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= Percy Statton =
Percy Clyde Statton , VC , MM ( 21 October 1890 – 5 December 1959 ) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest decoration for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " that can be awarded to members of the British and Commonwealth armed forces . Serving as a sergeant during the First World War , Statton was awarded the Victoria Cross in 1918 following his assault on four German machine guns . With three men , Statton rushed the posts armed with only a revolver and succeeded in capturing the first gun . Moving to the second , he killed the crew of five himself before the two remaining gun crews were forced to retreat .
Born in Tasmania , Statton was married and working as a farmer when he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force during 1916 . Posted to the 40th Battalion , he was shipped to England where he spent three months training . Arriving on the Western Front in 1917 , Statton was awarded the Military Medal during the Battle of Messines while leading carrying parties to the frontline under heavy artillery and machine gun fire . Wounded twice during the war , Statton returned to Australia in 1919 and was discharged the following year . In 1934 , he took part in rescue work aiding families isolated by severe bushfires in the Derwent Valley . Following a period of service during the Second World War , Statton died of stomach cancer in 1959 .
= = Early life = =
Statton was born in Beaconsfield , Tasmania , on 21 October 1890 to Edward Statton , a miner , and his wife Maggie Lavinia ( née Hoskins ) . He was educated at Zeehan State School , before gaining employment as a farmer in Tyenna . Giving his age as twenty @-@ one , Statton married Elsie May Pearce in a Methodist ceremony on 12 September 1907 ; the couple later had a son and two daughters .
= = First World War = =
Despite his wife 's disapproval , Statton enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force on 29 February 1916 , and was allotted to the newly raised 40th Battalion as a private . Appointed lance corporal on 22 May , Statton embarked from Hobart aboard HMAT Berrima on 1 July , bound for England . The troopship disembarked at Devonport a little over seven weeks later , where the 40th Battalion spent the next three months training .
Promoted to corporal on 19 November 1916 , Statton embarked along with the rest of the 40th Battalion for France and the Western Front four days later . Initially posted to Le Havre , the battalion was transferred to Flanders in Belgium during early 1917 . Statton was promoted to temporary sergeant on 16 January 1917 , which was made substantive from 26 April . In June , the 40th Battalion took part in the Battle of Messines .
Over a three @-@ day period during the engagement at Messines from 7 – 9 June , Statton was placed in charge of supervising and leading carrying parties to the frontline . Throughout this work , he was subject to heavy German artillery and machine gun fire , and on several occasions the party was decimated by shellfire . Despite this , the parties managed to reach the frontline on every occasion . For his actions throughout this time , Statton was later awarded the Military Medal , the recommendation of which cited his " exceptional fine work and gallant conduct " . The notification of the award was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 16 August 1917 .
On 12 October 1917 , Statton was involved in operations during the First Battle of Passchendaele when he suffered a gunshot wound to his right shoulder . First admitted to the 22nd General Hospital , Douane , Statton was then transferred to the VAD Hospital , Tonbridge , as the wound required treatment in England . Having sufficiently recovered after a period of hospitalisation at the Fort Pitt Military Hospital , Chatham , and 3rd Auxiliary Hospital , Dartford , Statton was granted two weeks leave from 28 January 1918 . Returning to duty , he was attached to the Overseas Training Brigade at Longbridge Deverill prior to re @-@ embarking on 1 May for France , where he rejoined the 40th Battalion twelve days later .
While in action around the village of Villers @-@ Bretonneux on 10 June , Statton was wounded in a gas attack on his position . Initially admitted to the 10th Australian Field Ambulance , he was transferred to the 40th Casualty Clearing Station six days later , before returning to the 40th Battalion on 24 June . Beginning on 8 July , Statton was placed on a five @-@ day attachment to a demonstration platoon at the 10th Brigade Headquarters . Returning to his battalion , he was attached to the American 3rd Battalion , 130th Regiment , for service over a seven @-@ day period later that month . He rejoined the 40th Battalion on 27 July .
= = = Victoria Cross = = =
Between 10 – 12 August 1918 , the 3rd Australian Division — of which the 40th Battalion was part — was ordered to attack from an easterly direction against the southern bank of the Somme River , and advance along the road past Proyart . On 12 August , the 40th Battalion was tasked with the objective of seizing and holding a valley to the south of the Proyart – Chuignes road . The advance entailed moving the battalion across approximately 1 @,@ 300 metres ( 1 @,@ 400 yd ) of open ground , while under the direct observation of German forces on high ground to the east of Proyart . At the same time , the 37th Battalion was to move through the village of Proyart itself , and proceed to a line just beyond the railway to the north of the Proyart – Chuignes road . It was during this action that Statton was to earn the Victoria Cross .
The 40th Battalion began its attack at approximately 07 : 30 , and by 08 : 30 had successfully advanced 800 metres ( 870 yd ) . It was at this point , however , that the unit came under an intense barrage from German artillery , and were prevented from moving further forward . With assistance from a Lewis Gun team under Statton 's command , the battalion 's A Company managed to reach the centre of Proyart village an hour later . The remainder of the 40th Battalion attempted to follow , but soon became subject to heavy machine gun fire . With his Lewis Gun , Statton engaged two German machine gun posts and thus enabled the remainder of his battalion to continue its advance . The battalion was later able to reach its objectives .
At 18 : 00 , the 40th Battalion received a message that the 37th Battalion was about to attempt to advance from the village to its own objective . From his position , Statton observed a line of German machine gunners firing on the 37th Battalion and preventing its advance . He turned his Lewis Guns on them in an attempt to assist a party of men from the 37th as they attacked . Having failed , a party of thirteen men were assembled and rushed the position soon after , but the group was wiped out before they reached the first gun . Gathering Corporal Upchurch and Privates Styles and Beard , Statton worked his way along under the cover of the Chuignes road embankment . Reaching within 75 metres ( 82 yd ) of the machine gunners and armed with only a revolver , Statton led the three men as they rushed across the open ground towards the German strongpoint . Reaching the position , the party was able to dispose of the first gun and its crew before moving onto the second , where Statton personally shot four of the five crew members and bayoneted the fifth with his own rifle . Seeing this , the two remaining gun teams began to retreat but were killed by Statton 's Lewis Gunners .
Soon after , another German machine gun opened up , killing Private Styles and wounding Corporal Upchurch . With Private Beard , Statton began to crawl back to his own lines , while the inspired 37th Battalion continued its advance and cheered the pair as they went past . Later that evening , Statton , while under heavy machine gun fire , went out and retrieved the badly @-@ wounded Upchurch and the body of Styles . By 20 : 00 , both battalions had reached and consolidated their positions , and were relieved by the British 17th Division the following day .
At 09 : 00 on 27 September 1918 , the 40th Battalion was ordered onto parade by the unit 's Commanding Officer , Lieutenant Colonel John Lord . Addressing the assembled crowd , Lord announced that that same day , the name of Sergeant Percy Statton would appear in the London Gazette announcing that he had been awarded the Victoria Cross . Described by the battalion 's history as a " reluctant hero " , Statton was granted three cheers before he was carried shoulder high through the ranks while the battalion band played . The full citation for Statton 's Victoria Cross appeared in a supplement to the London Gazette later that day , reading :
War Office , 27th September 1918 .
His Majesty the KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned Officers , N.C.O. ' s and Man : —
No. 506 Sjt . Percy Clyde Statton , M.M. , A.I.F.
For most conspicuous bravery and initiative in action when in command of a platoon which reached its objective , the remainder of the battalion being held up by heavy machine @-@ gun fire . He skilfully engaged two machine @-@ gun posts with Lewis gun fire , enabling the remainder of his battalion to advance .
The advance of the battalion on his left had been brought to a standstill by heavy enemy machine @-@ gun fire , and the first of our assaulting detachments to reach the machine @-@ gun posts were put out of action in taking the first gun . Armed only with a revolver , in broad daylight , Sjt . Statton at once rushed four enemy machine @-@ gun posts in succession , disposing of two of them , and killing five of the enemy . The remaining two posts retired and were wiped out by Lewis @-@ gun fire .
Later in the evening , under heavy machine @-@ gun fire , he went out again and brought in two badly wounded men .
Sjt . Station set a magnificent example of quick decision , and the success of the attacking troops was largely due to his determined gallantry .
= = = Later war service = = =
From 20 October 1918 , Statton was granted ten days leave to Paris . Returning to the 40th Battalion , he was sent to Amiens the following day and attached to 4th Army Guard for special duties over a three @-@ day period . Briefly re @-@ joining his battalion , Statton was shipped to England on 5 November for special duties . During this time , the Armistice was signed officially declaring the war 's end , and Statton was granted two weeks leave in December .
Returning to France on 27 January 1919 , Statton was attached to the Headquarters of the Australian Base Depot from 25 March . Shipped to England in June , Statton attended an investiture ceremony in the Quadrangle of Buckingham Palace , where he was presented with his Victoria Cross by King George V. During his time in England , Statton undertook a course at the Motor Training Institute in preparation for non @-@ military employment , before he was granted a month 's leave . Returning to duty on 24 September , Statton boarded HT Pakeha twelve days later and departed for Australia . The troopship arrived in Tasmania on 26 November and Statton was discharged from the Australian Imperial Force on 19 January 1920 .
= = Later life = =
Following his discharge , Statton settled in Fitzgerald , Tasmania , where he gained employment in the timber industry . True to her word that she would leave him if he went off to war , Statton 's wife divorced him on 1 October 1920 . Five years later , on 21 December 1925 , he married Eliza Grace Hudson ( née Parker ) at the Registrar General 's Office , Hobart . In 1934 , severe bushfires broke out in the Derwent Valley , and Statton took a prominent role in rescue work aiding families isolated by the fire .
During the Second World War , Statton enlisted for service with the Volunteer Defence Corps of the Australian Military Forces . Commissioned as a lieutenant on 18 June 1942 , he served throughout the war with the 5th Battalion , Volunteer Defence Corps , until his discharge on 9 January 1946 . Statton 's wife died in 1945 , and on 16 December 1947 , he married Monica Enid Effie Kingston ; the pair later had a son . The couple lived at Ouse , where Statton worked as a commercial agent and was a member of the local council .
In 1956 , Statton joined the Australian contingent of Victoria Cross recipients who attended the parade in London 's Hyde Park to commemorate the centenary of the institution of the award . At the Repatriation General Hospital , Hobart , on 5 December 1959 , Statton died of stomach cancer . Accorded a full military funeral , Statton was cremated and his ashes interred at the Cornelian Bay Cemetery . His Victoria Cross is currently on display at the Australian War Memorial .
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= Henry Fielding 's early plays =
The early plays of Henry Fielding mark the beginning of Fielding 's literary career . His early plays span the time period from his first production in 1728 to the beginning of the Actor 's Rebellion of 1733 , a strife within the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane that divided the theatrical community and threatened to disrupt London stage performances . These plays introduce Fielding 's take on politics , gender , and morality and serve as an early basis for how Fielding develops his ideas on these matters throughout his career .
= = Background = =
Fielding first produced a play in February 1728 . Although his first production , Love in Several Masques , lasted only a few nights , it was the start of his career in theatre . On 16 March 1728 , Fielding enrolled at the University of Leyden , but he did not abandon the theatre . His early plays were those of an amateur hobby , but he later returned to London to earn a living . Arthur Murphy , in his 1762 biographical introduction to Fielding 's works , believed that Fielding returned to London and treated the theatre as a career because his father stopped an allowance of 200 pounds a year .
However , there is little evidence that Fielding lacked funds , or that such a lack of funds would cause him to leave Leyden to return to writing plays ; Fielding eventually returned to Leyden on 22 February 1729 . It is not know when or why Fielding left the school , but he produced The Temple Beau on 26 January 1730 , which suggests that he returned to London by November 1729 . By the time of his return , he had three plays , either still in draft form or complete : Don Quixote in England , The Wedding @-@ Day and The Temple Beau . Of these , only The Temple Beau was accepted for the stage .
When Fielding returned to working with the Royal Theatre , his piece The Lottery became an immediate success and lasted for decades after . Combined with The Modern Husband , Fielding could have received up to 1 @,@ 000 pounds from the plays ' first run . This placed Fielding at the position of being the main contributor of plays to the Royal Theatre . Currently , Fielding is primarily viewed as a novelist , but his plays suggest that he wished to be a playwright and that his career would be in theatre . Although Fielding wrote twenty @-@ six plays , only a handful of them were ever published in critical editions before 1990 .
= = Early plays = =
The early plays include Love in Several Masques , The Temple Beau , The Author 's Farce , Tom Thumb , Rape upon Rape , The Tragedy of Tragedies , The Letter Writers , The Welsh Opera , The Grub @-@ Street Opera , The Lottery , The Modern Husband , The Old Debauchees , The Covent @-@ Garden Tragedy , and The Mock Doctor . These plays start in 1727 , when Fielding first worked on Love in Several Masques , until the disruption of the winter 1732 – 1733 theatre season at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane . This disruption , caused by illness , management problems , and other incidents , started the Actor Rebellion of 1733 .
= = = 1727 – 1728 = = =
Love in Several Masques was Fielding 's first play , and was first released on 16 February 1728 . Though the play was never revived and only ran for four nights , it still did moderately well especially when compared with the competing plays at that time . In the play , three respectable males each meet a female counterpart three times , and share a parallel incident with letters and an unmasking . Fielding focuses on men and how he believes they should prove their worth before marriage . It also highlights Fielding 's belief in the relationship of morality and libertine beliefs and introduces character types that Fielding would use throughout his plays and novels .
Don Quixote in England was started as Fielding 's second play , but it was not finished and produced until the later part of his career . After Fielding returned to London from the University of Leyden during the end of 1729 , he brought with him a version of Don Quixote in England . It was refused by the Theatre Royal and it was not produced or printed until 1734 . The only information on the origins of this play come from Fielding 's 1734 preface . It was his second play , and Fielding attributes it to being written at Leyden during 1728 . It was intended more as amusement than as a serious production and was an imitation of Cervantes 's Don Quixote . After the prompting of Barton Booth and Colley Cibber , Fielding put away the play until 1733 , when the Drury @-@ Lane actors asked him for a new play . Soon after , Fielding rewrote parts of the play .
The Wedding Day was started as his third play , but it was not finished until years later and finally brought out on both the stage and in print after his theatrical career ended . After Fielding returned to London from the University of Leyden during the end of 1729 , he brought with him a version of The Wedding @-@ Day . It was refused by John Rich to be staged , and it was not produced until 1743 by David Garrick . The only information on the origins of this play come from Fielding 's preface to the play in his Miscellanies ( 1743 ) . In it , Fielding says that he intended the leads , Millamour and Charlotte , for Robert Wilks and Anne Oldfield . However , Oldfield died before the play could be produced , and Fielding and Wilks got into a fight , which made it impossible for Fielding to convince him to join the production .
= = = 1729 – 1730 = = =
Fielding started work on his fourth play , The Temple Beau , in April 1729 , but did not finish until the end of the year . Rejected by his first theatre , the play had to be performed at another one , where it had 13 shows its first year and few revivals thereafter . The play is about Wilding , a young law student who gives up his studies to seek pleasure , and his attempts to marry a woman for her money . Fielding focuses on hypocrisy and gender equality in marriage with characters ' interaction with Wilding .
Fielding 's fifth play , The Author 's Farce and the Pleasures of the Town , first opened on 30 March 1730 at the Little Theatre , Haymarket , and initially ran for 41 nights , which marked it as a major success . The play incorporates Fielding 's response to Drury Lane and their previous rejection of his works . It also contains a third act , a puppet show , that pokes fun at theatre and the literary community as a whole . The play was revived many times in its original format and later in the medium of puppet show for its entire format . The plot focuses on Harry Luckless , an author , as he attempts to have a successful writing career , pursue women , dodge his landlady , and eventually put on a show within the show . To emphasise the literary satire , Fielding introduced his persona " Scriblerus Secundus " and adopts the tradition of the Scriblerus Club .
Tom Thumb , Fielding 's sixth play , was added to the ninth showing of The Author 's Farce , 24 April 1730 . Together , the shows lasted at the Haymarket until they were replaced by Fielding 's next production , Rape upon Rape . Tom Thumb was later included with other productions , including Rape upon Rape , and later transformed into the Tragedy of Tragedies . In the print edition , Fielding added footnotes , prefaces , and prologues , which introduced the narratorial style found in Fielding 's later works . The plot deals with the English hero , Tom Thumb , who is of only tiny proportions . After defeating a group of giants , Tom Thumb is handsomely rewarded by King Arthur , which later erupts in a comical love triangle between Tom , Arthur 's wife Queen Dollalolla , and Princess Huncamunca . Tom is eventually swallowed by a cow and killed . Soon after , his ghost appears but meets an untimely death . This scene reportedly provoked Jonathan Swift to laughter , a rare feat . The farcical nature of Tom Thumb pokes fun at 17th and 18th @-@ century tragedy , gender roles and gender politics .
Fielding 's seventh play , Rape upon Rape ; or , The Justice Caught in His Own Trap , was a five @-@ act comedic play that first ran on 23 June 1730 at the Little Theatre for eight nights . The play enjoyed some success until it was renamed The Coffee @-@ House Politician and was altered to possibly update the play as it focused on mocking current news events . The play is a love comedy that incorporates a corrupt judge that stands in the lovers ' way . Eventually , various characters attempt to stop the judge , but he prevails albeit in a comedic fashion . Fielding 's focus in the play is to point out corruption in government and to attack those who abuse their power .
= = = 1731 = = =
Fielding 's expanded version of Tom Thumb , The Tragedy of Tragedies , first ran on 24 March 1731 . Its printed edition was " edited " and " commented " on by Fielding 's pseudonym H. Scriblerus Secundus who pretends not to be the original author , and it contains a frontispiece by Hogarth , which serves as the earliest proof of a relationship between Fielding and Hogarth . There are few major changes to the plot 's outline except that Grizzle became Tom 's rival for Huncamunca 's heart , and Tom is not killed by Grizzle . Instead , Tom is able to defeat Grizzle , which changes the outcome of the play . Furthermore , there is an emphasis on faulty language and Fielding emphasises the problems within poorly written tragedies .
Fielding 's ninth play , the unsuccessful The Letter Writers Or , a New Way to Keep a Wife at Home , ran for four nights as a companion piece to The Tragedy of Tragedies but was soon after replaced by The Welsh Opera on 22 April 1731 . The play followed two characters whose wives are busy having affairs and how they attempt to keep their wives faithful . The immoral characters are forgiven within the play and there is a lack of moral commentary within the plot .
The tenth play and new companion piece to The Tragedy of Tragedies , The Welsh Opera , ran many times until it was expanded into The Grub @-@ Street Opera . The expanded version of the play , The Grub @-@ Street Opera , was not put on for an audience , which provoked E. Rayner to print The Welsh Opera without Fielding 's consent . The play serves both as a tribute to the Scriblerians , especially Gay and Gay 's The Beggar 's Opera , and to put forth a political allegory that satirises Walpole 's government and the British monarchy . In particular , it mocked the feud between Walpole and Pulteney , a Privy Councillor .
The expanded and altered version of The Welsh Opera , The Grub @-@ Street Opera , was first rehearsed in May 1731 , but it never ran on stage . It was printed and exists in a complete printed format , and it is possible that it was not performed because of government intervention . Its original printing was done without Fielding 's consent , and it is uncertain as to when Fielding 's official version of the play was printed . The plot focuses on a standard love story but with characters that exhibit less than virtuous characteristics . The title pokes fun at the Grub Street Journal and also links to the theme within the plot of attacking theatre in general .
= = = 1732 = = =
After Fielding returned to working with the Royal Theatre , Drury Lane , he wrote The Lottery , which first ran on 1 January 1732 alongside Addison 's Cato . The play was successful and was performed 15 times during January . He altered the play in February , and the revised form ran for 14 more nights during that season and was put on each year until 1740 and occasionally thereafter until 1783 . The story deals with Chloe 's desire to play the lottery and pokes fun at the London lottery system and those who support it .
Fielding 's thirteenth play , The Modern Husband , first ran on 14 February 1732 . The play ran for 13 nights at Drury Lane , rivalling the run of the Provok 'd Husband and Zara for production length . Although early @-@ 20th @-@ century critics believed that the play could not be popular , it did make money and even put on a benefit show on 2 March 1732 . The play was not revived later , possibly because the principal actors of the play died soon after and the plot of the play discouraged new actors from wanting to play the parts . The plot deals with a man selling his wife for money and the attempted abuse of the adultery laws .
The Old Debauchees , originally titled The Despairing Debauchee , appeared with The Covent @-@ Garden Tragedy on 1 June 1732 . The play ran for six nights and was later paired with The Mock Doctor . The play was later revived to attack Catholics during the disputes with the Stuarts between 1745 and 1746 . The play alludes to the 1731 trial of Father Girard , a Jesuit tried for using magic during an attempted seduction / rape of a young girl . The nature of the attacks against Catholicism within the play undermines the overall humour of the play .
Although The Covent @-@ Garden Tragedy appeared with The Old Debauchees , it was not a success like the other play and quickly dropped . The Covent Garden Tragedy was immediately ended after its first night because , according to Fielding , of the play 's use of a brothel as a setting . After all , the plot focuses on a love triangle between characters in a brothel . Even though the first night fell apart , the play was later performed ; it eventually appeared again for four nights with Don Quixote in England , once on its own in 1734 , and a few later times during the 18th century , including as a puppet show .
Fielding 's sixteenth play , The Mock Doctor : or The Dumb Lady Cur 'd , replaced The Covent Garden Tragedy as the companion play to The Old Debauchees . The play is an Anglicised adaptation of Molière 's Le Medecin malgre Lui . It first ran on 23 June 1732 and was later revised in 1732 ; both versions were very successful . The plot deals with a young girl pretending to be mute to avoid having to marry a man she does not like while her doctor is really a man pretending to be a doctor to con the other characters .
= = Structure and concern = =
In 1728 , John Gay 's The Beggar 's Opera was extremely successful and ran for 62 times during the season , an unprecedented length of time . The play began to change London theatre through the introduction of political themes and experimentation in form . Following this trend , Fielding pushed politics into the forefront of his plays . This provoked criticism from all sides , including from the playwright Colley Cibber . However , The Beggar 's Opera is not Fielding 's only influence ; Fielding is part of the theatrical tradition surrounding him , and , as Harold Pagliaro points out , " Fielding 's first play , like all those to follow , is among other things an accommodation to the world of theatre in which he worked . "
Fielding was concerned with the audience 's reaction to his various scenes . This is internally reflected in the actions of the character Merital in Love in Several Masques in controlling the behaviour of Helen and that many of his characters believe that they are either actors or are performing on a stage . Also , this is a primary concern of Fielding 's when he crafted his Scriblerian plays .
Reading and how reading defines characters is a focus within many plays and in Fielding 's later works . In Love in Several Masques , the character Wisemore focuses on classics but ignores contemporary society . Similarly , the character Wilding , in The Temple Beau , practices law but doesn 't read at all . Reading is an outlet to understanding humanity , and Fielding uses his plays to inform an audience how to better understand humanity .
Morality and moral characters was an important concern within Fielding 's works , and his first play serves as a representation for Fielding 's believes surrounding the relationship between morality and libertine beliefs that is found throughout his work . The plays also introduces most of the character types that Fielding would reuse throughout his plays and novels . However , his use of libertine themes and characters served as a way for those like Pat Rogers to believe that Fielding lacked an orthodox understanding of Christianity ; he believes that Fielding was harsh towards hypocrisy but not against other actions . In particular , Rogers claims , " Fielding was generous enough in that sphere of morality , however implacable he might be in his larger political and religious attachment . Provided that soldiers were brave and loyal he did not require their lives to be models of absolute purity . " Tiffany Potter follows this idea by claiming , " Eliminating a moral imperative to drama ( and to life in general ) gives Fielding the liberty to create unconventional characters and to set plays anywhere from ballrooms to brothels without having to defend anything more than his own stance on issues . The necessity of even that defence , however , is usually negated by his libertine belief in privilege .
= = = Gender = = =
Gender plays a large role within Fielding 's moral critique , and effeminacy is a means to emphasise a male character 's moral shortcomings or problematic deviations from social and cultural traditions . Starting with Love in Several Masques , the stock characters that he relies on emphasise the deviations by recalling traditional behavioural stereotypes and in their commentary on the masculinity or femininity of other characters . The political implications for gender extend to a criticism of powerful female within the domestic and public domains . Many of the problems portrayed within the plays are the results of the domestic sphere extended into politics , especially within Tom Thumb . As Jill Campbell points out , not only does Fielding critique women in power , but the reversals of gender and power serve as a way to say that private concerns are taking priority over public concerns . In his plays and his novels , women are used as a way to discuss the internal aspects of humans , which includes both emotions and morality . Although Fielding sometimes uses females to express ideal ways to act , he does mock women who abuse their relationship with the internal , emotions , and morality to dominate and assume power . This theme appears as early as Love in Several Masques and continues throughout , especially in prose parody Shamela where Shamela falsifies claims to virtue to control and get ahead in life .
