miles ) in area . Phreatic and Strombolian volcanism between 1907 and 1932 excavated this crater . In 1932 , one of the largest explosive eruptions of the 20th century occurred at Quizapu Crater and sent 9 @.@ 5 cubic kilometres ( 2 @.@ 3 cu mi ) of ash into the atmosphere . The volcano 's most recent eruption was in 1967 . The South Volcanic Zone has a long history of eruptions and poses a threat to the surrounding region . Any volcanic hazard — ranging from minor ashfalls to pyroclastic flows — could pose a significant risk to humans and wildlife . Despite its inactivity , Cerro Azul could again produce a major eruption ; if this were to happen , relief efforts would probably be quickly organized . Teams such as the Volcano Disaster Assistance Program ( VDAP ) are prepared to effectively evacuate , assist , and rescue people threatened by volcanic eruptions . = = Geography and geology = = = = = Regional setting = = = Volcanism in the Chilean Andes is caused by subduction of the Nazca and Antarctic tectonic plates under the South American Plate . Volcanoes in Chile occur in the Central ( CVZ ) , South ( SVZ ) , and Austral Volcanic Zones ( AVZ ) . The gap that separates the Central and South Volcanic Zones is caused by shallow @-@ angle subduction in the Pampean flat @-@ slab segment where the more buoyant Juan Fernández Ridge subducts under the South American continent . This buoyant region prevents the slab ( subducting tectonic plate ) from diving deep into the mantle , where the heat and pressure would destabilize the mineral chlorite , releasing water that would in turn cause melting and volcanism . The Patagonian Volcanic Gap , which separates the South and Austral Volcanic Zones , is caused by the subduction of the Chile Ridge , though it is less clear whether this gap also is due to flat @-@ slab subduction ; it may instead arise because melting of the subducting slab there produced felsic igneous rocks instead of volcanoes . Offshore volcanism also occurs in Chile . Intraplate volcanism generated from the Easter and Juan Fernández hotspots has formed many Chilean islands , including Isla Salas y Gómez , Easter Island , and the Juan Fernández Islands . Underwater volcanism occurs due to seafloor spreading along the Chile Ridge . Nearly 100 Quaternary ( Pleistocene- or Holocene @-@ age ) independent volcanoes exist in the country , in addition to 60 volcanic complexes and caldera systems . Of the 200 historically active volcanoes in the Andean Range , 36 are found in Chile . = = = Local setting = = = Cerro Azul is part of the South Volcanic Zone , which runs through central and western Chile and extends south to Argentina . This range includes at least nine caldera complexes , more than 70 of Chile 's stratovolcanoes and volcanic fields that have been active in the Quaternary , and hundreds of minor eruptive centres . The South Volcanic Zone is the most volcanically active region in Chile , and produces around one eruption per year . Its largest historical eruption was at Quizapu Crater , located on the north side of Cerro Azul 's summit ( see below ) , and its most active volcanoes are Llaima and Villarrica . Cerro Azul , just 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) south of Descabezado Grande volcano , is part of the Descabezado Grande – Cerro Azul eruptive system , a volcanic field which comprises its two large namesake volcanic edifices and several smaller vents , including 12 Holocene calderas . Both volcanoes lie on top of the Casitas Shield , a plateau built of over 100 lava flows that erupted in at least 12 volcanic episodes during the Quaternary period . The upper lava layers are dated at 340 @,@ 000 years . As with the majority of the Andean volcanoes , Cerro Azul is a stratovolcano , meaning that it consists of layers , or strata , of volcanic ash and lava flows . The cone of Cerro Azul has a total volume of about 11 cubic kilometres ( 3 cu mi ) , and is a young feature , formed in the Holocene . It is made of agglutinated pyroclasts and some dacite – andesine lavas . The cone has a few volcanic craters ; the majority of its eruptions in recorded history have originated from Quizapu Crater on the northern flank of Cerro Azul 's cone . Other craters lying on the flanks of the main cone are Caracol ( " Snail " ) , Crater los Quillayes , Crater la Resolana , and Crater sin Nombre ( " Nameless Crater " ) . All of the craters lie between 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 and 9 @,@ 800 ft ) in elevation , except Quizapu , which is 3 @,@ 292 metres ( 10 @,@ 801 ft ) up the volcano . The summit of Cerro Azul is crowned by an asymmetric crater about 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 640 ft ) in diameter . Pleistocene glacial activity is evident in the form of 500 meter ( 1 @,@ 640 ft ) deep struts in the volcanoes ' sides . These deep cuts have revealed strata of older rock . = = = Quizapu Crater = = = Quizapu , which formed during the 1846 eruption , is the most prominent crater . It is also known as Cerro del Medio ( " Middle Hill " ) or Volcan Nuevo ( " New Volcano " ) . The volcanic vent formed during an effusive eruption involving hornblende – dacite flows accompanied by tephra , and the crater was excavated by phreatic and Strombolian eruptions between 1907 and 1932 . Pent @-@ up pressure within the volcano spawned an enormous Plinian eruption in 1932 . The volume of lava ejected during this single event is roughly equal to that ejected during the rest of the eruptive history at Quizapu , since its formation in 1846 . Although 9 @.@ 5 cubic kilometers ( 2 @.@ 3 cu mi ) of material was ejected , no subsidence was detected from the removal of magma . Because of aerodynamic drag , a Plinian eruption excavates a circular crater . As the earlier eruptions had already formed an approximately circular caldera , the Plinian eruption was able to proceed efficiently , with minimal drag and minimal reshaping of the crater . The Quizapu Crater is almost perfectly circular , and rises to a prominence of 150 to 250 meters ( 490 to 820 ft ) above the surrounding portions of the volcano . Cresting at 3 @,@ 292 meters ( 10 @,@ 801 ft ) in elevation , Quizapu is one of the highest known Plinian craters . The radius of the crater floor , which is the current inner vent , is around 150 meters ( 500 ft ) , while the radius of its rim is 300 – 350 meters ( 980 – 1 @,@ 150 ft ) . The crater floor lies at 2 @,@ 928 meters ( 9 @,@ 606 ft ) , and the rim lies 150 – 300 meters ( 500 – 1 @,@ 000 ft ) above that , giving the walls an average slope of 34 – 35 degrees ( close to the angle of repose ) . The western wall is cut by two long , dacitic lava flows : probably the remnants of a dome or an eruption . The crater is surrounded by debris from its 1932 eruption , and topped by layers — 50 meters ( 160 ft ) thick — of mafic scoria and ash . = = Climate and vegetation = = Cerro Azul is situated in a Mediterranean climate zone , characterized by hot and dry summers but mild and wet winters . The temperatures and precipitation are strongly dependent on topography . In the Andes the annual average maximum temperatures lie in the range 20 to 25 ° C ( 68 to 77 ° F ) , while minimum temperatures are below 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) . Annual precipitation is up to 800 mm ( 31 @.@ 5 inches ) . Vegetation in the Andes varies with elevation . Above 1 @,@ 600 meters ( 5 @,@ 249 ft ) the slopes of mountains are covered by Alpine @-@ like steppe , while below there are zones of Nothofagus forest , Hygrophilous forest , Sclerophylous forest , and matorral . The number of plant species is likely to exceed 2 @,@ 000 , although no comprehensive study of the flora of Central Chile has been undertaken . = = Eruptive history = = Cerro Azul has a history of eruptions dating back to at least 1846 . The known events include effusive eruptions ( lava flows ) , which created the Quizapu vent , explosive eruptions , and phreatic eruptions . Pyroclastic flows have also been observed as a result of some of these explosive eruptions . The earliest recorded eruption began on November 26 , 1846 , while the volcano 's last eruption began on August 9 , 1967 . The volcano has produced two of the largest eruptions in South America in recorded history , in 1846 and 1932 . Both released 4 – 5 cubic kilometers ( 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 2 cu mi ) of the dacitic magma . = = = First record of activity , 1846 = = = On November 26 , 1846 , Cerro Azul erupted . This was the first report of activity at the volcano , and no trace of fumaroles , adjacent vents , or pre @-@ eruptive activity exists . Most descriptions of the eruption come from the backcountry herdsmen ( arrieros ) . One , who was camped in a valley approximately 7 kilometers ( 4 mi ) east of Quizapu , heard " a great noise and a cloud of ash " emanate from the mountain in the late afternoon . No precursor activity was reported , and the herdsman claimed that there were no earthquakes during the late afternoon eruption . That night , two herdsmen near the site heard a continuous roar , punctuated by loud bangs and crackling sounds " like that of great rockslides " . Lightning and thunder accompanied the spectacle . They saw many blue flames , and were choked by sulfurous gas . Observers in Talca 85 kilometers ( 53 mi ) away heard the eruption noises , and the sulfurous odors reached them the day after the eruption . None of the reports mention earthquakes or ash fall , though the crackling and banging sounds could be from block lavas ( ʻaʻā ) . This first recorded eruption of Cerro Azul was effusive , and formed the volcanic vent at Quizapu . Hornblende – dacite lava erupted with small masses of tephra , which had been degassed shortly before the eruption . Lava flowed over the Estero Barroso Valley and westward into the Río Blanquillo Valley . By November 28 , the volcano appeared at rest , and the herdsman returned to the place of first observation . There , they found a blocky lava field . The lava was still hot , fuming and crackling with gas and flame . Fascinated by the volcano , Ignacy Domeyko traveled to Chile to study the field and found its width to be 8 – 9 square kilometers ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 5 sq mi ) . By 1992 the field had grown to twice that size . = = = Early 20th century = = = Cerro Azul was quiet from 1846 to the beginning of the 20th century . After a possible precursor explosive event in 1903 , Cerro Azul once again erupted in 1907 . Between 1907 and 1914 , plumes and clouds of ash frequently rose out of the caldera , and at least a few of these events were explosive . On September 8 , 1914 , an explosive eruption sent a plume 6 or 7 kilometers ( about 4 mi ) into the air over 8 minutes . By 1916 , these eruptions had produced a caldera nearly identical to the one in existence today . The volcano also erupted phreatically several times , as recorded by Vogel in 1913 and 1920 , with its activity increasing from 1916 to 1926 . During these years , the eruptions grew more frequent and more violent . A major outburst on November 2 , 1927 started a period of nearly continuous violent eruptions that lasted until 1929 . During this period , Cerro Azul sometimes erupted daily , sending columns of ash as far as 6 or 7 kilometers ( about 4 mi ) into the air . Quizapu Crater grew slightly during this eruptive period . Pre @-@ 1932 volcanism was largely phreatic or fumarolic , as evidenced by the lack of tephra generated by these eruptions . Photographs from 1912 show vapor plumes containing little ash , rising 1 – 2 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 mi ) above the crater . = = = Major eruption , 1932 = = = By 1932 , Quizapu had produced many phreatic events and one effusive eruption , but no large Plinian eruptions . This frequency of minor eruptive activity proved to be a precursor for a major eruption . On 25 January 1932 , observers in Malargue saw a large black cloud over the summit . By 9 April , the volcano emitted green gas and started to " bellow like a bull " . On April 10 , Cerro Azul finally erupted , releasing a towering column or plume of white gas . After 10 AM , the plume turned black with ash and began to form an umbrella shape . The ash was carried by wind into Puesto El Tristan in Argentina , about 47 kilometers ( 29 mi ) away , where beginning at 1 PM it rained down for hours . At 4 PM , coarser sandy material and some pumice lapilli began to fall . Cerro Azul 's April 1932 eruption was one of the largest of the 20th century . Releasing 9 @.@ 5 cubic kilometers ( 2 cu mi ) of lava , the volcano ejected primarily dacitic tephra , accompanied by rhyodacite , andesite , and minuscule amounts of andesitic and basaltic scoria . At least one eruptive period lasted for 18 hours , creating an " exceptionally uniform " deposit . Eruption columns , extending 27 – 30 kilometers ( 17 – 19 mi ) into the air , were sighted . Phenocrysts were similar to the effusive eruption in 1846 . Soon after , both the Tinguiririca and Descabezado Grande volcanoes began erupting , sending clouds of ash 800 kilometers ( 500 mi ) into Argentina . The eruption had a Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) of at least 5 . Since the eruption of 1932 Quizapu has been quiet . In 1949 and 1967 small ash clouds were reported , while in the 1980s there were no signs of activity other than fumaroles . = = Threats and preparedness = = Cerro Azul is in the South Volcanic Zone , where many volcanoes pose a threat to human life . Among the other active volcanoes of the South Volcanic Zone are Mount Hudson , Llaima , and Villarrica . Villarrica and Llaima together have more than 80 reported episodes of volcanism since 1558 , and at least 40 South Volcanic Zone volcanoes have had Holocene @-@ age eruptions . Every known type of eruption ( Hawaiian , Strombolian , Plinian , subplinian , phreatic , phreatomagmatic , and Vulcanian ) has occurred at some point in the range . Cerro Azul itself has experienced phreatic , Strombolian , and Plinian activity in human history . The type of eruption tends to correspond with lava composition . Strombolian eruptions at Llaima , Antuco , Villarrica , and elsewhere have been produced by basaltic to basaltic – andesitic activity . Dacitic to rhyolitic lavas have been linked to subplinian and Plinian eruptions , such as those at Quizapu ( 1932 ) and Hudson ( 1991 ) . Because of this variability , volcanic hazards from Cerro Azul and the surrounding region could come in many different forms . Historical eruptions typically have produced lahars , lava flows , and ashfalls . Lava flows and lahars could wipe out entire cities or towns . Ashfall produced by explosive eruptions could interfere with air traffic . Most threatening of all is the risk of pyroclastic flows or avalanches , which have historically traversed as far as 100 kilometers ( 62 mi ) in the region . Past eruptions of Quizapu Crater ejected enormous amounts of ash that traveled as far as Brazil . After the 1932 eruption , the local vegetation was devastated , and the area remained barren until the 1990s , though human life was not impacted . Despite the extent of its eruptions , the threat to humans from Quizapu is relatively small because of the remote location of Cerro Azul . Nevertheless , the size of past eruptions is large enough for scientists to be worried . Evidence of a potentially deadly threat lies in a lahar at Descabezado Grande . Historically , lahars have killed thousands in the Andes . There is , however , a possibility that a large reservoir of rhyodacite magma may exist under the Azul – Descabezado complex . If this is the case , all previous eruptions in 1846 – 1967 were only preliminary , preclimactic leaks from the large magma chamber beneath , and a large caldera @-@ forming eruption may be expected in the future . If Cerro Azul were to erupt , relief efforts could be orchestrated . The Volcanic Disaster Assistance Program ( VDAP ) formed in response to the famous eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia , and responded to the 1991 eruption of Mount Hudson in Chile . The team 's stated aim is to " reduce eruption @-@ caused fatalities and economic losses in developing countries " . Made up of various USGS offices ( such as the Cascades Volcano Observatory ; CVO that are responsible for monitoring Mount St. Helens ) , the team is outfitted with equipment capable of monitoring any volcano . This equipment allows them to predict volcanic eruptions effectively and rapidly , and to evacuate nearby homes .
= Urmston = Urmston / ˈɜːrmstən / is a town in Trafford , Greater Manchester , England , with a population of 41 @,@ 825 at the 2011 Census . Historically in Lancashire , it is about six miles ( 10 km ) southwest of Manchester city centre . The southern boundary is the River Mersey , with Stretford lying to the east and Flixton to the west . Davyhulme lies to the north of the town centre . Urmston covers an area of 4 @,@ 799 acres ( 19 km ² ) . The town has early medieval origins , and until the arrival of the railway in 1873 was a small farming community . The railway acted as a catalyst , transforming the town into a residence for the middle classes . Today , Urmston is one of the major urban areas in Trafford : it includes the areas of Davyhulme and Flixton . = = History = = In 1983 , during an excavation by South Trafford Archaeological Group , fragments of Roman pottery were found in the area now occupied by the cemetery – previously the site of Urmston Old Hall – suggesting that there may have been a Roman settlement on the site . In the early 13th century , Lord Greenhalgh and his family lived at Highfield House ( under what is now the M60 motorway ) . Shortly after the Norman conquest of England , between 1069 and 1070 , William the Conqueror led a military campaign against the Saxon Earl Edwin , who ruled England north of the River Mersey . On the campaign 's successful conclusion , William gave his kinsman Roger de Poictou all of the land between the River Mersey and the River Ribble . Part of this land was in turn given to Albert de Greslet , who towards the end of the 12th century , bestowed as much land as a team of oxen could plough in one @-@ year on Orme Fitz Seward , the son of Edward Aylward . It is probable that the name Urmston is derived from Orme 's Easton , or Ormestun , the " tun " or dwelling of Orme Fitz Seward . The Manor of Urmston was rented by a family using the local surname . The earliest known member of the Urmston family is Richard de Urmston , who was recorded in 1193 – 4 as giving 40 shillings " for having the king 's good will " . Orme Fitz Seward 's land passed to Richard de Trafford in the 13th century . The de Trafford family later lost the land , but won it back as the result of a duel . Urmston Old Hall was the home of the manorial lord , and a centre of power in the area during the Middle Ages . The Old Hall was completely rebuilt in brick and timber in the late 16th century . New Croft Hall , also in Urmston , was the residence of a wealthy freeman and may have been moated . Urmston was only one of three manors in Trafford to have had two medieval halls , the others being Hale and Timperley . Neither of the halls has survived to the present day . Farming was the main occupation in Urmston until the early 19th century , when weaving became a significant source of employment , although this later declined due to competition from large industry . In 1848 , the population was recorded as being 771 , with around 80 % of the land being farmed . The opening of the Cheshire Lines Railway in 1873 allowed the town to grow as a commuter town : between 1871 and 1901 the population grew by over 650 % , from 996 to 6 @,@ 594 . By 1901 , farming had virtually died out , and the town became a residence for the middle classes . In 1948 the Minister for Health , Aneurin Bevan , conducted the symbolic inauguration of the National Health Service at Davyhulme 's Park Hospital , now renamed Trafford General Hospital . The area was home to the first District heating system in England . In operation by 1948 , a boiler house supplied hot water to 200 homes on a newly built housing estate . The water was heated with low @-@ grade fuels such as peat and coke , with houses built in groups of four for better efficiency . = = Governance = = Once a township in the parish of Flixton , Urmston became an urban district of the administrative county of Lancashire , under the Local Government Act 1894 . The Local Government Act 1972 abolished the Urban District of Urmston and in 1974 Urmston became a district of the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford , in the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester . The parliamentary constituency of Stretford and Urmston was formed in 1997 . Kate Green , a member of the Labour Party , became the MP at the 2010 General Election , with a majority of 8 @,@ 935 , representing 48 @.@ 6 % of the vote . The Conservatives took 28 @.@ 7 % of the vote , the Liberal Democrats 16 @.@ 9 % , the United Kingdom Independence Party 3 @.@ 4 % , the Green Party 2 @.@ 0 % , and the Christian Party 0 @.@ 4 % . Urmston is one of the four major urban areas in Trafford , the other three being Altrincham , Sale and Stretford . In local elections for Trafford Council , Urmston is split into four wards : Davyhulme East , Davyhulme West , Flixton and Urmston . Like every other ward in Trafford they are each represented by three local councillors , giving Urmston 12 of the 63 seats on Trafford Council ; as of the 2012 local election nine of these were held by the Conservative Party , and three by Labour . The wards elect in thirds on a four yearly cycle . = = Geography = = Urmston occupies an area of 7 @.@ 5 square miles ( 19 @.@ 4 km2 ) , at 53 ° 26 ′ 55 ″ N 2 ° 22 ′ 29 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 4487 , − 2 @.@ 3747 ) ; it is approximately 137 feet ( 42 m ) above sea level at its highest point . The land is relatively flat , sloping gently from north to south . Urmston 's climate is generally temperate , with few extremes of temperature or weather . The mean temperature is slightly above average for the United Kingdom . Annual rainfall and average amount of sunshine are both slightly below the average for the UK . Urmston comprises the areas of Davyhulme , Dumplington , Flixton , and Urmston , with the River Mersey forming the southern boundary . For administrative reasons , Partington is sometimes considered to be part of Urmston . The most southerly part of Urmston lies within the flood plain of the River Mersey , an area known as Urmston Meadows , part of the Mersey Valley . Much work was carried out in the 1970s to canalise the Mersey , in an effort to speed up the flow of floodwater and thus reduce the risk of flooding . Upstream emergency floodbasins such as Sale Water Park , lying just to the east of Urmston , have also been constructed . The M60 Manchester orbital motorway passes through the northern half of Urmston , from southeast to northwest , and the M62 motorway lies just to the west . The Thirlmere Aqueduct also passes through the Urmston area . = = Demography = = As of the 2001 UK census , Urmston had a population of 40 @,@ 964 . The population density was 10 @,@ 881 inhabitants per square mile ( 4 @,@ 201 / km2 ) , and for every 100 females , there were 93 @.@ 0 males . Of the 19 @,@ 172 households in Urmston , 39 @.@ 9 % were married couples living together , 29 @.@ 6 % were one @-@ person households , 7 @.@ 7 % were co @-@ habiting couples and 8 @.@ 9 % were lone parents . Of those aged 16 – 74 in Urmston , 25 @.@ 5 % had no academic qualifications , slightly high compared to 21 @.@ 3 % for all of Trafford but slightly lower than the and 28 @.@ 9 % in England . = = Economy = = The Trafford Centre , a large shopping and leisure complex , is at Dumplington , north of Urmston . Some locals felt that it brought about the decline of Urmston Precinct , the town 's central shopping area – dating back to the 1960s – where many units closed or became " pound shops " . Beginning in 2007 , Urmston Precinct was demolished and a £ 45 million redevelopment of the site got underway , to include 140 @,@ 000 square feet ( 13 @,@ 006 m2 ) of retail and leisure space and 144 apartments . This redevelopment project is now known as Eden Square . A new Sainsbury 's opened in the summer of 2009 as did the relocated local library with the rest of the new shopping precinct expected to follow later in the year . This was followed by the opening of an Aldi supermarket ; a few budget stores ; bars ; and cafes . The average price for a semi @-@ detached home in Urmston is £ 155 @,@ 475 , whilst a detached house will cost on average £ 247 @,@ 630 . Semi @-@ detached prices have more than doubled from an average of £ 60 @,@ 000 in 1998 , although house prices in most areas of the country have seen a similar increase . These figures are , however , below the England and Wales average . As of the 2001 UK census , Urmston had a possible workforce of approximately 32 @,@ 996 people . The economic activity of residents in Urmston was 46 @.@ 1 % in full @-@ time employment , 12 @.@ 6 % in part @-@ time employment , 6 @.@ 9 % self @-@ employed , 2 @.@ 1 % unemployed , 2 @.@ 5 % students with jobs , 3 @.@ 0 % students without jobs , 14 @.@ 7 % retired , 4 @.@ 5 % looking after home or family , 5 @.@ 4 % permanently sick or disabled and 2 @.@ 2 % economically inactive for other reasons . Urmston has a low rate of unemployment ( 2 @.@ 1 % ) compared with Trafford ( 2 @.@ 7 % ) and England ( 3 @.@ 3 % ) . The Office for National Statistics estimated that during the period of April 2001 to March 2002 the average gross weekly income of households in Urmston was £ 504 ( £ 26 @,@ 209 per year ) . According to the 2001 UK census , the industry of employment of residents in Urmston was 17 @.@ 1 % retail and wholesale , 14 @.@ 0 % health and social work , 13 @.@ 9 % manufacturing , 13 @.@ 4 % property and business services , 8 @.@ 1 % transport and communications , 7 @.@ 2 % education , 6 @.@ 8 % construction , 5 @.@ 3 % finance , 4 @.@ 9 % public administration and defence , 3 @.@ 4 % hotels and restaurants , 0 @.@ 9 % energy and water supply , 0 @.@ 4 % agriculture , 0 @.@ 1 % in mining , and 4 @.@ 3 % other . This was roughly in line with national figures . = = Culture = = = = = Cultural events and venues = = = Urmston Musical Theatre was formed as the Urmston and District Operatic Society in 1911 . Its current president is actor Matthew Kelly , who was born in Urmston . It performs an adult main show in October with rehearsals running from June to October and a pantomime in January / February with rehearsals running from November to the date of the show . Both shows are performed at the Poolside Theatre within the Urmston Leisure Centre . Its youth section performs a show in May at St Antony 's Catholic College in Urmston . Canterbury Players is a local amateur dramatic society . Performances are given on stage at the Davyhulme ( Wesley ) Methodist Church located in Brook Road , Flixton . Most famed in recent times for the notable appearance of Garry Dennis Carr , a famed socialite and artist from the area . Young people spilled out of the church and car park just to get a glimpse of him and rumoured friend Noel Fielding ( of the Mighty Boosh fame ) In the mid @-@ 20th century there were 20 cinemas in Trafford , of which the only survivor is the New Curzon , in Princess Road . It opened in 1931 as the Curzon . It was converted to a twin cinema and bingo club in the 1970s , and re @-@ opened under its present name of the New Curzon in 1980 , after a £ 100 @,@ 000 conversion . Since 2003 , the building has been shared with Flixton Dance Studio . Recently , due to financial reasons , the New Curzon has been forced to close down . = = = The Beatles = = = In 1963 the council booked the Beatles to play at the Urmston Show at Abbotsfield Park in Chassen Road on Monday 5 August . At the time of the booking , they were not well known , but had risen in popularity by the time of their appearance . David Hamilton who was the compere , for which he received ten guineas ( £ 10 @.@ 50 ) , commented : " The boys were smuggled in in a van ... screaming girls rushed the stage , trying to get hold of their idols ... it was certainly a hard day 's night . " = = = Sport = = = Urmston Cricket Club was founded in 1846 as Urmston & Flixton Cricket Club . As well as serving as a social club , it expanded to include other sports including hockey , tennis , and bowls . The club has been located on Moorside Road since 1870 . Urmston Riding Club was established in 1956 on Southgate on the Urmston – Flixton border , and has approximately 150 members . AFC Urmston provides football coaching facilities , and has teams ranging from under 7s to under 17s . The club was founded in 1977 , as Meadowside Athletic FC , and has won the Manchester County FA Youth Cup . = = Transport = = Junctions 9 and 10 of the M60 orbital motorway connect Urmston to the rest of Greater Manchester and the motorway network . A junction previously existed further east along the motorway under its old M63 designation , but was closed on the opening of the A6144 ( M ) in 1987 . A well known local landmark , opened in 1960 , is the Barton High level motorway bridge , which crosses the Manchester Ship Canal . Urmston is connected to Liverpool and Manchester by the Cheshire Lines Committee railway line which passes through Warrington , and Liverpool South Parkway ( for Liverpool John Lennon Airport ) . There are three railway stations in the Urmston area ( Urmston station in Urmston town centre , Chassen Road and Flixton stations in neighbouring Flixton ) . Trains stopping at these stations are operated by Northern Rail . Urmston is not served by Metrolink . The nearest Metrolink stations are in Stretford and Eccles . Pre @-@ 1969 , most bus services were provided by Manchester Corporation Transport and the North Western Road Car Company . North Western had a depot on Higher Road in Urmston town centre . The services of both undertakings transferred into SELNEC ( South East Lancashire , North East Cheshire , later to become Greater Manchester ) PTE , later renamed as GMPTE , and then on 1 April 2011 renamed to Transport for Greater Manchester . Today , the area is generally well served by both commercially operated and tendered bus services . Some areas have a frequent service of every 10 – 15 minutes on some routes , with half @-@ hourly frequencies on other routes . Services are run variously by Stagecoach in Manchester , First Greater Manchester , JPT , Go Goodwins and Arriva North West , providing transport to many parts of Greater Manchester including Manchester city centre , Bolton , Stockport , the Trafford Centre and Altrincham = = Education = = Along with the rest of Trafford , Urmston maintains a selective education system assessed by the Eleven Plus examination . There are four primary , infant or junior schools in Urmston , including Urmston Infant School , together with an independent prep school , Abbotsford Preparatory School , in addition to four secondary schools , Urmston Grammar School and St Antony 's Catholic College , Wellacre and Flixton Girls School . Urmston Grammar School is a specialist science and language college ; the school was assessed as " outstanding " in its February 2006 Ofsted report . St Antony 's Catholic College is a specialist Business and Enterprise College . In its October 2005 Ofsted report the school was assessed as " a good and improving school with some outstanding features " . = = Religion = = As of the 2001 UK census , 82 @.@ 3 % of Urmston 's residents reported themselves as being Christian , 0 @.@ 8 % Muslim , 0 @.@ 2 % Hindu , 0 @.@ 1 % Jewish , 0 @.@ 1 % Buddhist and 0 @.@ 1 % Sikh . The census recorded 10 @.@ 5 % as having no religion , 0 @.@ 1 % had an alternative religion and 6 @.@ 6 % did not state their religion . Urmston is in the Catholic Diocese of Salford , and the Church of England Diocese of Manchester . There are three listed churches in Urmston : the Church of St Clement ( Grade II ) , the Church of St Michael 's ( Grade II * ) , and the Church of All Saints ( Grade I ) . The Church of All Saints was built in 1867 – 8 by E. W. Pugin , in the Gothic Revival style ; the church is said to be a " notably complete and unspoiled " example of Pugin 's best work . St Clement 's Church was built in 1868 by J Medland Taylor , also in the Gothic Revival style . The Church of St Michael was first mentioned in 1189 – 91 although may be even older . It was rebuilt in 1815 , 1824 , and 1888 . There are two listed structures in the grounds of the church , the sundial and the Jones Chest tomb . The Church of St Michael is one of 11 Grade II * listed buildings in Trafford , and All Saints is one of six Grade I listed buildings in Trafford . = = Notable people = = Suzanne Charlton , BBC weather presenter and daughter of Bobby Charlton , was born in Urmston , as was Judy Loe , actress mother of Kate Beckinsale and wife of the late Richard Beckinsale . Other people born in the town include actor and entertainer Matthew Kelly , two former Manchester City footballers , David White and Michael Johnson , Franklin Charles Buckley ( more commonly known as Major Frank Buckley ) an English football player and notable manager for both Blackpool and Wolverhampton Wanderers , Lynda Baron , best known for playing Nurse Gladys Emmanuel in Open All Hours , and Jeremy " Jez " Kerr , singer and bassist of post @-@ punk band A Certain Ratio . Actor George Coulouris was partly brought up in Urmston . Keith Hopwood , the rhythm guitarist of Herman 's Hermits , attended Urmston Grammar School . Former Manchester United player David Herd has a home in Urmston ; Herd has owned a local garage that still bears his name . Debbie Moore , founder of Pineapple Dance Studios was born in the area and Danielle Hope , the winner of BBC TV 's Over the Rainbow , was also a resident . The 18th @-@ century caricaturist and satirical poet John Collier , who used the pseudonym Tim Bobbins , was born in Urmston in 1708 . A self @-@ styled Lancashire Hogarth , his first and most famous work , A View of the Lancashire Dialect , or , Tummus and Mary , appeared in 1746 , the earliest significant piece of published Lancashire dialect . A local public house , The Tim Bobbin , is named after him . Steven Patrick Morrissey , former lead singer of The Smiths , was born here in 1959 . Ian McShane , actor , grew up in Urmston and attended Stretford Grammar School Peter Noone , Singer with Hermans Hermits Eileen Derbyshire , Actress who plays Emily Bishop in Coronation Street = = = External maps and images = = = Map of the Borough of Trafford from Trafford MBC Map of Urmston Town Centre from Trafford MBC Urmston from the air
= Riverina = The Riverina / rɪvəˈriːnə / is an agricultural region of south @-@ western New South Wales ( NSW ) , Australia . The Riverina is distinguished from other Australian regions by the combination of flat plains , warm to hot climate and an ample supply of water for irrigation . This combination has allowed the Riverina to develop into one of the most productive and agriculturally diverse areas of Australia . Bordered on the south by the state of Victoria and on the east by the Great Dividing Range , the Riverina covers those areas of New South Wales in the Murray and Murrumbidgee drainage zones to their confluence in the west . Home to Aboriginal groups for over 40 @,@ 000 years , the Riverina was originally settled by Europeans in the mid @-@ 19th century as a pastoral region providing beef and wool to markets in Australia and beyond . In the 20th century , the development of major irrigation areas in the Murray and Murrumbidgee valleys has led to the introduction of crops such as rice and wine grapes . The Riverina has strong cultural ties to Victoria , and the region was the source of much of the impetus behind the federation of Australian colonies . Major population and service centres in the Riverina include the cities of Wagga Wagga , Albury and Griffith . Albury and Wagga Wagga are home to campuses of Charles Sturt University , the only local provider of higher education for the region . Wagga Wagga is home to two major Australian Defence Force establishments . = = Geography = = The delineation of the Riverina region by government agencies and other bodies varies , but in common usage it generally comprises the agricultural and pastoral areas of New South Wales , west of the Great Dividing Range and in the drainage basin of the snow @-@ fed Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers . The northern boundary beyond the Riverina is determined by the Lachlan River catchment area and is referred to as the Central West . Along the Murray to the south , the Riverina borders the state of Victoria . West of the confluence of the Murray and Murrumbidgee is the beginning of the more arid Far West region . In general , the Riverina is an alluvial plain formed by deposition carried from the Great Dividing Range by streams between 30 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 years ago . The terrain includes rolling hills to the east but then becomes flatter to the west with most of that plain reaching less than 200 metres ( 660 ft ) above sea level . The western Riverina consists largely of featureless saltbush plain . = = = Landform and hydrology = = = The geology of the Riverina comprises several troughs and sedimentary basins . The western Riverina is presumed to be a continuation of the Ballarat and Bendigo geological zone while eastern sections are underlain by western portions of the Lachlan Fold Belt . There is potential for the Riverina to host several mineral deposit types including coal , petroleum , coal seam methane , gypsum , orogenic gold , Cobar style polymetallic systems , heavy mineral sands and possibly diamonds in these fold belt rocks and basins . Riverina soils are generally sandy along the river channels , with more saline grey and brown clays found on rarely flooded areas on the perimeter of the floodplain . As the Murrumbidgee passes downstream , the water and soil become more saline . The Riverina is drained by the large Murray @-@ Darling Basin . Rivers and streams in the Riverina generally flow east to west . As well as the Murray , Murrumbidgee and Lachlan , other streams include Billabong Creek and the Edward River , an anabranch of the Murray . Much of the water carried by these streams is diverted . In 2001 – 2002 , 52 % of the Murray and Murrumbidgee water runoff was diverted , 77 % of which was used for irrigation . = = = Climate = = = The Bureau of Meteorology classify the Riverina in the Hot Dry Zone ( with cooler winters ) climatic zone . Places in this zone can be very hot in the summer months while in the winter , nights can be very cold with cool to mild days . Mean daily maximum temperatures in the Riverina range from 31 @.@ 0 ° C ( 87 @.@ 8 ° F ) in January and 12 @.@ 4 ° C ( 54 @.@ 3 ° F ) in July in Wagga Wagga to 33 @.@ 2 ° C ( 91 @.@ 8 ° F ) in January and 14 @.@ 8 ° C ( 58 @.@ 6 ° F ) in July in Hillston . Rainfall levels in the Riverina are generally low with the median annual rainfall over most of the region between 250 – 500 millimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 – 19 @.@ 7 in ) , rising to between 500 – 800 mm ( 20 – 31 in ) on the eastern fringe . Rain generally falls in the winter in the southern Riverina and around Hay while in the north rainfall patterns are fairly consistent throughout the year . Corowa , in the south eastern Riverina has an average rainfall of 539 @.@ 4 millimetres ( 21 @.@ 2 in ) per year while mean annual rainfall at Hay is 367 @.@ 2 millimetres ( 14 @.@ 5 in ) . Drought in 2006 has seen the lowest ever recorded rainfall in towns such as Lockhart , Tarcutta and Narrandera . = = = Riverina bioregion = = = One method of classification of boundaries for the Riverina is the Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia that defines the bioregion as an area comprising 9 @,@ 704 @,@ 469 hectares ( 23 @,@ 980 @,@ 270 acres ) , with biogeographic subregions covering each of the Lachlan , Murrumbidgee , Murray Fans , Victorian Riverina , Robinvale Plains , and Murray Scroll Belt . The New South Wales Parks and Wildlife Service has divided New South Wales into 17 distinct bioregions . Bioregions are quite large areas of land that capture a geophysical pattern which is linked to fauna and flora ecosystems . The Riverina bioregion is an area of land that comprises part of the larger Riverina area but also extends into Victoria . It has been defined by the New South Wales Parks and Wildlife Service as extending from Ivanhoe in the Murray Darling Depression Bioregion south to Bendigo , and from Narrandera in the east to Balranald in the west . 74 @.@ 03 % of the bioregion is in New South Wales , the remainder in Victoria . In another mapping the World Wildlife Fund has made this area part of the larger Southeast Australia temperate savanna ecoregion that covers the western plains of New South Wales . River channels in the region support River Red Gum ( Eucalyptus camaldulensis ) and River Cooba ( Acacia stenophylla ) communities . Nearby higher areas contain Black Box ( Eucalyptus largiflorens ) woodlands and a salt @-@ tolerant grass , saltbush and daisy understorey . Yellow Box ( Eucalyptus melliodora ) and Grey Box ( Eucalyptus microcarpa ) occur along with Cypress Pine ( Callitris glaucophylla ) on areas rarely subjected to flooding . The area away from the rivers often consists of treeless plains , consisting of various saltbush ( Atriplex ) species , Cotton Bush ( Maireana aphylla ) and varieties of Danthonia and Austrostipa native grasslands . Significant mammals endemic to forests in the bioregion include various species of glider , such as Sugar Gliders ( Petaurus breviceps ) , Feathertail Gliders ( Acrobates pygmaeus ) and Squirrel Gliders ( Petaurus norfolcensis ) as well as Koalas ( Phascolarctos cinereus ) A wide variety of birdlife makes its home in wetlands in the Riverina , including many migratory species . Competition from introduced species and the effect of clearing , grazing and pasture improvement has led to a decline in the diversity of native flora and fauna in the area . = = History = = Aboriginal people are thought to have inhabited the Riverina for at least 40 @,@ 000 years . The Wiradjuri people were the original inhabitants of much of south western New South Wales including much of the Riverina region along the Murrumbidgee and Lachlan rivers . Other groups living along the Murrumbidgee included the Nari @-@ Nari on the western plains where the town of Hay , the Muthi @-@ Muthi along the Lowbidgee , Gurendji and the Yida @-@ Yida of Oxley . Along both sides of the Murray River lived the Yorta Yorta people inhabiting the area of the Riverina as far east as the present day city of Albury and as far north as the Finley and Deniliquin districts . The Murray was also home to other groups such as the Bangerang , Baraba @-@ Baraba , Wemba @-@ Wemba , Wadi @-@ Wadi , Dadi @-@ Dadi and Paarkantji communities . The rivers played a leading role in the lifestyle of the Aboriginal people , acting as a source of food and a means of communication and trade . Murray cod and shellfish were gathered for food and bark canoes were used for travel along the rivers . Scars on many trees alongside the rivers are evidence of this extensive use of canoes . In the summer it is likely that the Bangerang and Wiradjuri joined the Monaro groups in the Bogong moth feasts in the alpine country to the east . = = = Exploration and pastoral settlement = = = The first European explorer in the Riverina was John Oxley in 1817 following the Lachlan River to what is now the town of Booligal . Oxley was followed by Charles Sturt , who followed the Murrumbidgee downstream to Lake Alexandrina in South Australia between 1828 – 1831 and Major Thomas Mitchell in 1836 on his way to the Wimmera and the Western District . Pastoral settlement followed soon after , with grazing runs established along the Murray and Murrumbidgee as far west as Hay by 1839 . At the time , the area was known as the Murrumbidgee District . Moulamein , in the western Riverina , appears to make legitimate claims as the oldest town in the Riverina , and indeed to being older than Melbourne . The settlers often came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants . In the Narrandera district , a battle took place between settlers and the local Narrungderra clan at a location now known as Massacre Island , reportedly leaving only one survivor . Cattle raising was the major industry in the 1840s with sheep becoming predominant in the 1860s . At this time many Victorians settled in the Riverina to breed sheep and cattle to feed the miners taking part in the Victorian Gold Rush . The herds were considered inferior at first , but these pastures were good for stock , and the land which seemed a desert was actually good fattening country . In the 1860s and 1870s , German settlers from the Barossa Valley travelled upstream to settle in the eastern Riverina . Because of their religious distinctiveness as Lutherans , they preferred to form clustered German settlements . In 1867 and 1868 several land parcels were taken up in the Jindera area . 56 German farmers , in 1869 , took six weeks to travel six hundred miles in covered wagons to establish the town of Walla Walla . Nearby Holbrook was originally named Germantown after these settlers until changing its name in 1914 as a result of tensions caused by World War I. The name " Riverine " , coined from the Entre Ríos Province ( between two rivers ) in Argentina , South America , was in use as early as 1857 : a long letter under the caption " Riverine Colony " appeared in the Albury Border Post of 24 January that year . The name was coined by Dunmore Lang who translated it from the Spanish . Dunmore Lang was also involved with the short lived Riverina secession movement which was active in the 1860s . The movement was inspired by the success of the Victorian and Queensland secession movements and motivated by a desire to draw more public funds to the region and maintain the favourable land tenure the " squatter " pastoralists enjoyed . With the movement strongest in Deniliquin and Albury , Dunmore Lang , unrelated squatter and parliamentarian Gideon Lang and other influential pastoralists joined with local newspaper editors , George Mott and David Jones in the campaign . This culminated in presenting petitions to the Governor of New South Wales , Sir John Young and the Colonial Secretary , Edward Cardwell . Soon after the movement fell apart due to the differences between the squatters on one side and the small farmers and townspeople on the other causing its objectives to become obscured by other associated issues such as inter @-@ colonial tariffs and rail links . = = = Riverboats and railways = = = From 1853 , the Riverina was linked to markets through a series of riverboats along the Murray and Murrumbidgee to the river ports of Mannum and Goolwa in South Australia and from 1864 , to Echuca connected by rail to Melbourne . Riverboats reached as far upstream as Gundagai and Albury and towns such as Darlington Point , Narrandera and Moulamein became important river ports . The riverboat era peaked in the twenty years from 1870 – 1890 , declining with the coming of the railway and finally ending with the disruption to the workforce caused by World War I. From Melbourne , broad gauge railway lines opened to Deniliquin in 1876 and west to Moulamein and Balranald in 1926 . The Moulamein – Balranald section closed in the 1980s . The North East line reached Wodonga in 1873 , and was connected to Albury at a break @-@ of @-@ gauge in 1883 , and the Melbourne @-@ Shepparton line was extended to Tocumwal in 1908 . The number of cross border railways expanded with the passing of the 1922 Border Railways Act , with the Benalla – Yarrawonga branch line extended to Oaklands in 1938 , both lines meeting standard gauge lines that were subsequently closed . Victorian Railways commenced construction of a railway from Robinvale to Koorakee and Lette in New South Wales in 1924 ( the Lette railway line ) , but this railway was never completed . The Murray River bridge between Robinvale and Euston was instead converted to a road bridge , which will be demolished when the new road bridge currently under construction is completed . The Stony Crossing railway line was built from Kerang to Murrabit in 1924 and Stony Crossing ( originally called Poonboon ) in 1928 under an agreement with New South Wales . No passenger services were carried on the section beyond Murrabit after 1932 and it was closed about 1943 . Standard gauge rail services from Sydney came with the extension of the Main Southern line to Cootamundra and Junee in 1878 and the construction of the Murrumbidgee River Railway Bridge in 1881 allowed the line to be extended past Wagga Wagga to Henty and Albury later that year . A branch line was constructed to Temora in 1893 and extended to Barellan in 1908 , Griffith in 1916 and Hillston in 1923 . Further south , a branch line was completed from Junee to Narrandera in 1881 and extended to Hay by 1882 . Another branch pushed south from Narrandera toward the Victorian border reaching Jerilderie in 1884 and the Murray at Tocumwal in 1898 . = = = Bushrangers = = = Transport links assisted the development of the Riverina economy , at the same time areas of the region found themselves under threat from robbery and murder by various bushrangers . Between 1862 and 1865 , the eastern Riverina between Wagga Wagga and Albury saw the depredations of Dan " Mad Dog " Morgan . Having previously been convicted of armed robbery , Morgan came to the attention to authorities in the Riverina when he bailed up a police magistrate , Henry Baylis , near Urana in 1863 . In 1864 , Morgan bailed up Round Hill station , a large sheep farm near Morven , killing a station hand . Later that year , the bushranger shot dead a policeman in cold blood near Tumbarumba . The reward placed on his head reached £ 1 @,@ 000 before , in April 1865 , he was shot dead near Wangaratta , Victoria . The infamous Australian bushranger , Ned Kelly , made possibly his most daring raid in the Riverina , at Jerilderie in 1879 . After riding overland from north east Victoria , Kelly and his gang in a brazen move captured two local policemen and stole their uniforms . Impersonating the police , they then proceeded to rob the Bank of New South Wales and held the town captive for several days . While in Jerilderie , he sought to have his manifesto published , the famous Jerilderie letter , a rambling 8 @,@ 000 word condemnation of the colonial administration in Victoria and specifically the treatment of the Irish . Being unable to find the local newspaper editor , he left the letter with a member of the bank staff and returned to Victoria £ 2 @,@ 000 richer . = = = Riverina and Federation = = = The close geographic and cultural ties between the Riverina and northern Victoria , combined with continuing frustration with inter colonial tariffs , made the Riverina a fertile area for ideas for uniting the various colonies in an Australian federation . This would see the southern Riverina in particular take a leading role in bringing about federation . Prior to federation , the various Australian colonies could , and often did , charge tariffs on goods from the other colonies , ostensibly for the protection of their domestic manufacturing industries , mainly based in the larger cities such as Sydney and Melbourne . For a border community such as the southern Riverina , these tariffs were a sore burden , making goods purchased from Melbourne , the closest large city , more expensive and reducing the competitiveness of these towns supplying the Melbourne and Adelaide markets . In addition , crossing the border on the Murray River was a tiresome experience as each border crossing had customs posts inspecting goods and luggage to ensure all duty was paid and to reduce smuggling , a popular activity . Another item of concern was the lack of adequate river crossings . Along the Riverina the Murray was — and remains — part of New South Wales , who had no interest in assisting border residents to access goods and services in Victoria that may otherwise have been sourced from Sydney . In the early 1890s , for mainly patriotic reasons , the Australian Natives ' Association helped establish the Federation League , a society dedicated to the creation of a federal nation . Following a series of addresses by the future Prime Minister , Edmund Barton to large crowds , some 15 League branches were established in the towns along the southern border . One of these towns , Corowa , was the location for the first conference of the Australian Federation League in 1893 . At this conference , Dr John Quick , a delegate from Bendigo , proposed a resolution calling for the colonial legislatures to pass an act providing for the election of representatives to a convention to develop a federal constitution . This has been seen as the turning point in the push for Federation . The momentum generated from this point lead to a series of conventions and elections and finally , the inauguration of a federal constitution on 1 January 1901 . = = = Irrigation and closer settlement = = = Large scale irrigation commenced with the establishment of the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area ( MIA ) in 1912 which diverted water from the Murrumbidgee River near Narrandera . The River Murray Waters Agreement of 1915 allowed 26 weirs to be constructed with locks to provide permanent riverboat access to Echuca . When riverboat transport was no longer significant , the weirs supported irrigation . Irrigation in the region continued to develop with the construction of the Hume Dam between 1919 and 1931 , the Burrinjuck Dam built in 1928 and Blowering Dam built in 1968 . Development and promotion of the MIA led to large scale settlement on land described by Oxley 100 years earlier as " country which , for barrenness and desolation , can I think , have no equal . " Settlers came from a diverse range of backgrounds and nationalities . In particular , the Italian community prospered in the Area , owning nearly half of all the farms around Griffith by 1954 . Later , further irrigation was developed for areas in the Murray valley starting with the Wakool Irrigation District in 1932 , then the Deniboota and Denimein Irrigation Districts in 1938 , the Berriquin Irrigation District in 1939 and the Tullakool Irrigation Area in 1942 . The Coleambally Irrigation Area , established in 1968 , was the last of the major government @-@ sponsored irrigation developments in New South Wales . = = Agriculture = = The high soil fertility and abundance of water in the Riverina floodplain has made the Riverina region one of the most productive farming regions in Australia with rice , wheat , maize , canola , citrus and wine grapes being grown in the area . The Riverina contains many irrigation schemes including the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area . 182 @,@ 000 hectares ( 450 @,@ 000 acres ) are under irrigation in the region . For the first few decades following the 1830s , European pastoral activity focused in the main on cattle production but by the 1860s sheep were the predominant stock . At the beginning of the twenty @-@ first century , the region 's agricultural and horticultural production was worth more than A $ 1 billion . The region produces : over 25 % of the state 's fruit and vegetables 90 % of NSW citrus products 80 % of NSW wine / grape production livestock feedlots , sales and processing facilities nearly 20 % of all NSW crop production and two thirds of its total value . In 1991 – 92 sheep and lamb numbers in the region were close to 7 million and there were 500 @,@ 000 meat cattle . The Riverina is also a significant almond growing region . = = = Wool = = = Much of the dryland areas of the Riverina contain large sheep stations , producing medium class wool . The Peppin Merino sheep was first bred in the area around Wanganella . As many as 70 percent of today ’ s Australian Merinos are said to be directly descended from the Peppin @-@ developed sheep . The Riverina is home to many Merino studs and the saltbush plains are regarded as one of Australia 's best wool growing regions . = = = Rice = = = The Riverina produces the vast majority of rice grown in Australia , particularly in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area ( MIA ) , but also around the Finley , Coleambally and Deniliquin areas . The first commercial rice crops in the Riverina were grown in the Leeton and Yanco district in 1924 , expanding to Wakool during World War II , the Denimein and Deniboota Irrigation Areas in the 1950s and Coleambally and Finley in the 1960s . In recent years , rice is also grown in the Hay , Carrathool and Hillston areas . Historically , well over one million tonnes of Australian rice has been produced each year and exported to over 70 countries , generating A $ 500 million in export income and supporting 63 towns in the Riverina and northern Victoria . More recently , drought has drastically reduced this quantity to less than 30 @,@ 000 tonnes with resultant economic effects . Recent rains however will see this volume increase . The headquarters of Ricegrowers Limited , who trade under the SunRice name , is located in Leeton , Australia 's rice capital . Major rice mills are located in Leeton , Coleambally and the largest rice mill in the southern hemisphere in Deniliquin . = = = Wine = = = The area generally known as " the Riverina " is broader than the area legally defined as the Riverina wine region Australian Geographical Indication ( AGI ) as registered in the Register of Protected GIs . The Riverina GI is centred on Griffith and is roughly circular with towns on the boundary including Mossgiel , Condobolin , Temora , Junee , Culcairn , Berrigan , Finley , Deniliquin and Moulamein . It does not extend as far south as the Murray River . The Riverina region is one of the most prosperous grape growing regions in Australia ( particularly in Griffith ) , along with the Barossa Valley in South Australia . The region grows 55 % of wine grapes in New South Wales and 15 % of the total grape production within Australia and 80 % of wine / grape production of New South Wales ; the region is Australia 's largest producer of wine . Over 50 % of the Riverina 's wine production is exported . As a producer of specialist wine grapes , its wine style of international importance is Botrytised Semillon and the outstanding speciality made from these grapes is a " sauternes @-@ style " dessert wine . Irrigation made it possible to grow grapes for wine . The first grapes were planted at Hanwood in the spring of 1913 by John James McWilliam and his eldest son Jack who had come to the district from their winery in Junee . Irrigation was by carting of water until the irrigation channels were opened a few months later . The first grapes were picked in 1916 and sent to Junee for processing . Penfolds established their winery in the region in 1919 . = = Cities , towns and settlements = = At the 2001 census , the population of the Murray @-@ Murrumbidgee ( Statistical Region Sector ) , consisting almost entirely of the Riverina , was 255 @,@ 881 , 2 @.@ 9 % of whom were indigenous and 7 @.@ 4 % born outside Australia . Other than the United Kingdom and Ireland , the largest ethnic groups in the Riverina were Italians and Germans . The Riverina includes three cities ; Wagga Wagga , Albury and Griffith . Other large towns include Leeton , Deniliquin , Cootamundra , Narrandera , Junee , Hay and Temora . Wagga Wagga is the largest inland city in New South Wales and serves as an important employment , educational , cultural , social and entertainment centre for surrounding towns throughout the Riverina . Wagga Wagga 's facilities are of metropolitan standards with shopping , cafes , recreational facilities and nightlife present within the city . Albury offers similar facilities to Wagga Wagga to the far south of New South Wales and northern Victoria . The three largest centres in population in the region after Wagga Wagga and Albury are Griffith , Leeton and Deniliquin and they provide advanced services to the outlying farming regions . Parts of the Riverina experienced substantial population growth in the late 1990s and early 2000s ; in the five @-@ year period between 1996 and 2001 , Griffith 's population increased by 10 @.@ 8 % . Until recently Wagga Wagga 's population was declining slowly and ageing with strong growth in age groups 40 and over . This has now changed and Wagga Wagga has become one of Australia 's leading examples of the " sponge " city phenomenon , attracting residents from smaller towns in the Riverina such as Urana . In the year ended 30 June 2006 , the population of Wagga Wagga grew by 1 @.@ 3 % , driven by its role as the regional centre for the Riverina and its hosting of a campus of Charles Sturt University and Australian Defence Force bases . = = Politics = = The Riverina is represented at the federal level in two divisions of the Australian House of Representatives , the Division of Riverina , covering the Murrumbidgee valley ; and the Division of Farrer , the area along the Murray River . In 2015 , Riverina is held by the National Party and Farrer by the Liberal Party , who , in coalition , are the governing parties . At the state level , the electoral districts of Albury , Cootamundra , Murray and Wagga Wagga cover the Riverina region . There are a range of local government authorities in the region , ranging from the cities of Wagga Wagga , Albury and Griffith ; to the municipalities of Edward River , Federation , Gundagai , Murray River , Murrumbidgee and Snowy Valleys ; and the shires of Balranald , Berrigan , Carrathool , Coolamon , Greater Hume , Hay , Junee , Leeton , Lockhart , Narrandera , and Temora . These councils are arranged into Regional Organisations of Councils ( ROC ) s : Riverina and Murray ROC and Riverina Eastern ROC . = = Facilities and services = = Higher education in the Riverina is provided by Charles Sturt University ( CSU ) , with campuses serving the Riverina in Albury and Wagga Wagga . The university was established in 1989 with the amalgamation of the Albury and Wagga Wagga campuses of the Riverina @-@ Murray Institute of Higher Education with the Mitchell College of Advanced Education in Bathurst . CSU provides specialist services to the Riverina in areas such as viticulture and winemaking . Other educational facilities in the region include the Riverina Institute of TAFE providing technical and vocational training at a number of campuses throughout the region . Most larger centres have public high schools and most smaller centres are serviced by a public primary school . The health service in the Riverina is administered by Greater Southern Area Health Service , formed on 1 January 2005 with the amalgamation of the Greater Murray Area Health Service , servicing the Riverina and Southern Area Health Service , servicing areas east of the Great Dividing Range and south of Wollongong . Base Hospitals are located at Albury , Wagga Wagga and Griffith while Deniliquin , Hillston , Henty and Narrandera among others are home to regional hospitals . Situated between the large cities of Melbourne , Sydney and Adelaide , the Riverina is a transportation hub . Major transportation links in the region include the Hume Highway , Newell Highway and Sturt Highway ; all part of the Australian National Highway . Other highways include the Riverina Highway , Cobb Highway , Olympic Highway , Kidman Way , Irrigation Way and Burley Griffin Way . NSW TrainLink provide rail services to Griffith , Albury and Wagga Wagga with connecting buses reaching smaller communities . V / Line provide services linking Griffith , Deniliquin and the towns along the Murray with public transport access to Melbourne . The Riverina is host to two major Australian Defence Force training facilities . The Army Recruit Training Centre is located at Kapooka , 9 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 9 mi ) south west of Wagga Wagga and RAAF Base Wagga is the home of the RAAF Ground Training Wing base . These bases along with a Royal Australian Navy Defence Communications Station play an integral role in the local economy . = = Sports = = The Riverina is well known for the quality and range of its sports activity and many famous sportsmen and women have hailed from the Riverina . These include : Tennis champions Margaret Court and Evonne Goolagong Cawley Cricketers Mark Taylor , Geoff Lawson and Michael Slater Rugby League players Peter Sterling and Laurie Daley and the Mortimer brothers : Chris Mortimer , Peter Mortimer and Steve Mortimer Australian rules footballers Haydn Bunton Senior , Paul Kelly , Brett Kirk , Shane Crawford and Wayne Carey Soccer players Archie Thompson and Joshua Kennedy . Jockeys Arthur " Scobie " Breasley and Roy Higgins . The " Wagga Effect " is a term that has been used frequently in the Australian media to describe the disproportionately large number of elite sportsmen and women that originate from the town . It is speculated that the phenomenon may arise in rural areas where the population is large enough to sustain the presence of a large number of sporting codes , but small enough to ensure that talented individuals are exposed to adult @-@ level competition at an earlier age . Unusually for New South Wales , Australian rules football is quite popular as the Riverina is south of the Barassi Line , and there are many clubs and leagues in the district , including the Riverina Football League , Farrer Football League , Hume Football League , Northern Riverina Football League and Coreen & District Football League . In addition , many clubs along the border play in Victorian leagues such as the Ovens & Murray Football League , Murray Football League , Picola & District Football League and the Golden Rivers Football League . In the northern part of the Riverina , Rugby League and Rugby Union are both strong . Rugby League competitions in the district include Group 9 , Group 17 and Group 20 Rugby League . Teams from Corowa and Finley play in the Goulburn Murray Rugby League . Rugby Union in the district is run by the ACT and Southern NSW Rugby Union , with clubs from Albury , Wagga Wagga , Cootamundra , Temora and Hay competing in the Southern Inland Rugby Union . Other popular sports in the Riverina include cycling , bowls , cricket , netball , tennis and horse racing . The Riverina is home to many racecourses and picnic race meetings are held regularly at places such as Corowa , Berrigan , Carrathool , Tumut and Lockhart . = = Culture = = The Riverina was the setting for some of Australia 's great artistic and literary works of the 19th and early 20th century . Most of these works reflected the rural lifestyle and agricultural pursuits common in the Riverina at that time and projected an image of Australia and Australians that would later change rapidly . The writer Joseph Furphy worked as a bullocky for 10 years in the area around Hay from 1872 . Later , using the pen name Tom Collins , Furphy wrote Such Is Life set in the Riverina during the drought and depression of the 1890s and drawing on his experiences as a bullocky . Although a slow seller , the novel was described as " fitted to become an Australian classic " by A.G. Stephens , the literary critic of The Bulletin . Published in 1921 , Around the Boree Log and Other Verses was written by Patrick Joseph Hartigan , under the pen name John O 'Brien . A Roman Catholic priest , after early stints at Thurgoona and Berrigan , in 1917 Hartigan was appointed as the parish priest of Narrandera where he stayed until 1944 . His poems recorded the everyday lives and mateship of the people of the Riverina . His friend and well @-@ known poet C. J. Dennis hailed them in the Bulletin as in ' the direct Lawson @-@ Paterson line mainly — unaffected talk about Australians , much as they would naturally talk about themselves ' . Around the Boree Log ran to five editions and 18 @,@ 000 copies by 1926 . The artist and key member of the Heidelberg School , Tom Roberts spent some time on a sheep station near Brocklesby prior to and during the painting of his most celebrated artwork , Shearing the Rams . The painting was criticised in its time for the depiction of strong manual labour rather than the common " high art " themes of the day . It is seen now as reflecting Australia 's largest industry at the time and the work of ordinary Australians . The painting is now in the collection of the National Gallery of Victoria . Scots of the Riverina , a poem written by one of Australia 's most renowned writers , Henry Lawson , is set in Gundagai . The poem describes a father 's anger at his son 's desertion at harvest time and later his grief when the son dies in battle in World War I. Hay and Hell and Booligal , written by Banjo Paterson , is a humorous take on life on the flat western Riverina plan . Today , major cultural institutions in the Riverina include the Museum of the Riverina , the Riverina Theatre Company and the Wagga Wagga Art Gallery , all located in the regional centre of Wagga Wagga with outreach to the smaller towns . Many regional towns including Hay , Deniliquin and Gundagai house museums of significant regional interest . The HotHouse Theatre group , based in Albury takes live theatre to small towns throughout the Riverina . The tiny town of Morundah holds an annual night at the opera , hosting performances by OzOpera and the Victorian Opera . Popular music groups from the Riverina include one of Australia 's most distinctive and popular bands of the ' 90s and 2000s , Spiderbait who come from the southern Riverina town of Finley .
= Strike Back : Project Dawn = Strike Back : Project Dawn , as it is known in the United Kingdom is a ten @-@ part British @-@ American action television serial and is the second series of Strike Back . However , the only cast member to return from the first series was Richard Armitage in the first episode . The main cast for the series includes Philip Winchester , Sullivan Stapleton , Amanda Mealing , Eva Birthistle , Michelle Lukes and Rhashan Stone . The series follows the actions of Section 20 , a secret branch of the British Secret Intelligence Service ( MI6 ) , particularly two of its officers , Michael Stonebridge ( Winchester ) and former American Delta Force operative Damian Scott ( Stapleton ) . Section 20 leads a worldwide manhunt to find and capture Pakistani terrorist Latif , who is plotting an operation of his known as " Project Dawn " . Sky announced Strike Back would be returning for a third series after the first aired . They entered a co @-@ production deal with the American premium cable network Cinemax , who wanted to introduce new original drama series to the network . In order to prepare for their roles several main cast members spent a month training with former officers of the Special Air Service and Special Boat Service . Filming began in February 2011 and took place across South Africa and Hungary . The series began broadcasting on Cinemax in the United States on 12 August 2011 , with the premiere being seen by nearly 1 @.@ 1 million viewers , the highest ratings achieved by the network since 2005 . It later began broadcasting on Sky1 in the United Kingdom on 21 August with higher ratings than that of the first series . Critical reaction of the series was generally favourable in the United States , however British reviewers were more mixed . Reviewers made comparisons to various other television dramas including 24 , Sleeper Cell , Spooks and The Unit . Project Dawn was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray disc in Region 2 on 14 November 2011 . In October 2011 , Cinemax announced it has renewed Strike Back for another 10 @-@ part series , to be titled Strike Back : Vengeance . = = Episodes = = In this table , the number in the first column refers to the episode 's number within the entire series , " US viewers in millions " refers to how many Americans watched the episode on Cinemax , while " UK viewers in millions " refers to how many Britons watched the episode on Sky1 . The series plays out as five two @-@ part episodes . = = Cast and characters = = Philip Winchester plays Sergeant Michael Stonebridge , a " by @-@ the @-@ book " Royal Marine and former Special Boat Service ( SBS ) commando , now assigned to Section 20 who is partnered with Scott to help track down a kidnapped Porter . Stonebridge works for Section 20 and is in charge of his team on the ground . Although the character is married to his wife Kerry ( Alexandra Moen ) , he has an affair with colleague Kate Marshall ( played by Birthistle ) . Winchester describes Stonebridge as " dedicated , disciplined , always plays by the rules and often saves the day . Stonebridge directs his energy trying to protecting others , " though as the story unfolds , the audience would see that Stonebridge " is not the knight in shining armour . " Sullivan Stapleton plays Damien Scott , a former United States Delta Force operator who is familiar with the antagonists of the second series , and an acquaintance of John Porter . He is recruited by Section 20 to help Sergeant Michael Stonebridge find and rescue the kidnapped Porter . Stapleton describes Scott as cocky , rebellious and arrogant , and that it was good to have somebody like him in Section 20 because " he is the one that usually goes in first and takes the bullets , whereas Stonebridge arrives at the last minute and saves the day . " The actor opined that Scott is chosen for the dangerous role because he is daring and does not have any immediate family members who rely on him . Of Scott and Stonebridge 's working relationship , Stapleton said " they have a professional respect for each other " but start to annoy each other . When the actor first read the script for Project Dawn , he saw himself for the role as Scott . Because Stapleton is an Australian actor , he had to speak with an American accent throughout the series . He was wary whether he did it right because he barely worked with Americans on the show , but believed he did okay when HBO , the network that operated Cinemax , was satisfied with it . Stapleton has signed up for another Strike Back series should it be commissioned . Amanda Mealing plays Colonel Eleanor Grant , a " smart , tough military leader who is skilled with a gun and diplomacy , but knows when to break a rule or two . " She is the new head of Section 20 , replacing Hugh Collinson from the first series . Mealing described Grant as " hard as nails , " " very contained , very direct , " and " very driven . " Grant is also very distant from her team ; " she commands so she is not their pal but , at the same time , the guys are like her family . They spend so much time together moving from place to place . But , in a kind of motherly way , she has to keep them in check and sometimes they need a firm hand . " The actress called her role " the best role I 've ever had , " adding " when I 'm doing action scenes like flying in helicopters , the hardest thing is to keep a serious face as all I want to do is scream for joy . " She researched for her role by taking advice from a female officer in a similar high @-@ ranking position as Grant is . One piece of advice the officer gave Mealing was " you mustn 't try to be one of the boys or they 'll lose respect for you , but you 've got to be in charge . " Eva Birthistle plays Captain Kate Marshall , a " crack commando " who oversees Section 20 's military personnel . She and Stonebridge have an affair . The actress was taken by the script , and although she was cast for the role , she had not done action in her past acting career , and felt it would be a " fun experience " to play the character . When Birthistle went through military training , her goal was " just to keep up with everybody and not give up , pass out , throw up or cry . " Rhashan Stone plays Major Oliver Sinclair , Grant 's right @-@ hand man who helps her gather intelligence . Mealing called their working relationship as " very strong " and " simpatico . " Sinclair is the section 's second @-@ in @-@ command . Michelle Lukes plays Sergeant Julia Richmond , one of the newer recruits of Section 20 . Lukes describes her character as " exceptionally bright and technically brilliant , " with the ability to speak seven languages . Jimi Mistry plays the antagonist Latif , the terrorist mastermind behind Project Dawn . Richard Armitage returns as John Porter , the protagonist of the original Strike Back series , in the first episode . Originally , Armitage 's role in the series was not clarified when production was announced . In January 2011 , the Herald Sun reported he dropped out of the series because he would be playing Thorin Oakenshield in The Hobbit films . However , it was later reported he would return for the second series in a secondary rather than primary role . = = Production = = = = = Development = = = Strike Back began as a six @-@ part series from Sky1 , based on a book of the same name from former Special Air Service ( SAS ) soldier turned novelist Chris Ryan . It transmitted two episodes weekly from 5 to 19 May 2010 . The first two episodes more than tripled Sky1 's audience share in its timeslot in the past three months . On August 2010 , Sky1 controller Stuart Murphy commissioned a second series to consist of a longer run of ten episodes . Left Bank Pictures continued their role as the production company . In February 2011 , it was announced that Sky entered a co @-@ production deal with the American television network Cinemax , as the network wanted to introduce new drama series . Strike Back became one of two television projects to be produced by British and American networks in 2011 , the other being Torchwood : Miracle Day , which was produced between the BBC and Starz . Frank Spotnitz , Richard Zajdlic , Tony Saint and Simon Burke were contracted as the series writers , while Alex Holmes , Bill Eagles , Paul Wilmshurst and Daniel Percival serve as the series directors . Andy Harries and Elaine Pyke were the show 's executive producers , with Percival and Spotnitz working as Co @-@ Executive Producers . In addition , Michael Casey , Trevor Hopkins and Sue De Beauvoir were the series producers , with Bill Shepard serving as co @-@ producer . Spotnitz wrote the first episodes . He was approached to write for the series because the producers needed somebody to reimagine the show as Armitage was committed to The Hobbit in New Zealand , by introducing two new leads . Spotnitz described the process ; " We had this great format , this great world of ' Strike Back ' and then we had to imagine who were the new characters who were going to drive the show in the second year . " Before Project Dawn was even announced , the crew were scouting for locations in South Africa , where the first series was shot , as well as investigating other parts of the world including the United States , South America , and Europe . = = = Training = = = Before filming began , several of the main cast members were sent to a boot camp in South Africa and went through intensive and rigorous military training by former SAS and SBS soldiers . Stapleton and Winchester had more training than Birthistle , who just wanted to make sure she could at least be a believable soldier . The actors were trained in several aspects including running , teamwork , and weapons . Mealing meanwhile , did not go through as much training as the other actors , but did spend mornings training with a commander for the SBS who is also a military adviser on the show . Winchester recalled , " Sully and I would meet every morning at 6am . We would run to a chosen location and on the way we had to memorise street names and directions and then our trainers would say ' that car that you just passed what was the licence plate number ? ' Our trainers were ex @-@ SAS guys who made us study everything in detail , for example , we learnt step by step how to enter a room in twos , then alone . At the same time , we had to be constantly aware of where our weapon was trained . " The physical trainers also had to ensure that not only do the actors look like soldiers before filming , but they had to remain that way throughout the shoot . In addition , Stapleton and Winchester had to lose and gain weight , respectively . Winchester had to be on a diet of 4 @,@ 000 calories a day , which included taking protein shakes between meals . The actor described the diet as " a workout in itself , " having found it " exhausting " eating more food than he was used to . In total , training took approximately one month . = = = Filming = = = Filming began in February 2011 , and concluded in the late summer ( from the Northern Hemisphere 's perspective ) . Filming largely took place in South Africa , particularly in Cape Town , but also in Durban and Springbok , Northern Cape . Outside South Africa the series was also filmed in Budapest , Hungary , and the UK . Among the separate locations the series takes place in , the New Delhi hotel in the first two episodes were shot in Cape Town , and the suburbs of Hout Bay doubled as Mozambique . Throughout the shoot the actors were allowed to perform the majority of their own stunts . Military advisors were on hand to teach the actors how to perform certain stunts , and to tell them what they did wrong during the take . The series includes a number of sex scenes , many of which were performed by Stapleton . In an interview with the British newspaper Metro , the actor stated " I 've done my fair share of nude scenes in the past but not as much as this – not as risqué , anyway , " adding that while he got used to it , he was always " a bit nervous running around in front of 50 people with no clothes on . The sex scenes were usually with an actress I 'd just met , so it 's like : ' How 's it going ? I 'm Sullivan and this is me nude . ' It 's nerve @-@ racking at first but you have as much fun as you can with it . " = = Release = = = = = Broadcast and ratings = = = Project Dawn began broadcasting on 12 August 2011 in the United States . The first telecast at 10 pm was seen by 567 @,@ 000 viewers , while the 11 pm and midnight encores almost doubled viewership , adding 500 @,@ 000 , giving a total of nearly 1 @.@ 1 million viewers . Although Cinemax is available in 16 @.@ 7 million homes at the time of the broadcast , it was the best ratings performance for the network since a broadcast of the film Titanic in 2005 . It was also on @-@ par with the pilot of the Starz series Spartacus : Blood and Sand in 2010 , which also aired on the same timeslot . In the United Kingdom , the series began broadcast on 21 August 2011 . The first episode , airing at 9 pm was seen by a total of 616 @,@ 000 viewers , with an audience share of 2 @.@ 6 per cent . As far as overnight ratings are concerned , it performed better than the first episode of the previous series , which was seen by 398 @,@ 000 , and a 1 @.@ 7 per cent audience share . = = = Home video release = = = Project Dawn was released on both DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc , published by 2entertain , in the United Kingdom on 14 November 2011 . It was released with an " 18 " British Board of Film Classification ( BBFC ) certificate ( indicating it is unsuitable for viewers under the age of 18 years ) . Special features include Top Secrets : Making Strike Back : Project Dawn , Firearms Training and Scott Vs Igor Fight Scene featurettes , as well as broadcast titles . In the United States the series was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 7 August 2012 , with the inclusion of audio commentaries by Daniel Percival . = = Critical reactions = = = = = United States = = = The American review site Metacritic rated the series a 64 out of 100 , indicating " generally favorable reviews " from 12 critics . David Hinkley of the New York Daily News rated it four stars out of five , stating it is " a little cartoonish in the same way Seagal or Arnold Schwarzenegger action movies were cartoonish , exaggerating characters and action . But " Strike Back " also differs sharply and significantly in that the villains here aren 't the random abstract caricatures from those films , like throwback Nazis or Jamaican drug lords , " adding that the villains give the series " an added level of intensity , because we have a more visceral sense of the potential consequences . " Linda Stasi of the New York Post rated it three out of four stars , summing up the series as ; " Good action , good characters and , besides , it 's the only show in the history of TV where the term , " [ fucking prick ] " is code . I mean , you gotta love that , no ? " Aaron Riccio of Slant Magazine also rated it three out of four stars , stated " Strike Back isn 't brilliant television , but it 's plenty entertaining , and by fitting the action of 24 with the grit of The Unit ( and the nudity of Cinemax ) , it fills a .22 caliber hole in American television . " However Riccio added that the downside to the series was that " not enough time is given over to the fractious " buddy @-@ cop " relationship between the two main characters , Scott and Stonebridge , whereas quite a bit of time is spent with the villains . " Hank Stuever of The Washington Post called it " surprisingly stylish and addictive , " adding " Fans of " 24 , " which bowed last year , still ask me how to fill that void . They want just enough intelligence @-@ agency hooey to make the unbelievable seem somewhat real . Until " Strike Back , " I didn 't have a good answer . " Stuever lauded Scott and Stapleton 's portrayal , stating he is " the real find here , a thoroughly unlikable loser " who " saves the show from a dour sense of duty , " adding that Staplton " seems to have been created in a laboratory experiment that grafted Ewan McGregor 's personality and smile onto Hugh Jackman 's body — with more than adequate results . " Matt Fowler of IGN rated it seven out of ten , noting that American viewers do not have to see the first series to be caught up , but added " British fans might lament the absence of Richard Armitage 's John Porter who was the ass @-@ kicking hero of the original series . " Mike Hale of The New York Times described the series as a " variation on " 24 " that offers reasonably competent action scenes , depressingly casual depictions of torture and death , and a comic @-@ book conspiracy story line while also being an efficient nudity delivery system . " Brent MacKnight rated the series five out of ten , calling it a " decent enough action yarn with slick production values , " but was critical that the series was " more concerned with gratuitous nudity [ ... ] each episode includes a lifetime 's worth of breasts and butt cheeks – than creating a story with any substance , character , or emotional weight . " Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette was more critical of the series , stating " At first , " Strike Back " seems like a highbrow series on the order of " [ Spooks ] , " but after a few minutes it " conforms to the Skinemax nickname with a graphic sex scene , " with " multiple exclamations of the f @-@ word and bloodshed galore . " Owen summed " Strike Back shows off high production values and an intense , fast @-@ paced story reminiscent of 24 or Sleeper Cell that occasionally dips into the ridiculous [ ... ] It 's too bad the show 's graphic nature , especially the bloodshed , is so off @-@ putting as to make the series unwatchable . " = = = United Kingdom = = = After the series premiered in the United Kingdom , British critics were mixed in their reviews . Jonathan Bernstein of The Guardian gave the series a positive review , stating " It 's awesome ! Everything that 's capable of exploding explodes . What was a decent but unexceptional military action show is now Naked 24 . " Jonathan Angwin of CultBox rated it three out of five stars , called it " the body of Spooks with very little of the brains , " adding that the series is " silly , immature , shocking , but undoubtedly entertaining and certainly not boring . " Patrick Samuel of Static Mass also rated Project Dawn three out of five stars , stating that the main story was " an intriguing one with implications of a conspiracy deep within MI6 , " but was critical that the series mostly focused on Scott rather than the other main characters , the movement of the storyline , and that Scott and Stonebridge " seemed to be most inapt pair to lead missions as they blow their cover on several occasions , endangering others . " However , Samuel praised the series ' action sequences , saying that they " [ did ] not disappoint . " Paul Dean of Faded Glamour believed that Strike Back " remains pretty good at what it does — providing Sky viewers with their weekly Die Hard fix , " adding " series two won 't win any new converts , but it looks very much like it will continue to serve up the same pacey , unpretentious and unambiguous action as its predecessor . " Jack Foley of IndieLondon rated it 2 @.@ 5 out of five . Foley felt the death of Porter in the first episode was " striking " since Armitage was the " main reason for watching . " The reviewer also believed that while the first series " offered a keen mix of Spooks and 24 that expertly blended top @-@ drawer action with some emotional complexity and intrigue , " the second series " already feels inferior to both by virtue of the fact that its brains appear to lie in its pants , or blown from Porter 's head . " Keith Watson of Metro stated that Project Dawn was merely " gung @-@ ho nonsense . "
= Creek Turnpike = The Creek Turnpike , also designated State Highway 364 ( SH @-@ 364 ) , is a 33 @.@ 22 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 53 @.@ 46 km ) freeway @-@ standard toll road that lies entirely in the U.S. state of Oklahoma . The turnpike forms a partial beltway around the south and east sides of Tulsa , Oklahoma 's second largest city . The Creek Turnpike 's western terminus is at the Turner Turnpike in Sapulpa , while its northeastern terminus is at the Will Rogers Turnpike in Fair Oaks ; both ends of the Creek Turnpike connect with Interstate 44 ( I @-@ 44 ) . Along the way , the highway passes through the cities of Sapulpa , Jenks , Tulsa , and Broken Arrow , and the counties of Creek , Tulsa , Wagoner and Rogers . The road is maintained by the Oklahoma Turnpike Authority ( OTA ) , except for a brief free section shared with U.S. Route 64 ( US @-@ 64 ) and US @-@ 169 . This free section is maintained by the Oklahoma Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) . The first section of the Creek Turnpike , from US @-@ 75 in Jenks to US @-@ 64 / US @-@ 169 in Tulsa , was first authorized in 1987 , with construction beginning in 1989 . The turnpike 's construction was controversial ; homeowners along the route of the highway formed a group called Tulsans Against Turnpikes to fight the highway in both the courtroom and the media . The highway was also challenged on environmental grounds , with impacts upon wetlands and endangered species being the chief concerns . Nevertheless , the highway opened to traffic in three sections , starting from the easternmost , over the course of the first half of 1992 . Further extensions to both the east and the west followed in later years after several years of false starts under the administrations of two different governors . Expansion of the highway was finally approved in 1998 . The extension to the west , linking the Creek Turnpike to the Turner Turnpike in Sapulpa , opened December 15 , 2000 . The extension to the east opened in three parts over the course of 2001 and 2002 . = = Route description = = The Creek Turnpike begins at I @-@ 44 ( Turner Turnpike ) exit 217 in the city of Sapulpa . This interchange only provides access from eastbound I @-@ 44 to the Creek Turnpike and from the Creek Turnpike to westbound I @-@ 44 . The turnpike runs in a general southeast direction from this terminus towards the Creek – Tulsa county line , crossing over Polecat Creek . Upon crossing into Tulsa County , the toll road turns to a more easterly course . The highway enters Jenks less than one mile ( approximately 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of the county line . In Jenks , the highway has a modified cloverleaf interchange at US @-@ 75 ; the westbound Turnpike to southbound US @-@ 75 ramp is a directional ramp rather than a loop ramp . The Creek Turnpike then passes through the first of three barrier toll plazas . Near the interchange with Elm Street ( signed as " Peoria – Elm " ; Elm Street is named Peoria Avenue outside of Jenks ) , the highway bridges Polecat Creek again , before crossing the Arkansas River into Tulsa . In Tulsa , the Creek Turnpike has an interchange at Memorial Drive , which carries US @-@ 64 south of the toll road . At this interchange , Creek Turnpike traffic merges with northbound US @-@ 64 onto a free road , forming the Mingo Valley Expressway . US @-@ 169 also begins at this interchange , heading north from here toward its other end in Virginia , Minnesota . As the Mingo Valley Expressway ( carrying US @-@ 64 / US @-@ 169 ) turns north , the Creek Turnpike exits to continue southeast . The highway leaves Tulsa , entering Broken Arrow , where it crosses over Haikey Creek . The turnpike passes through the second toll plaza , then turns back east . In southeast Broken Arrow , the Creek Turnpike crosses the county line into Wagoner County and swings towards the north @-@ northeast . It then meets SH @-@ 51 , followed by the Muskogee Turnpike ( SH @-@ 351 ) near that highway 's western terminus . The Creek Turnpike passes through the third and final barrier toll after re @-@ entering Tulsa . From the toll plaza , the turnpike proceeds north to end at the I @-@ 44 / US @-@ 412 interchange , which straddles the Wagoner – Rogers County county line . The portion of the interchange that sits in Rogers County also lies in the town of Fair Oaks . The mainline Creek Turnpike becomes the Will Rogers Turnpike as eastbound I @-@ 44 merges onto the roadway . Exit numbers are absent along the Creek Turnpike until the 51st Street South interchange , which is numbered as exit 28 . Exit numbers are posted north of this interchange , continuing until the highway 's terminus ( exits 33A – B ) . The Creek Turnpike 's exit numbering is used for the final two exits on the westbound Will Rogers Turnpike — the westbound @-@ only Pine Street exit ( exit 35 ) and the westbound I @-@ 44 ramp ( exit 34 ) . The entirety of the Creek Turnpike has been recognized as important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility by its inclusion in the National Highway System . In 2011 , the highest average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) count was 26 @,@ 900 vehicles eastbound and 26 @,@ 476 vehicles westbound between the Yale Avenue and Memorial Drive interchanges . The lowest AADT counts , 4 @,@ 426 vehicles eastbound and 4 @,@ 463 vehicles westbound , were recorded between the 11th Street interchange and the northeastern terminus . Law enforcement along the Creek Turnpike is provided by Oklahoma Highway Patrol Troop XE , a special troop assigned to the turnpike . = = History = = = = = Planning for the first segment = = = As early as the late 1950s , plans for a Tulsa freeway system included a route along 96th Street South . The 96th Street corridor was accessible to more motorists than other corridors further south ( farther away from the urban core ) , while still having low right @-@ of @-@ way costs , comparable to more southerly corridors . This made it the ideal route for a south Tulsa freeway . In 1986 , ODOT had plans to build a toll @-@ free facility called the Creek Freeway in the corridor as part of SH @-@ 117 . A south Tulsa turnpike was first authorized by OTA in 1987 , the same time as three other turnpikes that would ultimately become the Cherokee , Chickasaw , and John Kilpatrick turnpikes . Eleven possible routings were researched before OTA settled on the 96th Street corridor as the site of the proposed turnpike . On February 16 , 1989 , OTA sold $ 558 @.@ 4 million in revenue bonds ( about $ 1 @.@ 36 billion in 2015 dollars ) to cover the cost of all four proposed turnpikes . As originally planned , the Creek Turnpike was to begin at US @-@ 75 and end at Memorial Drive , for a total length of 6 @.@ 9 miles ( 11 @.@ 1 km ) . ODOT would then build a $ 26 million ( approximately $ 63 million in 2015 dollars ) freeway connection from the eastern terminus of the turnpike at Memorial Drive to tie in with the south end of the Mingo Valley Expressway . OTA intended the turnpike to be built on a " fast track " , with construction to be complete by the close of 1991 . The estimated cost to construct this first segment of the Creek Turnpike was $ 85 million ( about $ 207 million in 2015 dollars ) . Initially , the highway was planned to have an 18 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) median with a Jersey barrier , which would meet minimum AASHTO requirements of 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . Later plans expanded this to a 46 @-@ foot ( 14 m ) grass median . Four toll plazas were planned , with one mainline plaza collecting a fifty @-@ cent toll no matter what distance was traveled . = = = Tulsa requests changes = = = Tulsa mayor Rodger Randle 's committee on the Creek Turnpike submitted a report to OTA on April 13 , 1989 , requesting that the agency make 47 changes to the turnpike . Among the changes proposed by the city was a shift in the route of 100 feet ( 30 m ) to the north between Yale Avenue and Sheridan Road to accommodate a greenway along both sides of the turnpike . The committee also recommended wider overpasses to accommodate future expansion of surface streets such as Delaware Avenue , moving the mainline toll plaza farther east to minimize impact on the surrounding area , and better compliance with local flood prevention ordinances . In addition , the report suggested better pedestrian access , including pedestrian bridges on both sides of the Arkansas River and near Hunter Park , and various sidewalks and pedestrian tunnels . OTA immediately agreed that some of the more minor changes to the turnpike 's plans could be made , but expressed doubt that more major alterations would be made . Several of the proposed changes , including the greenway , were highlighted as major expenses . Nonetheless , OTA agreed to evaluate the city 's proposals . Board member ( and future Tulsa mayor ) Dewey F. Bartlett , Jr . , said " We are not set in stone , but it 's a matter of economics . " Mayor Randle stated his desire for a written agreement regarding the changes to be drawn up and signed by the city and OTA before ground was broken on the turnpike . On June 18 , 1989 , OTA officials announced that the majority of the city 's proposed amendments to the Creek Turnpike would be incorporated into the design . The alterations added $ 6 million ( about $ 15 million in 2015 dollars ) to the cost of the project . However , the revised plan required the demolition of only 41 houses , six fewer than originally planned . Further alterations were negotiated throughout the latter half of 1989 , with OTA and Tulsa reaching an agreement on December 29 . The plans were adapted to include flood and noise control provisions . To meet these requirements , the highway would be lowered , with some sections below @-@ grade . In exchange , the City of Tulsa agreed to pay $ 1 @.@ 3 million in annual maintenance costs until 2020 . The deal also included a land swap , with the city giving OTA land from Hunter Park and receiving land along the right @-@ of @-@ way to construct recreational trails . = = = Construction = = = OTA began filing condemnation suits for homes within the Creek Turnpike 's proposed right @-@ of @-@ way on June 30 , 1989 . Condemnation , the process by which a government exercises its powers of eminent domain , was required for OTA to seize properties necessary for the project when owners refused OTA buyout offers . Bids were opened for Creek Turnpike construction projects that November . Contracts for utility relocation , grading , and drainage work were awarded at OTA 's November 16 meeting . Meanwhile , work began on the condemned properties , with contractors moving or demolishing houses on the affected lots from December 1989 to January 1990 . Drainage work was in progress by late February 1990 . Construction was underway on turnpike bridges by March 1990 . While federal environmental permits were being secured , the construction process was delayed ; by October 1990 , the bridge construction was only at the point that had been planned to have been completed in May , and grading and paving work had yet to begin . In December 1990 , contractors on the Creek Turnpike project were given " notice to proceed " , as the permits had been granted . By that time , construction had only progressed to the point that it was supposed to have been at in late July . Nevertheless , by April 1991 , OTA 's chief executive officer , Richard Ridings , described the project as " moving very well " and said " My own personal opinion is it 's up to the contractors . If they want to produce , it can be open by the end of the year . " The first section of the Creek Turnpike to open was a 3 @.@ 6 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 8 km ) segment from Delaware Avenue to its eastern terminus at Memorial Drive , which opened to traffic at 7 p.m. on March 13 , 1992 . Tolls were waived until 12 : 01 a.m. on March 16 . The next section to the west , from Elm Street in Jenks to Delaware Avenue , including the Arkansas River bridge , opened the afternoon of April 15 . The final leg of the first segment of the turnpike , from US @-@ 75 to Elm Street , opened at noon on July 30 . The Creek Turnpike was initially posted with a 55 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 89 km / h ) speed limit , due to the National Maximum Speed Limit law then in effect . Traffic levels on the new highway were about double what was expected , with an average of 9 @,@ 000 vehicles per day using the turnpike in August 1992 ; a 1988 estimate predicted only 3 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 vehicles would use the road each day . = = = Opposition = = = The Creek Turnpike was opposed by area residents from its conception . Forming a group called " Tulsans Against Turnpikes " , around 220 citizens gathered at a meeting on February 16 , 1989 , to discuss the proposed toll road . Opponents to the turnpike cited detrimental effects to their community and to the environment as their concerns . " What I am concerned about is that it changes the complexion of south Tulsa . It would no longer be a residential area , " said Tom Taylor , an area resident . Some residents also complained that the proposed turnpike would mainly serve through traffic , despite OTA estimates that south Tulsa residents would make up 90 % of the road 's userbase . On March 22 , 1989 , three Will Rogers Turnpike tollbooth attendants made a surprise appearance at a Tulsans Against Turnpikes press conference to offer support to the opposition movement , expressing dissatisfaction with working conditions while manning the turnpike . The three attendants also gave examples of firsthand experience with turnpike customers that had convinced them that motorists were not as supportive of turnpikes as OTA executives believed . OTA responded to their employees ' remarks by highlighting an Occupational Safety and Health Administration study that found that the toll gate that the three attendants worked at met all safety standards . In late June 1989 , opponents of the turnpike boycotted local businesses that were members of the Metropolitan Tulsa Chamber of Commerce , which was in favor of the turnpike . Some turnpike protesters removed their names from the customer list at Mazzio 's Italian Eatery on June 23 . On June 24 , about forty protesters picketed the Bank of Oklahoma , and around six closed their accounts . The chief executives of both businesses were on the board of the Chamber of Commerce . In response to the boycott , Mayor Randle issued a statement accusing Tulsans Against Turnpikes of " seeking to wage economic coercion against businesses " and described their tactics as " [ working ] as a kind of economic blackmail to silence debate " , as well as " allowing differences of opinion to degenerate into intimidation against those who have taken public stands unpopular with [ Tulsans Against Turnpikes ] " . Randle also canceled a planned meeting with the group , refusing to meet with them until they ceased the boycott . A Tulsans Against Turnpikes board member publicly replied to the mayor 's statement by denying that a boycott was taking place , stating that the group only recommended that members not do business with Mazzio 's and Bank of Oklahoma because of their support for the Creek Turnpike project via their activity with the Chamber of Commerce . He also suggested that Randle was simply looking for an excuse to avoid the meeting . The environmental group Greenpeace became involved with the opposition movement in October 1989 . Holding a joint rally with Tulsans Against Turnpikes and several environmental groups at Hunter Park , a Greenpeace spokeswoman said on October 20 that the Creek Turnpike 's construction " will be setting up Oklahoma as a hazardous waste dumping ground " . Greenpeace 's regional coordinator was scheduled to speak at an area library on the same day , but his appearance was canceled when the organization 's bus ran out of fuel . A local resident at the Hunter Park forum was quoted as being concerned that the turnpike may allow eastern states such as New York to ship AIDS @-@ contaminated freight through the area . In November 1989 , Jenks resident Gary Medlin and two Jenks city councilmen drafted a letter to OTA requesting that the agency cease all work on the Creek Turnpike . The letter was approved by the Jenks City Council on November 20 . The letter also included a petition in opposition to the turnpike with over 1 @,@ 000 signatures . A grand jury petition , bearing over 1 @,@ 400 signatures across 134 pages , was filed with the Tulsa County election board by Medlin on November 6 , 1989 . The petition alleged that local and state officials violated the state 's open meetings , conspiracy , and conflict of interest laws while planning the turnpike . The election board certified the petition as meeting the required threshold of 1 @,@ 000 signatures on December 15 . Work on the turnpike continued despite the investigation . After meeting for seven days , on January 19 , 1990 , the grand jury determined that there was no evidence to support the allegations and no need for further investigation . Some protesters resorted to illegal means to demonstrate their opposition to the project . In December 1989 , trees and shrubbery on condemned lots were destroyed in an attempt to prevent them from being transplanted by landscapers . A field office belonging to M.J. Lee Construction Co . , a contractor working on the project , was burglarized on March 4 , 1990 . The perpetrators stole or destroyed tools and poured oil on planning documents . A week later , the fuel lines on heavy equipment were slashed . On the night of April 26 , several vehicles at a Creek Turnpike worksite belonging to M.J. Lee were vandalized ; the vandals smashed windshields and headlights , stole fuel caps , and dumped mud into the fuel tanks . Messages reading " Death to OTA " , " Death to [ Governor Henry ] Bellmon " and " Death to Bartlett " ( who had recently also become a Tulsa city councilman ) were written in mud on the side of a water truck at the site . The vice president of the firm emphasized that the company alone bore the brunt of the estimated $ 10 @,@ 000 ( $ 17 @,@ 900 in 2015 dollars ) financial loss , not OTA , and offered a $ 1 @,@ 000 reward for information leading to the prosecution of the responsible party . Construction signage was also removed or covered up with Tulsans Against Turnpikes signs , and survey markers were relocated . Tulsans Against Turnpikes publicly condemned the vandalism , offering an additional $ 500 reward for information . A member of the group 's board stated " We deplore this kind of cowardly , illegal action . There is no reason for some sick person to take out frustrations on the contractor [ ... ] . " In response to the vandalism , Tulsa police launched an investigation , and OTA stated that Oklahoma Highway Patrol officers would be on patrol in the construction areas . On August 11 , 1990 , a contractor arriving for work discovered a vandal attempting to break the window of a crane . As the employee approached the crane , four people fled the scene . The employee was able to detain two of them , both aged eighteen , until police arrived and cited them for misdemeanor malicious mischief . = = = = Lawsuit = = = = The Oklahoma Turnpike Authority was exempt from requirements to have a federal environmental impact study ( EIS ) conducted on the Creek Turnpike project . As part of their opposition to the turnpike , Tulsans Against Turnpikes challenged this right . The group announced in April 1989 that if the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , U.S. Department of Transportation ( USDOT ) , and U.S. Department of Defense ( DOD ) did not force OTA to conduct an EIS within 60 days they would sue the three federal agencies . Tulsans Against Turnpikes , joined by an area homeowners ' association , John Reidel ( a homeowner whose property was condemned by OTA and had filed previous suits as early as the 1950s to stop the turnpike 's construction ) , and several other affected individuals , filed the suit in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Oklahoma on August 10 . Defendants in the suit included the federal agencies , state transportation and environmental agencies , and the city of Tulsa . That November , Tulsans Against Turnpikes filed a motion requesting an injunction against further work on the turnpike . On January 27 , 1990 , U.S. District Judge Thomas Rutherford Brett dismissed seven of the nine claims before him , and on March 24 , the plaintiffs filed a motion to drop the two remaining claims in hopes that the judge would reconsider the claims already dismissed . The plaintiffs also filed for a restraining order to halt construction activities . In support of their filings , the turnpike opponents alleged that OTA was illegally dumping material into waterways . OTA responded by producing U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) documentation showing that no illegal discharge had taken place , and that USACE had not issued any cease and desist orders due to unlawful activity . OTA argued that the plaintiffs ' requests for a restraining order and reconsideration of the dismissed claims were invalid because there was no change in their legal authority or the facts surrounding the case to warrant such a reconsideration . At a hearing on May 22 , 1990 , Judge Brett announced his refusal to reconsider the seven dismissed claims , ending the lawsuit , and ruled all remaining pending motions moot . At the hearing , Brett said that the issue at the heart of the suit was the highway 's effect on area residents . While this was a legitimate interest , the judge said , it was not covered by the environmental laws under which the plaintiffs chose to challenge the project . Brett also pointed out that the environmental questions were at that time under review by the appropriate federal agencies . = = = Environmental concerns = = = Initial turnpike plans included environmental mitigation features to reduce the amount of disruption the finished road would cause to the local environment . In the Jenks area , OTA planned to replace destroyed wetlands with new wetlands of equal or greater size . Landscapers were expected to plant two trees for every one removed to build the road . In March 1990 , these plans were augmented to provide wetlands mitigation at a rate of three to one , for a total of 45 acres ( 18 ha ) of new wetlands . Additionally , 25 acres ( 10 ha ) of pasture would be allowed to revert to its natural state to create " dedicated natural succession areas . " On July 21 , 1989 , OTA approved a contract to transplant approximately 290 live trees in the path of the turnpike to locations along the edge of the right @-@ of @-@ way . There , the trees would serve as a barrier between the road and the surrounding properties , masking the road from view and muffling the sounds of traffic . A Norman landscaping firm performed the work , which included thirty months of maintenance , for a total cost of $ 288 @.@ 50 per tree ( $ 544 @.@ 19 in 2013 dollars ) . The Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) objected to the construction of the Creek Turnpike in a letter dated January 30 , 1990 . FEMA felt that documentation on how the project would affect the floodplains in the area was lacking , preventing local authorities from requesting updates to floodplain maps , which were necessary to keep their communities enrolled in flood insurance programs . OTA 's attorney stated that the requisite information had been provided to local officials , and it was not OTA 's responsibility to ensure that they forwarded the information on to FEMA . A Tulsa @-@ area supervisor with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( FWS ) commented upon environmental issues pertaining to the Creek Turnpike in a 19 @-@ page letter to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers dated February 9 , 1990 . USACE was responsible for issuing three essential permits ( which OTA had applied for on November 6 , 1989 ) that would allow construction to continue , and was required to consider input from the service . In the letter , supervisor Stephen Forsythe recommended that the permits be denied and further studies conducted into alternate routes for the turnpike and the environmental impact on roads that connected to the turnpike . However , USACE only had the authority to review the impacts the Creek Turnpike itself made on wetland areas . Governor Bellmon publicly criticized Forsythe for focusing on concerns beyond USACE 's jurisdiction . Bellmon 's Transportation Secretary , Neal McCaleb , publicly stated " I think [ Forsythe ] is out of line [ ... ] and would say so to Mr. Forsythe . " Bellmon and McCaleb discussed the letter in a private meeting with the Secretary of the Interior , Manuel Lujan , although Lujan neither commented nor committed to any action regarding the letter . In response to Bellmon 's criticism of the letter , Tulsans Against Turnpikes issued a public statement , saying " Running behind closed political doors like that demonstrates the governor is an environmental hypocrite , " contrasting his statements with a letter he wrote assuring a constituent in Jenks that the project would be " the most aesthetically pleasing and environmentally sound facility that can be constructed " . In a letter sent to OTA in March 1990 , USACE identified issues with the Creek Turnpike project , such as modifications to Polecat Creek 's channel , impacts on the Arkansas River floodplain and levee system near Jenks , and loss of 14 @.@ 8 acres ( 6 @.@ 0 ha ) of wetlands . In two other letters sent in May 1990 , USACE requested alterations to the project , detailing further concerns about destruction of a unique type of wetland near the turnpike 's planned intersection with Yale Avenue , OTA 's plan to temporarily drain Mill Creek Bridge Pond , and emergency access to homes only accessible by crossing the pond on a wooden bridge . USACE warned that , should the changes the corps requested not be made , the turnpike plans may violate federal law , which would result in USACE withholding the necessary permits . The corps also required " absolute assurance " that new wetlands constructed as part of the project 's mitigation efforts would not be built on land that was formerly the site of a landfill . On March 29 , USACE held a public hearing as part of the permit process . The hearing had around 500 attendees , with over fifty of them giving five @-@ minute speeches against the turnpike . One speaker compared the highway 's environmental impact to that of the wreck of the oil tanker Exxon Valdez . No citizens spoke out in favor of the project . OTA announced plans to include sound barriers at three points along the turnpike in April 1990 . The locations were recommended by a report commissioned by OTA , using guidelines published by the Federal Highway Administration ( FHWA ) . While another thirteen locations were likely to have similar noise levels as the three sites selected to receive barriers , abatement was not considered at those locations because they did not meet other criteria , including minimum population density . Although OTA was not required to follow FHWA guidelines on the Creek Turnpike because it was not a federally funded project , it opted to do so anyway . Another letter , dated June 21 , 1990 , was sent by FWS to USACE , reporting that at least eight interior least terns , an endangered species , had been found on a small island in the Arkansas River approximately 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) south of the site of the proposed turnpike bridge . Although the bridge was not yet under construction at the time , the anticipated eighteen @-@ month period of bridge construction had the possibility of interfering with the terns ' nesting period , which runs from mid @-@ May to mid @-@ August . FWS was also in favor of requiring OTA to prepare a full EIS , a process that could have taken up to three years . Further delays on the Creek Turnpike project appeared inevitable in October 1990 , as a new area meeting the federal definition of a wetland was discovered in the path of the turnpike . OTA officials did not bring the area to USACE 's attention because they did not believe it met the criteria to be considered a wetland . Frustration mounted after the find ; rumors surfaced that OTA was considering canceling the Creek Turnpike and shifting the remaining funds to turnpike projects in the Oklahoma City area . In an interview after an OTA meeting , chairman John Kilpatrick was quoted as saying " God only knows when [ the Creek Turnpike will ] be completed , " describing the project as a " total disaster " and commenting " If we had it all to do over again , we wouldn 't do that project . " OTA was concerned about the financial impact of USACE 's delay in issuing the required permits ; each day after the planned opening date that the project ran late added $ 20 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 47 thousand in 2015 dollars ) to the total cost of the project . USACE finally issued the permit on November 15 , over a year after OTA applied for it . One stipulation the USACE placed on the permit , however , was that no work in the Arkansas riverbed could take place after May 1 if it would interfere with the interior least tern nesting period , which was possible if the birds selected nesting sites around the bridge site . As a result , OTA worked to complete the bridge as quickly as possible to avoid the possibility of having to suspend the construction . By April 1991 , work in the riverbed was mostly complete , with the remaining work on the bridge posing no threat to the terns . = = = Extensions = = = The possibility of extending the Creek Turnpike beyond its original termini at US @-@ 75 and Memorial Drive was raised as early as 1993 . On May 28 , 1993 , Governor David Walters announced a proposed $ 3 @.@ 1 billion ( around $ 6 @.@ 5 billion in 2015 dollars ) turnpike package , one part of which was the extension of the Creek Turnpike to the Turner Turnpike to the west and the Will Rogers Turnpike in the east . As a result of negotiations between Walters , other lawmakers , and OTA , the package was ultimately pared down to $ 675 million ( about $ 1 @.@ 36 billion in 2015 dollars ) ; among the cuts was the eastern extension of the Creek Turnpike . This version of the package was approved by OTA on August 18 , 1994 . The package was ultimately killed almost two months later , when the Legislative Bond Oversight Commission voted 4 – 2 to stop the sale of the bonds associated with the project on October 3 . Reasons for opposition to the package were varied , including concerns over OTA 's debt level , toll increases necessary to fund the package , the state of the bond market , a federal investigation examining previous OTA bond sales , lack of details given about the package , the size of the package , and the proposed method by which the bonds would be sold . Another Creek Turnpike expansion proposal , connecting it again to the Turner Turnpike in the west , but only extending it as far as the Muskogee Turnpike in the east , was put forward by Walters 's successor , Governor Frank Keating , in 1996 . This proposal , accompanied by a proposed extension to the Kilpatrick Turnpike in Oklahoma City , was to be funded by increasing tolls by 10 percent statewide in 1999 . Keating 's turnpike package , too , encountered trouble from the Legislative Bond Oversight Commission . The body unanimously voted on July 25 , 1996 , to postpone an up @-@ or @-@ down vote on the projects , which together carried a price tag of $ 525 million ( approximately $ 975 million in 2015 dollars ) , until more information was made available to its members . Keating declared the package dead in response to the commission 's action . The Creek Turnpike extensions resurfaced in a 1998 turnpike expansion plan . OTA approved a $ 724 million ( about $ 1 @.@ 23 billion in 2015 dollars ) bond package at its meeting on January 9 , 1998 . This package , which carried the support of both Governor Keating and legislative leaders , included a 25 @.@ 9 @-@ mile ( 41 @.@ 7 km ) extension of the Creek Turnpike to the Turner and Will Rogers turnpikes , extension of the Kilpatrick Turnpike , and a new toll road which would become the H.E. Bailey Turnpike Norman Spur . The plan , which was to be funded by a 15 % systemwide toll increase , was approved by both the Legislative Bond Oversight Commission and Executive Bond Oversight Commission on January 29 , 1998 . Construction of the portion of the highway between the eastern terminus and the Muskogee Turnpike , known as the Broken Arrow south loop , was scheduled to begin in May 1999 and be completed in January 2001 . The section from the Muskogee Turnpike north to the Will Rogers Turnpike was to begin construction in September 1999 and be completed in January 2002 . Unlike the section of the turnpike built in the early 1990s , this section was expected to displace few residents ; the city of Broken Arrow had purchased much of the right @-@ of @-@ way ahead of time to preserve the corridor for the expected turnpike . While construction of the other two sections of the turnpike ran according to schedule , progress on the Broken Arrow south loop lagged behind . Cost overruns due to higher @-@ than @-@ estimated land acquisition costs caused delays as the project was revised to save money . The project was stalled further by the May 3 , 1999 , tornado outbreak , as utility contractors were pulled off the project to contribute to service restoration efforts in the Oklahoma City area . By August 1999 , the south loop was six months behind schedule . Despite the cost @-@ saving measures , the south loop remained over budget by $ 16 million ( around $ 24 @.@ 5 million in 2015 dollars ) in July 2000 . The western extension was also over budget ; OTA discovered over 100 abandoned oil wells that needed to be capped and leftover piping in the turnpike corridor . Budget overruns on the western leg of the turnpike were $ 5 million ( about $ 7 @.@ 7 million in 2015 dollars ) in July 2000 . The western extension was the first to open to traffic . Following a brief dedication ceremony attended by Governor Keating , Transportation Secretary McCaleb , and OTA board member Bartlett , the highway opened on December 15 , 2000 . As with the first section of the turnpike , tolls were waived for the weekend ; the road was free until noon on December 18 . The south loop was opened in two segments . The first , from US @-@ 64 / US @-@ 169 to South Elm Place in Broken Arrow , opened at 3 p.m. August 15 , 2001 . The new segment remained toll @-@ free until 7 a.m. August 20 . A rainy September pushed back the opening of the other half of the south loop by two months . The second half of the south loop , from Elm Place to New Orleans Street , opened at 2 p.m. April 15 , 2002 . The final segment of the extension , connecting New Orleans Street and the Muskogee Turnpike to the Will Rogers Turnpike , was scheduled to open on August 16 of that year . = = = Later history = = = A new interchange at Aspen Avenue in Broken Arrow opened on May 18 , 2012 . The project was completed three weeks ahead of schedule at a cost of $ 6 @.@ 137 million , of which $ 1 @.@ 75 million was paid by OTA , with the rest coming from the City of Broken Arrow . The new interchange was expected to attract retail , dining , and entertainment development to the area around the interchange . A construction project that started in May 2012 expanded the turnpike to six lanes total , or three lanes in each direction , between US @-@ 75 and Memorial Drive . Throughout the project , speed limits along the turnpike were reduced to 55 miles per hour ( 89 km / h ) . The project was completed in October 2013 . The Creek Turnpike originally bore no numbered designation . On March 10 , 2014 , the Oklahoma Transportation Commission unanimously approved a motion to apply the SH @-@ 364 designation to the turnpike . = = Tolls = = As of 2011 , motorists driving two @-@ axle vehicles , such as cars and motorcycles , pay tolls of $ 2 @.@ 80 in cash , or $ 2 @.@ 60 if Pikepass electronic tolling is used , to drive the entire length of the Creek Turnpike . Drivers of vehicles with more than two axles , such as truckers , pay higher tolls ; six @-@ axle vehicles are charged rates of $ 11 @.@ 50 ( $ 10 @.@ 65 with Pikepass ) . Tolls are collected at three mainline toll plazas along the road , one between the US @-@ 75 and Peoria – Elm interchanges , one west of the Olive Avenue interchange , and one ( labeled as the Creek East plaza ) south of the 31st Street South interchange . Additional fares for traveling beyond the barrier tolls are collected at toll gates located at each exit ; as at the mainline plazas , Pikepass customers receive a discounted rate at these gates . The Creek Turnpike is equipped with open @-@ road tolling for Pikepass customers . The turnpike has been completely automated since early 1996 ; no human toll collectors are present . Cash customers pull to the right and deposit coins into toll baskets . Change machines capable of changing $ 1 and $ 5 bills are available , as well as machines that produce receipts for customers requiring them . = = Exit list = =
= United States v. Alvarez = United States v. Alvarez , 567 U.S. _ _ _ ( 2012 ) , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court struck down the Stolen Valor Act , a federal law that criminalized false statements about having a military medal . The law had been passed as an effort to stem instances where people falsely claimed to have won the medal in an attempt to protect the " valor " of those who really had . While a 6 @-@ 3 majority of the Supreme Court agreed that the law was unconstitutional under the First Amendment 's free speech protections , it could not agree on a single rationale . Four justices concluded that a statement 's falsity is not enough , by itself , to exclude speech from First Amendment protection . Another two justices concluded that while false statements were entitled to some protection , the Stolen Valor Act was invalid because it could have achieved its objectives in less restrictive ways . Veteran organizations and politicians reacted negatively . Several months after the decision , both chambers of Congress passed new versions of the Stolen Valor Act based on the suggestions in the Court 's opinion . Despite the Supreme Court having struck down the conviction under the Act , Alvarez remained in prison for fraud on other matters . = = Background = = = = = Stolen Valor Act = = = President George W. Bush signed the Stolen Valor Act of 2005 , ( 18 U.S.C. § 704 ) , into law on December 20 , 2006 . The Act broadens previous provisions addressing the unauthorized wear , manufacture , or sale of any military decorations and medals by making it a misdemeanor to falsely represent oneself as having received any U.S. military decoration or medal . If convicted , defendants may be imprisoned for up to six months , unless the decoration lied about is the Medal of Honor , in which case imprisonment could be up to one year . Proponents in Congress argued that the law was passed to prevent impostors from " stealing the valor " of soldiers returning from engagements in Iraq and Afghanistan . = = = Alvarez 's statements = = = In 2007 at a Three Valley Water District Board meeting in Claremont , California , new member Xavier Alvarez introduced himself by saying " I 'm a retired Marine of 25 years . I retired in the year 2001 . Back in 1987 , I was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor . I got wounded many times by the same guy . " As this statement was not true , Alvarez was indicted for violating the Stolen Valor Act . The United States District Court for the Central District of California , the place where the trial was to occur , rejected Alvarez 's claim that the Act was unconstitutional . This decision was reversed by a three @-@ judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit which held the law invalid . Rehearing by the entire panel of the Ninth Circuit ( instead of just the three judges ) was denied over the dissent of seven judges . Judge Smith , one of the dissenters , argued that the panel " incorrectly rested its laurels on Supreme Court rulings in defamation cases that false facts did not receive First Amendment protections . " Smith argued that this was not a defamation case , because even if the act was intended to prevent injury to military personnel , " [ t ] he right against defamation belongs to natural persons , not to governmental institutions or symbols . " The government appealed the Ninth Circuit 's decision , which was subsequently granted by the Supreme Court in 2011 . = = Supreme Court oral arguments = = The Supreme Court heard oral argument on February 22 , 2012 . Donald Verrilli , Jr . , Solicitor General of the United States , appeared on behalf of the United States . Jonathan D. Libby , Deputy Federal Public Defender , appeared on behalf of Alvarez . Verrilli spoke first ; he began by explaining that military honors touch on the core values of the armed forces , and the Stolen Valor Act simply aims to protect those core values . Almost immediately Justice Sonia Sotomayor asked Verrilli a hypothetical : During the Vietnam War , a protester holds up a sign that says , " I won a Purple Heart – for killing babies . " Knowing statement . He didn 't win the Purple Heart . As a reader , I can 't be sure whether he did and is a combat veteran who opposes the war , or whether he 's a citizen protesting the war . Is that person , if he 's not a veteran , having received the medal , is he liable under this act ? Verrilli responded by suggesting that such an act would be covered by the Act only if it were " reasonably understood by the audience as a statement of fact or as an exercise in political theater . " The questions during Verrilli 's argument focused on the lack of injury caused by false claims of military honors . In nearly all the cases that the United States cited to support the proposition that there is no First Amendment value in falsity , the Court had addressed a false statement that harmed another , such as a defamatory statement . Relying on these cases , Verrilli stated , " [ T ] his Court has said in numerous contexts , numerous contexts , that the calculated factual falsehood has no First Amendment value for its own sake . " Justice Anthony Kennedy immediately retorted : Well , I 'm – I 'm not sure that that 's quite correct . It has said it often , but always in context where it is well understood that speech can injure .... You think there 's no value to falsity . But I – I simply can 't find that in our cases , and I – I think it 's a sweeping proposition to say that there 's no value to falsity . Falsity is a way in which we contrast what is false and what is true . Libby opened the defense argument by emphasizing that the First Amendment is intended to protect personal autonomy . In response to several questions , Libby played on the Court 's discontent with the apparent lack of harm by stating that there is value in falsity " so long as it doesn 't cause imminent harm to another person or imminent harm to a government function . " Libby stumbled in the Court 's estimation , however , when he conceded that the Act did not chill any truthful speech . In response , Justice Kagan stated , " So , boy , I mean , that 's a big concession , Mr. Libby . Then you 're saying , you can only win this case if this Court decides that the Gertz statement was a kind of overstatement , an exaggeration , puffery . " = = Supreme Court 's decision = = On June 28 , 2012 , a divided Supreme Court held that the Stolen Valor Act 's prohibition against making false statements of having been awarded a military medal violated the First Amendment . However , the six justices in the majority could not agree on a single rationale for the decision . = = = Kennedy 's plurality opinion = = = Justice Anthony Kennedy , writing for a plurality consisting of himself , Chief Justice John Roberts , Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg , and Justice Sonia Sotomayor , wrote that false statements are not , by the sole reason of their falsity , excluded from First Amendment protection . " The Court has never endorsed the categorical rule the Government advances , " Kennedy wrote . " Our prior decisions have not confronted a measure , like the Stolen Valor Act , that targets falsity and nothing more . " Even though there are several examples of the use of penalizing false speech ( like perjury ) , Kennedy argued that " [ t ] he Government has not demonstrated that false statements generally should constitute a new category of unprotected speech ... " The plurality opinion also expressed the wide applicability of the Stolen Valor Act . " The Act by its plain terms , " Kennedy wrote , " applies to a false statement made at any time , in any place , to any person " . Such breadth means that the law is " sweeping ... [ the ] reach of the statute puts it in conflict with the First Amendment ... the statute would apply with equal force to personal , whispered conversations within a home . " When balanced against the Government 's need to protect the value of the Medal , the plurality said that " the link between the Government 's interest in protecting the integrity of the military honors system and the Act 's restriction on the false claims of liars like respondent has not been shown . " Additionally , Kennedy wrote that ' counter @-@ speech ' was a sufficient solution to the problem : " It is a fair assumption that any true holders of the Medal who had heard of Alvarez 's false claims would have been fully vindicated by the community 's expression of outrage ... Truth needs neither handcuffs nor a badge for its vindication . " Wrote Kennedy : " Permitting the government to decree this speech to be a criminal offense , whether shouted from the rooftops or made in a barely audible whisper , would endorse government authority to compile a list of subjects about which false statements are punishable . That governmental power has no clear limiting principal . Our constitutional tradition stands against the idea that we need Oceania ’ s Ministry of Truth , " invoking George Orwell 's novel 1984 . = = = Breyer 's concurrence = = = Justice Stephen Breyer , joined by Justice Elena Kagan , agreed that the Stolen Valor Act was unconstitutional , but on entirely different grounds . Breyer based his finding not on a strict scrutiny test that the plurality had used , but on a " proportionality " or " intermediate scrutiny test " . This test examines " whether the statute works speech @-@ related harm that is out of proportion to its justifications . " After holding that Congress could create a database of those who had won the Medal , among other alternatives to the existing law , Breyer said that there were lesser restrictive means to achieve the government 's interest . = = = Alito 's dissent = = = Justice Samuel Alito , joined by Justices Antonin Scalia and Clarence Thomas , dissented from the Court 's decision striking down the Act . For Alito , the ruling had " [ broken ] sharply from a long line of cases recognizing that the right to free speech does not protect false factual statements that inflict real harm and serve no legitimate interest . " " The Stolen Valor Act , " Alito wrote , " represents the judgment of the people 's elected representatives that false statements about military awards are very different from false statements about civilian awards ... [ the Act ] is a narrow law enacted to address an important problem , and it presents no threat to freedom of expression . " = = Subsequent developments = = = = = Reaction = = = The decision received praise on constitutional grounds from across the political spectrum . The First Amendment Center called the decision " a victory for free speech and common sense . " The conservative Daily Caller described it as a " clear cut case " and found it disturbing that three justice who have traditionally represented themselves as constitutional originalists " had in fact dissented from protecting free speech . Several veterans organizations leaders were dismayed by the decision . A spokesperson for the Veterans of Foreign Wars said " Despite the ruling , the VFW will continue to challenge far @-@ fetched stories , and to publicize these false heroes to the broadest extent possible as a deterrent to others . ” Harold A. Fritz , a recipient of the medal from the Vietnam War agreed with the VFW that " It ’ s more than just a piece of metal suspended on a piece of cloth on a pin . . . . And people who abuse that . . . need to be penalized . " Proponents of the Stolen Valor Act promised to bring forward more limited legislation in the future . The American Legion expressed hope that a narrower law would survive constitutional scrutiny . " We felt good about portions of the decision which suggest that a more narrowly tailored bill which incorporates traditional fraud elements would be upheld , " says Fang Wong , national commander of the American Legion . Alvarez 's attorney praised the decision , saying " The First Amendment protects a lot of what we as Americans get to say ... The government doesn 't get to decide what we can and cannot say . ” = = = Aftermath = = = Alvarez remained in legal trouble due to allegations that he defrauded the government by falsely receiving health insurance benefits . He was convicted of misappropriation of public funds , grand theft , and insurance fraud in 2009 and sentenced to five years in state prison , and was discharged in March 2012 from Calipatria State Prison . = = = Revised Stolen Valor Act = = = In 2012 , an effort was initiated to revise the Stolen Valor Act to comply with the Supreme Court 's decision . This resulted in passage and signing of the Stolen Valor Act of 2013 . In addition to a wrongful claim of receiving one of the listed military awards , intent to gain some benefit or something of value by fraud was required .
= Archie vs. Predator = Archie vs. Predator is a four @-@ issue limited series comic book and intercompany crossover written by Alex de Campi , drawn by Fernando Ruiz . It was published in the United States by Dark Horse Comics and Archie Comics in 2015 . The single issues were released between April and July , and a hardcover collection went on sale in November . Following in a long tradition of all @-@ American teenager Archie Andrews meeting unusual celebrities and pop culture icons , this comic shows him meeting the galaxy 's deadliest hunter , the Predator . The idea was first suggested in the Archie office and then proposed to Dark Horse , who holds the license to the Predator character . The companies paired de Campi , a horror writer at Dark Horse , with Ruiz , a regular Archie artist . When the comic was announced , many media outlets noted in their headlines that the new title was not a joke . The book received positive review from critics , who enjoyed the strange matchup and dark humor . The miniseries was the bestselling book for both publishers during its release and won a Ghastly Award for Best Limited Series . = = Publication history = = = = = Development = = = Following the success of the Archie meets Glee and Archie meets KISS , the Archie Creative Summit held in March 2014 included a brainstorming session for new crossovers . Godzilla and Friday the 13th were considered , but the Predator received the most support . Fernando Ruiz , who was later chosen to draw the comic , was present at the summit and liked the premise , but did not believe it would actually be made . After Archie proposed the crossover , Dark Horse approached Alex de Campi to write based on her work on the horror comic Grindhouse . The project was originally title Archie meets Predator , but it was changed to vs. because the people involved in production kept calling it that unintentionally , and to parody the Alien vs. Predator franchise . To prepare for the project , de Campi read over 4000 pages of Archie comics . She drew inspiration for the story from the 1940s era of Archie , when Betty and Veronica had " more edge . " Her scripts were subject to notes and tweaks from Archie and Fox , but de Campi described both licensors as " extremely mellow , pleasant and easy to work with . " She expected some of the notes , such as being told “ Alex , you can 't make jokes about child predation in an Archie book ” . Other times , she was surprised when she did not receive notes , like her use of Emojis for the Predator 's speech . In one case , editorial pushback led her to rewrite a story arc , and she was much happier with the final version . She was pleased when she got to add depth to Dilton Doiley , a character she feels is often overlooked in regular Archie comics . Archie Comics and Dark Horse Comics jointly announced Archie vs. Predator and the creative team at the 2014 New York Comic Con. Soon after , many media outlets carrying the news used a headline indicating it was not a joke . Series editor Brendan Wright described it as his " most nutso project , " and Jon Goldwater , Archie Comics Publisher and Co @-@ CEO , said the comic followed the tradition of other unusual crossovers like Archie Meets the Punisher . = = = Publication = = = A promotional minicomic was released a couple months prior to the first issue . It featured eight pages from the first issue and some of Ruiz 's character designs , including some of his initial , more lifelike Predator sketches . The four issues were published monthly beginning April 15 , 2015 and ending July 22 , 2015 . Each issue included a one @-@ page , humorous bonus strip written by de Campi featuring crossovers of other Archie and Dark Horse characters : Sabrina Meets Hellboy ( art by Robert Hack ) , little Mask and his pals ( art by Art Baltazar ) , Jughead Meets MIND MGMT : " S " is for Sleeper ( art by Matt Kindt ) , and Josie and the Pussycats Meet Finder ( art by Carla Speed McNeil ) . A 128 @-@ page hardcover collecting the series was released November 4 , 2015 . = = Plot = = Archie and his friends take a Spring Break trip to Los Perdidos Resort , and a Predator touches down in a nearby jungle . Betty discovers an ancient Colombian shrine and attracts the attention of the Predator , who follows her home to Riverdale . The Predator attacks , targeting Veronica and killing several people . Kevin Keller , a friend with military experience , organizes and protects Archie and his friends . Betty takes a picture of the creature and Kevin 's father , a US Military General , identifies it as a teenager from a race of nearly unstoppable alien hunters . Jughead is used as bait to lure the Predator , but the trap fails and the Predator kills the majority of the kids . Jughead regroups with his remaining friends . Some members of the group decide to split up in hopes the Predator will continue to pursue Veronica , allowing them to escape . Dilton , Archie , Betty , Veronica , and Jughead stay behind . The Predator attacks again , killing Dilton and Jughead and critically wounding Archie . Betty and Veronica take refuge at Lodge Manor , where they hook Archie to an experimental healing machine . When the Predator attempts to break their barricade , Archie is killed , Veronica is knocked unconscious , and Betty 's left hand is cut off . The Predator shows regret and reveals he was motivated by a crush on Betty . Betty uses the opportunity to wound the Predator . Veronica awakens to find Betty using the face and body reconstruction system on the healing machine to transform the wounded Predator into Archie . = = Reception = = The first issue was the bestselling issue for both publishers in April 2015 , and the 74th best selling comic among other release that month . Sales numbers fell just under 30 % through the fourth issue , which was the 102nd best selling issue in July . When the hardcover collection was released in November , it was the 36th best selling tradepaper back . The first issue garnered an average review rating of 7 @.@ 9 out of 10 according to the review aggregator ComicBookRoundUp . Writing for The Guardian , Graeme Virtue said the " appealingly strange " series fit with Archie Comics ' reputation for pushing comics forward and praised it for remaining true to both properties . The book 's " deeply funny dark humor " was a selling point for Robin Parrish at Tech Times , and IGN reviewer Jeff Lake described the first issue as " pretty darn great . " Comic Bastards ' Dustin Cabeal described the miniseries as " a hoot . " The series won the 2015 Ghastly Award for Best Limited Series .
= Martin Peerson = Martin Peerson ( or Pearson , Pierson ) ( born between 1571 and 1573 ; died December 1650 or January 1651 and buried 16 January 1651 ) was an English composer , organist and virginalist . Despite Roman Catholic leanings at a time when it was illegal not to subscribe to Church of England beliefs and practices , he was highly esteemed for his musical abilities and held posts at St Paul 's Cathedral and , it is believed , Westminster Abbey . His output included both sacred and secular music in forms such as consort music , keyboard pieces , madrigals and motets . = = Life and career = = From Peerson 's will and the March marriage registers , it appears that he was the son of Thomas and Margaret Peerson of March , Cambridgeshire , in England . It is believed that Martin Peerson was born in the town of March between 1571 and 1573 , as records show that his parents married in 1570 , but a " Margaret Peersonn " was married in 1573 . It therefore seems that Thomas Peerson died a few years after 1570 and that Martin 's mother remarried . In the 1580s , Peerson was a choirboy of St. Paul 's Cathedral in London under organist Thomas Mulliner . Subsequently , he came under the patronage of the poet Fulke Greville . On May Day in 1604 Peerson 's setting of the madrigal See , O See , Who is Heere Come a Maying was performed as part of Ben Jonson 's Private Entertainment of the King and Queene at the house of Sir William Cornwallis at Highgate ( now in London ) . A letter dated 7 December 1609 states that at the time Peerson was living at Newington ( now Stoke Newington , London ) and had composed several lessons for the virginals , which was his principal instrument . It appears that he had Roman Catholic sympathies , for that year , on the same occasion as Jonson , he was convicted of recusancy – the statutory offence of not complying with the established Church of England . Peerson then took up musical studies at the University of Oxford . In order to do so , he would have had to subscribe to Protestantism . In 1613 , he was conferred a Bachelor of Music ( B.Mus. ) and was appointed Master of the Boys of Canterbury Cathedral . It is possible that he was the " Martin Pearson " who was sacrist at Westminster Abbey from 1623 to 1630 . Between June 1624 and June 1625 he returned to St. Paul 's Cathedral as almoner and Master of the Choristers ; there is also some evidence suggesting he was later made a petty canon . Although all cathedral services ceased at the end of 1642 following the outbreak of the English Civil War , he retained the title of almoner and , along with the other petty canons and the vicars choral , had special financial provision made for him . Peerson is known to have been buried on 16 January 1651 in St. Faith 's Chapel under St. Paul 's . He therefore died in either December 1650 or , more likely , January 1651 . In spite of his Roman Catholic leanings , evidenced by the use of pre @-@ Reformation Latin texts for his motets and his 1606 conviction for recusancy , Peerson 's position at the heart of the Anglican establishment confirms the overall esteem in which he was held . = = Music = = Peerson 's powerful patrons enabled him to print and publish a considerable quantity of his music , although little remains today . The only four extant keyboard pieces – " Alman " , " The Fall of the Leafe " , " Piper 's Paven " and " The Primerose " – appear in the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book ( c . 1609 – c . 1619 ) , one of the most important sources of early keyboard music containing more than 300 pieces from the late Elizabethan and early Jacobean periods . He also set to music some of William Leighton 's verses , written by the latter while in prison for debt . Together with works by other composers , these were published as The Teares and Lamentatacions of a Sorrowfull Soule in 1614 . This was followed two years later by Tristiae Remedium , with texts assembled by the Reverend Thomas Myriell mainly using psalm texts in the English language . In 1620 Peerson 's collection Private Musicke was published . It contained secular music , including madrigals and consort songs , for one or two voices accompanied by viols or virginals . He published some metrical psalter tunes in Thomas Ravenscroft 's 1621 work The Whole Booke of Psalmes with the Hymnes Evangelicall and Songs Spirituall , and then a group of Motets or Grave Chamber Musique in 1630 with English texts and the then @-@ fashionable keyboard continuo ; the latter work contains two very fine songs of mourning . Thereafter , despite changing musical trends , Peerson 's music showed significant roots in Renaissance polyphony . However , he was adept in the use of then @-@ modern compositional procedures ; this is evident in his often daring use of chromaticism , especially seen in word painting . Some of his finest music is contained in his set of 15 Latin motets , which was probably composed around the turn of the century . Existing only in a single copy , it originally consisted of five part @-@ books but the Cantus book is lost . Richard Rastall , professor of historical musicology at the University of Leeds , spent 12 years reconstructing the missing part . The complete Latin motets have been published by Antico Edition , and a recording of their performance by Ex Cathedra entitled Peerson : Latin Motets was produced by Hyperion Records in 2005 . = = Selected works = = Private Musicke . Or the First Booke of Ayres and Dialogues : Contayning Songs of 4 . 5 @.@ and 6 . Parts , of Seuerall Sorts , and being Verse and Chorus , is Fit for Voyces and Viols . And for Want of Viols , they may be Performed to either the Virginall or Lute , where the Proficient can Play vpon the Ground , or for a Shift to the Base Viol alone . All Made and Composed According to the Rules of Art . By M. P. Batchelar of Musicke , London : Printed by Thomas Snodham , 1620 , OCLC 606486968 . Mottects or Grave Chamber Mvsiqve : Containing Songs of Fiue Parts of Seuerall Sorts , some ful , and some Verse and Chorus . But all Fit for Voyces and Vials , with an Organ Part ; which for want of Organs , may be Performed on Virginals , Base @-@ Lute , Bandora , or Irish Harpe . Also , A Mourning Song of Sixe Parts for the Death of the late Right Honorable Sir Fvlke Grevil ... Composed According to the Rules of Art by M.P. , London : Printed by William Stansby , 1630 , OCLC 496804311 .