Fielding does not limit his analysis of gender roles to just the living ; the image of the ghost plays a significant part in many of Fielding 's plays , including The Author 's Farce , the Tom Thumb plays , and The Covent Garden Tragedy . Even though Fielding fails to explain what the existence of ghosts means , the image of the ghost can serve as a metaphor for Fielding 's expectation of women who are supposed to be publicly virtuous . According to Campbell ,
woman bears the representational burden for Fielding of his disappointment about the relation between internal and external selves , as , culturally , she must sustain the realm of private life , interior feeling , and personal identity apart from the public and commercial world of the male ; inevitably , then , she must fail Fielding through her reliance on the ' harlotry ' of pomp , ostentation , or the drama of self @-@ display if she is to be a part of this world . And yet , he fears her alternative fate as a ghost as well , though he may seem to wish it on her .
Not every critic sees that Fielding sets up an inevitable fall for women . Potter argues that :
Women are neither victims of deceitful men nor overdefensive virgins , but individuals who can choose to ' bestow ' their favours on a man who will ' enjoy ' them . In the earliest examples of the redefinition that develops throughout Fielding 's works , virtue is no longer simply virginity , but something malleable and powerful in the hands of a woman granted the agency and intelligence to determine her own sexuality .
Counter to Campbell , Potter seems to emphasise how gender is removed and emphasises that Fielding sees gender as a social construct . There is a balancing of the genders and neither is favoured over the other . To Potter , " Only the weakening of humanity through cross @-@ adoption of the most ridiculous qualities of either gender is attacked in Fielding 's plays . "
= = Critical reception = =
The reception of Fielding 's plays received early recognition ; his early plays placed him in a position of popularity alongside Gay . George Bernard Shaw believed that Fielding was " the greatest practising dramatist , with the single exception of Shakespeare , produced in England between the Middle Ages and the nineteenth century . " However , modern critics rarely agree with Shaw , as Robert Hume points out , " Few scholars have been much interested in Fielding 's highly successful career as a dramatist . To most it has seemed a false start . Readers tend to find the conventional plays derivative and sentimental , the topical ones scrappy and superficial . " In particular , only one book until 1988 was published on the topic , which was Ducrocq 's Le theatre de Fielding , 1728 – 1737 , et ses prolongements dans l 'oeuvre romanesque . This critical approach is not limited to just Fielding , but to the whole field ; the reputation of Colley Cibber was ruined by Pope 's characterising him as the Arch Dunce and " Since the plays of Cibber 's only serious rival , Henry Fielding , are hardly even read these days , let alone performed , the earlier eighteenth @-@ century theater tends to be passed over with ( at best ) a polite cough . "
J. Paul Hunter believes that :
Fielding 's plays do not prophesy that he will become a major novelist , but the direction of his theatrical career does suggest concerns that increasingly led him away from pure representation [ ... ] Fielding 's separation from the theatre was a forced one , but the expulsion was fortunate , freeing him from a relationship and commitment that had always been in some sense against the grain [ ... ] Fielding 's way is not really very dramatic , either in novels or in plays ; he never developed stage @-@ likely objective correlatives , having reserved his artistic energy for the examining process in which the action is rerun again and again , reviewed , considered , nearly masticated .
To Albert Rivero , ten of the plays " mark significant moments in [ Fielding 's ] theatrical life " : Love in Several Masques , The Temple Beau , The Author 's Farce , Tom Thumb , The Tragedy of Tragedies , Rape upon Rape , The Grub Street Opera , The Modern Husband , Pasquin , and The Historical Register . Similarly , Potter organised the plays by a general theme of developing libertine characters and believed that " Fielding 's most successful group of plays followed Love in Several Masques both chronologically and thematically . Comedies and burlesques such as The Author 's Farce , The Tragedy of Tragedies , The Old Debauchees , and Pasquin made Fielding the most popular playwright of the 1730s , and all of these plays contain characters , situations , and dialogues that invoke libertine philosophy in some way , thought they vary in the explicitness of the depiction . " In his biography of Fielding , Pagliaro declares that " Between 1727 and 1737 , by which time he was only 30 years old , Fielding became England 's most successful living playwright . "
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= Hurricane Faith =
Hurricane Faith reached the northernmost latitude and had the longest track of any Atlantic tropical cyclone . The sixth named storm and fifth hurricane of the 1966 Atlantic hurricane season , Faith developed from an area of disturbed weather between Cape Verde and the west coast of Africa on August 21 . Tracking westward , the depression gradually intensified and became Tropical Storm Faith on the following day . Moving westward across the Atlantic Ocean , it continued to slowly strengthen , reaching hurricane status early on August 23 . About 42 hours later , Faith reached an initial peak with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , before weakening slightly on August 26 . Located near the Lesser Antilles , the outer bands of Faith produced gale force winds in the region , especially Puerto Rico , the Virgin Islands , and Antigua . Minor coastal damage occurred as far south as Trinidad and Tobago .
By August 28 , the storm began to re @-@ intensify , after curving north @-@ northwestward near The Bahamas . At 0000 UTC on the following day , Faith peaked as a 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) Category 3 hurricane Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale . Eventually , the storm weakened back to a Category 2 hurricane and re @-@ curved to the northeast . One person drowned in the western Atlantic after his ship sank . Heavy rainfall and strong winds pelted Bermuda , though no damage occurred . The storm maintained nearly the same intensity as a Category 2 hurricane for several days , while tracking northeastward into the far North Atlantic Ocean . Faith finally weakened while north of Scotland and became extratropical near the Faroe Islands on September 6 . Three other drowning deaths occurred in the North Sea near Denmark . A fifth death occurred after a man succumbed to injuries sustained during a boating incident related to the storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
Television Infrared Observation Satellite XI ( TIROS XI ) imagery indicated the presence of an area of disturbed weather over Ivory Coast on August 18 . The system moved slowly westward and eventually reached the Atlantic Ocean . It is estimated that a tropical depression developed at 0000 UTC on August 21 , while located about 240 miles ( 390 km ) southeast of Cape Verde . Continuing westward , the depression intensified , and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Faith on the following day . Gradual intensification persisted as Tropical Storm Faith headed nearly due westward at 17 to 23 mph ( 27 to 37 km / h ) . By August 23 , Faith was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane . Curving slightly west @-@ northwestward , the storm reached Category 2 intensity and briefly peaked at sustained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Hurricane Faith curved to the northwest and weakened back to a Category 1 hurricane while approaching the northeastern Leeward Islands on August 25 . Initially , Faith was scheduled to be seeded as part of Project Stormfury . However , the scheduled seeding was cancelled as Faith was approaching The Bahamas . Bypassing the Leeward Islands , Faith remained at nearly the same intensity , until re @-@ strengthening into Category 2 hurricane on August 28 , near Turks and Caicos Islands . The storm quickly intensified further into a Category 3 hurricane only six hours later .
At 0000 UTC on August 29 , Faith attained its maximum sustained winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) . After reaching maximum sustained winds late on August 29 , Faith began to gradually weaken and decreased to Category 2 hurricane intensity early on August 30 . By that time , the storm turned to the northeast around the periphery of an Atlantic subtropical anticyclone while located about midway between Bermuda and Florida . Faith remained well offshore of the East Coast of the United States and Atlantic Canada , after veering eastward on September 1 . Thereafter , it began to accelerate and eventually curved northeastward . While approaching Europe , Faith 's forward speed increased to as much as 50 mph ( 75 km / h ) . At 0600 UTC on September 3 , a minimum barometric pressure of 950 mbar ( 28 inHg ) was recorded – the lowest in relation to the storm . After remaining a Category 2 hurricane since August 29 , Faith weakened slightly to a Category 1 hurricane early on September 6 , as it neared the Faroe Islands . Crossing the North Sea , Faith finally transitioned into an extratropical storm at 1200 UTC later that day , while centered about 125 miles ( 200 km ) east @-@ northeast of Tórshavn . The extratropical remnants of Faith headed eastward and affected Norway with winds as high as 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Tracking over Scandinavia , the extratropical storm weakened to the equivalency of a tropical depression before entering the Soviet Union ( present day Russia ) . Eventually , the storm degenerated into an extratropical low pressure area , curved northward , and retained its identity until September 15 , when it was over Franz Josef Land , which is roughly 600 miles ( 965 km ) from the North Pole .
= = Impact and records = =
In the Leeward Islands , the approach of Faith caused the tracking station on Antigua – which was monitoring an unmanned rocket launched by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) – to shut down 45 minutes after the rocket lifted off . Faith also produced gale force winds across Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands , though only minor damage and no fatalities or injuries were reported . Further south , Faith brought rough seas to Trinidad and Tobago , with waves ranging from 10 to 15 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) . These conditions inflicted minor damage to small boats and jetties . In the Turks and Caicos Islands , sea defenses suffered some damage as Faith passed about 65 miles ( 105 km ) to the east @-@ northeast . Along the East Coast of the United States , the storm produced rough seas and high tides from Cape Canaveral ( then Cape Kennedy ) , Florida , to the Virginia Capes . Additionally , the Weather Bureau warned of possible gale force winds in The Carolinas and Virginia , but also noted that the area would only experience fringe effects from the storm . In Bermuda , the outer rainbands of Hurricane Faith produced heavy rainfall and wind gusts up to 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) .
Five people died as a result of the storm , though only one of them on land . Rough seas in the western Atlantic battered the Alberto Benati , pitching one man overboard . Two others drowned near Denmark while attempting to cross the Atlantic Ocean in a rowboat . Another man was missing and presumed dead after heavy seas forced him and his shipmates to abandon their boat off the northern coast of Denmark . Property damage was minimal , mainly because the areas impacted by Faith were sparsely populated . A 2 @,@ 726 ton Norwegian car ferry known as Skagerak began to sink as it headed for Hirtshals in Region Nordjylland of Denmark . Waves pounded the side hatches , which flooded in the engine room , causing the ship to become disabled . A large @-@ scale search operation was conducted to rescue the 144 passengers aboard . All passengers were rescued and treated for their injuries in Hjørring , Denmark . However , one person later died in the hospital . In Norway , the remnants of Faith impacted areas between Ryfylke and Sunnfjord . The storm brought heavy rainfall and resulted in glacier melting , which in turn caused rampant flooding in some locations . Discharge from the Folgefonna , Fjærland , and Sunnfjord glaciers reached a record high melt due to the remnants of Faith .
Throughout its duration , Faith traveled for 6 @,@ 850 miles ( 11 @,@ 020 km ) , making it the longest track of an Atlantic hurricane and the second longest worldwide , after Hurricane John in 1994 in the Eastern Pacific Ocean . Faith also traveled to the northernmost latitude of any Atlantic tropical cyclone , reaching as far north as 61 @.@ 1 ° N.
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= Reticulate whipray =
The reticulate whipray or honeycomb stingray ( Himantura uarnak ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae . It inhabits coastal and brackish waters across the Indo @-@ Pacific region from South Africa to Taiwan to Australia , favoring sandy habitats . A large species reaching 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) in width , the reticulate whipray has a diamond @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc and an extremely long tail without fin folds . Both its common and scientific names refer to its ornate dorsal color pattern of many small , close @-@ set dark spots or reticulations on a lighter background . However , the reticulate whipray is only one of several large spotted stingrays in the Indo @-@ Pacific which , coupled with the variability of its coloration with age and locality , has resulted in a great deal of taxonomic confusion .
Often encountered resting on the bottom during daytime , the reticulate whipray is a predator of bottom @-@ dwelling invertebrates and bony fishes . Like other stingrays , it is aplacental viviparous , with the developing embryos nourished at first by yolk and later by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . Females bear litters of up to five pups in summer , following a gestation period of a year . The reticulate whipray is fished in Southeast Asia and parts of the Indian Ocean for meat , skin , cartilage , and other purposes . It is highly susceptible to population depletion because of its large size , inshore habits , and low reproductive rate , and is additionally threatened by extensive habitat degradation . Consequently , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Vulnerable .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
In 1775 , Carsten Niebuhr published Descriptiones animalium – avium , amphibiorum , piscium , insectorum , vermium : quæ in itinere orientali observavit , the work of his late friend , the Swedish naturalist Peter Forsskål . Within Forsskål had described Raja sephen , now commonly known as the cowtail stingray , with a spotted variant he called uarnak , derived from an Arabic word that describes the color pattern . No type specimen was designated . Forsskål 's account formed the basis for two subsequent writings that named the spotted ray as a distinct species : Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre 's Raia scherit in 1788 , and Johann Friedrich Gmelin 's Raja uarnak in 1789 . Although Bonnaterre 's name was published first and thus would have had precedence , later authorities have regarded Forsskål 's uarnak as the earliest available name even though it was not initially part of a binomial . Consequently , modern sources give uarnak as the valid specific epithet and either Gmelin or Forsskål as the species authority . In 1837 , Johannes Peter Müller and Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle included the reticulate whipray in the newly created genus Himantura ; David Starr Jordan and Barton Warren Evermann made it the type species in 1896 .
The reticulate whipray is closely related to H. undulata and H. leoparda , which share much of its range . All three species are very similar in size , shape , and color pattern , resulting in a long history of taxonomic confusion that only recently is starting to be untangled . In 2004 , Mabel Manjaji described the ' uarnak ' species complex , containing H. fai , H. gerrardi , H. jenkinsii , H. leoparda , H. toshi , H. uarnak , and H. undulata , plus three more undescribed species . The reticulate whipray itself varies in appearance throughout its range , and further taxonomic comparisons are required to determine whether its spotted and reticulated color morphs in fact represent different species . Alternate common names for this ray include coachwhip ray , leopard stingray , longtail stingray , and marbled stingray ; some of these names are shared by other , similar species .
= = Description = =
The pectoral fin disc of the reticulate whipray is diamond @-@ shaped and wider than long , with the leading margins almost straight and the snout and outer corners angular . In juveniles , the disc is about as wide as long , with a more obtuse snout and rounded corners . The eyes are small and immediately followed by the spiracles ( paired respiratory openings ) . A short and wide curtain of skin with a minutely fringed rear margin is present between the long , thin nostrils . The mouth is relatively small , with a deep concavity at the center of the lower jaw and shallow furrows at the corners extending onto the lower jaw . A row of 4 – 5 papillae ( nipple @-@ like structures ) is found across the floor of the mouth . There are 26 – 40 upper tooth rows and 27 – 44 lower tooth rows . The pelvic fins are small and triangular . The tail is whip @-@ like and extremely thin , measuring 3 – 3 @.@ 5 times as long as the disc when intact , and lacks fin folds . Usually one serrated stinging spine is located on the upper surface on the tail , some distance from the base .
Adult rays have a wide band of flattened , heart @-@ shaped dermal denticles that extend from between the eyes to the tail spine , increasing in density with age , along with two large pearl thorns at the center of the back . The tail behind the spine is covered by small thorns . The dorsal band of denticles is largely developed by the time the juveniles are 50 cm ( 20 in ) across . The coloration of the reticulate whipray varies substantially with age and locality . Adults generally have a dorsal pattern of numerous closely spaced dark brown spots or reticulations on a beige to yellow @-@ brown background , which becomes blackish past the spine with lighter bands on the sides . The underside is pale , without markings . Juveniles are yellowish above with tiny , densely packed dark spots , around seven spots in a line between the spiracles , and three rows of spots in front of the sting . This large species has been reported to reach a disc width of 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) , a total length of 6 m ( 20 ft ) , and a weight of 120 kg ( 260 lb ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The reticulate whipray occurs widely in the Indo @-@ Pacific , with a range extending from off eastern South Africa to the Arabian Peninsula , westward along the coast of the Indian subcontinent to Southeast Asia , and reaching as far as Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands to the north , and New Guinea and northern Australia to the southeast . It has also colonized the eastern Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal . This species seems to be common only in Australian waters , where it occurs from Shark Bay to Brisbane .
Bottom @-@ dwelling in nature , the reticulate whipray is generally encountered over sandy flats near beaches , in lagoons , and around coral reefs , from the intertidal zone to offshore waters 50 m ( 160 ft ) deep or more . In Shark Bay , it frequents intertidal sand flats during the warm season , and shifts to slightly deeper seagrass patches in the cold season . This species is tolerant of low salinities and has been known to enter estuaries and mangrove swamps , though records from fresh water in Southeast Asia are unverified and may represent misidentifications . Its preferred water temperatures are 23 – 26 ° C ( 73 – 79 ° F ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
During the day , the reticulate whipray is generally inactive and spends much time resting motionless on the sea floor , sometimes buried in sand . In Shark Bay , Western Australia , this ray can be found resting singly or in small groups in very shallow water during high tide . Its lateral line extends to the tip of its extremely long tail , giving it advance warning of approaching predators such as bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops aduncus ) and hammerhead sharks ( Sphyrna ) . The cowtail stingray ( Pastinachus sephen ) prefers to rest with the reticulate whipray over others of its own species , because the whiprays ' longer tails grant them superior predator detection . These mixed @-@ species groups often settle into a " rosette " with their tails pointing radially outward for maximum predator awareness .
The reticulate whipray preys on a variety of benthic and neritic organisms , including crabs , shrimps , mantis shrimps , bivalves , gastropods , worms , jellyfish , and bony fishes . In the western Indian Ocean , about two @-@ thirds of its diet consists of fishes , in particular ponyfish and anchovies , with shrimps and other crustaceans making up most of the remainder . By contrast , rays in Australian waters are apparently not piscivorous , and are known to consume penaeid prawns . Known parasites of this species include Anthrobothrium loculatum , Dendromonocotyle colorni , Halysiorhynchus macrocephalus , Monocotyle helicophallus , M. multiparous , and M. spiremae , Thaumatocotyle australensis , and Tylocephalum chiralensis .
Like other stingrays , the reticulate whipray is aplacental viviparous : the developing embryos are initially sustained by yolk , which is later supplanted by histotroph ( " uterine milk " , enriched with proteins and lipids ) produced by the mother . Females give birth to up to five pups in the summer , after a year @-@ long gestation period . Off South Africa , the newborns measure 28 – 30 cm ( 11 – 12 in ) across and sexual maturation is attained at a disc width of approximately 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) , which corresponds to an age of 4 @-@ 5 . Off Australia , the newborns measure 21 – 28 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 – 11 @.@ 0 in ) across , with males reported to mature at 82 – 84 cm ( 32 – 33 in ) across . The juveniles of this species , H. leoparda , and H. undulata differ in birth size , disc shape , denticle development , and amount of spotting , and are in fact more distinct from each other than are adults of the three species . Shark Bay may serve as a nursery area for young rays .
= = Human interactions = =
The reticulate whipray fights strongly on hook @-@ and @-@ line and is thus popular with recreational anglers , who usually release it alive . This species is caught by intensive artisanal and commercial fisheries operating in Southeast Asia and parts of the Indian Ocean , using bottom trawls , gillnets and tangle nets , beach seines , and longlines . In particular , it is caught in substantial numbers by an Indonesian trawl fishery targeting wedgefishes in the Arafura Sea . The meat , skin , and cartilage are utilized , though this species is not a highly valued food fish . It also has applications in Chinese medicine , and its tail may be sold as a curio .
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed the reticulate whipray as Vulnerable . Its large size , inshore habitat preferences , and slow reproductive rate render it susceptible to overfishing . Although specific data is lacking , significant declines in overall ray catches have been documented within its range , including in the Gulf of Thailand , the Arafura Sea , and off Pakistan . Habitat degradation also threatens this species : over 30 % of the mangroves in Indonesia and Malaysia have been cleared since 1980 , while pollution and destructive fishing practices may have also taken their toll . Australian waters offer the reticulate whipray a refuge from fishing pressure , as there it is not targeted commercially and the installation of Turtle Exclusion Devices ( TEDs ) have reduced bycatch mortality . However , there are indications of increasing illegal fishing in Australian territory by Indonesian vessels .
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= Rodrigues starling =
The Rodrigues starling ( Necropsar rodericanus ) is an extinct species of starling that was endemic to the Mascarene island of Rodrigues . Its closest relatives were the Mauritius starling and the hoopoe starling from nearby islands ; all three appear to be of Southeast Asian origin . The bird was only reported by French sailor Julien Tafforet , who was marooned on the island from 1725 to 1726 . Tafforet observed it on the offshore islet of Île Gombrani . Subfossil remains found on the mainland were described in 1879 , and were suggested to belong to the bird mentioned by Tafforet . There was much confusion about the bird and its taxonomic relations throughout the 20th century .
The Rodrigues starling was 25 – 30 centimetres ( 10 – 12 inches ) long , and had a stout beak . It was described as having a white body , partially black wings and tail , and a yellow bill and legs . Little is known about its behaviour . Its diet included eggs and dead tortoises , which it processed with its strong bill . Predation by rats introduced to the area was probably responsible for the bird 's extinction some time in the 18th century . It first became extinct on mainland Rodrigues , then on Île Gombrani , its last refuge .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1725 , the French sailor Julien Tafforet was marooned on the Mascarene island of Rodrigues for nine months , and his report of his time there was later published as Relation d 'île Rodrigue . In the report , he described encounters with various indigenous species , including a white and black bird which fed on eggs and dead tortoises . He stated that it was confined to the offshore islet of Île Gombrani , which was then called au Mât . François Leguat , a Frenchman who was also marooned on Rodrigues from 1691 to 1693 and had written about several species there ( his account was published in 1708 ) , did not have a boat , and therefore could not explore the various islets as Tafforet did . No people who later traveled to the island mentioned the bird . In an article written in 1875 , the British ornithologist Alfred Newton attempted to identify the bird from Tafforet 's description , and hypothesised that it was related to the extinct hoopoe starling ( Fregilupus varius ) , which formerly inhabited nearby Réunion .
Subfossil bones of a starling @-@ like bird were first discovered on Rodrigues by the police magistrate George Jenner In 1866 and 1871 , and by the reverend Henry Horrocks Slater in 1874 . They were found in caves on the Plaine Coral , a limestone plain in south @-@ west Rodrigues . These bones included the cranium , mandible , sternum , coracoid , humerus , metacarpus , ulna , femur , tibia , and metatarsus of several birds ; the bones were deposited in the British Museum and the Cambridge Museum . In 1879 , the bones became the basis of a scientific description of the bird by ornithologists Albert Günther and Edward Newton ( the brother of Alfred ) . They named the bird Necropsar rodericanus ; Nekros and psar are Greek for " dead " and " starling " , while rodericanus refers to the island of Rodrigues . This binomial was originally proposed by Slater in an 1874 manuscript he sent to Günther and Newton . Slater had prepared the manuscript for an 1879 publication , which was never released , but Günther and Newton quoted Slater 's unpublished notes in their own 1879 article , and credited him for the name . BirdLife International credits Slater rather than Günther and Newton for the name . Günther and Newton determined that the Rodrigues starling was closely related to the hoopoe starling , and they only kept it in a separate genus due to what they termed " present ornithological practice " . Due to the strongly built bill , they considered the new species likely the same as the bird mentioned in Tafforet 's account .
In 1900 , the English scientist George Ernest Shelley used the spelling Necrospa in a book , thereby creating a junior synonym ; however , he attributed the name to zoologist Philip Sclater . In 1967 , the American ornithologist James Greenway suggested that the Rodrigues starling should belong in the same genus as the hoopoe starling , Fregilupus , due to the similarity of the species . More subfossils found in 1974 added support to the claim that the Rodrigues bird was a distinct genus of starling . The stouter bill is mainly what warrants generic separation from Fregilupus . In 2014 , the British palaeontologist Julian P. Hume described a new extinct species , the Mauritius starling ( Cryptopsar ischyrhynchus ) , based on subfossils from Mauritius . It was shown to be closer to the Rodrigues starling than to the hoopoe starling , due to the features of its skull , sternum and humerus . Until then , the Rodrigues starling was the only Mascarene passerine bird named from fossil material .
In 1898 , the British naturalist Henry Ogg Forbes described a second species of Necropsar , N. leguati , based on a skin in the World Museum Liverpool , specimen D.1792 , which was labelled as coming from Madagascar . He suggested that this was actually the bird mentioned by Tafforet , instead of N. rodericanus from mainland Rodrigues . Walter Rothschild , however , believed the Liverpool specimen to be an albinistic specimen of a Necropsar species supposedly from Mauritius . In 1953 , Japanese writer Masauji Hachisuka suggested that N. leguati was distinct enough to warrant its own genus , Orphanopsar . In a 2005 DNA analysis , the specimen was eventually identified as an albinistic specimen of the grey trembler ( Cinclocerthia gutturalis ) from Martinique .
Hachisuka believed the carnivorous habits described by Tafforet to be unlikely for a starling , and thought the lack of a crest suggested that it was not closely related to Fregilupus . He was reminded of corvids because of the black @-@ and @-@ white plumage , and assumed the bird seen by Tafforet was a sort of chough . In 1937 , he named it Testudophaga bicolor , and coined the common name " bi @-@ coloured chough " . Hachisuka 's assumptions are disregarded today , and modern ornithologists find Tafforet 's bird to be identical to the one described from subfossil remains .
In 1987 , the British ornithologist Graham S. Cowles prepared a manuscript that described a new species of Old World babbler , Rodriguites microcarina , based on an incomplete sternum found in a cave on Rodrigues . In 1989 , the name was mistakenly published before the description , making it a nomen nudum . Later examination of the sternum by Hume showed that Rodriguites microcarina was identical to the Rodrigues starling .