= Lawrence Taylor = Lawrence Julius Taylor ( born February 4 , 1959 ) , nicknamed " L.T. " , is a Hall of Fame former American football player . Taylor played his entire professional career as a linebacker for the New York Giants ( 1981 – 1993 ) in the National Football League ( NFL ) . He is one of the greatest players in the history of football , and has been ranked as the greatest defensive player in league history by former players , coaches , media members , and news outlets such as the NFL Network , and Sporting News . After an All @-@ American career at the University of North Carolina ( UNC ) ( 1978 – 1981 ) , Taylor was drafted by the Giants as the second overall selection in the 1981 NFL Draft . Although controversy surrounded the selection due to Taylor 's contract demands , the two sides quickly resolved the issue . Taylor won several defensive awards after his rookie season . Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s , Taylor was a disruptive force at outside linebacker , and is credited with changing the pass rushing schemes , offensive line play , and offensive formations used in the NFL . Taylor produced double @-@ digit sacks each season from 1984 through 1990 , including a career high of 20 @.@ 5 in 1986 . He also won a record three Defensive Player of the Year awards and was named the league 's Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) for his performance during the 1986 season . Taylor is one of only two defensive players in the history of the NFL to have ever won the NFL MVP award . He was named First @-@ team All @-@ Pro in each of his first nine seasons and was a key member of the Giants ' defense , nicknamed " The Big Blue Wrecking Crew " , that led New York to victories in Super Bowls XXI and XXV . During the 1980s , Taylor , fellow linebackers Carl Banks , Gary Reasons , Brad Van Pelt , Brian Kelley , Pepper Johnson , and Hall of Famer Harry Carson gave the Giants linebacking corps a reputation as one of the best in the NFL . Taylor has lived a controversial lifestyle , during and after his playing career . He admitted to using drugs such as cocaine as early as his second year in the NFL , and was suspended several times by the league for failing drug tests . His drug abuse escalated after his retirement , and he was jailed three times for attempted drug possession . From 1998 to 2009 , Taylor lived a sober , drug @-@ free life . He worked as a color commentator on sporting events after his retirement , and pursued a career as an actor . His personal life came under public scrutiny in 2011 when he pleaded guilty to sexual misconduct involving a 16 @-@ year @-@ old girl . = = Early life = = Lawrence Taylor was the second of three sons born to Clarence and Iris Taylor in Williamsburg , Virginia . His father worked as a dispatcher at the Newport News shipyards , while his mother was a schoolteacher . Referred to as Lonnie by his family , Taylor was a mischievous youth . His mother said that " [ h ] e was a challenging child . Where the other two boys would ask for permission to do stuff , Lonnie ... would just do it , and when you found out about it , he would give you a big story . " Taylor concentrated on baseball as a youth , in which he played the position of catcher , and only began playing football at the advanced age of fifteen . He did not play organized high school football until the following year ( eleventh grade ) , and was not heavily recruited coming out of high school . After graduating from Lafayette High School in 1977 , Taylor attended the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill where he was a team captain , and wore No. 98 . Originally recruited as a defensive lineman , Taylor switched to linebacker before the 1979 season . He had 16 sacks in his final year there ( 1980 ) , and set numerous defensive records . He was recognized as a consensus first @-@ team All @-@ American and the Atlantic Coast Conference Player of the Year in 1980 . While there the coaching staff marveled at his intense , reckless style of play . " As a freshman playing on special teams , he 'd jump a good six or seven feet in the air to block a punt , then land on the back of his neck " , said North Carolina assistant coach Bobby Cale . " He was reckless , just reckless . " UNC later retired Taylor 's jersey . = = NFL career = = = = = 1981 NFL Draft and training camp = = = In the 1981 NFL Draft , Taylor was drafted by the NFL 's New York Giants as the 2nd pick overall . In a poll of NFL General Managers ( GMs ) taken before the draft 26 of the league 's 28 GMs said if they had the first selection they would select Taylor . One of the two GMs who said they would not take Taylor was Bum Phillips , who had just been hired as coach and general manager by the New Orleans Saints . As fate would have it for Taylor , the Saints were also the team who had the first pick in the draft . Giants GM George Young predicted before the draft that he would be better than NFL legends such as Dick Butkus : " Taylor is the best college linebacker I 've ever seen . Sure , I saw Dick Butkus play . There 's no doubt in my mind about Taylor . He 's bigger and stronger than Butkus was . On the blitz , he 's devastating . " On draft day , Phillips made good on his promise not to draft Taylor and the Saints instead selected Heisman Trophy @-@ winning halfback George Rogers with the first pick , leaving the Giants with the decision of whether to select Taylor . To the raucous approval of the crowd in attendance at the draft ( which was held in New York City ) , the Giants selected him . Privately , Taylor was hesitant about playing for New York as he had hoped to be drafted by the Dallas Cowboys , and was unimpressed with a tour of Giants Stadium he was taken on , after the draft . Publicly , however , he expressed excitement about the opportunity to play in the city . Taylor changed his stance after he was drafted as Harry Carson made a point to reach out to him , and Taylor said he " talked to some players and coaches " and " got things straightened out . " One of the factors that the Giants said they considered in selecting Taylor was his solid reputation . " He was the cleanest player in the draft . By that I mean there was no rap on him " , said head coach Ray Perkins . " Great potential as a linebacker , a fine young man , free of injuries . " Taylor chose to wear number 56 because he was a fan of Cowboys linebacker Thomas Henderson . As it would turn out , Taylor would have the longer and more successful career while Rogers , although successful in his own right with several 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yard rushing seasons and two Pro Bowl selections , was injury @-@ prone and forced to retire following the 1987 season with the Washington Redskins . Taylor 's talent was evident from the start of training camp . Reports came out of the Giants training compound of the exploits of the new phenom . Taylor 's teammates took to calling him Superman and joked that his locker should be replaced with a phone booth . Phil Simms , the team 's quarterback , said , " on the pass rush , he 's an animal . He 's either going to run around you or over you . With his quickness , he 's full speed after two steps . " Taylor made his NFL exhibition debut on August 8 , 1981 , recording 2 sacks in the Giants ' 23 – 7 win over the Chicago Bears . Before the season word spread around the league about Taylor . Years after facing him in an exhibition game , Pittsburgh Steelers Quarterback Terry Bradshaw recalled , " [ h ] e dang @-@ near killed me , I just kept saying , ' Who is this guy ? ' He kept coming from my blind side and just ripped my ribs to pieces . " Taylor developed what has been termed a " love @-@ hate relationship " with Bill Parcells who was the team 's defensive coordinator when he was drafted , and would later become their head coach . Parcells often rode players in the hopes of driving them to better performance . Taylor did not appreciate this approach , and early on told Parcells , " I 've had enough . You either cut me or trade me but get the fuck off my back . " Parcells kept on Taylor , but privately told some veterans , " I like that LT . That motherfucker 's got a mean streak . " = = = Early career : 1981 – 1985 = = = Taylor made his NFL regular season debut on September 6 , 1981 , in a 24 – 10 loss to the Philadelphia Eagles . Aside from incurring a penalty for a late hit on Eagles running back Perry Harrington , Taylor played a nondescript game . In a game versus the St. Louis Cardinals later in the season , Taylor rushed and sacked the passer when he was supposed to drop into coverage . When told by Parcells that was not what he was assigned to do on that play , and that what he did was not in the playbook , Taylor responded " Well , we better put it in on Monday , because that play 's a dandy . " He recorded 9 @.@ 5 sacks in 1981 , and his rookie season is considered one of the best in NFL history . He was named 1981 's NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year and Defensive Player of the Year , making him as of 2013 the only rookie to win an Offensive or Defensive Player of the Year award . Taylor 's arrival helped the Giants defense reduce their points allowed from 425 points in 1980 to 257 in 1981 . They finished the season 9 – 7 , up five games from the previous season , and advanced to the NFL divisional playoffs , where they lost 38 – 24 to the eventual Super Bowl champion San Francisco 49ers . The San Francisco win was due partly to a new tactic 49ers coach Bill Walsh used to slow Taylor . Walsh assigned guard John Ayers , the team 's best blocker , to block Taylor and , although Taylor still recorded a sack and three tackles , he was not as effective as normal . In contrast to his on @-@ field success Taylor was already developing a reputation for recklessness off the field ; after nearly getting killed during the season when his speeding resulted in a car crash , Young told the team 's trainer he would be surprised if the linebacker lived past the age of 30 , and the Giants insured Taylor 's life for $ 2 million . The 1982 NFL season , which was shortened to nine regular season games by a players strike , included one of the more memorable plays of Taylor 's career . In the nationally televised Thanksgiving Day game against the Detroit Lions , the teams were tied 6 – 6 early in the fourth quarter , when the Lions drove deep into New York territory . Lions quarterback Gary Danielson dropped back to pass and threw the ball out to his left toward the sidelines . Taylor ran in front of the intended receiver , intercepted the pass , and returned it 97 yards for a touchdown . This play was indicative of Taylor 's unusual combination , even for a linebacker , of power with speed . He was again named Defensive Player of the Year . After the 1982 season , Perkins became head coach of the University of Alabama and the Giants hired Parcells to replace him . In the coming years this change proved crucial to the Giants and Taylor . Leading up to the 1983 season , Taylor engaged in a training camp holdout that lasted three weeks and ended when he came back to the team under his old contract with three games left in the preseason . Although Taylor recorded nine sacks and made the All @-@ Pro team for the third consecutive season in 1983 , the Giants struggled . The team went 3 – 12 – 1 , and Parcells received heavy criticism from fans and the media . Taylor was forced to play inside linebacker for part of the season , a position which allowed him less pass rushing opportunities , when Carson was injured . Frustrated by the losing , Taylor began acting out by arriving late for meetings , and not participating in conditioning drills in practice . After the season , Taylor was involved in a fight for his services between the Giants and the New Jersey Generals of the United States Football League . Taylor was given a $ 1 million interest @-@ free , 25 @-@ year loan by Generals owner Donald Trump on December 14 , 1983 , with the provision that he begin playing in the USFL in 1988 . Taylor regretted the decision , and less than a month later attempted to renege . His agent was able to negotiate by meeting with Trump personally and then the Giants which resulted in allowing Taylor to go with the Giants . Taylor got a 6 @-@ year $ 6 @.@ 55 @-@ million package that also included a $ 1 million interest @-@ free loan . The main results of these negotiations were threefold : 1 ) Taylor returned the $ 1 million to Trump , 2 ) the Giants paid Trump $ 750 @,@ 000 over the next five seasons , and 3 ) the Giants gave Taylor a new six @-@ year , $ 6 @.@ 2 @-@ million @-@ dollar contract . The Giants ' record rebounded to 9 – 7 in 1984 , and Taylor had his fourth All @-@ Pro season . He got off to a quick start , recording four sacks in a September game . In the playoffs the Giants defeated the Los Angeles Rams 16 – 13 , but lost 21 – 10 to the eventual champion 49ers . In contrast to the previous season the Giants headed into the 1985 season with a sense of optimism after their successful 1984 campaign and a 5 – 0 pre @-@ season record . The Giants went 10 – 6 , and Taylor spearheaded a defense that led the NFL in sacks with 68 . Taylor had 13 . One of the more memorable plays of his career occurred during this season . On a Monday Night Football game against the Redskins , Taylor 's sack of Redskins quarterback Joe Theismann inadvertently resulted in a compound fracture of Theismann 's right leg . After the sack , a distraught Taylor screamed for paramedics to attend to Theismann . Although this sack ended Theismann 's career , Theismann has never blamed Taylor for the injury . Taylor says he has never seen video of the play and never wants to . During the first round of the playoffs , the Giants defeated the defending champion 49ers 17 – 3 , but lost to the eventual champion Chicago Bears in the second round 21 – 0 . = = = Mid @-@ career and championships : 1986 – 1990 = = = In 1986 Taylor had one of the most successful seasons by a defensive player in the history of the NFL . He recorded a league @-@ leading 20 @.@ 5 sacks and became one of just two defensive players to win the NFL Most Valuable Player award and the only defensive player to be the unanimous selection for MVP . He also was named Defensive Player of the Year for the third time . The Giants finished the season 14 – 2 and outscored San Francisco and Washington by a combined score of 66 – 3 in the NFC playoffs . He appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated alone the week leading up to Super Bowl XXI with a warning from the magazine to the Denver Broncos regarding Taylor . The Giants overcame a slow start in Super Bowl XXI to defeat Denver 39 – 20 . Taylor made a key touchdown preventing tackle on a goal line play in the first half , stopping Broncos quarterback John Elway as he sprinted out on a rollout . With the Super Bowl win , Taylor capped off an unprecedented start to his career . After six years , he had been named the NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year Award ( 1981 ) , NFL Defensive Player of the Year a record three times ( 1981 , 1982 , 1986 ) , First @-@ team All @-@ Pro six times , become the first defensive player in NFL history unanimously voted the league 's MVP ( 1986 ) , and led his team to a championship ( 1986 ) . After the win , however , Taylor felt let down rather than elated . Taylor said : When the Super Bowl was over ... Everyone was so excited , but by then I felt deflated . I 'd won every award , had my best season , finally won the Super Bowl . I was on top of the world right ? So what could be next ? Nothing . The thrill is the chase to get to the top . Every day the excitement builds and builds and builds , and then when you 're finally there and the game is over ... And then , nothing . The Giants appeared to have a bright future coming off their 1986 championship season as they were one of the younger teams in the league . They struggled the next season however , falling to 6 – 9 in the strike @-@ shortened 1987 season . Taylor caused strife in the locker room when he broke the picket line after early struggles by the team . He explained his decision by saying " The Giants are losing . And I 'm losing $ 60 @,@ 000 a week . " He finished the season as the team leader in sacks with 12 in 12 games played , but missed a game due to a hamstring injury , ending his consecutive games played streak at 106 . The Giants looked to rebound to their championship ways in 1988 but the start of the season was marred by controversy surrounding Taylor . He tested positive for cocaine and was suspended by the league for thirty days , as it was his second violation of the NFL 's substance abuse policy . The first result in 1987 had been kept private and was not known to the public at the time . He was kept away from the press during this period and checked himself into rehab in early September . Taylor 's over @-@ the @-@ edge lifestyle was becoming an increasing concern for fans and team officials . This was especially true given the eventual career paths of talented players like Hollywood Henderson and others whose drug problems derailed their careers . The Giants went 2 – 2 in the games Taylor missed . When Taylor returned he was his usual dominant self as he led the team in sacks again , with 15 @.@ 5 in 12 games played . The season also contained some of the more memorable moments of Taylor 's career . In a crucial late @-@ season game with playoff implications against the New Orleans Saints , Taylor played through a torn pectoral muscle to record seven tackles , three sacks , and two forced fumbles . Taylor 's presence in the lineup was important as the Giants ' offense was having trouble mounting drives , and was dominated in time of possession . Television cameras repeatedly cut to the sidelines to show him in extreme physical pain as he was being attended to by the Giants staff . Taylor had already developed a reputation for playing through pain ; in a 1983 game against the Eagles the team 's training staff had to hide his helmet to prevent the injured Taylor from returning to the field . Taylor 's shoulder was so injured that he had to wear a harness to keep it in its place . The Giants held on for a 13 – 12 win , and Parcells later called Taylor 's performance " [ t ] he greatest game I ever saw . " However , the Giants narrowly missed the playoffs in 1988 at 10 – 6 by losing tie @-@ breakers with the Eagles in their division and the Rams for the Wild card . In 1989 , Taylor recorded 15 sacks . He was forced to play the latter portion of the season with a fractured tibia , suffered in a 34 – 24 loss to the 49ers in week 12 , which caused him to sit out the second half of several games . Despite his off @-@ the @-@ field problems , Taylor remained popular among his teammates and was voted defensive co @-@ captain along with Carl Banks . The two filled the defensive captain 's spot vacated by the retired Harry Carson . The retirement of the nine @-@ time Pro Bowler Carson , broke up the Giants linebacker corps of Carson , Reasons , Banks , and Taylor , which spearheaded the team 's defense nicknamed the " Big Blue Wrecking Crew " in the 1980s . The Giants went 12 – 4 , and advanced to the playoffs . In an exciting , down @-@ to @-@ the @-@ wire game , the Rams eliminated the Giants 19 – 13 in the first round , despite Taylor 's two sacks and one forced fumble . Taylor held out of training camp before the 1990 season , demanding a new contract with a salary of $ 2 million per year . Talks dragged into September with neither side budging , and as the season approached Taylor received fines at the rate of $ 2 @,@ 500 dollars a day . He signed a three @-@ year $ 5 million contract ( making him the highest paid defensive player in the league ) just four days before the season opener against the Philadelphia Eagles . Despite sitting out training camp and the preseason , Taylor recorded three sacks and a forced fumble against the Eagles . He finished with 10 @.@ 5 sacks and earned his 10th Pro Bowl in as many years , although the season marked the first time in Taylor 's career that he was not selected to the All @-@ Pro team . The Giants started out 10 – 0 and finished with a 13 – 3 record . In the playoffs , the Giants defeated the Bears 31 – 3 , and faced the rival 49ers in the NFC Championship Game . They won 15 – 13 , after Taylor recovered a key fumble late in the game to set up Matt Bahr 's game @-@ winning field goal . In Super Bowl XXV , they played the Buffalo Bills and won one of the more entertaining Super Bowls in history , 20 @-@ 19 , after Buffalo 's Scott Norwood missed a potential game @-@ winning field goal as time expired . = = = Final years and decline : 1991 – 1993 = = = Following the 1990 season , Parcells , with whom Taylor had become very close , retired , and the team was taken over by Ray Handley . 1991 marked a steep decline in Taylor 's production . It became the first season in his career in which he failed to make the Pro Bowl squad , after setting a then record by making it in his first ten years in the league . Taylor finished with 7 sacks in 14 games and the Giants defense , while still respectable , was no longer one of the top units in the league . Taylor rebounded in the early stages of what many thought would be his final season in 1992 . Through close to nine games Taylor was on pace for 10 sacks and the Giants were 5 – 4 . However , a ruptured Achilles tendon suffered in a game on November 8 , 1992 against Green Bay sidelined him for the final seven games , during which the team went 1 – 6 . Before the injury Taylor had missed only four games due to injury in his 12 @-@ year career . Throughout the 1992 season , and the ensuing offseason , Taylor was noncommittal about his future , alternately saying he might retire , then later hinting he wanted a longer @-@ term contract . Taylor returned for the 1993 season enticed by the chance to play with a new coach ( Dan Reeves ) , and determined not to end his career due to an injury . The Giants had a resurgent season in 1993 . They finished 11 – 5 , and competed for the top NFC playoff seed . Taylor finished with 6 sacks , and the Giants defense led the NFL in fewest points allowed . They defeated the Vikings 17 – 10 in the opening round of the playoffs . The next week on January 15 , 1994 in what would be Taylor 's final game , the Giants were beaten 44 – 3 by the 49ers . As the game came to a conclusion , television cameras drew in close on Taylor who was crying . He announced his retirement at the post @-@ game press conference saying , " I think it 's time for me to retire . I 've done everything I can do . I 've been to Super Bowls . I 've been to playoffs . I 've done things that other people haven 't been able to do in this game before . After 13 years , it 's time for me to go . " Taylor ended his career with 1 @,@ 088 tackles , 132 @.@ 5 sacks ( not counting the 9 @.@ 5 sacks he recorded as a rookie because sacks did not become an official statistic until 1982 ) , nine interceptions , 134 return yards , two touchdowns , 33 forced fumbles , 11 fumble recoveries , and 34 fumble return yards . = = Legacy = = Taylor is considered one of the best players to ever play in the NFL , and has been ranked as the top defensive player in league history by news outlets , media members , former players and coaches . He has also been described as one of the most " feared " and " intimidating " players in NFL history . Taylor 's explosive speed and power is credited with changing the position of outside linebacker from a " read and react " type of position to a more attacking , aggressive position . Washington Redskins head coach Joe Gibbs developed the two tight end offense and the position of h @-@ back to prevent Taylor from blitzing into the backfield unhindered . " We had to try in some way have a special game plan just for Lawrence Taylor . Now you didn 't do that very often in this league but I think he 's one person that we learned the lesson the hard way . We lost ball games . " His skills changed the way offensive coaches blocked linebackers . In the late ' 70s and early ' 80s , a blitzing linebacker was picked up by a running back . However , these players were no match for Taylor . The tactic employed by San Francisco 49ers head coach Bill Walsh in the 1982 playoffs , using an offensive guard to block Taylor , was copied around the league . However , this left a hole in pass protection that a blitzing middle linebacker could exploit . Later , Walsh and other coaches began using offensive tackles to block Taylor . Later it became common for offensive linemen to pick up blitzing linebackers . In addition to the changes in offensive schemes Taylor influenced , he also introduced new defensive techniques to the game such as chopping the ball out of the quarterback 's hands rather than tackling him . = = Drugs and extreme measures = = In contrast to his success on the football field , Taylor 's personal life has been marred by drug usage and controversy . When Taylor was once asked what he could do that no outside linebacker could , his answer was , " Drink " . However , alcohol abuse was not the largest of his substance abuse problems . After admitting to and testing positive for cocaine in 1987 , he was suspended from football for 30 days in 1988 after failing a second drug test . After his second positive test he gave up drugs for five years as a third positive test would have ended his career . As he approached retirement , however , he looked forward to picking up the habit again , saying in his second autobiography , " I saw blow as the only bright spot in my future . " After his retirement , he began abusing drugs on a regular basis . He went through drug rehab twice in 1995 , only to later be arrested twice over a three @-@ year span for attempting to buy cocaine from undercover police officers . During this period , he lived almost exclusively in his home with white sheets covering his windows and only associated with other drug users . Taylor later said , " I had gotten really bad . I mean my place was almost like a crack house . " In his second autobiography , Taylor admitted that he had begun using drugs as early as his rookie season in the NFL . He has also stated that his first wife , Linda , mother to his three children , once had to come pick him up from a crack house during his playing career . In a November 2003 interview with Mike Wallace on the television news magazine 60 Minutes , Taylor claimed he hired and sent prostitutes to opponents ' hotel rooms the night before a game in an attempt to tire them out , and that at his peak , he spent thousands of dollars a day on narcotics . He also recounted several other instances of aberrant behavior , including arriving to a team meeting during his playing career in handcuffs after spending a night with some call girls . He said , " A couple of ladies that were trying out some new equipment they had . You know ? And I just happened to , and they just didn 't happen to have the key . " He also said that to beat NFL drug tests , he routinely submitted the urine of his teammates . = = Post @-@ NFL life = = In Taylor 's final year in the NFL he started a company called All @-@ Pro Products . The company went public at $ 5 a share , and tripled in value during its first month . The stock price reached $ 16 @.@ 50 a share , at which point Taylor 's stake had an estimated value of over $ 10 million . The company ceased production shortly thereafter however , and Taylor , who never sold his stock , lost several hundred thousand dollars . He had been defrauded by several members of the penny stock firm Hanover Sterling & Company , who had short sold the company 's stock , making it worthless . The Securities and Exchange Commission ruled that two traders had manipulated the price of the stock , which skyrocketed while the company was losing over $ 900 @,@ 000 . Taylor has also had self @-@ inflicted financial problems ; in 1997 he pleaded guilty to filing a false tax return in 1990 , and in 2000 he was " sentenced to three months of house arrest , five years of probation , and 500 hours of community service for tax evasion . " After his career ended , Taylor worked in several regular television jobs . He first worked as a football analyst for the now defunct TNT Sunday Night Football . In a one @-@ off show , Taylor also appeared as a wrestler in the World Wrestling Federation , defeating Bam Bam Bigelow in the main event of WrestleMania XI . He also worked as a color commentator on an amateur fighting program entitled Toughman on the FX channel . On September 4 , 1995 , the Giants retired Phil Simms ' jersey during halftime of a game against the Cowboys ( Taylor had his number retired the year before ) . Simms celebrated the moment by throwing an impromptu ceremonial pass to Taylor . Simms recalled , " [ a ] ll of a sudden it kind of hit me , I 've put Lawrence in a really tough spot ; national TV , he 's got dress shoes and a sports jacket on , and he 's had a few beers and he 's going to run down the field and I 'm going to throw him a pass . " Simms motioned for Taylor to run a long pattern and after 30 – 40 yards threw him the pass . Taylor later said the situation made him more nervous than any play of his career , " I 'm saying to myself ( as the pass is being thrown ) , ' If I drop this pass , I got to run my black ass all the way back to Upper Saddle River because there ain 't no way I 'm going to be able to stay in that stadium ' . " Taylor caught the pass , however , and the capacity crowd in attendance cheered in approval . Taylor pursued a career in acting , appearing in the Oliver Stone movie Any Given Sunday where he played a character much like himself . He appeared as himself in the HBO series The Sopranos and the film The Waterboy . He also had a role in the 2000 version of Shaft . Taylor voiced the steroid @-@ riddled , possibly insane former football player B.J. Smith in the video game , Grand Theft Auto : Vice City . The character poked fun at his fearsome , drug @-@ fueled public image . He also added his voice to the video game Blitz : The League and its sequel , which were partially based on his life in the NFL . He also acted in the 2000 Christian film Mercy Streets with Eric Roberts and Stacy Keach , and the 2003 prison movie In Hell with Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme . In 1999 , when Taylor became eligible for the Pro Football Hall of Fame , there were some concerns that his hard @-@ partying lifestyle and drug abuse would hurt his candidacy . These concerns proved to be ill @-@ founded , however , as he was voted in on the first ballot . His son Lawrence Taylor Jr. gave his introduction speech at the induction ceremony . Taylor 's ex @-@ wife , his three children , and his parents were in attendance and during his induction speech Taylor acknowledged them saying , " [ t ] hank you for putting up with me for all those years . " He also credited former Giants owner Wellington Mara for being supportive of him saying , " [ h ] e probably cared more about me as a person than he really should have . " Taylor is currently married to his third wife and resides in Pembroke Pines , Florida . His soul @-@ wrenching admissions to Mike Wallace in 2003 reignited his popularity with the public . Taylor often spoke of his NFL years , which he played with reckless abandon , and the drug @-@ abusing stages of his life as the " L.T. " periods of his life . He described " L.T. " as an adrenaline junkie who lived life on a thrill ride . Taylor said in 2003 that " L. T. died a long time ago , and I don 't miss him at all ... all that 's left is Lawrence Taylor . " Taylor re @-@ emerged into the public eye in July 2006 , after appearing on the cover of a Sports Illustrated issue dedicated to former athletes and sport figures . In the magazine , Taylor credited his hobby of golf with helping him get over his previous hard @-@ partying ways and drug filled lifestyle . He co @-@ founded eXfuze , a network marketing company based in West Palm Beach , Florida . Along with former NFL players , such as Eric Dickerson and Seth Joyner , he was a spokesman for Seven + , the flagship multi @-@ botanical drink produced by the company . His son Brandon recently signed a national letter to play with the Purdue Boilermakers . Taylor was a contestant on the 8th season of Dancing with the Stars , partnered with Edyta Śliwińska . He was eliminated in the seventh week on the April 21 , 2009 show . In 2009 , Taylor started having troubles in his personal life again . On November 8 , he was arrested in Miami @-@ Dade County , Florida for leaving the scene of an accident after striking another vehicle with his Cadillac Escalade . He had already committed the same offense in 1996 when he totaled his Lexus in a one @-@ car accident and left the scene , saying he did not think the law required the reporting of a single driver incident . He was released on a $ 500 bond , and the other driver later sued him , seeking $ 15 @,@ 000 . He was arrested six months later for having sex with a 16 @-@ year @-@ old girl at a Holiday Inn located in Montebello , New York . He was charged with felony third @-@ degree statutory rape , for allegedly engaging in sexual intercourse with someone under 17 . He was also charged with third @-@ degree patronization for allegedly paying the underage girl $ 300 to have sex with him . The girl was represented by celebrity attorney Gloria Allred when Taylor pleaded guilty on March 22 , 2011 and was sentenced to six years probation as part of a plea agreement , in which he pleaded guilty to the misdemeanors of sexual misconduct and patronizing a prostitute . He will also have to register as a low @-@ risk level one sex offender . On October 26 , 2012 , a court rejected the victim 's claims that Taylor assaulted her . On June 9 , 2016 , Taylor 's wife was arrested for domestic violence in Florida after she threw " an unknown object " and struck Taylor in the back of the head . = = Career statistics = = Sources : * Unofficial statistic ( sacks did not become an official statistic until 1982 ) ; however , this number is stated on Taylor 's Pro Football Hall of Fame bio and is considered to be accurate . * * League leader † Including the 9 @.@ 5 Taylor unofficially recorded as a rookie , his total is 142 . Key to abbreviations GP = games played Int = interception Yds = yards TD = touchdowns FR = fumbles recovered
= Shire horse = The Shire horse is a breed of draught horse ( BrE ) or draft horse ( AmE ) . The breed comes in many colours , including black , bay and grey . They are a tall breed , with mares standing 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) and over and stallions standing 17 hands ( 68 inches , 173 cm ) and over . The breed has an enormous capacity for weight pulling , and Shires have held the world records for both largest overall horse and tallest horse at various times . Throughout its history , the breed has been popular for pulling brewery wagons delivering ale to customers . This practice continues today , with the breed also being used for forestry , leisure and promotional pursuits . In 1878 , the British organization now known as the Shire Horse Society was created , with the American Shire Horse Association beginning in 1885 . The breed was exported from Britain to the United States in large numbers during the late 19th and early 20th centuries , but popularity fell as mechanisation increased , reaching a low point in the 1950s and 1960s . Popularity began to increase again in the 1970s and after . However , population numbers are still considered to be at critical levels by both the UK @-@ based Rare Breeds Survival Trust and the US @-@ based American Livestock Breeds Conservancy . = = Characteristics = = Shire stallions may be black , bay or grey . They may not be roan or have large amounts of white markings . Mares and geldings may be black , bay , grey or roan . In the UK stallions may not be chestnut , but the colour is allowed by the US registry . Stallions must stand at least 17 hands ( 68 inches , 173 cm ) high when mature , and they average around 17 @.@ 2 hands ( 70 inches , 178 cm ) . Geldings stand at least 16 @.@ 2 hands ( 66 inches , 168 cm ) high and mares at least 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) . Their average weight ranges from 900 to 1 @,@ 100 kg ( 2 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 400 lb ) The head of a Shire is long and lean , with large eyes , set on a neck that is slightly arched and long in proportion to the body . The shoulder is deep and wide , the chest wide , the back muscular and short and the hindquarters long and wide . Not too much feathering is to occur on the legs , and the hair is fine , straight , and silky . Smaller Shires , under 17 hands ( 68 inches , 173 cm ) , are generally preferred for working horses , while taller horses , especially those over 18 @.@ 2 hands ( 74 inches , 188 cm ) , are used for show and promotional purposes . The breed is known for its easy @-@ going temperament . Shires have been identified to be at risk for chronic progressive lymphedema , a chronic progressive disease that includes symptoms of progressive swelling , hyperkeratosis , and fibrosis of distal limbs . The disease is similar to chronic lymphedema in humans . The Shire has an enormous capacity for pulling weight . In 1924 , at a British exhibition , a pair of horses was estimated to have pulled a starting load equal to 45 tons , although an exact number could not be determined as their pull exceeded the maximum reading on the dynamometer . Working in slippery footing , the same pair of horses pulled 16 @.@ 5 tons at a later exhibition . The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire named Mammoth , born in 1848 . He stood 21 @.@ 2 1 ⁄ 4 hands ( 86 @.@ 25 inches , 219 cm ) high , and his peak weight was estimated at 1 @,@ 524 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 360 lb ) . At over 19 hands ( 76 inches , 193 cm ) , a Shire gelding named Goliath was the Guinness Book of World Records record holder for the world 's tallest horse until his death in 2001 . = = Breed history = = Though oxen were used for most farm work into the 18th century , horses ' fit for the dray , the plough , or the chariot ' were on sale at Smithfield Market in London as early as 1145 . The English Great Horse was valued during the reign of Henry VIII , when stallions measuring less than ' fifteen handfuls ' could not be kept , but the increasing role of gunpowder brought an end to the use of heavy horses in battle . Oliver Cromwell 's cavalry favoured lighter , faster mounts and the big horses began to be used for draught work instead . During the 16th century , Dutch engineers brought Friesian horses with them when they came to England to drain the fens , and these horses probably had a significant influence on what became the Shire breed . From this medieval horse came an animal called the Old English Black Horse in the 17th century . The Black Horse was improved by the followers of Robert Bakewell , of Dishley Grange in Leicestershire , resulting in a horse sometimes known as the " Bakewell Black " . Bakewell imported six Dutch or Flanders mares , notable since breeders tended to concentrate on improving the male line . Two different types of black horses developed : the Fen or Lincolnshire type and the Leicester or Midlands type . The Fen type tended to be larger , with more bone and extra hair , while the Midlands type tended to have more endurance while being of a finer appearance . The term " Shire horse " was first used in the mid @-@ 17th century , and incomplete records begin to appear near the end of the 18th century . The " Packington Blind Horse " , from Leicestershire , is one of the best @-@ known horses of the era , with direct descendents being recorded from 1770 to 1832 . This horse is usually recognized as the foundation stallion for the Shire breed , and he stood at stud from 1755 to 1770 . During the 19th century , Shires were used extensively as cart horses to move goods from the docks through the cities and countryside . The rough roads created a need for large horses with extensive musculature . In 1878 , the English Cart Horse Society was formed , and in 1884 changed its name to the Shire Horse Society . The Society published a stud book , with the first edition in 1878 containing 2 @,@ 381 stallions and records dating back to 1770 . Between 1901 and 1914 , 5 @,@ 000 Shires were registered each year with the British registry . The first Shires were imported to the United States in 1853 , with large numbers of horses being imported in the 1880s . The American Shire Horse Association was established in 1885 to register and promote the breed . The Shire soon became popular in the United States , and almost 4 @,@ 000 Shires were imported between 1900 and 1918 . Approximately 6 @,@ 700 Shires were registered with the US registry between 1909 and 1911 . Around the time of World War II , increasing mechanization and strict regulations on the purchase of livestock feed reduced the need for and ability to keep draft horses . Thousands of Shires were slaughtered and several large breeding studs closed . The breed fell to its lowest point in the 1950s and 1960s , and in 1955 fewer than 100 horses were shown at the annual British Spring Show . In the 1970s , the breed began to be revived through increased public interest . Breed societies have been established in the United States , Canada , the Netherlands , France , and Germany , and in 1996 the first World Shire Horse Congress was held in Peterborough . The first use within the breed of artificial insemination through frozen semen was with several Australian mares in 1997 . Between the 1920s and 1930s and today , the Shire has changed in conformation . The Clydesdale was used for crossbreeding in the 1950s and 1960s , which changed the conformation of the Shire and most notably changed the feathering on the lower legs from a mass of coarse hair into the silky feathering associated with modern Shires . At the peak of their population , Shires numbered over a million . In the 1950s and 1960s , this number declined to a few thousand . In the United States , the Shire population dropped significantly in the early part of the 20th century , and continued to decline in the 1940s and 1950s . Between 1950 and 1959 , only 25 horses were registered with the US registry . However , numbers began to increase , and 121 horses were registered in the US by 1985 . The National Shire Horse Spring Show is still held annually and is the largest Shire show in Great Britain . Currently , the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy considers the population of the Shire to be at " critical " levels , meaning that the estimated global population of the breed is less than 2 @,@ 000 and fewer than 200 registrations are made annually in the US . The UK Rare Breeds Survival Trust considers the breed to be " at risk " , meaning that population numbers are estimated to be under 1 @,@ 500 . The Equus Survival Trust considers the breed to be " vulnerable " , meaning that between 500 and 1500 active adult breeding mares are in existence today . = = Uses = = The Shire horse was originally the staple breed used to draw carts to deliver ale from the brewery to the public houses . A few breweries still maintain this tradition in the UK . These include the Wadworth Brewery in Devizes , Wiltshire , the Hook Norton Brewery , the Samuel Smith Brewery in Tadcaster , and Thwaites Brewery , which made Shire @-@ drawn deliveries from the early 1800s to the 1920s , then resumed service in 1960 , with deliveries continuing to be horse @-@ drawn to the present day . Several breweries have recently withdrawn their Shire horse teams , including the Tetley brewery in Leeds . Today , the breed is also used for forestry work and leisure riding .
= Hadspen , Tasmania = Hadspen is an Australian town on the South Esk River in the north of Tasmania , 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) south west of Launceston . Hadspen has few commercial establishments and is primarily a residential suburb of nearby Launceston . Most of the town 's buildings are residential , and relatively recent . The town 's population of just over 2000 has grown rapidly from only a few hundred in the 1960s , and there are development plans that call for its doubling . Settlement began in the early 19th century as a cluster of houses on the Launceston side of the river , near a frequently @-@ flooded ford . Over time various bridges were built , largely on the same site , across the river . Though it had been settled for some time Hadspen was only officially declared in 1866 . Hadspen was originally on the main road from Launceston to Devonport but the town 's centre was bypassed in the late 20th century . There have been schools , both secular and religious , in its history , though there remain none . The town has heritage @-@ listed properties and some others from colonial times . The town 's historic centrepiece is Entally House , built in 1819 as a wealthy settler 's colonial estate . It was the former family home of Thomas Reibey , Premier of Tasmania from 1876 to 1877 . The Red Feather Inn was built in the 1840s and remains in use as a restaurant and for accommodation . A gaol from the same time reflects Tasmania 's convict past . The Uniting Church building dates back over 150 years , originally as a Wesleyan chapel , and the Anglican Church of the Good Shepherd is known for taking over ninety years to complete . = = Geography = = Hadspen lies approximately 142 metres ( 466 ft ) above sea level , 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) Southwest of Launceston , Tasmania . It is on the southern side of the South Esk River , near the confluence of the South Esk and Meander Rivers . The town is set in a rural landscape ; Surrounding countryside contains valleys , river flood plains , remnant uncleared bush and undulating pastures . The majority of the town lies between the South Esk , and a low section of land east of the town called Beams Hollow , which is named after Thomas Beams , owner of a 50 acres ( 20 ha ) lot through which the road from Launceston first ran . = = History = = As of 1831 there was a settlement named Hadspen near a ford of the South Esk River . A road was proposed from Launceston , crossing the river at this ford near Thomas Haydock Reibey 's property of Entally . The name may have been given by surveyor George Frankland after Hadspen house and garden , an estate in Somerset , England . By the 1840s Hadspen was a small cluster of houses near " Reibey 's ford " , and the river crossing was now on the main road from Launceston . Hadspen Post Office opened on 1 November 1849 , though the town was not declared in the government gazette until January 1866 . A bridge was constructed in the early 1840s replacing the often impassable ford , and during the next century the bridge was often repaired and sometimes replaced . Hadspen.-This rural township , long marked out on the maps , is fast assuming the appearance of a village . It is situated close to and on this side of Reibey 's Bridge . Mr. Sprunt lately obtained a licence to open an inn , which is a large and commodious brick building . Several cottages are erected , and a blacksmith 's forge for the convenience of surrounding settlers will soon be at work . Abundance of excellent stone is found within a few yards of the spot , and we observe one gentleman has built a remarkably neat cottage , fronting the main street , of this material . The distance from Launceston is about eight miles , and if the road were slightly repaired the drive in this direction would be the most pleasant in the neighbourhood In early years there were two Hotels : Cricket Club Hotel near the river , which was partly destroyed by flood in the 1870s and subsequently demolished , and Hadspen Hotel , a convict @-@ built sandstone structure . By 1881 both had closed and there were no hotels in the town . An application to re @-@ licence a building opposite the Wesleyan church was unsuccessful . The Hadspen Hotel was a private home in the early 20th century and remains as part of the town 's heritage . None of these hotels are open in the 21st century , the Rutherglen complex on the town 's west is the only licensed premises . There was a brewery in the town for a time , though it has long closed . The postal service from Hadspen originally was handled by a licensee operating from a shop , and subsequently from one of hotels . By 1966 the post office was in a separate building on the site of the former blacksmith 's shop . There was an early reference to churches in 1844 when the Examiner noted that Bishop Nixon " laid the foundation stone of a new church at Hadspen , Reibey 's ford " though it is not stated which church . This church is likely to have been a small wooden one that was the first used by the Church of England . The then Reverend Thomas Reibey had a small stone chapel built at Entally in 1850 . Though it was intended for the employees of the estate it was used by some in the town . From the 1870s Reibey himself conducted some of the services in this Chapel . The Uniting Church building in Hadspen 's main street is a small , weatherboard colonial church . There was a Wesleyan chapel in the town by at least 1852 as well as another small church . In July 1874 the current Uniting church building was completed as a Wesleyan Chapel , that by 1924 was part of the Methodist church . The grounds the church is on were owned by the Wesleyans as early as 1865 . = = Schools = = In 1845 , local members of the Church of England , as part of a petition calling for funding , stated that they had established a new school . By 1848 there was also a Wesleyan Sunday School with 20 students . By 1867 there was a secular state school in the town , though funding was inconstant and the school was closed for at least the next two years . This school never grew large ; as of 1903 it had an average attendance of 20 students . The school was still operating in 1937 , though a public request had been made for regular transport to take children to the Hagley District School , in consequence of the Hadspen school 's impending closure . Children from the town began attending the Hagley school in March 1938 . By the middle of the same year a tender was approved by the Minister of Education for regular school transport . The transport was also for students from nearby Carrick . , whose school closed in the 1930s . The school building was finally removed ; a tender in 1944 called for it to be removed and re @-@ erected at Falmouth . Schools have also been run in other town buildings , including a hall near the Anglican church , that was used for worship before the church 's completion , in what is now the Uniting Church and also in another building that later became a private home . In the 21st century there are no schools remaining in Hadspen . = = Demographics = = Hadspen was a small town for most of its early life ; its population in 1966 was 311 . It grew quickly from the 1970s to the 1990s after subdivisions were developed in South Esk Drive and Roebourne Avenue . Over this period the population doubled . In the 2001 census , 29 % of the town 's population was under 14 — one of the highest proportions in Tasmania — and future forecast growth means that the town is expected to require a primary school . The population grew from 1 @,@ 334 in 1991 , to 1 @,@ 848 in 2001 , 1 @,@ 926 in 2006 , and 2 @,@ 063 in the last census results in 2011 . Within the town 's current footprint its population is expected to reach 2 @,@ 155 by 2016 . The Meander Valley Council , in a March 2011 development plan , forecast Hadspen 's population doubling over the subsequent two decades . The town 's population is almost entirely Australian @-@ born ; over 90 % as of 2011 compared to the average for all Australia of less than 69 % . In almost all ( 96 @.@ 9 % ) of homes only English is spoken , again a contrast to the Australian average of 76 @.@ 8 % . Median income is slightly higher than the country 's average and the unemployment rate is slightly lower . = = Transport = = Hadspen was an important stop on the coach route from Launceston to Deloraine from at least the 1840s . The coach service declined from when rail transport started in Tasmania in the late 1860s . The State Government began operating a school bus from town , to Hagley , in the 1930s . Meander Valley Highway , formerly known as Bass Highway , passes through the edge of the town bypassing the old main street . Bass Highway , which connects Launceston , Burnie and Devonport , branches off from this east of the town at Travellers Rest and passes south of Hadspen . In the 21st century the town has three bus services : Redline Coaches runs a daily school bus service that passes through Hadspen to many of the Schools in and around Launceston ; Westbus , another private company , takes students to Hagley Farm School and onwards to Westbury Primary School ; Metro Tasmania 's public bus service connects Hadspen and the Rutherglen Holiday Village to the centre of Launceston . = = Sport = = Cricket has been played in Hadspen , at Entally and grounds nearer the town 's centre , since at least the 1860s . The cricket oval at Entally was one of the first in Australia and was hosting matches before Melbourne 's foundation . During his side 's 1874 tour of Australia the great English cricketer W. G. Grace played on the ground . Aside from cricket Entally 's grounds were often open for picnics and grand annual events . The Hadspen Chieftains cricket club was formed in the 1987 – 88 season and plays as part of the Northern Tasmania Cricket Association . They won the association 's A grade premiership in the 1991 – 92 and 1993 – 94 seasons , and the Charltons Cup Premiership — a combined competition with the North East Cricket Association — in the 1993 – 94 and 1994 – 95 seasons . Entally house has been associated with horse racing though the activities of Thomas Riebey . For a while there was horse racing at Entally Park itself , and ninety horses were raced from Entally 's stable . Two of these won wide acclaim : Stockwell was second in the Melbourne Cup and won the Carrick plate in 1881 ; Malua , stated by the Sydney Bulletin to be the " greatest horse of all time " , won the Melbourne cup in 1884 , though this was after his time at Entally . = = Heritage properties = = Hadspen has buildings that are largely intact from colonial times , some of which date from the early parts of the 19th century . The Red Feather inn , an adjacent convict era gaol and four cottages form a cluster of heritage buildings in the midst of the town . The gaol is a sandstone structure that was used to overnight convicts . The inn , gaol and watchmans 's cottage , St Andrew 's church and Entally House are all listed on the Tasmanian Heritage Register , a recognition of their " historic cultural heritage significance to the whole of Tasmania " . = = = Entally House = = = Entally house is a heritage listed property on the western bank of the South Esk river . It , and the buildings of Rutherglen Holiday Village , are the only part of the town on this side . Entally is set on 85 acres ( 34 ha ) of grounds , and contains a large colonial house , stables , a chapel , other outbuildings and several hectares of vineyards . The buildings are filled with indicative furniture and art of their time , including carriages and coaches in the coach house . Thomas Reibey had been in service with the East India Company when he met his wife Mary Haydock . He formed a trading company in Sydney and named its building " Entally House " after a suburb of Calcutta , India . Trading also brought his sons , Thomas Haydock and James , to Tasmania in the early 19th century . By 1816 James owned land near Hadspen and he purchased more in the 1820s . Thomas Haydock and Mary , his mother , purchased 2 @,@ 630 acres ( 1 @,@ 064 ha ) in 1818 in the then District of Cornwall , encompassing the present day site of Entally , and Thomas Haydock built the initial house in 1819 . The original building was apparently a single storey structure , its two square towers arrayed with defensive musket slots . It has been significantly extended and surrounded by outbuildings since . When Thomas Haydock Reibey died in October 1842 his son , Thomas Reibey , inherited it along with 4 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 620 ha ) of land and " The Oaks " , a property at nearby Carrick that now hosts the agricultural field days known as Agfest . This latter Reibey was a leading figure in the Anglican Church in the area , and became later Premier of Tasmania . He built a private chapel at Entally , with wooden furnishings and an organ . He is remembered as having a great interest in horse racing and hunting ; deer and horses were bred at Entally . At least 90 horses were raced from Entally 's stables over time including the famous " Stockwell " and Malua . By 1883 , the library was reported as the most extensive in the colony . Entally 's lawn was used often for picnics and cricket matches . In the 1930s Rutherglen , now on the opposite side of the Meander Valley Highway , was part of Entally estate . It was home to some 300 , ninety @-@ year @-@ old hazelnut trees that were under investigation regarding the prospect of growing Hazelnuts in Australia for Cadbury chocolate production . On Reibey 's death in February 1912 the property passed to his Nephew — Thomas Reibey Arthur — as Reibey had no children , and by 1929 the property was no longer in family hands . In December 1948 , after two years of negotiation , the land and buildings were acquired by the Scenery Preservation Board . The property was reserved as a " historic site " , more for its heritage value as a colonial home than its association with Reibey . Since then the house has been restored and filled with furniture , though not to original form , but rather as a facsimile of a wealthy 19th century colonial settler 's estate . Management of the site moved to the National Parks and Wildlife Service at its formation in Nov 1971 . The State Government took over management in 2004 , due to the expense of upkeep and concern over the property 's condition . Timber company Gunns was by 2005 looking at managing the property and planting 5 – 6 hectares of premium wine grapes . They leased it from 2005 partly to showcase wine , though the property remained open for visitors . In late 2010 Gunns handed management and control of the property back to the State Government and from then it was maintained by volunteers . Youth Futures , an employment training organisation , was given the task of managing the now established vineyard . = = = Church of the Good Shepherd = = = An Anglican church was planned for Hadspen in the late 1850s . Thomas Reibey had WG & E Habershon of London draw up plans in 1857 . The building 's design was based on St Mary 's parish church , Lutterworth , England . It was designed in an early English style with blue ironstone walls , and freestone dressing and reliefs . The nave was 37 @.@ 5 feet ( 11 @.@ 4 m ) long , the chancel 17 x 15 feet and the entrance was through a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) tower with a 24 @-@ foot ( 7 m ) spire . The foundation stone of " The new Episcopalian Church " or " The Reibey Church " was laid on 23 December 1868 . Construction , estimated to cost 1000 pounds , began with locally sourced stonework by Robert Sleightholm , whom Reibey met on a ship from England . Reibey was funding all of the construction costs . When the structure was mostly complete a scandal erupted around him . He was alleged to have indecently dealt with a married woman . Her husband raised the issue with the bishop , then in 1870 with no action by the Church again with the Church of England Synod in England . Reibey subsequently took libel action but his complaint was dismissed and the Jury largely held that the allegations against him were true . Apart from these allegations , Reibey 's wife 's health had been declining , his property had been declining in value , and he wrote that he had been considering relinquishing the Archdeaconship for a while . After only a few years the lack of funds provided left only one person working on the site . All work ceased in 1870 , by which time the walls were unfinished and the building still lacked a roof . Though the church was incomplete both Reibey and his wife Catherine were buried in a graveyard at the building 's rear . The church remained incomplete for over ninety years . By 1957 Anglican services were being held in St Stephens , a wooden church next to the apparent ruin . Around this time some in the church showed interest in completion of the old structure , partly due to the approaching centenary of construction beginning . In April of that year a gathering of people from the Parish of Carrick was held in the unfinished building , and a prayer held to bless its completion . The gathering , and associated committee , were led and chaired by W R Barrett , assistant bishop of Tasmania . The original architects ' plans had been preserved — though they were close to disintegration — and were largely followed in the subsequent construction work . A Launceston builder was contracted for the work , though much , including flooring , was performed by volunteers . Work was completed at an approximate cost of 8000 pounds , and the church was finally completed on 20 May 1961 , with the first service held the following day . Some furnishings in the church came from Entally 's Chapel including the altar and coverings , a wooden cross , symbolic paintings and a bell now hung in the church 's porch . The bell , formerly in St Stephens in Smithton , carries the inscription " Kains 1817 " and probably comes from the whaler " Kains " which was wrecked in 1835 . A stained glass window at the rear of the church originated in Entally 's chapel , and spent time installed in another nearby Church . It shows the crucifixion of Jesus and the Good Shepherd . The Church is a Gothic Revival design and somewhat scaled down from the original plans , the nave was built 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) shorter , with some changed elements such as the entrance being built in stone on the west side rather than wood on the south . The church was consecrated in February 1973 . = = = Red Feather Inn = = = The Red Feather Inn is a heritage listed building in Hadspen 's main street . It was built as a coaching inn and in the 21st century has been used for a restaurant and accommodation . The building 's frontage is a substantial sandstone single @-@ storey building . Land falls away sharply from the street and the building 's rear has two @-@ storeys . Rising affluence in the 1840s had enabled growth of the coach transport industry . When built the Red Feather Inn was the first horse @-@ change point on the road from Launceston , 8 miles ( 13 km ) away , to Deloraine , and it was one of the colony 's earliest coaching inns . It was built , starting in 1842 , for local police magistrate Charles Arthur . It was built by John Sprunt , also builder of Macquarie House in Launceston 's civic square , using convict hewn sandstone blocks . The inn was first licensed in 1844 and was at first successful . In only a few decades its fortunes declined when a rail line was built from Launceston , reaching nearby Carrick in 1869 . The economy of rail transport took goods and passengers away , forcing wagons from the road . This reduced the demand for coaching inns , and led to a general decline in traffic through and business in the town . As of 2004 it was run as a restaurant and , after a 2008 refurbishment , has been used for accommodation and a cooking school . = = Bridges = = Flooding of the South Esk River and the need for a river crossing have constrained transport in the town for much of its history . The South Esk , now crossed by a bridge on the Meander Valley Highway , separates the town from settlements further west and unusually high floods can cut the highway on the town 's east , when it is submerged at Beams Hollow . The river was first crossed by a ford known as " Reibey 's Ford " near Entally House . Due to the variability in its flow this ford was frequently impassable requiring traffic to make significant detours . Thomas Haydock Reibey installed a punt at the crossing in 1828 . By a specially passed Government act he was allowed to charge a toll for its use . Tenders were called for in 1836 for design and construction of a bridge at the village of Hadspen . Five years later the colony 's government passed " Reibey 's ford act " to facilitate construction of a bridge . The act specified that of the £ 1500 cost for the bridge , £ 500 was to be paid by the government , and the remainder by Thomas Haydock Reibey . To recover the costs Reibey was allowed to charge a toll , assisted by a toll house and by turnpikes at the bridge 's ends . On construction the toll was mandated as 1d per person , 1s per wagon or carriage , 4d per unladen beast and 1 / 2d per calf , sheep , pig or lamb . The elder Reibey died before the bridge was completed and his son and executor Thomas Reibey acquired his father 's rights , collecting the tolls after the bridge was completed . The toll was to run for the lesser of 30 years , or whatever time it took to pay for the original bridge construction costs plus an annual 15 % interest . The wooden bridge was completed by November 1843 , and within a little over a year the tolls had raised 453 pounds . It was known as " Reibey 's Bridge " and was narrow — fitting only a single wagon — with a single chain each side for safety , a fact that caused the loss of at least one valuable horse . The bridge became noted for its insecure state , the lack of rails a particular issue , and it was referred to as " dangerous and unsightly " . A new bridge , 3 feet ( 1 m ) higher than the one it replaced , was under construction in 1878 . This new structure was 350 feet ( 107 m ) long , had a wooden frame and deck standing on stone piers . Floods continued to overflow Hadspen 's only bridge , floods in 1893 may have been 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above the bridge 's approach road 's level ; both the bridge and approach roads were extensively damaged and 250 feet ( 76 m ) of guard rails were carried away . By 1911 the river was crossed , on the same site , with a steel bridge . This new structure had concrete buttresses and a wooden roadway . In March of that year floods over @-@ topped it by approximately 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) and five of the bridge 's seven spans went down , girders were broken , piers sheared through , and some swept into the river . The bridge was repaired later in the year and stood for another half century . Over time , particularly after floods , there were calls for the bridge to be raised , though the expense of the work — and the only occasional nature of flooding — was cited in defence of the bridge 's adequacy . When the river flooded the bridge , it also often flooded Beams Ford on the other side of Hadspen , temporarily cutting off all road access to the town . The Minister for Land and Works had approved work on raising it in 1939 , but this was postponed indefinitely due to World War II . Raising or renewal of the bridge was again being investigated in 1946 . The river again flooded over the bridge in July 1952 , the first time since the mid @-@ 1940s , and the timber deck was still being repaired into 1953 . The last and latest bridge was constructed as part of a bypass of the centre of Hadspen . By 1978 , the Bass Highway crossed the river further upstream and the old main road was no longer a through road . This bridge is a 240 metres ( 790 ft ) long two @-@ lane single @-@ carriageway concrete structure . = = Today 's town = = Hadspen is a small town that functions as a " dormitory suburb " , an extension of the Launceston metropolitan area . Entally House lies on the Town 's west , across the river . The town has a small shopping centre with a post office and service station , adjacent to a large caravan and cabin park . Development has been almost entirely residential and mostly on the northern side of Meander Valley Highway . Over 13 hectares ( 32 acres ) of land was already zoned for development within the town boundary as of 2005 , and the council plans to allow further expansion on the Highway 's south . A 1978 study looked at various areas around Hadspen for development , the only area to date where this has happened is the small expansion of the town south of the Highway on the River 's east bank . . The town is in the Meander Valley Council local government area , both the federal and state electoral Division of Bass , and the Tasmanian Legislative Council electoral division of Western Tiers . Hadspen has grown without any area set aside for small commercial operations , a fact that has led to just a single shopping complex . There was another service station , in the main street , but it closed in 2008 after operating for approximately forty years . Rutherglen is a holiday village , conference and event centre , and retirement village on the town 's west . It is the only premises in Hadspen with a general liquor licence . Rutherglen , or a similarly named premises at the same location , has been used for accommodation since at least 1923 . The town has access to reticulated water and sewerage . The town 's sewerage has been , since the mid @-@ 1970s , processed at a plant near Carrick that also serves that town . Treated waste @-@ water from there is discharged into a tributary of the Liffey River .
= Job for a Cowboy = Job for a Cowboy is an American death metal band from Glendale , Arizona . Formed in 2003 , the band 's debut album Genesis was released in 2007 , peaking at No. 54 on the US Billboard 200 and selling 13 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release . The second album , 2009 's Ruination , sold 10 @,@ 600 copies in the United States in its first week to debut at position No. 42 on the Billboard 200 chart . The band comprises vocalist Jonny Davy , guitarists Tony Sannicandro and Al Glassman , and bassist Nick Schendzielos , with Davy being the only remaining founding member . The band has played in international music festivals , including Sounds of the Underground , Download Festival , Mayhem Festival , Summer Slaughter , Graspop Metal Meeting and Wacken Open Air . = = History = = = = = Formation and Doom ( 2003 – 2006 ) = = = Job for a Cowboy was founded in Glendale , Arizona during December 2003 by vocalist Jonny Davy , guitarists Ravi Bhadriraju and Andrew Arcurio , bassist Chad Staples , and drummer Andy Rysdam while the band members were no older than 15 and 16 . In 2004 , they created a MySpace profile , posted songs online , and immediately began to connect with several worldwide fans . Later that year , Staples and Rysdam left Job for a Cowboy and were replaced by Brent Riggs and Elliott Sellers respectively as bassist and drummer . Traffic to the band 's MySpace profile increased exponentially in late 2005 when the band released their first EP , entitled Doom . The EP attracted the attention of Arizona independent label King of the Monsters , who distributed the disc after an initial self @-@ released pressing by the band . Job for a Cowboy extensively promoted their EP , including three performances on the Sounds of the Underground tour . By the end of the year , the band obtained professional management and signed a deal with Metal Blade Records , who reissued Doom with a bonus track . During the same year ( 2006 ) , Arcurio left the band , and Bobby Thompson joined the group . While Job for a Cowboy was writing material for their first full @-@ length album , Sellers announced that he would be leaving the band to go back to school immediately after recording the album . In search of a permanent drummer , the band then posted a bulletin on Blabbermouth.net , which was seen by Jon " The Charn " Rice . He made a video of himself , posted it on YouTube , and sent the link to the band . Soon after , Rice was incepted into the band . = = = Genesis ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = = In March 2007 , Job for a Cowboy completed their debut full @-@ length album , Genesis . It was recorded at Blue Light Audio Media in Phoenix , Arizona with producer Cory Spotts . It was mixed by Sabbat guitarist Andy Sneap ; released on May 15 , the album peaked at No. 54 on the Billboard 200 , and sold nearly 13 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , which made Genesis the highest @-@ charting heavy metal debut since Slipknot 's 1999 debut album . The album received generally positive reviews , with Kerrang ! magazine saying , " an album that quite literally obliterates everyone else currently residing within the death and grind scenes " and " one of the year 's most essential metal purchases " . In June 2007 , the band performed at the Download Festival in Donington Park , England . The group also played at the Sounds of the Underground festival along with Amon Amarth , Chimaira , Gwar , and Shadows Fall . In October , Job for a Cowboy co @-@ headlined the 2007 Radio Rebellion Tour , teaming up with Behemoth , Gojira and Beneath the Massacre . The band featured on the 2008 's Gigantour with headliners Megadeth , Children of Bodom , In Flames and High on Fire . In addition , they have been confirmed for a number of festivals during 2008 , including Wacken Open Air in Germany and a second appearance at England 's Download Festival . Job for a Cowboy have embarked on a U.S. headlining tour in November and December 2008 with supporting acts Hate Eternal and All Shall Perish . In late @-@ 2008 guitarist Ravi Bhadriraju left Job for a Cowboy to return to school because he wanted to pursue a more rewarding career in the medical field . ; he was replaced with former Despised Icon guitarist , Al Glassman . = = = Ruination and Gloom ( 2009 – 2011 ) = = = On May 1 , 2009 , the band announced that they completed recording their second studio album , Ruination , at AudioHammer studios in Sanford , Florida with producer Jason Suecof . The album marks the debut of drummer Jon " the Charn " Rice , who has actually been with the band since the tour for Genesis , and also of guitarist Al Glassman . Ruination , was then released on July 7 , 2009 worldwide through Metal Blade Records . The album sold around 10 @,@ 600 copies in the United States in its first week of release to debut at position No. 42 on the Billboard 200 chart . Job for a Cowboy participated in the second Mayhem Festival , playing on the Hot Topic stage along with bands such as Cannibal Corpse and Whitechapel . At the beginning of 2011 , the band started work on an EP which was recorded in February at the Audiohammer Studios in Sanford , Florida with producer Jason Suecof . Just before the recording process began , bassist Brent Riggs and guitarist Bobby Thompson departed from the band and were replaced by Nick Schendzielos of Cephalic Carnage and Tony Sannicandro , respectively . On April 13 , 2011 , a video appeared on the internet of drummer Jon Rice performing a new song in the studio . Job for a Cowboy issued their new EP on June 7 , 2011 , entitled Gloom , which was only made available for purchase through mail order and digital download . Job for a Cowboy have entered Audio Hammer Studios to begin recording their next effort . The group is working with the production team of Jason Suecof , Eyal Levi of Dååth , and Ronn Miller on the project . = = = Demonocracy and Sun Eater ( 2012 – present ) = = = On February 21 , 2012 , Job for a Cowboy released their first single from their new album Demonocracy , titled " Nourishment Through Bloodshed " . It was released via Metal Blade Records ' YouTube channel . On March 20 , Job for a Cowboy premiered the song " Black Discharge " and on April 2 , the song " Imperium Wolves " . Demonocracy was released on April 10 , 2012 and had first @-@ week sales reaching 4 @,@ 900 which had it chart at 87 on the Billboard 200 . That summer they were a part of the Summer Slaughter tour with acts such as Cannibal Corpse , Between the Buried and Me , and The Faceless . On October 21 , 2013 , the band announced they are recording their fourth full @-@ length album . The band 's drummer , Jon " The Charn " Rice , announced 8 days after the announcement that he was departing the band . It was announced on February 5 , 2014 that he had joined hard rock band Scorpion Child . On September 23 , 2014 , the band announced their upcoming album Sun Eater , which was scheduled for release on November 11 via Metal Blade . The band also released their first single from the album titled " Sun of Nihility " . The second single released off of Sun Eater was the song " Eating the Visions of God " . On January 22 , 2016 it was announced that drummer Jon ' The Charn ' Rice had rejoined the band . = = Musical style = = The band originally started as a deathcore group , but changed their style to death metal with the release of their first full @-@ length album Genesis . They have been described by The New York Times as " an Arizona band with a guttural , brute @-@ force sound descended ( indirectly ) from hardcore punk " and " straightforwardly brutal act " by Rolling Stone magazine . = = Band members = = = = = Timeline = = = = = Discography = = = = = Studio albums = = = = = = EPs = = = = = = Demos = = = Demo ' 04 ( 2004 ) = = = Singles = = = = = = Music videos = = = = = Concert tours = = Sounds of the Underground 2006 ( 2006 ) Job for a Cowboy Jan / Feb 2007 tour ( January 12 - February 18 , 2007 ) Unearth European headlining tour ( March 21 - April 16 , 2007 ) Download Festival 2007 ( June 8 – 10 , 2007 ) Radio Rebellion Tour ( October 18 - November 18 , 2007 ) Gigantour 3 : North America ( April 12 - May 22 , 2008 ) Wacken Open Air 2008 ( July 2008 ) Headlining Tour ( November 13 - December 16 , 2008 ) Mayhem Festival 2009 ( July 10 - August 16 , 2009 ) Lamb of God Us Tour ( September 16 - November 11 , 2009 ) Lamb of God Europe Tour ( February 9 - March 12 , 2010 ) Job For A Cowboy Headlining Tour ( April 21 - May 27 , 2010 ) Download Festival 2010 ( June 11 , 2010 ) Gods of Metal 2010 ( June 25 , 2010 ) Graspop Metal Meeting 2010 ( June 27 , 2010 ) With Full Force 2010 ( July 2 , 2010 ) Wacken Open Air 2010 ( August 6 – 7 , 2010 ) 2010 South American Tour ( July 17 – 25 , 2010 ) Ruination UK / Euro Tour 2010 ( November 4 – 28 , 2010 ) Job for a Cowboy Fall US Headline Tour ( December 5 – 20 , 2010 ) Between the Buried and Me US Tour ( April 15 - May 15 , 2011 ) Destroyers Of The Faith UK ( March 3 – 11 , 2012 ) Metal Alliance Tour 2012 ( March 15 - April 21 , 2012 ) The Summer Slaughter Tour 2012 ( July 20 - August 25 , 2012 ) The Womb to Waste Tour ( September 14 - October 14 , 2012 ) The End of the World ( December 6 – 18 , 2012 ) Bonecrusher Fest 2013 ( March 1 – 30 , 2013 ) The Divinity of Purpose 2013 Tour ( April 9 – 21 , 2013 ) Mayhem Festival 2013 ( June 29 - August 4 , 2013 )
= Jean Desbouvrie = Jean Desbouvrie ( c.1840 – 47 – ? ) was a French amateur bird trainer who believed that swallows could be put to use for military communications . During the late 19th century Desbouvrie persuaded the government of France to conduct a study on the feasibility of using swallows as messengers . His early demonstrations showed that swallows could exhibit homing behavior and that when they did so they flew much faster than homing pigeons . Desbouvrie also succeeded in curbing the birds ' natural migratory behavior . After obtaining authorization from the government for follow @-@ up testing , Desbouvrie delayed and did not follow through with rigorous experimentation . Desbouvrie received international attention in the press for two unrelated reasons : the bird experiments , and also for a proposal he made to the Paris Academy of Medicine . The Academy published his paper , which declared chronic alcoholism to be a serious public health problem and offered a solution in the form of a claimed cure for hangovers . Desbouvrie hypothesized that the consumption of food which contained an appropriate balance of fat and albumen would prevent hangovers from occurring . He sent the Academy a selection of homemade chocolates along with his manuscript , with assurances that he had tested the concoction extensively upon himself . = = Youth = = Jean Desbouvrie was raised in a village near Roubaix where he worked as a messenger for his father . During his youth he had an avid interest in birds and was determined to disprove general belief that swallows were impossible to tame , so from the age of eleven onward he robbed nests between his work deliveries . Over time he managed to get a dozen swallows to follow him . According to a report published in 1889 , " They would fly round his head and perch on his shoulders in the open street . " = = Swallow training = = Desbouvrie kept his swallows in a cage and trained them to fly in and out of the cage . Another challenge he overcame was the birds ' natural migratory behavior . Desbouvrie believed that swallows migrated southward because the supply of insects for them to feed upon dwindled in winter . Desbouvrie refused to make public disclosure of what he fed the birds in wintertime and regarded that as a trade secret . Later attempts to train homing behavior into migratory birds determined that the birds have no instinctive knowledge of where to fly when the season changes , so if the normal migratory pattern is disrupted during the first year of life the individual does not migrate afterward . He spent over 30 years keeping birds and devoted two rooms of his house to swallows . One room housed a cage for the swallows . The other room was a training space with a balcony used for practice releases . He documented the age and health of each bird in a register , and marked each one by tying a colored silk to its leg . Red silk indicated a trained bird and blue silk indicated a partially trained bird . Trained swallows were allowed to roam outside their cages , while the others remained caged at all times . Untrained birds were sold as pets . An 1889 report described a demonstration of Desbouvrie 's swallows : Four of the little prisoners , the oldest not more than twenty days , were let loose . It was raining in torrents at the moment , a circumstance by no means favorable to the trial . The birds rose in the air , flew round the house several times , and then darted off into the country , disappearing into the country . Twenty @-@ five minutes after the youngest returned and perched on the balcony ; the other three did not come back before an hour . They all then entered the cage @-@ room , when Desbouvrie gave them some food , which they ate out of his hand . = = Potential applications of swallow training = = The 1955 book Bird Navigation describes efforts at training homing behavior in species other than pigeons . Bird Navigation mentions Desbouvrie as an early experimenter , and also a passage from Pliny the Elder in which " Caecina of Volterra " ( possibly Caecina Paetus ) used painted swallows to report the colors of winning horses in a race . It is uncertain whether Desbouvrie was aware of the Pliny 's report . Carrier pigeons had been a significant factor in communications during the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 . An 1892 report in The American Magazine that discussed Desbouvrie 's efforts noted the importance of pigeons to that war : " Upon several occasions , indeed , the inhabitants of the beleaguered cities looked upon the successful flights of these birds as their only hope betwixt death and starvation . " By the late 19th century Russia was training military falcons , possibly to carry messages or else to hunt the war pigeons . Swallows offered several advantages over pigeons if training could succeed . Swallows fly higher and faster , and are more difficult for marksmen to shoot or for birds of prey to intercept . Swallows are also able to feed during flight . = = Government interest = = As a demonstration , Desbouvrie brought an untamed swallow from the Roubaix area to Paris and released it . The bird returned to its home 258 kilometers away in 90 minutes . Desbouvrie promised that trained swallows would provide even better speeds . The governor of Lille oversaw testing near Roubaix and a military engineer named Captain Degouy was ordered to oversee a duplication of the Roubaix experiments . Desbouvrie proposed two swallow aviaries at Montmartre and at Fort Mont @-@ Valérien . The Montmartre cote was scheduled to be constructed first , if Captain Degouy confirmed the results and recommended further training . A report from The Globe stated that Debouvrie believed all his birds were too young for full testing and required additional training . The American Magazine noted that Desbouvrie did not breed his birds and obtained them all as nestlings , although he promised he could breed them easily if he wanted to do so . Over half a century later P.W. Brian stated in Bird Navigation that Desbouvrie " appeared to be unwilling to demonstrate them . " The Globe published a favorable report of Desbouvrie 's efforts , although noting that further testing was needed . The Zoologist republished the Globe report with a note that Zoologist editors " have no faith in the idea that the experiment will succeed in his object . " The American Magazine dismissed the project with the statement , " The idea of engaging swallows in war is a pretty one , as , in future , all European wars will have to be conducted in ' swallow time ' — when the warm winds blow from the sunny south . " = = Academy of Medicine presentation = = In 1888 the Bulletin de l 'academie de medicine ( Bulletin of the Academy of Medicine ) published a report that Desbouvrie had sent them a manuscript and requested verification of an invention he claimed to have made . He called it was a matter of public health to counter the effects of chronic alcoholism . According to the report , which was republished in English in summary form in the Medical Record and the Cincinnati Lancet @-@ clinic , Desbouvrie had attempted a preventive cure for hangovers . Desbouvrie asserted that the cure required eating albumen and fat in appropriate proportions one hour before alcohol consumption , and had invented a chocolate which he claimed contained both ingredients in an effective ratio . He provided samples to the Academy and assured its members he had tested the cure upon himself .
= 1974 UCI Road World Championships – Men 's road race = The Men 's Individual Road Race of the 1974 UCI Road World Championships cycling event took place on August 25 in Montreal , Canada . The route consisted of twenty @-@ one laps around a circuit that contained two climbs within it , totaling to a length of 262 @.@ 5 km ( 163 @.@ 1 mi ) . Belgian Eddy Merckx won the race , while French riders Raymond Poulidor and Mariano Martínez finished second and third , respectively . This was Merckx 's third victory in the men 's road race at the UCI Road World Championships , equaling the record . In addition , he also completed the Triple Crown of Cycling , which consists of winning two Grand Tour races and the men 's road race at the UCI Road World Championships in a calendar year . The day of racing was highlighted by two large solo efforts on the part of the French riders Francis Campaner and Bernard Thévenet . Campaner attacked during the race 's second lap and rode solo until being joined in the tenth lap by Gerard Vianen . The two were caught in the twelfth ciruit and shortly after their capture , Thévenet attacked on his own and rode on his own through most of the final lap . Merckx initiated a chase group during the seventeenth lap that managed to catch and pass Thévenet with seven kilometers remaining . The group then splintered into two groups of two , with Merckx and Poulidor riding into the finish together . Merckx took victory in the two @-@ man sprint . = = Race route = = The route for the race consisted of 21 laps that totaled for 262 @.@ 5 km ( 163 @.@ 1 mi ) of racing , with each lap being 12 @.@ 5 km ( 7 @.@ 8 mi ) in length . Each circuit featured two climbs within it , including a cross of Mount Royal . The route for the race navigated through the Université de Montréal campus . Several sports writers deemed the route to be difficult . The race began at 9 AM local time . = = Participants and race favorites = = The race began with 70 riders from fifteen different countries , of which eighteen managed to finish the race . Reigning champion , Felice Gimondi , started the race despite sustaining injuries from a fall in the Bernocchi Cup the week beforehand . The Belgian team featured the riders Eddy Merckx , Herman Van Springel , Freddy Maertens , Patrick Sercu , and Roger De Vlaeminck , which cycling author William Fotheringham believed to be one of the best Belgian teams to race at the World Championships . Gianni Pignata of La Stampa believed that the race would likely be won by an Italian or a Belgian rider , but stated that Dutchman Gerrie Knetemann and Spaniard Luis Ocaña were dark @-@ horse candidates for the victory . In particular , young Italian Francesco Moser was expected to provide race favorite Merckx with " stiff competition . " De Telegraaf writer Charles Taylor believed that José Manuel Fuente would be the best Spanish candidate for victory since Ocaña had recently recovered from sickness and injuries from crashes in different races . Taylor stated that there was no serious Dutch contender that could challenge the favorite , Merckx . = = Race summary = = The whole starting peloton stayed intact for the first lap which took only 18 ' 36 " to complete . The first attack came from French rider Francis Campaner . He managed to earn a 37 " advantage as he finished the second circuit and he increased that lead to 1 ' 19 " at the conclusion of the third lap . Behind , the chasing group was led by Francesco Moser , Eddy Merckx , and Felice Gimondi . After the fourth lap , Campaner had gained thirty more seconds on the peloton . The gap between Campaner and the main field reached its maximum after the fifth lap — at 2 ' 21 " — and was reduced to 1 ' 36 " with the finishing of the sixth circuit . The seventh lap saw a speed drop by the leading rider and the chasing peloton , allowing Campaner 's advantage to increase back to 2 ' 21 " . The next two laps saw the gap fluctuate a little as the margin stayed around the two @-@ minute mark . During the eleventh lap , Dutch rider Gerard Vianen attacked and managed to get within fifteen seconds of Campaner as the tenth lap ended , with the peloton 1 ' 27 " behind . Vianen joined Campaner during the eleventh circuit as Merckx attacked from behind , along with Gerrie Knetemann . During the twelfth circuit , Vianen and Campaner were caught . Shortly after the re @-@ absorption of the duo back into the peloton , Bernard Thévenet attacked and established a 40 " advantage . Campaner retired from the race in the kilometers following being caught , while Vianen retired during the thirteenth lap . Tino Conti and Freddy Maertens attacked on the thirteenth lap and managed to get a time gap of 25 " on the peloton , but still trailed Thévenet by 1 ' 10 " at the conclusion of the lap . Through the fifteenth lap , the duo was able to obtain over a minute lead on the peloton ; however , Thévenet was still increasing his advantage over the race as a whole , with his lead reaching three minutes over the peloton . The field began to increase its tempo in the sixteenth lap and close the gap to the Conti @-@ Maertens group , which prompted Maertens to wait up for the peloton , while Conti rode solo . On the seventeenth lap , a chase group with many race contenders – including Raymond Poulidor , Francesco Moser , Eddy Merckx , Maertens , and Herman Van Springel – formed and caught Conti . By the completion of the nineteenth lap , the chase group had shrunked to nine riders and Thévenet 's lead had dropped to 2 ' 05 " . Gimondi dropped out of the race the same lap . The penultimate circuit saw the chase group , led by Merckx , shrink to five members and Thévenet 's lead dwindle to 35 " . The riders that remained in the chase group were Van Springel , Poulidor , Mariano Martínez , Merckx , and Giacinto Santambrogio . Van Springel was dropped by the Merckx group before Thévenet was caught and passed on the final climb of Mount Royal , with around 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) remaining . The chase group led by Merckx broke into two groups of two , with Poulidor and Merckx riding together and Martinez and Santambrogio behind , together . The split was caused by a move made by Merckx with close to 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) left . With two hundred meters remaining in the race , Merckx attacked and managed to open up a two @-@ second gap between himself and Poulidor as he crossed the finish line to win the race . = = Result = = = = Aftermath = = With his victory in the race , Eddy Merckx became the first rider to achieve the Triple Crown of Cycling , which consists of winning two Grand Tour races and the men 's road race at the UCI Road World Championships in a calendar year . Merckx had already won the Giro d 'Italia and the Tour de France , both of which are Grand Tours , before the World Championships and winning the men 's road race allowed him to complete the Triple Crown . This feat has since been matched by only one rider , Stephen Roche , who managed to complete the Triple Crown in the 1987 season . This was also Merckx 's third world title , which made him the third rider to ever be world champion three times , after Alfredo Binda and Rik Van Steenbergen . This was Merckx 's final world championship victory and also the last season that he won a Grand Tour . On February 22 , 1975 , Merckx gave the bike that he used during the race to Pope Paul VI while visiting Vatican City . Following the victory , Merckx told the press that he felt lucky that Bernard Thévenet was weakened from his efforts on the road . In regards to his sprint against Raymond Poulidor , Merckx stated that he feared only an external setback because " In the sprint [ he ] could not lose . Despite Thévenet missing out on a medal , Raymond Poulidor stated that the French were content with the results and worked great together . Reflecting on the race , De Telegraaf writer Charles Taylor stated he felt this race was " one of the finest and most sensational bicycle races in recent years . " Taylor noted a poor showing by the Dutch riders , citing that only two managed to finish the race . Taylor believed that the Dutch participants competed in too many criteriums between the end of the Tour de France and the start of the World Championships , which led to them not having fresh enough legs for the race . De Telegraaf also reported that there were over a 100 @,@ 000 spectators for the men 's road race . Francesco Moser was found to have had a disappointing performance as he placed seventh on the day , in part because he was suffering from a leg cramp .
= St Edern 's Church , Bodedern = St Edern 's Church , Bodedern ( sometimes referred to as St Ederyn 's Church ) is a medieval parish church in the village of Bodedern , in Anglesey , north Wales . Although St Edern established a church in the area in the 6th century , the oldest parts of the present building date from the 14th century . Subsequent alterations include the addition of some windows in the 15th century , and a chancel , transept and porch in the 19th century , when the nave walls were largely rebuilt . Stained glass was also inserted into the windows of the chancel and transept . The church contains a 6th @-@ century inscribed stone found near the village , a medieval font , and some 17th @-@ century decorated wooden panels from Jesus College , Oxford , which was formerly connected with the church . St Edern 's also owns three pieces of 19th @-@ century church silverware , but a silver chalice dated 1574 was lost some time during the 19th century . An 18th @-@ century gallery at the west end rests on two oak crossbeams , one of which was previously used to support the rood loft . The church is still used for worship by the Church in Wales , one of nine in a combined parish , but as of 2013 there has not been a vicar in the parish since September 2009 . It is a Grade II * listed building , a national designation given to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " , in particular because it is regarded as " a good example of a late medieval church , its character maintained in the late 19th @-@ century restoration and rebuilding work , and retaining some of the medieval fabric and windows . " = = History and location = = Bodedern is a village in Anglesey , Wales , about 5 miles ( 8 km ) from the port town of Holyhead . " Aeternus " , known in Welsh as St Edern or sometimes in a variant spelling as " St Ederyn " , is recorded in the Welsh genealogies as the son or grandson of Beli ap Rhun ( a 6th @-@ century king of Gwynedd ) . He appears as " Edern ap Nudd " , one of the knights of King Arthur , in the Mabinogion ( a collection of medieval Welsh prose tales ) . He established a church in the area in the 6th century , perhaps at Pen Eglwys Edern , a site about half a mile away ( 800 m ) from the present building ( eglwys means " church " and pen means " head " or " top " ) . Excavations there in the early 1970s revealed a cemetery from the 5th or 6th century . The village takes its name from the saint ; the Welsh prefix bod means " dwelling of " . The present building stands in a churchyard in the centre of Bodedern , on the north side of Church Street . St Edern 's is medieval in origin , with later additions and alterations . The oldest part is the nave , which has been described as " essentially 14th @-@ century " , although it was rebuilt in 1871 during restoration work under Henry Kennedy , architect of the Diocese of Bangor . It was one of many churches in Anglesey to be rebuilt or restored in the 19th century – few remained untouched – and Kennedy was responsible for much of the work carried out from the 1840s to the 1890s . The north wall was rebuilt above the tops of the windows , whereas only the bottom 2 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 to 0 @.@ 9 m ) of the south wall was left unaltered . During this work , some of the nave windows inserted in the 15th century were repositioned , and a chancel ( at the east end ) , a porch ( south @-@ west corner ) and a transept or side chapel ( north @-@ east corner of the nave ) were added . The " extensive " work cost about £ 1 @,@ 000 . St Edern 's is still used for worship by the Church in Wales ( the Anglican church within Wales ) , as one of nine parish churches in the combined benefice of Bodedern with Llanfaethlu . The nine churches do not have an incumbent priest as of 2013 , and have not had one since September 2009 . The church is within the deanery of Llifon and Talybolion , the archdeaconry of Bangor , and the Diocese of Bangor . The church was at one time an ecclesiastical dependency ( or " daughter church " ) of St Cybi 's , Holyhead . The right of patronage ( the power to appoint the rector of Holyhead and its associated churches and the right to receive income from the church ) was bequeathed to Jesus College , Oxford , in 1648 . The college was the patron of the parish until 1920 , when the Welsh Church Act 1914 came into force and the Church in Wales was disestablished . In 1849 , the writer Samuel Lewis noted that the college and Queen Anne 's Bounty ( a fund to support poor clergy ) had recently each paid £ 400 for a new parsonage . He also recorded that the college received a rent charge of £ 476 and 8 shillings each year from the parish instead of receiving the tithes . The college donated £ 200 towards the restoration work in 1871 . = = Architecture and fittings = = = = = Construction and layout = = = St Edern 's is built in the Perpendicular style using local stone , with blocks of cut sandstone as the external face . The roof is made from slate with stone copings and has a bellcote at the west end , with one bell ( dating probably from the 17th century ) . There is one external buttress to the south @-@ east of the nave to help support the weight of the building , and there are crosses on the roof of the porch and at the east end of the nave and chancel roofs . The church 's entrance is an arched outer doorway in the porch , with a 15th @-@ century pointed inner door set in a square frame described by one architectural guide as " boldly moulded " . The roof of the porch reuses medieval wood . The nave , which has five bays , measures 59 feet 6 inches by 16 feet 9 inches ( 18 @.@ 1 by 5 @.@ 1 m ) . A gallery at the west end is supported by two oak crossbeams , one of which has the date of 1777 inscribed . According to one 19th @-@ century writer , an old rood loft had previously rested on one of the beams supporting the gallery . The late @-@ medieval internal roof timbers are exposed . The chancel , which is 17 by 16 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 by 4 @.@ 9 m ) , is raised two steps above the nave and is separated from it by a Victorian pointed arch ; there is also a Victorian arch between the nave and the north transept . The second of the three steps leading up from the chancel to the sanctuary at the east end is decorated with encaustic tiles , with the Welsh words Golchaf fy nwylaw mewn diniweidrwydd ath allor o Arglwydd a amglych hynaf ( " Wash my passion away with innocence at the altar of the Lord here " ) . = = = Windows = = = There are five windows on the south side of the nave ; the one to the west of the porch is set in a pointed frame , and the others are in square frames . The middle and easternmost of the five date originally from the 15th century but have been repositioned ; the other three are 19th @-@ century . On the north side , there is a pointed doorway from the early 14th century , with a 19th @-@ century window to the west and two repositioned 15th @-@ century windows with two lights ( sections of window separated by mullions ) to the east . The west wall has a repositioned 15th @-@ century window . The chancel 's east window is also 15th @-@ century , with three lights headed by trefoils ( a three @-@ leaf pattern ) and decorated with tracery . It has 19th @-@ century glass depicting the Ascension . The south side of the chancel and the north transept have 19th @-@ century windows ; the south chancel window has three lights with tracery headed by cinquefoils ( a five @-@ leaf pattern ) , with geometric patterns of glass . The east and south chancel stained glass is in memory of the wife , son , and daughter of Hugh Wynne Jones , who died in the mid @-@ 19th century . He was the first priest to be vicar of the parish ( 1868 – 1888 ) ; his predecessors had been curates , a lower position . He is depicted as Simeon , who in Luke 's Gospel receives Jesus and his family when they visit the Temple of Jerusalem after the birth of Jesus ( an event celebrated as the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple ) . The north transept has a three @-@ light window to the north depicting St Edern , by Franz Mayer & Co . There are also windows with two lights on the east and west sides of the transept , one of which has a window from 1951 by Celtic Studios . = = = Panelwork and other fittings = = = St Edern 's has several pieces of 17th @-@ century panelwork , possibly of Dutch origin . There is a softwood panel screen between the nave and chancel , decorated with carved flowers and fruit , with a frieze of acanthus leaf . The reredos ( the screen behind the altar ) has further carved panelling , as does the upper section of the rectangular pulpit , a reading desk , the communion rail and a table . The panels of the communion rail , set between wooden columns decorated with fruit , flowers and ribbons , are topped by a long balustrade , also decorated with acanthus leaf . The panels came from Jesus College , possibly from the college chapel which was renovated in 1864 by the architect G. E. Street , or from a disused gallery in the library ; the balustrade previously ran along the tops of the chapel 's pews . The college 's archivist has described the chancel as containing " a startling assemblage " of panels , " patched together in jigsaw fashion " and " heavily varnished " . A stone dating from the 6th century and inscribed with the name " Ergagni " is kept in the transept . It was discovered during excavations of the Pen Eglwys Edern site in 1972 . The font , which is medieval in date , is a plain octagonal bowl set on an octagonal column . Memorials include a " chunky Grecian memorial " to an officer of the Bengal Native Infantry who died in 1835 , a tablet in neoclassical style from 1839 , and a slate tablet to an army officer who died in 1914 . A survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire in 1937 also noted an oak communion table and two oak chairs of simple design , both from the early 18th century , and various memorials inside and outside the church from the 17th and 18th centuries . A survey of church plate within the Bangor diocese in 1906 recorded three silver items : a plain chalice dated 1887 – 88 , a paten dated 1803 – 04 , and a flagon inscribed " Bodedern 1809 " . The author noted that church records from 1776 to 1831 included mention of another silver chalice , dated 1574 , with other references to a flagon and a paten made from pewter , but these were no longer to be found . = = Churchyard = = The churchyard contains the war grave of a Royal Field Artillery soldier of World War I. = = Assessment = = The church has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II * listed building – the second @-@ highest of the three grades of listing , designating " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . It was given this status on 5 April 1971 because it was regarded as " a good example of a late medieval church , its character maintained in the late 19th @-@ century restoration and rebuilding work , and retaining some of the medieval fabric and windows " . Cadw ( the Welsh Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also notes " some finely detailed fittings including the chancel screen , reredos , pulpit and reading desk with 17th @-@ century carved panels , and also a late 18th @-@ century gallery at the west end . " There are various descriptions of the church as it stood before Kennedy 's 1871 rebuilding . In 1833 , the Anglesey antiquarian Angharad Llwyd described the church as " a small ancient structure , displaying some good architectural details " . She also noted that it contained " some fine monuments " to members of local families . The Welsh politician and church historian Sir Stephen Glynne visited the church in 1851 . He said that the church was " little superior in size or architecture to the generality of Anglesey churches " , but added that it was in " a neat and creditable state " . He also commented upon the " neat and uniform " pews . In 1862 , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones wrote that the church was " of good work , and with the details of doors and windows carefully elaborated . " He compared the east window to that at St Mary 's Church , Llanfair @-@ yng @-@ Nghornwy ( also on Anglesey ) , and noted that there was an ambry or recess in the east wall beneath the window .
= Knut Arild Hareide = Knut Arild Hareide ( born 23 November 1972 ) a Norwegian politician who serves as a member of parliament from Hordaland and as the current leader of the Christian Democratic Party . Hareide served as Minister of the Environment from 2004 to 2005 in the second Bondevik cabinet . In 2007 he announced he would step down from the national political scene for the time being , but he returned when he was nominated as the top candidate for the Christian Democratic Party ticket in Akershus in the 2009 election where he won the county 's leveling seat . After Dagfinn Høybråten stepped down as party leader , Hareide was unanimously elected to take his place at the 2011 party convention . In the 2013 election , Hareide was reelected to parliament , this time from his home county of Hordaland . Before his tenure as government minister , Hareide had sat through one term in the municipal council of his native Bømlo , served as a deputy representative to the national parliament as well as working two years as a State Secretary . He was also second deputy leader of his party from 2003 to 2007 , having come through the ranks of the party 's youth organization . Outside politics Hareide is an economist by education , and he has worked for the media conglomerate Schibsted . = = Education = = Hareide was born in the village Rubbestadneset in Bømlo , Hordaland . He started his higher education in 1992 , the same year he graduated from upper secondary school . Enrolled at the Norwegian School of Economics ( NHH ) , he graduated in 1997 with a siv.øk. degree . During his time at NHH , he also minored in sociology ( 1995 ) at the University of Bergen . Hareide was active in student politics . His involvement included terms as a member of the student parliament at the University of Bergen , as the leader of the Student Union of the Norwegian School of Economics 1994 – 1995 , and as a board member of the national student union 1993 – 1994 . During the period in student politics , Hareide held a Christian democratic middle ground between radical ( such as later socialist politician Aslak Sira Myhre ) and conservative representatives , an experience he has described as educational . = = Career = = Hareide was active in the Youth of the Christian People 's Party , being a member of the national board 1999 – 2001 before joining the national board of the Christian Democratic Party . He worked as a political advisor in the Ministry of Church Affairs , Education and Research from 1998 to 2000 , during the first cabinet Bondevik . He later became State Secretary in the Ministry of Finance from 2001 to 2003 during the second cabinet Bondevik . In 2003 he became second deputy leader of the Christian Democratic Party nationwide . He then joined the cabinet during a 2004 reshuffle , serving as the Norwegian Minister of the Environment from summer 2004 to fall 2005 . He was the youngest ever cabinet member from the Christian Democratic Party , and the first Christian Democratic to hold the post . The second cabinet Bondevik did not survive the 2005 elections , and as such Hareide had to step down from office that year . His successor was Helen Bjørnøy . Until 2009 , Hareide had never been elected to the Norwegian Parliament , but served as a deputy representative during the terms 1997 – 2001 , 2001 – 2005 and 2005 – 2009 . On the local level of politics he was a member of Bømlo municipality council from 1991 to 1995 . In 2007 Hareide announced that he had left politics for the time being to pursue a career in the national media conglomerate Schibsted , as an organizational director . His career in the company started with the position of trainee in 1997 . Outside politics , his only paid full @-@ time appointments have been in Schibsted . He still works behind the scenes for his party , occasionally commenting on issues in the national media . He did not rule out a return to national politics in the future , and in late 2008 he was selected by his party as the top candidate on the party 's ticket in Akershus county . The Christian Democratic Party formerly held a seat in this county , but lost it in 2005 . Hareide has never lived in Akershus . Party leader Dagfinn Høybråten hails from Akershus , but he runs on the Rogaland ticket to secure a safe seat . Prior to the 2009 election , Hareide announced that he would leave national politics if he failed to win a parliament seat . Although the Christian Democrats suffered nationwide setbacks in 2009 , Hareide managed to win Akershus ' levelling seat after a close race against Dagfinn Sundsbø of the Centre Party . In parliament , Hareide became the chair of the Standing Committee on Transport and Communications . After Høybråten announced that he would not seek reelection as party leader of KrF , Hareide quickly emerged as the leading candidate to succeed Høybråten , after the two other apparent candidates , Dagrun Eriksen and Hans Olav Syversen , announced they would not run . Hareide is considered to belong to the socially liberal wing of the party , and conservative members of the party have demanded that at least one of the deputy leaders be from the party 's conservative wing if they are to support Hareide . Hareide supported the efforts to eliminate the rule which requires Christian Democratic party representatives to declare a Christian faith , and a vote gave a clear majority to abolish that rule two years later . Hareide was unanimously voted in as new party leader at the 2011 convention on 30 April 2011 . Hareide declined the nomination as parliamentary leader , and Hans Olav Syversen was elected to this position . On November 18 , 2011 , Hareide was appointed to lead the parliamentary committee that is investigating the 2011 Norway Attacks . His nomination to that position was proposed by the red @-@ green parties . On January 23 , 2012 , Hareide denounced a speech at KrF 's local chapter in Sarpsborg that had suggested that the terrorist attacks and the Alexander Kielland disaster were divine warnings or punishments for Norway 's policy towards Israel ; Hareide said that this was far beyond normal thinking and completely out of line with the party 's values . = = = Reception and issues = = = Following the 11th United Nations Climate Change Convention in Buenos Aires in December 2004 , Hareide spoke out against the United States and China , whom he saw as " problems " in the international work against climate change . Hareide gained a fair level of praise for his role in the convention , from both his own party as well as political opponents . Hareide received heavy criticism for the policy on large carnivores . A decision in early 2005 , to uphold the ongoing wolf hunt even though a certain alpha she @-@ wolf Gråfjellstispa had mistakenly been shot in January that year , was met with protests from the national World Wildlife Fund chapter and other environment organizations , as well as the Swedish Minister of the Environment Lena Sommestad and representatives from the European Union . Hareide described the event as " regrettable " , but " not against the law " . The case made headlines in BBC and New Scientist . A few weeks before , Hareide had been criticized in a parliamentary hearing session for being too wolf @-@ friendly . The environmental organizations went as far as to press charges against the Ministry of the Environment . The Ministry was acquitted when the case was finally brought up in late 2006 , some time after Hareide left office . In July the same year , Hareide received further criticism as the number of licenses to kill large carnivores allegedly was not only at a record high ( 12 brown bears , 10 grey wolves , 22 wolverines and 13 lynx ) , but also contradictory to the parliamentary policy on the matter . According to Hareide , the actions were in line with the parliamentary stance on the issue . In April 2005 he was criticized for an issue connected to monetary support of environmental projects and organizations . The Ministry approved a $ 90 @,@ 000 project support for the Church of Norway , while the pressure group Bellona faced a cut of the same amount . Hareide , being a devout Christian and a member of the Church of Norway , was accused of putting his own religious interests ahead of environmental considerations . The case became a curiosity in the Norwegian media as some of the money was channelled into the church internet site , which , among other things , contained a set of prayers for earthworms – described in such odd terms as " the blind subterranean workers " , " small sisters and brothers in the compost " and " members of the subterranean congregation " . Hareide responded to the criticism by describing the overall project as " exciting " . One of Hareide 's last actions in office was to approve the construction of a hydroelectric power plant in the Hatteberg watershed in Kvinnherad , a protected natural area . Most of the criticism went to his successor , Helen Bjørnøy , who neglected to roll back the decision when assuming office . She eventually resigned halfway into her term . During his time as Minister of the Environment , Hareide was parodied in the television comedy program Tre brødre som ikke er brødre . The character Knut Arild Hareide , played by Harald Eia , was portrayed in several sketches as a physically weak person . These parodies were criticized by the authors in a 2005 book about different forms of mobbing ; this stirred a minor debate in the Norwegian media . Nonetheless , Hareide himself showed a video clip of one of the parodies when publicly announcing his stepdown from national politics at the 2007 party congress . In a poll taken in December 2013 , Hareide received a 99 percent approval rating among Christian Democratic voters . = = Personal life = = Hareide comes from a middle @-@ class background , his father being a transportation manager and his mother a consultant . Although reluctant to comment on the issue , Hareide was likely single during his first tenure in national politics . He has been confronted with rumours of homosexuality by segments of the media , but these have been dismissed . In 2008 he was reported as having a relationship with Solveig Engevik from Kolbotn , which ended in 2010 . In the spring of 2011 he was confirmed in a relationship with school teacher Lisa Marie Larsen . The couple married in Moi on 23 June 2012 , and had a daughter on 6 April 2013 .
= Stegosaurus = Stegosaurus ( / ˌstɛɡəˈsɔːrəs / ) is a type of armored dinosaur . Their fossil bones have been found in rocks dated to the Late Jurassic period ( Kimmeridgian to early Tithonian ages ) , between 155 and 150 million years ago , in the western United States and Portugal . Several species have been classified in the upper Morrison Formation of the western U.S , though only three are universally recognized ; S. stenops , S. ungulatus and S. sulcatus . The remains of over 80 individual animals of this genus have been found . Stegosaurus would have lived alongside dinosaurs such as Apatosaurus , Diplodocus , Brachiosaurus , Allosaurus and Ceratosaurus ; the latter two may have been predators of it . These were a large , heavily built , herbivorous quadrupeds with rounded backs , short fore limbs , long hind limbs , and tails held high in the air . Due to their distinctive combination of broad , upright plates and tail tipped with spikes , Stegosaurus is one of the most recognizable kinds of dinosaur . The function of this array of plates and spikes has been the subject of much speculation among scientists . Today , it is generally agreed that their spikes were most likely used for defense against predators , while their plates may have been used primarily for display , and secondarily for thermoregulatory functions . Stegosaurus had a relatively low brain @-@ to @-@ body mass ratio . It had a short neck and a small head , meaning it most likely ate low @-@ lying bushes and shrubs . One species , Stegosaurus ungulatus , is the largest known of all the stegosaurians ( bigger than related dinosaurs such as Kentrosaurus and Huayangosaurus ) . Stegosaurus remains were first identified during the " Bone Wars " by Othniel Charles Marsh . The first known skeletons were fragmentary and the bones were scattered , and it would be many years before the true appearance of these animals , including their posture and plate arrangement , became well understood . The name Stegosaurus means " roof lizard " or " covered lizard " , in reference to its bony plates . Despite its popularity in books and film , mounted skeletons of Stegosaurus did not become a staple of major natural history museums until the mid @-@ 20th century , and many museums have had to assemble composite displays from several different specimens due to a lack of complete skeletons . = = Description = = The quadrupedal Stegosaurus is one of the most easily identifiable dinosaur genera , due to the distinctive double row of kite @-@ shaped plates rising vertically along the rounded back and the two pairs of long spikes extending horizontally near the end of the tail . Although large individuals could grow up to 9 m ( 29 @.@ 5 ft ) in length , the various species of Stegosaurus were dwarfed by their contemporaries , the giant sauropods . Some form of armor appears to have been necessary , as Stegosaurus species coexisted with large predatory theropod dinosaurs , such as Allosaurus and Ceratosaurus . Most of the information known about Stegosaurus comes from the remains of mature animals ; more recently , though , juvenile remains of Stegosaurus have been found . One subadult specimen , discovered in 1994 in Wyoming , is 4 @.@ 6 m ( 15 @.@ 1 ft ) long and 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) high , and is estimated to have weighed 2 @.@ 4 metric tons ( 2 @.@ 6 short tons ) while alive . It is on display in the University of Wyoming Geological Museum . = = = Skull = = = The long and narrow skull was small in proportion to the body . It had a small antorbital fenestra , the hole between the nose and eye common to most archosaurs , including modern birds , though lost in extant crocodylians . The skull 's low position suggests that Stegosaurus may have been a browser of low @-@ growing vegetation . This interpretation is supported by the absence of front teeth and their likely replacement by a horny beak or rhamphotheca . The lower jaw of Stegosaurus had a flat upward extension that would have completely hidden the teeth when viewed from the side , and which probably supported a turtle @-@ like beak in life . Other researchers have interpreted these ridges as modified versions of similar structures in other ornithischians which might have supported fleshy cheeks , rather than beaks . Stegosaurian teeth were small , triangular , and flat ; wear facets show that they did grind their food . The jaws of Stegosaurus had flat downward and upward extensions that would have completely hidden the teeth when viewed from the side , and these probably supported a beak in life . The presence of a beak extended along much of the jaws may have precluded the presence of cheeks in these species . Such an extensive beak was probably unique to Stegosaurus and some other advanced stegosaurids among ornithischians , which usually had beaks restricted to the jaw tips . Despite the animal 's overall size , the braincase of Stegosaurus was small , being no larger than that of a dog . A well @-@ preserved Stegosaurus braincase allowed Othniel Charles Marsh to obtain , in the 1880s , a cast of the brain cavity or endocast of the animal , which gave an indication of the brain size . The endocast showed the brain was indeed very small , the smallest proportionally of all dinosaur endocasts then known . The fact that an animal weighing over 4 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 5 short tons ) could have a brain of no more than 80 g ( 2 @.@ 8 oz ) contributed to the popular old idea that all dinosaurs were unintelligent , an idea now largely rejected . Actual brain anatomy in Stegosaurus is poorly known , but the brain itself was , however , small even for a dinosaur , fitting well with a slow , herbivorous lifestyle and limited behavioural complexity . = = = Skeleton = = = In Stegosaurus stenops there are 27 bones in the vertebral column anterior to the sacrum , a varying number of vertebrae in the sacrum , with four in most subadults , and around 46 caudal ( tail ) vertebrae . The presacrals are divided into cervical ( neck ) and dorsal ( back ) vertebrae , with around 10 cervicals and 17 dorsals , the total number being one greater than in Hesperosaurus , two greater than Huayangosaurus , although Miragaia preserves 17 cervicals and an unknown number of dorsals . The first cervical vertebra is the axis bone , which is connected and often fused to the atlas bone . Farther posteriorly , the proportionately larger the cervicals become , although they do not change greatly in anything other than size . Past the first few dorsals , the centrum of the bones become more elongate front @-@ to @-@ back , and the transverse processes become more elevated dorsal . The sacrum of S. stenops includes four sacral vertebrae , but one of the dorsals is also incorporated into the structure . In some specimens of S. stenops , a caudal is also incorporated , as a caudosacral . In Hesperosaurus there are two dorsosacrals , and only four fused sacrals , but in Kentrosaurus there may be as many as seven vertebrae in the sacrum , with both dorsosacrals and caudosacrals . S. stenops preserves 46 caudal vertebrae , and up to 49 , and along the series both the centrums and the neural spines become smaller , until the neural spines disappear at caudal 35 . Around the middle of the tail , the neural spines become bifurcated , meaning they are divided near the top . With multiple well @-@ preserved skeletons , S. stenops preserves all regions of the body , including the limbs . The scapula ( shoulder blade ) is sub @-@ rectangular , with a robust blade . Though it is not always perfectly preserved , the acromion ridge is slightly larger than in Kentrosaurus . The blade is relatively straight , although it curves towards the back . There is a small bump on the back of the blade , that would have served as the base of the triceps muscle . Articulated with the scapula , the coracoid is sub @-@ circular . The hind feet each had three short toes , while each fore foot had five toes ; only the inner two toes had a blunt hoof . The phalangeal formula is 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 1 , meaning the innermost finger of the fore limb has two bones , the next has two , etc . All four limbs were supported by pads behind the toes . The fore limbs were much shorter than the stocky hind limbs , which resulted in an unusual posture . The tail appears to have been held well clear of the ground , while the head of Stegosaurus was positioned relatively low down , probably no higher than 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) above the ground . = = = Plates = = = The most recognizable features of Stegosaurus are its dermal plates , which consisted of between 17 and 22 separate plates and flat spines . These were highly modified osteoderms ( bony @-@ cored scales ) , similar to those seen in crocodiles and many lizards today . They were not directly attached to the animal 's skeleton , instead arising from the skin . The largest plates were found over the hips and could measure up to 60 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) wide and 60 cm tall . In a 2010 review of Stegosaurus species , Peter Galton suggested that the arrangement of the plates on the back may have varied between species , and that the pattern of plates as viewed in profile may have been important for species recognition . Galton noted that the plated in S. stenops have been found articulated in two staggered rows , rather than paired . Fewer S. ungulatus plates have been found , and none articulated , making the arrangement in this species more difficult to determine . However , the type specimen of S. ungulatus preserves two flattened spine @-@ like plates from the tail that are nearly identical in shape and size , but are mirror images of each other , suggesting that at least these were arranged in pairs . = = Discovery and history = = Stegosaurus , one of the many dinosaurs first collected and described in the Bone Wars , was originally named by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1877 , from remains recovered north of Morrison , Colorado . These first bones became the holotype of Stegosaurus armatus . Marsh initially believed the remains were from an aquatic turtle @-@ like animal , and the basis for its scientific name , ' roof ( ed ) lizard ' was due to his early belief that the plates lay flat over the animal 's back , overlapping like the shingles ( tiles ) on a roof . A wealth of Stegosaurus material was recovered over the next few years , and Marsh published several papers on the genus from 1877 to 1897 . In 1878 , Edward Drinker Cope named Hypsirhophus discurus , as another stegosaurian based on fragmentary fossils specimens from Cope ’ s Quarry 3 near the " Cope 's Nipple " site in Garden Park , Colorado . Many later researchers have considered Hypsirhophus to be a synonym of Stegosaurus , though Peter Galton ( 2010 ) suggested that it is distinct based on differences in the vertebrae . Marsh named a second species , Stegosaurus ungulatus , in 1879 , and finally gave a more detailed description of all the Stegosaurus fossils collected to far the following year . In 1881 , he named a third species Stegosaurus " affinis " , based only on a hip bone . This species is generally agreed to have been inadequately described , and therefore is a nomen nudum ( a name lacking a formal description ) . The specimen was later lost . Marsh continued to collect and examine new Stegosaurus specimens , and in 1887 he named three new species : Stegosaurus stenops , S. duplex , and S. sulcatus . Though it had not yet been completely prepared , the nearly complete and articulated type specimen of Stegosaurus stenops allowed Marsh to complete the first attempt at a reconstructed Stegosaurus skeleton . This first reconstruction , of S. ungulatus with missing parts filled in from S. stenops , was published by Marsh in 1891 . ( In 1893 , Richard Lydekker mistakenly re @-@ published Marsh 's drawing under the label Hypsirhophus ) . The next species of Stegosaurus to be named was S. marshi , by Frederick Lucas in 1901 . Lucas reclassified this species in the new genus Hoplitosaurus later that year . Lucas also re @-@ examined the issue of the life appearance of Stegosaurus , coming to the conclusion that the plates were arranged in pairs in two rows along the back , arranged above the bases of the ribs . Lucas commissioned Charles R. Knight to produce a life restoration of S. ungulatus based on his new interpretation . However , the following year , Lucas wrote that he now believed the plates were probably attached in staggered rows . In 1910 , Richard Swann Lull wrote that the alternating pattern seen in S. stenops was probably due to shifting of the skeleton after death . He led the construction of the first ever Stegosaurus skeletal mount at the Peabody Museum of Natural History , which was depicted with paired plates . In 1914 , Charles Gilmore argued against Lull 's interpretation , noting that several specimens of S. stenops , including the now @-@ completely prepared holotype , preserved the plates in alternating rows near the peak of the back , and that there was no evidence of the plates having shifted relative to the body during fossilization . Gilmore and Lucas ' interpretation became the generally accepted standard , and Lull 's mount at the Peabody Museum was changed to reflect this in 1924 . = = = Plate arrangement = = = One of the major subjects of books and articles about Stegosaurus is the plate arrangement . The argument has been a major one in the history of dinosaur reconstruction . Four possible plate arrangements have been proposed over the years : The plates lie flat along the back , as a shingle @-@ like armor . This was Marsh 's initial interpretation , which led to the name ' roof lizard ' . As further and complete plates were found , their form showed they stood on edge , rather than lying flat . By 1891 , Marsh published a more familiar view of Stegosaurus , with a single row of plates . This was dropped fairly early on ( apparently because it was poorly understood how the plates were embedded in the skin and they were thought to overlap too much in this arrangement ) . It was revived , in somewhat modified form , in the 1980s , by Stephen Czerkas , based on the arrangement of iguana dorsal spines . The plates were paired in a double row along the back . This is probably the most common arrangement in illustrations , especially earlier ones . The Stegosaurus in the 1933 film , King Kong , has this arrangement . Two rows of alternating plates . By the early 1960s , this had become ( and remains ) the prevalent idea , mainly because some S. stenops fossils in which the plates are still partially articulated show this arrangement . = = Classification = = Stegosaurus was the first @-@ named genus of the family Stegosauridae . It is the type genus that gives its name to the family . The Stegosauridae are one of two families within the infraorder Stegosauria , with the other being the Huayangosauridae . The infraorder Stegosauria lies within the Thyreophora , or armored dinosaurs , a suborder which also includes the more diverse ankylosaurs . The stegosaurs were a clade of animals similar in appearance , posture , and shape that mainly differed in their array of spikes and plates . Among the closest relatives to Stegosaurus are Wuerhosaurus from China and Kentrosaurus from East Africa . The following cladogram shows the position of Stegosaurus within the Stegosauridae according to Mateus , 2009 : = = = Origin = = = The origin of Stegosaurus is uncertain , as few remains of basal stegosaurs and their ancestors are known . Recently , stegosaurids have been shown to be present in the lower Morrison Formation , existing several million years before the occurrence of Stegosaurus itself , with the discovery of the related Hesperosaurus from the early Kimmeridgian . The earliest stegosaurid ( the genus Lexovisaurus ) is known from the Oxford Clay Formation of England and France , giving it an age of early to middle Callovian . The earlier and more basal genus Huayangosaurus from the Middle Jurassic of China ( some 165 million years ago – Mya ) antedates Stegosaurus by 20 million years and is the only genus in the family Huayangosauridae . Earlier still is Scelidosaurus , from Early Jurassic England , which lived about 190 Mya . Interestingly , it possessed features of both stegosaurs and ankylosaurs . Emausaurus from Germany was another small quadruped , while Scutellosaurus from Arizona was an even earlier genus and was facultatively bipedal . These small , lightly armored dinosaurs were closely related to the direct ancestor of both stegosaurs and ankylosaurs . A trackway of a possible early armored dinosaur , from around 195 Mya , has been found in France . = = = Species = = = Initially , several species were described . However , many of these have since been considered to be invalid or synonymous with existing species , leaving two well @-@ known and one poorly known species . Confirmed Stegosaurus remains have been found in the Morrison Formation 's stratigraphic zones 2 – 6 , with additional remains possibly referrable to Stegosaurus recovered from stratigraphic zone 1 . Stegosaurus ungulatus , meaning " hoofed roof lizard " , was named by Marsh in 1879 , from remains recovered at Como Bluff , Wyoming ( Quarry 12 , near Robber 's Roost ) . It might be synonymous with S. stenops . At 9 m ( 29 @.@ 5 ft ) , it was the longest species within the genus Stegosaurus . A fragmentary Stegosaurus specimen discovered in Portugal and dating from the upper Kimmeridgian @-@ lower Tithonian stage has been tentatively assigned to this species . Stegosaurus ungulatus can be distinguished from S. stenops by the presence of smaller , more triangular plates and by several pairs of small , flat , pointed plates just before the spikes on the tail . These spine @-@ like plates appear to have been paired , due to the presence of at least one pair that are identical but mirrored . S. ungulatus also appears to have had longer legs ( femora ) and hip bones than other species . The type specimen of S. ungulatus was discovered with eight spikes , though they were scattered away from their original positions . These have often been interpreted as indicating that the animal had four pairs of tail spikes . No specimens have been found with complete or articulated sets of tail spikes , but no additional specimens have been found that preserve eight spikes together . It is possible the extra pair of spikes came from a different individual , and though no other extra bones were found with the specimen , these may be found if more digging were done at the original site . Specimens from other quarries ( such as a tail from Quarry 13 , now forming part of the composite skeleton AMNH 650 at the American Museum of Natural History ) , referred to S. ungulatus on the basis of their notched tail vertebrae , are preserved with only four tail spikes . The type specimen of S. ungulatus ( YPM 1853 ) was incorporated into the first ever mounted skeleton of a stegosaur at the Peabody Museum of Natural History in 1910 by Richard Swann Lull . It was initially mounted with paired plates set wide , above the base of the ribs , but was remounted in 1924 with two staggered rows of plates along the midline of the back . Additional specimens recovered from the same quarry by the United States National Museum of Natural History , including tail vertebrae and an additional large plate ( USNM 7414 ) , belong to the same individual as YPM 1853 . Stegosaurus stenops , meaning " narrow @-@ faced roof lizard " , was named by Marsh in 1887 , with the holotype having been collected by Marshal Felch at Garden Park , north of Cañon City , Colorado , in 1886 . This is the best @-@ known species of Stegosaurus , mainly because its remains include at least one complete articulated skeleton . It had proportionately large , broad plates and rounded tail plates . Articulated specimens show that the plates were arranged alternating in a staggered double row . S. stenops is known from at least 50 partial skeletons of adults and juveniles , one complete skull , and four partial skulls . It was shorter than other species , at 7 m ( 23 ft ) . Found in the Morrison Formation , Colorado , Wyoming , and Utah . Stegosaurus sulcatus , meaning " furrowed roof lizard " , was described by Marsh in 1887 based on a partial skeleton . It has traditionally been considered a synonym of S. armatus , though more recent studies suggest it is not . S. sulcatus is distinguished mainly by its unusually large , furrowed spikes with very large bases . A spike associated with the type specimen , originally thought to be a tail spike , may in fact come from the shoulder or hip , since its base is much larger than the corresponding tail vertebrae . A review published by Maidment and colleagues in 2008 regarded it as an indeterminate species possibly not even belonging to Stegosaurus at all , but to a different genus . Peter Galton suggested it should be considered a valid species due to its unique spikes . Susannah Maidment and colleagues in 2008 proposed extensive alterations to the taxonomy of Stegosaurus . They advocated synonymizing S. stenops and S. ungulatus with S. armatus , and sinking Hesperosaurus and Wuerhosaurus into Stegosaurus , with their type species becoming Stegosaurus mjosi and Stegosaurus homheni , respectively . They regarded S. longispinus as dubious . Thus , their conception of Stegosaurus would include three valid species ( S. armatus , S. homheni , and S. mjosi ) and would range from the Late Jurassic of North America and Europe to the Early Cretaceous of Asia . However , this classification scheme has not generally been followed by other researchers . Galton , for example , has stated that Wuerhosaurus differs enough from Stegosaurus to be retained as a distinct genus . In 2015 , Maidment et al. revised their suggestion due to the recognition by Galton of S. armatus as a nomen dubium and its replacement by S. stenops as type species . = = = Doubtful species and junior synonyms = = = Stegosaurus armatus , meaning " armored roof lizard " , was the first species to be found and the original type species named by O.C. Marsh in 1877 . It is known from a partial skeletons , and more than 30 fragmentary specimens have been referred to it . However , the type specimen was very fragmentary , consisting only of a partial tail , hips , and leg , parts of some back vertebrae , and a single fragmentary plate ( the presence of which was used to give the animal its name ) . No other plates or spikes were found , and the entire front half of the animal appears not to have been preserved . Because the type specimen is very fragmentary , it is extremely difficult to compare it with other species based on better specimens , and it is now generally considered to be a nomen dubium . Because of this , it was replaced by S. stenops as the type species of Stegosaurus in a ruling of the ICZN in 2013 . Stegosaurus " affinis " , named by Marsh in 1881 , is only known from a pubis which has since been lost . Because Marsh did not provide an adequate description of the bone with which to distinguish a new species , this name is considered a nomen nudum . Diracodon laticeps was described by Marsh in 1881 , from some jawbone fragments . Bakker resurrected D. laticeps in 1986 as a senior synonym of S. stenops , although others note that the material is not diagnostic and is only referable to Stegosaurus sp . , making it a nomen dubium . Stegosaurus duplex , meaning " two plexus roof lizard " ( in allusion to the greatly enlarged neural canal of the sacrum which Marsh characterized as a " posterior brain case " ) , was named by Marsh in 1887 ( including the holotype specimen ) . The disarticulated bones were actually collected in 1879 by Edward Ashley at Como Bluff . Marsh initially distinguished it from S. ungulatus based on the fact that each sacral ( hip ) vertebra bore its own rib , which he claimed was unlike the anatomy of S. ungulatus ; however , the sacrum of S. ungulatus had not actually been discovered . Marsh also suggested that S. duplex may have lacked armor , since no plates or spikes were found with the specimen , though a single spike may actually have been present nearby , and re @-@ examination of the site maps has shown that the entire specimen was found highly disarticulated and scattered . It is generally considered a synonym of S. ungulatus today , and parts of the specimen were actually incorporated into the Peabody Museum S. ungulatus skeletal mount in 1910 . = = = Reassigned species = = = Stegosaurus marshi , which was described by Lucas in 1901 , was renamed Hoplitosaurus in 1902 . Stegosaurus priscus , described by Nopcsa in 1911 , was reassigned to Lexovisaurus , and is now the type species of Loricatosaurus . Stegosaurus longispinus was named by Charles W. Gilmore . It is now the type species of the genus Alcovasaurus . Stegosaurus madagascariensis from Madagascar is known solely from teeth and was described by Piveteau in 1926 . The teeth were variously attributed to a stegosaur , the theropod Majungasaurus , a hadrosaur or even a crocodylian , but is now considered a possible ankylosaur . = = Paleobiology = = Stegosaurus was the largest stegosaur , possibly weighing up to 5 @,@ 000 kg ( 5 @.@ 5 tons ) . Soon after its discovery , Marsh considered Stegosaurus to have been bipedal , due to its short forelimbs . He had changed his mind , however , by 1891 , after considering the heavy build of the animal . Although Stegosaurus is undoubtedly now considered to have been quadrupedal , some discussion has occurred over whether it could have reared up on its hind legs , using its tail to form a tripod with its hind limbs , and browsing for higher foliage . This has been proposed by Bakker and opposed by Carpenter . Stegosaurus did have very short fore limbs , in relation to its hind legs . Furthermore , within the hind limbs , the lower section ( comprising the tibia and fibula ) was short compared with the femur . This suggests it could not walk very fast , as the stride of the back legs at speed would have overtaken the front legs , giving a maximum speed of 6 – 7 km / h ( 3 @.@ 7 – 4 @.@ 3 mph ) . Tracks discovered by Matthew Mossbrucker ( Morrison Natural History Museum , Colorado ) suggest that Stegosaurus lived in multiple @-@ age herds . One group of tracks is interpreted as showing four or five baby stegosaurs moving in the same direction , while another has a juvenile stegosaur track with an adult track overprinting it . Stegosaurus may have preferred drier settings than other common Morrison Formation dinosaurs , such as Allosaurus , Apatosaurus , Camarasaurus , and Diplodocus . = = = Juveniles = = = Juveniles of Stegosaurus have been preserved , probably showing the growth of the genus . Kentrosaurus is also known from juvenile specimens , and they can be identified as different genders . The two juveniles are both relatively small , with the smaller individual being 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) long , and the larger having a length of 2 @.@ 6 m ( 8 @.@ 5 ft ) . The specimens can be identified as not mature because they lack the fusion of the scapula and coracoid , and the lower hind limbs . Also , the pelvic region of the specimens are similar to Kentrosaurus juveniles . = = = Plate function = = = The function of Stegosaurus plates has been much debated . Initially thought of as some form of armor , they appear to have been too fragile and ill @-@ placed for defensive purposes , leaving the animal 's sides unprotected . The plates ' large size suggests that they may have served to increase the apparent height of the animal , either to intimidate enemies or to impress other members of the same species , in some form of sexual display , although both male and female specimens seemed to have had the same plates . More recently , researchers have proposed that they may have helped to control the body temperature of the animal , in a similar way to the sails of the pelycosaurs Dimetrodon and Edaphosaurus ( and modern elephant and rabbit ears ) . The plates had blood vessels running through grooves and air flowing around the plates would have cooled the blood . The publication of " Growth and Function of Stegosaurus Plates " by Buffrénil , et al. in 1986 marked a major step out of the realm of speculation and into the realm of science , with its microscopic analyses of multiple Stegosaurus plate specimens , proving unequivocally " extreme vascularization of the outer layer of bone " , which was seen by Buffrénil as further evidence the plates " acted as thermoregulatory devices " . Later , more comprehensive histological surveys of plate microstructure attributed the vascularization to the need to transport nutrients for rapid plate growth , asserting the plates ' physiology , if beneficial , was a side benefit secondary to their primary function , identification and display . Some 2010 structural comparisons of Stegosaurus plates to Alligator osteoderms seem to support the conclusion that the potential for a thermoregulatory role in the plates of Stegosaurus definitely exists . This hypothesis has been seriously questioned , since its closest relatives , such as Kentrosaurus , had more low surface area spikes than plates , implying that cooling was not important enough to require specialized structural formations such as plates . Another possible function is that the plates may have helped the animal increase heat absorption from the sun . Since a cooling trend occurred towards the end of the Jurassic , a large ectothermic reptile might have used the increased surface area afforded by the plates to absorb radiation from the sun . Another explanation for Stegosaurus plates ' heavily vascular design is that , when under threat , blood could rush into the plates , causing them to " blush " which would add a colorful , red warning , " embellishing " the visual threat display . This " blushing capacity " , instead of thermoregulatory functions , may be the plates ' purpose , though the two functions certainly could have coexisted . That Stegosaurus plates could " blush " has become the predominant interpretation of plate function since the late 20th century , and is even depicted in the popular BBC documentary Walking with Dinosaurs , with the sudden reddening of the plates used in conjunction with threatening swings of the spiked tail to intimidate and confuse an attacking Allosaurus . Also , this blushing could have been used to attract mates . A study published in 2005 supports the idea of their use in species identification . Researchers believe this may be the function of other unique anatomical features , found in various dinosaur species . In the past , some palaeontologists , notably Robert Bakker , have speculated that the plates may have been mobile to some degree , although others disagree . Bakker suggested the plates were the bony cores of pointed horn @-@ covered plates that a Stegosaurus could flip from one side to another to present a predator with an array of spikes and blades that would impede it from closing sufficiently to attack the Stegosaurus effectively . The plates would naturally sag to the sides of the Stegosaurus , the length of the plates reflecting the width of the animal at that point along its spine . His reasoning for these plates to be covered in horn is that the surface fossilized plates have a resemblance to the bony cores of horns in other animals known or thought to bear horns , and his reasoning for the plates to be defensive in nature is that the plates had insufficient width for them to stand erect easily in such a manner as to be useful in display without continuous muscular effort . S. stenops also had disk @-@ shaped plates , on its hips . = = = Thagomizer ( tail spikes ) = = = Debate has been going on about whether the tail spikes were used for display only , as posited by Gilmore in 1914 or used as a weapon . Robert Bakker noted the tail was likely to have been much more flexible than that of other dinosaurs , as it lacked ossified tendons , thus lending credence to the idea of the tail as a weapon . However , as Carpenter has noted , the plates overlap so many tail vertebrae , movement would be limited . Bakker also observed that Stegosaurus could have maneuvered its rear easily , by keeping its large hind limbs stationary and pushing off with its very powerfully muscled but short fore limbs , allowing it to swivel deftly to deal with attack . More recently , a study of tail spikes by McWhinney et al . , which showed a high incidence of trauma @-@ related damage , lends more weight to the position that the spikes were indeed used in combat . This study showed that 9 @.@ 8 % of Stegosaurus specimens examined had injuries to their tail spikes . Additional support for this idea was a punctured tail vertebra of an Allosaurus into which a tail spike fits perfectly . S. stenops had four dermal spikes , each about 60 – 90 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 0 ft ) long . Discoveries of articulated stegosaur armor show , at least in some species , these spikes protruded horizontally from the tail , not vertically as is often depicted . Initially , Marsh described S. ungulatus as having eight spikes in its tail , unlike S. stenops . However , recent research re @-@ examined this and concluded this species also had four . = = = " Second brain " = = = Soon after describing Stegosaurus , Marsh noted a large canal in the hip region of the spinal cord , which could have accommodated a structure up to 20 times larger than the famously small brain . This has led to the influential idea that dinosaurs like Stegosaurus had a " second brain " in the tail , which may have been responsible for controlling reflexes in the rear portion of the body . This " brain " might have given a Stegosaurus a temporary boost when it was under threat from predators . More recently discussed , this space ( also found in sauropods ) may have been the location of a glycogen body , a structure in living birds whose function is not definitely known , but which is postulated to facilitate the supply of glycogen to the animal 's nervous system . = = = Diet = = = Stegosaurus and related genera were herbivores . However , their teeth and jaws are very different from those of other herbivorous ornithischian dinosaurs , suggesting a different feeding strategy that is not yet well understood . The other ornithischians possessed teeth capable of grinding plant material and a jaw structure capable of movements in planes other than simply orthal ( i.e. not only the fused up @-@ down motion to which stegosaur jaws were likely limited ) . Unlike the sturdy jaws and grinding teeth common to its fellow ornithischians , Stegosaurus ( and all stegosaurians ) had small , peg @-@ shaped teeth that have been observed with horizontal wear facets associated with tooth @-@ food contact and their unusual jaws were probably capable of only orthal ( up @-@ down ) movements . Their teeth were " not tightly pressed together in a block for efficient grinding " , and no evidence in the fossil record of stegosaurians indicates use of gastroliths — the stone ( s ) some dinosaurs ( and some present @-@ day bird species ) ingested — to aid the grinding process , so how exactly Stegosaurus obtained and processed the amount of plant material required to sustain its size remains " poorly understood " . The stegosaurians were widely distributed geographically in the late Jurassic . Palaeontologists believe it would have eaten plants such as mosses , ferns , horsetails , cycads , and conifers or fruits . Grazing on grasses , seen in many modern mammalian herbivores , would not have been possible for Stegosaurus , as grasses did not evolve until late into the Cretaceous Period , long after Stegosaurus had become extinct . One hypothesized feeding behavior strategy considers them to be low @-@ level browsers , eating low @-@ growing fruit of various nonflowering plants , as well as foliage . This scenario has Stegosaurus foraging at most 1 m above the ground . Conversely , if Stegosaurus could have raised itself on two legs , as suggested by Bakker , then it could have browsed on vegetation and fruits quite high up , with adults being able to forage up to 6 m ( 20 ft ) above the ground . A detailed computer analysis of the biomechanics of Stegosaurus 's feeding behavior was performed in 2010 , using two different three @-@ dimensional models of Stegosaurus teeth given realistic physics and properties . Bite force was also calculated using these models and the known skull proportions of the animal , as well as simulated tree branches of different size and hardness . The resultant bite forces calculated for Stegosaurus were 140 @.@ 1 Newton ( N ) , 183 @.@ 7 N , and 275 N ( for anterior , middle and posterior teeth , respectively ) , which means its bite force was less than half that of a Labrador Retriever . Stegosaurus could have easily bitten through smaller green branches , but would have had difficulty with anything over 12 mm in diameter . Stegosaurus , therefore , probably browsed primarily among smaller twigs and foliage , and would have been unable to handle larger plant parts unless the animal was capable of biting much more efficiently than predicted in this study . However , A study published on May 20 , 2016 by Stephen Lautenschlager et al. indicates Stegosaurus ' bite strength was stronger than previously believed . Comparisons were made between it ( represented by a specimen known as " Sophie " from the United Kingdom 's Natural History Museum ) and two other herbivorous dinosaurs ; Erlikosaurus and Plateosaurus to determine if all three had similar bite forces and similar niches . Based on the results of the study , it was revealed that Stegosaurus had a bite similar in strength to that of modern herbivorous mammals , in particular , cattle and sheep . Based on this data , it is likely Stegosaurus also ate woodier , tougher plants such as cycads , perhaps even acting as a means of spreading cycad seeds . The findings were published in the journal Scientific Reports . = = Paleoecology = = The Morrison Formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons , and flat floodplains . Vegetation varied from river @-@ lining forests of conifers , tree ferns , and ferns ( gallery forests ) , to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the Araucaria @-@ like conifer Brachyphyllum . The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae , fungi , mosses , horsetails , ferns , cycads , ginkoes , and several families of conifers . Animal fossils discovered include bivalves , snails , ray @-@ finned fishes , frogs , salamanders , turtles like Dorsetochelys , sphenodonts , lizards , terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans like Hoplosuchus , several species of pterosaurs such as Harpactognathus and Mesadactylus , numerous dinosaur species , and early mammals such as docodonts ( like Docodon ) , multituberculates , symmetrodonts , and triconodonts . Dinosaurs that lived alongside Stegosaurus included theropods Allosaurus , Saurophaganax , Torvosaurus , Ceratosaurus , Marshosaurus , Stokesosaurus , Ornitholestes , Coelurus and Tanycolagreus . Sauropods dominated the region , and included Brachiosaurus , Apatosaurus , Diplodocus , Camarasaurus , and Barosaurus . Other ornithischians included Camptosaurus , Gargoyleosaurus , Dryosaurus , Othnielosaurus and Drinker . Stegosaurus is commonly found at the same sites as Allosaurus , Apatosaurus , Camarasaurus , and Diplodocus . = = In popular culture = = One of the most recognizable of all dinosaurs , Stegosaurus has been depicted on film , in cartoons and comics , as children 's toys , and was even declared the State Dinosaur of Colorado in 1982 . Due to the fragmentary nature of most early Stegosaurus fossil finds , it took many years before reasonably accurate restorations of these animals could be produced . The earliest popular image of Stegosaurus was an engraving produced by A. Tobin for the November 1884 issue of Scientific American , which included the dinosaur amid a speculative Morrison age landscape . Tobin restored the Stegosaurus as bipedal and long @-@ necked , with the plates arranged along the tail and the back covered in spikes . This covering of spikes might have been based on a misinterpretation of the teeth , which Marsh had noted were oddly shaped , cylindrical , and found scattered , such that he thought they might turn out to be small dermal spines . Marsh published his more accurate skeletal reconstruction of Stegosaurus in 1891 , and within a decade Stegosaurus had become among the most @-@ illustrated types of dinosaur . Artist Charles R. Knight published his first illustration of Stegosaurus ungulatus based on Marsh 's skeletal reconstruction in a November 1897 issue of Century Magazine . This illustration would later go on to form the basis of the stop @-@ motion puppet used in the 1933 film King Kong . Like Marsh 's reconstruction , Knight 's first restoration had a single row of large plates , though he next used a double row for his more well @-@ known 1901 painting , produced under the direction of Frederic Lucas . Again under Lucas , Knight revised his version of Stegosaurus again two years later , producing a model with a staggered double row of plates . Knight would go on to paint a stegosaur with a staggered double plate row in 1927 for the Field Museum of Natural History , and was followed by Rudolph F. Zallinger , who painted Stegosaurus this way in his " Age of Reptiles " mural at the Peabody Museum in 1947 . Stegosaurus made its major public debut as a papier mache model commissioned by the U.S. National Museum of Natural History for the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition . The model was based on Knight 's latest miniature with the double row of staggered plates , and was exhibited in the United States Government Building at the exposition in St. Louis before being relocated to Portland , Oregon for the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition in 1905 . The model was moved to the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History ( now the Arts and Industries Building ) in Washington , D.C. along with other prehistory displays , and to the current National Museum of Natural History building in 1911 . Following renovations to the museum in the 2010s , the model was moved once again for display at the Museum of the Earth in Ithaca , New York . The popularity of Stegosaurus is owed partly to its prominent display in natural history museums . Though considered one of the most distinctive types of dinosaur , Stegosaurus displays were missing from a majority of museums during the first half of the 20th century , due largely to the disarticulated nature of most fossil specimens . Until 1918 , the only mounted skeleton of Stegosaurus in the world was O.C. Marsh 's type specimen of S. ungulatus at the Peabody Museum of Natural History , which was put on display in 1910 . However , this mount was dismantled in 1917 when the old Peabody Museum building was demolished . This historically significant specimen was re @-@ mounted ahead of the opening of the new Peabody Museum building in 1925 . 1918 saw the completion of the second Stegosaurus mount , and the first depicting S. stenops . This mount was created under the direction of Charles Gilmore at the U.S. National Museum of Natural History . It was a composite of several skeletons , primarily USNM 6531 , with proportions designed to closely follow the S. stenops type specimen , which had been on display in relief nearby since 1918 . The aging mount was dismantled in 2003 and replaced with a cast in an updated pose in 2004 . A third mounted skeleton of Stegosaurus , referred to S. stenops , was put on display at the American Museum of Natural History in 1932 . Mounted under the direction of Charles J. Long , the American Museum mount was a composite consisting of partial remains filled in with replicas based on other specimens . In his article about the new mount for the museum 's journal , Barnum Brown described ( and disputed ) the popular misconception that the Stegosaurus had a " second brain " in its hips . Another composite mount , using specimens referred to S. ungulatus collected from Dinosaur National Monument between 1920 and 1922 , was put on display at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in 1940 .
= M9 Half @-@ track = The M9 Half @-@ track was a half @-@ track produced by International Harvester in the United States in World War II for lend @-@ lease supply to Allies . It was designed to provide a similar vehicle to the M2 Half Track Car . It had the same body and chassis as the M5 Half @-@ track ( also built by International Harvester for lend @-@ lease ) but had the same stowage and radio fit as the M2 Half Track . The M9 served for a significant amount of time . 3 @,@ 500 were produced by the end of World War II . It was used during World War II , the Arab @-@ Israeli War of 1948 , the Korean War , the Suez Crisis , the Vietnam War , the Six @-@ Day War , and the Yom Kippur War . It was used by eleven different countries by the end of its service . = = Development = = The United States adopted half @-@ tracks in large numbers as they could be built more quickly and cheaply by civilian vehicle producers than vehicles from the established armored vehicle manufacturers . The M2 Half Track Car had first been intended as an artillery tractor but was also used for carrying the machine gun squads of armored infantry regiments and for reconnaissance units until faster and better @-@ armed M8 Greyhound armored cars were available . In order to supply U.S. allies , much more production was required than was possible through the firms producing the M2 ( and the larger M3 Half @-@ track ) . International Harvester ( IH ) could produce half @-@ tracks but some differences had to be accepted due to different manufacturing methods and components . This led to IH producing for lend @-@ lease the M5 Half @-@ track as a M3 equivalent and the M9 as the M2 equivalent . = = Design = = The M9 used the same chassis and mechanical components as the M5 . It was laid out to provide similar stowage , access to the radios from the inside , rear doors , and a pedestal machine gun mount as with the M2 . The M9A1 variant of the M9 matched the improvements made to the M2 , M3 , and M5 , changing to ring mount machine gun mount and three pintle machine gun mounts . As with the M5 , due to the lack of face @-@ hardened armor , homogenous armor was used . Although thicker , it gave less protection and could be penetrated by armor @-@ piercing rifle bullets from 300 yards ( 270 m ) rather than 200 yards ( 180 m ) . The armor also made the vehicle heavier though the " performance was essentially similar " . = = Service history = = The M9 started production in August 1942 , at IH . The M9 and M9A1 were manufactured en masse and 2 @,@ 026 were produced in total . According to American military historian and defense specialist Steven Zaloga , 2 @,@ 026 M9 and 1 @,@ 407 M9A1 were produced in 1943 . The M9 was used in World War II , the Arab @-@ Israeli War of 1948 , the Korean War , the Suez Crisis , and many other conflicts . The production of M9s was leased to other countries , like most other IH half @-@ tracks produced in World War II . This M9A1 was leased to both the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom , the latter providing it to other countries in the British Commonwealth . = = Operators = = The M9 was used by many countries but not the United States as there was sufficient M2 and M3 production for U.S. needs . Th UK leased some half @-@ tracks to Free France and other governments @-@ in @-@ exile . The Soviet Union received supplies directly . Following World War II , the second hand market was a source of supply for some countries , including Israel . M9 half @-@ tracks were provided under the Military Aid Program ( MAP ) to the following countries :
= Judith Quiney = Judith Quiney ( baptised 2 February 1585 – 9 February 1662 ) , née Shakespeare , was the younger daughter of William Shakespeare and Anne Hathaway and the fraternal twin of Shakespeare 's only son Hamnet Shakespeare . She married Thomas Quiney , a vintner of Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon . The circumstances of the marriage , including Quiney 's misconduct , may have prompted the rewriting of Shakespeare 's will . Thomas was struck out , while Judith 's inheritance was attached with provisions to safeguard it from her husband . The bulk of Shakespeare 's estate was left , in an elaborate fee tail , to his elder daughter Susanna and her male heirs . Judith and Thomas Quiney had three children . By the time of Judith Quiney 's death , she had outlived her children by many years . She has been depicted in several works of fiction as part of an attempt to piece together unknown portions of her father 's life . = = Birth and early life = = Judith Shakespeare was the daughter of William Shakespeare and Anne Hathaway . She was the younger sister of Susanna and the twin sister of Hamnet . Hamnet , however , died at the age of eleven . Her baptism on 2 February 1585 was recorded as “ Judeth Shakespeare ” by the vicar , Richard Barton of Coventry , in the parish register for Holy Trinity Church , Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon . The twins were named after a husband and wife , Hamnet and Judith Sadler , who were friends of the parents . Hamnet Sadler was a baker in Stratford . Unlike her father and her husband , Judith Shakespeare was probably illiterate . In 1611 she witnessed the deed of sale of a house for £ 131 to William Mountford , a wheelwright of Stratford , from Elizabeth Quiney , her future mother @-@ in @-@ law , and Elizabeth 's eldest son Adrian . Judith signed twice with a mark instead of her name . = = Marriage = = On 10 February 1616 , Judith Shakespeare married Thomas Quiney , a vintner of Stratford , in Holy Trinity Church . The assistant vicar , Richard Watts , who later married Quiney 's sister Mary , probably officiated . The wedding took place during the pre @-@ Lenten season of Shrovetide , which was a prohibitive time for marriages . In 1616 , the period in which marriages were banned without dispensation from the church , including Ash Wednesday and Lent , started on 23 January , Septuagesima Sunday and ended on 7 April , the Sunday after Easter . Hence the marriage required a special licence issued by the Bishop of Worcester , which the couple had failed to obtain . Presumably they had posted the required banns in church , since Walter Wright of Stratford was cited for marrying without banns or licence : but this was not considered sufficient . The infraction was a minor one apparently caused by the minister , as three other couples were also wed that February . Quiney was nevertheless summoned by Walter Nixon to appear before the Consistory court in Worcester . ( This same Walter Nixon was later involved in a Star Chamber case and was found guilty of forging signatures and taking bribes ) . Quiney failed to appear by the required date . The register recorded the judgement , which was excommunication , on or about 12 March 1616 . It is unknown if Judith was also excommunicated , but in any case the punishment did not last long . In November of the same year they were back in church for the baptism of their firstborn child . The marriage did not begin well . Quiney had recently impregnated another woman , Margaret Wheeler , who died in childbirth along with her child ; both were buried on 15 March 1616 . A few days later , on the 26 March , Quiney appeared before the Bawdy Court , which dealt , among other things , with " whoredom and uncleanliness . " Confessing in open court to " carnal copulation " with Margaret Wheeler , he submitted himself for correction and was sentenced to open penance " in a white sheet ( according to custom ) " before the Congregation on three Sundays . He also had to admit to his crime , this time wearing ordinary clothes , before the Minister of Bishopton in Warwickshire . The first part of the sentence was remitted , essentially letting him off with a five @-@ shilling fine to be given to the parish 's poor . As Bishopton had no church , but only a chapel , he was spared any public humiliation . = = Chapel Lane , Atwood 's and The Cage = = Where the Quineys lived after their marriage is unknown : but Judith owned her father 's cottage on Chapel Lane , Stratford ; while Thomas had held , since 1611 , the lease on a tavern called " Atwood 's " on High Street . The cottage later passed from Judith to her sister as part of the settlement in their father 's will . In July 1616 Thomas swapped houses with his brother @-@ in @-@ law , William Chandler , moving his vintner 's shop to the upper half of a house at the corner of High Street and Bridge Street . This house was known as " The Cage " and is the house traditionally associated with Judith Quiney . In the 20th century The Cage was for a time a Wimpy Bar before being turned into the Stratford Information Office . The Cage provides further insight into why Shakespeare would not have trusted Judith 's husband . Around 1630 Quiney tried to sell the lease on the house but was prevented by his kinsmen . In 1633 , to protect the interests of Judith and the children , the lease was signed over to the trust of John Hall , Susanna 's husband , Thomas Nash , the husband of Judith 's niece , and Richard Watts , vicar of nearby Harbury , who was Quiney 's brother @-@ in @-@ law and who had officiated at Thomas and Judith 's wedding . Eventually , in November 1652 , the lease to The Cage ended up in the hands of Thomas ' eldest brother , Richard Quiney , a grocer in London . = = William Shakespeare 's last will and testament = = The inauspicious beginnings of Judith 's marriage , in spite of her husband and his family being otherwise unexceptional , has led to speculation that this was the cause for William Shakespeare 's hastily altered last will and testament . He first summoned his lawyer , Francis Collins , in January 1616 . On 25 March he made further alterations , probably because he was dying and because of his concerns about Quiney . In the first bequest of the will there had been a provision " vnto my sonne in L [ aw ] " ; but " sonne in L [ aw ] " was then struck out , with Judith 's name inserted in its stead . To this daughter he bequeathed £ 100 ( about £ 20 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) " in discharge of her marriage porcion " ; another £ 50 if she were to relinquish the Chapel Lane cottage ; and , if she or any of her children were still alive at the end of three years following the date of the will , a further £ 150 , of which she was to receive the interest but not the principal . This money was explicitly denied to Thomas Quiney unless he were to bestow on Judith lands of equal value . In a separate bequest , Judith was given " my broad silver gilt bole . " Finally , for the bulk of his estate , which included his main house , New Place , his two houses on Henley Street and various lands in and around Stratford , Shakespeare had set up an entail . His estate was bequeathed , in descending order of choice , to the following : 1 ) his daughter , Susanna Hall ; 2 ) upon Susanna 's death , " to the first sonne of her bodie lawfullie yssueing & to the heires Males of the bodie of the saied first Sonne lawfullie yssueing " ; 3 ) to Susanna 's second son and his male heirs ; 4 ) to Susanna 's third son and his male heirs ; 5 ) to Susanna 's " ffourth ... ffyfth sixte & Seaventh sonnes " and their male heirs ; 6 ) to Elizabeth Hall , Susanna and John Hall 's firstborn , and her male heirs ; 7 ) to Judith and her male heirs ; or 8 ) to whatever heirs the law would normally recognise . This elaborate entail is usually taken to indicate that Thomas Quiney was not to be entrusted with Shakespeare 's inheritance , although some have speculated that it might simply indicate that Susanna was the favoured child . = = Children = = Judith and Thomas Quiney had three children : Shakespeare ( baptised 23 November 1616 – buried 8 May 1617 ) Richard ( baptised 9 February 1618 – buried 6 February 1639 ) Thomas ( baptised 23 January 1620 – buried 28 January 1639 ) Shakespeare was named for his grandfather . Richard 's name was common among the Quineys : his paternal grandfather and an uncle were named Richard . Shakespeare Quiney died at six months of age . Richard and Thomas Quiney were buried within nine days of each other , 21 and 19 years old respectively . The deaths of all of Judith 's children resulted in new legal consequences . The entail on her father 's inheritance led Susanna , along with her daughter and son @-@ in @-@ law , to make a settlement using a rather elaborate legal device for the inheritance of her own branch of the family . Legal wrangling continued for another thirteen years , until 1652 . = = Death = = Judith Quiney had died by 9 February 1662 , the day of her burial and a week after her 77th birthday . She outlived her last surviving child by 23 years . She was buried in the grounds of Holy Trinity Church , but the exact location of her grave is unknown . Of her husband , the records show little of his later years . It has been speculated that he may have died in 1662 or 1663 , when the parish burial records are incomplete , or that he may have left Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon . He is known to have had a nephew , living in London , who by this time was holding the lease to The Cage . = = Literary references = = Judith is portrayed in William Black 's Judith Shakespeare : Her Love Affairs and Other Adventures , published serially in Harper 's Magazine in 1884 . She is one of the main characters in Edward Bond 's 1973 play Bingo , which portrays the last years of her father , in retirement in Stratford on Avon . She also appears in one of the final stories in Neil Gaiman 's graphic novel , The Sandman . Gaiman compared Judith with the character Miranda from Shakespeare 's The Tempest . She is the subject of the 2003 novel My Father Had a Daughter : Judith Shakespeare 's Tale by Grace Tiffany . The radio play Judith Shakespeare by Nan Woodhouse portrays her as " a loner , yearning to be a part of her playwright father 's life " . She travels to London to join him and has a troubling affair with a young aristocrat . " Shakespeare 's Daughter " is the title of a short story by Mary Burke that was short @-@ listed for a 2007 Hennessy / Sunday Tribune Irish Writer prize . In A Room of One 's Own , Virginia Woolf created a character , " Judith Shakespeare " , although she is supposed to be Shakespeare 's sister rather than his daughter . Besides the similar names and setting , there is no other direct connection between Judith , Shakespeare 's daughter , and Woolf 's creation , and in fact Shakespeare 's sister was named Joan . In Woolf 's story Shakespeare 's sister is denied the education of her brother despite her obvious talent . When her father tries to marry her off , she runs away to join a theatre company but is ultimately rejected because of her gender . She becomes pregnant , is abandoned by her partner , and commits suicide . Woolf 's Judith was created in an attempt to fill a historical gap . Woolf intended to make a point about the struggle that a female poet and playwright would have had in the Elizabethan age . Woolf speculated as to why there were so few talented women from that time . " What I find deplorable , " she observed , " is that nothing is known about women before the eighteenth century . "
= Italian cruiser Vettor Pisani = The Italian cruiser Vettor Pisani was the name ship of her class of two armored cruisers built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the 1890s . She often served as a flagship during her career and frequently served overseas . On one of these deployments , the ship received a radio message from Peking , one of the first long @-@ range radio transmissions to a ship . Vettor Pisani participated in the Boxer Rebellion of 1900 and the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , during which her admiral nearly caused a diplomatic incident with the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire . During World War I , her activities were limited by the threat of Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and she was converted into a repair ship in 1916 . Vettor Pisani was stricken from the Navy List in 1920 and scrapped later that year . = = Design and description = = Vettor Pisani had a length between perpendiculars of 99 meters ( 324 ft 10 in ) and an overall length of 105 @.@ 7 meters ( 346 ft 9 in ) . She had a beam of 18 @.@ 04 meters ( 59 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 2 meters ( 23 ft 7 in ) . The ship displaced 6 @,@ 614 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 510 long tons ) at normal load , and 7 @,@ 128 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 015 long tons ) at deep load . The Vettor Pisani @-@ class ships had a complement of 28 officers and 472 to 476 enlisted men . The ship was powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller shaft . Steam for the engines was supplied by eight Scotch marine boilers . Designed for a maximum output of 13 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 9 @,@ 700 kW ) and a speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , Vettor Pisani only reached a speed of 18 @.@ 6 knots ( 34 @.@ 4 km / h ; 21 @.@ 4 mph ) during her sea trials despite slightly exceeding her designed horsepower with 13 @,@ 259 ihp ( 9 @,@ 887 kW ) . She had a cruising radius of about 5 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 000 km ; 6 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The main armament of the Vettor Pisani @-@ class ships consisted of twelve quick @-@ firing ( QF ) Cannone da 152 / 40 A Modello 1891 guns in single mounts . All of these guns were mounted on the broadside , eight on the upper deck and four at the corners of the central citadel in armored casemates . Single QF Cannone da 120 / 40 A Modello 1891 guns were mounted in the bow and stern and the remaining two 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns were positioned on the main deck between the 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) guns . For defense against torpedo boats , the ship carried fourteen QF 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) Hotchkiss guns and eight QF 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns . The ship was also equipped with four 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . Vettor Pisani was protected by an armored belt that was 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships and reduced to 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) at the bow and stern . The upper strake of armor was also 15 cm thick and protected just the middle of the ship , up to the height of the upper deck . The curved armored deck was 3 @.@ 7 cm thick . The conning tower armor was also 15 cm thick and each 15 @.@ 2 cm gun was protected by a 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) gun shield . = = Construction and career = = Vettor Pisani , named after the eponymous Venetian admiral , was laid down on 7 December 1892 at the Royal Shipyard in Castellammare di Stabia . The ship was launched on 14 August 1895 and completed on 1 April 1899 . She was the flagship of Rear Admiral Candiani , commander of the Cruising Squadron dispatched to China in 1900 during the Boxer Rebellion . Vettor Pisani arrived there on 20 August and made port visits in Japan , Korea and Vladivostock before departing the area on 29 November 1901 . She arrived at La Spezia in February 1902 , but only remained in Italian waters for a year before departing for another year @-@ long cruise to the Far East on 15 April 1903 . On 14 October , the Italian Legation in Peking successfully radioed the ship off the coast of China , one of the first long @-@ range radio transmissions to a ship . The cruiser arrived back in Italy on 13 June 1904 . Nothing is known of her activities until May – June 1908 when Vettor Pisani made a short cruise in Greek waters . When the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 began on 29 September 1911 , Vettor Pisani was the flagship of Rear @-@ Admiral Prince Luigi Amedeo , Duke of the Abruzzi , Inspector of Torpedo Boats . His command , the Division of the Inspector of Torpedo Boats , was deployed in the Adriatic Sea and five of his destroyers encountered two Ottoman torpedo boats in the Ionian Sea only an hour after war was declared . One of the Ottoman ships was able to take shelter under the protection of the fortifications in Prevesa while the other was forced to beach itself with nine men killed by Italian gunfire . The Italians blockaded the port and the Duke requested permission to issue an ultimatum for the Ottoman authorities to surrender the ship lest he bombard the city with Vettor Pisani and the battleship Ammiraglio di Saint Bon . Protests in early October over Italian interference in Ottoman @-@ controlled Albania by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire forced the Italians to abandon operations there and permission was denied . The cruiser was based in Taranto and Brindisi for much of December . In mid @-@ April 1912 , the division escorted the 1st , 2nd and 4th Divisions of the Italian fleet from Taranto to the eastern Aegean Sea where it bombarded the fortifications defending the Dardanelles to little effect before the main body departed for Italy on the 19th . Several months later , Vettor Pisani supported an unsuccessful sortie by five torpedo boats into the Dardanelles in search of the Ottoman fleet on the night of 18 / 19 July . Obsolescent by the beginning of World War I , Vettor Pisani was not very active during the war . She spent the war in the Adriatic and participated in an abortive attempt in mid @-@ 1915 to bombard a rail line near Ragusa Vecchia on the Dalmatian coast . An Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine , U @-@ 4 , intercepted the Italian ships and sank the armored cruiser Giuseppe Garibaldi . The loss of Giuseppe Garibaldi and the sinking of the armored cruiser Amalfi by another submarine on 7 July severely restricted the activities of the other ships based at Venice . She subsequently became a repair ship in 1916 and was stricken from the Navy List on 2 January 1920 . Vettor Pisani was sold for scrap and broken up beginning on 13 March .