= = = Evolution = = =
In 1943 , the American ornithologist Dean Amadon suggested that Sturnus @-@ like species could have arrived in Africa , and given rise to the wattled starling ( Creatophora cinerea ) and the Mascarene starlings . According to Amadon , the Rodrigues and hoopoe starlings were related to Asiatic starlings , such as some species of Sturnus , rather than the glossy starlings ( Lamprotornis ) of Africa and the Madagascan starling ( Saroglossa aurata ) ; he concluded this based on the colouration of the birds . A 2008 study , which analysed the DNA of various starlings , confirmed that the hoopoe starling was a starling , but with no close relatives among the sampled species .
Extant East Asian starlings , such as the Bali myna ( Leucopsar rothschildi ) and the white @-@ headed starling ( Sturnia erythropygia ) , have similarities with these extinct species in colouration and other features . As the Rodrigues and Mauritius starlings seem to be more closely related to each other than to the hoopoe starling , which appears to be closer to Southeast Asian starlings , there may have been two separate colonisations of starlings in the Mascarenes from Asia , with the hoopoe starling being the latest arrival . Apart from Madagascar , the Mascarenes were the only islands in the south @-@ west Indian Ocean that contained native starlings . This is probably due to the isolation , varied topography and vegetation of these islands .
= = Description = =
The Rodrigues starling was large for a starling , being 25 – 30 cm ( 10 – 12 in ) in length . Its body was white or greyish white , with blackish @-@ brown wings , and a yellow bill and legs . Tafforet 's complete description of the bird reads as follows :
A little bird is found which is not common , for it is not found on the mainland . One sees it on the islet au Mât [ Ile Gombrani ] , which is to the south of the main island , and I believe it keeps to that islet on account of the birds of prey which are on the mainland , as also to feed with more facility on the eggs of the fishing birds which feed there , for they feed on nothing else but eggs or turtles dead of hunger , which they well know how to tear out of their shells . These birds are a little larger than a blackbird [ Réunion bulbul ( Hypsipetes borbonicus ) ] , and have white plumage , part of the wings and tail black , the beak yellow as well as the feet , and make a wonderful warbling . I say a warbling , since they have many and altogether different notes . We brought up some with cooked meat , cut up very small , which they eat in preference to seed .
Tafforet was familiar with the fauna of Réunion , where the related hoopoe starling lived . He made several comparisons between the faunas of different locations , so the fact that he did not mention a crest on the Rodrigues starling indicates that it was absent . His description of their colouration is similar .
Hume notes that the skull of the Rodrigues starling was about the same size as that of the hoopoe starling , but the skeleton was smaller . Though the Rodrigues starling was clearly able to fly , its sternum was smaller compared to that of other starlings ; however , it may not have required powerful flight , due to the small area and topography of Rodrigues . The two starlings differed mainly in details of the skull , jaws , and sternum . The maxilla of the Rodrigues starling was shorter , less curved , had a less slender tip , and had a stouter mandible . Not enough remains of the Rodrigues starling have been found to assess whether it was sexually dimorphic . Subfossils show a disparity in size between specimens , but this may be due to individual variation , as the differences are gradual , with no distinct size classes . There is a difference in bill length and shape between two Rodrigues starling specimens , which could indicate dimorphism .
Günther and Newton noted that the skull of the Rodrigues starling was shaped somewhat differently and longer than that of the hoopoe starling , being about 29 mm ( 1 @.@ 1 in ) long from the occipital condyle ; it was also narrower , being 21 – 22 mm ( 0 @.@ 83 – 0 @.@ 87 in ) wide . The eyes were set slightly lower , and the upper rims of the eye sockets were about 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) apart . The interorbital septum was more delicate , with a larger hole in its centre . The bill was about 36 – 39 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 5 in ) long , less curved and proportionally a little deeper than in the hoopoe starling . It also seems to have had larger nostrils , with the nostril openings in the bone being 12 – 13 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 – 0 @.@ 51 in ) in length . The mandible was about 52 – 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) long and 4 – 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 20 in ) deep proximally . The skull had an attachment scar above the temporal fossa . The supraoccipital ridge on the skull was quite strongly developed , and a biventer muscle attachment in the parietal region below it was conspicuous . This indicates that the starling had strong neck and jaw muscles .
According to Günther and Newton , the ulna of the Rodrigues starling was somewhat shorter than that of the hoopoe starling , measuring 37 – 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) ; the humerus measured 32 – 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) , and the keel on its sternum was a bit lower . It had strong quill knobs on the ulna , indicating that the secondary remiges were well developed . One coracoid measured 27 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 @.@ 08 in ) in length , and one carpometacarpus was 22 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 89 in ) long . The leg and feet had the same proportions . The femur measured around 33 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) , the tibiotarsus 52 – 59 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 3 in ) , and the tarsometatarsus 36 – 41 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Little is known about the behaviour of the Rodrigues starling , apart from Tafforet 's description , from which various inferences can be made . The robustness of its limbs and the strong jaws with the ability to gape indicates that it foraged on the ground . Its diet may have consisted of the various snails and invertebrates of Rodrigues , as well as scavenged items . Rodrigues had large colonies of seabirds and now @-@ extinct Cylindraspis land tortoises , as well as marine turtles , which would have provided a large amount of food for the starling , particularly during the breeding seasons . Tafforet reported that the pigeons and parrots on the offshore southern islets only came to the mainland to drink water , and Leguat noted that the pigeons only bred on the islets due to persecution from rats on the mainland ; the starling may have also done this . Originally , the Rodrigues starling may have been widely distributed on Rodrigues , with seasonal visits to the islets . Tafforet 's description also indicates that it had a complex song .
The stouter build and more bent shape of the mandible shows that the Rodrigues starling used greater force than the hoopoe starling when searching and perhaps digging for food . It probably also had the ability to remove objects and forcefully open entrances when searching for food ; it did this by inserting its wedge @-@ shaped bill and opening its mandibles , as other starlings and crows do . This ability supports Tafforet 's claim that the bird fed on eggs and dead tortoises . It could have torn dead , presumably juvenile , turtles and tortoises out of their shells . Tafforet did not see any Rodrigues starlings on the mainland , but he stated that they could easily be reared by feeding them meat , which indicates that he brought young birds from a breeding population on Île Gombrani . Tafforet was marooned on Rodrigues during the summer and was apparently able to procure juvenile individuals ; some other Rodrigues birds are known to breed at this time , so it is likely that the starling did the same .
Many other species endemic to Rodrigues became extinct after humans arrived , and the island 's ecosystem is heavily damaged . Before humans arrived , forests completely covered the island , but very little remains today . The Rodrigues starling lived alongside other recently extinct birds , such as the Rodrigues solitaire , the Rodrigues parrot , Newton 's parakeet , the Rodrigues rail , the Rodrigues owl , the Rodrigues night heron , and the Rodrigues pigeon . Extinct reptiles include the domed Rodrigues giant tortoise , the saddle @-@ backed Rodrigues giant tortoise , and the Rodrigues day gecko .
= = Extinction = =
Leguat mentioned that pigeons only bred on islets off Rodrigues , due to predation from rats on the mainland . This may be the reason why Tafforet only observed the Rodrigues starling on an islet . By Tafforet 's visit in 1726 , the bird must have either been absent or very rare on mainland Rodrigues . Rats could have arrived in 1601 , when a Dutch fleet surveyed Rodrigues . The islets would have been the last refuge for the bird , until the rats colonised them , too . The Rodrigues starling was extinct by the time French scientist Alexandre Guy Pingré visited Rodrigues during the French 1761 Transit of Venus expedition .
The large populations of tortoises and marine turtles on Rodrigues resulted in the export of thousands of animals , and cats were introduced to control the rats , but the cats attacked the native birds and tortoises as well . The Rodrigues starling was already extinct on the mainland by this time . Rats are adept at crossing water , and inhabit almost all islets off Rodrigues today . At least five species of Aplonis starlings have become extinct in islands of the Pacific Ocean , and rats also contributed to their demise .
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= Joe Aiello =
Giuseppe " Joe " Aiello ( 1891 – October 23 , 1930 ) was a Chicago bootlegger and organized crime leader during the Prohibition era . The leader of his own Sicilian Mafia family , he was best known for his long and bloody feud with Chicago Outfit boss Al Capone .
Aiello masterminded several unsuccessful attempts to assassinate Capone , and fought against his former business partner Antonio Lombardo , a Capone ally , for control of the Chicago branch of the Unione Siciliana benevolent society . Aiello and his ally Bugs Moran are believed to have arranged the murder of Lombardo , which directly led Capone to organize the St. Valentine 's Day Massacre in retaliation .
Despite being forced to flee Chicago multiple times throughout the gang war , Aiello eventually took control of the Unione Siciliana in 1929 , and ranked seventh among the Chicago Crime Commission 's list of top " public enemies " . Aiello was killed after Capone gunmen ambushed him as he exited a Chicago apartment building where he had been hiding out , shooting him 59 times . After his death the Chicago Tribune described Aiello as " the toughest gangster in Chicago , and one of the toughest in the country " .
= = Early life = =
Born in Bagheria , Sicily , to father Carlo Sr. , Aiello was part of a large and impoverished family of at least nine other brothers and multiple cousins . His mother died when he was a child . In July 1907 , at age 17 , Aiello emigrated to the United States to join family members already residing there . After arriving in New York City by boat , he worked a series of menial jobs in Buffalo and Utica , New York , before connecting with his father , brothers and cousins in Chicago . The family set up several businesses in both New York and Chicago , including the financially successful Aiello Brothers Bakery , and they become importers of such groceries as olive oil , cheeses and sugar .
Aiello was the co @-@ owner of a cheese importing business with a fellow Sicilian , Antonio " Tony the Scourge " Lombardo , an ally of organized crime figure Al Capone . Aiello was president of the company , which was called Antonio Lombardo & Co . , and Capone was said to have loaned both men $ 100 @,@ 000 to start the enterprise . With the enactment of Prohibition and the start of bootlegging , the sugar import business brought Aiello into contact with organized crime , along with his brothers Dominick , Antonio , Andrew and Carlo . In Chicago they made a small fortune selling sugar and other home @-@ cooked alcohol components to the Genna crime family , and Aiello earned enough money to buy a three @-@ story mansion in Rogers Park . However , he craved recognition and prestige in addition to money , something he was gaining as he was becoming known as the top organized crime boss of Chicago . When the Genna family lost power in Chicago following gang wars , the Aiellos believed themselves the successors of their territory .
= = Feud begins with Al Capone = =
In November 1925 Lombardo was named head of the Unione Siciliana , a Sicilian @-@ American benevolent society that had been corrupted by gangsters . An infuriated Aiello , who had wanted the position himself , believed Capone was responsible for Lombardo 's ascension and he resented the non @-@ Sicilian 's attempts to manipulate affairs within the Unione . Aiello severed all personal and business ties with Lombardo and entered into a feud with him and Capone , essentially ending a Chicago gang peace treaty that had had been in force since the 1926 murder of Capone rival Hymie Weiss . Aiello allied himself with several other Capone enemies , including Dean O 'Banion , and the trio of Billy Skidmore , Barney Bertsche and Jack Zuta , who ran vice and gambling houses together , although they became less receptive to Aiello after Capone personally approached and threatened Skidmore . While newspapers falsely reported that Aiello had also entered into an active alliance with George " Bugs " Moran and his North Side Gang at this time , Moran in fact pledged no specific support to Aiello until later , and instead privately supported Aiello from the sidelines without actively participating .
Aiello plotted to eliminate both Lombardo and Capone , and starting in the spring of 1927 made several attempts to assassinate Capone . On one occasion he offered money to the chef of Diamond Joe Esposito 's Bella Napoli Café , Capone 's favorite restaurant , to put prussic acid in Capone 's and Lombardo 's soup ; reports indicated he offered between $ 10,000- $ 35 @,@ 000 . Instead , the chef exposed the plot to Capone , who responded by dispatching men to destroy one of Aiello 's stores on West Division Street with machine @-@ gun fire . More than 200 bullets were fired into the Aiello Brothers Bakery on May 28 , 1927 , wounding Joe 's brother Antonio . During the summer and autumn of 1927 a number of hitmen Aiello hired to kill Capone were themselves slain . Among them were Anthony Russo and Vincent Spicuzza , who Aiello had offered $ 25 @,@ 000 each to kill Capone and Lombardo . Aiello eventually offered a $ 50 @,@ 000 reward to anyone who eliminated Capone . At least 10 gunman tried to collect on Aiello 's bounty , but ended up dead . Capone ally Ralph Sheldon attempted to kill both Capone and Lombardo for Aiello 's reward , but Capone henchman Frank Nitti 's intelligence network learned of the transaction and had Sheldon shot in front of a West Side hotel , although he didn 't die .
= = Gang war with Capone escalates = =
In November 1927 Aiello organized machine @-@ gun ambushes across from Lombardo 's home and a cigar store frequented by Capone , but those plans were foiled after an anonymous tip led police to raid several addresses and arrest Milwaukee gunman Angelo La Mantio and four other Aiello gunmen . After the police discovered receipts for the apartments in La Mantio 's pockets , he confessed that Aiello had hired him to kill Capone and Lombardo , leading the police to arrest Aiello himself and bring him to the South Clark Street police station . Upon learning of the arrest , Capone dispatched nearly two dozen gunmen to stand guard outside the station and await Aiello 's release . The men made no attempt to publicly conceal their purpose there , and reporters and photographers rushed to the scene to observe Aiello 's expected murder . Capone gunmen Frank Perry , Sam Marcus and Louis " Little New York " Campagna were arrested as they tried to enter the front of the station and placed in the cell next to Aiello , who Campagna told , " You 're dead , friend , dead . You won 't get up to the end of the street still walking " . Aiello pleaded for mercy and promised to sell his possessions and leave Chicago with his family if they let him go , but Campagna refused the request . When released , Aiello was given a police escort out of the station to safety . He later failed to make a court appearance after his attorney claimed he suffered a nervous breakdown . Aiello disappeared with some of family members to Trenton , NJ , where he continued his campaign against Capone and Lombardo .
Aiello 's brother Dominick returned to Chicago in January 1928 to attend to family matters while his brother remained in New Jersey . One day he received a telephone call warning him to leave town , after which the Aiello Brothers Bakery was shot up by gunmen . Aiello briefly allied himself with former Capone employer and friend Frankie Yale , meeting with him regularly in New York City and plotting Capone 's overthrow , until Yale himself was murdered . Aiello was said to have fled to Wisconsin under the protection of the Milwaukee crime family , and also briefly took refuge in Buffalo with his ally there , crime family boss Stefano Magaddino . With Aiello still in hiding , Capone started targeting Aiello 's men and killed several over the next few years , including his brother Dominick . Aiello returned to Chicago in the summer of 1928 and once again approached Moran , whose relationship with Capone had degenerated even further , making him much more receptive to an active alliance with Aiello . They conspired to eliminate Lombardo , a task they assigned to hitmen Frank " Tight Lips " and Peter Gusenberg . Lombardo was shot to death on a busy Chicago street on September 7 , 1928 , and although never arrested , at least one of the Gusenberg brothers is believed to have been among the shooters . After Lombardo 's death , Aiello attempted to elevate his ally Peter Rizzito to the Unione Siciliana position , but Rizzito was killed by shotgun blasts outside his home .
= = Rise to Unione Siciliana leader = =
Aiello was also believed to have masterminded the murder of Pasqualino " Patsy " Lolordo , Lombardo 's successor as head of the Unione , who was killed in his home on January 8 , 1929 . Police alleged that Aiello suggested a truce with Lolordo , and when Lolordo invited Aiello into his home for a toast of friendship , Aiello and two others shot him to death . When police later questioned Lolordo 's widow , she screamed when she was shown a photo of Aiello , but refused to explain why she was afraid and would not answer questions about him . Capone focused his retaliation against Moran by organizing the St. Valentine 's Day Massacre , a hit that wiped out the Gusenberg brothers , decimated Moran 's forces and resulted in the loss of a significant amount of Aiello 's support . Shortly afterward Aiello persuaded Capone killers Albert Anselmi and John Scalise to betray their employer and convinced Joseph " Hop Toad " Giunta , the new head of the Unione Siciliana , to support Aiello in eliminating Capone and taking control of the North Side of Chicago following the departure of Bugs Moran . However , Capone learned of Aiello 's plot in April 1929 and killed all three men .
The violent retaliation against Aiello indirectly led him to finally become head of the Unione . During a conference in Atlantic City , numerous mob bosses supported Aiello 's promotion with the hopes of restoring order in Chicago , and Capone apparently accepted the decision , at least temporarily . Retired Chicago mob boss Johnny Torrio was said to have mediated a peace agreement among Capone , Aiello and Moran , in which they agreed to end the gang warfare and murders . However , Aiello 's accession coincided with Capone serving a year in prison for carrying a concealed weapon , which Aiello saw as an opportunity to take control of some of Capone 's territory and scheme yet again for his assassination . Aiello gained a measure of nationwide notoriety around this time after ranking seventh on Chicago Crime Commission Chairman Frank J. Loesch 's " public enemies " list , released in April 1930 , which identified the top 28 people he saw as corrupting Chicago .
Through his Mafia boss allies Magaddino and Gaspar Milazzo , Aiello arranged a meeting with Joe Masseria , the capo di tutti capi based in New York City , seeking support in Aiello 's efforts against Capone . During the meeting Masseria offered to support Aiello in exchange for control of the east side of Chicago , which would allow Aiello to keep the city 's west side . The offer infuriated Aiello , who threatened Masseria and ordered him to leave the city . In turn , Masseria spread false rumors that Aiello attempted to kill Masseria , giving him a pretext to support Capone in retaliation . Mafioso Joseph Bonanno later described as a key incident in starting the Castellammarese War in New York City . Masseria openly supported Capone , requiring a strong alliance with him following the death of Masseria ally Giuseppe Morello . He also offered territory to Milazzo if he betrayed Aiello , an offer Milazzo rebuffed and considered insulting . As a result , Aiello backed Salvatore Maranzano in the Castellammarese War , providing the Maranzano forces with $ 5 @,@ 000 a week for their war chest .
During the early months of 1930 Aiello arranged several unsuccessful assassination attempts against Capone bodyguards , including Jack McGurn , Phil D 'Andrea and Rocco De Grazia . Aiello hoped to leave Capone vulnerable by depleting his security , and Capone began to suspect Aiello had spies within the Chicago Outfit because he seemed to have inside knowledge about where his targets would be and when . In August 1930 , two months before Aiello 's death , the state 's attorney conducted a raid on Aiello 's home , obtaining records as part of a series of raids by the United States government to fight against gangland activities in Chicago .
= = Death = =
In 1930 , upon learning of Aiello 's continued plotting against him , Capone resolved to finally eliminate him . In the weeks before Aiello 's death Capone 's men tracked him to Rochester , New York , where he had connections through Magaddino , and plotted to kill him there , but Aiello returned to Chicago before the plot could be executed . Aiello , angst @-@ ridden from the constant need to hide out and the killings of several of his men , set up residence in the Chicago apartment of Unione Siciliana treasurer Pasquale " Patsy Presto " Prestogiacomo at 205 N. Kolmar Ave . He moved in on October 13 , 1930 , and rarely left the apartment . However , his wife and child occasionally visited him , and Frank Nitti biographer Mars Eghigian Jr. theorized that Capone 's forces located Aiello by tracking his family members . Men who gave the names Morris Friend and Henry Jacobson rented rooms in an apartment across the street overlooking Prestogiacomo 's apartment building and began observing Aiello . On October 23 , Aiello made plans to permanently leave Chicago and apparently move to Mexico , although Prestogiacomo later told police Aiello was simply leaving the house for a barber 's appointment . Upon exiting Prestogiacomo 's building to enter a taxicab , a gunman in a second @-@ floor window across the street started firing at Aiello with a submachine gun . Aiello was said to have been shot at least 13 times before he toppled off the building steps and moved around the corner , out of the line of fire . Instead , he moved directly into the range of a second submachine gun positioned on the third floor of another apartment block , and was subsequently gunned down .
After the ambush the two apparent shooters ran from the buildings and fled in a Ford sedan ; the car was later discovered to have been set on fire and destroyed . Aiello 's body was loaded into the taxicab and taken to Garfield Park Hospital , where he was pronounced dead . The coroner eventually removed 59 bullets , weighing over a pound , from the body . He was shot more times than any single victim of the St. Valentine 's Day Massacre . A third machine gun position , which was ultimately not used , was later discovered by police in another nearby building , which had been rented a week before the murder by a man who gave the name Lon Celespe . Police , prosecutors and federal agents immediately and publicly speculated that Capone was behind the assassination , noting that the precision machine @-@ gun ambush was typical of his attacks . However , at least one press story at the time speculated Moran could have been behind the hit . Prestogiacomo , fearful for his life , went into hiding for three days after Aiello 's death before turning himself in to police . He was charged as an accessory before the fact of Aiello 's murder , a charge also filed against John Sorce , an employee of Aiello 's importing company . Detectives questioned whether Prestogiacomo provided Aiello 's enemies with information about his whereabouts , something he vehemently denied . Police claimed Prestogiacomo was not cooperative and lied about his relationship with Aiello . The charges against Prestogiacomo went to a grand jury but were ultimately dropped . Frank Nitti was also wanted by police for questioning in connection with the murder .
Some historians later suggested Mafia forces outside of Chicago may have been behind the hit as part of the Castellammarese War , but Virgil Peterson , an expert on Chicago organized crime , believed the murder was strictly related to city gang warfare . Aiello 's family ordered an $ 11 @,@ 000 coffin for him . Before eventually being placed in Riverside Cemetery in Rochester , New York , Aiello was originally buried in Mount Carmel Cemetery in Chicago on October 29 , 1930 , close to former friend @-@ turned @-@ rival Lombardo . Capone continued to hunt down Aiello 's allies even after his death . One month after Aiello was killed , police discovered an abandoned machine gun nest , manned by alleged Capone gangsters , in a house opposite the home of four of Aiello 's former henchmen . Aiello 's nephew , Frank Aiello Jr . , was fatally shot through a window while he was playing cards in his Milwaukee home on May 23 , 1931 . Authorities believed the killing was related to the Chicago feud , despite Frank 's apparent lack of ties to organized crime . Aiello 's death left Capone effectively unchallenged in his control over Chicago , and brought 70 years of peace to the city in terms of the Chicago Outfit leadership . Aiello was believed to be responsible for the deaths of at least 24 people throughout his life , according to the Chicago Tribune , which described Aiello as " the toughest gangster in Chicago , and one of the toughest in the country " .
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= Annunciation ( Memling ) =
The Annunciation is an oil @-@ on @-@ oak panel painting attributed to the Early Netherlandish master Hans Memling . Completed c . 1482 , it was partially transferred to canvas in the 1920s and is today held in the Robert Lehman collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York . It shows the Virgin in a domestic interior , two attendant angels , the archangel Gabriel dressed in rich ecclesiastical robes , and a hovering dove . The painting is based and expands upon the Annunciation wing of Rogier van der Weyden 's c . 1455 Saint Columba altarpiece . The Virgin simultaneously swoons and foreshadows the crucifixion . According to art historian Maryan Ainsworth , the work presents a " startlingly original image , rich in connotations for the viewer or worshiper . " The simple iconography centers on the Virgin 's purity ; the Incarnation , the Virgin as mother and her role as bride and Queen of Heaven .
The original frame survived until the 19th century and was inscribed with a date believed to be 1482 ; 20th @-@ century art historians suggested the number 's final digit was a nine , which would give a date of 1489 . In 1847 Gustav Friedrich Waagen described it as one of Memling 's " finest and most original works " . In 1902 it was exhibited in Bruges at the Exposition des primitifs flamands à Bruges , after which it underwent cleaning and restoration . Philip Lehman bought it in 1920 from the Radziwill family who may have had it in their family since the 16th century ; Antoni Radziwill discovered it on a family estate in the early 19th century . At that time it had been pierced through with an arrow and required restoration .
= = Description = =
= = = Annunciation = = =
The Annunciation was a popular theme in European art , although a difficult scene to paint , because it depicts Mary 's union with Christ as she becomes the tabernacle for the Word made flesh . Mary as Theotokos , the God @-@ bearer , was affirmed in 431 at the Council of Ephesus ; two decades later the Council of Chalcedon affirmed the doctrine of Incarnation – that Christ was of two natures ( God and Man ) – and her perpetual virginity was affirmed at the Lateran Council of 631 . In Byzantine art , Annunciation scenes depict the Virgin enthroned and dressed in royal regalia . In later centuries she was shown in enclosed spaces : the temple , the church , the garden .
The Annunciation is typically set in domestic interiors in Early Netherlandish art , a style Robert Campin established , and Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden followed . Neither Campin nor van Eyck went so far as to set the scene in a bedchamber , although the motif is found in van der Weyden 's c . 1435 Louvre Annunciation and c . 1455 Saint Columba altarpiece in which the Virgin kneels by the nuptial bed , rendered in red made from costly pigments . Memling 's depiction is nearly identical to van der Weyden 's Columba Altarpiece .
= = = Figures = = =
The archangel Gabriel appears to Mary to inform her that she shall bear the Son of God . He is shown standing in a three @-@ quarter view wearing a small jeweled diadem and dressed in vestments . He has a richly embroidered red @-@ and @-@ gold brocade cope , edged with a pattern of gray seraphim and wheels , over a white alb and amice . He holds his staff of office in one hand , and raises the other towards the Virgin . He bends his knees , honoring and acknowledging her as Mother of Christ and Queen of Heaven , and his feet are bare and positioned slightly behind hers .