= Watership Down = Watership Down is a classic adventure novel , written by English author Richard Adams , published by Rex Collings Ltd of London in 1972 . Set in southern England , the story features a small group of rabbits . Although they live in their natural environment , they are anthropomorphised , possessing their own culture , language , proverbs , poetry , and mythology . Evoking epic themes , the novel follows the rabbits as they escape the destruction of their warren and seek a place to establish a new home , encountering perils and temptations along the way . Watership Down was Richard Adams ' first novel . Although it was rejected by several publishers before Collings accepted it , it won the annual Carnegie Medal , annual Guardian Prize , and other book awards . It was adapted into the 1978 animated film Watership Down . Later there was a television series also titled Watership Down which ran from 1999 to 2001 . Adams completed a sequel almost 25 years later , Tales from Watership Down ( Random House , 1996 ; Hutchinson and Alfred A. Knopf imprints ) . It is a collection of 19 short stories about El @-@ ahrairah and the rabbits of the Watership Down warren , with " Notes on Pronunciation " and " Lapine Glossary " . = = Origin and publication history = = The title refers to the rabbits ' destination , Watership Down , a hill in the north of Hampshire , England , near the area where Adams grew up . The story began as tales that Richard Adams told his young daughters Juliet and Rosamond during long car journeys . As he explained in 2007 , he " began telling the story of the rabbits ... improvised off the top of my head , as we were driving along . " The daughters insisted he write it down — " they were very , very persistent " . After some delay he began writing in the evenings and completed it 18 months later . The book is dedicated to the two girls . Adams 's descriptions of wild rabbit behaviour were based on The Private Life of the Rabbit ( 1964 ) , by British naturalist Ronald Lockley . The two later became friends , embarking on an Antarctic tour that became the subject of a co @-@ authored book , Voyage Through the Antarctic ( A. Lane , 1982 ) . Watership Down was rejected seven times before it was accepted by Rex Collings . The one @-@ man London publisher Collings wrote to an associate , " I 've just taken on a novel about rabbits , one of them with extra @-@ sensory perception . Do you think I 'm mad ? " The associate did call it " a mad risk " in her obituary of Collings ; " a book as bizarre by an unknown writer which had been turned down by the major London publishers ; but it was also dazzlingly brave and intuitive . " Collings had little capital and could not pay an advance but " he got a review copy onto every desk in London that mattered . " Adams wrote that it was Collings who gave Watership Down its title . There was a second edition in 1973 . Macmillan USA , then a media giant , published the first U.S. edition in 1974 and a Dutch edition was also published that year by Het Spectrum . According to WorldCat , participating libraries hold copies in 18 languages of translation . = = Plot summary = = In the Sandleford warren , Fiver , a young runt rabbit who is a seer , receives a frightening vision of his warren 's imminent destruction . When he and his brother Hazel fail to convince their chief rabbit of the need to evacuate , they set out on their own with a small band of eleven rabbits to search for a new home , barely eluding the Owsla , the warren 's military caste . The travelling group of rabbits finds itself following the leadership of Hazel , previously an unimportant member of the warren . They travel through dangerous territory , with Bigwig and Silver , both former Owsla , as the strongest rabbits among them . Eventually they meet a rabbit named Cowslip , who invites them to join his warren . However , when Bigwig is nearly killed in a snare , the rabbits realize that the new warren is managed by a farmer who protects the rabbits but also harvests a number of them for his own purposes , and the residents of the new warren are simply using them to increase their own odds of survival . After Fiver rescues Bigwig from the snare they continue on their journey . Fiver 's visions promise a safe place in which to settle , and the group eventually finds Watership Down , an ideal location to set up their new warren . They are soon reunited with Holly and Bluebell , also from the Sandleford Warren , who reveal that Fiver 's vision was true and the entire warren was destroyed by humans . Although Watership Down is a peaceful habitat , Hazel realizes there are no does ( female rabbits ) , thus making the future of the warren certain to end with the inevitable death of the rabbits present . With the help of a black @-@ headed gull named Kehaar , they locate a nearby warren , Efrafa , which is overcrowded and has many does . Hazel sends a small embassy to Efrafa to present their request for does . While waiting for the group to return , Hazel and Pipkin scout the nearby Nuthanger Farm to find two pairs of hutch rabbits there ; Hazel leads a raid on the farm the next day and rescues two does and a buck from the hutch . When the emissary returns , Hazel and his rabbits learn Efrafa is a police state led by the despotic General Woundwort , and the four rabbits dispatched there manage to return with little more than their lives intact . However , the group does manage to identify an Efrafan doe named Hyzenthlay who wishes to leave the warren and can recruit other does to join in the escape . Hazel and Bigwig devise a plan to rescue the group and join them on Watership Down , after which the Efrafan escapees start their new life of freedom . Shortly thereafter the Owsla of Efrafa , led by Woundwort himself arrives to attack the newly formed warren at Watership Down , but through Bigwig 's bravery and loyalty and Hazel 's ingenuity , the Watership Down rabbits seal the fate of the Efrafan general by unleashing the Nuthanger Farm watchdog . A formidable fighter by rabbit standards , Woundwort fearlessly stands his ground when the dog closes on him for the kill . His body , however , is never found , and at least one of his former followers continues to believe in his survival . Hazel is nearly killed by a cat , but is saved by the farm girl Lucy , the owner of the escaped hutch rabbits . The story 's epilogue tells the reader of how Hazel , dozing in his burrow one " chilly , blustery morning in March " some years later , is visited by El @-@ Ahrairah , the spiritual overseer of all rabbits , and hero of many rabbit stories , who invites Hazel to join his own Owsla . Leaving his friends and no @-@ longer @-@ needed body behind , Hazel departs Watership Down with the spirit @-@ guide , " running easily down through the wood , where the first primroses were beginning to bloom . " = = Characters = = Hazel : The protagonist , Fiver 's brother ; he leads the rabbits from Sandleford and eventually becomes Chief Rabbit . Though Hazel is not particularly large or powerful , he is loyal , brave , and a quick thinker . He sees the good in each individual , and what they bring to the table ; in so doing , he makes sure that no one gets left behind , thus earning the respect and loyalty of his warren . He often relies on Fiver 's advice , and trusts in his brother 's instincts absolutely . Fiver : A runt rabbit whose name literally means " Little Thousand " ( rabbits have a single word , " hrair " , for all numbers greater than four ; Fiver 's name in Lapine , Hrairoo , indicates that he is the smallest of a litter of five or more rabbits ) and Hazel 's younger brother . As a seer , he has visions and very strong instincts . Fiver is one of the most intelligent rabbits in the group . He is quiet and intuitive , and though he does not directly act as a leader , the others listen to and follow his advice . Vilthuril becomes his mate . Bigwig : An ex @-@ Owsla officer , and the largest and bravest rabbit of the group . His name in Lapine is Thlayli , which literally means " Fur @-@ head " and refers to the shock of fur on the back of his head . Though he is powerful and fierce , he is also shown to be cunning in his own way when he devises a plan to defeat the larger and stronger General Woundwort . His final battle with Woundwort leaves him severely wounded , but he survives and becomes the leader of Hazel 's Owsla . Blackberry : A clever buck rabbit with black @-@ tipped ears . He is often capable of understanding concepts that the other rabbits find incomprehensible . He realises , for instance , that wood floats , and the rabbits use this tactic twice to travel on water . He also works out how to dismantle the snare that almost kills Bigwig , saving him . He is one of Hazel 's most trusted advisors , given the task to plan a way to rescue does from Efrafa . Holly : Former captain of the Sandleford Warren Owsla , escapes with Bluebell when his warren is destroyed by men . He is near death when he finds the warren at Watership Down , but is nursed back to health and becomes one of Hazel 's most trusted companions . Bluebell : Buck rabbit who escapes with Holly during the destruction of Sandleford and tells jokes to cope and help Holly Strawberry : Buck from Cowslip 's warren who leaves with the Watership Down rabbits after his doe is killed by a snare . Strawberry is strong and sleek but not as hardy as the other rabbits given his warren upbringing but learns quickly and gets along well with the group . It is for this reason that he is selected to represent the rabbits on an expedition to Efrafa . Haystack : One of the hutch rabbits who escapes in order to live with the wild rabbits Buckthorn : A strong buck who was expected to be part of the Sandleford Owsla once he reached maturity . Hawkbit : Described in the book as a " rather stupid rabbit " but is accepted by Hazel regardless . Dandelion : A buck rabbit notable for his storytelling ability and speed . He is instrumental in luring the Nuthanger Farm dog into the Efrafans during the siege of Watership Down . Silver : A strong buck rabbit , given his name for his silver @-@ gray fur , he fights alongside Bigwig and helps defend the rabbits during their journey . He is teased for his silver fur at the Sandleford warren which is one of the reasons he was more willing to leave . Pipkin : A small and timid buck rabbit , who looks to Hazel for guidance and protection . Hazel encourages him , and Pipkin grows very loyal to Hazel . He proves to be a constant comforter , particularly for Holly after the destruction of Sandleford warren . His name is Hlao in Lapine . Hyzenthlay : A doe who lives in Efrafa and assists Bigwig in arranging for the liberation of its inhabitants . General Woundwort , who suspects her of fomenting dissension , orders his guards to keep a close eye on her . She escapes Efrafa with Bigwig and becomes Hazel 's mate . Like Fiver , she has visions . Her name means literally " shine @-@ dew @-@ fur " , or " fur shining like dew " . Blackavar : A rabbit with very dark fur who tries to escape from Efrafa but is apprehended , mutilated , and put on display to discourage further escape attempts . When he is liberated by Bigwig , he quickly proves himself an expert tracker and ranger . Kehaar : A black @-@ headed gull who is forced , by an injured wing , to take refuge on Watership Down , and befriends the rabbits when they help him . He is characterized by his frequent impatience , guttural accent and unusual phrasing . After discovering the Efrafa warren and helping the rabbits , he rejoins his colony , but promises to visit . According to Adams , Kehaar was based on a fighter from the Norwegian Resistance in World War II . General Woundwort : The main antagonist : a fearless , cunning and brutally efficient rabbit who was orphaned at a young age , Woundwort founded the Efrafa warren and is its tyrannical chief . Though larger and stronger than Bigwig , he lacks mercy and kindness . He even leads an attack to destroy the Watership warren as an act of revenge against Bigwig stealing does from Efrafa , which is narrowly defeated by Hazel 's ingenuity and Bigwig 's bravery . After his apparent death fighting the Nuthanger farm dog , he lives on in rabbit legend as a bogeyman . Captain Campion : Woundwort 's most trusted subordinate , Campion is a loyal , brave and clever officer . After Woundwort disappears , he becomes the Chief Rabbit of Efrafa and reforms it , making peace with the Watership rabbits . Vervain : The head of the Council police in Efrafa . When Woundwort 's forces storm the Honeycomb , he is ordered by Woundwort to kill Fiver , but Fiver 's supernatural calmness and prophesising of his ( Vervain 's ) death terrify him into fleeing . Frith : A god @-@ figure who created the world and promised that rabbits would always be allowed to thrive . In Lapine , his name literally means " the sun " . El @-@ ahrairah : A rabbit trickster folk hero , who is the protagonist of nearly all of the rabbits ' stories . He represents what every rabbit wants to be ; smart , devious , tricky , and devoted to the well @-@ being of his warren . In Lapine , his name is a contraction of the phrase Elil @-@ hrair @-@ rah , which means " prince with a thousand enemies " . His stories of cleverness ( and excessive hubris ) are very similar to Br 'er Rabbit and Anansi . Prince Rainbow : A god @-@ figure who serves as a foil to El @-@ ahrairah . He attempts to rein in El @-@ ahrirah several times , but is always outsmarted by the rabbit . Rabscuttle : Another mythical folk hero , Rabscuttle is El @-@ ahrairah 's second in command and the Owsla leader . He participates in many of the El @-@ ahrairah 's capers . He is considered to be almost as clever as his chief . Black Rabbit of Inlé : A somber phantom servant of the god Frith who appears in rabbit folklore as a kind of analog to the grim reaper , and similarly ensures all rabbits die at their predestined time . " Inlé " is the Lapine term for the moon or darkness . = = Lapine language = = " Lapine " is a fictional language created by author Richard Adams for the novel , where it is spoken by the rabbit characters . The fragments of language presented by Adams consist of a few dozen distinct words , and are chiefly used for the naming of rabbits , their mythological characters , and objects in their world . = = Themes = = Watership Down has been described as an allegory , with the labours of Hazel , Fiver , Bigwig , and Silver " mirror [ ing ] the timeless struggles between tyranny and freedom , reason and blind emotion , and the individual and the corporate state . " Adams draws on classical heroic and quest themes from Homer and Virgil , creating a story with epic motifs . = = = The Hero , The Odyssey , and The Aeneid = = = The book explores the themes of exile , survival , heroism , leadership , political responsibility , and the " making of a hero and a community " . Joan Bridgman 's analysis of Adams 's works in The Contemporary Review identifies the community and hero motifs : " [ T ] he hero 's journey into a realm of terrors to bring back some boon to save himself and his people " is a powerful element in Adams 's tale . This theme derives from the author 's exposure to the works of mythologist Joseph Campbell , especially his study of comparative mythology , The Hero with a Thousand Faces ( 1949 ) , and in particular , Campbell 's " monomyth " theory , also based on Carl Jung 's view of the unconscious mind , that " all the stories in the world are really one story . " The concept of the hero has invited comparisons between Watership Down 's characters and those in Homer 's Odyssey and Virgil 's Aeneid . Hazel 's courage , Bigwig 's strength , Blackberry 's ingenuity and craftiness , and Dandelion 's and Bluebell 's poetry and storytelling all have parallels in the epic poem Odyssey . Kenneth Kitchell declared , " Hazel stands in the tradition of Odysseus , Aeneas , and others " . Tolkien scholar John Rateliff calls Adams 's novel an Aeneid " what @-@ if " book : what if the seer Cassandra ( Fiver ) had been believed and she and a company had fled Troy ( Sandleford Warren ) before its destruction ? What if Hazel and his companions , like Odysseus , encounter a seductive home at Cowslip 's Warren ( Land of the Lotus Eaters ) ? Rateliff goes on to compare the rabbits ' battle with Woundwort 's Efrafans to Aeneas 's fight with Turnus 's Latins . " By basing his story on one of the most popular books of the Middle Ages and Renaissance , Adams taps into a very old myth : the flight from disaster , the heroic refugee in search of a new home , a story that was already over a thousand years old when Virgil told it in 19 BC . " = = = Religious symbolism = = = It has been suggested that Watership Down contains symbolism of several religions , or that the stories of El @-@ ahrairah were meant to mimic some elements of real @-@ world religion . When asked in a 2007 BBC Radio interview about the religious symbolism in the novel , Adams stated that the story was " nothing like that at all . " Adams said that the rabbits in Watership Down did not worship , however , " they believed passionately in El @-@ ahrairah " . Adams explained that he meant the book to be , " only a made @-@ up story ... in no sense an allegory or parable or any kind of political myth . I simply wrote down a story I told to my little girls " . Instead , he explained , the " let @-@ in " religious stories of El @-@ ahrairah were meant more as legendary tales , similar to a rabbit Robin Hood , and that these stories were interspersed throughout the book as humorous interjections to the often " grim " tales of the " real story " . = = Reception = = The Economist heralded the book 's publication , saying " If there is no place for Watership Down in children ’ s bookshops , then children ’ s literature is dead . " Peter Prescott , senior book reviewer at Newsweek , gave the novel a glowing review : " Adams handles his suspenseful narrative more dextrously than most authors who claim to write adventure novels , but his true achievement lies in the consistent , comprehensible and altogether enchanting civilisation that he has created . " Kathleen J. Rothen and Beverly Langston identified the work as one that " subtly speaks to a child " , with " engaging characters and fast @-@ paced action [ that ] make it readable . " This echoed Nicholas Tucker 's praise for the story 's suspense in the New Statesman : " Adams ... has bravely and successfully resurrected the big picaresque adventure story , with moments of such tension that the helplessly involved reader finds himself checking whether things are going to work out all right on the next page before daring to finish the preceding one . " The " enchanting " world Prescott admired was not as well received upon its 1974 American publication . Although again the object of general approval , reception in the United States was more mixed , unlike the predominantly positive reviews of 1972 . D. Keith Mano , a science fiction writer and conservative social commentator writing in the National Review , declared that the novel was " pleasant enough , but it has about the same intellectual firepower as Dumbo . " He pilloried it further : " Watership Down is an adventure story , no more than that : rather a swashbuckling crude one to boot . There are virtuous rabbits and bad rabbits : if that ’ s allegory , Bonanza is an allegory . " John Rowe Townsend notes that the book quickly achieved such a high popularity despite the fact that it " came out at a high price and in an unattractive jacket from a publisher who had hardly been heard of . " Fred Inglis , in his book The Promise of Happiness : Value and meaning in children 's fiction , praises the author ’ s use of prose to express the strangeness of ordinary human inventions from the rabbits ' perspective . Watership Down 's universal motifs of liberation and self @-@ determination have led to the tendency of minority groups to read their own narrative into the novel , despite the author 's assurance ( in 2005 ) that it " was never intended to become some sort of allegory or parable . " Rachel Kadish , reflecting on her own superimposition of the founding of Israel onto Watership Down , has remarked " Turns out plenty of other people have seen their histories in that book ... some people see it as an allegory for struggles against the Cold War , fascism , extremism ... a protest against materialism , against the corporate state . Watership Down can be Ireland after the famine , Rwanda after the massacres . " Kadish has praised both the fantasy genre and Watership Down for its " motifs [ that ] hit home in every culture ... all passersby are welcome to bring their own subplots and plug into the archetype . " = = = Awards = = = Adams won the 1972 Carnegie Medal from the Library Association , recognising the year 's best children 's book by a British subject . He also won the annual Guardian Children 's Fiction Prize , a similar award that authors may not win twice . In 1977 California schoolchildren selected it for the inaugural California Young Reader Medal in the Young Adult category , which annually honours one book from the last four years . In The Big Read , a 2003 survey of the British public , it was voted the forty @-@ second greatest book of all time . = = Criticism = = = = = Gender roles = = = The 1993 Puffin Modern Classics edition of the novel contains an afterword by Nicholas Tucker , who wrote that stories such as Watership Down " now fit rather uneasily into the modern world of consideration of both sexes " . He contrasted Hazel 's sensitivity to Fiver with the " far more mechanical " attitude of the bucks towards does , who Tucker considers are portrayed as " little more than passive baby @-@ factories " . In " Male Chauvinist Rabbits , " an essay originally published in the New York Times Book Review , Selma G. Lanes criticized Adams 's treatment of gender . She observed that the first third of the story is a " celebration of male camaraderie , competence , bravery and loyalty as a scraggly bunch of yearling bucks ... arrive triumphant at a prospectively ideal spot " , only to realize that they have no females for mating . " Fully the last two @-@ thirds of Adams 's saga , " Lanes argued , " is devoted to what one male reviewer has blithely labelled " The Rape of the Sabine Rabbits " , a ruthless , single @-@ minded and rather mean @-@ spirited search for females – not because Watership Down 's males miss their companionship or yearn for love , but rather to perpetuate the existing band . " For Adams , Lanes continued , the does are only " instruments of reproduction " to prevent the achievement of reaching Watership Down from " becoming a hollow victory . " As evidence , Lanes pointed to Hazel and Holly 's assessment of the rescued Nuthanger does ' value : " it came naturally ... to consider the two Nuthanger does simply as breeding stock for the warren . " Lanes argued that this view of the female rabbits came from Adams himself rather than his source text , Ronald Lockley 's The Private Life of the Rabbit . In Lockley 's text , by contrast , the rabbit world is matriarchal , and new warrens are always initiated by dissatisfied , young females . Hence , Lanes concluded , Adams 's novel is " marred by an attitude towards females that finds more confirmation in Hugh Hefner 's Playboy than R. M. Lockley 's The Private Life of the Rabbit . " In similar vein , literary critic Jane Resh Thomas stated that Watership Down " draws upon ... an anti @-@ feminist social tradition which , removed from the usual human context and imposed upon rabbits , is eerie in its clarity . " Thomas did find much to admire about Watership Down , calling it a " splendid story " . For her , its " anti @-@ feminist bias ... damages the novel in only a minor way . " She later explained : " I wrote about Watership Down because I was angry and hurt when I read the book . ... I felt he [ Adams ] had treated me and my kind with a contempt I couldn 't be silent about . " Adams ' 1996 sequel , Tales from Watership Down includes stories where the female rabbits play a more prominent role in the Watership Down warren . It has been suggested that this might have been an attempt to modernise the story , to make it more in tune with the political sensibilities of the 1990s , when it was published . = = Adaptations = = = = = Film = = = In 1978 Martin Rosen wrote and directed an animated film adaptation of Watership Down . The voice cast included John Hurt , Richard Briers , Harry Andrews , Simon Cadell , Nigel Hawthorne , and Roy Kinnear . The film featured the song " Bright Eyes " , sung by Art Garfunkel . Released as a single , the song became a UK number one hit . Although the essentials of the plot remained relatively unchanged , the film omits several side plots . Though the Watership Down warren eventually grew to seventeen rabbits , with the additions of Strawberry , Holly , Bluebell , and three hutch rabbits liberated from the farm , the movie only includes a band of eight . Rosen 's adaptation was praised for " cutting through Adams ' book ... to get to the beating heart " . The film has also seen some positive critical attention . In 1979 the film received a nomination for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation . Additionally , British television station Channel 4 's 2006 documentary 100 Greatest Cartoons named it the 86th greatest cartoon of all time . = = = Television = = = From 1999 to 2001 , the book was also adapted as an animated television series , broadcast on CITV in the UK and on YTV in Canada . It was produced by Martin Rosen and starred several well @-@ known British actors , including Stephen Fry , Rik Mayall , Dawn French , John Hurt , and Richard Briers , running for a total of 39 episodes over three seasons . Although the story was broadly based on that of the novel and most characters and events retained , some of the story lines and characters ( especially in later episodes ) were entirely new . In 2003 , the second season was nominated for a Gemini Award for Best Original Music Score for a Dramatic Series . = = = Miniseries = = = In July 2014 , it was confirmed that the BBC would be airing a new animated series based on the book . In April 2016 it was announced that the series would be a co @-@ production between the BBC and Netflix , and would consist of four one @-@ hour episodes . The series will have a budget of £ 20 million . = = = Theatre = = = In 2006 , Watership Down was again adapted for the stage , this time by Rona Munro . It ran at the Lyric Hammersmith in London . Directed by Melly Still , the cast included Matthew Burgess , Joseph Traynor , and Richard Simons . The tone of the production was inspired by the tension of war : in an interview with The Guardian , Still commented , " The closest humans come to feeling like rabbits is under war conditions ... We 've tried to capture that anxiety . " A reviewer at The Times called the play " an exciting , often brutal tale of survival " and said that " even when it ’ s a muddle , it ’ s a glorious one . " In 2011 , Watership Down was adapted for the Lifeline Theatre in Chicago by John Hildreth . This production was directed by Katie McLean Hainsworth and the cast included Scott T. Barsotti , Chris Daley , Paul S. Holmquist , and Mandy Walsh . = = = Role @-@ playing game = = = Watership Down inspired the creation of Bunnies & Burrows , a role @-@ playing game in which the main characters are talking rabbits , published in 1976 by Fantasy Games Unlimited . It introduced several innovations to role @-@ playing game design , being the first game to allow players to have non @-@ humanoid roles , as well as the first with detailed martial arts and skill systems . Fantasy Games Unlimited published a second edition of the game in 1982 , and the game was modified and republished by Steve Jackson Games as an official GURPS supplement in 1992 . = = = Music = = = The song " Bright Eyes " was written by Mike Batt and performed by Art Garfunkel for the 1978 film adaptation of the book Watership Down . In addition to this song , numerous bands or musicians have made reference to Watership Down in their music : Italian power metal band Trick or Treat released the first of their planned two Watership Down concept albums in 2012 . The album is called Rabbits ' Hill Pt . 1 . The tracklist includes a cover of the song " Bright Eyes " originally written by Mike Batt . American folk rock trio America performed a song titled " Watership Down " , released by Warner Bros. Records in April 1976 on their Hideaway album . Composed by singer / songwriter Gerry Beckley , the song 's lyrics refer obliquely to the story elements , including the phrase " you might hear them in the distance , if your ear 's to the ground . " Swedish progressive rock musician Bo Hansson recorded a suite named " Rabbit Music " which was based on the book , as part of his 1975 album Attic Thoughts . Two years later , Hansson released an entire album devoted to the novel , titled Music Inspired by Watership Down . The British post @-@ hardcore band Fall of Efrafa is a concept band who has recorded a trilogy of albums based loosely on the mythology of Watership Down . This trilogy is known as The Warren of Snares and consists of the albums Owsla ( 2006 ) , Elil ( 2007 ) and Inlé ( 2009 ) . The British electronic group Ladytron shot a music video for their single " Ghosts " , off their 2008 album Velocifero , which featured many references to Watership Down . American art @-@ rock band ... And You Will Know Us by the Trail of Dead has a song on their 1998 self @-@ titled album called " Prince with a Thousand Enemies " . American hip @-@ hop group Common Market recorded a song called " Watership Down " on their 2008 EP Black Patch War . New Jersey @-@ based hardcore punk band Bigwig takes its name from the character in the novel . The cover art of its first album , Unmerry Melodies , features a rabbit resembling Bigwig , and the song " Best of Me " features a sample from the film Watership Down . American rapper Sole , on his album Selling Live Water , references the story of El Ahrairah in the tunnel in the chorus of his song " Tokyo " . American singer @-@ songwriter Vanessa Carlton 's 2011 album Rabbits on the Run was inspired by Watership Down and A Brief History of Time . The song " Honey and the Bee " by Owl City contains the lyrics " The crow and the beanfield " , referencing the title of chapter 9 . American electronic dance music dj and producer Skrillex named his record label OWSLA . = = = Radio = = = In 2002 , a two @-@ part , two @-@ hour dramatization of Watership Down by Neville Teller was broadcast by BBC Radio 4 . = = = Audiobooks = = = In the 1970s , the book was read by Roy Dotrice , with musical background — music by George Butterworth performed by Academy of St Martin in the Fields under the direction of Neville Marriner . In 1984 , Watership Down was adapted into a 4 @-@ cassette audiobook by John Maher in association with the Australian Broadcasting Company 's Renaissance Players . Produced by John Hannaford and narrated by Kerry Francis , the audiobook was distributed by The Mind 's Eye . In 1990 , a 16 @-@ hour , 11 @-@ cassette recording read by John MacDonald was published by Books on Tape , Inc. of Santa Ana , CA . ISBN 0 @-@ 7366 @-@ 1700 @-@ 0 Andrew Sachs recorded a 5 and a half hour abridged version of the story for Puffin Audiobooks . In 2010 , Audible.com released an unabridged digital download of the book , narrated by the multiple award @-@ winning Ralph Cosham . = = Parodies = = In an episode of the British comedy show The Goodies , entitled Animals , nature presenters from the BBC are forced to escape in rabbit suits from the fury of animals now granted equal rights with humans . It features the music and animation in the style of the movies . In the American TV show Robot Chicken , a parody of the book is done with the Fraggles , the main characters of the show Fraggle Rock , in place of the rabbits .
= Lana Lang ( Smallville ) = Lana Lang is a fictional character on the television series Smallville . She has been a series regular since the pilot episode , and has been played continuously by Kristin Kreuk , with two other actresses having portrayed Lana Lang as a child and as an elderly woman . The character of Lana Lang , first created for comic books by Bill Finger and John Sikela in the 1950s as a romantic interest for Superboy , was adapted to television in 2001 by Alfred Gough and Miles Millar . The character has also appeared in various literature based on the Smallville television series , none of which directly continues from or into the television episodes . In Smallville , Lana is the love interest for Clark Kent , though , in the first season she is dating Whitney Fordman . By season two , with Whitney 's departure , Lana and Clark begin to grow closer . Clark 's dishonesty over the secrets he is hiding causes their relationship to end . Lana then grew closer to Lex Luthor . Eventually , Lana learns the truth about Clark and they get back together . After stealing a kryptonite @-@ powered suit from Lex , Lana absorbs an enormous amount of kryptonite radiation , which prohibits her from getting too close to Clark , and she leaves Smallville for good , but vowed to continue to use her powers to preserve life . Initially , Lana is characterized as the intelligent " girl next door " . She eventually becomes a tragic figure in Smallville , as the decisions made by Clark and Lex change the character over the course of the show . As Gough explains , by the end of the sixth season , Lana has shown that she can beat Lex at his own game . Over the course of the show , Lana transitions from the girl next door to a more " self @-@ reliant young woman " . Kreuk has been nominated for various awards for her portrayal of Lana Lang . = = Role in Smallville = = In the first season , Lana and Clark Kent ( Tom Welling ) are just beginning their friendship , as she is a popular cheerleader dating star quarterback Whitney Fordman ( Eric Johnson ) , and Clark cannot get near her without getting sick from the kryptonite necklace she wears . In the pilot episode , when her parents are killed in the first meteor shower , Lana is adopted by her aunt Nell ( Sarah @-@ Jane Redmond ) . As the first season progresses , Lana grows closer to Clark , while Whitney begins to distance himself because of his father 's medical ailments . In season two 's episode " Heat " Lana sends Whitney , who left Smallville for the Marines in the season one finale , a video message breaking up with him . Lana 's aunt Nell moves to Metropolis with her fiancé in the season two episode " Ryan " , but Lana opts to move in with her friend Chloe Sullivan ( Allison Mack ) so that she may finish high school in Smallville . By the end of season two , Lana and Clark slowly try and start a romantic relationship , but fear backlash from Chloe because of her personal feelings for Clark . Just as the two give in to their feelings fully , Clark unexpectedly runs away from Smallville in the season two finale . At the start of season three , it is shown that Lana , alongside the Kents , has been spending her time searching for Clark ; she ultimately finds him in Metropolis thanks to Chloe 's help . Clark 's actions in Metropolis force the two to rethink their relationship in the season three episode " Phoenix " , and Lana eventually begins a new relationship with Adam Knight ( Ian Somerhalder ) , a guy she met while in physical therapy after being trampled by a horse in season three 's " Asylum " . By the season three episode " Crisis " , it is discovered that the relationship Adam attempted to form with Lana was just a ploy so that Adam could investigate Clark . Season three 's " Forsaken " reveals that Lana , in order to move on with her life , applies and is admitted into a program to study in Paris , France . Season four shows that Lana , while in Paris , began a romantic relationship with Jason Teague ( Jensen Ackles ) . At the beginning of season four , Lana returns to Smallville after receiving a mysterious tattoo on her lower back , which resembles a symbol on the local Kawatche cave walls , when she touched the tomb of Countess Margaret Isobel Theroux . In season four 's " Spell " and " Sacred " , the tattoo acts as a doorway for the spirit of Isobel to inhabit Lana 's body ; each time Isobel takes over Lana 's body she sets out to find the three stones of knowledge , which are also being searched for by Clark and Lex Luthor ( Michael Rosenbaum ) . In the season four finale " Commencement " , Lana is confronted by Jason 's mother Genevieve ( Jane Seymour ) , who is also after the three stones of knowledge , and during a struggle Isobel comes forward and kills Genevieve . The resulting death of Genevieve , who was revealed to have been the cause for Isobel 's death centuries prior in the episode " Bound " , releases Isobel 's control over Lana . During the second meteor shower , Lana witnesses the landing of an alien spacecraft , and two alien beings emerging and killing everyone in sight in the season five premiere . The spaceship becomes Lana 's primary focus in season five , officially teaming up with Lex Luthor to discover the mystery behind the ship in the episode " Splinter " . When her relationship with Clark hits a breaking point in season five 's " Hypnotic " , she begins to grow closer to Lex . The relationship with Lex eventually leads to marriage in the season six episode " Promise " , but not before Lana discovers Clark 's secret and realizes why he has been lying to her all these years . When she learns that Lex set up a fake pregnancy in order to get her to marry him in the season six finale " Phantom " , Lana effectively ends the marriage and fakes her own death to escape Lex after he threatens her . She also frames Lex for her murder , to punish him for his betrayal . It is revealed at the start of season seven that her effort fails , but as part of the " settlement " of their divorce , Lex makes sure that Lana does not go to jail for her actions . With Clark 's secret no longer an issue , the two begin a real relationship in the season seven episode " Fierce " . Lana becomes obsessed with making Lex pay for all his crimes against humanity , which causes her to develop the Isis Foundation , using $ 10 million she stole from Lex . The Isis Foundation is a counseling center for kryptonite @-@ infected people , but it doubles as a front for Lana 's surveillance on Lex . Her obsessions also begin to affect her relationship with Clark by the episode " Wrath " . Eventually , Lana realizes that , even though she loves him , the only way for Clark to help the world to the best of his ability would be if she left Clark and Smallville for good , which she does in the season seven finale . In the season eight episode " Bride " , Oliver Queen ( Justin Hartley ) , believing he is tracking Lex Luthor who has been missing since the season seven finale , discovers Lana instead . Oliver convinces her to return to Smallville so that she can attend Chloe 's wedding . In the season eight episode " Power " , it is revealed that Lana really returned so that she could steal Lex 's " Prometheus " technology , which harnesses alien DNA to give the wearer of a " super @-@ suit " superhuman abilities , for herself . By the end of the episode , the procedure is complete , and Lana becomes just as strong and invulnerable as Clark . In the episode " Requiem " , Lana discovers that her suit absorbs kryptonite , but also emits the radiation making her a potential danger to Clark . When Winslow Schott puts a kryptonite bomb on the roof of the Daily Planet , Lana is forced to absorb all of the kryptonite to deactivate the bomb . As a result , she leaves Smallville to go on her own quest as Clark can no longer get near her without the kryptonite radiation hurting him . = = Portrayal = = Creators Alfred Gough and Miles Millar were initially trying to find someone for the role of Clark Kent , but Kristin Kreuk was the first to be cast , as Lana Lang . Casting director Coreen Mayrs sent David Nutter , the director of the pilot episode , a tape of sixty @-@ nine people and the second person on the tape was Kreuk . They loved her audition tape so much they immediately showed her to the network . For one of her auditions , she read the graveyard scene with Tom Welling ; the network thought they had " great chemistry " . Jade Unterman and Louise Grant portrayed the character as a child and an elderly woman , respectively . At the time she was cast as Lana , Kreuk had no idea who the character was in Superman lore . Her uncle , who owned a comic book shop , filled her in on the details and she learned more from the producers . Kreuk realized that the character in the comics and her character on the show were two different people . As a result , Kreuk learns about the development of Lana as Lana is learning in the show , just as Welling does with Clark Kent . When asked if her being cast as a traditionally red haired character caused outcry from fans , Kreuk believes that whoever did " got over it pretty fast " . By season three , Kreuk had decided to " invest " herself less in her character , as she felt that her character 's ultimate development was entirely in the hands of the producers . She no longer became frustrated when the producers had Lana doing things that Kreuk felt were out of character , instead trusting that they would find the right direction for the character . Kreuk enjoyed the fourth season because it gave her the chance to stretch her acting abilities with Lana 's storyline involving the spirit of Countess Margaret Isobel Thoreaux . According to the actress , " That was a lot of fun ; I thought it was funny as well [ … ] It really was wonderful to be able to stretch and play this driven woman who has a goal and is going to reach it , and in the meantime she 's going to be sexy doing it . That was a lot of fun for me because the show [ sometimes ] isn 't realistic so , as actors , we get to play with different types of things . " Kreuk says her strangest moment on the show was playing a vampire in season five 's " Thirst " , an experience she remembers as " uncomfortable " due to the fake blood they covered her in . Kreuk left the series at the end of the seventh season , but appeared in five episodes in season eight as a guest star . = = Character development = = = = = Storyline progression = = = One of the early turning points for the character came in season one 's " X @-@ Ray " , when Lana discovers information about her parents that changes her perspective on them . It began with her mother 's graduation speech , which showed that her mother was not as happy as her aunt had led her to believe . Lana 's perception of her mother drove the way she led her own life , which was based on the idea of everyone perceiving her in a good light . In season two , Lana discovers that her mother had had an affair with a man named Henry Small , and that he was her biological father . This continued the idea established in season one that Lana 's perception that her parents were this perfect couple was wrong . According to Kreuk , meeting her biological father allowed the character to realize that she had to create her own life , as the one she had envisioned did not actually exist . Season two also showed Lana 's transition from the " girl next door " to a more " self @-@ reliant young woman " . At the beginning of the season Lana is forced to come to terms with her diminished feelings for Whitney , as well as her growing feelings for Clark . It takes time before Lana is strong enough to finally tell Whitney the truth , in a video message , about the way she feels . The Talon , a local coffee shop co @-@ owned by Lana , becomes her new grounding force as Whitney and her aunt have left Smallville . Kreuk thinks that it can be hard to believe that a sixteen @-@ year @-@ old girl could become co @-@ owner of a coffee shop , but she believes that it helps to provide more independence for the character and establish her more within the show . Eventually , in order to really get to know herself , and find her role in life , Lana leaves Smallville for Paris . In season four , Kristin Kreuk felt like Lana is " going a little crazy and is uncertain about her direction , and feels people aren 't validating her beliefs " . = = = Characterization = = = At the start of the show , Lana Lang is characterized as the girl next door . As Kreuk describes her , she is the " beautiful , popular girl who is really lonely " . She has a " hole in her heart " , because of the loss of her parents , and feels empathy for everyone . Kristin feels that deep down the character is a " tough girl " , and that Lex manages to bring that side of her out more . For instance , he convinces her to fight back against a rival coffee shop that is spreading rumors about The Talon – the coffee shop that she joint owns with Lex . Unfortunately , that tough side is not seen in the first season . According to Kreuk , the character was never placed in situations where she could show her outgoing side , because she was left to communicate primarily with Whitney and Clark . Kreuk thinks that Lana " lived in her head a little bit " ; she was intelligent enough to read classical books , but would also read romantic novels " on the sly " . As Alfred Gough sees it , Lana is a by @-@ product of Clark and Lex 's decisions . She will always love Clark , and Clark will always love her , but it was Clark 's bad decisions , and Lex 's " basest instincts " that make Lana the " receptacle of all of these bad decisions " , marking her as a tragic figure on the show . While Lana was with Clark , Kreuk characterizes her as a " wimpy , whiny kind of girl " ; with Lex , Lana is " strong , powerful , and doesn 't have to question , ' What is going on ? What does he think ? Does he love me ? I don 't know where I stand . ' " To clarify , Lana 's relationship with Lex brings out a darkness that had not been seen in the character . This is evident in " Nemesis " when Lana manipulates her way into seeing Lionel , only to interrogate him about why he forced her to marry Lex , as well as leaving Lex to die in the underground tunnels . As Gough explains , by the end of the sixth season , Lana has shown that she can beat Lex at his own games . Reviewer Jennifer Malkowski feels that Lana is one of the most gullible characters on television . According to Malkowski , Lana 's strong feminist stance , and her request that people should stop protecting her and start telling her the truth , are diluted by her willingness to believe whatever pieces of information she gets , even if they are lies . After the series ended , Gough and Millar expressed regret with Lana 's characterization throughout the course of the show , which they felt damaged Lana in the audiences ' mind . Gough and Millar believed that Lana 's behavior toward Clark ( for refusing to reveal his secret ) made her come across as cold and unsympathetic . = = = Relationships = = = When Smallville first began , Lana was in a romantic relationship with Whitney Fordman , the star quarterback of the football team . Kreuk believes that Lana truly was in love with Whitney when they first started dating , but by the time the audience first sees her in the pilot she is no longer in that same state of mind . Kreuk believes that by the time of the pilot Lana had grown “ comfortable ” with Whitney , and that was where their relationship ended . Though Lana had growing feelings for Clark , Kreuk feels that the producers rushed the coupling of Clark and Lana at the end of the second season . She believes that with everything that had happened throughout the season between the two characters , it seemed a bit of a stretch for Lana to just quickly fall into Clark 's arms . The next season began to develop more of the relationship between Lex and Lana . Kreuk believes that Lana cares for Lex as a friend , and that she recognizes the " undertones " that Lex may be placing on their relationship , but that Lana tends to ignore them . Kreuk recognizes that Lex is a big part of Lana 's life , and that Lana tries to pay more attention to the good that Lex does and focus less on the darker aspects of his life . The friendship that Lana shares with Chloe was deeply damaged at the start of season three , so much so that not even Kreuk realized how badly until the episode " Truth " . Lana is aware that Chloe still has romantic feelings for Clark , but their friendship suffered the most when Chloe revealed that she had known where Clark had been hiding for months . The feelings of distrust for Chloe remained hidden until " Truth " — where Chloe gained the ability to have others speak the truth no matter what — when Lana finally revealed how much she cannot trust Chloe . This developing friendship between Lex and Lana puts a strain on Lana 's relationship with Clark . Just as Clark is beginning to realize the truth about Lex and his lies , Lana is starting to trust Lex more . Ultimately , it is Clark 's own lack of honesty that forces Lana to leave Smallville and go to Paris at the end of season three . In the end , Kreuk believes that Clark is Lana 's only true friend , as Lex is more focused on bringing his father to justice and she and Chloe have a tense relationship based on their mutual feelings for Clark . While in Paris , Lana begins a new romantic relationship with Jason Teague . Kreuk believes that Lana did love Jason Teague , but she also still loved Clark at the same time . With Clark , it was the " first love " that she never had the chance to discover , and that lingered with her while she was in Paris during the space between seasons three and four . According to Kreuk , before Lana can experience successful relationships with other people she will need to know what it is like to truly be in a relationship with Clark , because of the " intense connection between [ the ] two " . Allison Mack shares her insight into the relationship between Clark and Lana , believing that the pair should have remained apart until they could finally be honest with each other : " There 's no honesty in their relationship , and there 's no way that they could have a healthy relationship without that honesty [ … ] You can 't be with someone if you 're not honest with them . " Kreuk echoes Mack 's sentiments , acknowledging that Lana is not stupid , and if Clark wants a real relationship then he is going to have to be honest with her . The beginning of season five saw , for the first time , Clark and Lana in a happy relationship together , one that was void of dishonesty and secrets . The return of Clark 's powers in " Hidden " , as well as the secrets and lies that accompany them , caused stress on their relationship . In the series ' 100th episode , Clark finally took a chance and told Lana the truth . When it resulted , indirectly , in her death and he was allowed to live the day over again Clark chose not to tell her his secret . In " Hypnotic " , in an effort to stop hurting Lana emotionally , Clark told her that he no longer loved her . This drove Lana into Lex 's arms . Writer Darren Swimmer explains that this was not something that just happened in the series , but something that had been hinted at for many seasons . Swimmer believes that Lana started dating Lex as a way of making Clark mad , but the relationship " turned into much more " . Kreuk contends that Lana went to Lex because " she knows she will never really love him . " Kreuk believes that Lana 's relationship with the men in her life has been motivated by a desire to fill a void in her life that was left after her parents were killed . This need to fill that emptiness was fulfilled in " Void " , when Lana took a drug to induce death so that she could see her parents in the afterlife . Upon meeting her parents , Kreuk believes that Lana realized that she no longer needed someone else to fill that hole in her . Kreuk sees this filled void as the reason why Lana would gravitate toward Lex . Although she did not truly love Lex , Kreuk argues that Lex was not a rebound guy and that Lana did have feelings for him . " Even though Lana eventually marries Lex in season six , Al Gough argues that Lana still loved Clark and Clark still loved her . The only reason Lana was with Lex was because Clark forced her in that direction and she ended up getting in over her head . By contrast , writer Caroline Dries feels that Lana did love Lex , and that she did not make any hasty decisions when she agreed to marry him . Dries believes that the progression of the show demonstrates that Lex earned Lana 's love . To answer viewers that hated to see Lana marry Lex , Dries contends that as viewers we are seeing all of Lex , including how evil he truly is , while Lana only sees the portion of Lex that appears good . = = Reception = = In 2001 , Kristin Kreuk was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Actress , as well as Female Cinescape Genre Face of the Future . The following year , alongside co @-@ star Tom Welling , Kreuk was nominated for a Best Actress Saturn Award again . She would receive two more nominations in that category , one in 2004 and one in 2006 , before she departed from the show . In the 2003 Teen Choice Awards , Kristin Kreuk was nominated for Choice TV Actress : Drama / Action Adventure . She was nominated again in 2004 , 2006 , 2008 for the revised category Choice TV Actress : Action Adventure , and finally in 2009 . Kreuk was also co @-@ nominated with Welling at the 2006 Teen Choice Awards for Most Beautiful Couple ( TV - Choice Chemistry ) . DVD Verdict 's Brian Byun felt that the casting of the series was " pitch @-@ perfect " ; noting that Kreuk is " painfully luminous " as Lana Lang , which makes it obvious why she is the object of Clark 's obsession . = = Other media appearances = = = = = Young adult novels = = = Lana makes her first literary appearance in Smallville : Strange Visitors , published by Aspect . In Strange Visitors , Lana attempts to organize a fund raiser for the family of a school mate , Stewart , who was diagnosed with terminal cancer . Her effort is rendered moot when Lex Luthor and Dr. Donald Jacobi , a con artist that comes to Smallville , pick up Stewart 's medical bills after a meteor rock removes all of the malignant cancer cells in his brain . In Smallville : Dragon , Lana visits an antiques dealer , Mrs. Mayfern , looking for a gift for her boyfriend , Whitney . When she leaves she breaks up with Whitney and starts dating Clark . It is eventually discovered that she was hypnotized by Mrs. Mayfern , whose homegrown herbal tea is fertilized by meteor rocks . = = = Comic books = = = Lana made a non @-@ speaking cameo appearance in the ninth issue of the show 's comic book continuation Smallville : Season Eleven , written by executive story editor Bryan Q. Miller . Though Clark and Bart Allen do not notice her , she watches them race over the coast of Cameroon . Lana returns in a parallel storyarc Valkyrie , in which she uses the superhero alias " Angel of the Plateau " and battles terrorists in Africa . Lana also saves Lois from one of their attacks . Lana reveals that she has been using her abilities to help and protect children from people who would exploit them after Lana had settled in Africa . However , Lois tries not to reveal her relationship with Clark to Lana . Elsewhere , the terrorists seek John Corben 's aid in defeating Angel of the Plateau . Corben 's new kryptonite heart ( installed by Winslow Schott ) has absorbed the nanites embedded in Lana 's skin , rendering her powerless and no longer emitting the kryptonite radiation once more . After Lois helps Lana defeat Corben , Lana reveals that she had seen Lois 's engagement ring , thus she already knows about Clark 's relationship with Lois . Lana gives her blessing to Lois , and decides to remain in Africa as the Angel .
= Sarek ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) = " Sarek " is the 23rd episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , and the 71st episode overall . It was originally released on May 14 , 1990 , in broadcast syndication . The story for the episode was created by Marc Cushman and Jake Jacobs , with the teleplay written by Peter S. Beagle . " Sarek " was directed by Les Landau . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Federation starship Enterprise . In this episode , Sarek ( Mark Lenard ) , the father of Spock and a highly regarded but elderly ambassador , is ferried by the Enterprise on his final mission for the Federation . While he is aboard the ship , the crew experiences an outbreak of irrational anger amongst themselves . It is revealed that Sarek has Bendaii syndrome , which is telepathically causing the problems among the crew . It is only resolved after the Vulcan mind melds with Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) . The appearance of Lenard was originally suggested by Gene Roddenberry as an alternative to an appearance by Leonard Nimoy , as it was suspected that it would be too expensive to have the latter actor reprise the role of Spock on television . Roddenberry had previously barred references to Star Trek : The Original Series in The Next Generation ; the inclusion of Sarek in his namesake episode , along with a mention of Spock , was seen by the crew of The Next Generation as a breakthrough , allowing them to reference The Original Series more freely in the future . Sarek 's failing health was intended to be a reference to the declining health of Roddenberry . " Sarek " received Nielsen ratings of 10 @.@ 6 percent ; it was praised by critics , who lauded the performances of both Lenard and Stewart . = = Plot = = Federation Ambassador Sarek ( Mark Lenard ) of Vulcan has arrived on board the Enterprise with his human wife , Perrin ( Joanna Miles ) . His mission is to attend a conference to lay the foundation for trade relations between the Federation and an alien race called the Legarans , after which time he will retire due to old age . Though Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) and his crew attempt to provide for Sarek and have arranged for a chamber music concert for him , the ambassador expresses apprehension and annoyance . Picard is surprised when Sarek starts crying in the middle of the performance , an emotional trait Vulcans normally suppress . Across the ship , the crew members start to act with uncharacteristic hostility towards one another , leading to a large brawl in the Ten Forward lounge . The onset of the events is tied to Sarek 's arrival . Ship 's Counselor Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) and Chief Medical Officer Dr. Beverly Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) believe Sarek may be suffering from Bendii syndrome , a degenerative neurological disease that only affects aged Vulcans . This condition causes individuals to lose control of their emotions and emit " broadcast empathy " , destabilizing the emotions of others around them . Picard attempts to approach Sarek about this , but Sarek 's aides deny that there are any problems . Picard asks Lt. Commander Data ( Brent Spiner ) to speak with Sakkath ( Rocco Sisto ) , Sarek 's second assistant , who has mutual respect with Data ; Data confirms that Sakkath has been attempting to channel his emotional strength into Sarek , but has been overwhelmed by the pressures of the conference . Picard directly confronts Sarek on the matter , who attempts to deny the problem . When Sarek breaks down emotionally in front of Picard , Picard realizes they may need to cancel the conference . As Picard prepares to cancel with the Legarans , Perrin arrives and suggests an alternative option : Sarek could mind meld with another , allowing him to temporarily transfer his emotions onto someone else . This would leave Sarek able to successfully complete the conference and maintain his dignity , reputation and honor . Perrin , however , warns of the possible dangers to the receiver 's mind from Sarek 's strong emotions . Picard willingly agrees to be the host . Sarek performs the mind meld with Picard , and is able to retain full control of his emotions for the duration of the conference . However , Picard , monitored closely by Dr. Crusher , suffers through the numerous emotions that Sarek has pent @-@ up for years , including his regrets of not being able to show his love for his wife Amanda , their son Spock , or his current wife Perrin . With the conference successfully completed , Sarek prepares to take his leave . Picard lets Perrin know of Sarek 's love for her , and Perrin says she has always known it . Sarek thanks Picard for his kindness , and with deep respect states " We will always retain the best part of the other , inside us . " = = Production = = Following creator Gene Roddenberry 's suggestion that The Next Generation would be unable to afford an appearance by Leonard Nimoy as Spock , it was suggested in a memo that Mark Lenard could appear as Spock 's on @-@ screen father , Sarek . Lenard had made his first appearance as Sarek in the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Journey to Babel " . Trent Christopher Ganino and Eric A. Stillwell began to work on a script involving both Lenard as Sarek and Denise Crosby as Tasha Yar . This was because Crosby told Stillwell that she wanted to return to the show after her character was killed off in " Skin of Evil " in the first season of The Next Generation . This script would change over time to become " Yesterday 's Enterprise " . Ganino and Stillwell 's original pitch for " Yesterday 's Enterprise " featured a team of Vulcan scientists , led by Sarek . They accidentally travel to the past using the Guardian of Forever ( a time portal seen in The Original Series episode " The City on the Edge of Forever " ) and kill Surak , the founder of modern Vulcan logic . When they return to the present , they find that the Vulcans are allied with the Romulans and at war with the Federation . Only Sarek and his Vulcan scientists are unaffected by the change , and so he elects to return to the past and replace Surak , allowing the timeline to be restored . Michael Piller was not happy with this script as he wanted the episode to be more centered on The Next Generation cast ; as such , Sarek and the Guardian were dropped from the story . When it was pitched by Marc Cushman and Jake Jacobs , the idea which formed the basis for " Sarek " featured an original character instead of Sarek . The staff writers felt the degenerative disease conceit would be a subject that viewers could relate to , as it could be a metaphor for dementia in the elderly . The element of the plot wherein the disease would cause telepathic problems for the rest of the crew was then developed , with Sarek added to the plot at a late stage in order to ensure an emotional impact on the audience . Piller said that " it brings home the idea that even the greatest of men is subject to illness " . He also said that the plot was a direct reference to the declining health of Roddenberry . The script was written by Peter S. Beagle , better known for the 1968 novel The Last Unicorn . Because of the chronological differences between the settings of The Original Series and The Next Generation , it was decided that Sarek 's first wife , Amanda Grayson , would have died by the time of the events of " Sarek " . As such , the character of Perrin was created as a second human wife for Sarek . Perrin was played by Miles in her first Star Trek appearance . Both Miles and Lenard would return in the same roles for the first part of the fifth season episode " Unification " . The writers and producers were nervous about mentioning Spock in " Sarek " , with an early version of the script only calling for a reference by Picard to Sarek 's son 's wedding . The third season had seen a relaxation in Roddenberry 's previous direction that The Next Generation could not touch on aspects of The Original Series . This was especially seen at the end of " Sarek " , in which Picard mentions Spock by name during the mind meld . Piller later described this one act as " the breakthrough which allowed us to open the doors , that allowed us to begin to embrace our past " . The episode features several works of classical music at a concert meant to feature music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart . While the first is Mozart 's String Quartet No.19 in C @-@ Major , the second piece is String Sextet No.1 by Johannes Brahms . The rest of the episode was scored by Dennis McCarthy ; " Sarek " was one of several episodes on which he worked . Story editor Ronald D. Moore thought that " Sarek " was better than " Journey to Babel " , and it allowed Lenard to do some " solid acting " . Director Les Landau also praised Lenard 's performance , saying that a moment when a tear rolls down Sarek 's face was portrayed as " something special " . He added that the dynamics in the mind meld scene reached " a level that I think is classic in Star Trek history " , describing Stewart 's performance as " truly spectacular " . The mind meld scene was shot in a single take . = = Release and reception = = = = = Broadcast = = = " Sarek " aired in broadcast syndication during the week commencing May 12 , 1990 . It received Nielsen ratings of 10 @.@ 6 , reflecting the percentage of all households watching the episode during its timeslot . This was the highest ratings received by the series since " Captain 's Holiday " six weeks earlier . No episodes of The Next Generation received higher ratings until the second part of " The Best of Both Worlds " which opened the fourth season . = = = Critical reception = = = Mark Jones and Lance Parkin , in their book Beyond the Final Frontier : An Unauthorised Review of Star Trek , wrote that " Sarek " " could have simply pressed fanboy buttons " , but was actually " a moving story of a great man brought low by old age and illness " . They praised Lenard , but thought that Stewart " steals the show with an extraordinary performance " . Chris Gregory , in his book Star Trek : Parallel Narratives , suggested that Bendii syndrome as seen in this episode " has echoes of Alzheimer 's disease " . James Van Hise and Hal Schumer , in The Complete Trek : The Next Generation , compared the plot of " Sarek " to that of the The Original Series episode " Day of the Dove " . They described " Sarek " as " excellent " and said that it was " exciting and emotional , with real conflicts overcome by real people " . They added that " TV doesn 't get much better than this . " Zack Handlen reviewed the episode in 2010 , for The A.V. Club , giving it a rating of an A. He praised the fact that there was no mystery to the episode , and that it was instead explained immediately that Sarek was the cause of the crewmembers ' problems . He added that there was a " beautiful simplicity to this concept , an elegance that makes the tragedy at the heart of the episode all the more powerful " . Handlen said that the scene in which Picard deals with the emotions of Sarek after the mind meld was a " remarkable work , a level of naked , raw intensity that we rarely get on [ The Next Generation ] , and in the hands of a lesser actor ( basically anyone else in the ensemble ) , this could 've been ridiculous " . Keith DeCandido , in a 2012 review for Tor.com , gave the episode a score of 7 out of 10 . He said that the majority of the guest cast were " pretty nowhere " , but that the backbone of the episode was Lenard portraying Sarek , " one of the most beloved recurring roles in the franchise 's history , and this episode is a beautiful illustration of why " . He called the telepathy plot " dopey sci @-@ fi stuff " , but praised the direction of Landau in — among others — the concert scene , which he called a " tour de force " . He said , however , that the standout part of the episode was the interaction of Stewart and Lenard , who he referred to as " two great actors at the absolute top of their game " . He said that " Stewart simply owns the mind @-@ meld , a turbulent , raw scene that leaves the character of Sarek completely exposed , and Stewart sells it amazingly . At that point , the plot contrivances are forgotten , as you realize that the whole episode was worth it to watch this amazing scene " . James Hunt , reviewing " Sarek " for Den of Geek in 2014 , appreciated the episode 's metaphor for the declining health of Gene Roddenberry . He felt that there was no follow @-@ up to the emotional disturbances suffered by the crew , but said that despite this the episode worked because of the presence of Lenard as Sarek . He said that " they cunningly build up [ Sarek 's ] respect for Picard throughout the episode so that the proposed solution to his problem doesn 't seem too far @-@ fetched , and the rapport between Lenard and Stewart is so immediate that you can believe a literal mind @-@ meld makes sense for the characters . It 's not a perfect episode in terms of its writing , but the acting sells it far better than it could 've . " In 2014 , the episode was ranked as the 70th best out of the over 700 episodes in the Star Trek franchise by Charlie Jane Anders for io9 . = = = Home media release = = = The first home media release of " Sarek " was on VHS cassette , appearing on October 3 , 1995 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season three DVD box set , released in the United States on September 3 , 2002 . The first Blu Ray release was in the United States on April 30 , 2013 .
= Great Mosque of Gaza = The Great Mosque of Gaza ( Arabic : جامع غزة الكبير , transliteration : Jāmaʿ Ghazza al @-@ Kabīr ) also known as the Great Omari Mosque ( Arabic : المسجد العمري الكبير , transliteration : Jāmaʿ al @-@ ʿUmarī al @-@ Kabīr ) is the largest and oldest mosque in the Gaza Strip , located in Gaza 's old city . Believed to stand on the site of an ancient Philistine temple , the site was used by the Byzantines to erect a church in the 5th century , but after the Muslim conquest in the 7th century , it was transformed into a mosque . Described as " beautiful " by an Arab geographer in the 10th century , the Great Mosque 's minaret was toppled in an earthquake in 1033 . In 1149 , the Crusaders built a cathedral dedicated to John the Baptist , but it was mostly destroyed by the Ayyubids in 1187 , and then rebuilt as a mosque by the Mamluks in the early 13th century . It was destroyed by the Mongols in 1260 , then soon restored only for it to be destroyed by an earthquake at the end of the century . The Great Mosque was restored again by the Ottomans roughly 300 years later . Severely damaged after British bombardment during World War I , the mosque was restored in 1925 by the Supreme Muslim Council . = = Location = = The Great Mosque is situated in the Daraj Quarter of the Old City in Downtown Gaza at the eastern end of Omar Mukhtar Street , southeast of Palestine Square . Gaza 's Gold Market is located adjacent to it on the south side , while to the northeast is the Katib al @-@ Wilaya Mosque and to the east , on Wehda Street , is a girls ' school . = = History = = = = = Philistine and Byzantine era = = = According to tradition , the mosque stands on the site of the Philistine temple dedicated to Dagon — the god of fertility — which Samson toppled in the Book of Judges . Later , a temple dedicated to Marnas — god of rain and grain — was erected . Local legend today claims that Samson is buried under the present mosque . The building was constructed in 406 CE as a large Byzantine church by Empress Aelia Eudocia , although it is also a possible that the church was built by Emperor Marcian . Based on a Jewish inscription carved on the upper tier of one of the building 's columns , it was suggested in the late 19th century that the upper pillars of the building were brought from a 3rd @-@ century Jewish synagogue in Caesarea Maritima . The discovery of a 6th @-@ century synagogue at the port of Gaza ( Maiumas ) in the 1960s , however , make local re @-@ use of this column much likelier . In addition to the inscription , the column depicted a menorah , a shofar , a lulav and etrog surrounded by a decorative wreath ; the inscription read " Hananyah son of Jacob " in both Hebrew and Greek . The church appeared in the Map of Madaba mosaic , created in 600 CE . = = = Islamic era = = = The Byzantine church was transformed into a mosque in the 7th @-@ century by Omar ibn al @-@ Khattab 's generals , in the early period of Rashidun rule . The mosque is alternatively named " al @-@ Omari " in honor of Omar ibn al @-@ Khattab who was caliph during the Muslim conquest of Palestine . In 985 , during Abbasid rule , Arab geographer al @-@ Muqaddasi wrote that the Great Mosque was a " beautiful mosque . " On 5 December 1033 , an earthquake caused the pinnacle of the mosque 's minaret to collapse . In 1149 the Crusaders , who had conquered Gaza in 1100 , built a cathedral dedicated to John the Baptist atop the ruins of the church upon a decree by Baldwin III of Jerusalem . However , in William of Tyre 's descriptions of grand Crusader churches , it is not mentioned . Of the Great Mosque 's three aisles today , it is believed that portions of two of them had formed part of the Cathedral of John the Baptist . In 1187 the Ayyubids under Saladin wrested control of Gaza from the Crusaders and destroyed the cathedral . The Mamluks reconstructed the mosque in the 13th @-@ century , but in 1260 , the Mongols destroyed it . It was rebuilt thereafter , but in 1294 , an earthquake caused its collapse . Extensive renovations centered on the iwan were undertaken by the governor Sunqur al @-@ Ala 'i during the sultanate of Husam ad @-@ Din Lajin between 1297 @-@ 99 . A later Mamluk governor of the city , Sanjar al @-@ Jawli , commissioned the restoration of the Great Mosque sometime between 1311 and 1319 . The Mamluks finally rebuilt the mosque completely in 1340 . In 1355 Muslim geographer Ibn Battuta noted the mosque 's former existence as " a fine Friday mosque , " but also says that al @-@ Jawli 's mosque was " well @-@ built . " Inscriptions on the mosque bear the signatures of the Mamluk sultans al @-@ Nasir Muhammad ( dated 1340 ) , Qaitbay ( dated May 1498 ) , Qansuh al @-@ Ghawri ( dated 1516 ) , and the Abbasid caliph al @-@ Musta 'in Billah ( dated 1412 ) . In the 16th @-@ century the mosque was restored after apparent damage in the previous century ; the Ottomans commissioned its restoration and also built six other mosques in the city . They had been in control of Palestine since 1517 . The interior bears an inscription of the name of the Ottoman governor of Gaza , Musa Pasha , brother of deposed Husayn Pasha , dating from 1663 . = = = Modern era = = = Some Western travelers in the late 19th @-@ century reported that the Great Mosque was the only structure in Gaza worthy of historical or architectural note . The Great Mosque was severely damaged by Allied forces while attacking the Ottoman positions in Gaza during World War I. The British claimed that there were Ottoman munitions stored in the mosque and its destruction was caused when the munitions were ignited by the bombardment . Under the supervision of former Gaza mayor Said al @-@ Shawa , it was restored by the Supreme Muslim Council in 1926 @-@ 27 . In 1928 , the Supreme Muslim Council held a mass demonstration involving both local Muslims and Christians at the Great Mosque in order to rally support for boycotting elections and participation in the Legislative Assembly of the British Mandate of Palestine government . To increase the number of people in the rally , they ordered all the mosques in one of Gaza 's quarters to temporarily close . The ancient bas @-@ relief inscriptions of Jewish religious symbols were allegedly chiseled away intentionally at some stage between 1987 and 1993 . During the Battle of Gaza between the Palestinian organizations of Hamas and Fatah , the mosque 's pro @-@ Hamas imam Mohammed al @-@ Rafati was shot dead by Fatah gunmen on June 12 , 2007 , in retaliation for the killing of an official of Mahmoud Abbas 's presidential guard by Hamas earlier that day . The mosque is still active and serves as an emotional and physical support base for Gaza 's residents and a focal point of Palestinian pride . = = Architecture = = The Great Mosque has an area of 4 @,@ 100 square metres ( 44 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . Most of the general structure is constructed from local marine sandstone known as kurkar . The mosque forms a large sahn ( " courtyard " ) surrounded by rounded arches . The Mamluks , and later the Ottomans , had the south and southeastern sides of the building expanded . Over the door of the mosque is an inscription containing the name of Mamluk sultan Qalawun and there are also inscriptions containing the names of the sultans Lajin and Barquq . = = = Interior = = = When the building was transformed into a mosque from a cathedral , most of the previous Crusader construction was completely replaced , but the mosque 's facade with its arched entrance is a typical piece of Crusader ecclesiastical architecture , and columns within the mosque compound still retain their Italian Gothic style . Some of the columns have been identified as elements of an ancient synagogue , reused as construction material in the Crusader era and still forming part of the mosque . Internally , the wall surfaces are plastered and painted . Marble is used for the western door and the dome 's oculus . The floors are covered with glazed tiles . The columns are also marble and their capitals are built in Corinthian style . The central nave is groin @-@ vaulted , each bay being separated from one another by pointed transverse arches with rectangular profiles . The nave arcades are carried on cruciform piers with an engaged column on each face , sitting on a raised plinth . The two aisles of the mosque are also groin @-@ vaulted . Ibn Battuta noted that the Great Mosque had a white marble minbar ( " pulpit " ) ; it still exists today . There is a small mihrab in the mosque with an inscription dating from 1663 , containing the name of Musa Pasha , a governor of Gaza during Ottoman rule . = = = Minaret = = = The mosque is well known for its minaret , which is square @-@ shaped in its lower half and octagonal in its upper half , typical of Mamluk architectural style . The minaret is constructed of stone from the base to the upper , hanging balcony , including the four @-@ tiered upper half . The pinnacle is mostly made of woodwork and tiles , and is frequently renewed . A simple cupola springs from the octagonal stone drum and is of light construction similar to most mosques in the Levant . The minaret stands on what was the end of the eastern bay of the Crusader church . Its three semicircular apses were transformed into the base of the minaret .