The Virgin is in a frontal view ; directly behind her the red @-@ curtained bed acts as a framing device , similar to the traditional canopy @-@ of @-@ honor or baldachin . Unlike Memling 's predecessors whose Virgins are garbed in heavily jeweled and costly robes , the plain white shift she wears beneath a blue mantle is minimally jeweled at the hem and at the open neckline . A purple underdress peeks out at her neck and wrists , indicating her royal status . Mary seems neither surprised nor fearful at the announcement ; according to Blum the scene is rendered with a great sense of naturalism and successfully depicts " the transformation of Mary from girl to God @-@ bearer . "
The Virgin holds an innovative and unusual position . She seems to be either rising or swooning as if having lost her balance , a divergence from her conventional seated or kneeling pose . Blum believes " one may search in vain in other Netherlandish Annunciation panels of the fifteenth century of a Virgin positioned as she is here " . Art historian Penny Jolly suggests the painting shows a birthing position , a motif van der Weyden experimented with in the Seven Sacraments Altarpiece , where the Virgin 's collapse results in a childbirth @-@ like posture , and with the Descent from the Cross , in which Mary Magdalen bends and crouches – similar to the position Memling 's Magdalen assumes in his Lamentation . Flanking the Virgin , and holding her , are two attendant angels . The one to the left lifts the Virgin 's robe while the other gazes at the viewer , " soliciting our response " , according to Ainsworth . Both are small @-@ statured , solemn , and according to Blum , in mood " comparable to that of Gabriel . " Other than the presence of the angels , Memling shows a typical upper @-@ merchant @-@ class 15th @-@ century Flemish bedchamber .
= = = Objects = = =
The dove of the Holy Spirit hovers inside a rainbow @-@ hued circle of light directly above the Virgin 's head . Its placement and size is unusual for art of the period . It is unlike anything found in van der Weyden , and never repeated in Memling 's work , but reminiscent of van Eyck 's dove in the Ghent Altarpiece 's Annunciation panel . Its shape is found in medallions hung above beds at that time , and thus seems in keeping with the domestic interior .
Mary 's left hand is on an open prayer @-@ book , propped on a prie @-@ dieu ; the letter " D " visible on the page – perhaps for Deus tecum ( " the Lord be with you " ) , according to Ainsworth . Blum speculates the passage is from Isaiah 7 : 14 , " Behold a Virgin shall conceive and bear a son . " A vase containing white lilies and a single blue iris is next to it on the floor .
A curtain sack , commonly found on beds of the period , hangs in the central axis between Gabriel and the attendant angel . A sideboard beside the bed contains two types of candles and a flask of water standing in bright light falling from the window to the left . The floor is multi @-@ colored tile @-@ work , similar to van der Weyden 's Columba altarpiece ; Memling truncates the ceiling rafters in the mid @-@ ground , at the end of the bed , with the floor extending into the foreground . Blum describes the effect as acting " like an open stage for the holy figures " .
= = Iconography = =
The iconography is not overly labored , and Memling avoids extraneous symbolism . Many elements emphasize Mary 's role as the Mother of God ; the chamber is furnished with simple everyday objects that indicate her purity . The vase of lilies and the items on the sideboard are objects 15th @-@ century viewers would have associated with her . White lilies were often used to signify her purity , while irises or sword lilies were used as metaphors for her suffering . Memling emphasizes symbols associated with her womb and virginity , and " introduces two additional angelic priests , and floods the room with natural light , thereby rearranging the anecdotal to emphasize the doctrinal meaning . " Charles Sterling describes the work as " one of the finest examples of Memling 's ability to take a pictorial convention inherited from his predecessors and infuse it with a heightened sense of emotion and narrative complexity . "
= = = Light = = =
Light was associated with Mary and the Incarnation from the 9th century . Millard Meiss notes that , from the 12th century a common way to convey the conception was to compare light passing through glass to the passage of the Holy Spirit through the body of the Virgin . St. Bernard likened it to sunshine explaining in this passage : " Just as the brilliance of the sun fills and penetrates a glass window without damaging it , and pierces its solid form with imperceptible subtlety , neither hurting when entering nor destroying when emerging ; thus the word of God , the splendor of the Father , entered the virgin chamber and then came forth from the closed womb . "
The three objects on the bedside cabinet represent the Virgin 's purity : the water flask , the candleholder , and the ropewick light . The light passing through the glass of the womb @-@ shaped flask symbolizes her flesh , pierced by divine light , its clear and undisturbed water represents her purity at the moment of conception , a device also found in the earlier paintings as a metaphor of the Virgin 's sanctity . The flask shows a reflection of the window 's crossbar as a cross , a symbol of the Crucifixion , another small detail in which Memling " lays one translucent symbolic form upon another " .
Light represented by candles is a common symbol for the Virgin and Christ ; both Campin and van Eyck placed hearths or candles in their annunciation scenes . The candleholder without a candle and the ropewick without flame symbolize the world before Christ 's Nativity and the presence of his divine light , according to Ainsworth .
The challenge for painters of the Annunciation was how to visually represent the Incarnation , the Word made flesh , or Logos . They often showed rays of light emanating from Gabriel or a nearby window entering Mary 's body to depict the concept of Christ " who inhabited and passed through her body " . The light rays might sometimes include an inscription , and were sometimes shown entering her ear , in the belief that it was thus the Word became flesh .
Memling left out the rays of light , as did Dieric Bouts in his Getty Annunciation , yet the room is bright , filled with sunlight , a fenestra incarnationis , which would have been an adequate symbol for the contemporary viewer . By the mid @-@ 15th century the Virgin is found depicted in a room or chamber near an open window to permit the passage of light . Memling 's room , with its window through which light streams , is a most " decorous sign of Mary 's chastity " , according to Blum . There are no word scrolls or banderoles to indicate the Virgin 's acceptance , yet her consent is obvious through her pose , which seems , according to Sterling , both submissive and active .
= = = Mother of Christ = = =
The Virgin birth is indicated by the red bed and red womb @-@ shaped curtain @-@ sack . During the early @-@ 15th century hanging beds or curtain @-@ sacks became symbols of the Incarnation , and " served to affirm [ Christ 's ] humanity " . Blum notes that at a time " when artists did not hesitate to depict the breast of the Virgin , Memling did not shun her womb " . Christ 's humanity was a source of fascination , and it was only in Netherlandish art that a solution was found for visualizing his embryonic state with curtain @-@ sacks draped to suggest the shape of a womb .
Mary 's body becomes the tabernacle holding the Host made flesh . She becomes an object of devotion , a " monstrance containing the Host " . Her full belly and the presence of the dove indicate the moment of Incarnation has occurred . Viewers would have been reminded of the Crucifixion and Lamentation with the swoon , " thus anticipating Christ 's sacrifice for the salvation of mankind at the moment of his conception . " According to theologians , Mary stood with dignity at the Crucifixion of Jesus , but in 15th @-@ century art she is depicted swooning , according to Jolly , " in agony at the sight of her dying son … assuming the pose of a mother in the throes of the pain of childbirth " . At the cross she felt the pain of his death ; pain which at his birth she had not experienced .
The painting 's domestic setting belies its liturgical meaning . The dove is a reminder of the Eucharist and Mass . Lotte Brand Philip observes how throughout the 15th century " eucharistic vessels made in the form of doves and suspended over altars … were lowered at the moment of transubstantiation " ; here it suggests that in the same way the Holy Spirit gives life to the bread and wine , it gave life to the Virgin 's womb . She carries the Body and Blood of Christ , and is attended by three priestly angels . Mary 's function is to bear " the Savior of the World " ; the angels ' role is to " support , present and protect her sacred being " . With the birth of Christ her " miraculous womb passed its final test " to become an object of veneration .
= = = Bride of Christ = = =
Memling presents the Virgin as the Bride of Christ about to assume her role as Queen of Heaven . The attendant angels indicate her royal status . Such angels typically float above the Virgin , holding her crown , and some German painters showed them hovering close in Annunciation scenes , but angels rarely approach or touch the Virgin . Only a single previous version of such attendant angels has been found : in the Boucicaut Master 's early 15th @-@ century illuminated manuscript version of the " Visitation " , the pregnant Virgin 's long mantle is held by attendant angels , about which Blum says , " her queenly appearance surely commemorates the moment when Mary is first addressed as Theotokos , the Mother of the Lord . " Memling frequently featured a pair of angels dressed in vestments attending the Virgin in his work , but these two , dressed in simple amices and albs , were never repeated in his art . Their dual function is to " present the eucharistic offering and proclaim the Virgin bride and queen " .
= = Style and influence = =
The Annunciation draws heavily on van der Weyden 's 1430s Louvre Annunciation , his c . 1455 Saint Columba altarpiece , and the Clugny Annunciation ( c . 1465 – 75 ) , which is attributed to either van der Weyden or Memling . Memling almost certainly was apprenticed to van der Weyden in Brussels until setting up his own workshop in Bruges sometime after 1465 . Memling 's Annunciation is more innovative , with motifs such as the attendant angels that were absent in the earlier paintings . According to Till @-@ Holger Borchert , not only was Memling familiar with van der Weyden 's motifs and compositions , but he might have assisted with the underdrawing in van der Weyden 's workshop . The shutters on the right are copied from the Louvre panel , the knotted curtain appears in the Columba triptych 's " Annunciation " .
A sense of movement is conveyed throughout . The trailing edges of Gabriel 's garment fall outside the pictorial space , indicating his arrival . The Virgin 's " serpentine " pose , with attendant angels supporting her , adds to the sense of flow . Memling 's use of color achieves a startling effect . The traditional rays of light are replaced with light color indicators ; the white clothes rendered in " icy " blue , the angel to the right in yellow patches seems " bleached by light " , the left @-@ hand angel appears to be steeped in shadow , dressed in clothes of lavender and bearing deep green wings . The effect is iridescent , according to Blum , who writes , " this shimmering surface gives [ the figures ] an unearthly quality , separating them from the more believable world of the bedchamber . " The effect deviates from the pure naturalism and realism which typifies Early Netherlandish art , causing a " startling " juxtaposition , an effect that is " unsteadying " and contradictory .
Scholars have not established if the panel was meant to be a single devotional work , or part of a larger , and now broken up , polyptych . According to Ainsworth , its size and " the sacramental nature of its subject would have been appropriate for a family chapel in a church or monastery for the chapel of a guild corporation . " An intact , inscribed frame is unusual for a wing panel , indicating that it was probably intended as a single piece , but scholars are unsure because the slight left @-@ to @-@ right axis of the tiles tend to suggest it could have been the left @-@ hand wing of a larger piece . There is no information about the panel 's reverse , which has not survived .
Technical analysis shows extensive underdrawing , typical for Memling . They were completed in a dry medium except for the dove and the flask and candles on the sideboard . Revisions during the final painting included the enlargement of the Virgin 's sleeves and the repositioning of Gabriel 's staff . Incisions were made to indicate the floor tiles and the dove 's position .
The only person to question Gustav Friedrich Waagen 's 1847 attribution to Memling is W. H. J. Weale , who in 1903 declared Memling " would never have dreamt of introducing into the representation of this mystery these two sentimental and affected angels . "
= = Provenance and condition = =
The painting 's known provenance begins in the 1830s when it was in the possession of the Radziwill family . According to art historian Sulpiz Boisserée , who saw the painting in 1832 , Antoni Radziwill found the painting in an estate his father owned . Waagen speculated that may have belonged to Mikolai Radziwill ( 1549 – 1616 ) who might have inherited it from his brother Jerzy Radziwill , ( 1556 – 1600 ) , who was a cardinal . The family kept it until 1920 when Princess Radziwill sold it to the Duveen Brothers in Paris . Philip Lehman bought it in October 1920 ; it is now held in the Robert Lehman collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Art , in New York .
Generally the condition is good . Memling painted the work on two panels of about 28 cm each . The dated and inscribed frame , probably the original , was discarded in 1830 . There have been three documented restorations . The painting had been pierced by an arrow when Anton Radziwill found it ; he had it restored and the damage repaired . At that time the Virgin 's mantle and the flesh tones sustained heavy overpainting . The original frame was discarded , but its inscription was inserted into the new frame . A description of the original frame suggests it carried a coat @-@ of @-@ arms , perhaps belonging to Jerzy Radziwill . The second restoration was after its exhibition in Bruges in 1902 ; and the third when Lehman had it restored and transferred to canvas sometime after 1928 . The painting survived the transfer without significant damage . A late @-@ 19th century photograph shows wood on all four sides of the painted surface , which suggests the edges may have been extended during the transfer . Areas that suffered paint loss and overpainting are Gabriel 's cope and the vase holding the flowers .
When Boisserée saw the painting he recorded the inscription 's date as 1480 . The last digit of the inscription was faded and difficult to read and had become illegible by 1899 . Waagen suggested the date could have been 1482 , and art historian Dirk de Vos suggested 1489 . Memling 's style does not lend itself well to assigning dates , making a determination difficult . According to Stirling , an earlier date is easily accepted , especially because of stylistic similarities to Memling 's 1479 St John Altarpiece , whereas Ainsworth leans toward the later date as more in keeping with the mature style of the late 1480s .
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= Ninth Doctor =
The Ninth Doctor is an incarnation of the Doctor , the protagonist of the BBC science fiction television programme Doctor Who . He is portrayed by Christopher Eccleston during the first series of the show 's revival in 2005 . Within the programme 's narrative , the Doctor is a time travelling , humanoid alien from a race known as the Time Lords . When the Doctor is critically injured , he can regenerate his body but in doing so gains a new physical appearance and with it , a distinct new personality .
The production team 's approach to the character and Eccleston 's portrayal were highlighted as being intentionally different from his predecessors , with Eccleston stating that his character would be less eccentric . To fit in with a 21st @-@ century audience , the Doctor was given a primary companion , Rose Tyler , who was designed to be as independent and courageous as himself . He also briefly travels with Adam Mitchell , a self @-@ serving boy genius who acts as a foil to the companions and ultimately proves unworthy , and Jack Harkness , a reformed con man from the 51st century . The Doctor , Rose and Jack form a close team but are separated in the series finale in which each character has to make difficult choices and face sacrifice .
In 2006 , readers of Doctor Who Magazine voted Eccleston 's Doctor the third most popular Doctor . Both mainstream press and science fiction reviewers generally credit the character and Eccleston as helping to re @-@ establish the show following its hiatus between 1996 and 2005 . The character 's interactions with his archenemies , the Daleks , were particularly praised . Eccleston won several awards for his single series including the 2005 National Television Award for best actor .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Television = = =
The Ninth Doctor first appears in the episode " Rose " where he rescues 19 @-@ year @-@ old shopgirl Rose Tyler ( Billie Piper ) from an Auton attack in the department store where she works . After Rose helps the Doctor defeat the Nestene Consciousness ( living plastic ) , he invites her to travel with him in the TARDIS . On their first trip he takes her to witness the destruction of planet Earth in the year five billion . It is revealed that the Doctor 's own species , the Time Lords , have been destroyed and the Doctor is the last of his kind . Following from this they visit Cardiff in 1869 where they encounter author Charles Dickens , of whom the Doctor claims to be a big fan . When faced with a near death situation , the Doctor tells Rose that he was glad to have met her . In taking Rose home the Doctor accidentally returns to earth 12 months after they left . Because of his actions he is treated like an Internet predator by Rose 's mother Jackie ( Camille Coduri ) and Rose 's boyfriend Mickey ( Noel Clarke ) has become Rose 's murder suspect . After Mickey helps the Doctor and Rose defeat the Slitheen by firing a missile at their base at 10 Downing Street , the Doctor offers Mickey a place in the TARDIS with them but he refuses . In the episode " Dalek " the Doctor encounters a Dalek , though he had believed the race to be extinct as the " Time War " between the Time Lords and Daleks concluded with the mutual annihilation of both races — an event for which the Doctor himself was responsible . The Doctor tortures the surviving Dalek and at the end of the episode attempts to kill it in cold blood . He refrains once Rose calls him out on this .
Adam Mitchell ( Bruno Langley ) joins the Doctor and Rose as companion at the end of " Dalek " . However , when he tries to smuggle future knowledge from Satellite Five in the year 200 @,@ 000 back to his own time in " The Long Game " the Doctor expels him from the TARDIS . The Doctor is angry at Rose after he takes her to the event of father Pete Tyler ( Shaun Dingwall ) ' s death and she saves his life , causing a paradox . However , when Pete dies to restore the timeline he shows compassion and encourages her to sit by his side as he passes away . After encountering Captain Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) ( a con artist and former Time Agent from the 51st century ) in 1941 , the Doctor realises Harkness had caused a deadly nanotechnological plague to sweep through the human race , turning humans into gas @-@ mask zombies . Following the resolution of the situation , Jack prepares to sacrifice himself , but the Doctor saves him and invites him on board the TARDIS . When the Doctor encounters Blon ( Annette Badland ) , the only Slitheen to survive the Downing Street explosion in present @-@ day Cardiff he has doubts over whether or not to send her home to be executed . During this episode the Doctor first notices that he and Rose had kept coming across the words " Bad Wolf " . In the episode " Bad Wolf " the Doctor , Rose and Jack find themselves at the mercy of the Bad Wolf Corporation based on Satellite Five . However , the true enemy is revealed to be the Daleks , the Dalek Emperor having also survived the Time War and had rebuilt the Dalek race . The Doctor sends Rose back to the 21st century to protect her before attempting to destroy the Dalek army . When he realises that doing this would destroy most of planet Earth he is unable to do so , proclaiming he would rather be a coward than a killer . Having absorbed the energies of the time vortex , Rose is able to return to the Doctor and destroy the Daleks . To save Rose from being killed by harbouring the time vortex , the Doctor removes the harmful effects by kissing her . However , the damage to his cells causes him to regenerate and the Tenth Doctor ( David Tennant ) takes his place .
The Ninth Doctor 's origins were originally not explored in 2005 , but were given in the show 's fiftieth anniversary special , " The Day of the Doctor " , in 2013 . In the aftermath of the Time War , the War Doctor ( John Hurt ) succumbs to old age . The regeneration scene is cut short before Eccleston 's likeness can be fully seen , as the actor declined to return for the episode and showrunner Steven Moffat wished to honour Eccleston 's decision . Eccleston does , however , appear in stock footage and stills alongside the first eight Doctors .
= = = Literature = = =
In the essay " Flood Barriers " in the 2007 Panini Books reprint collection of Eighth Doctor comic strips from Doctor Who Magazine strip editor Clayton Hickman reveals that Russell T Davies had authorised the comic strip to depict the Eighth Doctor 's regeneration into the Ninth at the end of the story arc , The Flood . The regeneration would have been witnessed by the Eighth Doctor 's companion , Destrii , and Hickman writes that the intent was to continue with a Ninth Doctor : Year One story arc with the Ninth Doctor and Destrii . However , when this arc was vetoed by both Russell T Davies and series producer Julie Gardner the creative team felt unable to regenerate the Doctor without Destrii 's presence and the decision was made not to depict the regeneration in the comic strip . The reprint collection includes a specially @-@ drawn panel showing how the Ninth Doctor might have looked in the comic strip immediately after his regeneration , wearing the Eighth Doctor 's costume and being tended to by Destrii .
The Ninth Doctor appears in the first six of the Doctor Who hardback New Series Adventures novels which tie in with the first series of the revamped show . The first three of these novels — The Clockwise Man , The Monsters Inside and Winner Takes All — were published on 19 May 2005 and feature solely the Doctor and Rose . The Monsters Inside depicts the Doctor taking Rose to her first alien planet , Justicia . Rose mentions the visit to Justicia in the first series episode " Boom Town " which aired 4 June 2005 in an example of the television series referencing the novels . The second batch of Ninth Doctor novels — comprising The Deviant Strain , Only Human and The Stealers of Dreams — were released 8 September 2005 and feature the Doctor , Rose and later companion Captain Jack . All of the Ninth Doctor novels except Only Human make reference to the " Bad Wolf " story arc of the first series although in keeping with the TV series , the Doctor does not acknowledge these as significant . [ a ] The Ninth Doctor appeared in the Penguin Fiftieth Anniversary eBook novella The Beast of Babylon by Charlie Higson . Here it is shown that he had adventures between dematerialising near the end of " Rose " and re @-@ materializing to tell Rose the TARDIS travels in time .
The character featured in comic strips in Doctor Who Magazine between 2005 and 2006 as well as in several short stories in the Doctor Who Annual 2006 . In Steven Moffat 's Ninth Doctor short story " ' What I Did on My Christmas Holidays ' by Sally Sparrow " the Doctor and the TARDIS are inadvertently separated twenty years in time by a fault in the time machine and the Doctor is able to instruct Sally how to bring it back to him in the past . This short story later became the basis of the third series episode " Blink " . The Ninth Doctor has appeared in IDW Comics Doctor Who : The Forgotten and Doctor Who : Prisoners of Time .
= = = Audio = = =
The Ninth Doctor made his first official , original audio story appearance in Big Finish / AudioGo 's Destiny of the Doctor : Night of the Whisper , released in September 2013 for 50th anniversary of Doctor Who . He is joined by companions Rose and Captain Jack , and Nicholas Briggs reads the story and provides his voice .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting = = =
The Doctor had been played by eight actors between when the series began in 1963 and the casting of Christopher Eccleston ; the concept of regeneration — a process in which the title character takes on a new body and identity — having been introduced in 1966 to allow the production team to change lead actors . Between 1963 and 1989 seven different actors played the part . An Eighth Doctor , played by Paul McGann , appeared in a BBC / Fox co @-@ produced television film in 1996 , however this did not lead to a full series . Over six weeks in 2003 , the BBC posted an animated serial called Scream of the Shalka on their official website . This was originally developed as an official continuation to series , and featured Richard E Grant in the role of the Doctor . In promoting the online serial , Grant was referred to as the official Ninth Doctor by the BBC . However , following the September 2003 announcement that the series would return to television with a new actor in the title role , the canonical status of the so @-@ called " Shalka Doctor " was left in doubt .
Christopher Eccleston 's casting as the Ninth Doctor was announced on 22 March 2004 . He was the production team 's first choice for the character . Other actors linked to the role included Bill Nighy , Richard E Grant , Anthony Head , Eddie Izzard , Hugh Grant and Alan Davies . Jane Tranter , BBC Controller of Drama Commissioning , stated in the announcement of his casting that casting an actor of Eccleston 's reputation signalled " our intention to take Doctor Who into the 21st century , as well as retaining its core traditional values – to be surprising , edgy and eccentric " . Executive Producer Russell T Davies remarked that casting Eccleston " raises the bar for all of us " . Eccleston cited the quality of the scripts as a reason for joining the cast , stating in an interview on BBC 's Breakfast programme that he was " excited " about working with Davies . In the press @-@ pack for the series he states that he had emailed the writer to declare his interest in the role . Eccleston enjoyed having the chance to work on a series aimed at a different demographic than his previous work , noting that " it 's aimed at families , so I 'm kind of acting for children and I feel very lucky to be able to do that " . He felt that being cast by Davies in the series was a " risk " because as an actor he is not known for " charm or comedy " and anticipated a potential backlash due to being built up as " an actor of stature " and the difference between his own interpretation of the character and past doctors .
On 30 March 2005 the BBC confirmed that Eccleston would not be staying in the role for a second series , claiming that he was scared of being typecast . On 4 April they admitted that this statement had been made without consulting the actor , and were forced to apologise . Speaking to the Yorkshire Evening Post in 2010 , Eccleston denied that he left due to fear of being typecast . He stated that he " didn 't enjoy the environment and the culture that we , the cast and crew , had to work in " and that he did not want to do any more based on the experience . He said , " I wasn 't comfortable . I thought ' If I stay in this job , I 'm going to have to blind myself to certain things that I thought were wrong . ' And I think it 's more important to be your own man than be successful , so I left . But the most important thing is that I did it , not that I left . I really feel that , because it kind of broke the mould and it helped to reinvent it . I 'm very proud of it . " According to the Sunday Mirror , an interview for BBC 's Doctor Who website that was taken down after his departure revealed that Eccleston had planned to stay for two or three more years . In March 2013 a source for the BBC indicated that Eccleston had discussed plans for Doctor Who 's 50th anniversary special , which aired in November 2013 , with Davies ' successor as executive producer , Steven Moffat . After consideration , he decided not to return to the series . Had he returned , his incarnation would have played the role that ultimately became the War Doctor , portrayed by John Hurt .