= Ooh La La ( Goldfrapp song ) = " Ooh La La " is a song performed by English group Goldfrapp . The song was written and produced by Alison Goldfrapp and Will Gregory for the duo 's third album Supernature ( 2005 ) . The song consists largely of a synthesizer and guitar arrangement and was inspired by the disco era . The song was released as the album 's lead single in August 2005 to positive reviews from music critics . It was a commercial success , reaching the top forty on the majority of the charts it entered , and topped the United States dance chart . The song has been remixed a number of times and was nominated for Best Dance Recording at the 49th Grammy Awards in 2007 . = = Background and writing = = Goldfrapp began work on " Ooh La La " in late 2004 in a small rented house in the countryside of Bath , England . The song was composed as a collaborative effort between Alison Goldfrapp and Will Gregory while jamming in the recording studio , bouncing song ideas off each other . Goldfrapp contributed the song 's lyrics , and has described the song as being " sulky , sexual and a bit ambiguous " . In " Ooh La La " , she confesses to wanting only a sexual relationship without romance . " Ooh La La " was Goldfrapp 's first song to feature the electric guitar , an instrument that they had avoided due to its overly recognisable rhythm . When they recorded the song , Gregory played the keyboard bass as Goldfrapp sang . Her microphone picked up the " clattering " of Gregory 's pressing the keys , which they added to the chorus . The song is written in the common verse @-@ chorus form and features additional instrumentation from synthesizers and a bass guitar . The song has been compared to Norman Greenbaum 's 1969 glam rock song " Spirit in the Sky " , Juana Molina 's 2003 song " Sonamos " and Rachel Stevens ' 2004 song " Some Girls " ( itself heavily influenced by Goldfrapp 's own " Strict Machine " ) . Gregory noted that comparisons to Greenbaum were made when the duo released the song " Train " in 2003 , adding that the two tracks share the same glam swing . Goldfrapp rejected comparisons to Stevens , stating that " Some Girls " was " very bland " . = = Music video = = The music video for " Ooh La La " was directed by Dawn Shadforth . Inspired by " glam rock 70 's TV " , the video features Goldfrapp and a backing band ( not portrayed by her regular live musicians ) performing in a large green room . Scenes of Alison Goldfrapp riding on a digital sparkling horse are intercut toward the end of the video . Alison Goldfrapp has described the video as " harking back to Eno era Roxy Music and old Top of the Pops " . The complete version of " Ooh La La " featured in the music video has been released commercially through CD singles and digital downloads , and some include remixes by Benny Benassi , Tiefschwarz , and Andy Bell . = = Critical reception = = " Ooh La La " received positive reviews from music critics . MusicOMH.com reviewer Michael Hubbard described the song as " sensational " , writing that " Ooh La La " " will spawn a million remixes , and deservedly so " . Heather Phares of Allmusic named " Ooh La La " as the best song from Supernature . Jessica Suarez of Spin magazine compared " Ooh La La " with Black Cherry 's " Strict Machine " , saying that the song sounds " so simplistic that [ its ] minimalist repetition occasionally teeters over into redundancy " . PopMatters also compared the two songs , but wrote that the " gimmick remains something they do incredibly well , and when the chorus kicks in , Alison lala @-@ ing away , it 's impossible not to give in " . Rolling Stone magazine included the song in its list of the top hundred songs of 2006 , ranking it at number ten . At the 2007 Grammy Awards , the song was nominated for Best Dance Recording , losing out to Justin Timberlake 's " SexyBack " . = = Marketing and release = = " Ooh La La " was chosen as the album 's lead single " because it was up and in your face and it carried on the theme of the glammy , discoey beat from the last album " . " Ooh La La " was released as a various formats throughout the world . While most territories received a CD and download release , in the UK the single was additionally released on DVD and limited edition 12 " vinyl . The DVD single included the music video for " Ooh La La " and a short documentary titled " Little Pictures " . In 2006 , the song appeared on several television programmes in the United States including the crime drama series NCIS , CSI , and Bones . In addition to this , the song was also used in the romantic comedy film She 's the Man and was featured in the opening scene of the 2011 satirical horror @-@ comedy Detention . Additionally , in 2008 , the song was included on the soundtrack for Grand Theft Auto IV . The track was also covered in a joint cover with " Hot Love " by Scottish indie rock group The Fratellis in 2007 . In 2010 , the song appeared on the soundtrack for the movie The Other Guys starring Will Ferrell and Mark Wahlberg . In 2013 , the song was used for Apple 's iPhone 5s ad " Metal Mastered " . = = Chart performance = = " Ooh La La " entered the UK Singles Chart on 14 August 2005 at number four , remaining on the chart for thirteen weeks . It finished as the 91st best @-@ selling single of 2005 in the UK , with sales of 61 @,@ 400 . The song was also successful outside the UK . It reached number one in Spain , number sixteen in Ireland , and the top forty in Australia . In North America , " Ooh La La " was released as the album 's second single in February 2006 . In the United States , the song became Goldfrapp 's third consecutive release to reach the top of the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart . The song also reached number three on the Hot Dance Airplay chart . = = Track listings = = = = Charts = = = = Personnel = = The following people contributed to " Ooh La La " : Alison Goldfrapp – lead vocals , backing vocals , synthesizer Nick Batt – synthesizer , programming Will Gregory – synthesizer Adrian Utley – guitar Charlie Jones – bass Mark " Spike " Stent – mixing Ted Jensen – mastering
= Royal touch = The royal touch ( also known as the king 's touch ) was a form of laying on of hands , whereby French and English monarchs would touch their subjects , regardless of social classes , with the intent to cure them of various diseases and conditions . The thaumaturgic touch was most commonly applied to people suffering from tuberculous cervical lymphadenitis ( better known as scrofula or the King 's Evil ) , and exclusively to them from 16th century onwards . The disease rarely resulted in death and often went into remission on its own , giving the impression that the monarch 's touch cured it . The claimed power was most notably exercised by monarchs who sought to demonstrate the legitimacy of their reign and of their newly founded dynasties . = = Origins = = The kings and queens regnant of England and the kings of France were the only Christian rulers who claimed the divine gift ( divinitus ) to cure by touching or stroking the diseased . This special aptitude was thought to be evidence of God 's high esteem of the two monarchies , though they never agreed upon whose predecessors the ability was first conferred . In England , Saint Edward the Confessor ( r . 1042 – 1066 ) was said to be the first monarch to possess the healing power of the royal touch . The French , who normally traced the origins of their monarchs ' divine gift back to Philip I ( r . 1059 – 1108 ) or even Robert II ( r . 987 – 1031 ) , denied that Saint Edward used the royal touch . They insisted that the first English monarch to claim the ability was Henry I ( r . 1100 – 1135 ) , and that his touching was a politically influenced imitation of the gift granted exclusively to French monarchs . The physician André du Laurens ( 1558 – 1609 ) claimed that Clovis I ( r . 481 – 511 ) was the first king who touched for scrofula , but the medievalist Marc Bloch ( 1886 – 1944 ) argued that it was probably Philip I. Modern scholars , most notably Frank Barlow ( 1911 – 2009 ) , agree that the French practice most likely originated from Saint Louis IX ( r . 1226 – 1270 ) . The earliest direct evidence of the royal touch in England are the financial records dating from the reign of Edward I ( r . 1272 – 1307 ) . The crusading Edward I did not arrive in England until 1274 but the custom of giving one penny to each patient had become well established by 1276 , suggesting that the practice dated at least from the reign of his father , Henry III ( r . 1216 – 1272 ) . Henry III , known for insisting on his arbitrary decisions , loved public displays and was as pious as his beloved brother @-@ in @-@ law , Saint Louis IX , all of which makes it likely that he introduced the practice in England . = = England = = Henry I 's successors did not consider the royal touch fundamental , reducing its application . The ritual remained a marginal aspect of kingship until the 17th century , when its appeal grew to unprecedented proportions and when it suddenly became an object of scrutiny in literature . Since the reign of Edward IV ( r . 1461 – 1470 , 1471 – 1483 ) , monarchs presented the diseased with a gold medal known as touch piece and hung it around the subject 's neck . The reverse of the medal depicted a ship , while the obverse showed the archangel Michael slaying a dragon , which led to the medal being popularly referred to as an Angel . The diseased were instructed to wear the medal constantly to ensure the success of the treatment . Not all people embraced the notion of the royal touch and miraculous medals ; many were simply eager to obtain the medal , which was then sold on the market . = = = Procedure = = = Henry VII ( r . 1485 – 1509 ) , the first Tudor on the English throne , was preoccupied with legitimizing his reign . It was he who firmly established the procedure , relying heavily on precedent set by his predecessors . It consisted of four distinct elements : The monarch touched ( or , alternatively , stroked ) the face or neck of the infected person . The monarch hung the medal around the person 's neck . Passages from the Gospel of Mark ( 16 : 14 – 20 ) and the Gospel of John ( 1 : 1 – 14 ) were read . Mark 16 contains themes that confirm monarchs ' immunity to infectious diseases : " They shall take up serpents ; and if they drink any deadly thing , it shall not hurt them ; they shall lay hands on the sick , and they shall recover . " Mark 16 : 18 Prayers were offered . Until the English Reformation , the prayers were addressed not only to God but also to Virgin Mary and the saints . The touch was originally meant to cure tuberculous cervical lymphadenitis ( commonly referred to as scrofula or the King 's Evil ) , rheumatism , convulsions , fevers , blindness , goitre and other ailments . Since the reign of Elizabeth I ( r . 1558 – 1603 ) , however , the touch was applied only to people suffering from scrofula . The Henrician practice was rarely modified , and the changes were minor ; Elizabeth I made the sign of the cross above the infected person 's head , while her squeamish successor , James I ( r . 1603 – 1625 ) , made stroking motions above the abscesses instead of actually touching them . = = = Frequency = = = The ritual was normally performed between Michaelmas and Easter , when cold weather made it less likely to contract a disease from the infected subject . It was believed that the treatment was more likely to be successful if performed on a holy day . English monarchs generally touched less frequently than their French counterparts . Edward I touched up to 1 @,@ 736 people annually , but did not touch during his frequent military campaigns abroad . His immediate successors followed a similar pattern . Henry VII touched seven or eight infected people annually , and there were intervals lasting several years during which he did not perform the ritual at all . Henry VIII ( r . 1509 – 1547 ) touched 59 people between early January 1530 and late December 1532 . The Protestant Edward VI ( r . 1547 – 1553 ) apparently did not perform the ritual , but the Catholic Mary I ( r . 1553 – 1558 ) took it somewhat more seriously . Early in her reign , the Protestant Elizabeth I was reluctant to participate in a ritual whose efficacy she probably doubted . Although she resumed the practice in 1570 , after the Roman Catholic Church excommunicated her and alleged that she had lost her healing power , Elizabeth decisively downplayed her own role in the miraculous healing . The Elizabethan surgeon William Clowes , who asserted that the royal touch proved her legitimacy , claimed that Elizabeth could also heal foreigners , citing a Dutchman as an example . Although the strictly Protestant James I wished to end the practice , he found himself having to touch an increasing number of people . The practice spread to Scotland , where James reigned as well as resided before the Union of the Crowns ; the Scots started believing that their king , now also king of England , possessed the ability to heal them . Charles I ( r . 1625 – 1649 ) issued plenty of edicts in an attempt to restrain the growing public demand . On 27 December 1633 , he touched 100 people at Holyrood Palace . The frequency of the ritual reached its climax during the reign of Charles II ( r . 1660 – 1685 ) , the only English monarch who applied royal touch more than French kings . Over 92 @,@ 000 scrofulous people were touched by him – over 4 @,@ 500 annually . James II ( r . 1685 – 1688 ) was very skeptical about the ritual but nevertheless indulged in it . He was deposed by William III ( r . 1689 – 1702 ) and Mary II ( r . 1689 – 1694 ) , who refused to take part in what they considered a superstition . When a subject asked him for a touch , William reputedly said : " God grant you better health and better sense . " Anne ( r . 1702 – 1714 ) reintroduced the practice almost as soon as she ascended , touching 30 people on 6 October and 20 on 19 December 1702 . She took it very seriously , even fasting the day before . On 30 March 1712 , she performed the ritual for the last time ; Samuel Johnson ( 1709 – 1784 ) was the last of the 300 scrofulous people Anne touched that day . George I ( r . 1714 – 1727 ) permanently discontinued the practice , but the exiled James II 's Jacobite heirs claimed the ability until the 1780s . The physician Sir Richard Blackmore praised William III and George I for abandoning " that superstitious and insignificant ceremony " , which he believed was a " Popish " plot . The Glorious Revolution and subsequent abandonment of the idea of the divine right of kings rendered the royal touch unnecessary as means of proving monarch 's legitimacy . Reports of Jacobite claimants curing scrofula by touch were rebuffed by a contributor to the General Evening Post : " The illustrious Royal Family now on the Throne despise such childish Delusions , such little pious Frauds , to prove their Divine Right to the Crown . They act upon noble Principles ; they want no chicanery to support their Throne . " The ceremony finally disappeared from the Book of Common Prayer in 1732 . = = France = = By the Late Middle Ages , the royal touch had become an integral part of the coronation of the French monarch at Reims Cathedral . The rite included the anointing of the king 's hands , which was believed to confer on him the ability to cure . The coronation and anointing were immediately followed by a journey to Corbeny , the site of the shrine of Saint Marcouf ( d . 558 ) , patron saint of scrofulous people . After the pilgrimage was completed , the newly crowned king was deemed to possess the sacred power of touch . On his deathbed , Philip IV ( r . 1285 – 1314 ) reportedly instructed his son and heir , Louis X ( r . 1314 – 1316 ) , about healing scrofula by touch . Philip VI ( r . 1328 – 1350 ) , the first Valois king , sought to demonstrate that he shared the thaumaturgic powers of his sovereign cousins and ancestors , thus proving himself as their rightful heir . He touched 35 people between 1 January and 30 June 1337 ; some of them had come from Brittany , Brabant and Vivarais . The demonologist Pierre de Lancre ( 1553 – 1631 ) boasted that even dead French monarchs could heal ; it was , indeed , still believed in the 16th century that the healing power was retained by Saint Louis IX 's arm , preserved in Poblet Monastery in Catalonia . In order to be touched by the French king , people traveled from as far off as the present @-@ day Italy and Spain already in the 13th century . The foreigners were ranked in a specific order , with the Spanish taking precedence over all others and the king 's own subjects coming last . = = = Wars of Religion = = = The idea of the royal touch promoted the power of the monarchy , but the ceremony was seldom performed in the 16th century . During the French Wars of Religion ( 1562 – 1598 ) , the worsening conditions helped scrofula spread more than ever and the interest in the disease steadily increased . The Catholic League started a propaganda claiming that Henry III ( r . 1574 – 1589 ) was unable to heal by touch due to his immorality . After the assassination of Henry III and accession of the Protestant Henry IV ( r . 1589 – 1610 ) , the League warned that God would revoke his gift if the French accepted a Protestant as their sovereign and that the scrofulous would never be cured again . After converting to Catholicism and establishing his authority , Henry IV was hailed not only as the healer of the scrofulous , but also as the healer of the kingdom . The first Bourbon on the French throne , he decided to take advantage of the ability attributed to his predecessors and use it to confirm the legitimacy of his reign . He was , however , in an inconvenient situation : he was crowned at Chartres Cathedral rather than Reims , and thus made no visit to the shrine of Saint Marcouf . He maintained that the royal touch was something he was handed down by his predecessors and by God 's grace , rather than an ability conferred by the rite of coronation . Henry decided not to exhibit his " divine gift " immediately after his coronation at Chartres in February 1594 ; instead , he decided to save the mystique element of his kingship for his entry in Paris in March . Two weeks after the event , on Easter , Henry exercised his healing power for the first time . He was determined not to show any skepticism about the ritual , fearing that it might cast doubt on the sincerity of his conversion . Henry IV 's decision to indulge in the practice served as visual evidence to his subjects that God approved of his reign . Royal physicians and others who witnessed these ceremonies insisted that at least half of all the diseased people he touched were healed within days . The ceremonies took place in other cities and at least four times a year : on Easter , on Pentecost , on All Saints Day and on Christmas . On Easter 1608 , Henry IV touched 1 @,@ 250 scrofulous persons . He complained that the hours @-@ long ceremony exhausted him , but continued the practice and consistently gave the impression that he was doing it only out of concern for the well @-@ being of his subjects . The ceremony was performed in the presence of the princes of the blood , almoners , bodyguards , and physicians . The latter presented Henry with patients , and he proceeded to make the sign of the cross on his scrofulous subject 's cheeks , touched the subject 's sores , and exclaimed : " The King touches you , God cures you . " ( French : " Le Roy te touche et Dieu te guerit . " ) = = = Decline of practice = = = Louis XIII ( r . 1610 – 1643 ) and Louis XIV ( r . 1643 – 1715 ) both actively took part in touching ceremonies . The latter touched 1 @,@ 600 people on Easter 1680 . Voltaire ( 1694 – 1778 ) scornfully wrote that he had lost confidence in the royal touch upon hearing that a mistress of Louis XIV died of scrofula " despite being very well touched by the king " . After 1722 , the sentence exclaimed by the king upon touching the infected changed to the more hopeful : " The King touches you , may God heal you . " ( French : " Le Roy te touche et Dieu te guérisse . " ) The new formula , rather than implying that God would inevitably grant the monarch 's wish , was a prayer that may or may not result in a cure . Louis XV ( r . 1715 – 1774 ) was skeptical about the royal touch . He performed it early in his reign , but caused a scandal when he failed to summon the scrofulous at Eastertide in 1739 and never again touched the diseased . The custom was thus suspended for 36 years , until Louis XVI ( r . 1774 – 1792 ) revived it at his coronation on 11 June 1775 by touching 2 @,@ 400 people . That was probably the only time he touched the scrofulous . At his coronation on 29 May 1825 , Charles X ( r . 1824 – 1830 ) touched 121 of his subjects ; the royal touch was never again employed . = = Legacy and comparisons = = The royal touch was not the only " miraculous " healing power attributed to European rulers . Members of the House of Habsburg were believed to be able to cure stuttering by a mouth @-@ kiss . The medieval monarchs of Castile were reputed to possess the ability to exorcise demons by making the sign of the cross and calling on God , while their Hungarian counterparts supposedly cured jaundice . Similarly , English monarchs distributed cramp @-@ rings , which were said to be a cure for " diabolical " sicknesses such as cramps and epilepsy . Inoculation , an early form of immunization , was introduced into England during the reign of George I , who had put a definite end to the royal touch in his kingdom . The royal family strongly supported it , but it was controversial medically as well as politically and theologically . The medicine historian Adrian Wilson described it as " the Whig and Hanoverian equivalent of the Stuart practice of touching for scrofula ... But whereas the Royal Touch mobilised divine powers , based on hereditary right , inoculation deployed natural powers harnessed by man , with the monarch as the benevolent onlooker rather than indispensable participant . " Scholars have held different opinions about the royal touch , ranging from deprecation in the 19th and early 20th century to more sympathetic treatment . The Whig politician Lord Macaulay ( 1800 – 1859 ) ridiculed it as an " absurd superstition of a pre @-@ enlightened age " . The University of London medicine professor Sir Raymund Crawfurd published a study in 1911 , revealing his fascination with the " dubious if exotic " practice . A study by the French historian Marc Bloch followed in 1924 . Bloch was baffled by the tenacity of the esoteric practice and agreed with Lord Macaulay 's assessment that it was grounded in a form of mass hysteria . Recently , however , historians have avoided attributing the popularity of the royal touch to naivety of the masses . The British historian Keith Thomas discussed the royal touch in the context of religion and magic , while his colleague and compatriot J. C. D. Clark attributes the survival of the practice into the 18th century to the persisting notion of the divine right of kings .
= John B. Cobb = John B. Cobb , Jr . ( born February 9 , 1925 ) is an American theologian , philosopher , and environmentalist . Gary Dorrien has described Cobb as one of the two most important North American theologians of the twentieth century ( the other being Rosemary Radford Ruether ) . Cobb is often regarded as the preeminent scholar in the field of process philosophy and process theology — the school of thought associated with the philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead . Cobb is the author of more than fifty books . In 2014 , Cobb was elected to the prestigious American Academy of Arts and Sciences . A unifying theme of Cobb 's work is his emphasis on ecological interdependence — the idea that every part of the ecosystem is reliant on all the other parts . Cobb has argued that humanity 's most urgent task is to preserve the world on which it lives and depends , an idea which his primary influence — philosopher and mathematician Alfred North Whitehead — describes as " world @-@ loyalty . " Cobb is well known for his transdisciplinary approach , integrating insights from many different areas of study and bringing different specialized disciplines into fruitful communication . Because of his broad @-@ minded interest and approach , Cobb has been influential in a wide range of disciplines , including theology , ecology , economics , biology and social ethics . In 1971 , he wrote the first single @-@ author book in environmental ethics — Is It Too Late ? A Theology of Ecology — which argued for the relevance of religious thought in approaching the ecological crisis . In 1989 , he co @-@ authored the book For the Common Good : Redirecting the Economy Toward Community , Environment , and a Sustainable Future , which critiqued current global economic practice and advocated for a sustainable , ecology @-@ based economics . He has written extensively on religious pluralism and interfaith dialogue , particularly between Buddhism and Christianity , as well as the need to reconcile religion and science . Cobb is the co @-@ founder and current co @-@ director of the Center for Process Studies in Claremont , California . The Center for Process Studies remains the leading Whitehead @-@ related institute , and has witnessed the launch of more than thirty related centers at academic institutions throughout the world , including twenty @-@ three centers in China . Cobb is also founder and president of the Institute for the Postmodern Development of China , which uses Whiteheadian ideas in order to move toward a sustainable economy and address practical problems associated with social change and globalization . Recently , Cobb co @-@ founded the organization Pando Populus . Pando Populus aims to create an " ecological civilization , " and is co @-@ organizing a major conference on " Seizing An Alternative " with the Center for Process Studies in June 2015 . = = Biography = = John Cobb was born in Kobe , Japan in 1925 to parents who were Methodist missionaries . Until age 15 , he lived primarily in Kobe and Hiroshima and received most of his early education in a multi @-@ ethnic Canadian academy in Kobe , to which he attributes the beginnings of his pluralistic outlook . In 1940 , Cobb moved to Georgia , USA to finish high school . He found himself both bewildered and disgusted by the pervasive racism in the region , particularly the demonization of the Japanese . Seeing how the same events could be presented in such different ways based on the country in which he was living , Cobb became ever @-@ more counter @-@ cultural and critical of the dominant views in churches , media , universities , and government . After his graduation from high school , Cobb attended Emory College in Oxford , Georgia before joining the U.S. Army in 1943 . He was chosen for the Japanese language program , which was filled mainly with Jewish and Catholic intellectuals who helped make him aware of the narrow , parochial nature of his Georgia Protestantism . Cobb served in the occupation of Japan , then returned to the United States and left the army soon afterward . He then entered an interdepartmental program at the University of Chicago in 1947 . There , he set out to test his faith by learning the modern world 's objections to Christianity . His faith did not come out intact . " I was determined to expose my faith to the worst the world could offer . Within six months of such exposure my faith was shattered … God , who had been my constant companion and Lord up to that point , simply evaporated , and my prayers bounced back from the ceiling unheard . " Hoping to reconstruct a Christian faith more compatible with scientific and historical knowledge , Cobb entered the University of Chicago Divinity School . He was successful in restoring his personal faith primarily with the help of Richard McKeon , Daniel Day Williams , and Charles Hartshorne . McKeon introduced Cobb to philosophical relativism , while Hartshorne and Williams taught him Whiteheadian process philosophy and process theology . Alfred North Whitehead 's thought became the central theme of Cobb 's own work . After receiving his PhD from the University of Chicago in 1952 , he spent three years teaching at Young Harris College in north Georgia , while also serving as part @-@ time pastor to a six @-@ church circuit and establishing a seventh congregation in the area . Ernest Cadman Colwell , formerly president of the University of Chicago , brought Cobb to Emory University in Georgia to teach in the new graduate institute for liberal arts . In 1958 , Cobb followed Colwell to Claremont , California , where he was named Ingraham Professor of Theology at Claremont School of Theology and Avery Professor of Religion at Claremont Graduate University . He established the Process Studies journal with Lewis S. Ford in 1971 and co @-@ founded the Center for Process Studies with David Ray Griffin in 1973 , making Claremont the center of Whiteheadian process thought . Twenty @-@ five years later , together with Herman Greene , he organized the International Process Network . This organization holds biennial conferences , the tenth of which will be taking place in Claremont in 2015 . During his career , Cobb has also served as Visiting Professor at Harvard Divinity School , Chicago Divinity School , Vanderbilt Divinity School , Iliff School of Theology , Rikkyo University in Japan , and the University of Mainz in Germany . He has received six honorary doctorates . = = Transdisciplinary work = = Although Cobb is most often described as a theologian , the overarching tendency of his thought has been toward the integration of many different areas of knowledge , employing Alfred North Whitehead 's transdisciplinary philosophical framework as his guiding insight . As a result , Cobb has done work in a broad range of fields . = = = Philosophy of education = = = Cobb has consistently opposed the splitting of education and knowledge into discrete and insulated disciplines and departments . He believes that the current university model encourages excessive abstraction because each specialized area of study defines its own frame of reference and then tends to ignore the others , discouraging interdisciplinary dialogue and inhibiting a broad understanding of the world . To combat these problems , Cobb argues that discrete “ disciplines ” in general — and theology in particular — need to re @-@ emerge from their mutual academic isolation . Theology should once again be tied to ethical questions and practical , everyday concerns , as well as a theoretical understanding of the world . In service to this vision , Cobb has consistently sought to integrate knowledge from biology , physics , economics , and other disciplines into his theological and philosophical work . = = = Constructive postmodern philosophy = = = Cobb was convinced that Alfred North Whitehead was right in viewing both nature and human beings as more than just purposeless machines . Rather than seeing nature as purely mechanical and human consciousness as a strange exception which must be explained away , Whiteheadian naturalism went in the opposite direction by arguing that subjective experience of the world should inform a view of the rest of nature as more than just mechanical . In short , nature should be seen as having a subjective and purposive aspect that deserves attention . Speaking to this need of moving beyond classically " modern " ideas , in the 1960s Cobb was the first to label Whiteheadian thought as “ postmodern . ” Later , when deconstructionists began to describe their thought as “ postmodern , ” Whiteheadians changed their own label to “ constructive postmodernism . ” Like its deconstructionist counterpart , constructive postmodernism arose partly in response to dissatisfaction with Cartesian mind @-@ matter dualism , which viewed matter as an inert machine and the human mind as wholly different in nature . While modern science has uncovered voluminous evidence against this idea , Cobb argues that dualistic assumptions continue to persist : " On the whole , dualism was accepted by the general culture . To this day it shapes the structure of the university , with its division between the sciences and the humanities . Most people , whether they articulate it or not , view the world given to them in sight and touch as material , while they consider themselves to transcend that purely material status . " While deconstructionists have concluded that we must abandon any further attempts to create a comprehensive vision of the world , Cobb and other constructive postmodernists believe that metaphysics and comprehensive world @-@ models are possible and still needed . In particular , they have argued for a new Whiteheadian metaphysics based on events rather than substances . In this formulation , it is incorrect to say that a person or thing ( " substance " ) has a fundamental identity that remains constant , and that any changes to the person or thing are secondary to what it is . Instead , each moment in a person 's life ( " event " ) is seen as a new actuality , thus asserting that continual change and transformation are fundamental , while static identities are far less important . This view more easily reconciles itself with certain findings of modern science , such as evolution and wave @-@ particle duality . = = = Environmental ethics = = = Ecological themes have been pervasive in Cobb 's work since 1969 , when he turned his attention to the ecological crisis . He became convinced that environmental issues constituted humanity 's most pressing problem . Cobb writes : " During the seventies my sense of the theological vocation changed . I did not lose interest in developing the Christian tradition so as to render it intelligible , convincing , and illuminating in a changing context . But I did reject the compartmentalization of my discipline of ' constructive theology , ' especially in its separation from ethics , and more generally in its isolation from other academic disciplines ... I was persuaded that no problem could be more critical than that of a decent survival of a humanity that threatened to destroy itself by exhausting and polluting its natural context . " Cobb went on to write the first single @-@ author book in environmental ethics , Is It Too Late ? A Theology of Ecology , in 1971 . In the book , he argued for an ecological worldview that acknowledges the continuity between human beings and other living things , as well as their mutual dependence . He also proposed that Christianity specifically needed to appropriate knowledge from the biological sciences in order to undercut its anthropocentrism ( human @-@ centeredness ) and devaluation of the non @-@ human world . = = = Critique of growth @-@ oriented economics = = = Cobb 's economic critiques arose as a natural extension of his interest in ecological issues . He recognized that he could not write about an ecological , sustainable , and just society without including discussion of economics . As part of his investigation into why economic policies so frequently worsened the ecological situation , in the 1980s Cobb decided to re @-@ evaluate Gross National Product ( GNP ) and Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) as measures of economic progress . Together with his son , Clifford Cobb , he developed an alternative model , the Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare ( ISEW ) , which sought to " consolidate economic , environmental , and social elements into a common framework to show net progress . " The name of the metric would later change to Genuine Progress Indicator ( GPI ) . A recent ( 2013 ) article has shown that global GPI per capita peaked in 1978 , meaning that the social and environmental costs of economic growth have outweighed the benefits since that time . Cobb also co @-@ authored a book with Herman Daly in 1989 entitled For the Common Good : Redirecting the Economy Toward Community , Environment , and a Sustainable Future , which outlined policy changes intended to create a society based on community and ecological balance . In 1992 , For the Common Good earned Cobb and Daly the Grawemeyer Award for Ideas Improving World Order . In recent years , Cobb has described current growth @-@ oriented economic systems as the " prime example of corruption " in American culture and religion : " Since the rise of modern economics , Christians have been forced to give up their criticism of greed , because the economists said " greed is good , and if you really want to help people , be as greedy as possible . " ” Cobb sees such values as being in direct opposition with the message of Jesus , which in many places explicitly criticizes the accumulation of wealth . Because of Christianity 's widespread acceptance of such economic values , Cobb sees Christians as far less confident in proclaiming the values of Jesus . = = = Biology and religion = = = Along with Whitehead , Cobb has sought to reconcile science and religion in places where they appear to conflict , as well as to encourage religion to make use of scientific insights and vice versa . In the area of religion and biology , he co @-@ wrote The Liberation of Life : From the Cell to the Community with Australian geneticist Charles Birch in 1981 . The book critiqued the dominant biological model of mechanism , arguing that it leads to the study of organisms in abstraction from their environments . Cobb and Birch argue instead for an " ecological model " which draws no sharp lines between the living and non @-@ living , or between an organism and its environment . The book also argues for an idea of evolution in which adaptive behavior can lead to genetic changes . Cobb and Birch stress that a species " co @-@ evolves with its environment , " and that in this way intelligent purpose plays a role in evolution : " Evolution is not a process of ruthless competition directed to some goal of ever @-@ increasing power or complexity . Such an attitude , by failing to be adaptive , is , in fact , not conducive to evolutionary success . A species co @-@ evolves with its environment . Equally , there is no stable , harmonious nature to whose wisdom humanity should simply submit . Intelligent purpose plays a role in adaptive behaviour , and as environments change its role is increased . " The Liberation of Life stresses that all life ( not just human life ) is purposeful and that it aims for the realization of richer experience . Cobb and Birch develop the idea of " trusting life " as a religious impulse , rather than attempting to achieve a settled , perfected social structure that does not allow for change and evolution . = = = Religious pluralism and interreligious dialogue = = = Cobb has participated in extensive interreligious and interfaith dialogue , most notably with Masao Abe , a Japanese Buddhist of the Kyoto School of philosophy . Cobb 's explicit aim was to gain ideas and insights from other religions with an eye toward augmenting and " universalizing " Christianity . Cobb writes : " ... it is the mission of Christianity to become a universal faith in the sense of taking into itself the alien truths that others have realized . This is no mere matter of addition . It is instead a matter of creative transformation . An untransformed Christianity , that is , a Christianity limited to its own parochial traditions , cannot fulfill its mission of realizing the universal meaning of Jesus Christ . " In short , Cobb does not conceive of dialogue as useful primarily to convert or be converted , but rather as useful in order to transform both parties mutually , allowing for a broadening of ideas and a reimagining of each faith in order that they might better face the challenges of the modern world . Cobb has also been active in formulating his own theories of religious pluralism , partly in response to another Claremont Graduate University professor , John Hick . Cobb 's pluralism has sometimes been identified as a kind of " deep " pluralism or , alternately , as a " complementary " pluralism . He believes that there are actually three distinct religious ultimates : 1 ) God , 2 ) Creativity / Emptiness / Nothingness / Being @-@ itself , and 3 ) the cosmos / universe . Cobb believes that all of these elements are necessary and present in some form in every religion but that different faiths tend to stress one ultimate over the others . Viewed in this way , different religions may be seen to complement each other by providing insight into different religious ultimates . Cobb 's pluralism thus avoids the criticism of conflating religions that are actually very different ( for instance , Buddhism and Christianity ) while still affirming the possible truths of both . = = = Revitalizing Christianity in a pluralistic world = = = Cobb believed that through at least the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century , American Protestant theology had been largely derivative from European ( specifically German ) theology . In the late 1950s , Cobb and Claremont professor James Robinson decided that the time had come to end this one @-@ sidedness and move to authentic dialogue between American and European theologians . To establish real mutuality , they organized a series of conferences of leading theologians in Germany and the United States and published a series of volumes called " New Frontiers in Theology . " After writing several books surveying contemporary forms of Christian Protestantism , Cobb turned in the mid @-@ 1960s to more original work which sought to bring Alfred North Whitehead 's ideas into the contemporary American Protestant scene . Cobb aimed to reconstruct a Christian vision that was more compatible with modern knowledge and more ready to engage with today ’ s pluralistic world . He did this in a number of ways . For one , Cobb has stressed the problems inherent in what he calls the “ substantialist ” worldview — ultimately derived from Classical Greek philosophy — that still dominates Christian theology , as well as most of western thought . This " substantialist " way of thinking necessitates a mind @-@ matter dualism , in which matter and mind are two fundamentally different kinds of entities . It also encourages seeing relations between entities as being unimportant to what the entity is " in itself . " In contrast to this view , Cobb follows Whitehead in attributing primacy to events and processes rather than substances . In this Whiteheadian view , nothing is contained within its own sharp boundaries . In fact , the way in which a thing relates to other things is what makes it " what it is . " Cobb writes : “ If the substantialist view is abandoned , a quite different picture emerges . Each occasion of human experience is constituted not only by its incorporation of the cellular occasions of its body but also by its incorporation of aspects of other people . That is , people internally relate to one another . Hence , the character of one 's being , moment by moment , is affected by the health and happiness of one 's neighbors . ” For Cobb , this metaphysics of process is better @-@ aligned with the Bible , which stresses history , community , and the importance of one ’ s neighbors . Also , instead of turning further inward to preserve a cohesive Christian community , Cobb turned outward in order to discover truths that Christianity may not yet possess . This is in direct opposition to those who feel that Christianity as a religious system is absolutely final , complete , and free of error . Cobb has not only turned to other religions ( most notably Buddhism ) in order to supplement Christian ideas and systems , but also to other disciplines , including biology , physics , and economics . In fact , Cobb has not shied away even from re @-@ imaging what is now regarded as the “ traditional ” Christian notion of God . He does not believe that God is omnipotent in the sense of having unilateral control over all events , since Cobb sees reconciling total coercive power with love and goodness to be an impossible task . Instead , all creatures are viewed as having some degree of freedom that God cannot override . Cobb solves the problem of evil by denying God ’ s omnipotence , stressing instead that God ’ s power is persuasive rather than coercive , that God can influence creatures but not determine what they become or do . For Cobb , God ’ s role is to liberate and empower . Against traditional theism , Cobb has also denied the idea that God is immutable ( unchanging ) and impassible ( unfeeling ) . Instead , he stresses that God is affected and changed by the actions of creatures , both human and otherwise . For Cobb , the idea that God experiences and changes does not mean that God is imperfect — quite the contrary . Instead , God is seen as experiencing with all beings , and hence understanding and empathizing with all beings , becoming " the fellow sufferer who understands . " Cobb argues that this idea of God is more compatible with the Bible , in which Jesus suffers and dies . Additionally , Cobb 's theology has argued against the idea of salvation as a singular , binary event in which one is either saved or not saved for all time . Rather than seeing one 's time in the world as a test of one 's morality in order to enter a heavenly realm , Cobb sees salvation as the continual striving to transform and perfect our experience in this world . Cobb 's idea of salvation focuses less on moral categories and more on aesthetic categories — such as a preference for intense experience over dull experience , or beauty rather than ugliness . Cobb writes : " If morality is bound up with contributing to others , the crucial question is : What is to be contributed ? One contribution might be making them more moral , and that is fine . But finally , true morality cannot aim simply at the spread of morality . It must aim at the wellbeing of those it tries to help in some broader sense . For process thought that must be the perfection of their experience inclusively . " Cobb admits that the idea of morality being subservient to aesthetics is " shocking to many Christians , " yet he argues that there must be more to life than simply being morally good or morally bad and that aesthetic categories fulfill this function specifically because they are defined as goods in themselves . Within the last twenty years , Cobb has become increasingly distressed by the popular identification of Christianity with the religious right and the weak response of mainstream Protestants . To encourage a stronger response , he organized Progressive Christians Uniting with the noted Episcopal priest George Regas in 1996 , chaired its reflection committee , and edited a number of its books . As the perceived gap between the policies of the American government and Christian teaching grew wider , these books moved beyond simply reformist proposals . The last of these was entitled Resistance : The New Role of Progressive Christians . Cobb 's most recent book is entitled Spiritual Bankruptcy : A Prophetic Call to Action . It argues against both religiousness and secularism , claiming that what is needed is the secularization of the wisdom traditions . = = The influence of Cobb 's thought in China = = Process philosophy in the tradition of Alfred North Whitehead is often considered a primarily American philosophical movement , but it has spread globally and has been of particular interest to Chinese thinkers . As one of process philosophy 's leading figures , Cobb has taken a leadership role in bringing process thought to the East , most specifically to help China develop a more ecological civilization — a goal which the current Chinese government has written into its constitution . With Zhihe Wang , Cobb founded the Institute for Postmodern Development of China ( IPDC ) in 2005 , and he is currently the president of its board of directors . Through the IPDC , Cobb helps to coordinate the work of twenty @-@ three collaborative centers in China , as well as to organize annual conferences on ecological civilization . = = = Books written = = = Varieties of Protestantism , 1960 Living Options in Protestant Theology , 1962 ( online edition ) A Christian Natural Theology , 1965 ( online edition ) The Structure of Christian Existence , 1967 ( online edition ) God and the World , 1969 Is It Too Late ? A Theology of Ecology , 1971 ( revised edition , 1995 ) Liberal Christianity at the Crossroads , 1973 ( online edition ) Christ in a Pluralistic Age , 1975 with David Ray Griffin , Process Theology : An Introductory Exposition , 1976 , ISBN 0 @-@ 664 @-@ 24743 @-@ 1 Theology and Pastoral Care , 1977 with Charles Birch , The Liberation of Life : from the Cell to the Community , 1981 Process Theology as Political Theology , 1982 ( online edition ) Beyond Dialogue : Toward a Mutual Transformation of Christianity and Buddhism , 1982 with David Tracy , Talking About God , 1983 ( online edition ) Praying for Jennifer , 1985 with Joseph Hough , Christian Identity and Theological Education , 1985 with Beardslee , Lull , Pregeant , Weeden , and Woodbridge , Biblical Preaching on the Death of Jesus , 1989 with Herman Daly , For the Common Good : Redirecting the Economy Toward Community , Environment , and a Sustainable Future , 1989 ( revised edition , 1994 ) which won the 1992 University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award for Ideas Improving World Order . Doubting Thomas , 1990 , ISBN 0 @-@ 8245 @-@ 1033 @-@ X ( online edition ) with Leonard Swidler , Paul Knitter , and Monika Helwig , Death or Dialogue , 1990 Matters of Life and Death , 1991 Can Christ Become Good News Again ? , 1991 Sustainability , 1992 Becoming a Thinking Christian , 1993 Lay Theology , 1994 , ISBN 0 @-@ 8272 @-@ 2122 @-@ 3 Sustaining the Common Good , 1994 , ISBN 0 @-@ 8298 @-@ 1010 @-@ 2 Grace and Responsibility , 1995 Reclaiming the Church , 1997 , ISBN 0 @-@ 664 @-@ 25720 @-@ 8 The Earthist Challenge to Economism : A Theological Critique of the World Bank , 1999 , ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 21838 @-@ 9 Transforming Christianity and the World : A Way Beyond Absolutism and Relativism , 1999 , ISBN 1 @-@ 57075 @-@ 271 @-@ 0 Postmodernism and Public Policy : Reframing Religion , Culture , Education , Sexuality , Class , Race , Politics , and the Economy , 2002 , ISBN 0 @-@ 7914 @-@ 5166 @-@ 6 The Process Perspective : Frequently Asked Questions About Process Theology ( edited by Jeanyne B. Slettom ) , 2003 , ISBN 0 @-@ 8272 @-@ 2999 @-@ 2 Romans ( with David J. Lull ) , 2005 with Bruce Epperly and Paul Nancarrow , The Call of the Spirit : Process Spirituality in a Relational World , 2005 A Christian Natural Theology , Second Edition , 2007 Whitehead Word Book : A Glossary with Alphabetical Index to Technical Terms in Process and Reality , 2008 ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 9742459 @-@ 6 @-@ 6 Spiritual Bankruptcy : A Prophetic Call to Action , 2010 The Process Perspective II ( edited by Jeanyne B. Slettom ) , 2011 Theological Reminiscences , 2014 = = = Books edited = = = with James Robinson , The Later Heidegger and Theology , 1963 with James Robinson , The New Hermeneutic , 1964 with James Robinson , Theology as History , 1967 The Theology of Altizer : Critique and Response , 1971 with David Ray Griffin , Mind in Nature , 1977 ( online edition ) with Widick Schroeder , Process Philosophy and Social Thought , 1981 with Franklin Gamwell , Existence and Actuality : Conversations with Charles Hartshorne , 1984 ( online edition ) Christian Faith and Religious Diversity : Mobilization for the Human Family , 2002 , ISBN 0 @-@ 8006 @-@ 3483 @-@ 7 with Christopher Ives , The Emptying God : A Buddhist @-@ Jewish @-@ Christian Conversation , Wipf & Stock Publishers , 2005 , ISBN 1 @-@ 59752 @-@ 421 @-@ 2 with Kevin Barrett and Sandra Lubarsky , 9 / 11 & American Empire : Christians , Jews , and Muslims Speak Out , 2006 , ISBN 1 @-@ 56656 @-@ 660 @-@ 6 Back to Darwin , 2008 Resistance : The New Role of Progressive Christians , 2008 Dialogue Comes of Age , 2010 Religions in the Making : Whitehead and the Wisdom Traditions of the World , 2012 = = = Articles = = = For a list of Cobb 's published articles through 2010 , see the list at The Center for Process Studies .
= Saving Private Ryan ( soundtrack ) = Saving Private Ryan : Music from the Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the soundtrack album for the 1998 film Saving Private Ryan , directed by Steven Spielberg . The album was produced by composer John Williams and distributed by DreamWorks Records . Recorded in Symphony Hall , Boston , Massachusetts , the scores were performed by the Boston Symphony Orchestra , with two of the ten compositions featuring vocals from the Tanglewood Festival Chorus . The soundtrack runs for almost an hour , while the film itself lasts over two hours . Throughout the compositions , brass , string , and horn instruments were used to evoke a variety of emotions and tones . The soundtrack received mixed reviews from critics , but was still nominated for several major awards , of which it won the Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Composition Written for a Motion Picture or for Television . Soundtrack opener " Hymn to the Fallen " received some radio play , in particular on the United States holidays Veterans Day and Memorial Day . = = Background = = Steven Spielberg and John Williams had worked together on fifteen films before Saving Private Ryan ( 1998 ) . The score was recorded at Symphony Hall in Boston , Massachusetts with the assistance of the Boston Symphony Orchestra . After having recorded the re @-@ edited version Close Encounters of the Third Kind ( 1977 ) and some Schindler 's List ( 1993 ) at Symphony Hall previously , this was the third time Spielberg and Williams worked on a soundtrack at this location . Spielberg chose Symphony Hall as the site for the recording because the hall gives " rich , warm sound off the walls and ceiling " and allows you to " hear the air , " which some soundstages do not allow you to do . Spielberg stated he chose to work with the Boston Symphony Orchestra because the film deals with a " company of soldiers " and the orchestra was an " experienced company of musicians . " Over the course of a three @-@ day period in February 1998 , the score for the film was recorded at a rate of around $ 100 @,@ 000 an hour . Spielberg and Williams both watched a rough cut of the film to determine what scenes would have music . The two decided to leave music out of the fighting sequences , in favor of playing it over long sequences of eight to nine minutes that lack action . The playing of music between fighting sequences gives a moment of reflection for what happened . Tom Hanks came to a portion of the recording session and read the Bixby letter – which appears in the movie – to the orchestra at the behest of Williams . This caused the musicians to shuffle their feet in appreciation . Williams chose to use different families and types of instruments to convey and evoke certain tones within the score . String instruments were chosen to provide a warm sound , brass instruments were utilized for " solemn " sections of the pieces , and horn instruments were used to give off a pensive tone . Military drums were used largely in the piece entitled " Hymn to the Fallen . " The Tanglewood Festival Chorus provided a vocal chorus for " Hymn to the Fallen " that served as a memory to those who have fallen in combat . " Hymn to the Fallen " and its reprise are the only two tracks that feature any sort of vocals and bookend the album . Spielberg chose to place " Hymn to the Fallen " on the closing credits because it will " stand the test of time and honor forever the fallen of this war and possibly all wars " and felt it showed Williams ' " sensitivity and brilliance . " The album was released on July 21 , 1998 . = = Reception = = Author Emilio Audissino felt that the music offered no " perspective " like Williams ' scores normally do , but were instead rooted in emotion . Classic FM believed that despite the restrictions placed on Williams , he still managed to create a " moving theme . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic agreed , stating Williams added " sentiment wherever he could nonetheless . " Hillel Italie of the Associated Press found the soundtrack to be " bland " and " out of place . " Richard Harrington of The Washington Post found the soundtrack created by Williams to be " quietly heroic , full of survivalist determination and pragmatic melancholy . " In regard to all of Williams ' soundtracks for Spielberg films , Harrington believed that this soundtrack was the most " subtle . " Calgary Herald writers felt Williams ' created a " reflective score " that " is sensitive without sensationalizing the subject . " The Sun 's Ian Black compared the music for Flags of Our Fathers ( 2006 ) with that of Saving Private Ryan stating that it was " nowhere close " to the latter . Barbera Vancheri of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette wrote that " John Williams ' symphonic score soars in the background like church music . " Edmonton Journal writer Ted Shaw found the " meditative quality " of Williams ' score to be a surprise when compared to the intensity of the fighting sequences . He added that the music was an " elevating " component of the film . Thomas Doherty also noted that the music " lacks the bombast of the incoming shells , " stating that it was " quietly martial " with its use of trumpets and mild percussion . In addition to the film itself , the soundtrack received several nominations for various awards . The score won the Best Instrumental Composition Written for a Motion Picture or for Television . In addition , the score was nominated for Academy Award for Best Original Dramatic Score , the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score , and the BAFTA Award for Best Film Music , but failed to win the awards . In 2003 , the Cleveland Institute of Music published a list of uplifting classical music pieces that featured " Hymn to the Fallen " and " Omaha Beach . " Within the United States , " Hymn to the Fallen " received minor radio airplay on Veterans Day and Memorial Day . Classic FM voted the soundtrack to its " Movie Music Hall of Fame " that consists of the top 100 movie soundtracks chosen by fan votes . The soundtrack placed sixteenth on the list , two places lower than the previous year . Portions of the score were used in the " No Casino Gettysburg " videos that were created in opposition of building a casino on the grounds of Gettysburg , Pennsylvania where the Battle of Gettysburg was fought . = = Track listing = = = = Credits = = Source : = = Release history = =
= Singapore strategy = The Singapore strategy was a naval defence policy of the British Empire that evolved in a series of war plans from 1919 to 1941 . It aimed to deter aggression by the Empire of Japan by providing for a base for a fleet of the Royal Navy in the Far East , able to intercept and defeat a Japanese force heading south towards India or Australia . To be effective it required a well @-@ equipped base ; Singapore , at the eastern end of the Strait of Malacca , was chosen in 1919 as the location of this base ; work continued on this naval base and its defences over the next two decades . The planners envisaged that a war with Japan would have three phases : while the garrison of Singapore defended the fortress , the fleet would make its way from home waters to Singapore , sally to relieve or recapture Hong Kong , and blockade the Japanese home islands to force Japan to accept terms . The idea of invading Japan was rejected as impractical , but British planners did not expect that the Japanese would willingly fight a decisive naval battle against the odds . Aware of the impact of a blockade on an island nation at the heart of a maritime empire , they felt that economic pressure would suffice . The Singapore strategy was the cornerstone of British Imperial defence policy in the Far East during the 1920s and 1930s . By 1937 , according to Captain Stephen Roskill , " the concept of the ' Main Fleet to Singapore ' had , perhaps through constant repetition , assumed something of the inviolability of Holy Writ " . A combination of financial , political and practical difficulties ensured that it could not be successfully implemented . During the 1930s , the strategy came under sustained criticism in Britain and abroad , particularly in Australia , where the Singapore strategy was used as an excuse for parsimonious defence policies . The strategy ultimately led to the despatch of Force Z to Singapore and the sinking of the Prince of Wales and Repulse by Japanese air attack on 10 December 1941 . The subsequent ignominious fall of Singapore was described by Winston Churchill as " the worst disaster and largest capitulation in British history " . = = Origins = = After the First World War , the Imperial German Navy 's High Seas Fleet that had challenged the Royal Navy for supremacy was scuttled in Scapa Flow , but the Royal Navy was already facing serious challenges to its position as the world 's most powerful fleet from the United States Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy . The United States ' determination to create what Admiral of the Navy George Dewey called " a navy second to none " presaged a new maritime arms race . The U.S. Navy was smaller than the Royal Navy in 1919 , but ships laid down under its wartime construction program were still being launched , and their more recent construction gave the American ships a technological edge . The " two @-@ power standard " of 1889 called for a Royal Navy strong enough to take on any two other powers . In 1909 , this was scaled back to a policy of 60 % superiority in dreadnoughts . Rising tensions over the U.S. Navy 's building program led to heated arguments between the First Sea Lord , Admiral Sir Rosslyn Wemyss , and the Chief of Naval Operations Admiral William S. Benson in March and April 1919 , although , as far back as 1909 , the government directed that the United States was not to be regarded as a potential enemy . This decision was reaffirmed by Cabinet in August 1919 in order to preclude the U.S. Navy 's building program from becoming a justification for the Admiralty initiating one of its own . In 1920 , the First Lord of the Admiralty Sir Walter Long announced a " one @-@ power standard " , under which the policy was to maintain a navy " not ... inferior in strength to the Navy of any other power " . The one @-@ power standard became official when it was publicly announced at the 1921 Imperial Conference . The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 reinforced this policy . The Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom and the Dominions met at the 1921 Imperial Conference to determine a unified international policy , particularly the relationship with the United States and Japan . The most urgent issue was that of whether or not to renew the Anglo @-@ Japanese Alliance , which was due to expire on 13 July 1921 . On one side were the Prime Minister of Australia Billy Hughes and the Prime Minister of New Zealand Bill Massey , who strongly favoured its renewal . Neither wanted their countries to be caught up in a war between the United States and Japan , and contrasted the generous assistance that Japan rendered during First World War with the United States ' disengagement from international affairs in its aftermath . " The British Empire " , declared Hughes , " must have a reliable friend in the Pacific " . They were opposed by the Prime Minister of Canada , Arthur Meighen , on the grounds that the alliance would adversely affect the relationship with the United States , which Canada depended upon for its security . As a result , no decision to renew was reached , and the alliance was allowed to expire . The Washington Naval Treaty in 1922 provided for a 5 : 5 : 3 ratio of capital ships of the British , United States and Japanese navies . Throughout the 1920s , the Royal Navy remained the world 's largest navy , with a comfortable margin of superiority over Japan , which was regarded as the most likely adversary . The Washington Naval Treaty also prohibited the fortification of islands in the Pacific , but Singapore was specifically excluded . The provisions of the London Naval Treaty of 1930 , however , restricted naval construction , resulting in a serious decline in the British shipbuilding industry . Germany 's willingness to limit the size of its navy led to the Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement of 1935 . This was seen as signalling a sincere desire to avoid conflict with Britain . In 1934 , the First Sea Lord , Admiral Sir Ernle Chatfield , began to press for a new naval build @-@ up sufficient to fight both Japan and the strongest European power . He intended to accelerate construction to the maximum capacity of the shipyards , but the Treasury soon became alarmed at the potential cost of the program , which was costed at between £ 88 and £ 104 million . By 1938 , the Treasury was losing its fight to stop rearmament ; politicians and the public were more afraid of being caught unprepared for war with Germany and Japan than of a major financial crisis in the more distant future . = = Plans = = The Singapore strategy was a series of war plans that evolved over a twenty @-@ year period in which the basing of a fleet at Singapore was a common but not a defining aspect . Plans were crafted for different contingencies , both defensive and offensive . Some were designed to defeat Japan , while others were merely to deter aggression . In November 1918 , the Australian Minister for the Navy , Sir Joseph Cook , had asked Admiral Lord Jellicoe to draw up a scheme for the Empire 's naval defence . Jellicoe set out on a tour of the Empire in the battlecruiser HMS New Zealand in February 1919 . He presented his report to the Australian government in August 1919 . In a section of the report classified as secret , he advised that the interests of the British Empire and Japan would inevitably clash . He called for the creation of a British Pacific Fleet strong enough to counter the Imperial Japanese Navy , which he believed would require 8 battleships , 8 battlecruisers , 4 aircraft carriers , 10 cruisers , 40 destroyers , 36 submarines and supporting auxiliaries . Although he did not specify a location , Jellicoe noted that the fleet would require a major dockyard somewhere in the Far East . A paper entitled " The Naval Situation in the Far East " was considered by the Committee of Imperial Defence in October 1919 . In this paper the naval staff pointed out that maintaining the Anglo @-@ Japanese Alliance might lead to war between the British Empire and the United States . In 1920 , the Admiralty issued War Memorandum ( Eastern ) 1920 , a series of instructions in the event of a war with Japan . In it , the defence of Singapore was described as " absolutely essential " . The strategy was presented to the Dominions at the 1923 Imperial Conference . The authors of War Memorandum ( Eastern ) 1920 divided a war with Japan into three phases . In the first phase , the garrison of Singapore would defend the fortress while the fleet made its way from home waters to Singapore . Next , the fleet would sail from Singapore and relieve or recapture Hong Kong . The final phase would see the fleet blockade Japan and force it to accept terms . Most planning focused on the first phase , which was seen as the most critical . This phase involved construction of defence works for Singapore . For the second phase , a naval base capable of supporting a fleet was required . While the United States had constructed a graving dock capable of taking battleships at Pearl Harbor between 1909 and 1919 , the Royal Navy had no such base east of Malta . In April 1919 , the Plans Division of the Admiralty produced a paper which examined possible locations for a naval base in the Pacific in case of a war with the United States or Japan . Hong Kong was considered but regarded as too vulnerable , while Sydney was regarded as secure but too far from Japan . Singapore emerged as the best compromise location . The estimate of how long it would take for the fleet to reach Singapore after the outbreak of hostilities varied . It had to include the time required to assemble the fleet , prepare and provision its ships , and then sally to Singapore . Initially , the estimate was 42 days , assuming reasonable advance warning . In 1938 , it was increased to 70 days , with 14 more for reprovisioning . It was further increased in June 1939 to 90 days plus 15 for reprovisioning , and finally , in September 1939 , to 180 days . To facilitate this movement , a series of oil storage facilities were constructed at Gibraltar , Malta , Port Said , Port Sudan , Aden , Colombo , Trincomalee , Rangoon , Singapore , and Hong Kong . A complicating factor was that the battleships could not traverse the Suez Canal fully laden , so they would have to refuel on the other side . Singapore was to have storage for 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 270 @,@ 000 t ) of oil . Secret bases were established at Kamaran Bay , Addu Atoll and Nancowry . It was estimated that the fleet would require 110 @,@ 000 long tons ( 110 @,@ 000 t ) of oil per month , which would be transported in 60 tankers . Oil would be shipped in from the refineries at Abadan and Rangoon , supplemented by buying up the entire output of the Netherlands East Indies . The third phase received the least consideration , but naval planners were aware that Singapore was too far from Japan to provide an adequate base for operations close to Japan . Moreover , the further the fleet proceeded from Singapore , the weaker it would become . If American assistance was forthcoming , there was the prospect of Manila being used as a forward base . The idea of invading Japan and fighting its armies on its own soil was rejected as impractical , but the British planners did not expect that the Japanese would willingly fight a decisive naval battle against the odds . They were therefore drawn to the concept of a blockade . From personal experience they were aware of the impact it could have on an island nation at the heart of a maritime empire , and felt that economic pressure would suffice . Japan 's vulnerability to blockade was studied . Using information supplied by the Board of Trade and the naval attaché in Tokyo , the planners estimated that the British Empire accounted for around 27 per cent of Japan 's imports . In most cases these imports could be replaced from sources in China and the United States . However , certain critical materials for which Japan relied heavily on imports were identified , including metals , machinery , chemicals , oil and rubber , and many of the best sources of these were under British control . Japan 's access to neutral shipping could be restricted by refusing insurance to ships trading with Japan , and chartering ships to reduce the number available . The problem with enforcing a close blockade with ships was that warships loitering off the coast of Japan would be vulnerable to attack by aircraft and submarines . Blockading Japanese ports with small ships was a possibility , but this would first require the destruction or neutralisation of the Japanese fleet , and it was far from certain that the Japanese fleet would place itself in a position where it could be destroyed . A plan was adopted for a more distant blockade , whereby ships bound for Japan would be intercepted as they passed through the East Indies or the Panama Canal . This would not cut off Japan 's trade with China or Korea , and probably not with the United States either . The effectiveness of such a blockade was therefore questionable . Rear Admiral Sir Herbert Richmond , the Commander in Chief , East Indies Station , noted that the logic was suspiciously circular : We are going to force Japan to surrender by cutting off her essential supplies . We cannot cut off her essential supplies until we defeat her fleet . We cannot defeat her fleet if it will not come out to fight . We shall force it to come out to fight by cutting off her essential supplies . The 1919 plans incorporated a Mobile Naval Base Defence Organisation ( MNBDO ) which could develop and defend a forward base . The MNBDO had a strength of 7 @,@ 000 and included a brigade of antiaircraft artillery , a brigade of coastal artillery and a battalion of infantry , all drawn from the Royal Marines . In one paper exercise , the Royal Marines occupied Nakagusuku Bay unopposed and the MNBDO developed a major base there from which the fleet blockaded Japan . Actual fleet exercises were conducted in the Mediterranean in the 1920s to test the MNBDO concept . However , the Royal Marines were not greatly interested in amphibious warfare , and lacking organisational backing , the techniques and tactics of amphibious warfare began to atrophy . By the 1930s the Admiralty was concerned that the United States and Japan were well ahead of Britain in this field and persuaded the Army and RAF to join with it in establishing the Inter @-@ Service Training and Development Centre , which opened in July 1938 . Under its first commandant , Captain Loben Edward Harold Maund , it began investigating the problems of amphibious warfare , including the design of landing craft . Nor was this the only field in which the Royal Navy was lagging in the 1930s . In the 1920s , Colonel the Master of Sempill led the semi @-@ official Sempill Mission to Japan to help the Imperial Japanese Navy establish an air arm . At the time the Royal Navy was the world leader in naval aviation . The Sempill mission taught advanced techniques such as carrier deck landing , conducted training with modern aircraft , and provided engines , ordnance and technical equipment . Within a decade , Japan had overtaken Britain . The Royal Navy pioneered the armoured flight deck , which enabled carriers to absorb damage , but resulted in limiting the number of aircraft that a carrier could operate . The Royal Navy had great faith in the ability of ships ' antiaircraft batteries , and so saw little need for high performance fighters . To maximise the benefit of the small numbers of aircraft that could be carried , the Royal Navy developed multi @-@ role aircraft such as the Blackburn Roc , Fairey Fulmar , Fairey Barracuda , Blackburn Skua and Fairey Swordfish . As a result , the Royal Navy 's aircraft were no match for their Japanese counterparts . The possibility of Japan taking advantage of a war in Europe was foreseen . In June 1939 , the Tientsin Incident demonstrated another possibility : that Germany might attempt to take advantage of a war in the Far East . In the event of a worst @-@ case scenario of simultaneous war with Germany , Italy and Japan , two approaches were considered . The first was to reduce the war to one against Germany and Japan only by knocking Italy out of the conflict as quickly as possible . The former First Sea Lord , Sir Reginald Drax , who was brought out of retirement to advise on strategy , called for a " flying squadron " of four or five battleships , along with an aircraft carrier , some cruisers and destroyers , to be sent to Singapore . Such a force would be too small to fight the Japanese main fleet , but could protect British trade in the Indian Ocean against commerce raiders . Drax argued that a small , fast force would be better in this role than a large , slow one . When more ships became available , it could become the nucleus of a full @-@ sized battle fleet . Chatfield , now Minister for Coordination of Defence , disagreed with this concept . He felt that the flying squadron would become nothing more than a target for the Japanese fleet . Instead , he put forward a second approach , namely that the Mediterranean be abandoned and the fleet sent to Singapore . = = Base development = = Following surveys , a site at Sembawang was chosen for a naval base . The Straits Settlements made a free gift of 2 @,@ 845 acres ( 1 @,@ 151 ha ) of land for the site , and a sum of £ 250 @,@ 000 for construction of the base was donated by Hong Kong in 1925 . That exceeded the United Kingdom 's contribution that year of £ 204 @,@ 000 towards the floating dock . Another £ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 was paid by the Federated Malay States , while New Zealand donated another £ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The contract for construction of the naval dockyard was awarded to the lowest bidder , Sir John Jackson Limited , for £ 3 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 . Some 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 4 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 m3 ) of earth were moved to level the ground , and 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 6 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 m3 ) of marsh was filled in . The floating dock was constructed in England and towed to Singapore by Dutch tugboats . It was 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) long and 1 @,@ 300 feet ( 400 m ) wide , making it one of the largest in the world . There would be 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) of deep water quays , and supporting infrastructure including warehouses , workshops and hospitals . To defend the naval base , heavy 15 @-@ inch naval guns ( 381 @.@ 0 mm ) were stationed at Johore battery , Changi , and at Buona Vista to deal with battleships . Medium BL 9 @.@ 2 inch guns ( 233 @.@ 7 mm ) were provided for dealing with smaller attackers . Batteries of smaller calibre anti @-@ aircraft guns and guns for dealing with raids were located at Fort Siloso , Fort Canning and Labrador . The five 15 @-@ inch guns were all surplus Navy guns , manufactured between 1903 and 1919 . Part of their cost was met from a gift of £ 500 @,@ 000 from Sultan Ibrahim of Johor for the Silver Jubilee of the coronation King George V. Three of the guns were given an all @-@ round ( 360 ° ) traverse and subterranean magazines . Aviation was not neglected . Plans called for an air force of 18 flying boats , 18 reconnaissance fighters , 18 torpedo bombers and 18 single @-@ seat fighters to protect them . Royal Air Force airfields were established at RAF Tengah and RAF Sembawang . The Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal Lord Trenchard , argued that 30 torpedo bombers could replace the 15 @-@ inch guns . The First Sea Lord , Admiral of the Fleet Lord Beatty , did not agree . A compromise was reached whereby the guns would be installed , but the issue was reconsidered when better torpedo planes became available . Test firings of 15 @-@ inch and 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns at Malta and Portsmouth in 1926 indicated that greatly improved shells were required if the guns were to have a chance of hitting a battleship . The King George VI dry dock was formally opened by the Governor of the Straits Settlements , Sir Shenton Thomas , on 14 February 1938 . Two squadrons of the Fleet Air Arm provided a flypast . The 42 vessels in attendance included three US Navy cruisers . The presence of this fleet gave an opportunity to conduct a series of naval , air and military exercises . The aircraft carrier HMS Eagle was able to sail undetected to within 135 miles ( 217 km ) of Singapore and launch a series of surprise raids on the RAF airfields . The local air commander , Air Vice @-@ Marshal Arthur Tedder , was greatly embarrassed . The local land commander , Major @-@ General Sir William Dobbie , was no less disappointed by the performance of the anti @-@ aircraft defences . Reports recommended the installation of radar on the island , but this was not done until 1941 . The naval defences worked better , but a landing party from HMS Norfolk was still able to capture the Raffles Hotel . What most concerned Dobbie and Tedder was the possibility of the fleet being bypassed entirely by an overland invasion of Malaya from Thailand . Dobbie conducted an exercise in southern Malaya which demonstrated that the jungle was far from impassable . The Chiefs of Staff Committee concluded that the Japanese would most likely land on the east coast of Malaya and advance on Singapore from the north . = = Australia = = In Australia the conservative Nationalist Party government of Stanley Bruce latched onto the Singapore strategy , which called for reliance on the British navy , supported by a naval squadron as strong as Australia could afford . Between 1923 and 1929 , £ 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 was spent on the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) , while the Australian Army and the munitions industry received only £ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 and the fledgling Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) just £ 2 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 . The policy had the advantage of pushing responsibility for Australian defence onto Britain . Unlike New Zealand , Australia declined to contribute to the cost of the base at Singapore . In petitioning a parsimonious government for more funds , the Australian Army had to refute the Singapore strategy , " an apparently well @-@ argued and well @-@ founded strategic doctrine that had been endorsed at the highest levels of imperial decision @-@ making " . An alternative policy was put forward in 1923 by the Australian Labor Party , which was in opposition for all but two years of the 1920s and 1930s . It called for Australia 's first line of defence to be a powerful air arm , supported by a well @-@ equipped Australian Army that could be rapidly expanded to meet an invasion threat . This , in turn , required a strong munitions industry . Labor politicians cited critics like Rear Admiral William Freeland Fullam , who drew attention to the vulnerability of warships to aircraft , naval mines and submarines . The Labor Party 's Albert Green noted in 1923 that when a battleship of the day cost £ 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 while an aircraft cost £ 2 @,@ 500 , there was a genuine cause for concern as to whether the battleship was a better investment than hundreds of aircraft , if the aircraft could sink battleships . The Labor Party 's policy became indistinguishable from the Army 's position . In September 1926 , Lieutenant Colonel Henry Wynter gave a lecture to the United Services Institute of Victoria entitled " The Strategical Inter @-@ relationship of the Navy , the Army and the Air Force : an Australian View " , which was published in the April 1927 edition of British Army Quarterly . In this article Wynter argued that war was most likely to break out in the Pacific at a time when Britain was involved in a crisis in Europe , which would prevent Britain from sending sufficient resources to Singapore . He contended that Singapore was vulnerable , especially to attack from the land and the air , and argued for a more balanced policy of building up the Army and RAAF rather than relying on the RAN . " Henceforward " , wrote Australian official historian Lionel Wigmore , " the attitude of the leading thinkers in the Australian Army towards British assurances that an adequate fleet would be sent to Singapore at the critical time was ( bluntly stated ) : ' We do not doubt that you are sincere in your beliefs but , frankly , we do not think you will be able to do it . ' " Frederick Shedden wrote a paper putting the case for the Singapore strategy as a means of defending Australia . He argued that since Australia was also an island nation , it followed that it would also be vulnerable to a naval blockade . If Australia could be defeated without an invasion , the defence of Australia had to be a naval one . Colonel John Lavarack , who had attended the Imperial Defence College class of 1928 with Shedden , disagreed . Lavarack responded that the vast coastline of Australia would make a naval blockade very difficult , and its considerable internal resources meant that it could resist economic pressure . When Richmond attacked the Labor Party 's position in an article in British Army Quarterly in 1933 , Lavarack wrote a rebuttal . In 1936 , the leader of the opposition John Curtin read an article by Wynter in the House of Representatives . Wynter 's outspoken criticism of the Singapore strategy led to his transfer to a junior post . Soon after the outbreak of war with Germany on 3 September 1939 , Prime Minister Robert Menzies appointed a British officer , Lieutenant General Ernest Squires , to replace Lavarack as Chief of the General Staff . Within months , the Chief of the Air Staff was replaced with a British officer as well . = = Second World War = = With war with Germany now a reality , Menzies sent Richard Casey to London to seek reassurances about the defence of Australia in the event that Australian forces were sent to Europe or the Middle East . In November , Australia and New Zealand were given reassurances that Singapore would not be allowed to fall , and that in the event of war with Japan , the defence of the Far East would take priority over the Mediterranean . This seemed possible as the Kriegsmarine , the German navy , was relatively small and France was an ally . Bruce , now Australian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom , and Casey met with British Cabinet ministers on 20 November and left with the impression that , despite the reassurances , the Royal Navy was not strong enough to deal with simultaneous crises in Europe , the Mediterranean and the Far East . During 1940 , the situation slowly but inexorably slid towards a worst @-@ case scenario . In June , Italy joined the war on Germany 's side and France was knocked out . The Chiefs of Staff Committee now reported : The security of our imperial interests in the Far East lies ultimately in our ability to control sea communications in the south @-@ western Pacific , for which purpose adequate fleet must be based at Singapore . Since our previous assurances in this respect , however , the whole strategic situation has been radically altered by the French defeat . The result of this has been to alter the whole of the balance of naval strength in home waters . Formerly we were prepared to abandon the Eastern Mediterranean and dispatch a fleet to the Far East , relying on the French fleet in the Western Mediterranean to contain the Italian fleet . Now if we move the Mediterranean fleet to the Far East there is nothing to contain the Italian fleet , which will be free to operate in the Atlantic or reinforce the German fleet in home waters , using bases in north @-@ west France . We must therefore retain in European waters sufficient naval forces to watch both the German and Italian fleets , and we cannot do this and send a fleet to the Far East . In the meantime the strategic importance to us of the Far East both for Empire security and to enable us to defeat the enemy by control of essential commodities at the source has been increased . There remained the prospect of American assistance . In secret talks in Washington , D.C. , in June 1939 , Chief of Naval Operations Admiral William D. Leahy raised the possibility of an American fleet being sent to Singapore . In April 1940 , the American naval attaché in London , Captain Alan Kirk , approached the Vice Chief of the Naval Staff , Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Thomas Phillips , to ask if , in the event of the United States Fleet being sent to the Far East , the docking facilities at Singapore could be made available , as those at Subic Bay were inadequate . He received full assurances that they would be . Hopes for American assistance were dashed at the staff conference in Washington , D.C. , in February 1941 . The U.S. Navy was primarily focused on the Atlantic . The American chiefs envisaged relieving British warships in the Atlantic and Mediterranean so a British fleet could be sent to the Far East . In July 1941 , the Japanese occupied Cam Ranh Bay , which the British fleet had hoped to use on its northward drive . This put the Japanese uncomfortably close to Singapore . As diplomatic relations with Japan worsened , in August 1941 , the Admiralty and the Chiefs of Staff began considering what ships could be sent . The Chiefs of Staff decided to recommend sending HMS Barham to the Far East from the Mediterranean , followed by four Revenge @-@ class battleships that were refitting at home and in the United States , but Barham was sunk by a German U @-@ boat in November 1941 . Three weeks later the remaining two battleships at Alexandria , HMS Queen Elizabeth and Valiant were seriously damaged by Italian human torpedoes . While no more destroyers or cruisers were available , the Admiralty decided that an aircraft carrier , the small HMS Eagle could be sent . Winston Churchill , now the Prime Minister , noted that since the German battleship Tirpitz was tying up a superior British fleet , a small British fleet at Singapore might have a similar disproportionate effect on the Japanese . The Foreign Office expressed the opinion that the presence of modern battleships at Singapore might deter Japan from entering the war . In October 1941 , the Admiralty therefore ordered HMS Prince of Wales to depart for Singapore , where it would be joined by HMS Repulse . The carrier HMS Indomitable was to join them , but it ran aground off Jamaica on 3 November , and no other carrier was available . In August 1940 , the Chiefs of Staff Committee reported that the force necessary to hold Malaya and Singapore in the absence of a fleet was 336 first @-@ line aircraft and a garrison of nine brigades . Churchill then sent reassurances to the prime ministers of Australia and New Zealand that , if they were attacked , their defence would be a priority second only to that of the British Isles . A defence conference was held in Singapore in October 1940 . Representatives from all three services attended , including Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Geoffrey Layton ( Commander in Chief , China Station ) ; the General Officer Commanding Malaya Command , Lieutenant General Lionel Bond ; and Air Officer Commanding the RAF in the Far East , Air Marshal John Tremayne Babington . Australia was represented by its three deputy service chiefs , Captain Joseph Burnett , Major General John Northcott and Air Commodore William Bostock . Over ten days , they discussed the situation in the Far East . They estimated that the air defence of Burma and Malaya would require a minimum of 582 aircraft . By 7 December 1941 , there were only 164 first @-@ line aircraft on hand in Malaya and Singapore , and all the fighters were the obsolete Brewster F2A Buffalo . The land forces situation was not much better . There were only 31 battalions of infantry of the 48 required , and instead of two tank regiments , there were no tanks at all . Moreover , many of the units on hand were poorly trained and equipped . Yet during 1941 Britain had sent 676 aircraft and 446 tanks to the Soviet Union . The Japanese were aware of the state of the Singapore defences . There were spies in Singapore , such as Captain Patrick Heenan , and a copy of the Chiefs of Staff 's August 1940 appreciation was among the secret documents captured by the German surface raider Atlantis from the SS Automedon on 11 November 1940 . The report was handed over to the Japanese , and the detailed knowledge of Singapore 's defences thus obtained may have encouraged the Japanese to attack . On 8 December 1941 , the Japanese occupied the Shanghai International Settlement . A couple of hours later , landings began at Kota Bharu in Malaya . An hour after that , the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked Pearl Harbor . On 10 December , Prince of Wales and Repulse , sailing to meet the Malaya invasion force , were sunk by Japanese air attack . After the disastrous Malayan Campaign , Singapore surrendered on 15 February 1942 . During the final stages of the campaign , the 15 @-@ inch and 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns had bombarded targets at Johore Bahru , RAF Tengah and Bukit Timah . = = Aftermath = = = = = Fall of Singapore = = = The fall of Singapore was described by Winston Churchill as " the worst disaster and largest capitulation in British history " . It was a profound blow to the prestige and morale of the British Empire . The promised fleet had not been sent , and the fortress that had been declared " impregnable " had been quickly captured . Nearly 139 @,@ 000 troops were lost , of whom about 130 @,@ 000 were captured . The 38 @,@ 000 British casualties included most of the British 18th Infantry Division , which had been ordered to Malaya in January . There were also 18 @,@ 000 Australian casualties , including most of the Australian 8th Division , and 14 @,@ 000 local troops ; but the majority of the defenders — some 67 @,@ 000 of them — were from British India . About 40 @,@ 000 of the Indian prisoners of war subsequently joined the Japanese @-@ sponsored Indian National Army . Richmond , in a 1942 article in The Fortnightly Review , charged that the loss of Singapore illustrated " the folly of not providing adequately for the command of the sea in a two @-@ ocean war " . He now argued that the Singapore strategy had been totally unrealistic . Privately he blamed politicians who had allowed Britain 's sea power to be run down . The resources provided for the defence of Malaya were inadequate to hold Singapore , and the manner in which those resources were employed was frequently wasteful , inefficient and ineffective . The disaster had both political and military dimensions . In Parliament , Churchill suggested that an official inquiry into the disaster should be held after the war . When this wartime speech was published in 1946 , the Australian government asked if the British government still intended to conduct the inquiry . The Joint Planning Staff considered the matter , and recommended that no inquiry be held , as it would not be possible to restrict its focus to the events surrounding the fall of Singapore , and it would inevitably have to examine the political , diplomatic and military circumstances of the Singapore strategy over a period of many years . Prime Minister Clement Attlee accepted this advice , and no inquiry was ever held . In Australia and New Zealand , after years of reassurances , there was a sense of betrayal . According to one historian , " In the end , no matter how you cut it , the British let them down " . The defeat would affect politics for decades . In a speech in the Australian House of Representatives in 1992 , Prime Minister Paul Keating cited the sense of betrayal : I was told that I did not learn respect at school . I learned one thing : I learned about self @-@ respect and self @-@ regard for Australia — not about some cultural cringe to a country which decided not to defend the Malayan peninsula , not to worry about Singapore and not to give us our troops back to keep ourselves free from Japanese domination . This was the country that you people wedded yourself to , and even as it walked out on you and joined the Common Market , you were still looking for your MBEs and your knighthoods , and all the rest of the regalia that comes with it . A fleet was necessary for the defeat of Japan , and eventually a sizeable one , the British Pacific Fleet , did go to the Far East , where it fought alongside the United States Pacific Fleet . The closer relations that developed between the two navies prior to the outbreak of war with Japan , and the alliance that developed from it afterwards , became the most positive and enduring strategic legacy of the Singapore strategy . The Singapore Naval Base suffered little damage in the fighting and became the Imperial Japanese Navy 's most important facility outside of the Japanese home islands . The 15 @-@ inch guns were sabotaged by the British before the fall of Singapore , and four of them were deemed beyond repair and scrapped by the Japanese . The floating dry dock was scuttled by the British , but raised by the Japanese . It was damaged beyond repair by a raid by Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortresses in February 1945 , and ultimately towed out to sea and dumped in 1946 . The Royal Navy took repossession of the Singapore base in 1945 . = = = Operation Mastodon = = = In 1958 , the Singapore strategy was revived in the form of Operation Mastodon , a plan to deploy V bombers of RAF Bomber Command equipped with nuclear weapons to Singapore as part of Britain 's contribution to the defence of the region under Southeast Asia Treaty Organization ( SEATO ) . Once again , there were formidable logistical problems . As the V bombers could not fly all the way to Singapore , a new staging base was developed at RAF Gan in the Maldives . RAF Tengah 's runway was too short for V bombers , so RAF Butterworth had to be used until it could be lengthened . The basing of nuclear armed aircraft , and the stockpiling of nuclear weapons without consultation with the local authorities soon ran into political complications . Mastodon called for the deployment of two squadrons of eight Handley Page Victors to Tengah and one of eight Avro Vulcans to Butterworth . The British nuclear stockpile consisted of only 53 nuclear weapons in 1958 , most of which were of the old Blue Danube type , but plans called for 48 of the new , lighter Red Beard tactical nuclear weapons to be stored at Tengah when they became available , so each V bomber could carry two . Up to 48 Red Beards were secretly stowed in a highly secured weapons storage facility at RAF Tengah , between 1962 and 1971 , for possible use by the V bomber force detachment and for Britain 's military commitment to SEATO . In the meantime , the Royal Navy deployed the aircraft carrier HMS Victorious with Red Beards and nuclear @-@ capable Supermarine Scimitars to the Far East in 1960 . As with the original Singapore strategy , there were doubts as to whether 24 V bombers could be spared in the event of a crisis dire enough to require them , especially after China 's acquisition of nuclear weapons in 1964 . As the Indonesia – Malaysia confrontation heated up in 1963 , Bomber Command sent detachments of Victors and Vulcans to the Far East . Over the next three years , four V bombers were permanently stationed there , with squadrons in the United Kingdom rotating detachments . In April 1965 , No. 35 Squadron RAF carried out a rapid deployment of its eight Vulcans to RAAF Butterworth and RAF Tengah . Air Chief Marshal Sir John Grandy reported that the V bombers " provided a valuable deterrent to confrontation being conducted on a large scale " . In 1965 , racial , political , and personal tensions led to Singapore seceding from Malaysia and becoming an independent country . With the end of the confrontation , the last V bombers were withdrawn in 1966 . The following year , the British government announced its intention to withdraw its forces from East of Suez . The Singapore Naval Base was handed over to the government of Singapore on 8 December 1968 , and Sembawang Shipyard subsequently became the basis of a successful ship repair industry . The Red Beards were returned to the UK via the US in 1971 .
= Otto of Greece = Otto , also spelled Otho ( Greek : O Όθων , Βασιλεύς της Ελλάδος , O Óthon , Vasiléfs tis Elládos ; 1 June 1815 – 26 July 1867 ) , was a Bavarian prince who became the first modern King of Greece in 1832 under the Convention of London . He reigned until he was deposed in 1862 . The second son of King Ludwig I of Bavaria , Otto ascended the newly created throne of Greece while still a minor . His government was initially run by a three @-@ man regency council made up of Bavarian court officials . Upon reaching his majority , Otto removed the regents when they proved unpopular with the people and he ruled as an absolute monarch . Eventually his subjects ' demands for a Constitution proved overwhelming , and in the face of an armed but peaceful insurrection Otto in 1843 granted a constitution . However he rigged elections using fraud and terror . Throughout his reign Otto was unable to resolve Greece 's poverty and prevent economic meddling from outside . Greek politics in this era was based on affiliations with the three Great Powers , and Otto 's ability to maintain the support of the powers was key to his remaining in power . To remain strong , Otto had to play the interests of each of the Great Powers ' Greek adherents against the others , while not aggravating the Great Powers . When Greece was blockaded by the British Royal Navy in 1850 and again in 1854 , to stop Greece from attacking the Ottoman Empire during the Crimean War , Otto 's standing amongst Greeks suffered . As a result , there was an assassination attempt on the Queen , and finally in 1862 Otto was deposed while in the countryside . He died in exile in Bavaria in 1867 . = = Early life and reign = = Otto was born as Prince Otto Friedrich Ludwig of Bavaria at Schloss Mirabell in Salzburg ( when it belonged for a short time to the Kingdom of Bavaria ) , as second son of Crown Prince Ludwig I of Bavaria and Therese of Saxe @-@ Hildburghausen . His father served there as Bavarian governor @-@ general . Through his ancestor the Bavarian Duke John II , Otto was a descendant of the Greek imperial dynasties of Komnenos and Laskaris . When he was elected king , the Great Powers extracted a pledge from Otto 's father to restrain him from hostile actions against the Ottoman Empire . Also they insisted that his title be " King of Greece " instead of " King of the Hellenes " , because the latter would imply a claim over the millions of Greeks then still under Turkish rule . Aged not quite 18 , the young prince arrived in Greece with 3 @,@ 500 Bavarian troops and three Bavarian advisors aboard the British frigate HMS Madagascar . Although he did not speak Greek , he immediately endeared himself to his adopted country by adopting the Greek national costume and Hellenizing his name to " Othon " ( some English sources , such as Encyclopaedia Britannica , call him " Otho " ) . Otto 's reign is usually divided into three periods : a . The years of Regency : 1832 – 1835 b . The years of Absolute Monarchy : 1835 – 1843 c . The years of Constitutional Monarchy : 1843 – 1862 The Bavarian advisors were arrayed in a Regency Council headed by Count Josef Ludwig von Armansperg , who in Bavaria as minister of finance , had recently succeeded in restoring Bavarian credit at the cost of his popularity. von Armansperg was the President of the Privy Council and the 1st representative ( or Prime Minister ) of the new Greek government . The other members of the Regency Council were Karl von Abel and Georg Ludwig von Maurer with whom von Armansperg clashed often . After the King reached his majority in 1835 , von Armansperg was made Arch @-@ Secretary but was called Arch @-@ Chancellor by the Greek press . Britain and the Rothschild bank , who were underwriting the Greek loans , insisted on financial stringency from Armansperg . The Greeks were soon more heavily taxed than under Turkish rule ; as the people saw it , they had exchanged a hated Ottoman tyranny , which they understood , for government by a foreign bureaucracy , the " Bavarocracy " ( Βαυαροκρατία ) , which they despised . ( Ottoman rule had been called in Greek Tourkokratia – Τουρκοκρατία , " Turkish rule " ) . In addition , the regency showed little respect for local customs . Also , as a Roman Catholic , Otto himself was viewed as a heretic by many pious Greeks , however , his heirs would have to be Orthodox according to the terms of the 1843 Constitution . Popular heroes and leaders of the Greek Revolution , like the Generals Theodoros Kolokotronis and Yiannis Makriyiannis , who opposed the Bavarian @-@ dominated regency , were charged with treason , put in jail and sentenced to death . However , they were pardoned later , under popular pressure , while the Greek judges , who resisted the Bavarian pressure and refused to sign the death penalties ( like Anastasios Polyzoidis and Georgios Tertsetis ) , were saluted as heroes . King Otto 's early reign was notable for one more reason : He moved the capital of Greece from Nafplion to Athens . His first task as king was to make a detailed archaeological and topographical survey of Athens . He assigned Gustav Eduard Schaubert and Stamatios Kleanthis to complete this task . At that time Athens had a population of roughly 4 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 people , located mainly in what today covers the district of Plaka in Athens . Athens was chosen as the Greek capital for historical and sentimental reasons , not because it was a large city . At the time , it was a town consisting of only 400 houses on the foot of the Acropolis . A modern city plan was laid out and public buildings erected . The finest legacy of this period are the buildings of the University of Athens ( 1837 , under the name Othonian University ) , the Athens Polytechnic University ( 1837 , under the name Royal School of Arts ) , the National Gardens of Athens ( 1840 ) , the National Library of Greece ( 1842 ) , the Old Royal Palace ( now the Greek Parliament Building , 1843 ) , and the Old Parliament Building ( 1858 ) . Schools and hospitals were established all over the ( still small ) Greek dominion ; but the negative feelings of the people were rather neglecting this side of his reign . In 1836 – 37 , Otto visited Germany and married the beautiful and talented 17 @-@ year @-@ old , Duchess Amalia ( Amelie ) of Oldenburg ( 21 December 1818 – 20 May 1875 ) . The wedding took place not in Greece , but in Oldenburg , on 22 November 1836 ; the marriage did not produce an heir and the new queen made herself unpopular by interfering in the government . Besides , she remained Lutheran . Otto was unfaithful to his wife , and had a liaison with Jane Digby , a notorious woman his father had previously taken as a lover . Meanwhile , due to his overtly undermining the king , Armansperg was dismissed from his duties by King Otto immediately on his return . However , despite high hopes by the Greeks , the Bavarian Rudhart was appointed chief minister and the granting of a constitution was again postponed . The attempts of Otto to conciliate Greek sentiment by efforts to enlarge the frontiers of his kingdom , for example , by the suggested acquisition of Crete in 1841 , failed in their objective and only succeeded in embroiling him with the Great Powers . = = Parties , finances and the church = = Throughout his reign , King Otto found himself confronted by a recurring series of issues : partisanship of the Greeks , financial uncertainty , and ecclesiastical issues . Greek parties in the Othonian era were based on two factors : the political activities of the diplomatic representatives of the Great Powers : Russia , United Kingdom and France and the affiliation of Greek political figures with these diplomats . Financial uncertainty of the Othonian monarchy was the result of 1 ) Greece 's poverty , 2 ) the concentration of land in the hands of a small number of wealthy " primates " like the Mavromichalis family of Mani , and 3 ) the promise of 60 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 francs in loans from the Great Powers , which kept these nations involved in Greek internal affairs and the Crown constantly seeking to please one or the other power to ensure the flow of funds . The political machinations of the Great Powers were personified in their three legates in Athens : the French Theobald Piscatory , the Russian Gabriel Catacazy , and the English Edmund Lyons . They informed their home governments on the activities of the Greeks , while serving as advisers to their respective allied parties within Greece . Otto pursued policies , such as balancing power among all the parties and sharing offices among the parties , ostensibly to reduce the power of the parties while trying to bring a pro @-@ Othon party into being . The parties , however , became the entree into government power and financial stability . The effect of his ( and his advisors ' ) policies was to make the Great Powers ' parties more powerful , not less . The Great Powers did not support curtailing Otto 's increasing absolutism , however , which resulted in a near permanent conflict between Otto 's absolute monarchy and the power bases of his Greek subjects . Otto found himself confronted by a number of intractable ecclesiastical issues : 1 ) monasticism , 2 ) Autocephaly , 3 ) the king as head of the Church and 4 ) toleration of other churches . His regents , Armansperg and Rundhart , established a controversial policy of suppressing the monasteries . This was very upsetting to the Church hierarchy . Russia was self @-@ considered as stalwart defender of Orthodoxy but Orthodox believers were found in all three parties . Once he rid himself of his Bavarian advisers , Otto allowed the statutory dissolution of the monasteries to lapse . By tradition dated back to the Byzantine era , the king was regarded by the Church as part of her head . On the issue of Church 's Autocephaly and his role as king within the Church , Otto was overwhelmed by the arcana of Orthodox Church doctrine and popular discontent with his Roman Catholicism ( while the Queen was Protestant ) . In 1833 , the regents had unilaterally declared the Autocephaly of the Church of Greece . This was a recognition of the de facto political situation , as the Patriarch of Constantinople was partially under the political control of the Ottoman Empire . However , faithful people — concerned that having a Catholic as the head of the Church of Greece would weaken the Orthodox Church — criticised the unilateral declaration of Autocephaly as non @-@ canonical . For the same reason , they likewise resisted the foreign , mostly Protestant , missionaries who established schools throughout Greece . Tolerance of other religions was over @-@ supported by some in the English Party and others educated in the West as a symbol of Greece 's progress as a liberal European state . In the end , power over the Church and education was ceded to the Russian Party , while the King maintained a veto over the decision of the Synod of Bishops . This was to keep balance and avoid discrediting Greece in the eyes of Western Europe as a backward , religiously intolerant society . Greek society was in reality very tolerant of other religions . But after 400 years of religious oppression by the Ottomans , Greeks were very suspicious of imposed " Liberal European progress " . Such forced " progress " was viewed as one more attempt against their faith and against their own understanding of freedom , as the main motto of the Greek Revolution was " for the holy faith of Christ and the freedom of the homeland " ; home and faith were inseparable , given also that the Church was the main contributor to the survival of the Greek language and Greek consciousness during Turkish occupation . Catholic communities were already established in Greece since the 13th century ( Athens , Cyclades , Chios , Crete ) . Jewish communities also existed in the country , those arriving after the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain ( 1492 ) joining the earlier Romaniotes , Jews who had been living there since the times of Apostle Paul . Muslim families were still living in Greece during Otto 's reign , since hostility was mainly against the Ottoman state and its depressive mechanisms and not against Muslim people . = = 3 September 1843 Revolution and later reign = = Although King Otto tried to function as an absolute monarch , as Thomas Gallant writes , he " was neither ruthless enough to be feared , nor compassionate enough to be loved , nor competent enough to be respected . " By 1843 , public dissatisfaction with him had reached crisis proportions and there were demands for a Constitution . Initially Otto refused to grant a Constitution , but as soon as Bavarian troops were withdrawn from the kingdom , a popular revolt was launched . On 3 September 1843 , the infantry led by Colonel Dimitris Kallergis and the respected Revolutionary captain and former President of the Athens City Council General Yiannis Makriyiannis assembled in Palace Square in front of the Palace in Athens . Eventually joined by much of the population of the small capital , the rebellion refused to disperse until the King agreed to grant a Constitution , which would require that there be Greeks in the Council , that he convene a permanent National Assembly and that Otto personally thank the leaders of the uprising . Left with little recourse , now that his German troops were gone , King Otto gave in to the pressure and agreed to the demands of the crowd over the objections of his opinionated Queen . This square was renamed Constitution Square ( Πλατεία Συντάγματος ) to commemorate ( through to the present ) the events of September 1843 — and to feature many later tumultuous events of Greek history . Now for the first time , the king had Greeks in his Council and the French Party , the English Party and the Russian Party ( according to which of the Great Powers ' culture they most esteemed ) vied for rank and power . The King 's prestige , which was based in large part on his support by the combined Great Powers , but mostly the support of the British , suffered in the Pacifico incident of 1850 , when British Foreign Secretary Palmerston sent the British fleet to blockade the port of Piraeus with warships , to exact reparation for injustice done to a British subject . The Great Idea ( Μεγάλη Ιδέα ) , the dream of uniting all Greek populations of the Ottoman Empire , thereby restoring the Byzantine Empire under Christian rule , led him to contemplate entering the Crimean War on the side of Russia against Turkey and its British and French allies in 1853 ; the enterprise was unsuccessful , and resulted in renewed intervention by the two Great Powers and a second blockade of Piraeus port , forcing Greece to neutrality . In 1861 , a student named Aristeidis Dosios ( son of politician Konstantinos Dosios ) attempted to murder Queen Amalia , and was openly hailed as a hero . His attempt , however , also prompted spontaneous feelings of monarchism and sympathy towards the royal couple among the Greek population . = = Succession = = It is well known that Otto was a great admirer of the rural Sarakatsani , a nomadic group of Greek mountain shepherds thought by some scholars to be descended from the Dorians . It is believed that at an early age he fathered an illegitimate child in the Sarakatsani clan named " Tangas " . This child was named Manoli Tangas , was brought to Athens and remained there after Otto 's 1862 departure , living as a merchant trader with children of his own . The descendants of Manoli still reside in Athens today . However , since Otto had no legitimate issue , he chose his brother as Crown Prince of Greece . With the removal of the Wittelsbach dynasty from the Greek throne in 1863 and the election of Prince William of Denmark as King George I of the Hellenes in 1863 , the rule of the Wittelsbachs was over . = = Exile and death = = While on a visit to the Peloponnese in 1862 a new coup was launched and this time a Provisional Government was set up and summoned a National Convention . Ambassadors of the Great Powers urged King Otto not to resist , and the king and queen took refuge on a British warship and returned to Bavaria aboard ( the same way they had come to Greece ) taking with them the Greek royal regalia which they had brought from Bavaria in 1832 . It has been suggested that had Otto and Amalia borne an heir , then the King would not have been overthrown , as succession was also a major unresolved question at the time . It is also true , however , that the Constitution of 1843 made provision for his succession by his two younger brothers and their descendants . He died in the palace of the former bishops of Bamberg , Germany , and was buried in the Theatiner Church in Munich . During his retirement , he would still wear the Greek traditional uniform , nowadays worn only by the evzones ( Presidential Guards ) . It is generally accepted by historians that , although Otto failed , he deeply loved Greece as his own new homeland . His failure was mainly a result of the continuous intrigues and competition among the three Great Powers . Before his death , Otto asked to be buried in his own Greek traditional uniform . Αccording to witnesses , Otto 's last words were " Greece , my Greece , my beloved Greece " . = = Ancestors = =
= Farm to Market Road 1957 = Farm to Market Road 1957 ( FM 1957 ) , is a Farm to Market Road in the U.S. state of Texas . Located in Medina and Bexar counties , the 15 @.@ 983 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 25 @.@ 722 km ) highway serves as an arterial street through the growing western suburbs of San Antonio . FM 1957 is known as Potranco Road within Bexar County , and is legislatively defined as Urban Road 1957 ( UR 1957 ) east of Loop 1604 . The modern routing of this highway was originally defined in 1954 . Since then , FM 1957 's western terminus has been extended to FM 471 near Rio Medina , and the entire routing along Culebra Road was transferred to FM 3487 . Before the current routing was established , FM 1957 was also the designation for a highway in Borden County from 1951 to 1954 , now part of FM 1610 . = = Route description = = FM 1957 begins at FM 471 near Rio Medina , as a two @-@ lane country road . It then traverses mostly rural , undeveloped land , before reaching the Bexar – Medina county line , where it becomes Potranco Road . In far western Bexar County , Potranco Road travels through recently built , patchy , residential developments . Development becomes somewhat heavier after the highway passes State Highway 211 ( SH 211 ) , but FM 1957 still displays mostly rural characteristics until the highway reaches Loop 1604 , at which point it enters the San Antonio city limits . Now five lanes wide , with two lanes in each direction and a center turn lane , the legislative definition of FM 1957 becomes UR 1957 ; however , Potranco Road remains signed as FM 1957 . The highway continues eastward , serving residential developments , commercial outlets , and John Paul Stevens High School . It intersects with SH 151 , where development once again becomes patchy . The most notable development along this stretch of Potranco is a National Security Agency data center . State maintenance ends at an intersection with FM 3487 ( Culebra Road ) , slightly west of Interstate 410 ( I @-@ 410 ) . Potranco Road continues as a city street until Ingram Road . = = History = = = = = Previous designation = = = FM 1957 was formerly designated as a highway in Borden County , defined in 1951 . This road traveled from U.S. Highway 180 near Gail to a nearby school , a distance of 8 @.@ 5 miles ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) . The former FM 1957 was combined with FM 1610 in 1954 . = = = Current designation = = = The present @-@ day FM 1957 was defined in 1954 . The original routing was along Culebra Road from its intersection with Grissom Road ( FM 471 ) to Potranco Road , which it followed to the Medina County line , a distance of 13 @.@ 8 miles ( 22 @.@ 2 km ) . The highway gained a 0 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 16 km ) spur connection to Loop 13 ( present @-@ day I @-@ 410 ) in 1956 . The following year , FM 1957 was extended to its present western terminus , at FM 471 near Rio Medina . This added 5 @.@ 3 miles ( 8 @.@ 5 km ) to the highway . In 1988 , the entire routing along Culebra Road was transferred to the newly created FM 3487 . The Texas Department of Transportation ( TxDOT ) started defining urban roads in 1995 , at which time the segment of FM 1957 east of Loop 1604 , measuring 5 @.@ 4 miles ( 8 @.@ 7 km ) , was transferred to the newly defined UR 1957 . Despite the change in legal definition , UR 1957 continues to be signed as FM 1957 . FM 3487 was removed from the state highway system on December 18 , 2014 . = = Junction list = =
= Fagernes Airport , Leirin = Fagernes Airport , Leirin ( Norwegian : Fagernes lufthavn , Leirin ; IATA : VDB , ICAO : ENFG ) serves Fagernes , in the municipality of Nord @-@ Aurdal , Oppland county , Norway . It also serves the surrounding valleys of Valdres , Hallingdal and Gudbrandsdal in Southern Norway , 190 kilometres ( 120 mi ) from Oslo . Opened in 1987 , it is owned and operated by state @-@ owned Avinor . The airport is 822 metres ( 2 @,@ 697 ft ) above sea level , and has a 2 @,@ 049 @-@ metre ( 6 @,@ 722 ft ) runway . It provides a regional service for the local population to Oslo , subsidized by the Ministry of Transport , as well as charter services during winter serving the nearby ski resorts . In 2014 , the airport had 6 @,@ 393 passengers . The airport was originally planned as a conventional regional airport , but during its construction it was redesigned to accommodate larger jet aircraft . Originally owned by six local municipalities , it was taken over by the state in 1996 . Norsk Air started operations in 1987 , but terminated them the following year . Coast Air introduced state @-@ subsidized services in 1990 , and continued until the contract was won by Teddy Air in 1996 . From 2000 the airport was served by Guard Air , but following their bankruptcy in 2001 , services were taken over by Widerøe for six months , when Arctic Air won a one @-@ year contract . Coast Air resumed the service from 2003 to 2008 , when they went bankrupt . Air Norway then operated services for one year , pending DOT LT 's take over in 2009 . = = Operations = = Charter services are provided during the winter season , serving the wide range of ski resorts in the area . During the winter of 2010 / 11 and 2011 / 12 , weekly services are provided by Thomas Cook Airlines using an Airbus A320 , on behalf of the British tour operator Neilson , serving Gatwick - Fagernes on Sundays in the period of December 19 until April 24 . = = Facilities = = Fagernes is an international airport with a 1 @,@ 800 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 19 @,@ 000 sq ft ) terminal building which includes immigration and customs clearing facilities , a self @-@ serve cafeteria , duty @-@ free store and several car rentals . Parking is free , and there is a shuttle service to Fagernes town center which coordinates with all scheduled services to Oslo . The bus leaves the town center 50 minutes before each departure . The airport is closed on Saturdays . The asphalt paved runway is 2 @,@ 049 by 45 metres ( 6 @,@ 722 ft × 148 ft ) , without a taxiway . The apron has standings for three A320 / 737 @-@ size jets , which allows charter aircraft up to the size of Airbus A321 and Boeing 757 to use the airport . = = History = = Plans for an airport at Fagernes were initiated in 1975 , and approved by Parliament in 1984 , along with three other regional airports , at Rørvik , Mosjøen and Førde Airport , Bringeland . Construction started in 1985 , but plans were changed in 1986 , when local authorities decided to build a longer runway to allow charter flights . The nearby Geilo Airport , Dagali , a two @-@ hour drive away , had already made a similar decision , and was in the process of extending its own runway . The airport opened on 31 October 1987 . The state had initially paid 60 % of the NOK 29 @.@ 3 million investments for the 800 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) version of the airport , and the rest was financed by municipal and county grants . The increased cost of building a longer runway was estimated at NOK 59 million , financed by loans and municipal grants , plus a NOK 10 million investment from Dansk Folkeferie . The airport was owned by Valdres Lufthavn A / S , a privately held limited company with six municipalities as its principal shareholders . Following the airport 's establishment , the Norwegian State Railways ' Valdres Line was closed in 1989 . By 1988 , building costs had increased from NOK 88 to 131 million . The municipalities had co @-@ signed for a foreign loan , and were forced to pay NOK 3 @.@ 5 million annually just in interest , in addition to the operating cost of the airport ; these were aggravated by not only the loss of the sole scheduled service , but also considerably less charter traffic than estimated . In 1990 , the airport company was forced to refinance , and NOK 61 of 85 million in dept was refinanced , and the obligations transferred from the airport company to the municipalities and the county . However , by 1991 , passenger numbers were above 20 @,@ 000 , three quarters coming from charter traffic . On 1 January 1996 , Fagernes Airport was nationalized , along with 25 other regional airports , and put under the control of the Norwegian Airport Authority ( now Avinor ) . Following the closure of Geilo Airport , Dagali in 2003 , Fagernes experienced an increase in charter traffic . = = = Operators = = = Norsk Air started a route from Fagernes to Oslo Airport , Fornebu , and Bergen Airport , Flesland , on 4 November 1987 , using Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia aircraft . The route turned out to be unprofitable , and was terminated on 1 June 1988 , after the company had lost NOK 5 million . About 4 @,@ 500 passengers were using the airport each year , compared to the 120 @,@ 000 carried annually by the Valdresekpressen coach service on the 190 kilometres ( 120 mi ) to Oslo . Local politicians contacted Widerøe to discuss the possibility of introducing scheduled services , but the airline stated that it would only fly if it was granted subsidies . An agreement for the provision of subsidies on services to Oslo and Bergen was not reached with the Ministry of Transport until 1990 . The state agreed to provide NOK 4 @.@ 5 million , with the municipalities providing another NOK 2 @.@ 6 million , and Oppland County Municipality NOK 2 million . The county and municipalities were allowed to reduce their subsidies in the event that passenger numbers increased . Although initially planned to be introduced in January 1990 , Widerøe later dropped out , and the contract was awarded to Coast Air , who began operating on 3 September 1990 , using a de Havilland Canada Twin Otter aircraft . The deal was the most expensive subsidy for regional aviation in the country ; while the national average was NOK 156 , the Fagernes route cost the authorities NOK 2 @,@ 000 per passenger . Coast Air continued to provide a service until 1 August 1996 , when Fagernes became a trial for the use of public service obligations for regional aviation in Norway . The first contract was won by Teddy Air , to serve both Oslo and Bergen . The contract agreed a subsidy of NOK 23 @.@ 7 million for three years , 15 % less than Coast Air had been receiving . Teddy Air operated until 1 August 1999 , when Widerøe took over using de Havilland Canada Dash 8 @-@ 100 aircraft . At the same time , the route from Fagernes to Bergen was dropped from the schedule . Widerøe 's contract lasted only eight months , until 1 April 2000 , when Guard Air , who bid NOK 6 @.@ 93 million per year , won the tender , and started flying with Dornier 228 aircraft . On 8 October 2001 , Guard Air filed for bankruptcy , and the ministry signed an intermediate contract with Widerøe to fly the route . The subsequent tender was won by Arctic Air , who continued operation until 31 March 2003 , using Dornier 228 aircraft . From 1 April 2003 , the contract was taken over by Coast Air , who put Jetstream 31 aircraft into use . The same company won the contract again in 2006 . Following Coast Air 's bankruptcy on 23 January 2008 , the route was taken over by Air Norway on 4 February , after an extraordinary tender , using Fairchild Metroliner aircraft . From 1 April 2009 , the service wil be provided by DOT LT , who operate Saab 340 aircraft . The services are subsidized by the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications , based on three @-@ year public service obligation tenders . In March 2016 the route to Oslo was closed down . The operator was Air Norway at this time . This leaves charter flights as the only traffic , and big uncertainty whether the airport should be closed down or not . The road travel time to Oslo Airport is around 2 hours 30 minutes , which is planned to be shortened by 15 minutes by 2025 . = = Airlines and destinations = =
= Ken Barnes ( footballer ) = Kenneth Herbert Barnes ( 16 March 1929 – 13 July 2010 ) was an English footballer . He played as a half back for Manchester City and Wrexham . On the books of Birmingham City as a youth , Barnes began his football career at amateur level . Upon completion of his national service in 1947 he joined semi @-@ pro Stafford Rangers . A transfer to Manchester City in 1950 meant Barnes turned professional , but his pro career had a slow start , making only one first team appearance in four years . He broke into the first team in 1954 , flourishing as part of the tactical system known as the Revie Plan . During this period he played in two consecutive FA Cup finals , as a loser in 1955 and a winner in 1956 . After making 283 appearances for Manchester City he joined Wrexham as player @-@ manager in 1961 , guiding them to promotion in his first season . Barnes returned to Manchester City in 1970 , and over more than two decades filled a variety of coaching roles , including overseeing the development of the youth team which won the 1986 FA Youth Cup . He died on 13 July 2010 . = = Early career = = Barnes was born in the Small Heath area of Birmingham , in the shadow of St Andrew 's , the home stadium of Birmingham City . Support for Birmingham City ran in the family ; his uncle played for the club in the 1920s . In 1943 , aged 14 , he began work at the Post Office . He played football for the works team , and quickly received an invitation to play for Moor Green , one of the strongest amateur teams in the area . His performances for Moor Green resulted in interest from Birmingham City , and Barnes became part of their junior team , Birmingham City Colts . Barnes worked at the Post Office during the day , trained with Moor Green in the evening , and played for Birmingham City Colts at the weekend . However , the Colts stopped selecting Barnes after a clash of matches , in which Barnes chose to play for a local team instead of the Colts . Barnes then resumed playing for Moor Green . After a few months Barnes gained a second opportunity with a professional club , joining the youth ranks at Bolton Wanderers . As with when he played for Birmingham , he trained with Moor Green and played for Bolton 's youth team at the weekend . Upon turning 18 , Barnes was called up for national service , and was based with the RAF at Stafford . He continued to play for Bolton when circumstances permitted it , but when the club made a formal request for his services the RAF refused . Upon completion of his national service Barnes joined semi @-@ pro Stafford Rangers . He made his debut against Newport County on 14 June 1947 , and continued to play for the club for the next three years . = = Manchester City = = Barnes joined Manchester City after a £ 750 move from non @-@ League Stafford Rangers on 6 May 1950 . He did not feature in the first team on a regular basis for several years – his debut , against Derby County on 5 January 1952 was the only appearance he made in his first four years at the club . In the 1953 – 54 season Barnes was playing for the Manchester City reserve team . Inspired by the Hungary team which had beaten England 6 – 3 the previous year , the reserves began using a tactical system in which Johnny Williamson was used as a deep @-@ lying centre @-@ forward . Barnes played as an attacking half @-@ back in a similar vein to József Bozsik . Using the system the reserves achieved a lengthy unbeaten run . At the start of the following season Manchester City manager Les McDowall decided to try the system at first team level , using Don Revie in the centre @-@ forward role . Henceforth the system became known as The Revie Plan . The opening match of the season resulted in a 5 – 0 defeat at the hands of Preston North End . Revie opined that the system required attacking half @-@ backs to be successful , and that City 's half backs , John McTavish in particular , were too defensive . To that end Barnes was picked for the following match in place of McTavish . City beat Sheffield United 5 – 2 , and Barnes became an integral part of the team , playing all but one of the matches in the remainder of the season . However , he was not enamoured by the attention given to the Revie Plan by the press , describing it as " bollocks " . During Barnes ' first full season in the first team Manchester City enjoyed a successful run in the FA Cup . As a top @-@ flight team Manchester City entered the competition in the third round , facing Derby County . Barnes scored the opening goal in a 3 – 1 win , his first goal in professional football . A derby victory against Manchester United and a win against Luton Town followed , setting up a quarter @-@ final against his boyhood heroes Birmingham City . Single goal victories against Birmingham and Sunderland gave City a place in the final , where they faced Newcastle United . However , hampered by the loss of Jimmy Meadows to injury after 18 minutes , City were beaten 3 – 1 . Manchester City reached the cup final again the following season , Barnes playing every match of the cup run . Manchester City beat Birmingham City 3 – 1 , Barnes having a hand in the second goal . The final is most well known for being the match where goalkeeper Bert Trautmann continued play after breaking his neck . By the late 1950s Barnes was one of the senior players in the side , and succeeded Roy Paul as captain when Paul retired in 1957 . During the 1957 – 58 season Barnes became the third player to score a hat @-@ trick of penalties in an English top @-@ flight match , as part of a 6 – 2 defeat of Everton . At this time Barnes was the club 's primary penalty taker , helping him to score 11 goals over the course of the season . In his later years at Manchester City , Barnes role as captain meant he had become a strong influence on younger players . A particularly notable example was Denis Law , who joined the club in 1960 , the pair becoming lifelong friends . Barnes never played international football , but was described by Denis Law as " the best uncapped wing @-@ half ever to have played in English football " . The closest he came to an international cap was being named as a reserve for a match against Wales in October 1957 . In the dressing room Barnes had a reputation as a practical joker , with Bert Trautmann a particular target for teasing . Known as " Beaky " to his teammates , Barnes was one of the chief organisers of social activities on away trips , along with Roy Paul . In eleven years at Manchester City Barnes made 283 appearances in all competitions , scoring 19 goals . = = Management and coaching = = By 1961 , age meant Barnes was no longer an automatic first team selection , so he sought a move into management . An opportunity arose at Wrexham in May 1961 , and Barnes was appointed player @-@ manager . In his first season the club gained promotion to the Third Division . During his tenure he oversaw the club 's record victory , a 10 – 1 defeat of Hartlepool United . The club finished ninth in 1962 – 63 , but were relegated to the Fourth Division the following season . Barnes remained at the club until 1965 , when he resigned his post . By the time of his departure from the club he had made 132 appearances , scoring 24 goals . After leaving Wrexham Barnes took a job outside football , working in sales for WalkerSteel Owened by future Blackburn Rovers Benefactor Jack Walker . However , before long he received an offer to become manager of Witton Albion on a part @-@ time basis . At Witton he created a team from a mixture of promising youngsters and ageing veterans . Players he signed included future European Cup winner Chris Nicholl and former greats Dennis Viollet and Bobby Johnstone . On 27 August 1970 , Barnes curtailed a brief spell as manager of Bangor City to return to Manchester City as a member of the coaching staff . When Malcolm Allison departed the club in 1973 , Barnes was offered the role of caretaker manager , but , soured by his experiences at Wrexham , he turned it down . Instead he became assistant to the eventual managerial appointee Johnny Hart . Seven months later ill health forced Hart to step down . In the reorganisation that followed the appointment of Hart 's replacement Ron Saunders , Barnes became chief scout , a role he retained for two decades until he was sacked by Peter Reid in 1991 . In his role he oversaw the development of a large number of successful young players , including Paul Lake , David White and Steve Redmond , the stars of the Manchester City youth team which won the 1986 FA Youth Cup . In 1994 he returned to the club at the invitation of Francis Lee , who had recently become chairman . Barnes served in a part @-@ time scouting position for a further six years . Since 2000 , Barnes had been involved in a youth football initiative in Malaysia ; Ken Barnes Soccer Skills . In 2004 , Barnes was elected to Manchester City 's Hall of Fame , and in 2005 to Wrexham Supporters ' Association 's Hall of Fame . Married with six children , he died in July 2010 from pneumonia aged 81 . One of his sons , Peter Barnes , was also a professional footballer , who played for England , both Manchester clubs , West Bromwich Albion and Leeds United . = = Honours = = Manchester City FA Cup : 1955 – 56 = = Managerial statistics = =
= The Sound of Girls Aloud : The Greatest Hits = The Sound of Girls Aloud : The Greatest Hits is the first greatest hits album of British girl group Girls Aloud . It was first released in the United Kingdom through a limited edition on 23 October 2006 , while the standard version was released on 30 October 2006 . The Sound of Girls Aloud features twelve of the group 's singles , two of which reached number one in the UK . The album features three new tracks , with " Something Kinda Ooooh " and " I Think We 're Alone Now " being released as singles and peaking inside the top five on the UK Singles Chart . The Sound of Girls Aloud received positive reviews from critics , who praised it as a reflection of the group 's success . The album entered the UK Albums Chart at number one , making it Girls Aloud 's first album to do so . It also peaked at number nine on the Irish Albums Chart . In 2009 , the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) recognised The Sound of Girls Aloud as one of the nine albums that year to sell at least 1 million units in Europe . = = Release and content = = On 6 October 2006 , Girls Aloud announced that they would release their first compilation album , following rumours that they would split after Chemistry ( 2005 ) . A limited edition of The Sound of Girls Aloud was released in the United Kingdom on 23 October . The limited edition included a bonus disc with alternate edits of the group 's previous singles " No Good Advice " and " Wake Me Up " , and unreleased tracks , including a cover of " Sacred Trust " , originally recorded by fellow Popstars : The Rivals contestants One True Voice . The bonus disc was also going to include a cover of Chris Isaak 's " Wicked Game " , however , the track did not make onto the final track listing . The standard version of the compilation album was released the following week , on 30 October . The regular track listing includes three new tracks : " Something Kinda Ooooh " , " Money " and a cover of Tommy James and the Shondells 's 1967 single " I Think We 're Alone Now " . Originally , a cover of " What A Feeling " from the film Flashdance was included on the tracklist instead of " I Think We 're Alone Now " , but Girls Aloud contacted the record label three days before the album was manufactured to say they would rather record the Tommy James and the Shondells song . The group recorded the song the following morning and the album was mastered three days later . Apart from the new tracks , the album contains twelve of the group 's previous singles , two of which reached number one in the UK : " Sound of the Underground " and " I 'll Stand by You " . According to Irish bandmate Nadine Coyle , the first draft of the artwork included only the Union Jack , but she demanded the addition of the flag of Ireland . However , the flag appears upside @-@ down on the cover . = = Reception = = = = = Critical response = = = The Sound of Girls Aloud received positive reviews from critics . Talia Kraines of BBC Music called the album " a journey through the most exciting and daring pop music of recent times " and went on to add that " this reality band has surpassed all expectations , " while Paul Scott of Stylus Magazine described it as " an irreverent party through the last 30 odd years of pop , taking inspiration from the most unexpected of places " and hailed Girls Aloud as " the finest singles band Britain [ sic ] has produced this decade . " Allmusic reviewer Andy Kellman noted the album for making " an ideal introduction " to the group , and said that the three new songs would most likely " keep the group 's remarkable streak of dominance afloat . " Dan Cairns of The Times gave the album 4 out of 5 stars , stating that Girls Aloud 's personality flows " through unimpeachable , sugar @-@ rush pop singles " such as " Something Kinda Ooooh " , " The Show " and " Sound of the Underground " . Pitchfork Media critic Tim Finney described the album as " a whirlwind trip through bizarre but lovable pop gadgetry that may leave the uninitiated reeling . " He complimented the songs ' " deathless hooks and multi @-@ genre pyrotechnics " and noted that they are diverse , varying from different genres while embracing " elements of electroclash , big beat , and even skiffle . " Leonie Cooper of The Guardian characterised the album as " slick ... near @-@ faultless high @-@ octane pop all the way " ; however , she felt that the ballads were not really necessary , as " Girls Aloud sound far more exciting when they 're simply having fun " . = = = Chart performance = = = The Sound of Girls Aloud became Girls Aloud 's first album to debut at number one in the United Kingdom , and stayed on the UK Albums Chart for a total of 38 weeks . On 24 November 2007 , Mark Sutherland of Billboard reported that the album had already sold a total of 767 @,@ 000 units in the country . On the week ending 2 November 2006 , the album debuted at number 13 on the Irish Albums Chart , rising to a new peak of number nine the following week . It was certified Platinum by the Irish Recorded Music Association , denoting shipments of 15 @,@ 000 units in the country alone . On 29 January 2009 , the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) recognised The Sound of Girls Aloud as one of the nine albums that year to sell at least 1 million units in Europe . As of 21 March 2013 , the album has sold over 1 @,@ 2 million units in Europe . = = Promotion = = = = = Singles = = = " Something Kinda Ooooh " was released on 16 October 2006 as the lead single from The Sound of Girls Aloud , one week prior to the album 's release . The track debuted at number five on the UK Singles Chart on download sales alone , before reaching its peak position at number three on the week ending 4 November 2006 . The accompanying music video was directed by Stuart Gosling and produced by Jon Adams , and features the group " singing and dancing glamorously " . " I Think We 're Alone Now " was chosen as the second and final single from the album , being released on 18 December . The song peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart during Christmas week . The music video was directed by Alex Hemming and Nick Collett , and portrays Girls Aloud in an attempt to rob a Las Vegas casino . = = = Tour = = = In 2007 , Girls Aloud went on a tour of the same name to further promote the album . The announcement of the tour and the recording of their fourth studio album helped to stop rumours that the band were splitting up , which had surfaced due to the release of their greatest hits album . The show received mixed reviews from music critics , with Dave Simpson of The Guardian saying that the group " fare best when they are playing their own songs , " while a critic for Daily Mail deemed it the group 's " raunchiest tour ever [ ... ] there was singing and dancing , but the stand out element of Girls Aloud 's latest tour : sex appeal a @-@ go @-@ go . " = = Track listing = = All tracks were produced by Xenomania . Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Sound of Girls Aloud : The Greatest Hits . = = Personnel = = Credits adapted from Allmusic . = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = =
= Ronnie Rocket = Ronnie Rocket is an unfinished film project written by David Lynch , who also intended to direct it . Begun after the success of Lynch 's 1977 film Eraserhead , Ronnie Rocket was shelved after Lynch felt he would be unable to find financial backing for the project . He instead sought out an existing script on which to base his next film , settling on what would become 1980 's The Elephant Man . Ronnie Rocket was to feature many of the elements which have since come to be seen as Lynch 's hallmarks ; including industrial art direction , 1950s popular culture and physical deformity . The script featured a three @-@ foot tall man with control over electricity ; Lynch first met Michael J. Anderson when tentatively casting for this role , and later cast him in Twin Peaks and Mulholland Drive as a result . = = Overview = = Ronnie Rocket concerned the story of a detective seeking to enter a mysterious second dimension , aided by his ability to stand on one leg . He is being obstructed on this quest by a strange landscape of odd rooms and a threatening train ; while being stalked by the " Donut Men " , who wield electricity as a weapon . In addition to the detective 's story , the film was to show the tale of Ronald d 'Arte , a teenage dwarf , who suffers a surgical mishap which leaves him dependent on being plugged into an electrical supply at regular intervals ; this dependence grants him an affinity over electricity which he can use to produce music or cause destruction . The boy names himself Ronnie Rocket and becomes a rock star , befriending a tap @-@ dancer named Electra @-@ Cute . The film was to make use of several themes that have since become recurring elements within David Lynch 's works , with a write @-@ up for The A.V. Club describing its contents as " idealized 1950s culture , industrial design , midgets , [ and ] physical deformity " . In addition , the film features two separate but connected worlds , another hallmark of Lynch 's writings . The film 's art direction would have featured a heavily industrial backdrop , setting the action against an " oil slick , smokestack , steel @-@ steam @-@ soot , fire @-@ sparks and electrical arcs realm " , similar to the direction ultimately taken in the depiction of Victorian England in The Elephant Man and the planet Giedi Prime in Dune . Although Lynch 's first two feature @-@ length films were shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , he had hoped to film Ronnie Rocket in color , inspired by the works of French film @-@ maker Jacques Tati . Lynch planned to experiment for some time in order to find the right balance and application of color for the film . = = Background = = After releasing 1977 's Eraserhead , a black @-@ and @-@ white surrealist film and his début feature @-@ length production , Lynch began work on the screenplay for Ronnie Rocket . Lynch and his agent Marty Michaelson , of William Morris Endeavor , initially attempted to find financial backing for the project . They met with one film studio on the matter , with Lynch describing the film to them as being " about electricity and a three @-@ foot guy with red hair " ; the studio never got in touch again . Lynch also met Stuart Cornfeld during this time . Cornfeld had enjoyed Eraserhead and was interested in producing Ronnie Rocket ; Cornfeld was working for Mel Brooks and Brooksfilms at the time , and when the two realized that Ronnie Rocket was unlikely to find sufficient financing to be produced , Lynch asked to see some already @-@ written scripts to work from for his next film instead . Cornfeld found four scripts he felt Lynch would be interested in , but on hearing the name of the first , the director decided his next project would be The Elephant Man . Lynch would return to Ronnie Rocket after each of his films , intending it at different stages as the follow @-@ up not only to Eraserhead or The Elephant Man , but also Dune , Blue Velvet and Twin Peaks : Fire Walk With Me . After producing The Elephant Man , Lynch had planned to cast Dexter Fletcher in the title role . In 1987 , after having released Blue Velvet , Lynch once again attempted to pursue Ronnie Rocket . While scouting actors for the eponymous role , Lynch met Michael J. Anderson , whose work in short films the director had previously seen . As a direct result of meeting Anderson during this time , Lynch would cast the actor in a recurring role in the television series Twin Peaks , with his first appearance coming in 1990 's " Episode 2 " . Anderson would also appear in Lynch 's 1990 short film Industrial Symphony No. 1 , and the 2001 film Mulholland Drive . Lynch also visited northern England to scout a possible filming location ; however , he found that the industrial cities he had hoped to use had become too modernized to fit his intended vision . The project has also suffered setbacks due to the bankruptcy of several potential backers ; both Dino De Laurentiis 's De Laurentiis Entertainment Group and Francis Ford Coppola 's American Zoetrope were attached to the project at different times ; both production companies went bankrupt before work could begin . Lynch had stayed with Coppola in the latter 's home in Napa County , California , while Coppola and musician Sting read the script several times ; however the failure of 1982 's One from the Heart forced Zoetrope to file for bankruptcy . = = Legacy = = Having been temporarily unable to begin production on the film for some time , due to De Laurentiis owning the rights , Lynch stopped actively pursuing Ronnie Rocket as a viability in the early 1990s . However , he has never officially abandoned the project ; frequently referring to it in interviews as " hibernating " . The director has expressed interest in filming the project in the same manner as Eraserhead , using a small crew , building the sets himself and living on them during the length of the production . He has also claimed that he will revisit the film when he is at the stage in his career " when I don 't really care what happens , except that the film is finished " . Speaking of the film 's difficulty in attracting financing , Fletcher has said " I should imagine that the big money heads at whatever studio it was couldn 't get their brains round it at all . It 's fine for the artist to read and enjoy , but for accountants it was probably a very different proposition . But that 's David Lynch all over in a lot of ways " . The Guardian 's Danny Leigh has compared the script 's reputation among film fans to those of Sergei Eisenstein 's unproduced adaptation of An American Tragedy and Michael Powell 's unmade adaptation of The Tempest . Leigh recalled having read a photocopied version of the script in the early 1990s , and felt that it " might have aged far better than Wild at Heart " . Film @-@ maker Jonathan Caouette has expressed interest in reviving the project , though he believes Lynch will " do it someday " .
= The Wedding Dance = The Wedding Dance ( sometimes known as The Dance Village ) is a 1566 oil @-@ on @-@ panel painting by the Flemish artist Pieter Bruegel the Elder . Owned by the museum of the Detroit Institute of Arts in Detroit , Michigan , the work was discovered by its director in England in 1930 , and brought to Detroit . It is believed to be one of a set of three Bruegel works from around the same time , The Wedding Dance , The Peasant Wedding ( 1567 ) and The Peasant Dance ( 1569 ) . The painting depicts 125 wedding guests . As was customary in the Renaissance period , the brides wore black and men wore codpieces . Voyeurism is depicted throughout the entire art work ; dancing was tabooed at the time by the authorities and the church , and the painting can be seen as both a critique and comic depiction of a stereotypical oversexed , overindulgent , peasant class of the times . = = Background = = Pieter Bruegel the Elder completed The Wedding Dance in 1566 . It is believed to have been lost for many years , until discovered at a sale in London in 1930 by William R. Valentiner , the director of the Museum Detroit Institute of Arts at the time . Valentiner paid $ 35 @,@ 075 for The Wedding Dance through a city appropriation . It is still owned by the museum . The Peasant Wedding ( 1567 ) and The Peasant Dance ( 1569 ) are also by Bruegel which share the same wedding theme and elements and were painted in the same period in Bruegel 's later years . They are considered to be a trilogy of works by Bruegel . In all three of the paintings , there are pipers playing the pijpzak ( bagpipes ) , they also exude pride and vanity , for example in The Peasant Dance the man seated next to the pijpzak player is wearing a peacock feather in his hat . Robert L. Bonn , an author , described these trilogy of works as " superb examples " of anthropological paintings , and states that " in three genre paintings Bruegel stands in marked contrast both to painters of his day and many others who followed . " Thomas Craven summarises The Wedding Dance as " One of several celebrations of the joys of gluttony painted by Brueghel with bursting vitality " . Walter S. Gibson , an art historian , also views the paintings as a " sermon condemning gluttony " and " an allegory of the Church abandoned by Christ . " = = Description and themes = = The popular painting shows a group of 125 wedding guests wearing clothing from the times , presented in the canvas in an apparently chaotic way in an outdoor party surrounded by trees . The brides wore black as it was the Renaissance period and the men wore codpieces , which were an important part of their clothing at the time . Voyeurism ( spying on people engaged in intimate behaviours ) is shown throughout the entire work amongst almost all of the people . Each guest 's positioning in the painting has its own meaning . In the foreground there is a dancer wearing the colours of that time period and there are many peasants in that area . In the middle there is the bride dancing with an older man , her father . On the right of the work , there is a musician playing on a pijpzak , who is watching the dance from the side . Judging by the writing utensils hanging on his belt , he is a writer or possibly a middle @-@ class painter . Behind him is a hanging tablecloth decorated with a crown and beneath it is the bride 's table . Before her table , money collectors can be seen digging trenches while the wedding guests sit down and eat . The movements of the people show that their behaviour is inappropriate or a caricature of rustic buffoonery , but its representation of fertility and reproduction is presented in a joyful manner . Indeed , the painting reflects a degree of ambiguity in that it can both be seen as an attack on the stereotypical oversexed behaviour of the lower orders as well as evoking a comical picture . In the sixteenth century , when this was painted , dance was subject to a strict code and regarded by the authorities and church as a social evil . People could not swing their arms or legs or laugh too loud , as that would be considered a type of rudeness to many people . The painting therefore " expresses the peasants ' liberation from the stricter limits of upper classes " by failing to adhere to the expected social standards of the times . The author of The Theme of Music in Northern Renaissance Banquet Scenes , Robert Quist , has said that the painting was part of a series of Seven Deadly Sins and Virtues and that the paintings " attest to [ Bruegel 's ] moral devotions " . He says " While dancing may appear innocuous or natural for peasants , it poses a palpable threat to the human soul . Its [ dancing ] usefulness in characterizing the peasantry as wild and unruly undoubtedly derives from the moral opprobrium in which dancing was held by religious and civil authoriries alike . Ray Brock , on the contrary , has described Bruegel as a " hard @-@ drinking , hard @-@ living Flemish pleasant who packed his forty @-@ four years of life bursting with merrymaking and furious painting — which he regarded as sheer joy " . This indicates that Bruegel , despite having a moral compass and being acutely aware of the expected standards imposed by the church state at the time , was likely to have enjoyed similar festivities in his own life .
= Europa and the Pirate Twins = " Europa and the Pirate Twins " is a song by English artist Thomas Dolby , featured on his 1982 album The Golden Age of Wireless . Written by Dolby , who produced it alongside Tim Friese @-@ Greene , the song was released as a single on 3 October 1981 . The song , described as a " synth pop classic " , was inspired by the atmosphere of World War II , and features a guest appearance by XTC 's Andy Partridge . The single reached a peak position of 48 in the United Kingdom , Dolby 's home country , as well as charting in the United States and Canada . = = Composition = = Taken from the album The Golden Age of Wireless , " Europa and the Pirate Twins " was written by Thomas Dolby , who produced it in collaboration with Tim Friese @-@ Greene . The song opens with a " bluesy " harmonica solo , performed by Andy Partridge of the band XTC . The song makes use of electronic drums , and features a " high @-@ register " synthesiser line throughout . The song 's main musical hook is a " Bo Diddley beat " , a repetitive rhythm common in several musical genres . Drowned in Sound 's Joseph Stannard has noted that " Europa and the Pirate Twins " is written with World War II as a strong influence , and that the song " emphasises the short distance between [ Dolby 's ] generation and the one which endured the last global conflict " . Dolby has described the song , along with the tone of the album , as reflecting " a sense of [ a ] relationship that 's going on as being overwhelmed by something on a grander level " , adding that " there 's a very strong wartime atmosphere to it " . The song was described as " a semi @-@ autobiographical romp " in the liner notes for Dolby 's 2009 greatest hits album The Singular Thomas Dolby , the release of which was overseen by the singer . " Europa and the Pirate Twins " received a " sequel " on Dolby 's 1992 album Astronauts & Heretics , in the song " Eastern Bloc " ; which has been described by Audio magazine as " appealingly faithful " to the original . = = Release = = " Europa and the Pirate Twins " was released as a single in the United Kingdom on 3 October , 1981 . It was Dolby 's first major label release , taken from his EMI @-@ released début album The Golden Age of Wireless . The song spent three weeks in the UK Singles Chart , reaching a peak position of 48 . The song first appeared in RPM magazine 's Canadian singles chart on 18 June , 1983 , debuting at number 50 . It eventually reached a peak position of 45 in that chart . The song debuted in the United States ' Billboard Hot 100 singles chart on 2 July 1983 , spending five weeks there and peaking at number 67 . It also reached a peak position of 37 in the Billboard Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks charts in 1982 . The song 's release was accompanied by a music video , blending together several elements of footage . These included footage of the Ziegfeld Follies , Dolby interacting with a futuristic " telecomputer " , and black @-@ and @-@ white shots of a Dolby and a shrouded female figure by the coast . The video was written and directed by Dolby . = = Reception = = " Europa and the Pirate Twins " has been described by Peter Buckley , in his book The Rough Guide to Rock , as " showcas [ ing ] Dolby 's trademark combination of the charming and the gimmicky " . Writing for Allrovi , Stewart Mason described the song as " a hyperactive synth pop classic " , whose " every nook and cranny is stuffed with some sort of ear @-@ grabbing hook " . Mason added that the song " pack [ s ] a remarkable amount of detail into two short verses and a bridge " and " resolves with a soaring , bittersweet chorus " . Writing about the song 's music video , Dennis Shin of PopMatters described Dolby as being on the " leading edge " in the medium , highlighting the videos for " She Blinded Me with Science " and " Hyperactive ! " in addition to describing that for " Europa and the Pirate Twins " as being " one of his lesser @-@ known and unsung videos " .