= = = Characterisation = = =
Eccleston stated in April 2004 that he did not believe his Doctor would be " as eccentric and as foppish as he was in some of his incarnations " . Russell T Davies characterised the character as a " stripped down " version of previous Doctors . Regarding the Ninth Doctor 's less eccentric character , Davies stated : " He travels in time and space , he 's got two hearts , he 's a Time Lord — that 's eccentric enough to be getting on with " . In contrast with previous Doctors , the Ninth Doctor speaks with a distinct Northern accent . Remarking on this aspect of his characterisation Eccleston states that the character " is a scientist and an intellectual , and a lot of people seem to think you can only be those things if you speak with received pronunciation which , of course , is rubbish . " In regards to the Doctor 's costume , consisting of a black leather jacket and jeans , the actor states , " I didn 't want the costume to be my performance " and that " I wanted any flamboyance and colour to come out of my acting . " Eccleston thought that as the Doctor he should show a " slight dark side " but also bring out a lighter side . Executive producer Julie Gardner observed that the Ninth Doctor gave Eccleston the chance to be " very intense but also frivolous as well . "
Eccleston felt that as a character his Doctor lives solely for the present . He avoids thinking about his past because " there 's some pain there " – and his only concern regarding the future is that " it 's there " . Eccleston felt that the character ultimately provides a life @-@ affirming message stating that " In everything the Doctor does , he is saying ' it 's great to be alive ' . " In an interview with Newsround he stated that the Doctor accepts individuals regardless of colour and creed and expressed hope that the Doctor would encourage young children to appreciate life . However , he also drew out differences between the Doctor and traditional children 's heroes . The actor described the character as " brutal at times " and " confrontational " and " inflexible " stating that he " sometimes creates carnage " and that " there 's nobody like him in Disney " . Matthew Sweet of The Evening Standard highlighted the dichotomy of the character being " brave and wise and brilliant " but also " rough and ready " and " down @-@ to @-@ earth " .
A loose story arc that informed the Doctor 's characterisation during the 2005 series is his feelings regarding the destruction of his own race , the Time Lords , which occurred offscreen before episode one . Eccleston felt that the episode " Dalek " showed the audience why his Doctor is the way he is and " how he feels about his past " . Russell T Davies remarked that the Ninth Doctor carries a lot of survival guilt ; this is why he " strides through the universe wearing a dark leather jacket saying " Don 't touch me " " . Davies felt that " Dalek " provided a " bit of therapy " and after this he " starts to rebuild himself " . In the episode " The Parting of the Ways " the Doctor sacrifices his ninth life to save Rose . Davies felt it was important to take the Doctor away from mythological off stage concepts such as the Time War and provide a conclusion that focused on the relationship between the character and Rose . John Barrowman , who played Captain Jack , felt that the Doctor 's decision to save Rose enabled a catharsis ; as he sacrifices himself to save her he is " letting go of the burden of the Time Lords being destroyed " .
= = = Companions = = =
Since 1963 , the Doctor has travelled with various companions who generally serve to remind him of his " moral duty " . The casting of Billie Piper as the Ninth Doctor 's primary female companion Rose Tyler was announced in May 2004 . Julie Gardner felt that the young actress and former pop star was perfect as a " unique " and " dynamic " companion for the Doctor . Press for the series focused heavily on the fact that Rose was to be more independent and courageous than previous companions . Prior to the casting of Piper , Eccleston had joked that " I 'll be doing the running around screaming . " He later opined that Rose is not as " vulnerable " as previous companions and that " she 's as brave and courageous and intelligent as he is " citing the fact that she saves the Doctor 's life . Piper remarked that the Doctor challenges Rose more than anyone else in her life and that he in turn sees in her " she has huge potential , to be someone really , really great . " Eccleston felt that Rose is a " heroine " who " teaches [ the Doctor ] huge emotional lessons " . He felt that the relationship between the two characters was " love at first sight " although in a more mysterious fashion than a conventional love affair . Commentators on the series noted the romantic tension between the two characters . In their book Who is the Doctor ? , Graeme Burk and Robert Smith described the climactic kiss between the Ninth Doctor and Rose in " The Parting of the Ways " as being something " we all secretly wanted , even though it ultimately killed him " .
Adam Mitchell joins the Doctor and Rose in the episode " Dalek " . The character was first conceived during Russell T Davies ' 2003 pitch to the BBC : it was always the intention for Adam to join the TARDIS team after Rose developed a liking for him . Contrasting against Rose , Adam was created to show that not everybody is suited to be a companion . Davies stated that he " always wanted to do a show with someone who was a rubbish companion " and dubbed Adam " the companion that couldn 't " . Upon returning Adam home , the Doctor informs him that " I only take the best . I 've got Rose " . Fraser McAlpine , reviewing Adam 's appearances as companion for BBC America 's Anglophenia blog , described Adam as fulfilling a role as " the companion that proves the worth of all of the other companions " . From episodes nine through thirteen , Rose and the Doctor are joined by the con man Jack Harkness . Jack 's appearances were conceived with the intention of forming a character arc in which Jack is transformed from a coward to a hero . John Barrowman , reflecting on the interrelationships between The Doctor , Jack and Rose , felt that " the subtle sexual chemistry between all three characters ... was always in play " with the caveat that " the relationships were by no means driven by desire " . SFX magazine also commented on the " intoxicatingly flirtatious dynamic " and compared the trio to " a Buffy @-@ style Scooby gang who can quip in the face of danger " . Jack parts from the Ninth Doctor with a kiss which Barrowman felt to be " full of fondess and respect " and both " a significant moment in the annals of the series " and " a moment full of melancholy and loss for the characters " .
= = Analysis and reception = =
James Delingpole of The Spectator noted that subsequent to Fourth Doctor Tom Baker 's departure and prior to Eccleston actors who portrayed the Doctor had a tendency to play the role " too camp , knowing , lovable or twee " . He felt that the " brusque , sarky and virile " Ninth Doctor " transports us back to the golden era of Jon Pertwee when the series still had that edge of darkness . " Marena Manzoufas , head of ABC programming , commented after picking up the series that Eccleston " has brought a new dynamic energy to the role " and the show would appeal to both long time viewers and new fans . She cited the high viewing figures of Eccleston 's debut episode — over 10 million — as proof that audiences were ready to welcome in a new era of the show . Looking back on David Tennant 's era and forward to Matt Smith , The Herald 's Edd McCracken comments that casting Tennant had been a risk after " the show 's reputation and ratings " had been " restored under Eccleston " . However he notes that due to the brevity of the Ninth Doctor 's era Tennant subsequently had time to make his character more established . Richard Henley Davis of The Economic Voice also notes that Tennant " had big boots to fill after Christopher Eccleston 's Doctor Who , which many believe to be the greatest incarnation of the lunatic time lord . " In a 2005 interview Tennant himself stated " there 's an awful lot to live up to " after taking on the role from Eccleston , having admired his performances as a viewer .
Like Delingpole , Andrew Blair found similarities between the Ninth Doctor era and the Third Doctor era , summarising Eccleston 's single series as " a modern day season seven " . In his retrospective of the character , he states that Eccleston 's casting proved that the revival of the show " was not a light entertainment concern " . He comments that in online fandom there was a sense " of a ship being steered in a different direction " and praises the plot device of the Time War as allowing the character to become mysterious again by providing him a " blank slate " . He compares the Ninth Doctor to the First Doctor ( William Hartnell ) in that both characters are " an unknown who remains aggressively weird until his new @-@ found human friends soften him up " . Blair also felt that the Ninth Doctor 's relationship with the Doctor 's arch enemies the Daleks was more successful than in other incarnations giving particular praise to Eccleston 's " spittle @-@ enhanced and terrifyingly furious reaction " to the monsters in " Dalek " . Blair ends his retrospective by noting that without the foundations laid by Eccleston the show " wouldn 't have been able to move onwards towards the even more popular David Tennant era " . Steven Moffat , who wrote " The Empty Child " / " The Doctor Dances " for Eccleston 's Doctor and would become Doctor Who executive producer in 2010 , observed that in 2005 there was a distinct lack of science fiction and fantasy drama in the UK . He felt that the first series had to establish itself as " a bit Hollyoaks " and " a bit tough detective " to prove itself as a " proper , sensible drama series " . Moffat notes that the 2005 series " changed the landscape into which it once tried to fit " and that now Doctor Who " has to be the most fantastical of the fantasy shows . "
Ahead of the series premiere on Australian Network ABC the Sydney Morning Herald 's Robin Oliver predicted that older viewers " will find Eccleston easily the best time lord since Tom Baker . " However Harry Venning of The Stage , whilst enthusiastic about the revival of the show , labelled Eccleston as the " show 's biggest disappointment " following the premiere episode , stating he looked uncomfortable in a fantasy role . The Guardian 's Stephen Kelly felt that Eccleston 's Ninth Doctor had many faults , two of which he felt to be " looking like an EastEnders extra and bellowing " fantastic " at every opportunity " . However , he felt that he " brought warmth , wit and promise " and a " formidable presence " . Kelly believed that Eccleston was believable as a man who had destroyed two civilisations and was dealing with the repercussions and could have brought more to the show had Eccleston stayed for a second series . Seventh Doctor actor Sylvester McCoy praised Eccleston as being " quite alien " as the Doctor and that " we were not sure if he was on the edge of insanity or not , which was rather good . " Peter Davison , who played the Fifth Doctor , criticised Eccleston 's decision to quit after a single series stating " I don 't think you can engage with the new Doctor in the way you should be able to . "
In 2005 Christopher Eccleston won " Most Popular Actor " at the National Television Awards and the TV Quick and TV Choice award for Best Actor . He was also voted Best Actor by readers of SFX magazine . Eccleston was named Best Actor with 59 @.@ 42 % of the vote in BBC.co.uk 's online " Best of Drama " poll in 2005 . In a Doctor Who Magazine poll in 2006 Eccleston was voted the third greatest Doctor behind those portrayed by Tom Baker and David Tennant . In April 2011 IGN also listed Eccleston 's Doctor as the third best Doctor , opining that he " gave us a tough @-@ as @-@ nails Doctor damaged by war and guilt , but still possessing the same spark of fun and adventure as his previous selves . " The entertainment website stated that in introducing a new generation to the show he " became an icon for a new millennium . " Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph named him the ninth best Doctor , noting that Eccleston was " a serious actor " and " his attempts at a lighter style could seem a tad forced " , though this was " offset by his showdowns against the Daleks " . Fuller also was disappointed that his " time was over all too swiftly " . A 2012 poll conducted by the United States media news magazine Entertainment Weekly resulted in Eccleston being voted the fourth most popular Doctor , behind David Tennant , Matt Smith ( the Eleventh Doctor ) and Tom Baker .
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= Tonga at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
Tonga competed at the 2008 Summer Olympics , that celebrated in Beijing , China , from August 8 to August 24 , 2008 . Tonga was represented by the Tonga Sports Association and National Olympic Committee , and was one of 117 nations that won no medals at the Games . Tonga was represented by three athletes competing in two sports – Aisea Tohi and Ana Po 'uhila in track and field events , and Maamaloa Lolohea in weightlifting . The delegation 's appearance at the Olympics marked its seventh consecutive appearance at the Olympics since its debut at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles . The flag bearer for Tonga in Beijing was field athlete Ana Po 'uhila .
= = Background = =
The Kingdom of Tonga is an archipelago of 169 islands ( 36 are inhabited by about 100 @,@ 000 people ) that is located in the South Pacific Ocean to the far east of Australia . Initially known as the " Friendly Islands " by explorers , The islands of Tonga united under a single monarchy in 1845 , and devised a constitution to restrain the monarchy in 1875 . It is the only nation in the South Pacific that has neither been formally colonized nor had its original government dissolved , although it became a protectorate of the United Kingdom on 1900 . Tonga renounced British protection in 1970 and , as of 2012 , was the only monarchy in the Pacific Ocean .
Some 14 years after becoming a sovereign nation in both foreign and domestic affairs , Tonga submitted its first delegation to the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles , California , its largest Olympic team ever as of the Beijing Olympics . The first female Tongan athlete participated in the Olympics at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , South Korea . Between 1984 and 2008 , Tongan athletes have participated at all of the seven summer Olympics . From 1988 to 2008 , however , there had not been a Tongan Olympic team greater than five athletes in size . There had been a single Tongan medalist during this time period : Paea Wolfgramm won a silver medal in boxing at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta , Georgia .
Three athletes went to the 2008 Beijing Summer Games to participate on Tonga 's behalf . Aisea Tohi was its sole track athlete , Ana Po 'uhila was its sole field and only female athlete , and Maamaloa Lolohea was its only weightlifter . At 21 years old , Tohi was the youngest member of the delegation ; Lolohea , at 40 , was the oldest . Po 'uhila was the nation 's flag bearer at the ceremonies .
= = Athletics = =
Aisea Tohi represented Tonga at the Beijing Olympics in track and field . Born on Tonga 's main island of Tongatapu in the settlement of Tofua , attended the Beijing Olympics at 21 years old , participating in the men 's 100 meters dash . Tohi had not previously competed in any Olympic games . During the course of his event 's qualification round , which took place on August 14 , Tohi was placed in the second heat against seven other athletes . He finished the race in 11 @.@ 17 seconds , placing seventh in his heat ahead of Roman William Cress from the Marshall Islands ( 11 @.@ 18 seconds ) and behind Béranger Bosse of the Central African Republic ( 10 @.@ 51 seconds ) . The leaders of Tohi 's heat included Jamaica 's Asafa Powell ( 10 @.@ 16 seconds ) as well as Kim Collins of Saint Kitts and Nevis ( 10 @.@ 17 seconds ) . Of the 80 athletes participating in the qualification round , Tohi placed 71st . He did not advance to later rounds .
Ana Po 'uhila participated in the women 's shot put on the behalf of Tonga at the Beijing Olympics , and was the only female athlete competing for Tonga at the 2008 Olympic games . She was born in Nuku 'alofa , the national capital , which lies on the primary Tongan island of Tongatapu . Po 'uhila first participated in the Olympics at age 24 , when she represented Tonga in shot put at the 2004 Athens games . She represented Tonga again in Beijing at the age of 32 . During the qualifying heat of her event , which took place on August 15 , the Tongan field athlete was placed in the seventeen @-@ person second heat . Po 'uhila was given three attempts to put the shot as far as she could . During the first attempt , she lobbed the shot 16 @.@ 21 meters , ranking 12th in her heat . She bested this ranking on her second attempt when she lobbed it 16 @.@ 42 meters , ranking seventh amongst those who threw during the second try . Her third and final attempt , 16 @.@ 35 meters , did not beat her second attempt . Using her best mark , 16 @.@ 42 meters , Po 'uhila placed 12th out of the 16 athletes who finished the event . She ranked ahead of Taiwan 's Lin Chia @-@ Ying ( 16 @.@ 32 meters ) and behind Russia 's Irina Khudoroshkina ( 16 @.@ 84 meters ) in a heat led by China 's Gong Lijiao ( 19 @.@ 46 meters ) and Belarus ' Nadzeya Ostapchuk ( 19 @.@ 08 meters ) . Of the 33 athletes who finished the event , Ana Po 'uhila ranked 27th . She did not advance to the final round .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
= = Weightlifting = =
Maamaloa Lolohea participated in the Beijing Olympics on Tonga 's behalf , competing in weightlifting . Lolohea was born in Kolofo 'ou , a district of the capital city Nuku 'alofa , and competed in Beijing as a 40 @-@ year @-@ old in the men 's super @-@ heavyweight class division , which encompasses athletes who weigh more than 105 kilograms . Lolohea had not previously competed at any Olympic games . The Tongan athlete competed in his event on August 19 , where he faced 14 other athletes . During the snatch phase of the event , Lolohea was given three attempts . He successfully lifted 127 kilograms on his first attempt , 135 kilograms on his second attempt , and 140 kilograms on his third and final attempt . During the clean and jerk phase of the event , he successfully lifted 173 kilograms on his first try , but unsuccessfully attempted to lift 185 kilograms on his second and third attempts . Because his highest scores were 140 in snatch and 173 in clean and jerk , Lolohea 's final and total score was 313 kilograms . Of the 13 competitors who finished the event , Maamaloa Lolohea finished last behind Sam Pera , Jr. of the Cook Islands ( 350 kilograms ) , who in turn finished behind Finland 's Antti Everi ( 366 kilograms ) . Gold medalist Matthias Steiner of Germany , in contrast , lifted a total of 461 kilograms .
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= Samsung Galaxy S III =
The Samsung Galaxy S III is a multi @-@ touch , slate @-@ format smartphone model designed , developed , and marketed by Samsung Electronics that runs the Android OS by Google . It has additional software features , expanded hardware , and a redesigned physique from its predecessor , the Samsung Galaxy S II . The S III employs an intelligent personal assistant ( S Voice ) , eye @-@ tracking ability , and increased storage . Although a wireless charging option was announced , it never came to fruition . Depending on country , the 4 @.@ 8 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) smartphone comes with different processors and RAM capacity , and 4G LTE support . The device was launched with Android 4 @.@ 0 @.@ 4 " Ice Cream Sandwich " , was updated to Android 4 @.@ 3 " Jelly Bean " , and can be updated to Android 4 @.@ 4 " KitKat " on variants with 2 GB of RAM . The phone 's successor , the Samsung Galaxy S4 , was announced on 14 March 2013 and was released the following month .
Following an 18 @-@ month development phase , Samsung unveiled the S III on 3 May 2012 . The device was released in 28 European and Middle Eastern countries on 29 May 2012 , before being progressively released in other major markets in June 2012 . Prior to release , 9 million pre @-@ orders were placed by more than 100 carriers globally . The S III was released by approximately 300 carriers in nearly 150 countries at the end of July 2012 . More than 20 million units of the S III were sold within the first 100 days of release . Samsung has since sold more than 50 million units .
Because of overwhelming demand and a manufacturing problem with the blue variant of the phone , there was an extensive shortage of the S III , especially in the United States . Nevertheless , the S III was well @-@ received commercially and critically , with some technology commentators touting it as the " iPhone killer " . In September 2012 , TechRadar ranked it as the No. 1 handset in its constantly updated list of the 20 best mobile phones , while Stuff magazine likewise ranked it at No. 1 in its list of 10 best smartphones in May 2012 . The handset also won the " European Mobile Phone of 2012 – 13 " award from the European Imaging and Sound Association , as well as T3 magazine 's " Phone of the Year " award for 2012 . It played a major role in boosting Samsung 's record operating profit during the second quarter of 2012 . As of November 2012 , the S III is part of a high @-@ profile lawsuit between Samsung and Apple . In November 2012 , research firm Strategy Analytics announced that the S III had overtaken Apple 's iPhone 4S to become the world 's best @-@ selling smartphone model in Q3 2012 .
In April 2014 , following the release of its former flagship , the Galaxy S5 . Samsung released a refreshed version called the " Galaxy S3 Neo " which has a quad @-@ core Snapdragon 400 processor clocked either at 1 @.@ 2 or 1 @.@ 4 GHz . It has 1 @.@ 5 GB of RAM , 16 GB of internal storage and ships with Android 4 @.@ 4 @.@ 4 " KitKat " .
= = History = =
Design work on the S III started in late 2010 under the supervision of Chang Dong @-@ hoon , Samsung 's Vice President and Head of the Design Group of Samsung Electronics . From the start , the design group concentrated on a trend which Samsung dubs " organic " , which suggests that a prospective design should reflect natural elements such as the flow of water and wind . Some of the results of this design were the curved outline of the phone and its home screen 's " Water Lux " effect , where taps and slides produce water ripples .
Throughout the eighteen @-@ month design process , Samsung implemented stringent security measures and procedures to maintain secrecy of the eventual design until its launch . Designers worked on three prototypes concurrently while regarding each of them as the final product . Doing so required a constant duplication of effort as they had to repeat the same process for all three prototypes . The prototypes , which taking photos of was forbidden , were locked in a separate lab accessible only by core designers . They were transported by trusted company 's employees instead of third @-@ party couriers . " Because we were only permitted to see the products and others weren 't , " explained Principal Engineer Lee Byung @-@ Joon , " we couldn 't send pictures or drawings . We had to explain the Galaxy S III with all sorts of words . " Despite such security measures , specifications of one of the three units were leaked by Vietnamese website Tinhte , although it was not the selected design .
Speculation in the general public and media outlets regarding the handset 's specifications began gathering momentum several months before its formal unveiling in May 2012 . In February 2012 , prior to the Mobile World Congress ( MWC ) in Barcelona , Spain , there were rumors that the handset would incorporate a 1 @.@ 5 GHz quad @-@ core processor , a display of 1080p ( 1080 × 1920 pixels ) resolution , a 12 @-@ megapixel rear camera and a HD Super AMOLED Plus touchscreen . More accurate rumored specifications included 2 GB of RAM , 64 GB of internal storage , 4G LTE , a 4 @.@ 8 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) screen , an 8 @-@ megapixel rear camera , and a 9 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 35 in ) thick chassis . Samsung confirmed the existence of the Galaxy S II 's successor on 5 March 2012 , but it was not until late April 2012 that Samsung 's Senior Vice @-@ President Robert Yi confirmed the phone to be called " Samsung Galaxy S III " .
After inviting reporters in mid @-@ April , Samsung launched the Galaxy S III during the Samsung Mobile Unpacked 2012 event at Earls Court Exhibition Centre , London , United Kingdom , on 3 May 2012 , instead of unveiling their products earlier in the year during either the World Mobile Congress or Consumer Electronics Show ( CES ) . One explanation for this decision is that Samsung wanted to minimize the time between its launch and availability . The keynote address of the hour @-@ long event was delivered by Loesje De Vriese , Marketing Director of Samsung Belgium .
Following the launch of the Galaxy S4 in June 2013 , Samsung was reportedly retiring the phone earlier than planned because of low sales numbers and to streamline manufacturing operations .
= = Features = =
= = = Hardware and design = = =
The S III has a plastic chassis measuring 136 @.@ 6 mm ( 5 @.@ 38 in ) long , 70 @.@ 7 mm ( 2 @.@ 78 in ) wide , and 8 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 34 in ) thick , with the device weighing 133 grams ( 4 @.@ 7 oz ) . Samsung abandoned the rectangular design of the Galaxy S and Galaxy S II , and instead incorporated round corners and curved edges , reminiscent of the Galaxy Nexus . The device has been available in several color options : white , black , grey , blue @-@ grey , red , and brown . A " Garnet Red " model was made available exclusively to US carrier AT & T on 15 July 2012 .
The S III comes in two distinct variations that differ primarily in the internal hardware . The international S III version has Samsung 's Exynos 4 Quad system on a chip ( SoC ) containing a 1 @.@ 4 GHz quad @-@ core ARM Cortex @-@ A9 central processing unit ( CPU ) and an ARM Mali @-@ 400 MP graphics processing unit ( GPU ) . According to Samsung , the Exynos 4 Quad doubles the performance of the Exynos 4 Dual used on the S II , while using 20 percent less power . Samsung had also released several 4G LTE versions — 4G facilitates higher @-@ speed mobile connection compared to 3G — in selected countries to exploit the corresponding communications infrastructures that exist in those markets . Most of these versions use Qualcomm 's Snapdragon S4 SoC featuring a dual @-@ core 1 @.@ 5 GHz Krait CPU and an Adreno 225 GPU . The South Korean and Australian versions are a hybrid of the international and 4G @-@ capable versions .
The S III has a maximum of 2 GB of RAM , depending on model . The phone comes with either 16 or 32 GB of internal storage , with a 64 GB version to be available internationally ; additionally , microSDXC storage offers a further 64 GB for a potential total of 128 GB . Moreover , 50 GB of space is offered for two years on Dropbox — a cloud storage service — for purchasers of the device , doubling rival HTC 's 25 GB storage for the same duration .
The S III 's HD Super AMOLED display measures 4 @.@ 8 inches ( 120 mm ) on the diagonal . With a 720 × 1280 @-@ pixel ( 720p ) resolution , its 306 pixel per inch ( PPI , a measure of pixel density ) is a relatively high , which is accommodated by the removal one of the three subpixels — red , green and blue — in each pixel to create a PenTile matrix @-@ display ; consequently , it does not share the " Plus " suffix found on the S II 's Super AMOLED Plus display . The glass used for the display is the damage @-@ resistant corning Gorilla Glass 2 , except for S3 Neo variant . The device 's software includes a feature known as " Smart Stay " , which uses the device 's front camera to detect whether the user 's eyes are looking at the screen , and prevents the screen from automatically turning off while the user is still looking at it .
The S III has an 8 @-@ megapixel camera similar to that of the Galaxy S II . It can take 3264 × 2448 @-@ pixel resolution photos and record videos in 1920 × 1080 @-@ pixel ( 1080p ) resolution . Samsung improved the camera 's software over that of its predecessor to include zero shutter lag , and Burst Mode and Best Shot , which work together to quickly take numerous photos before the best @-@ judged frame is selected . The phone can also take pictures while recording videos . The rear @-@ facing camera is complemented by a 1 @.@ 9 @-@ megapixel front @-@ facing camera that can record 720p videos . The phone has LED flash and autofocus .
In addition to the 4 @.@ 8 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) touchscreen , the S III has several physical user inputs , including a home button located below the screen , a volume key on the left side and a power / lock key on the right . At the top there is a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 14 in ) headphone jack and one of the two microphones on the S III ; the other is located below the home button . The S III is advertised as having an MHL port that can be used both as a micro @-@ USB On @-@ The @-@ Go port , and for connecting the phone to HDMI devices . However , a retailer later discovered that Samsung had made a modification to the electronics of the port such that only the adapter made specifically for this model by Samsung could be used .
The S III 's Li @-@ ion 2 @,@ 100 mAh battery is said to have a 790 @-@ hour standby time or 11 hours of talk time on 3G , compared to 900 hours in standby and 21 hours of talk time on 2G . Built into the battery is near field communication ( NFC ) connectivity , which allows users to share map directions and YouTube videos quickly using Wi @-@ Fi Direct ( through Android Beam ) , and perform non @-@ touch payments at shops that employ specially equipped NFC cash registers . The battery can be wirelessly charged using a special charging pad ( sold separately ) that utilizes magnetic resonance to produce a magnetic field through which electricity could be transferred .