= J. D. Salinger = Jerome David Salinger ( / ˈsælᵻndʒər / ; January 1 , 1919 – January 27 , 2010 ) was an American writer who won acclaim early in life . He led a very private life for more than a half @-@ century . He published his final original work in 1965 and gave his last interview in 1980 . Salinger was raised in Manhattan and began writing short stories while in secondary school . Several were published in Story magazine in the early 1940s before he began serving in World War II . In 1948 , his critically acclaimed story " A Perfect Day for Bananafish " appeared in The New Yorker magazine , which became home to much of his later work . In 1951 , his novel The Catcher in the Rye was an immediate popular success . His depiction of adolescent alienation and loss of innocence in the protagonist Holden Caulfield was influential , especially among adolescent readers . The novel remains widely read and controversial , selling around 250 @,@ 000 copies a year . The success of The Catcher in the Rye led to public attention and scrutiny . Salinger became reclusive , publishing new work less frequently . He followed Catcher with a short story collection , Nine Stories ( 1953 ) ; a volume containing a novella and a short story , Franny and Zooey ( 1961 ) ; and a volume containing two novellas , Raise High the Roof Beam , Carpenters and Seymour : An Introduction ( 1963 ) . His last published work , a novella entitled " Hapworth 16 , 1924 " , appeared in The New Yorker on June 19 , 1965 . Afterward , Salinger struggled with unwanted attention , including a legal battle in the 1980s with biographer Ian Hamilton and the release in the late 1990s of memoirs written by two people close to him : Joyce Maynard , an ex @-@ lover ; and Margaret Salinger , his daughter . In 1996 , a small publisher announced a deal with Salinger to publish " Hapworth 16 , 1924 " in book form , but amid the ensuing publicity the release was indefinitely delayed . He made headlines around the globe in June 2009 when he filed a lawsuit against another writer for copyright infringement resulting from that writer 's use of one of the characters from The Catcher in the Rye . Salinger died of natural causes on January 27 , 2010 , at his home in Cornish , New Hampshire . In November 2013 , three unpublished stories by Salinger were briefly posted online . One of the stories , " The Ocean Full of Bowling Balls " , is said to be a prequel to The Catcher in the Rye . = = Early life and experiences = = Jerome David Salinger was born in New York City , on New Year 's Day , 1919 . His father , Sol Salinger , sold kosher cheese , and was from a Jewish family of Lithuanian descent , his father having been the rabbi for the Adath Jeshurun congregation in Louisville , Kentucky . Salinger 's mother , Marie ( née Jillich ) , was born in Atlantic , Iowa , of Scottish , German , and Irish descent , but changed her name to Miriam and considered herself Jewish after marrying Salinger 's father . Salinger did not learn that his mother was not of Jewish ancestry until just after he celebrated becoming a bar mitzvah . His only sibling was his older sister Doris ( 1911 – 2001 ) . In youth , Salinger attended public schools on the West Side of Manhattan . Then in 1932 , the family moved to Park Avenue , and Salinger was enrolled at the McBurney School , a nearby private school . At McBurney , he managed the fencing team , wrote for the school newspaper and appeared in plays . He " showed an innate talent for drama " , though his father opposed the idea of J.D. ' s becoming an actor . Salinger had trouble fitting in at his new school and took measures to conform , such as calling himself Jerry . ( His family called him Sonny . ) His parents then enrolled him at Valley Forge Military Academy in Wayne , Pennsylvania . Salinger began writing stories " under the covers [ at night ] , with the aid of a flashlight " . Salinger was the literary editor of the class yearbook , Cross Sabres . He also participated in the Glee Club , Aviation Club , French Club , and the Non @-@ Commissioned Officers Club . Salinger 's Valley Forge 201 file reveals that he was a " mediocre " student , and unlike the overachievement enjoyed by members of the Glass family he would go on to write about , his recorded IQ was far from that of a genius . He graduated in 1936 . Salinger started his freshman year at New York University in 1936 . He considered studying special education but dropped out the following spring . That fall , his father urged him to learn about the meat @-@ importing business , and he went to work at a company in Vienna , Austria . He left Austria one month before it was annexed by Nazi Germany on March 12 , 1938 . In the fall of 1938 , Salinger attended Ursinus College in Collegeville , Pennsylvania , and wrote a column called " skipped diploma " , which included movie reviews . He dropped out after one semester . In 1939 , Salinger attended a Columbia University School of General Studies evening writing class taught by Whit Burnett , longtime editor of Story magazine . According to Burnett , Salinger did not distinguish himself until a few weeks before the end of the second semester , at which point " he suddenly came to life " and completed three stories . Burnett told Salinger that his stories were skillful and accomplished , accepting " The Young Folks " , a vignette about several aimless youths , for publication in Story . Salinger 's debut short story was published in the magazine 's March – April 1940 issue . Burnett became Salinger 's mentor , and they corresponded for several years . = = World War II = = In 1942 , Salinger started dating Oona O 'Neill , daughter of the playwright Eugene O 'Neill . Despite finding the debutante self @-@ absorbed ( he confided to a friend that " Little Oona 's hopelessly in love with little Oona " ) , he called her often and wrote her long letters . Their relationship ended when Oona began seeing Charlie Chaplin , whom she eventually married . In late 1941 , Salinger briefly worked on a Caribbean cruise ship , serving as an activity director and possibly as a performer . The same year , Salinger began submitting short stories to The New Yorker . Seven of Salinger 's stories were rejected by the magazine that year , including " Lunch for Three " , " Monologue for a Watery Highball " , and " I Went to School with Adolf Hitler " . In December 1941 , however , the publication accepted " Slight Rebellion off Madison " , a Manhattan @-@ set story about a disaffected teenager named Holden Caulfield with " pre @-@ war jitters " . When Japan carried out the attack on Pearl Harbor that month , the story was rendered " unpublishable " ; it did not appear in the magazine until 1946 . In the spring of 1942 , several months after the United States entered World War II , Salinger was drafted into the army , wherein he saw combat with the 12th Infantry Regiment , 4th Infantry Division . He was present at Utah Beach on D @-@ Day , in the Battle of the Bulge , and the Battle of Hürtgen Forest . During the campaign from Normandy into Germany , Salinger arranged to meet with Ernest Hemingway , a writer who had influenced him and was then working as a war correspondent in Paris . Salinger was impressed with Hemingway 's friendliness and modesty , finding him more " soft " than his gruff public persona . Hemingway was impressed by Salinger 's writing and remarked : " Jesus , he has a helluva talent . " The two writers began corresponding ; Salinger wrote Hemingway in July 1946 that their talks were among his few positive memories of the war . Salinger added that he was working on a play about Holden Caulfield , the protagonist of his story " Slight Rebellion off Madison " , and hoped to play the part himself . Salinger was assigned to a counter @-@ intelligence division , for which he used his proficiency in French and German to interrogate prisoners of war . In April 1945 he entered a liberated concentration camp , probably one of Dachau 's sub @-@ camps . Salinger earned the rank of Staff Sergeant and served in five campaigns . Salinger 's experiences in the war affected him emotionally . He was hospitalized for a few weeks for combat stress reaction after Germany was defeated , and he later told his daughter : " You never really get the smell of burning flesh out of your nose entirely , no matter how long you live . " Both of his biographers speculate that Salinger drew upon his wartime experiences in several stories , such as " For Esmé — with Love and Squalor " , which is narrated by a traumatized soldier . Salinger continued to write while serving in the army , publishing several stories in slick magazines such as Collier 's and The Saturday Evening Post . He also continued to submit stories to The New Yorker , but with little success ; it rejected all of his submissions from 1944 to 1946 , a group of 15 poems in 1945 alone . = = Post @-@ war years = = After Germany 's defeat , Salinger signed up for a six @-@ month period of " Denazification " duty in Germany for the Counterintelligence Corps . He lived in Weissenburg and , soon after , married Sylvia Welter . He brought her to the United States in April 1946 , but the marriage fell apart after eight months and Sylvia returned to Germany . In 1972 , Salinger 's daughter Margaret was with him when he received a letter from Sylvia . He looked at the envelope , and without reading it , tore it apart . It was the first time he had heard from her since the breakup , but as Margaret put it , " when he was finished with a person , he was through with them . " In 1946 , Whit Burnett agreed to help Salinger publish a collection of his short stories through Story Press 's Lippincott Imprint . Titled The Young Folks , the collection was to consist of twenty stories — ten , like the title story and " Slight Rebellion off Madison " , were already in print ; ten were previously unpublished . Though Burnett implied the book would be published and even negotiated Salinger a $ 1 @,@ 000 advance on its sale , Lippincott overruled Burnett and rejected the book . Salinger blamed Burnett for the book 's failure to see print , and the two became estranged . By the late 1940s , Salinger had become an avid follower of Zen Buddhism , to the point that he " gave reading lists on the subject to his dates " and arranged a meeting with Buddhist scholar D. T. Suzuki . In 1947 , the author submitted a short story titled simply " The Bananafish " to The New Yorker . William Maxwell , the magazine 's fiction editor , was impressed enough with " the singular quality of the story " that the magazine asked Salinger to continue revising it . He spent a year reworking it with New Yorker editors and the magazine accepted the story , now titled " A Perfect Day for Bananafish " , and published it in the January 31 , 1948 issue . The magazine thereon offered Salinger a " first @-@ look " contract that allowed them right of first refusal on any future stories . The critical acclaim accorded " Bananafish " , coupled with problems Salinger had with stories being altered by the " slicks " , led him to publish almost exclusively in The New Yorker . " Bananafish " was also the first of Salinger 's published stories to feature the Glasses , a fictional family consisting of two retired vaudeville performers and their seven precocious children : Seymour , Buddy , Boo Boo , Walt , Waker , Zooey , and Franny . Salinger eventually published seven stories about the Glasses , developing a detailed family history and focusing particularly on Seymour , the brilliant but troubled eldest child . In the early 1940s , Salinger had confided in a letter to Whit Burnett that he was eager to sell the film rights to some of his stories in order to achieve financial security . According to Ian Hamilton , Salinger was disappointed when " rumblings from Hollywood " over his 1943 short story " The Varioni Brothers " came to nothing . Therefore , he immediately agreed when , in mid @-@ 1948 , independent film producer Samuel Goldwyn offered to buy the film rights to his short story " Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut " . Though Salinger sold his story with the hope — in the words of his agent Dorothy Olding — that it " would make a good movie " , the film version of " Wiggily " was lambasted by critics upon its release in 1949 . Renamed My Foolish Heart and starring Dana Andrews and Susan Hayward , the melodramatic film departed to such an extent from Salinger 's story that Goldwyn biographer A. Scott Berg referred to it as a " bastardization " . As a result of this experience , Salinger never again permitted film adaptations to be made from his work . When Brigitte Bardot wanted to buy the rights to " A Perfect Day for Bananafish " , Salinger refused the request , but told his friend , Lillian Ross , longtime staff writer for The New Yorker , " She 's a cute , talented , lost enfante , and I 'm tempted to accommodate her , pour le sport . " = = The Catcher in the Rye = = In the 1940s , Salinger confided to several people that he was working on a novel featuring Holden Caulfield , the teenage protagonist of his short story " Slight Rebellion off Madison " , and The Catcher in the Rye was published on July 16 , 1951 , by Little , Brown and Company . The novel 's plot is simple , detailing 16 @-@ year @-@ old Holden 's experiences in New York City following his expulsion and departure from an elite college preparatory school . Not only was he expelled from his current school , he had also been expelled from three previous schools . The book is more notable for the persona and testimonial voice of its first @-@ person narrator , Holden . He serves as an insightful but unreliable narrator who expounds on the importance of loyalty , the " phoniness " of adulthood , and his own duplicity . In a 1953 interview with a high school newspaper , Salinger admitted that the novel was " sort of " autobiographical , explaining , " My boyhood was very much the same as that of the boy in the book ... [ I ] t was a great relief telling people about it . " Initial reactions to the book were mixed , ranging from The New York Times hailing Catcher as " an unusually brilliant first novel " to denigrations of the book 's monotonous language and the " immorality and perversion " of Holden , who uses religious slurs and freely discusses casual sex and prostitution . The novel was a popular success ; within two months of its publication , The Catcher in the Rye had been reprinted eight times . It spent 30 weeks on the New York Times Bestseller list . The book 's initial success was followed by a brief lull in popularity , but by the late 1950s , according to Ian Hamilton , it had " become the book all brooding adolescents had to buy , the indispensable manual from which cool styles of disaffectation could be borrowed . " It has been compared to Mark Twain 's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn . Newspapers began publishing articles about the " Catcher Cult " , and the novel was banned in several countries — as well as some U.S. schools — because of its subject matter and what Catholic World reviewer Riley Hughes called an " excessive use of amateur swearing and coarse language " . According to one angry parent 's tabulation , 237 instances of " goddamn , " 58 uses of the synonym for a person of illegitimate birth , 31 " Chrissakes , " and one incident of flatulence constituted what was wrong with Salinger 's book . In the 1970s , several U.S. high school teachers who assigned the book were fired or forced to resign . A 1979 study of censorship noted that The Catcher in the Rye " had the dubious distinction of being at once the most frequently censored book across the nation and the second @-@ most frequently taught novel in public high schools " ( after John Steinbeck 's Of Mice and Men ) . The book remains widely read ; in 2004 , the novel was selling about 250 @,@ 000 copies per year , " with total worldwide sales over 10 million copies " . In the wake of its 1950s success , Salinger received ( and rejected ) numerous offers to adapt The Catcher in the Rye for the screen , including one from Samuel Goldwyn . Since its publication , there has been sustained interest in the novel among filmmakers , with Billy Wilder , Harvey Weinstein , and Steven Spielberg among those seeking to secure the rights . Salinger stated in the 1970s that " Jerry Lewis tried for years to get his hands on the part of Holden . " Salinger repeatedly refused , though , and in 1999 , Joyce Maynard definitively concluded : " The only person who might ever have played Holden Caulfield would have been J. D. Salinger . " = = Writing in the 1950s and move to Cornish = = In a July 1951 profile in Book of the Month Club News , Salinger 's friend and New Yorker editor William Maxwell asked Salinger about his literary influences . Salinger responded : " A writer , when he 's asked to discuss his craft , ought to get up and call out in a loud voice just the names of the writers he loves . I love Kafka , Flaubert , Tolstoy , Chekhov , Dostoevsky , Proust , O 'Casey , Rilke , Lorca , Keats , Rimbaud , Burns , E. Brontë , Jane Austen , Henry James , Blake , Coleridge . I won 't name any living writers . I don 't think it 's right . " In letters written in the 1940s , Salinger had expressed his admiration of three living , or recently deceased , writers : Sherwood Anderson , Ring Lardner , and F. Scott Fitzgerald ; Ian Hamilton wrote that Salinger even saw himself for some time as " Fitzgerald 's successor " . Salinger 's " A Perfect Day for Bananafish " has an ending similar to that of Fitzgerald 's earlier published short story " May Day " . Salinger wrote friends of a momentous change in his life in 1952 , after several years of practicing Zen Buddhism , while reading The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna about Hindu religious teacher Sri Ramakrishna . He became an adherent of Ramakrishna 's Advaita Vedanta Hinduism , which advocated celibacy for those seeking enlightenment , and detachment from human responsibilities such as family . Salinger 's religious studies were reflected in some of his writing . The story " Teddy " features a ten @-@ year @-@ old child who expresses Vedantic insights . He also studied the writings of Ramakrishna 's disciple Vivekananda ; in the story " Hapworth 16 , 1924 " , the character of Seymour Glass describes him as " one of the most exciting , original and best @-@ equipped giants of this century . " In 1953 , Salinger published a collection of seven stories from The New Yorker ( " Bananafish " among them ) , as well as two that the magazine had rejected . The collection was published as Nine Stories in the United States , and " For Esmé — with Love and Squalor " in the UK , after one of Salinger 's best @-@ known stories . The book received grudgingly positive reviews , and was a financial success — " remarkably so for a volume of short stories " , according to Hamilton . Nine Stories spent three months on the New York Times Bestseller list . Already tightening his grip on publicity , though , Salinger refused to allow publishers of the collection to depict his characters in dust jacket illustrations , lest readers form preconceived notions of them . As the notoriety of The Catcher in the Rye grew , Salinger gradually withdrew from public view . In 1953 , he moved from an apartment at 300 East 57th Street , New York , to Cornish , New Hampshire . Early in his time at Cornish he was relatively sociable , particularly with students at Windsor High School . Salinger invited them to his house frequently to play records and talk about problems at school . One such student , Shirley Blaney , persuaded Salinger to be interviewed for the high school page of The Daily Eagle , the city paper . Nonetheless , after Blaney 's interview appeared prominently in the newspaper 's editorial section , Salinger cut off all contact with the high schoolers without explanation . He was also seen less frequently around town , meeting only one close friend — jurist Learned Hand — with any regularity . He also began to publish with less frequency . After the 1953 publication of Nine Stories , he published only four stories through the rest of the decade ; two in 1955 and one each in 1957 and 1959 . = = Marriage and family = = In February 1955 , at the age of 36 , Salinger married Claire Douglas , a Radcliffe student ( her father was the art critic Robert Langton Douglas ) . They had two children , Margaret ( b . December 10 , 1955 ) and Matthew ( b . February 13 , 1960 ) . Margaret Salinger wrote in her memoir Dream Catcher that she believes her parents would not have married , nor would she have been born , had her father not read the teachings of Lahiri Mahasaya , a guru of Paramahansa Yogananda , which brought the possibility of enlightenment to those following the path of the " householder " ( a married person with children ) . After their marriage , J.D. and Claire were initiated into the path of Kriya yoga in a small store @-@ front Hindu temple in Washington , D.C. , during the summer of 1955 . They received a mantra and breathing exercises to practice for ten minutes twice a day . Salinger also insisted that Claire drop out of school and live with him , only four months shy of graduation , which she did . Certain elements of the story " Franny " , published in January 1955 , are based on his relationship with Claire , including her ownership of the book The Way of the Pilgrim . Because of their isolated location and Salinger 's proclivities , they hardly saw other people for long stretches of time . Claire was also frustrated by Salinger 's ever @-@ changing religious beliefs . Though she committed herself to Kriya yoga , she remembered that Salinger would chronically leave Cornish to work on a story " for several weeks only to return with the piece he was supposed to be finishing all undone or destroyed and some new ' ism ' we had to follow . " Claire believed " it was to cover the fact that Jerry had just destroyed or junked or couldn 't face the quality of , or couldn 't face publishing , what he had created . " After abandoning Kriya yoga , Salinger tried Dianetics ( the forerunner of Scientology ) , even meeting its founder L. Ron Hubbard , but according to Claire he was quickly disenchanted with it . This was followed by an adherence to a number of spiritual , medical , and nutritional belief systems including an interest in Christian Science , Edgar Cayce , homeopathy , acupuncture , and macrobiotics . Salinger 's family life was further marked by discord after the first child was born ; according to Margaret 's book , Claire felt that her daughter had replaced her in Salinger 's affections . The infant Margaret was sick much of the time , but Salinger , having embraced the tenets of Christian Science , refused to take her to a doctor . According to Margaret , her mother admitted to her years later that she went " over the edge " in the winter of 1957 and had made plans to murder her and then commit suicide . Claire had supposedly intended to do it during a trip to New York City with Salinger , but she instead acted on a sudden impulse to take Margaret from the hotel and run away . After a few months , Salinger persuaded her to return to Cornish . = = Last publications and Maynard relationship = = Salinger published Franny and Zooey in 1961 , and Raise High the Roof Beam , Carpenters and Seymour : An Introduction in 1963 . Each book contained two short stories or novellas , previously published in The New Yorker , about members of the Glass family . These four stories were originally published between 1955 and 1959 , and were the only ones Salinger had published since Nine Stories . On the dust jacket of Franny and Zooey , Salinger wrote , in reference to his interest in privacy : " It is my rather subversive opinion that a writer 's feelings of anonymity @-@ obscurity are the second most valuable property on loan to him during his working years . " On September 15 , 1961 , Time magazine devoted its cover to Salinger . In an article that profiled his " life of recluse " , the magazine reported that the Glass family series " is nowhere near completion ... Salinger intends to write a Glass trilogy . " Nonetheless , Salinger published only one other story after that : " Hapworth 16 , 1924 " , a novella in the form of a long letter from seven @-@ year @-@ old Seymour Glass while at summer camp . His first new work in six years , the novella took up most of the June 19 , 1965 , issue of The New Yorker , and was universally critically panned . Around this time , Salinger had isolated Claire from friends and relatives and made her — in the words of Margaret Salinger — " a virtual prisoner " . Claire separated from him in September 1966 ; their divorce was finalized on October 3 , 1967 . In 1972 , at the age of 53 , Salinger had a relationship with 18 @-@ year @-@ old Joyce Maynard that lasted for nine months . Maynard , at this time , was already an experienced writer for Seventeen magazine . The New York Times had asked Maynard to write an article for them which , when published as " An Eighteen @-@ Year @-@ Old Looks Back On Life " on April 23 , 1972 , made her a celebrity . Salinger wrote a letter to her warning about living with fame . After exchanging 25 letters , Maynard moved in with Salinger the summer after her freshman year at Yale University . Maynard did not return to Yale that fall , and spent ten months as a guest in Salinger 's Cornish home . The relationship ended , he told his daughter Margaret at a family outing , because Maynard wanted children , and he felt he was too old . Nevertheless , in her own autobiography , Maynard paints a different picture , saying Salinger abruptly ended the relationship and refused to take her back . She had dropped out of Yale to be with him , even forgoing a scholarship . Maynard later writes in her own memoir how she came to find out that Salinger had begun relationships with young women by exchanging letters . One of those letter recipients included Salinger 's last wife , a nurse who was already engaged to be married to someone else when she met the author . While he was living with Maynard , Salinger continued to write in a disciplined fashion , a few hours every morning . According to Maynard , by 1972 he had completed two new novels . In a rare 1974 interview with The New York Times , he explained : " There is a marvelous peace in not publishing ... I like to write . I love to write . But I write just for myself and my own pleasure . " According to Maynard , he saw publication as " a damned interruption " . In her memoir , Margaret Salinger describes the detailed filing system her father had for his unpublished manuscripts : " A red mark meant , if I die before I finish my work , publish this ' as is , ' blue meant publish but edit first , and so on . " A neighbor said that Salinger told him that he had written 15 unpublished novels . Salinger 's final interview was in June 1980 with Betty Eppes of The Baton Rouge Advocate , which has been represented somewhat differently , depending on the secondary source . By one account , Eppes was an attractive young woman who misrepresented herself as an aspiring novelist , and managed to record audio of the interview as well as take several photographs of Salinger , both without his knowledge or consent . In a separate account , emphasis is placed on her contact by letter writing from the local Post Office , and Salinger 's personal initiative to cross the bridge to meet with the woman , who in the course of the interview made clear she was a reporter ( and who did indeed , at the close , take pictures of Salinger as he departed ) . According to the first account , the interview ended " disastrously " when a local passer @-@ by from Cornish attempted to shake the famous author 's hand , at which point Salinger became enraged . A further account of the interview published later in The Paris Review , purportedly by Eppes as author , has been disowned by Eppes and separately ascribed as a derived work of Review Editor George Plimpton . = = Legal conflicts = = Although Salinger tried to escape public exposure as much as possible , he continued to struggle with unwanted attention from both the media and the public . Readers of his work and students from nearby Dartmouth College often came to Cornish in groups , hoping to catch a glimpse of him . In May 1986 Salinger learned that the British writer Ian Hamilton intended to publish a biography that made extensive use of letters Salinger had written to other authors and friends . Salinger sued to stop the book 's publication . The court in Salinger v. Random House ruled that Hamilton 's extensive use of the letters , including quotation and paraphrasing , was not acceptable since the author 's right to control publication overrode the right of fair use . The book was not published . Later , Hamilton published In Search of J.D. Salinger : A Writing Life ( 1935 – 65 ) , but this book was more about his experience in tracking down information and the copyright fights over the planned biography than about Salinger himself . An unintended consequence of the lawsuit was that many details of Salinger 's private life , including that he had spent the last twenty years writing , in his words , " Just a work of fiction ... That 's all " , became public in the form of court transcripts . Excerpts from his letters were also widely disseminated , most notably a bitter remark written in response to Oona O 'Neill 's marriage to Charlie Chaplin : I can see them at home evenings . Chaplin squatting grey and nude , atop his chiffonier , swinging his thyroid around his head by his bamboo cane , like a dead rat . Oona in an aquamarine gown , applauding madly from the bathroom . Salinger was romantically involved with television actress Elaine Joyce for several years in the 1980s . The relationship ended when he met Colleen O 'Neill ( b . June 11 , 1959 ) , a nurse and quiltmaker , whom he married around 1988 . O 'Neill , forty years his junior , once told Margaret Salinger that she and Salinger were trying to have a child . In 1995 , Iranian director Dariush Mehrjui released the film Pari , an unauthorized and loose adaptation of Salinger 's Franny and Zooey . Though the film could be distributed legally in Iran since the country has no official copyright relations with the United States , Salinger had his lawyers block a planned screening of the film at the Lincoln Center in 1998 . Mehrjui called Salinger 's action " bewildering " , explaining that he saw his film as " a kind of cultural exchange " . In 1996 , Salinger gave a small publisher , Orchises Press , permission to publish " Hapworth 16 , 1924 " , the previously uncollected novella . It was to be published that year , and listings for it appeared at Amazon.com and other book @-@ sellers . After a flurry of articles and critical reviews of the story appeared in the press , the publication date was pushed back repeatedly before apparently being cancelled altogether . Amazon anticipated that Orchises would publish the story in January 2009 , but at the time of his death it was still listed as " currently unavailable " . In June 2009 , Salinger consulted lawyers about the upcoming publication in the US of an unauthorized sequel to The Catcher in the Rye written by Swedish book publisher Fredrik Colting under the pseudonym ' J. D. California ' . California 's book is called 60 Years Later : Coming Through the Rye , and appears to pick up the story of Salinger 's protagonist Holden Caulfield . In Salinger 's novel , Caulfield is 17 years old , wandering the streets of New York after being expelled from his private school ; the California book features a 76 @-@ year @-@ old man , " Mr. C " , musing on having escaped his nursing home . Salinger 's New York literary agent Phyllis Westberg told Britain 's Sunday Telegraph : " The matter has been turned over to a lawyer " . The fact that little was known about Colting and the book was set to be published by a new publishing imprint called ' Windupbird Publishing ' gave rise to speculation in literary circles that the whole thing might be a stunt . District court judge Deborah A. Batts issued an injunction which prevents the book from being published within the U.S. The book 's author filed an appeal on July 23 , 2009 ; it was heard in the Second Circuit Court of Appeals on September 3 , 2009 . The case was settled in 2011 when Colting agreed not to publish or otherwise distribute the book , e @-@ book , or any other editions of 60 Years Later in the U.S. or Canada until The Catcher in the Rye enters the public domain , while also refraining from using the title " Coming through the Rye " , dedicating the book to Salinger or referring to the title " The Catcher in the Rye " , while Colting remains free to sell the book in other international territories without fear of interference . = = Later publicity = = On October 23 , 1992 , The New York Times reported ] , " Not even a fire that consumed at least half his home on Tuesday could smoke out the reclusive J. D. Salinger , author of the classic novel of adolescent rebellion , ' The Catcher in the Rye . ' Mr. Salinger is almost equally famous for having elevated privacy to an art form . " In 1999 , 25 years after the end of their relationship , Joyce Maynard auctioned a series of letters Salinger had written her . Maynard 's memoir of her life and her relationship with Salinger , At Home in the World : A Memoir , was published the same year . Among other topics , the book described how Maynard 's mother had consulted with her on how to appeal to the aging author ( who was dressing like a child ) , and described Joyce 's relationship with him at length . In the ensuing controversy over both the memoir and the letters , Maynard claimed that she was forced to auction the letters for financial reasons ; she would have preferred to donate them to the Beinecke Library . Software developer Peter Norton bought the letters for US $ 156 @,@ 500 and announced his intention to return them to Salinger . A year later , Salinger 's daughter Margaret , by his second wife Claire Douglas , published Dream Catcher : A Memoir . In her book , she described the harrowing control that Salinger had over her mother and dispelled many of the Salinger myths established by Ian Hamilton 's book . One of Hamilton 's arguments was that Salinger 's experience with post @-@ traumatic stress disorder left him psychologically scarred , and that he was unable to deal with the traumatic nature of his war service . Salinger allowed that " the few men who lived through Bloody Mortain , a battle in which her father fought , were left with much to sicken them , body and soul " , but she also painted a picture of her father as a man immensely proud of his service record , maintaining his military haircut and service jacket , and moving about his compound ( and town ) in an old Jeep . Both Margaret Salinger and Maynard characterized the author as a devoted film buff . According to Margaret , his favorite movies include Gigi ( 1958 ) , The Lady Vanishes ( 1938 ) , The 39 Steps ( 1935 ; Phoebe 's favorite movie in The Catcher in the Rye ) , and the comedies of W.C. Fields , Laurel and Hardy , and the Marx Bros .. Predating VCRs , Salinger had an extensive collection of classic movies from the 1940s in 16 mm prints . Maynard wrote that " he loves movies , not films " , and Salinger argued that her father 's " worldview is , essentially , a product of the movies of his day . To my father , all Spanish speakers are Puerto Rican washerwomen , or the toothless , grinning @-@ gypsy types in a Marx Brothers movie " . Lillian Ross , a staff writer for The New Yorker and longtime friend of Salinger 's , wrote following his death , " Salinger loved movies , and he was more fun than anyone to discuss them with . He enjoyed watching actors work , and he enjoyed knowing them . ( He loved Anne Bancroft , hated Audrey Hepburn , and said that he had seen Grand Illusion ten times . ) " Margaret also offered many insights into other Salinger myths , including her father 's supposed long @-@ time interest in macrobiotics , and involvement with " alternative medicine " and Eastern philosophies . A few weeks after Dream Catcher was published , Margaret 's brother Matt discredited the memoir in a letter to The New York Observer . He disparaged his sister 's " gothic tales of our supposed childhood " and stated : " I can 't say with any authority that she is consciously making anything up . I just know that I grew up in a very different house , with two very different parents from those my sister describes . " = = Death = = Salinger died of natural causes at his home in New Hampshire on January 27 , 2010 . He was 91 . Salinger 's literary representative told The New York Times that the writer had broken his hip in May 2009 , but that " his health had been excellent until a rather sudden decline after the new year . " The representative believed that Salinger 's death was not a painful one . His third wife and widow , Colleen O 'Neill Zakrzeski Salinger , and Salinger 's son Matt became the executors of his estate . = = Literary style and themes = = In a contributor 's note Salinger gave to Harper 's Magazine in 1946 , he wrote : " I almost always write about very young people " , a statement that has been referred to as his credo . Adolescents are featured or appear in all of Salinger 's work , from his first published short story , " The Young Folks " ( 1940 ) , to The Catcher in the Rye and his Glass family stories . In 1961 , the critic Alfred Kazin explained that Salinger 's choice of teenagers as a subject matter was one reason for his appeal to young readers , but another was " a consciousness [ among youths ] that he speaks for them and virtually to them , in a language that is peculiarly honest and their own , with a vision of things that capture their most secret judgments of the world . " For this reason , Norman Mailer once remarked that Salinger was " the greatest mind ever to stay in prep school " . Salinger 's language , especially his energetic , realistically sparse dialogue , was revolutionary at the time his first stories were published and was seen by several critics as " the most distinguishing thing " about his work . Salinger identified closely with his characters , and used techniques such as interior monologue , letters , and extended telephone calls to display his gift for dialogue . Such style elements also " [ gave ] him the illusion of having , as it were , delivered his characters ' destinies into their own keeping . " Recurring themes in Salinger 's stories also connect to the ideas of innocence and adolescence , including the " corrupting influence of Hollywood and the world at large " , the disconnect between teenagers and " phony " adults , and the perceptive , precocious intelligence of children . Contemporary critics discuss a clear progression over the course of Salinger 's published work , as evidenced by the increasingly negative reviews received by each of his three post @-@ Catcher story collections . Ian Hamilton adheres to this view , arguing that while Salinger 's early stories for the " slicks " boasted " tight , energetic " dialogue , they had also been formulaic and sentimental . It took the standards of The New Yorker editors , among them William Shawn , to refine his writing into the " spare , teasingly mysterious , withheld " qualities of " A Perfect Day for Bananafish " ( 1948 ) , The Catcher in the Rye , and his stories of the early 1950s . By the late 1950s , as Salinger became more reclusive and involved in religious study , Hamilton notes that his stories became longer , less plot @-@ driven , and increasingly filled with digression and parenthetical remarks . Louis Menand agrees , writing in The New Yorker that Salinger " stopped writing stories , in the conventional sense ... He seemed to lose interest in fiction as an art form — perhaps he thought there was something manipulative or inauthentic about literary device and authorial control . " In recent years , some critics have defended certain post @-@ Nine Stories works by Salinger ; in 2001 , Janet Malcolm wrote in The New York Review of Books that " Zooey " " is arguably Salinger 's masterpiece ... Rereading it and its companion piece " Franny " is no less rewarding than rereading The Great Gatsby . " = = Influence = = Salinger 's writing has influenced several prominent writers , prompting Harold Brodkey ( himself an O. Henry Award @-@ winning author ) to state in 1991 : " His is the most influential body of work in English prose by anyone since Hemingway . " Of the writers in Salinger 's generation , Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning novelist John Updike attested that " the short stories of J. D. Salinger really opened my eyes as to how you can weave fiction out of a set of events that seem almost unconnected , or very lightly connected ... [ Reading Salinger ] stick [ s ] in my mind as really having moved me a step up , as it were , toward knowing how to handle my own material . " The critic Louis Menand has observed that the early stories of Pulitzer Prize @-@ winner Philip Roth were affected by " Salinger 's voice and comic timing " . National Book Award finalist Richard Yates told The New York Times in 1977 that reading Salinger 's stories for the first time was a landmark experience , and that " nothing quite like it has happened to me since " . Yates describes Salinger as " a man who used language as if it were pure energy beautifully controlled , and who knew exactly what he was doing in every silence as well as in every word . " Gordon Lish 's O. Henry Award @-@ winning short story " For Jeromé — With Love and Kisses " ( 1977 , collected in What I Know So Far , 1984 ) , is a parody of Salinger 's " For Esmé — with Love and Squalor " . In 2001 , Louis Menand wrote in The New Yorker that " Catcher in the Rye rewrites " among each new generation had become " a literary genre all its own " . He classed among them Sylvia Plath 's The Bell Jar ( 1963 ) , Hunter S. Thompson 's Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas ( 1971 ) , Jay McInerney 's Bright Lights , Big City ( 1984 ) , and Dave Eggers 's A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius ( 2000 ) . Writer Aimee Bender was struggling with her first short stories when a friend gave her a copy of Nine Stories ; inspired , she later described Salinger 's effect on writers , explaining : " [ I ] t feels like Salinger wrote The Catcher in the Rye in a day , and that incredible feeling of ease inspires writing . Inspires the pursuit of voice . Not his voice . My voice . Your voice . " Authors such as Stephen Chbosky , Jonathan Safran Foer , Carl Hiaasen , Susan Minot , Haruki Murakami , Gwendoline Riley , Tom Robbins , Louis Sachar , Joel Stein and John Green have cited Salinger as an influence . Musician Tomas Kalnoky of Streetlight Manifesto also cites Salinger as an influence , referencing him and Holden Caulfield , the main character of Catcher in the Rye , in the song " Here 's To Life " . Biographer Paul Alexander called Salinger " the Greta Garbo of literature " . In the mid @-@ 1960s , J. D. Salinger was himself drawn to Sufi mysticism through the writer and thinker Idries Shah 's seminal work The Sufis , as were others writers such as Doris Lessing and Geoffrey Grigson , and the poets Robert Graves and Ted Hughes . As well as Idries Shah , Salinger also read the Taoist philosopher Lao Tse and the Hindu Swami Vivekananda who introduced the Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the Western world . = = Legacy = = In an oral biography titled Salinger , authors David Shields and Shane Salerno assert that the author had left specific instructions authorizing a timetable , to start between 2015 and 2020 , for the release of several unpublished works . According to the authors and their sources , these include five new Glass @-@ family stories ; a novel based on Salinger 's relationship with his first wife , Sylvia ; a novella in the form of a WWII counterintelligence officer ’ s diary ; a " manual " of stories about Vedanta ; and other new or retooled stories that illuminate the life of Holden Caulfield . The Salinger biography is also described as a companion volume to a film documentary of the same title . The directorial debut of writer Shane Salerno , Salinger was made over nine years and received a limited theatrical release on September 6 , 2013 . = = List of works = = = = = Books = = = The Catcher in the Rye ( 1951 ) Nine Stories ( 1953 ) " A Perfect Day for Bananafish " ( 1948 ) " Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut " ( 1948 ) " Just Before the War with the Eskimos " ( 1948 ) " The Laughing Man " ( 1949 ) " Down at the Dinghy " ( 1949 ) " For Esmé — with Love and Squalor " ( 1950 ) " Pretty Mouth and Green My Eyes " ( 1951 ) " De Daumier @-@ Smith 's Blue Period " ( 1952 ) " Teddy " ( 1953 ) Franny and Zooey ( 1961 ) " Franny " ( 1955 ) " Zooey " ( 1957 ) Raise High the Roof Beam , Carpenters and Seymour : An Introduction ( 1963 ) " Raise High the Roof @-@ Beam , Carpenters " ( 1955 ) " Seymour : An Introduction " ( 1959 ) Three Early Stories ( 2014 ) " The Young Folks " ( 1940 ) " Go See Eddie " ( 1940 ) " Once a Week Won 't Kill You " ( 1944 ) = = = Published and anthologized stories = = = " Go See Eddie " ( 1940 , republished in Fiction : Form & Experience , ed . William M. Jones , 1969 and in Three Early Stories , 2014 ) " The Young Folks " ( 1940 , republished in Three Early Stories , 2014 ) " The Hang of It " ( 1941 , republished in The Kit Book for Soldiers , Sailors and Marines , 1943 ) " The Long Debut of Lois Taggett " ( 1942 , republished in Stories : The Fiction of the Forties , ed . Whit Burnett , 1949 ) " Once a Week Won 't Kill You " ( 1944 , republished in Three Early Stories , 2014 ) " A Boy in France " ( 1945 , republished in Post Stories 1942 – 45 , ed . Ben Hibbs , 1946 and July / August 2010 issue of Saturday Evening Post magazine ) " This Sandwich Has No Mayonnaise " ( 1945 , republished in The Armchair Esquire , ed . L. Rust Hills , 1959 ) " Slight Rebellion off Madison " ( 1946 , republished in Wonderful Town : New York Stories from The New Yorker , ed . David Remnick , 2000 ) " A Girl I Knew " ( 1948 , republished in Best American Short Stories 1949 , ed . Martha Foley , 1949 ) = = = Published and unanthologized stories = = = " The Heart of a Broken Story " ( 1941 ) " Personal Notes of an Infantryman " ( 1942 ) " The Varioni Brothers " ( 1943 ) " Both Parties Concerned " ( 1944 ) " Soft @-@ Boiled Sergeant " ( 1944 ) " Last Day of the Last Furlough " ( 1944 ) " Elaine " ( 1945 ) " The Stranger " ( 1945 ) " I 'm Crazy " ( 1945 ) " A Young Girl in 1941 with No Waist at All " ( 1947 ) " The Inverted Forest " ( 1947 ) " Blue Melody " ( 1948 ) " Hapworth 16 , 1924 " ( 1965 ) = = = Unpublished stories = = = " Mrs. Hincher " ( 1942 ) " The Last and Best of the Peter Pans " ( 1942 ) " The Children 's Echelon " ( 1944 ) " Two Lonely Men " ( 1944 ) " The Magic Foxhole " ( 1944 ) " Birthday Boy " ( 1946 ) " The Ocean Full of Bowling Balls " ( 1947 ) " Paula " ( 1948 ) = = Media portrayals and references = = J.D. Salinger appears as a character ( voiced by Alan Arkin ) in several episodes of Bojack Horseman ( season 2 episodes 6 , 7 , 8 , and 10 ) , where he is said to have faked his own death to escape public attention ( A Netflix Original Series , July 7 , 2015 ) .
= Typhoon Thad ( 1981 ) = Typhoon Thad was considered the worst storm to affect Japan in two years . Originating from a monsoon trough , Typhoon Thad was first classified on August 15 , 1981 and was upgraded into a tropical storm the next day . Meanwhile , Thad moved north and northeast and attained typhoon intensity midday on August 18 . The next day , the storm reached its peak intensity of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . On August 22 , Thad accelerated northward , striking eastern Japan the next day just before weakening to a tropical storm . After passing through the country , the cyclone transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on August 23 . Thirty @-@ one persons perished in Japan due to the typhoon and 82 others were hurt . Thad flooded 22 @,@ 433 houses and demolished 112 others . Roughly 27 @,@ 000 people were left homeless because of Thad . Moreover , 111 @,@ 500 homeowners were without power during the height of the storm . Furthermore , the storm also destroyed 449 roads , and was responsible for 499 landslides . The cyclone inundated 417 @,@ 400 acres ( 168 @,@ 900 hectares ) of farm land . Train service was interrupted in 22 lines . = = Meteorological history = = Typhoon Thad originated from an active monsoon trough several hundred miles east of the Philippines in mid @-@ August 1981 . On August 10 , a weak surface circulation was first noted on satellite imagery . At that time , the center was embedded within the monsoon trough . Within five days , the system developed outflow . Midday on August 15 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) first classified the system . Based on data from Hurricane Hunters , a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert was issued by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) at 1800 UTC on August 15 . Situated south of a subtropical ridge , the cyclone was located within a favorable environment for further development . Early on August 16 , the JMA upgraded the system into a tropical storm . Following an increase in organization , the JTWC upgraded the system into Tropical Depression 15 that day . Initially , the depression was expected by the JTWC to move north before accelerating towards the northwest . On August 17 , the JTWC upgraded the depression into a tropical storm . At this time , the agency anticipated Thad to re @-@ curve well east of Japan . By 0000 UTC on August 18 , the JTWC upgraded Thad to typhoon status as the cyclone developed a ragged eye . Six hours later , the JMA followed suit . During the evening of August 18 , the agency estimated that Thad reached its peak intensity of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 955 mbar ( 28 @.@ 2 inHg ) . Early the next day , the JTWC estimated peak winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . According to the JMA , Thad would maintain its peak wind speed until August 21 , when the storm weakened slightly . However , the JTWC suggested that Thad began to deteriorate on August 20 . The next day , forecasts from the JTWC indicated that the typhoon was expected to re @-@ curve and accelerate due to a trough located south of Japan . However , since the trough moved into the Sea of Japan instead , a subtropical ridge developed east of Typhoon Thad . On August 22 , however , Thad accelerated northward in the general direction of Japan . At 0000 UTC on August 23 , the JTWC downgraded Thad into a tropical storm while moving onshore in central Japan . Several hours later , the JMA followed suit , even though Thad had moved well inland by that time . By this time , cooler air had taken toll on the storm , and that afternoon , data from both agencies indicated that Thad finished its transition into an extratropical cyclone . By that time , Thad merged with a trough over the Tatar Strait . However , the JMA continued monitoring the system until the morning of August 25 . = = Preparations and impact = = While moving across northern Japan , Thad affected 21 of Japan 's 47 provinces while becoming the first storm to directly strike Kanto in 16 years . A peak rainfall total of 590 mm ( 23 in ) was recorded in Oku @-@ Nikko in Tochigi , including 571 mm ( 22 @.@ 5 in ) in a day . A peak hourly storm total of 571 mm ( 22 @.@ 5 in ) was measured at Kamisatomi in Gunma . Thad was responsible for strong winds , including a 76 km / h ( 47 mph ) wind speed at Hidakamombetsu on Hokkaido . In all , 31 people perished and 82 were injured . Overall , the typhoon flooded 22 @,@ 433 houses and demolished 112 dwellings . Furthermore , the storm also blocked roads in 850 spots , destroyed 449 others , collapsed 80 bridges , broke dikes at 173 places , and generated 499 landslides . Approximately 27 @,@ 000 people were left homeless because of Thad . About 115 @,@ 000 households were left without electricity . Furthermore , Thad inundated 417 @,@ 400 acres ( 168 @,@ 915 ha ) of farm land . Train service was interrupted in 22 lines , including 18 " bullet " trains . Four flights were also cancelled ; however , by August 24 , air traffic had returned to normal . Along the Kanto Plain near Tokyo , Thad wrecked 22 houses , damaged 31 bridges , damaged roads in 145 places , and flooded 27 rivers . According to police reports , five individuals drowned and six others were initially reported missing in Suzaka , because of flooding from the nearby Ayu River that crushed houses along the bank . In Akita , a fishing boat with nine people aboard was capsized by strong winds ; all nine were rendered as missing by police . Elsewhere , one person was killed by a falling tree and a fisherman drowned when his boat overturned . In the Ibaraki Province , just north of Tokyo , officials ordered the evacuation of 5 @,@ 000 dwellings in the city of Ryugasaki , 2 @,@ 500 of which were flooded . After the nearby Kogai River threatened to overflow their banks , over 1 @,@ 000 families were evacuated . Another 4 @,@ 000 families were evacuated in Fujishiro , though by August 25 , the majority of the evacuated had returned to their homes . In the island of Hokkaido , air service was suspended ; damage was severe in the area . However , the capital city of Tokyo avoided the worst of the storm . In all , Thad was considered the worst storm to strike the nation in two years .
= Dolph Ziggler = Nicholas Theodore " Nick " Nemeth ( born July 27 , 1980 ) , best known by the ring name Dolph Ziggler , is an American professional wrestler , stand @-@ up comedian , and actor . He is signed to WWE on the SmackDown brand . Nemeth signed a development contract with WWE in 2004 , and was sent to Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) . He was brought up to the Raw brand in 2005 as Kerwin White 's sidekick . He was , however , sent back to OVW shortly afterwards , where he joined The Spirit Squad as Nicky . They debuted on Raw in January 2006 , and won the World Tag Team Championship once before returning to OVW that November . In September 2007 , Nemeth was assigned to Florida Championship Wrestling ( FCW ) , where he won the FCW Florida Tag Team Championship twice , with Brad Allen and later Gavin Spears . Nemeth returned to the WWE main roster under his current ring name in September 2008 . Since then , Ziggler has held the World Heavyweight Championship twice , the Intercontinental Championship four times , the United States Championship once , and was the 2012 Money in the Bank winner . He has also been the sole survivor of two Survivor Series elimination matches at the 2012 and 2014 events . = = Early life = = Nemeth was born in Cleveland , Ohio . He has said that he has Hungarian ancestry . He attended St. Edward High School in Lakewood , Ohio , where he was an amateur wrestler , and holds the school record for most pins in a career with 82 . At St. Edward , he was teammates with Gray Maynard and Andy Hrovat . During his time at St. Edward , the wrestling team won the National Championships on two occasions . Nemeth was a collegiate wrestler at Kent State University , eventually setting what was then the record for most career wins in the team 's history . His record was passed in 2006 ; as of 2010 , he stands second all @-@ time in career victories at Kent State . He had 121 career wins between 2000 and 2003 . Nemeth won championships in three consecutive years . He was a three @-@ time All @-@ Mid @-@ American Conference champion , winning the 165 lb ( 75 kg ) tournament in 2000 , 2002 , and 2003 ; as of 2010 , he is the last wrestler from Kent State University to have won three amateur wrestling championships . = = Professional wrestling career = = = = = World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE = = = = = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2004 – 2005 ) = = = = Nemeth signed a contract with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) in 2004 . He was assigned to their developmental territory Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , debuting as " Nick Nemeth " . He feuded with Paul Burchill and challenged unsuccessfully for the OVW Television Championship , losing a championship match against then @-@ champion Ken Doane on August 12 , 2005 . Nemeth was called up to the Raw roster shortly afterwards , making his television debut on the September 19 , 2005 episode of Sunday Night Heat . He was made the enforcer and sidekick for Chavo Guerrero , Jr . , who was using a golfer in @-@ ring persona and going by the ring name of " Kerwin White " . As such , Nemeth became White 's caddy . His wrestling debut came on an episode of Sunday Night Heat , teaming up with White in a tag team match against Shelton Benjamin and Matt Striker . After the death of Eddie Guerrero , Chavo Guerrero dropped the " Kerwin White " character , and Nemeth no longer played the role of his caddy and tag partner . After a few months of wrestling in dark matches and at house shows , he was sent back to OVW . = = = = The Spirit Squad ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = = = Nemeth became a part of " The Spirit Squad " faction , a group of five wrestlers who used the in @-@ ring personas of male cheerleaders , and adopted the name Nicky in OVW during late 2005 . The Spirit Squad members trained with real cheerleaders and gymnasts to ensure their characters were believable . On January 23 , 2006 , they had their WWE television debut as a group , appearing on Raw and helping Jonathan Coachman win a Royal Rumble qualifying match against Jerry " The King " Lawler by performing cheers for Coachman and distracting Lawler . They later became a part of the ongoing scripted feud between WWE chairman Vince McMahon and Shawn Michaels . The heel McMahon brought in the Squad to attack Michaels on numerous occasions , including placing them in multiple handicap matches . They also wrestled in the tag team division , and on April 3 , on Raw , won the World Tag Team Championship when Kenny and Mikey , with outside help from the other three Squad members , defeated Big Show and Kane . After winning the championship , all five members of the Spirit Squad were recognized as the champions , allowing any combination of them to defend the championship under the Freebird Rule . In May , McMahon signed another Handicap match , with the Spirit Squad facing Michaels . The match never started , however ; instead the Spirit Squad attacked Michaels , and , as part of the storyline , shattered his knee with a steel chair . McMahon brought Triple H to the ring to attack Michaels with a sledgehammer ; however , after Triple H felt that the Squad had disrespected him , he attacked the group . This led to Triple H and Michaels reforming D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) and they began a feud with the Spirit Squad . DX played various sophomoric jokes on the Squad and the McMahons , as well as defeating the Spirit Squad in handicap tag team matches at Vengeance and a clean sweep in an elimination handicap match at Saturday Night 's Main Event . At the same time as their feud with DX and their alignment with McMahon , the Squad also wrestled other teams in Raw 's tag division over their World Tag Team Championship , successfully defending the championship against the teams of Jim Duggan and Eugene , Charlie Haas and Viscera , and Snitsky and Val Venis . They then entered a lengthy feud with The Highlanders , whom they eventually defeated to retain the championship at the Unforgiven pay @-@ per @-@ view in September . The Squad as a whole later began a losing streak with separate members losing singles matches to Ric Flair on consecutive episodes of Raw , until Kenny managed to defeat him on the October 23 episode . It was then announced that Flair and a WWE legend , selected by interactive voting , would wrestle the team for the World Tag Team Championship at the Cyber Sunday pay @-@ per @-@ view in early November . The fans chose Roddy Piper , and he and Flair defeated Kenny and Mikey to win the championship . The group disbanded on the November 27 episode of Raw , when they were defeated in a five @-@ on @-@ three handicap match by DX and Flair . In a backstage segment later that night , DX placed all members into a crate stamped " OVW , Louisville , Kentucky " , a reference to the developmental territory from which the Squad had come . = = = = Return to OVW ( 2007 ) = = = = Nemeth returned to OVW on January 17 , 2007 , at the television tapings , again using his Nick Nemeth ring name , along with Mike Mondo , formerly Mikey in the Spirit Squad , as the " Frat Pack " . The pair teamed with Mike Kruel in a match against Seth Skyfire , Shawn Spears , and Cody Runnels . The team disbanded in the early parts of 2007 . Nemeth then competed in several dark matches before the OVW television tapings , competing against several wrestlers including Chris Cage , Bradley Jay and Jake Hager , before he began teaming with Mondo again in August . = = = = Florida Championship Wrestling ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = = = At the end of August , Nemeth and Mike Mondo were moved to the Florida Championship Wrestling ( FCW ) developmental territory and in his debut there , Nemeth gained the nickname " The Natural " and defeated Hade Vansen . In November 2007 , Nemeth gained Big Rob as his manager , but their alliance was short @-@ lived . At the start of 2008 , he tweaked his name to " Nic Nemeth " and began teaming with Brad Allen , with the pair gaining Taryn Terrell as their valet . Nemeth and Allen started a frat boy type ring character with Terrell as a sorority girl . On March 22 , Nemeth and Allen won the FCW Florida Tag Team Championship by defeating defending champions Eddie Colón and Eric Pérez , but lost the championship to Colón and Pérez on April 15 . Throughout April and May 2008 , Nemeth wrestled in several dark matches prior to Raw , losing to Kofi Kingston and Ron Killings on several occasions . Soon after , he returned to the name " Nic Nemeth " , and began teaming with Gavin Spears . The pair defeated Colón and Pérez to win the FCW Florida Tag Team Championship on August 16 , but lost it to Heath Miller and Joe Hennig less than a month later . = = = = Repackaging ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = = = On September 15 , 2008 , Nemeth re @-@ debuted on Raw , introducing himself in a backstage segment under the name " Dolph Ziggler " . On October 10 , Nemeth was suspended for 30 days for a violation of WWE 's Wellness Program policy . He returned to Raw on November 17 in a backstage segment with Rey Mysterio and Shawn Michaels . In his first match on Raw under the Ziggler name , he lost to Batista on the December 1 episode . The following week he got his first victory as Ziggler , by countout , against R @-@ Truth . The next week on Raw , he picked up his first televised pinfall victory , when he defeated Charlie Haas . Ziggler competed in the 2009 Royal Rumble match , in which he was eliminated by Kane after 21 seconds . On April 15 , 2009 , Ziggler was drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft . He made his debut on the April 17 episode of SmackDown , defeating the United States Champion , Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) in a non @-@ title match , and , as a result , the following week he demanded a match for the championship . On the May 1 episode of SmackDown , however , he failed to win the championship , after he was pinned by MVP . Ziggler then started a rivalry with The Great Khali , losing to him by disqualification after attacking Khali with a steel chair . As a result , Khali began coming out to the ring during and after Ziggler 's matches , in attempt to gain revenge and to stop Ziggler from cheating . Over the next few weeks , Ziggler defeated Khali by countout and disqualification after making it look like Khali had struck him with a steel chair . At The Bash pay @-@ per @-@ view , Ziggler defeated Khali by pinfall , after Kane interfered and attacked Khali . = = = = Championship reigns ( 2009 – 2011 ) = = = = Ziggler then entered an on @-@ screen relationship with WWE Diva Maria and she became his valet . He simultaneously started a scripted rivalry with Intercontinental Champion Rey Mysterio , who defeated Ziggler at the Night of Champions and SummerSlam pay @-@ per @-@ views to retain the championship . In September , Mysterio lost the Intercontinental Championship to John Morrison , and Ziggler entered a feud with Morrison , losing to him at the Hell in a Cell pay @-@ per @-@ view . On the episode of SmackDown , following Hell in a Cell , Ziggler ended his on @-@ screen relationship with Maria after she cost him a match against Morrison . On the February 26 , 2010 episode of SmackDown , Ziggler defeated John Morrison and R @-@ Truth in a triple threat qualifying match to compete in the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania XXVI , but was ultimately unsuccessful . In June 2010 he began a romantic storyline with Vickie Guerrero , who began accompanying him to the ring . On the July 9 episode of SmackDown , Ziggler defeated Chavo Guerrero and Montel Vontavious Porter in a triple threat match to qualify for the SmackDown Money in the Bank ladder match at the Money in the Bank pay @-@ per @-@ view , where he once again failed to win the match . On July 28 at the tapings of the August 6 episode of SmackDown Ziggler defeated Kofi Kingston to win the WWE Intercontinental Championship for the first time . In his first title defense at SummerSlam , he retained the championship against Kingston when the match ended in a no contest due to interference from The Nexus . Ziggler was able to make a successful title defense against Kingston at the Night of Champions pay @-@ per @-@ view , and against Kaval at Survivor Series . In November 2010 , Ziggler was announced as a Pro for the fourth season of NXT , with Jacob Novak as his Rookie . At TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs , Ziggler successfully retained the Intercontinental Championship in a three @-@ way ladder match against Kingston and Jack Swagger . On the January 4 , 2011 episode of NXT , Ziggler won a battle royal to earn the right to choose a new rookie , and chose Byron Saxton . His original rookie , Novak , was the first rookie eliminated later that night . At the SmackDown tapings on January 4 , Ziggler lost the Intercontinental Championship to Kingston after a five @-@ month reign at 160 days . That same night , Ziggler won a four @-@ way match against Cody Rhodes , Drew McIntyre , and The Big Show to become the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship . Ziggler received his match for the championship at the Royal Rumble pay @-@ per @-@ view against Edge , but was unsuccessful . On February 4 , Ziggler 's girlfriend Vickie Guerrero , who was the acting General Manager of SmackDown , announced that she had banned the spear – Edge 's finishing move – and if Edge used it during the rematch between the two , Ziggler would be automatically awarded the championship . In the interim , Ziggler 's second rookie , Byron Saxton , was also voted off of NXT . On the February 11 episode of SmackDown , Ziggler received a rematch for the championship , only to lose after being speared . On the February 14 episode of Raw , Guerrero announced that Edge had lost the championship due to using the spear and that Ziggler would be crowned the new champion . On SmackDown on February 18 , Guerrero fired Edge , claiming that he had attacked SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long several weeks prior , and awarded Ziggler the championship during a coronation ceremony later that night . Long returned during the ceremony however , and Guerrero revealed Ziggler as the attacker after being accused of orchestrating the attack by Long . Long rehired Edge and gave him his rematch , in which Edge regained the championship . Ziggler 's first World Championship reign lasted only 11 minutes and 23 seconds . After the match , Long fired Ziggler in storyline . = = = = United States Champion ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = = = On the March 7 episode of Raw , Ziggler was introduced as the newest member of the Raw roster , and defeated John Morrison in a singles match . Ziggler was accompanied by Guerrero , who had also been fired from SmackDown , but she was forced to earn her spot on the Raw roster . Ziggler , along with Guerrero , and LayCool then feuded with Morrison , Trish Stratus and Jersey Shore guest star Snooki , culminating in a mixed tag team match at WrestleMania XXVII which Ziggler and his team lost . On the April 18 episode of Raw , Vickie introduced the " new and improved " Dolph Ziggler . Ziggler came out with his hair cut short and brown and went on to defeat Evan Bourne in a singles match . He had re @-@ bleached his hair by the May 23 episode of Raw . Ziggler beat United States Champion Kofi Kingston in a non @-@ title match on the May 30 episode of Raw , leading to a championship match at WWE Capitol Punishment which Ziggler won to earn his first United States Championship . The next night on Raw , Kingston invoked his rematch clause in a two out of three falls match and won via disqualification , allowing Ziggler to retain . After Jack Swagger suggested to Guerrero that she should manage him in addition to Ziggler , a jealous Ziggler teased tension with Swagger . This , coupled with Ziggler 's concurrent feud with Alex Riley , led to Ziggler to defend and retain his United States Championship in a fatal four @-@ way match against Swagger , Riley , and John Morrison at Night of Champions . On the September 19 episode of Raw , Ziggler lost a non @-@ title match to Zack Ryder when guest star Hugh Jackman helped Ryder by punching Ziggler in the face . Although Ziggler later claimed to have a broken jaw due to Jackman 's punch , it was reported that the supposed injury was fake . Later that night , Guerrero officially began managing Swagger , and Swagger began interfering in Ziggler 's matches to help him win . Ziggler and Swagger unsuccessfully challenged Air Boom for the WWE Tag Team Championship at Hell in a Cell and at Vengeance , where Ziggler also successfully defended the United States Championship against Ryder . He went on to successfully defend the championship against Morrison at Survivor Series . At TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs , Ziggler lost the United States Championship to Ryder . On the December 26 episode of Raw , Ziggler defeated WWE Champion CM Punk in a gauntlet match for a championship opportunity following interference from John Laurinaitis . The following Raw , Ziggler defeated Punk by countout after Laurinaitis interfered again ; as a result , Ziggler did not win the championship . At the 2012 Royal Rumble pay @-@ per @-@ view , Ziggler failed to capture the WWE Championship from CM Punk . At the Elimination Chamber , Ziggler failed again to capture the WWE Championship after being eliminated second by Chris Jericho . Nemeth noted to Arda Ocal in an interview for The Score Television Network that the Elimination Chamber left him with multiple minor injuries and it is a match he least looks forward to working . On the February 27 Raw , Ziggler and Swagger unsuccessfully challenged Primo & Epico for the WWE Tag Team Championship in a Triple Threat tag team match , also involving Kofi Kingston and R @-@ Truth . On the March 19 Raw , Ziggler and Swagger were announced as the newest members of Team Johnny for the 12 man tag team match at WrestleMania XXVIII . On the April 2 Raw , Ziggler and Swagger unsuccessfully challenged Santino Marella for the United States Championship in a triple threat match . After the match , Ziggler began a feud with Brodus Clay , who headbutted Ziggler after he and Swagger tried to attack Marella . On the following episode of Raw , Ziggler and Swagger were defeated by Clay and Marella in a tag team match . In the following weeks , Ziggler and Swagger lost to Clay and Hornswoggle in singles and tag matches . At Extreme Rules , Ziggler was again defeated by Clay . In May , Ziggler and Swagger unsuccessfully challenged Kofi Kingston and R @-@ Truth for WWE Tag Team Championship , first at Over the Limit and second on the May 28 episode of Raw , resulting in Ziggler showing signs of wanting to break away from Guerrero and Swagger . On the June 11 episode of Raw , Ziggler pinned The Great Khali , Swagger and Christian in a fatal four way elimination match to become the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship , but at No Way Out , Ziggler lost the title match to champion Sheamus . On the following Raw , Guerrero , finally tired of the bickering between Ziggler and Swagger , arranged for a match between them ; Ziggler won the match and Guerrero 's affections . Ziggler received another shot at the World title on the June 29 SmackDown , but was again defeated by Sheamus in a triple threat match , also involving Alberto Del Rio . = = = = World Heavyweight Champion ( 2012 – 2013 ) = = = = On the July 3 SmackDown , Ziggler defeated Alex Riley to qualify for a spot in the World Heavyweight Championship Money in the Bank ladder match . On July 13 , Ziggler , Zack Ryder and Justin Roberts were involved in a car accident in San Diego while driving from Comic @-@ Con ; none of them suffered severe injuries . Two days later at the Money in the Bank pay @-@ per @-@ view , Ziggler won the Money in The Bank ladder match to guarantee him the opportunity to challenge for the World Heavyweight Championship at a time of his choosing within the next year . Later that night , Ziggler attempted to cash in the briefcase on Sheamus after Alberto Del Rio attacked him after their match , but Del Rio stopped Ziggler from cashing in . On the following episode of SmackDown , Ziggler again attempted to cash in the briefcase on Sheamus following a tag team match with Alberto Del Rio , but was laid out by Rey Mysterio and Sheamus before he could do so . During this time , Ziggler began a feud with Chris Jericho after claiming he had lost his touch , which resulted in Jericho attacking him on two occasions , and defeating him in a singles match at SummerSlam . The night after SummerSlam , Ziggler defeated Jericho in a rematch ; as a result Ziggler retained his Money in the Bank contract and Jericho 's WWE contract was terminated . Following this , Ziggler began feuding with Randy Orton on SmackDown four days later , after Orton RKOd him when trying to cash his Money in the Bank contract on a vulnerable Sheamus . The following week on SmackDown , Ziggler faced Orton in a match that was won by Orton . Three days later on Raw , Ziggler defeated Orton in a rematch , pinning him while holding his tights . Ziggler faced Orton again at Night of Champions where he lost again , ending the feud . On November 18 at Survivor Series , Ziggler captained the traditional 5 @-@ on @-@ 5 elimination tag team match opposite Mick Foley . Ziggler won the match by last pinning Orton , making him the sole survivor of the match . Ziggler then began feuding with John Cena after he sided with Vickie Guerrero to help defame Cena and AJ Lee by alleging they had a romantic relationship . On December 16 at TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs , Ziggler retained his Money in the Bank briefcase in a ladder match after AJ interfered and turned on Cena . The following night on Raw , while trying to diffuse an argument between Vickie and AJ , AJ unexpectedly kissed Ziggler , leaving him confused . Ziggler then attempted to cash in his Money in the Bank briefcase on Big Show after Show was assaulted by Sheamus , but he was attacked by Cena before the match could start . Later , Ziggler teamed with AJ to face Cena and Vickie Guerrero , however , the match ended in a disqualification after the debuting Big E Langston attacked Cena , also starting an on @-@ screen relationship between Dolph and AJ . Ziggler ended 2012 having wrestled the second most TV / PPV matches that year with 90 ; however , he had the most TV / PPV losses with 57 . Ziggler ended his feud with Cena after losing to him on the January 7 , 2013 , episode of Raw , in a singles match and in steel cage match the following week , despite outside interference from AJ and Langston in both matches . On the January 21 episode of Raw , Ziggler won a Beat the Clock Challenge to earn the right to choose what number he can enter in the Royal Rumble match , first or second . Six days later at the Royal Rumble , Ziggler entered at number one and lasted nearly fifty minutes before being eliminated by Sheamus . During the match , Ziggler resumed his feud with the returning Chris Jericho , who Ziggler managed to eliminate . The following night on Raw , Ziggler and Jericho were placed in a " Strange Bedfellows " match against WWE Tag Team Champions Team Hell No ( Daniel Bryan and Kane ) . The match ended with Ziggler being chokeslammed and pinned by Kane after Jericho framed him for pushing Kane . On the February 18 episode of Raw , Ziggler was defeated by World Heavweight Champion Alberto Del Rio via submission in a non @-@ title match . Afterwards , Langston attacked Del Rio and then Ziggler made a failed attempt to cash in his Money in the Bank briefcase after Del Rio 's ring announcer Ricardo Rodriguez ran off with it . After defeating WWE Tag Team Champions Daniel Bryan and Kane in singles matches due interference from Langston , Ziggler and Langston were given a shot at their titles . The title match took place on April 7 at WrestleMania 29 , where Ziggler and Langston unsuccessfully challenged Bryan and Kane for the WWE Tag Team Championship . The following night on Raw , Ziggler cashed in his Money in the Bank contract on an injured Alberto Del Rio to win his second World Heavyweight Championship . After gaining the World Heavyweight Championship , Ziggler began feuding with Del Rio and Jack Swagger over the title . Ziggler was originally booked to face Del Rio and Swagger in a three @-@ way ladder match at Extreme Rules , however , Ziggler suffered a legitimate concussion at a SmackDown taping , thus removing their match from the pay @-@ per @-@ view and resulting in Ziggler being absent from television for a month . On June 16 at Payback , Ziggler faced Del Rio in his first title defense of the World Heavyweight Championship and during the match , a double turn took place ; Ziggler turned face by displaying a never @-@ say @-@ die attitude while Del Rio turned heel by repeatedly and ruthlessly targeting his head to take advantage of his concussion , win the match , and end Ziggler 's reign at 69 days . On July 14 at Money in the Bank , AJ cost Ziggler his title rematch against Alberto Del Rio , after she prematurely snuck into the ring and hit Del Rio with her own title , prompting a disqualification . On the following Raw , Ziggler ended his relationship with AJ due to her actions the previous night . AJ exacted revenge by costing Ziggler a non @-@ title match against Del Rio , then she attacked Ziggler and unleashed Langston on him . On the July 29 , 2013 episode of Raw , Ziggler defeated Big Langston via disqualification after AJ Lee attacked Ziggler . In a rematch on the following week , Ziggler was defeated by Langston after a distraction by AJ and Kaitlyn . This led to a mixed tag team match at SummerSlam , where Ziggler and Kaitlyn defeated Big E and AJ . = = = = Intercontinental Champion ( 2013 – 2015 ) = = = = Ziggler started to become wildly popular with the fans . Following the conclusion of SummerSlam , he and other Superstars were being interviewed and spoke out against Triple H when Triple H cost Daniel Bryan the championship . This led to him , alongside other superstars who spoke out against Triple H to feud against Triple H 's newly formed Authority . Ziggler was later unsuccessful in capturing the United States Championship , when he lost to Dean Ambrose , at Night of Champions and on the October 16 episode of Main Event . Ziggler also failed to win the Intercontinental Championship from Curtis Axel on the November 11 episode of Raw . In December , Ziggler lost two number one contender matches for the Intercontinental Championship , first to Damien Sandow and later to Fandango . On the January 9 , 2014 episode of Superstars , Ziggler sustained another concussion during his match with Ryback . He returned at Royal Rumble , competing in the Royal Rumble match , but was eliminated by Roman Reigns . The following night on Raw , Ziggler defeated The Miz in a Battle of Cleveland match where Dolph was acknowledged as being from Cleveland and was billed from there ahead of the match . Ziggler later earned a shot at Big E 's Intercontinental Championship , but was unsuccessful in capturing the title . On April 6 at WrestleMania XXX , Ziggler competed in the 31 @-@ man Andre the Giant Memorial Battle Royal , but was eliminated by Alberto Del Rio . On June 29 at Money in the Bank , Ziggler competed in the Money in the Bank ladder match for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship contract , but the match was won by Seth Rollins . Ziggler later competed in a Battle Royal for the vacant Intercontinental Championship on July 20 at Battleground , however , he was abruptly eliminated from behind by The Miz . After Ziggler defeated Miz in a non @-@ title match the following night on Raw , he received a rematch at SummerSlam , where he defeated Miz to win the championship for a second time . The following night on Raw , Ziggler successfully retained his title against Miz , after he was counted out . At Night of Champions , Ziggler dropped the title to Miz , only for Ziggler to win it back the following night on Raw . Ziggler then retained the championship against Cesaro on September 26 episode of SmackDown , in a triple threat match against Cesaro and Miz the following week on Raw and at Hell in a Cell against Cesaro in a 2 @-@ out @-@ of @-@ 3 falls match . On the October 28 , 2014 episode of Raw , Ziggler and John Cena shook hands together backstage , which The Authority interpreted as a deal to plot against them . As a result , Ziggler was put in a match against Kane , which Ziggler won . Ziggler then announced that he would be part of Team Cena at Survivor Series . On the November 10 episode of Raw , Ziggler was brutally attacked by the returning Luke Harper . The following week , Harper was awarded a title match against Ziggler , which Harper won with assistance from The Authority , ending Ziggler 's reign at 56 days . The 2014 Survivor Series event saw Ziggler emerging as the sole survivor for a second time . Ziggler contributed to Rusev being counted out , then after all his team @-@ mates were eliminated , he pinned Kane and Luke Harper . Triple H twice prevented Ziggler from pinning final opponent Seth Rollins , but the debuting Sting provided an assist to help Ziggler win the match , thus ousting the Authority from power . At TLC on December 14 , Ziggler defeated Harper in a ladder match to capture his fourth Intercontinental Championship . On the December 16 episode of SmackDown , Ziggler finally defeated Seth Rollins in a singles match after failing numerous times previously . Three days later , Rolling Stone named Ziggler as the 2014 WWE Wrestler of the Year . On the first Raw of 2015 ( dated Jan. 5 ) , the recently reinstated Authority forced Ziggler to defend his Intercontinental Championship against Bad News Barrett and he initially won . After Barrett then attacked and injured Ziggler 's shoulder , Kane declared the match as a 2 @-@ out @-@ of @-@ 3 falls match , Barrett proceeded to defeat Ziggler for the title after Kane distracted him . Later that night , Ziggler alongside Ryback and Erick Rowan received a storyline firing by the Authority . On the January 19 episode of Raw , Sting provided another assist , as John Cena won Ziggler , Ryback and Rowan 's jobs back . Ziggler returned to television on the next SmackDown and qualified for the Royal Rumble match by beating Barrett in a non @-@ title match . In the 2015 Royal Rumble match , Ziggler entered as the last entrant , scored two eliminations but was quickly eliminated by Big Show and Kane . At Fastlane , Ziggler competed together with Rowan and Ryback in a six @-@ man tag team match against Rollins , Big Show and Kane , which they lost . On the March 5 episode of SmackDown , Ziggler was announced as a participant in the 7 @-@ man ladder match for the Intercontinental Championship at WrestleMania 31 , which was won by Daniel Bryan . After losing an Intercontinental Championship match against Daniel Bryan on the Raw following WrestleMania 31 , Ziggler was attacked and Brogue kicked by the returning Sheamus . Claiming that " the era of underdogs ( like Ziggler ) is over " , Sheamus and Ziggler started a feud , with Sheamus challenging Ziggler in a Kiss Me Arse match at Extreme Rules , which Ziggler won . However , Sheamus refused to follow the stipulation , and instead made Ziggler kiss his arse . Ziggler lost the rematch against Sheamus at Payback . Ziggler participated in the Elimination Chamber for the vacated Intercontinental Championship ; other participants were winner Ryback , King Barrett , R @-@ Truth , Sheamus , who eliminated Ziggler , and Mark Henry , at Elimination Chamber . At Money In The Bank , Ziggler competed in the Money in the Bank ladder match , which was won by Sheamus . On July 4 , at The Beast in the East live event in Japan , Ziggler and John Cena defeated King Barrett and Kane in the main event . = = = = The Love Quadrangle ( 2015 – 2016 ) = = = = Ziggler became involved in an on – screen love affair with Lana , the former manager of Rusev , when she kissed him at Raw on May 25 , with Lana serving as Ziggler 's valet during his matches . During this time , Ziggler started incorporating elements of 80 's glam rock fashion into his entrance and ring attire ; typical of 80 's bands like Motley Crue and Poison . In June , after Ziggler and Lana confirmed their storyline relationship , Summer Rae allied with Rusev to even the odds . After an attack by Rusev , Ziggler suffered a bruised trachea in storyline , which was to give him some time off to film a new WWE Studios movie , titled 6 : 42 . Ziggler returned on the August 17 episode of Raw , aiding Lana during a confrontation against Rusev and Summer Rae . This altercation prompted a match between Ziggler and Rusev , six days later , at SummerSlam , which ended in a double count – out due to interference from Lana and Rae . In a rematch , on September 20 , at Night of Champions Ziggler emerged victorious . On October 11 , when TMZ reported the real – life engagement of Rusev and Lana , this officially ended their feud . The following night on Raw , Ziggler unsuccessfully challenged John Cena for the WWE United States Championship . On the October 22 episode of SmackDown , Ziggler started a feud with the debuting Tyler Breeze , who aligned with Summer Rae and attacked Ziggler . Ziggler entered a tournament for the vacant WWE World Heavyweight Championship , defeating The Miz in the first round match before being eliminated by Dean Ambrose . Ziggler and Breeze continued their feud , which culminated in a match between the two at Survivor Series , which Ziggler lost . The next night on RAW Ziggler teamed with Dean Ambrose to defeat the team of Tyler Breeze and Kevin Owens . On the November 30 episode of RAW Ziggler defeated Breeze in a singles match to end the feud . Breeze and Summer Rae would later split up in December 2015 to put the love quadrangle to rest once and for all . On the December 18 episode of SmackDown Ziggler defeated Kevin Owens via a countout victory . Kevin Owens interrupted Ziggler at the 2015 Slammy Awards when Dolph was presenting award , the two ended up getting into a brawl and a match was later made for that evening with Owens picking up the victory . The two would later trade victories into the new year . Ziggler defeated Bo Dallas on the New Year 's Eve SmackDown special . = = = = Various feuds ( 2016 – present ) = = = = Ziggler entered the 2016 Royal Rumble as the 28th entrant , lasting 7 minutes , but was eliminated by the eventual winner , Triple H. The next night on Raw , Dolph Ziggler faced Kevin Owens in a losing effort , but defeated him the following two weeks in a row . On the February 15 Raw , Ziggler was involved in a Fatal 5 @-@ Way Match for the Intercontinental Championship , where Kevin Owens regained the title after pinning Tyler Breeze . At Fastlane , Ziggler challenged Owens to a match for the Intercontinental Championship , which he lost . In the following weeks , Ziggler began to re @-@ ignite his feud with The Authority , and on the March 14 episode of Raw , confronted Triple H and Stephanie McMahon . This resulted in Ziggler being granted a match against Triple H where if he won , he could pick his match at WrestleMania ( excluding the WWE World Heavyweight Title match ) ; however , Ziggler lost . At WrestleMania 32 , Ziggler would compete against Kevin Owens , Sami Zayn , The Miz , Stardust , Sin Cara and Zack Ryder in a ladder match for the Intercontinental Championship , which was won by Ryder . Following Wrestlemania 32 , on the April 4 , 2016 edition of Raw , Ziggler went to a double countout with Baron Corbin , leading to Corbin hitting an ' End of Days ' outside of the ring to Ziggler , igniting a feud in the process . At the Payback pre @-@ show , Ziggler faced Baron Corbin in a winning effort . The two then had a No Disqualification match at Extreme Rules where Corbin won after hitting a low blow on Ziggler . Following Extreme Rules , on the May 23 edition of Raw , Ziggler had a confrontation backstage with Corbin with Ziggler challenging him to a technical wrestling match the next week . Later , Ziggler would lose to Dean Ambrose in a Money in the Bank qualifying match . On the May 30 Raw , Ziggler intentionally disqualified himself when he kicked Corbin in the groin immediately after the match began . This led to a rubber match at Money In The Bank , which Corbin won , ending their feud . On July 19 , at the 2016 WWE Draft , Ziggler was drafted to SmackDown . = = Other media = = Nemeth appeared on the November 3 , 2009 , episode of Deal or No Deal with Maria Kanellis and Eve Torres . He then appeared on Lopez Tonight on August 9 , 2010 . Nemeth appears in a 2011 episode of Silent Library alongside Chris Masters , Trent Baretta , JTG , Caylen Croft , and Curt Hawkins . Nemeth made regular appearances on fellow WWE wrestler Zack Ryder 's YouTube web series , Z ! True Long Island Story , via his own segment named ' Ask Z Heel ' . The series ended on January 11 , 2013 . On February 1 , 2012 , Nemeth debuted WWEFanNation 's WWE Download and was the host of the YouTube series . The official WWE Download playlist on YouTube described the series as " Dolph Ziggler 's sarcastic wit vs. your videos " and each episode consisted of Ziggler reviewing both viral and WWE videos . A new episode of WWE Download was uploaded every Monday until the show ended on January 28 , 2013 , after 53 episodes but returned for one time only on September 30 , 2014 . In August 2013 , Nemeth was cast by Max Landis to appear in the 2015 film Me Him Her . Ziggler has appeared in seven video games . He made his video game debut in WWE Smackdown vs Raw 2010 and appears in WWE Smackdown vs Raw 2011 , WWE ' 12 , WWE ' 13 , WWE 2K14 , WWE 2K15 , and WWE 2K16 . = = = Filmography = = = = = Personal life = = Nemeth has been a fan of professional wrestling since he was five years old , when he attended a wrestling event at the Richfield Coliseum and decided to become a professional wrestler at age 12 . His younger brother , Ryan , is also a professional wrestler who previously worked with WWE and wrestled in NXT under the ring name Briley Pierce . He and Ryan also have a younger brother named Donald ( nicknamed " Donny " ) , who is a suspect in a 2016 murder . Nemeth dated comedian Amy Schumer . Nemeth is a graduate of Kent State University , where he majored in political science with a pre @-@ law minor . Prior to his WWE tryout , he was living in Phoenix , Arizona , and had been accepted to the law school at Arizona State University , where he was due to start his first semester . Nemeth is good friends with his former Spirit Squad teammates , particularly Michael Brendli , with whom he lived in Florida until 2008 . Since then , he has returned to residing in Phoenix . Nemeth is fluent in American Sign Language . He revealed on Colt Cabana 's Art of Wrestling Podcast that he chose the name " Dolph " because that was his great @-@ grandfather 's name , and his friend suggested the surname " Ziggler " . = = In wrestling = = Finishing moves Blonde Ambition ( Leaping reverse STO ) – FCW Sleeper hold , sometimes with bodyscissors – 2010 – 2012 ; used as a signature move thereafter Superkick with theatrics ; often used as a signature move Zig Zag ( Jumping reverse bulldog ) Signature moves Dropkick , sometimes from the top rope Famouser ( Leg drop bulldog ) Headlock , sometimes while performing a headstand Heart Stopper ( Jumping elbow drop with theatrics , sometimes preceded by multiple elbow drops ) Jumping DDT Multiple neckbreaker variations Snap Standing Swinging Scoop powerslam , sometimes inverted Shoulder jawbreaker Sitout facebuster , sometimes from the top rope Stinger splash , sometimes followed by multiple punches to a cornered opponent , or a swinging neckbreaker Managers Taryn Terrell Big Rob Maria Vickie Guerrero Kaitlyn AJ Lee Big E Langston Lana Wrestlers managed Kerwin White Nicknames " The Natural " " The Showoff " " Perfection " " The # Heel " " Mr. Money in the Bank " Entrance themes " Never Thought My Life Could Be This Good " by Jim Johnston ( September 19 , 2005 – November 2005 ; used while teaming with Kerwin White ) " I Am Perfection " performed by Cage 9 and composed by Jim Johnston ( June 26 , 2009 – July 18 , 2011 ) " I Am Perfection ( V2 ) " performed by Downstait and composed by Jim Johnston ( July 25 , 2011 – November 20 , 2011 ) " Here to Show the World " performed by Downstait and composed by Jim Johnston ( November 21 , 2011 – present ) = = Championships and accomplishments = = Florida Championship Wrestling FCW Florida Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Brad Allen ( 1 ) and Gavin Spears ( 1 ) Pro Wrestling Illustrated PWI ranked him 9 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2013 Rolling Stone Worst Storyline ( 2015 ) With Lana vs. Rusev / Summer Rae WWE Wrestler of the Year ( 2014 ) World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE World Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times ) WWE Intercontinental Championship ( 4 times ) WWE United States Championship ( 1 time ) World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) 1 – with The Spirit Squad Money in the Bank ( 2012 – World Heavyweight Championship contract ) Slammy Awards ( 2 times ) Best Twitter Handle or Social Champion ( 2014 ) – @ HEELZiggler Match of the Year ( 2014 ) – Team Cena vs. Team Authority at Survivor Series 22nd Triple Crown Champion Wrestling Observer Newsletter Most Improved ( 2011 ) Most Underrated ( 2011 ) 1 Ziggler , as Nicky , defended the championship with either Kenny , Johnny , Mitch or Mikey under the Freebird Rule .

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