CNET TV torture @-@ tested an S III by cooling it to 24 ° F ( − 4 ° C ) , placing it in a heat @-@ proof box and heating it to 190 ° F ( 88 ° C ) , and submerging it in water — the S III survived all three tests . The phone also did not exhibit any scratches when a key was repeatedly scraped against the display . However , Android Authority later carried out a drop test with the purpose of comparing the S III and the iPhone 5 . The screen on the S III shattered on the second drop test , while the iPhone received only minor scuffs and scratches on the metal composite frame after three drop tests .
= = = Software and services = = =
The S III is powered by Android , a Linux @-@ based , open source mobile operating system developed by Google and introduced commercially in 2008 . Among other features , the software allows users to maintain customized home screens which can contain shortcuts to applications and widgets for displaying information . Four shortcuts to frequently used applications can be stored on a dock at the bottom of the screen ; the button in the center of the dock opens the application drawer , which displays a menu containing all of the apps installed on the device . A tray accessed by dragging from the top of the screen allows users to view notifications received from other apps , and contains toggle switches for commonly used functions . Pre @-@ loaded apps also provide access to Google 's various services . The S III uses Samsung 's proprietary TouchWiz graphical user interface ( GUI ) . The " Nature " version used by the S III has a more " organic " feel than previous versions , and contains more interactive elements such as a water ripple effect on the lock screen . To complement the TouchWiz interface , and as a response to Apple 's Siri , the phone introduces S Voice , Samsung 's intelligent personal assistant . S Voice can recognize eight languages including English , Korean , Italian and French . Based on Vlingo , S Voice enables the user to verbally control 20 functions such as playing a song , setting the alarm , or activating driving mode ; it relies on Wolfram Alpha for online searches .
The S III initially shipped with Android version 4 @.@ 0 @.@ 4 , named " Ice Cream Sandwich " , which became commercially available in March 2012 with the Nexus S and Galaxy Nexus . Ice Cream Sandwich has a refined user interface , and expanded camera capabilities , security features and connectivity . In mid @-@ June 2012 , Google unveiled Android 4 @.@ 1 " Jelly Bean " , which employs Google Now , a voice @-@ assistant similar to S Voice , and incorporates other software changes . Samsung accommodated Jelly Bean in the S III by making last @-@ minute hardware changes to the phone in some markets . Jelly Bean updates began rolling out to S IIIs in selected European countries , and to the T @-@ Mobile in the United States in November 2012 . Samsung started pushing Android 4 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 Jelly Bean to the international version of the S III in December 2012 . In December 2013 , Samsung began rolling out Android 4 @.@ 3 for the S III , adding user interface features back ported from the Galaxy S4 , and support for the Samsung Galaxy Gear smartwatch . In March 2014 , Samsung started the rollout of 4 @.@ 4 @.@ 2 KitKat for the 2 GB variant of the S III .
The S III comes with a multitude of pre @-@ installed applications , including Google Apps like Google Play , YouTube , Google + , Gmail , Google Maps , Voice Search and Calendar , in addition to Samsung @-@ specific apps such as ChatON , Game Hub , Music Hub , Video Hub , Social Hub and Navigation . To address the fact that iPhone users are reluctant to switch to Android because the OS is not compatible with iTunes , from June 2012 Samsung offered customers of its Galaxy series the Easy Phone Sync app to enable the transfer of music , photos , videos , podcasts , and text messages from an iPhone to a Galaxy device . The user is able to access Google Play , a digital @-@ distribution multimedia @-@ content service exclusive to Android , to download applications , games , music , movies , books , magazines , and TV programs .
Apart from S Voice , Samsung has directed the bulk of the S III 's marketing campaign towards the device 's " smart " features , which facilitate improved human @-@ device interactivity . These features include : " Direct Call " , or the handset 's ability to recognise when a user wants to talk to somebody instead of messaging them , if they bring the phone to their head ; " Social Tag " , a function that identifies and tags people in a photo and shares photos with them ; and " Pop Up Play " , which allows a video and other applications to occupy the screen at the same time . In addition , the S III can beam its screen to a monitor or be used as a remote controller ( AllShare Cast and Play ) and share photos with people who are tagged in them ( Buddy Photo Share ) .
The S III can access and play traditional media formats such as music , movies , TV programs , audiobooks , and podcasts , and can sort its media library alphabetically by song title , artist , album , playlist , folder , and genre . One notable feature of the S III 's music player is Music Square , which analyses a song 's intensity and ranks the song by mood so that the user can play songs according to their current emotional state . The device also introduced Music Hub , an online music store powered by 7digital with a catalogue of over 19 million songs .
The S III was the first smartphone to support Voice Over LTE with the introduction of HD Voice service in South Korea . The phone enables video calling with its 1 @.@ 9 MP front @-@ facing camera , and with support for the aptX codec , improves Bluetooth @-@ headset connectivity . Texting on the S III does not embody any new significant features from the S II . Speech @-@ to @-@ text is aided by the Vlingo and Google 's voice @-@ recognition assistant . Not unlike other Android devices , there are a multitude of third @-@ party typing applications available that could complement the S III 's stock keyboard .
On 18 June 2012 , Samsung announced that the S III would have a version with enterprise software under the company 's Samsung Approved For Enterprise ( SAFE ) program , an initiative facilitating the use of its devices for " bring your own device " scenarios in workplace environments . The enterprise S III version would support AES @-@ 256 bit encryption , VPN and Mobile Device Management functionality , and Microsoft Exchange ActiveSync . It was scheduled to be released in the United States in July 2012 . The enterprise version was expected to penetrate the business market dominated by Research in Motion 's BlackBerry , following the release of similar enterprise versions of the Galaxy Note , Galaxy S II and the Galaxy Tab line of tablet computers .
A separate " Developer Edition " of the S III was made available from Samsung 's Developer Portal . It came with an unlockable bootloader to allow the user to modify the phone 's software .
= = Model variants = =
= = = Issues = = =
On 19 September 2012 , security researchers demonstrated during Pwn2Own , a computer hacking contest held in Amsterdam , Netherlands , that the S III can be hacked via NFC , allowing attackers to download all data from the phone .
In December 2012 , two hardware issues were reported by users of the S III : A vulnerability of the Exynos SoC allowed malicious apps to gain root privileges even on unrooted devices , and a spontaneous bricking of the unit , called the " sudden death vulnerability " , that occurs about six months after activation . Samsung has been replacing the mainboards of affected units under warranty . In January 2013 , Samsung released a firmware update that corrected both issues .
As of mid @-@ 2013 , two S III explosions were reported . The first involved a man from Ireland , while the more recent incident occurred when a Swiss teenager was left with second and third degree burns in her thigh caused by her phone 's explosion .
In October 2013 , Samsung acknowledged swelling and overheating issues with the Li @-@ ion batteries in many S III phones , and offered replacement batteries for affected devices .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial reception = = =
According to an anonymous Samsung official speaking to the Korea Economic Daily , the S III received more than 9 million pre @-@ orders from 100 carriers during the two weeks following its London unveiling , making it the fastest @-@ selling gadget in history . In comparison , the iPhone 4S received 4 million pre @-@ orders prior to its launch , while Samsung 's previous flagship phone , the S II , had 10 million handsets shipped within five months . Within a month of the London unveiling , auction and shopping website eBay noted a 119 @-@ percent increase in second @-@ hand Android phone sales . According to an eBay spokesperson , this was " the first time anything other than an Apple product has sparked such a selling frenzy . "
The S III was released in 28 countries in Europe and the Middle East on 29 May 2012 . To showcase its flagship device , Samsung afterwards embarked on a global month @-@ long tour of the S III to nine cities , including Sydney , New Delhi , and cities in China , Japan , South Korea and the United States .
The S III has helped Samsung consolidate its market share in several countries including India , where Samsung expected to capture 60 percent of the country 's smartphone market , improving on its previous 46 percent . Within a month of release , Samsung had a 60 @-@ percent market share in France , while the company controlled over 50 percent of the German and Italian smartphone markets . Over a similar period the S III helped increase Samsung 's market share in the United Kingdom to over 40 percent , while eroding the iPhone 4S 's 25 percent to 20 percent in the country . The S III was scheduled to be released in North America on 20 June 2012 , but because of high demand , some US and Canadian carriers delayed the release by several days , while some other carriers limited the market at launch . The S III 's US launch event took place in New York City , hosted by Twilight actress Ashley Greene and attended by dubstep artist Skrillex , who performed at Skylight Studios .
Samsung estimated that by the end of July 2012 , the S III would have been released by 296 carriers in 145 countries , and that more than 10 million handsets would have been sold . Shin Jong @-@ kyun , president of Samsung 's mobile communications sector , announced on 22 July that sales had exceeded 10 million . According to an assessment by Swiss financial services company UBS , Samsung had shipped 5 – 6 million units of the phone in the second quarter of 2012 and would ship 10 – 12 million handsets per quarter throughout the rest of the year . An even more aggressive prediction by Paris @-@ based banking group BNP Paribas said 15 million units will be shipped in the third quarter of 2012 , while Japanese financial consultant company Nomura placed the figure for this quarter as high as 18 million . Sales of the S III were estimated to top 40 million by the end of the year . To meet demand , Samsung had hired 75 @,@ 000 workers , and its South Korean factory was running at its peak capacity of 5 million smartphone units per month .
A manufacturing flaw resulted in a large portion of the new smartphones having irregularities with the " hyper @-@ glazing " process . The mistake caused an undesirable finish on the blue back covers and resulted in the disposal of up to 600 @,@ 000 plastic casings and a shortage of the blue model . The issue was later resolved ; however , Reuters estimated that the shortage had cost Samsung two million S III sales during its first month of release .
On 6 September 2012 , Samsung revealed that sales of the S III had reached 20 million in 100 days , making it three and six times faster @-@ selling than the Galaxy S II and the Galaxy S , respectively . Europe accounted for more than 25 percent of this figure with 6 million units , followed by Asia ( 4 @.@ 5 million ) and the US ( 4 million ) ; sales in South Korea , the S III 's home market , numbered 2 @.@ 5 million . Around the same time of Samsung 's announcement , sales of the S III surpassed that of the iPhone 4S in the US .
In the third quarter of 2012 , more than 18 million S III units were shipped , making it the most popular smartphone at the time , ahead of the iPhone 4S 's 16 @.@ 2 million units . Analysts deduced that the slump in iPhone sales was due to customers ' anticipation of the iPhone 5 .
As of May 2014 , the S III has sold approximately 60 million units since its 2012 release .
On 11 October 2012 Samsung unveiled the Galaxy S III Mini , a 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) smartphone with lower specifications compared to the S III .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The reception of the S III has been particularly positive . Critics noted the phone 's blend of features , such as its S Voice application , display , processing speed , and dimensions as having an edge over its competition , the Apple iPhone 4S and HTC One X. Vlad Savov of The Verge declared it a " technological triumph " , while Natasha Lomas of CNET UK lauded the phone 's " impossibly slim and light casing and a quad @-@ core engine " , calling it the " Ferrari of Android phones " , a sentiment affirmed ( " a prince among Android phones " ) by Dave Oliver of Wired UK and ( " king of Android " ) Esat Dedezade of Stuff magazine . Gareth Beavis of TechRadar noted that the S III is " all about faster , smarter and being more minimal than ever before while keeping the spec list at the bleeding edge of technology . " Matt Warman of The Daily Telegraph said , " On spending just a short time with the S3 , I 'm confident in saying that it 's a worthy successor to the globally popular S2 " .
Upon release , a number of critics and publications have made references to the S III , Samsung 's 2012 flagship phone , as an " iPhone killer " , responding perhaps to Apple 's favourable customer perception . The label owes itself to the S III 's use of the Android OS — the chief rival of Apple 's iOS — as well as its design and features that rival the iPhone 4S such as Smart Stay , a large display , a quad @-@ core processor , Android customizability , and a multitude of connectivity options .
The S III was the first Android phone to have a higher launch price than the iPhone 4S when the Apple product was released in 2011 . With the S III , Tim Weber , business editor of the BBC , observed , " With the new Galaxy S3 they [ Samsung ] have clearly managed to move to the front of the smartphone field , ahead of mighty Apple itself . "
Conversely , reviewers have opined on the design and feel of phone , calling its polycarbonate shell " cheap " and having a " slippery feel " . The S Voice was described as " not optimised " and " more rigid than Siri " with its poor voice @-@ recognition accuracy , with instances when it would not respond at all . Another usage problem was a microphone malfunction that resulted in difficulty communicating during a call . Reviewers have noted the somewhat abrupt auto @-@ adjustment of display brightness , which tends to under @-@ illuminate the screen ; however , it has twice the battery life compared to the HTC handset , achieved partly through the dim display . Others say the numerous pre @-@ installed apps make the S III feel " bloated " .
In late @-@ September 2012 TechRadar ranked it as the No. 1 handset in its constantly updated list of the 20 best mobile phones ; Stuff magazine also ranked it at No. 1 in its list of 10 best smartphones in May 2012 . The S III won an award from the European Imaging and Sound Association under the category of " European Mobile Phone " of 2012 – 2013 . In 2012 , the S III won T3 's " Phone of the Year " award , beating the iPhone 4S , the Nokia Lumia 900 , the Sony Xperia S and others and was voted Phone of the Year by readers of tech website S21 . In February 2013 , the S III won the " Best Smartphone " award from the GSMA at Mobile World Congress .
= = Litigation = =
On 5 June 2012 , Apple filed for preliminary injunctions in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California against Samsung Electronics , claiming the S III had violated at least two of the company 's patents . Apple requested that the court include the phone in its existing legal battle against Samsung ( see Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co . , Ltd . ) , and ban sales of the S III prior to its scheduled 21 June 2012 US launch . Apple claimed the alleged infringements would " cause immediate and irreparable harm " to its commercial interest . Samsung responded by declaring it would " vigorously oppose the request and demonstrate to the court that the Galaxy S3 [ sic ] is innovative and distinctive " , and reassured the public that 21 June release would proceed as planned . On 11 June , Judge Lucy Koh said that Apple 's claim would overload her work schedule , as she would also be overseeing the trial of Samsung 's other devices ; consequently , Apple dropped its request to block 21 June release of the S III .
In mid @-@ July 2012 , Samsung removed the universal search feature on Sprint and AT & T S III phones with over @-@ the @-@ air ( OTA ) software updates to disable the local search function as a " precautionary measure " prior to its patent court trial with Apple , which began on 30 July 2012 . Although Apple won the trial , the S III experienced a sales spike because of the public 's belief that the phone would be banned . On 31 August 2012 , Apple asked the same federal court to add the S III into its existing complaint , believing the device has violated its patents . Samsung countered with the statement : " Apple continues to resort to litigation over market competition in an effort to limit consumer choice . "
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= Tropical Storm Alma ( 1974 ) =
Tropical Storm Alma , the first named storm to develop in the 1974 Atlantic hurricane season , was a short lived tropical cyclone that made a rare Venezuelan landfall . The storm formed from the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) on August 12 well to the east of the Windward Islands , but advisories were not issued until the next day when Alma was at peak intensity . Subsequently , Alma moved at an unusually brisk pace of between 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) to 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) through the southeastern Caribbean Sea , causing numerous watches and gale warnings to be issued throughout the Caribbean . Alma moved quickly over Trinidad and continued westward , becoming one of only four storms to cross the Paria Peninsula of northeastern Venezuela . The storm dissipated on August 15 over the high terrain of Venezuela .
The storm left heavy damage on Trinidad , amounting to about $ 5 million ( 1974 USD ) , making it the most destructive cyclone of the 20th century on the island at the time . Alma damaged about 5 @,@ 000 buildings , leaving 500 people homeless . The storm also wrecked about 17 @,@ 750 acres ( 7 @,@ 180 ha ) of crop fields . There were two deaths on Trinidad , including one who was struck by flying debris . Alma was also responsible a plane crash on Isla Margarita offshore Venezuela , killing 49 people on board due to heavy rainfall .
= = Meteorological history = =
A disturbance associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) left the coast of Africa on August 9 , with Dakar , Senegal reporting mid @-@ level winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . A weak circulation formed on August 10 within an area of thunderstorms . The disturbance moved slowly westward over the Atlantic Ocean , developing into a tropical depression at 18 : 00 UTC on August 12 around 10 ° north latitude , a latitude it would remain around throughout its lifetime . On August 13 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Alma about 375 mi ( 605 km ) east of Trinidad and Tobago , as indicated by a Hurricane Hunters flight reporting winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . This same flight also reported a circular eye with a diameter of 36 mi ( 58 km ) , the only report of an eye from this storm .
The center of Alma was elongated , causing gale @-@ force winds to extend 75 mi ( 120 km ) to the north while extending only 25 miles ( 40 km ) to the south . On August 14 the Hurricane Hunters reported gusts of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) ; however , the storm weakened after its initial peak . Alma continued westward at 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) , which National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) Director Neil Frank noted was unusually rapid for a tropical cyclone at this time and location . Alma was able to maintain its low latitude movement to the west due to a strong subtropical ridge , which was at an unusually lower latitude than expected in August .
On August 14 , the storm made landfall on Trinidad with winds of 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) , becoming the southernmost landfall on that island since a storm in 1933 . The storm moved across Trinidad in only three hours , although the circulation was disrupted . The storm crossed the Gulf of Paria and made its second and final landfall on the Paria Peninsula of Venezuela , one of only four storms on record to do so ; the others were in 1605 , 1725 , and 1933 . The high mountains in Venezuela took a toll on the storm , ripping the circulation and causing Alma to be downgraded to a tropical depression on August 15 . At around 02 : 00 UTC that day , the circulation passed near Caracas . The convection rapidly diminished , and the presence on satellite imagery faded , although the NHC noted the potential for redevelopment once it reached open waters . Late on August 15 , the NHC issued the final advisory after the circulation dissipated near the border of Venezuela and Colombia . The remnants of Alma continued westward , reaching the Pacific Ocean where they would re @-@ intensify , becoming Hurricane Joyce .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
Before Alma made landfall , gale warnings and a hurricane watch was issued for Trinidad , Tobago , Grenada , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , and Barbados . As Alma progressed westward , gale warnings were also issued for the Paria and Paraguaná peninsulas of Venezuela , the Guajira Peninsula , and the ABC islands . Initially , the Trinidad and Tobago weather service anticipated Alma would strike Tobago , but as the storm approached , the trajectory over Trinidad became apparent .
While moving across Trinidad , Alma produced sustained winds of only 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) at Piarco . However , gusts reached 91 mph ( 147 km / h ) at Savonetta . Rainfall at Piarco reached about 1 inch ( 25 mm ) during the storm 's passage . Strong winds downed trees and power lines , and damaged about 5 @,@ 000 buildings , including hundreds of households , wrecking everything inside ; this left about 500 people homeless . There was also widespread damage to agriculture , mostly to sugar , amounting to 17 @,@ 750 acres ( 7 @,@ 180 ha ) of damaged fields . The storm damaged several highways in the country , along with damaged schools and hospitals . The winds flung debris from a roof of a house and struck a woman , killing her . There was also an indirect death on the island , along with several injuries . Damage on the island was estimated at $ 5 million ( 1974 USD ) , and Alma was considered the most destructive storm in Trinidad during the 20th century , according to the American embassy in the country . After the storm , the local Red Cross chapter provided meals and clothing to thousands of storm victims . The government allocated $ 5 @.@ 1 million ( Trinidad and Tobago dollars ) for relief work , to be coordinated by the National Emergency Relief Organization of Trinidad and Tobago , which was established following the damaging Hurricane Flora in 1963 . This helped rebuild damage houses , clear roads , and assist affected farmers . The United States Agency for International Development sent about $ 5 @,@ 000 ( USD ) in assistance , after the country 's ambassador sent a formal request to Washington , D.C. The Amoco oil company also sent a $ 500 ( USD ) donation to the country 's Red Cross .
While moving through the Windward Islands , Alma also produced strong wind gusts on Grenada . The outer rainbands of Alma spread over Venezuela while the center was still over Trinidad . At about 13 : 00 UTC on August 14 , the rains caused a Linea Aeropostal Venezolana Vickers Viscount 749 turboprop airliner to crash while circling the airport on Isla Margarita . The aircraft struck the side of La Gloria , 26 ft ( 8 m ) below the summit . All but one of the 49 people aboard died on impact ; the co @-@ pilot survived for 17 more days before dying from severe and irreversible brain damage . Also in Venezuela , Alma produced landslides due to heavy rainfall .
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= Aldfrith of Northumbria =
Aldfrith ( Early Modern Irish : Flann Fína mac Ossu ; Latin : Aldfrid , Aldfridus ; died 14 December 704 or 705 ) was king of Northumbria from 685 until his death . He is described by early writers such as Bede , Alcuin and Stephen of Ripon as a man of great learning . Some of his works and some letters written to him survive . His reign was relatively peaceful , marred only by disputes with Bishop Wilfrid , a major figure in the early Northumbrian church .
Aldfrith was born on an uncertain date to Oswiu of Northumbria and an Irish princess named Fín . Oswiu later became King of Northumbria ; he died in 670 and was succeeded by his son Ecgfrith . Aldfrith was educated for a career in the church and became a scholar . However , in 685 , when Ecgfrith was killed at the battle of Nechtansmere , Aldfrith was recalled to Northumbria , reportedly from the Hebridean island of Iona , and became king .
In his early @-@ 8th @-@ century account of Aldfrith 's reign , Bede states that he " ably restored the shattered fortunes of the kingdom , though within smaller boundaries " . His reign saw the creation of works of Hiberno @-@ Saxon art such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Codex Amiatinus , and is often seen as the start of Northumbria 's golden age .
= = Background and accession = =
By the year 600 , most of what is now England had been conquered by invaders from the continent , including Angles , Saxons , and Jutes . Bernicia and Deira , the two Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms in the north of England , were first united under a single ruler in about 605 when Æthelfrith , king of Bernicia , extended his rule over Deira . Over the course of the 7th century , the two kingdoms were sometimes ruled by a single king , and sometimes separately . The combined kingdom became known as the kingdom of Northumbria : it stretched from the River Humber in the south to the River Forth in the north .
In 616 , Æthelfrith was succeeded by Edwin of Northumbria , a Deiran . Edwin banished Æthelfrith 's sons , including both Oswald and Oswiu of Northumbria . Both spent their exile in Dál Riata , a kingdom spanning parts of northeastern Ireland and western Scotland . Oswiu was a child when he came to Dál Riata , and grew up in an Irish milieu . He became a fluent speaker of Old Irish , and may have married a princess of the Uí Néill dynasty , probably Fín the daughter ( or possibly granddaughter ) of Colmán Rímid . Aldfrith was a child of this marriage , but his date of birth is unrecorded . He was probably thus a cousin or nephew of the noted scholar Cenn Fáelad mac Aillila , and perhaps a nephew of Bishop Finan of Lindisfarne . Irish law made Fín 's kin , the Cenél nEógain of the northern Uí Néill , responsible for his upbringing . The relationship between Aldfrith 's father and mother was not considered a lawful marriage by Northumbrian churchmen of his day , and he is described as the son of a concubine in early sources .
Oswald and Oswiu returned to Northumbria after Edwin 's death in 633 , and between them they ruled for much of the middle of the 7th century . The 8th @-@ century monk and chronicler Bede lists both Oswald and Oswiu as having held imperium , or overlordship , over the other Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms ; in Oswiu 's case his dominance extended beyond the Anglo @-@ Saxons to the Picts , the Gaels of Dál Riata , and the many obscure and nameless native British kingdoms in what are now North West England and southern Scotland . Oswiu 's overlordship was ended in 658 by the rise of Wulfhere of Mercia , but his reign continued until his death in 670 , when Ecgfrith , one of his sons by his second wife , Eanflæd , succeeded him . Ecgfrith was unable to recover Oswiu 's position in Mercia and the southern kingdoms , and was defeated by Wulfhere 's brother Æthelred in a battle on the River Trent in 679 .
Ecgfrith sent an army under his general , Berht , to Ireland in 684 where he ravaged the plain of Brega , destroying churches and taking hostages . The raid may have been intended to discourage support for any claim Aldfrith might have to the throne , though other motives are possible .
Ecgfrith 's two marriages — the first to the saintly virgin Æthelthryth ( Saint Audrey ) , the second to Eormenburh — produced no children . He had two full brothers : Alhfrith , who is not mentioned after 664 , and Ælfwine , who was killed at the battle on the Trent in 679 . Hence the succession in Northumbria was unclear for some years before Ecgfrith 's death . Bede 's Life of Cuthbert recounts a conversation between Cuthbert and Abbess Ælfflæd of Whitby , daughter of Oswiu , in which Cuthbert foresaw Ecgfrith 's death . When Ælfflæd asked about his successor , she was told she would love him as a brother :
" But , " said she , " I beseech you to tell me where he may be found . " He answered , " You behold this great and spacious sea , how it aboundeth in islands . It is easy for God out of some of these to provide a person to reign over England . " She therefore understood him to speak of [ Aldfrith ] , who was said to be the son of her father , and was then , on account of his love of literature , exiled to the Scottish islands .
Cuthbert , later considered a saint , was a second cousin of Aldfrith ( according to Irish genealogies ) , which may have been the reason for his proposal as monarch .
Ecgfrith was killed during a campaign against his cousin , the King of the Picts Bridei map Beli , at a battle known as Nechtansmere to the Northumbrians , in Pictish territory north of the Firth of Forth . Bede recounts that Queen Eormenburh and Cuthbert were visiting Carlisle that day , and that Cuthbert had a premonition of the defeat . Ecgfrith 's death threatened to break the hold of the descendants of Æthelfrith on Northumbria , but the scholar Aldfrith became king and the thrones of Bernicia and Deira remained united .
Although rival claimants of royal descent must have existed , there is no recorded resistance to Aldfrith 's accession . It has also been suggested that Aldfrith 's ascent was eased by support from Dál Riata , the Uí Néill , and the Picts , all of whom might have preferred the mature , known quantity of Aldfrith to an unknown and more warlike monarch , such as Ecgfrith or Oswiu had been . The historian Herman Moisl , for example , wrote that " Aldfrith was in Iona in the year preceding the battle [ of Nechtansmere ] ; immediately afterwards , he was king of Northumbria . It is quite obvious that he must have been installed by the Pictish @-@ Dál Riatan alliance " . Subsequently a battle between the Northumbrians and the Picts in which Berht was killed is recorded by Bede and the Irish annals in 697 or 698 . Overall , Aldfrith appears to have abandoned his predecessors ' attempts to dominate Northumbria 's neighbours .
= = Aldfrith 's Northumbria = =
Bede , paraphrasing Virgil , wrote that following Ecgfrith 's death , " the hopes and strengths of the English realm began ' to waver and slip backward ever lower ' " . The Northumbrians never regained the dominance of central Britain lost in 679 , or of northern Britain lost in 685 . Nonetheless , Northumbria remained one of the most powerful states of Britain and Ireland well into the Viking Age .
Aldfrith ruled both Bernicia and Deira throughout his reign , but the two parts remained distinct , and would again be divided by the Vikings in the late 9th century . The centre of Bernicia lay in the region around the later Anglo @-@ Scottish border , with Lindisfarne , Hexham , Bamburgh , and Yeavering being important religious and royal centres . Even after Ecgfrith 's death , Bernicia included much of modern southeast Scotland , with a presumed royal centre at Dunbar , and religious centres at Coldingham and Melrose . The details of the early Middle Ages in northwest England and southwest Scotland are more obscure , but a Bishop of Whithorn is known from shortly after Aldfrith 's reign . York , Catterick , Ripon , and Whitby appear to have been important sites in Deira .
Northumbria 's southern frontier with Mercia ran across England , from the Humber in the east , following the River Ouse and the River Don , to the Mersey in the west . Some archaeological evidence , the Roman Rig dyke , near modern Sheffield , appears to show that it was a defended border , with large earthworks set back from the frontier . The Nico Ditch , to the south of modern Manchester , has been cited in this context , though it has also been argued that it was simply a boundary marker without fortifications . In the far north , the evidence is less clear , and it appears that authority lay with sub @-@ kings , perhaps including native British rulers . The family of Ecgfrith 's general Berht may have been one such dynasty of under @-@ kings .
= = Relations with the Church = =
Along with the king , royal family , and chief noblemen , the church was a major force in Northumbria . Churchmen were not only figures of spiritual authority , they were major landowners , who also controlled trade , centred at major churches and monasteries in a land without cities and towns . The bishopric of Lindisfarne was held by Cuthbert at Aldfrith 's accession ; Cuthbert was succeeded by the Irish @-@ educated Eadberht , who would later be Abbot of Iona and bring the Easter controversy to an end , and then by Eadfrith , creator of the Lindisfarne Gospels . The bishops of Lindisfarne sometimes held the see of Hexham , but during Aldfrith 's reign it was held by John of Beverley , a pupil and protégé of Theodore , the Archbishop of Canterbury . The bishopric of York was held by Bosa in 685 . Wilfrid was given the see in 687 , but removed in 691 with Bosa returning to York . The short @-@ lived see at Abercorn , created in 681 for Bishop Trumwine , collapsed in the period after Ecgfrith 's death and the first known Bishop of Whithorn was appointed in the reign of King Ceolwulf . Important monasteries existed at Whitby , where the known abbesses tended to be members of the Deiran royal family , at Monkwearmouth @-@ Jarrow , where Bede was a monk , and at Ripon .
Aldfrith appears to have had the support of leading ecclesiastics , most notably his half @-@ sister Ælfflæd and the highly respected Bishop Cuthbert . He is known to have received confirmation at the hands of Aldhelm , later the Bishop of Sherborne in the south @-@ western Anglo @-@ Saxon Kingdom of Wessex . Aldhelm too had received an Irish education , but in Britain , at Malmesbury . Correspondence between the two survives , and Aldhelm sent Aldfrith his treatise on the numerology of the number seven , the Epistola ad Acircium . Aldfrith also owned a manuscript on cosmography , which ( according to Bede ) he purchased from Abbot Ceolfrith of Monkwearmouth @-@ Jarrow in exchange for an estate valued at eight hides . Aldfrith was a close friend of Adomnán , Abbot of Iona from 679 , and may have studied with him . In the 680s Aldfrith twice met with Adomnán , who came to seek the release of the Irish captives taken in Berht 's expedition of 684 . These were released and Adomnán presented Aldfrith with a copy of his treatise De Locis Sanctis ( " On the Holy Places " ) , a description of the places of pilgrimage in the Holy Land , and at Alexandria and Constantinople . Bede reports that Aldfrith circulated Adomnán 's work for others to read .
Bede described Aldfrith as a scholar , and his interest in learning distinguishes him from the earlier Anglo @-@ Saxon warrior kings , such as Penda . Irish sources describe him as a sapiens , a term from the Latin for wise that refers to a scholar not usually associated with a particular church . It implies a degree of learning and wisdom that led historian Peter Hunter Blair to compare Aldfrith to the Platonic ideal of the philosopher king . Bede also makes it clear that the church in Aldfrith 's day was less subject to lay control of monasteries , a practice he dated from the time of Aldfrith 's death .
Aldfrith 's relations with the Church were , however , not always smooth . He inherited from Ecgfrith a troubled relationship with Wilfrid , a major ecclesiastical figure of the time . Wilfrid , the bishop of York , had been exiled by Ecgfrith for his role in persuading Ecgfrith 's wife , Æthelthryth , to remain a saintly celibate . In 686 , at the urging of Archbishop Theodore , Aldfrith allowed Wilfrid to return . Aldfrith 's relations with Wilfrid were stormy ; the hostility between the two was partly caused by Aldfrith 's allegiances with the Celtic Church , a consequence of his upbringing in exile . A more significant cause of strife was Wilfrid 's opposition to Theodore 's division , in 677 , of his huge Northumbrian diocese . When Wilfrid returned from exile the reconciliation with Aldfrith did not include Aldfrith 's support for Wilfrid 's attempts to recover his episcopal authority over the whole of the north . By 691 or 692 their differences were beyond repair . Wilfrid 's hagiographer writes :
For a while all would be peace between the wise King Aldfrith and our holy bishop , and a happier state of affairs could hardly be imagined . Then spite would boil up again and the situation would be reversed . And so they continued for years , in and out of friendship with each other , till finally their quarrels came to a head and the king banished Wilfrid from Northumbria .
Wilfrid spent his exile in Mercia , where he enjoyed the staunch support of King Æthelred . In 702 or 703 , Aldfrith convened a council at Austerfield , on the southern border of Northumbria , which was attended by Berhtwald , Archbishop of Canterbury , and many bishops . The question of Wilfrid 's return to Northumbria was hotly debated and then rejected by the bishops . According to Stephen of Ripon , King Aldfrith offered to use his army to pressure Wilfrid into accepting the decision , but the bishops reminded him that he had promised Wilfrid safe @-@ conduct . After returning to Mercia , Wilfrid was excommunicated by his enemies among the bishops . He responded by journeying to Rome , where he appealed in person to Pope John VI . The Pope provided him with letters to Aldfrith ordering that Wilfrid be restored to his offices . Aldfrith refused to receive the letters , and Wilfrid remained in disfavour .
= = Northumbria 's Golden Age = =
Aldfrith 's reign is considered the beginning of Northumbria 's Golden Age , which lasted until the end of the 8th century . The period saw the flowering of Insular art in Northumbria and produced the Lindisfarne Gospels , perhaps begun in Aldfrith 's time , the scholarship of Bede , and the beginnings of the Anglo @-@ Saxon missions to the continent .
The Lindisfarne Gospels are believed to be the work of Eadfrith of Lindisfarne , bishop of Lindisfarne from 698 . They are not the only surviving Northumbrian illuminated manuscripts from Aldfrith 's time . Also active at Lindisfarne in the late 7th century was the scribe known as the " Durham @-@ Echternach calligrapher " , who produced the Durham Gospels and the Echternach Gospels . The Codex Amiatinus was a product of Monkwearmouth @-@ Jarrow , made on the orders of Abbot Ceolfrid , probably in the decade after Aldfrith 's death .
Two significant items of jewellery from Northumbria in this period have survived . The Ripon Jewel , discovered in the precincts of Ripon Cathedral in 1977 , is difficult to date but its grandeur and the location of the find have suggested a link with Bishop Wilfrid , whose rich furnishings of the church at Ripon are on record . Bishop Cuthbert 's pectoral cross was buried with him during Aldfrith 's reign , either at his death in 687 or his reburial in 698 and is now at Durham Cathedral . There are few surviving architectural or monumental remains from the period . The Bewcastle Cross , the Ruthwell Cross and the Hexham Cross are probably to be dated to one or two generations after Aldfrith 's time . Escomb Church is the best preserved Northumbrian church of the period , dated to the late 7th century . The ruined chapel at Heysham , overlooking Morecambe Bay , may be somewhat later in date .
The Northumbrian coinage is thought to have begun during Aldfrith 's reign . Early silver coins , known as sceattas , appeared , replacing the impractical gold thrymsa as a medium of exchange . Exceptionally for the period , Aldfrith 's coins bear his name , rather than that of a moneyer , in an Irish uncial script . Most show a lion , with upraised tail .
= = Heirs , death , and succession = =
Aldfrith was married to Cuthburh , sister of King Ine of Wessex ; the marriage thus allied Aldfrith with one of the most powerful kings in Anglo @-@ Saxon England . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle records that Aldfrith and Cuthburh separated , and Cuthburh established an abbey at Wimborne Minster where she was abbess . At least two sons were born to Aldfrith , but whether Cuthburh was their mother is unrecorded . Osred , born around 696 or 697 , succeeded to the throne after a civil war following Aldfrith 's death . Little is known of Offa , who is presumed to have been killed after being taken from Lindisfarne in 750 on the orders of King Eadberht of Northumbria . Osric , who was later king , may have been Aldfrith 's son , or alternatively the son of Aldfrith 's half @-@ brother Alhfrith . The 13th @-@ century discovery of a tomb thought to be that of St Osana has led to the suggestion that Osana was the daughter of Aldfrith , although this view is not widely held by modern historians .
Aldfrith was said to have been ill for some time before his death , dying on 14 December 704 or 705 . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle adds that he died at Driffield in the East Riding of Yorkshire . The succession was disputed by Eadwulf , supported initially by Bishop Wilfrid , and supporters of Aldfrith 's young son Osred , apparently led by Berht 's kinsman Berhtfrith .
The reports of Aldfrith 's death in the Irish annals call him Aldfrith son of Oswiu , but some of these are glossed by later scribes with the name Flann Fína mac Ossu . A collection of wisdom literature attributed to Flann Fína , the Briathra Flainn Fhina Maic Ossu , has survived , though the text is not contemporary with Aldfrith as it is in Middle Irish , a form of Irish not in use until the 10th century .
Learning merits respect .
Intelligence overcomes fury .
Truth should be supported .
Falsehood should be rebuked .
Iniquity should be corrected .
A quarrel merits mediation .
Stinginess should be spurned .
Arrogance deserves oblivion .
Good should be exalted .
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= Arthur Schultz =
Arthur " Art " Schultz ( July 4 , 1933 – November 26 , 2011 ) was an American Republican politician . He was a five @-@ term mayor of Joliet , Illinois , the fourth largest municipality in the state after Chicago , Aurora , and Rockford . He was last elected in April 2007 . Prior to his first election , he served in the United States Navy and in the Joliet Police Department .
He finished as the first runner @-@ up in the Joliet City Council election of 1989 , but when a sitting councilwoman died a few months after the election he was passed over several times for the nomination . This was controversial as the nomination is customarily given to the runner @-@ up in the most recent election . He returned to elective politics to defeat the mayor , who did not nominate him in the subsequent election in 1991 .
In his time in office , Joliet changed from an economy of a prison town with declining population to a fast @-@ growing entertainment and tourism economy , focused on riverboat casinos . Residential and commercial construction increased and racing tracks , a baseball stadium , and several civic works developed as a result of the booming economy .
= = Personal life = =
Schultz was born on July 4 , 1933 and raised in Joliet . He attended parochial schools in the city , and was an altar boy . Schultz was a graduate of Joliet Catholic High School . After high school , he served four years in the United States Navy during the Korean War . He then worked for the Joliet Police Department for 29 years before being elected mayor in 1991 .
Schultz and his wife were married on November 6 , 1954 at the Cathedral of St. Raymond in Joliet . As of his 50th wedding anniversary in 2004 , Schultz had five children and eight grandchildren .
On November 16 , 1993 Schultz had a laryngectomy after having had vocal chord tumors removed the previous May . He lost his voice for a period before regaining it after several months of home recuperation with the aid of a voice prosthesis that was inserted into a neck valve . Schultz suffered congestive heart failure on November 14 , 2011 , which required hospital care . He died on November 26 , 2011 , aged 78 .
= = Political career = =
= = = Election history = = =
= = = = City Council = = = =
Schultz ran for the election to the Joliet City Council in the spring 1989 municipal elections . He advanced from the February 28 , 1989 primary election to the general election in what the Chicago Tribune described as a surprisingly strong showing , but finished fourth in the six @-@ way April 4 general election for three seats .
In August 1989 , Joliet Councilwoman Margaret Short died with two years remaining in her term and Joliet Mayor Charles Connor had the responsibility of nominating a replacement for consideration by the remaining councilmen . Rather than following the custom of nominating the first runner @-@ up in the most recent council election ( Schultz in this case ) , Connor nominated a political ally . The council did not support the nomination and after some delay she withdrew on September 19 . When Connor 's second nomination was again not one of the runners @-@ up , it was again defeated , which led to the council enacting legislation to strip the mayor of his power to nominate councilmen . On October 17 , Connor became the first Joliet mayor since the mid @-@ 1970s to refuse to sign legislation passed by the Joliet City Council . On November 21 , there was unanimous agreement on a compromise candidate who was also not one of the runners @-@ up .
= = = = Mayor = = = =
At the time of the non @-@ partisan February 26 , 1991 mayoral primary election , the Chicago Tribune described Joliet as suffering from a stagnant economy and sagging population . Between 1980 and 1990 the population had declined to 76 @,@ 836 from 77 @,@ 956 , according to the United States Census Bureau . Connor was challenged by three candidates , including Schultz . Schultz narrowly won the primary election by a 2 @,@ 709 – 2 @,@ 545 ( 38 % – 36 % ) margin over Connor , but both candidates advanced to the April general election since they finished first and second in the primary . On April 2 , Schultz defeated Connor by a 6 @,@ 081 – 5 @,@ 534 margin .
Schultz was approved in his re @-@ election bids . In 1995 , he earned 67 percent of the vote in the primary election and 68 percent in the general election . He was unopposed in 1999 . In 2003 , he became the first four @-@ term mayor for Joliet , which was incorporated in 1852 , by taking 83 % of the vote in a four @-@ way contest . In 2007 , he earned 73 % of the vote in a three @-@ way contest . He did not run in the 2011 election , and was succeeded by Thomas Giarrante .
= = = Service = = =
In January 1990 , the Illinois legislature passed two bills that permitted gambling along the Mississippi , Illinois , and Des Plaines Rivers. but gambling did not commence in Joliet until June 17 , 1992 . In January 1993 Schultz described Joliet as " the riverboat @-@ gambling capital of the world " . In 1995 Joliet officials expected the town to be debt free by 2001 with Schultz described the sizable gambling industry revenues as " manna from Heaven " and encouraged other cities to try legalized gambling . Between 1993 and 1997 Schultz received US $ 1 @,@ 500 in gambling @-@ related political contributions .
During the 1990s , Joliet was one of the fastest @-@ growing cities in the state , and in 2000 its residential and commercial construction were at record @-@ setting levels , according to Schultz . Schultz also credited gambling revenues with having enabled the city to halt tax increases for a decade and to build a new police station and three new firehouses . In 1999 , the Joliet City Council approved the construction of the Chicagoland Speedway on 930 acres ( 3 @.@ 76 km2 ) of land next to the Route 66 Raceway . Between 2000 and 2002 Joliet was the tenth fastest @-@ growing city in the United States . Under Schultz , the city ended nearly 150 years as a prison town with the closure of the Joliet Correctional Center and focused its economy on entertainment and tourism .
In the early 1990s the city annexed 55 acres ( 0 @.@ 22 km2 ) for the construction of the Empress Riverboat Casino complex . In 1999 , the city annexed 923 acres ( 3 @.@ 74 km2 ) for the construction of the Chicagoland Speedway , which when combined with the Route 66 Raceway made Joliet the only racing facility host in the United States capable of hosting races from each major category in professional auto racing . In 2001 , the city acquired 12 parcels totaling 8 acres ( 32 @,@ 000 m2 ) through expedited condemnations to build Silver Cross Field . In 2005 , the city annexed 988 acres ( 4 @.@ 00 km2 ) to provide a corridor for commercial and residential growth . As of the July 1 , 2007 United States Census Bureau population estimates , Joliet had a population of 144 @,@ 316 . Thus , Schultz served as mayor for a city that ranked as the 162nd largest incorporated municipality in the United States and the fourth largest in the state of Illinois .
Silver Cross Field , which was built in 2002 to host the Joliet Jackhammers of the Northern League is located at 1 Mayor Art Schultz Drive . By 2007 , prospects of continued growth necessitated that Joliet agree on borders with the neighboring municipality of Oswego and that it consider future borders with others .
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= U.S. Route 22 in New Jersey =
U.S. Route 22 ( US 22 ) is a U.S. highway stretching from Cincinnati , Ohio in the west to Newark , New Jersey in the east . In New Jersey , the route runs for 60 @.@ 53 mi ( 97 @.@ 41 km ) from the Easton @-@ Phillipsburg Toll Bridge over the Delaware River in Phillipsburg , Warren County to Interstate 78 ( I @-@ 78 ) , US 1 / 9 , and Route 21 at the Newark Airport Interchange in Newark , Essex County . The road first heads through the Phillipsburg @-@ Alpha area as a surface divided highway before running concurrent with I @-@ 78 through mountainous and agricultural sections of western New Jersey between Alpha and east of Clinton in Hunterdon County . For the remainder of the route , US 22 runs to the south of I @-@ 78 through mostly suburban areas as a four- to six @-@ lane surface divided highway , passing through Hunterdon , Somerset , Union , and Essex counties . Along this portion , it intersects US 202 and US 206 in Somerville , I @-@ 287 in Bridgewater Township , and the Garden State Parkway in Union .
What became US 22 in 1926 was first designated as pre @-@ 1927 Route 9 in 1916 , a route running from Phillipsburg to Elizabeth . In 1927 , pre @-@ 1927 Route 9 west of Elizabeth became Route 28 while the portion within Elizabeth became Route 27 @-@ 28 Link . By 1941 , US 22 was moved to its current alignment in the Phillipsburg area , following Route 24 and Route 24 @-@ 28 Link ; Route 28 in Phillipsburg became US 22 Alternate ( now Route 122 ) . Also , US 22 was moved off Route 28 east of Bridgewater Township to follow Route 28 @-@ 29 Link and Route 29 to Newark . In 1953 , the long concurrencies with the state highways were removed . In the 1960s , I @-@ 78 was constructed close to the US 22 corridor throughout New Jersey . US 22 was moved onto the new interstate between Alpha and Clinton in 1969 with most of the old route becoming Route 173 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Phillipsburg @-@ Alpha area = = =
US 22 enters New Jersey from Easton , Pennsylvania on the Easton @-@ Phillipsburg Toll Bridge over the Delaware River . It heads into Phillipsburg , Warren County as a four @-@ lane undivided road maintained by the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission , eventually becoming a divided highway . East of the bridge , the westbound lanes pass through the bridge toll plaza , and the route has an eastbound exit and westbound entrance for Broad and Main Streets . From the previous exit , US 22 runs eastward as a brief limited @-@ access road maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation that ends in an interchange with Morris Street and Hillcrest Boulevard . At this point , the route becomes at @-@ grade Memorial Boulevard ; a commercial four to six @-@ lane divided thoroughfare with a wide median consisting of U @-@ turn ramps and jughandles . The median narrows as the road forms the border between Lopatcong Township to the north and Phillipsburg to the south . The route fully enters Lopatcong Township and comes to an interchange with Route 57 , with an eastbound exit and a westbound entrance . After passing the Route 57 junction , US 22 takes a southeasterly turn and passes over Norfolk Southern 's Washington Secondary before entering an agricultural area . The route forms the border between Pohatcong Township to the west and Greenwich Township to the east as it passes to the east of the Phillipsburg Mall . A short distance later , US 22 intersects CR 519 before heading back into a business district and meeting CR 638 . East of Alpha , the route intersects Route 122 , which is the final junction of the at @-@ grade section of US 22 .
= = = I @-@ 78 / US 22 concurrency = = =
Past the Route 122 intersection , US 22 has an interchange with exit 3 of I @-@ 78 and the western endpoint of Route 173 . From there , US 22 is concurrent with I @-@ 78 through a mountainous and rural area of western New Jersey . I @-@ 78 / US 22 follow a six @-@ lane freeway east through Greenwich Township , coming to a westbound exit and eastbound entrance with CR 637 . The road turns southeast and has an eastbound exit and westbound entrance with CR 632 in Franklin Township . Within the ramps for this interchange , there are weigh stations in both directions . A short distance after this interchange , I @-@ 78 / US 22 crosses the Musconetcong River into Bloomsbury , Hunterdon County . In Bloomsbury , the road has an interchange with Route 173 . After this interchange , the freeway enters Bethlehem Township , with Route 173 closely running to the north of I @-@ 78 / US 22 . The road has rest areas in both directions before it passes over Norfolk Southern 's Lehigh Line and turns southeast to cross the Musconetcong Mountains .
The freeway turns east again and enters Union Township , coming to an interchange with CR 614 and Route 173 . From here , I @-@ 78 / US 22 continue east directly to the south of Route 173 , coming to another interchange with that route as well as CR 625 . Entering more commercial areas , Route 173 merges onto I @-@ 78 / US 22 at exit 13 . At exit 15 , the highway meets an interchange with CR 513 , and Route 173 splits from I @-@ 78 / US 22 by heading north on CR 513 . At this point , the freeway runs along the border of Franklin Township to the south and Clinton to the north before entirely entering Clinton and crossing the South Branch Raritan River . I @-@ 78 / US 22 turns northeast and leaves Clinton for Clinton Township , where it has an eastbound exit and westbound entrance for Route 173 that also provides access to Route 31 . Immediately after is the interchange with Route 31 . At the next interchange near the community of Annandale , US 22 splits from I @-@ 78 , heading closely to the south of that route .
= = = Annandale to Somerville = = =
Upon splitting from I @-@ 78 , US 22 becomes a four @-@ lane at @-@ grade divided highway that runs through rural areas with some development and crosses New Jersey Transit ’ s Raritan Valley Line . It enters Lebanon , passing to the north of the town center . Upon leaving Lebanon , the route heads back into Clinton Township . In the community of Potterstown , US 22 enters Readington Township and takes a southeasterly turn away from I @-@ 78 . Here , the road passes to the southwest of the Merck Headquarters Building before reaching the community of Whitehouse Station , where it has a short concurrency with CR 523 . Past Whitehouse Station , US 22 continues through a mix of residential and commercial areas .
US 22 continues into Branchburg Township , Somerset County , where development near the road increases but remains mostly rural . CR 614 parallels US 22 to the north to pass through the community of North Branch before US 22 intersects CR 637 and crosses the North Branch Raritan River into Bridgewater Township . In Bridgewater Township , the route comes to an interchange with the eastern terminus of CR 614 and the western terminus of Route 28 . Past this interchange , US 22 passes business parks and the Raritan Valley Country Club , widening to six lanes in the process . Afterwards , it comes to an interchange with US 202 and US 206 . Past this interchange , US 22 quickly transitions from a rural to a more suburban setting and heads east along the border of Somerville to the south and Bridgewater Township to the north , passing near the Bridgewater Commons shopping mall . The median of the route widens as it runs immediately to the south of I @-@ 287 , fully entering Bridgewater Township again as it comes to an interchange with I @-@ 287 at exits 14A and 14B .
= = = I @-@ 287 to Garden State Parkway = = =
East of I @-@ 287 , US 22 continues east as a four @-@ lane divided highway passing to the south of the Watchung Mountains . The route then has an interchange with CR 525 , where the wide grassy median narrows to a Jersey barrier . The road continues through wooded surroundings and passes through a portion of Bound Brook , widening back to six lanes before meeting CR 527 at an interchange . From here , the route takes a northeasterly course , entering Bridgewater Township again and narrowing to four lanes before crossing into Green Brook Township while designated a short distance north of the Middlesex @-@ Somerset County border . US 22 continues through business areas as a highway with jughandles , crossing CR 529 . In North Plainfield , the route widens to six lanes and has an interchange with CR 531 . Past this interchange , the road continues along the border of Watchung to the west and North Plainfield to the southeast before crossing Green Brook .
At this crossing , US 22 heads north @-@ northeast into Scotch Plains , Union County , coming to an interchange with CR 655 . The route continues northeast as a four- to five @-@ lane highway , passing near Bowcraft Amusement Park . The road continues east through Mountainside , turning northeast before entering Springfield , where it has an interchange with CR 509 Spur ( signed as CR 577 ) . Past this interchange , for 1 @.@ 8 miles US 22 has an unusual wide median that contains commercial businesses and numerous U @-@ turn ramps . In this area , the road comes to a level crossing with the abandoned Rahway Valley Railroad . It crosses the Rahway River into Union , where the wide median continues . The route briefly forms the northern border of Kenilworth before the median narrows back into a Jersey barrier . US 22 splits into two carriageways at the intersection with exits 140 and 140A of the Garden State Parkway and Route 82 , site of the Union Watersphere .
= = = Hillside to Newark Airport Interchange = = =
Past this interchange , the route comes to an exit for CR 630 before crossing the Elizabeth River into Hillside , where it heads east through more urban areas . The road has an interchange at Bloy Street before passing over CR 509 . After an interchange with Broad Street , US 22 turns northeast as a limited @-@ access roadway . It heads into Newark in Essex County , where the highway passes through wooded Weequahic Park . Past the park , US 22 turns to the east into urban areas and closely runs to the south of I @-@ 78 , where it comes to an eastbound exit and westbound entrance for Empire Street , which provides access to Route 27 . A short distance later , the freeway has a direct westbound exit and eastbound entrance with Route 27 . Past this interchange , US 22 continues parallel to I @-@ 78 , passing over Amtrak ’ s Northeast Corridor before reaching the Newark Airport Interchange ; south of downtown Newark and northwest of Newark Liberty International Airport . US 22 eastbound merges with US 1 @-@ 9 , with one southbound ramp and two northbound ramps ( one for local and another for express lanes ) . The main line follows the US 1 @-@ 9 local northbound ramp for another 0 @.@ 4 miles ( 0 @.@ 64 km ) , with an intermediate exit for Route 21 . The official eastern terminus of US 22 is at the ramp split for I @-@ 78 and northbound US 1 @-@ 9 .
= = History = =
The portion of US 22 between Phillipsburg and Somerville roughly follows the alignment of the Jersey Turnpike , which was chartered in 1806 . What became US 22 across New Jersey was originally designated as pre @-@ 1927 Route 9 in 1916 , a route that ran from Phillipsburg east to Elizabeth . When the U.S. Highway System was established in 1926 , US 22 was designated through New Jersey from the Northampton Street Bridge in Phillpsburg and followed Route 9 east to US 1 / 9 in Elizabeth . A year later , in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 9 was replaced by Route 28 , which itself was rerouted to continue to the Goethals Bridge . As a result , the alignment of US 22 in Elizabeth was designated Route 27 @-@ 28 Link . By 1941 , US 22 underwent two significant realignments within the state . In Phillipsburg , the route was moved from Route 28 to follow its current alignment on what was Route 24 between the Easton @-@ Phillipsburg Toll Bridge and present @-@ day Route 57 ( then a part of Route 24 ) and Route 24 @-@ 28 Link between there and Route 28 . The approach to the Easton @-@ Phillipsburg Toll Bridge , which opened in 1938 , had been planned to be designated Route 24N , but instead became a part of Route 24 . With the realignment of US 22 in Phillipsburg , the old alignment was designated as US 22 Alternate ( now Route 122 ) . In addition , US 22 was moved off from Route 28 east of Bridgewater Township to follow Route 28 @-@ 29 Link and Route 29 to Newark ; Route 29 had been legislated in the 1927 renumbering while Route 28 @-@ 29 Link was legislated in 1938 .
In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , the state highways running concurrent with US 22 were removed . With the planning of the Interstate Highway System in the 1950s , an Interstate Highway connecting the Harrisburg , Pennsylvania area to New York City was planned to run roughly along the US 22 corridor in New Jersey . This interstate was designated as I @-@ 78 in the final plans in 1958 . The new interstate roughly followed the alignment of the unconstructed Route 11 , which had been legislated in 1927 to run from US 22 between White House and Warrenville . Between the Alpha area and Annandale , I @-@ 78 was to directly follow US 22 ; the portion between exits 11 and 13 involved the creation of new eastbound lanes for I @-@ 78 and conversion of the eastbound lanes of US 22 into the westbound lanes of I @-@ 78 . The westbound lanes of US 22 were turned into a two @-@ lane frontage road . This construction took place during the 1960s . US 22 was moved to the I @-@ 78 alignment between these two points in 1969 . The former alignment between Alpha and Clinton became Route 173 while the portion east of there became county @-@ maintained Beaver Avenue ( currently designated CR 626 ) . Originally , I @-@ 78 had been planned to use the Easton @-@ Phillipsburg Toll Bridge across the Delaware River and follow US 22 through Phillipsburg and along the Lehigh Valley Thruway west through the Lehigh Valley of Pennsylvania . However , opposition within Phillipsburg led to the cancellation of this routing , and I @-@ 78 was rerouted to head to the south of the Lehigh Valley . In addition to the construction of I @-@ 78 along the US 22 corridor , US 22 itself evolved into a multilane divided highway from a two @-@ lane road .
= = Major intersections = =
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= The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest =
The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest ( also known as Jonny Quest : The Real Adventures ) is an American animated action @-@ adventure television series produced by Hanna @-@ Barbera and broadcast on Cartoon Network from August 26 , 1996 to April 16 , 1997 . A continuation of the Jonny Quest ( 1964 ) and The New Adventures of Jonny Quest ( 1986 ) series , it features teenage adventurers Jonny Quest , Hadji Singh , and Jessie Bannon as they accompany Dr. Benton Quest and bodyguard Race Bannon to investigate strange phenomena , legends , and mysteries in exotic locales . Action also takes place in the virtual realm of QuestWorld , a three @-@ dimensional cyberspace domain rendered with computer animation . Conceived in the early 1990s , Real Adventures suffered a long and troubled development .
Hanna @-@ Barbera dismissed creator Peter Lawrence in 1996 and hired new producers to finish the show . John Eng and Cosmo Anzilotti completed Lawrence 's work ; David Lipman , Davis Doi , and Larry Houston wrote new episodes with reworked character designs akin to those of classic Quest . Each team produced half of the show 's fifty @-@ two episodes . While Lawrence 's team crafted stories of real @-@ world mystery and exploration , later writers used science fiction and paranormal plots . Turner supported the show through a massive marketing campaign with thirty @-@ three licensees . Real Adventures debuted with an unprecedented wide release on Cartoon Network , TBS , and TNT , airing twenty @-@ one times per week . Critics have debated the merits of the show 's animation , writing , and spirit compared to classic Quest , but it has also received praise in those categories .
Real Adventures failed to gain high ratings with its targeted demographics and its merchandise performed poorly , leading to cancellation after fifty @-@ two episodes . Turner Home Entertainment and Warner Home Video have released eight VHS tapes , two laserdiscs , and twenty @-@ six DVD episodes ; reruns have appeared on Toonami , CNX , and other Turner networks . All 52 episodes were made available for digital purchase on the iTunes Store in 2013 .
= = Development and history = =
Hanna @-@ Barbera created The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest in the early 1990s after being acquired by Turner Entertainment Co . Turner planned a series of year @-@ long " Turner @-@ wide initiatives " to capitalize on old characters and create new franchises . Turner received copious fan mail and phone inquiries about Quest , and observed " incredibly high " marketing Q Scores . The show was also Hanna @-@ Barbera 's most popular venture in the action @-@ adventure genre ; no other contemporary series featured realistic children enjoying lifelike adventures . With William Hanna and Joseph Barbera 's blessings , the company planned a new series , live action film , and two telefilms — Jonny 's Golden Quest and Jonny Quest vs. The Cyber Insects . Combined with a substantial marketing campaign , the project would be their largest initiative since Turner acquired H @-@ B. Turner Home Entertainment President Philip Kent claimed Quest would be a " consumer @-@ products bonanza " , and the company considered Real Adventures the linchpin of the Quest revival . Real Adventures , the live @-@ action film , and release of classic episodes on VHS would constitute a " Year of Jonny Quest " marketing blitz . Delayed until 1996 , the project echoed 1994 's " Year of the Flintstones " and 1995 's " Year of Yogi Bear " . Production on Real Adventures commenced in 1993 . Turner hired a team led by director Dick Sebast , writer Peter Lawrence , and art director Takashi Masunaga . The firm appointed Stephanie Sperber head of the Quest task force in 1994 .
Hanna @-@ Barbera President Fred Seibert allowed Lawrence to create a new team of companions for Jonny , but Lawrence chose to revive the original group . Sebast and Lawrence decided to make the series as realistic as possible through accurate physics and depictions of machinery . Lawrence emphasized believability , eschewing " ridiculous ... laser guns " for real sidearms . The creative team researched child psychology , ensuring they could depict realistic action and consequences without fueling nightmares . Seibert described the show 's theme as " The X @-@ Files for kids " , citing difficult questions and mysteries to be posed in each episode . Departures from the classic series included new character designs and the introduction of a new character to the Quest family . Takashi designed Jonny to be " edgy and handsome " , and rendered characters in the style of Japanese animation to differentiate from American superhero cartoons . The team used a new character — Race 's daughter , Jessie Bannon — to create conflict with Jonny . She was introduced in Jonny 's Golden Quest as Race 's daughter by Jezebel Jade . Lawrence initially titled the show Jonny Quest 's Extraordinary Adventures , but the title changed in 1995 to its final name . Intended for a 1995 release with sixty @-@ five episodes , Real Adventures fell into development hell ; roughly thirty scripts and only eight reels were in progress by March 1995 . Both Lawrence and Takashi were removed in 1996 , hiring John Eng and Cosmo Anzilotti to finish the first twenty @-@ six episodes . Certain sequences necessitated exhaustive work and heavy revision .
A new team led by David Lipman , Davis Doi , and Larry Houston finished twenty @-@ six more for broadcast as a separate series named The New Jonny Quest . Time Warner 's acquisition of Turner negated this plan , leading to the episodes ' release as the second season of Real Adventures . Fred Seibert touted Quest as the " Home Alone of adventure " , with " high @-@ tech , multicultural themes " that would appeal to contemporary youth . Promoters promised the new Quest would avoid " mindless violence , chauvinism , xenophobia and insensitivity " , addressing historical criticisms of the classic series . Turner also claimed that Quest would appeal to any gender , stating , " Traditionally , action adventure animation may be stronger with boys , but in this case , storylines are being developed to draw girls in ... we 're really hoping for a wide berth of viewership . "
= = = Animation = = =
Peter Lawrence aimed to " go beyond cartooning and into animated film @-@ making " for the show 's storytelling . Producers contracted seven studios to animate the first season , including Pacific Animation Co. in Japan and Toon 's Factory in France . Japanese and Korean animators drew traditional cel sequences and added color ; an international team handled digital post @-@ production and QuestWorld scenes . Teva , a subsidiary of Total Group , organized a post @-@ production team in Paris , led by Eric Jacquot , Gilles Deyries , and Pascal Legeay . Using video post @-@ production high @-@ end specialized tools , including Henry , Spirit , Flame , and others , the team strove to deliver a high @-@ speed computer editing and post @-@ production process . The majority of the first season 's footage was digitally inked and painted to enhance background elements . Producers applied the process in excess of twenty hours per episode , adding light effects , rain , snow , glitter , reflections , and fog .
Hanna @-@ Barbera implemented a new computer system to combine manual animation with digital paint , and to provide camera movement flexibility , which created a partial three @-@ dimensional effect . Takashi felt the system made the creative team " honest filmmakers " through hands @-@ on production . Lawrence described the system in 1995 :
We almost have a fine cut before we start animating . The pencil test is imported into the computer ... By having camera mounts on multiple levels , it enables us to review the whole show without the animation . We see the writing and see where there 's a stupid line . We can re @-@ cut the show — effectively ADR the show — and not only send the tape , but print it as well . The tape goes to the compositor and the whole thing is laid together way upfront .
The " pencil test [ is ] imported into the computer " referred to by Lawrence was an animatic . This process was implemented by a specialized graphics IT group within the Turner organization called the Production Technology Group ( PTG ) .
This is the same group that set up and maintained the in @-@ house digital ink and paint systems for Hanna Barbera as well as the Avid and Pro Tools systems used in Post Production . The group was founded and managed by Stephen Toback . Real Adventures maintained the classic show 's realistic violence , featuring off @-@ screen deaths of villains and allies . Japan @-@ based Mook Studios exclusively animated the second season without digital post @-@ processing . The show 's format dictated that title sequences be aired first , followed by a short introduction , the first act , and the second act , with commercial breaks between .
= = = Music = = =
Bodie Chandler directed music for Quest , and Gary Lionelli , Thomas Chase , Stephen Rucker , Lawrence H. Brown , Guy Moon , Kevin Kiner , Christophe Beck , and Mark Koval wrote incidental music and cues . Lionelli conceived a new main theme based on the original 1960s Jonny Quest theme by Hoyt Curtin . Composer Guy Moon considered working for the show the " hardest thing I 've done in my life " due to the producers ' demands for epic music : " They want a big orchestra with a good synth rig ... It 's great because they push me so much I 'll probably replace my whole demo reel with ' Jonny Quest ' music ... It 's hip and it 's current . " Stephen Rucker and Thomas Chase ( who later composed in The Powerpuff Girls ) used MIDI to facilitate composing . Chase appreciated the producers ' commitment to scoring , noting , " For many kids , animation music is their first exposure to orchestral music . "
= = = QuestWorld = = =
Producers cultivated an element of virtual reality through QuestWorld , a cyberspace simulation rendered with three @-@ dimensional computer animation and motion capture . QuestWorld was designed as a futuristic application of contemporary technology , similar to the classic series ' high @-@ tech lasers , satellites , and robots . Seibert traced its origin to " the same problem that James Bond has ... When you look at even his newest gadgets , they 're somewhat quaint . " H @-@ B marketers polled children on their familiarity with virtual reality , discovering that each child was aware of the concept . Planners took inspiration from cyberpunk novels written by Neal Stephenson and William Gibson , including Snow Crash . Short , independent QuestWorld segments called " Quest Bytes " concluded certain episodes .
QuestWorld characters were created as wire frame models , augmented with faces scanned from clay busts , then digitally painted and inked . Animation company Buzz F / X , based in Montreal and Santa Monica , created first season sequences . Work began in April 1996 with the opening titles — a gliding journey through a canyon of green , cartographic lines with scenes illuminated upon the walls . Buzz F / X used mostly inexperienced animators , as budgetary constraints would not permit hiring seasoned employees .
Work followed on " Escape to Questworld " and " Trouble on the Colorado " as animators worked twelve hours a day , six days a week in a small garage with inadequate computers . Buzz F / X augmented the small team in July with ten recruits , but only two were experienced . Amateur employees struggled with lighting , and with synchronizing jerky motion capture from the House of Moves in Venice Beach ; Quest was their first capture production order . By August , the team was working fourteen hours a day , seven days a week , including full nights and mornings .
After two more episodes , Buzz F / X terminated its unprofitable contract with H @-@ B , later filing for bankruptcy in 1997 due to $ 3 @.@ 6 million of debt created by work on Quest . H @-@ B hired Blur Studio to finish the second season 's scenes on a ten @-@ week production schedule . Blur used Intergraph hardware , and its sharp performance attracted press attention and sealed an amicable relationship with H @-@ B. Both companies produced in total roughly one hundred minutes of computer animation for QuestWorld .
= = = International promotion and network run = = =
Turner Entertainment promoted the series in forty countries and fourteen languages to establish international markets . Broadcasters included Antena 3 in Spain , TF1 in France , Channel One in Russia , RAI in Italy , Taurus Film in Germany , the BBC in the United Kingdom and Asia Television in ten Asian countries , representing ATL 's first animated series to be broadcast in both English and Cantonese . Turner planned to introduce US @-@ style animation to the Asian market through Quest . The show was launched in Singapore on TCS Channel 5 ( now known as MediaCorp Channel 5 ) to take advantage of Singapore 's " sophisticated retail sector and well @-@ developed licensing industry " . Brandweek reported in 1995 that the show 's budget , including merchandising and promotional costs , topped $ 40 million .
Director Richard Donner , producer Lauren Shuler Donner , and Jane Rosenthal purchased rights for a live @-@ action film , having expressed interest in the property after Turner acquired H @-@ B. Peter Segal was attached to direct . Slated to begin production in mid @-@ 1995 , filming was delayed until 1996 and ultimately never began . Turner advertised Real Adventures as the " next evolution in children 's programming ... [ redefining ] television animation for the next generation . " The company hosted a 1995 discussion with Peter Lawrence and Takashi at Yanceyville , and later aired previews at United States waterpark events . Staged in major US cities , these " dive @-@ in theaters " featured previews of new series and local celebrities , including Jennifer Love Hewitt , Lacey Chabert , Cameron Finley , and Ashley Johnson for the UCLA event . Turner announced all the debut countries and TV stations as of May 1 , 1996 :
Turner aired Real Adventures seven nights a week on TBS , TNT , and Cartoon Network for an unprecedented twenty @-@ one weekly showings . Turner aired several commercial spots featuring the Quest logo and show introductions to build viral support . Turner 's marketers surmised that juvenile groups watching TNT in the morning , TBS in the afternoon , or Cartoon Network in prime time and late night were mutually exclusive . Real Adventures premiered August 26 , 1996 , three months after a twenty @-@ hour " Farewell Marathon " of original Quest .
The show averaged a 2 @.@ 0 Nielsen rating over August and September 1996 , considered a strong start for an animated series . Though Cartoon Network suffered declining viewership in 1996 , Quest was consistently one of the highest @-@ rated programs ; later season @-@ one episodes drew around 650 @,@ 000 viewers . Real Adventures 's merchandise performed poorly , and it failed to build consistent ratings in its targeted demographics ( though it did attract adult audiences ) . Turner tried to revive interest in February 1997 with a contest for an adventurous trip to Jamaica called Quest World Adventure .
Cartoon Network did not order new episodes beyond the fifty @-@ second . Reruns aired for two years on Toonami until September 24 , 1999 on Cartoon Network in other formats until January 3 , 2003 ; and on CNX until 2003 .
= = Overview = =
The show 's premise is that Dr. Quest , a famous phenomenologist , investigates mysterious occurrences and exotic locales with his son , Jonny Quest , adopted son Hadji Singh , bodyguard Race Bannon , Race 's daughter Jessie , and pet bulldog Bandit . Real Adventures is set a few years after the classic series , making Jonny and his friends teenagers . Lawrence aimed to use " existing , real phenomenon " — such as the " Airstrips of Nazca , the Ruins of Teotihuacan or the possible existence of Giant Squid " — to capture audiences ' curiosity . Stressing plausibility , he suggested writers cover real @-@ world enigmas , cryptozoology , unique locales , an alien posing as the vice president , and fictional but " believable " mysteries . The Quests would frequently visit the virtual environment of QuestWorld , and encounter the villainous Jeremiah Surd and Ezekiel Rage . Paralyzed years prior by Race 's SWAT team , Surd would try to exact revenge through technology ; Rage — a former government agent left for dead on a botched mission — would try to destroy the world with nuclear terrorism .
The Quests would sparingly fight " monsters of the week " , instead battling antagonists whose conflicts lay in " personal objective or ambition ... opposed by Dr. Quest " . Lawrence stationed the family at a new compound on the coast of Maine , replete with houses , barns , and workshops . Rooms suited for each character included a library for Dr. Quest , workshop for Jonny , computer @-@ equipped den for Jessie , dojo and gym for Race , and lighthouse lookout for Hadji 's meditation . Lawrence equipped Dr. Quest with a fleet of air , land , and sea vehicles , including a 1940s biplane and state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art catamaran named Questor with diving bells and smaller research vessels stored in the hulls . Peter Lawrence prided Real Adventures on the strength of its writing , opining that " very few writers in this or any other field actually write visually , " and contesting that each episode would have " enough material or potential to develop into a movie " .
= = = Characters = = =
Peter Lawrence described Jonny as a " hero in training " on the cusp of adulthood . He remarked that Jonny possessed " a straight @-@ ahead , right @-@ on attitude " free of introspection or self @-@ doubt . At age 14 , Jonny was a confident problem @-@ solver prone to getting in trouble . Writers framed him as more an intuitive thinker than an intellectual , and created tension by contrasting his father 's academic leanings with Jonny 's affinity for Race 's daring lifestyle . Jonny inherited his father 's driving curiosity ( rendering him a " walking query " ) , as well as his mother 's " restless , adventurous spirit " . Takashi designed Jonny to be lean , wiry , athletic , and coordinated . Creative directors centered episodes around Jonny ; Seibert summarized the shift :
We decided to make the show more Jonny @-@ centric . If you analyze the original show , you 'll see it 's really the Dr. Quest and Race show . Jonny was just hanging out — after all , what can a 10 @-@ year @-@ old do ? He can 't even ride his bike out of the neighborhood .
Hadji , age 16 , became Dr. Quest 's personal assistant , lacking his mentor 's formal education but sharing his burning interest in archaeology , anthropology and the paranormal . A Hindu , as mentioned in the original series episode " Riddle Of The Gold , " and a yogi , he held a fatalistic attitude towards the show 's drama , reacting to situations " from the philosophical point of view that everything is as it 's supposed to be " . Hadji often used wise aphorisms , taken from diverse cultures and sources and sometimes baffling Jonny . Lawrence cut Hadji 's classic telekinesis to align his abilities with realistic yogi practices . " He doesn 't say things like ' Sim , Sim Sala Bim ' anymore , " season one voice actor Michael Benyaer explained . " The writers and producers actually researched the actual yogic powers . He can do more plausible stuff . There is an episode where Hadji pretends to stop his breathing so that the bad guys think he is dead . " Takashi drew Hadji taller and thinner than his classic counterpart .
Jessie Bannon , age 15 , was characterized to be just as tough , smarter , and more thoughtful than Jonny . Written as " more of an egghead " , she elected to spend time with Dr. Quest as Jonny did with Race , and was " more in tune with Hadji " . Turner conceived Jessie as cool , independent , and a strong role model for contemporary girls . Peter Lawrence took pains to ensure Jessie would not be written as " a guy in a skirt " , and made her more mature than Jonny . Race Bannon ( Jessie 's father ) age 38 , retained his classic , laconic sense of humor and fearless , dependable nature . He retired from government work over ethical scruples with his former intelligence agency . Writers noted that Race was helplessly overprotective of Jessie , and Jonny was " the boy Race never had " . Race was also given a western @-@ US accent and a knack for crafting elaborate , colorful similes . Peter Lawrence sculpted Race to be a " cowboy philosopher or philosopher @-@ warrior " . Writers tasked Race with physical and self @-@ defense training for the Quest team .
Dr. Benton Quest , age 55 , retired from government research and operated from the " Quest Compound " on the coast of Maine . Driven by curiosity , he was " consulted by individuals , governments and corporations " to investigate enigmatic events . Described as " single @-@ minded — almost to the point of obsession — in his pursuit of knowledge " , he often encountered trouble as " his drive to learn blanks out more basic instincts like self @-@ preservation . " Jessie appreciated his ponderous sense of humor . The show 's promoters summarized him as the " benevolent king " archetype . Bandit the family dog also appeared in the series . Lawrence removed Bandit 's clownish origins , stressing that Bandit could not understand English , nor reliably save the family from perilous situations . Summarizing the group 's behavior , Lawrence wrote , " Jonny 's response to danger will be close to Race 's . Jessie 's intrigue with mysterious , unexplained phenomena will be close to Dr. Quest 's and Hadji , with his roots in a different culture and a more spiritual approach to life , is different again . "
Takashi designed each character as physically fit and well @-@ sculpted to reflect " a more exercise @-@ oriented society " . Fred Seibert downplayed worries that the new characters would disappoint cult fans of the classic series . He hoped Real Adventures would find success as new interpretations of comic book heroes had done .
= = = Second season changes = = =
Season two directors Larry Houston and Davis Doi changed the show to resemble the classic franchise . Writer Glenn Leopold revived Hadji 's latent psionic powers — including spoon @-@ bending and rope tricks — as he felt the first season 's realism was " not that interesting to watch " . All characters lost a year in age ; Jonny became 13 . Writer Lance Falk returned Race to governmental guard duty , sealed by an episodic visit with classic Quest spymaster Phil Corven . Race lost his western accent ( with Falk even comparing Race 's western accent to Batman having a French accent ) , and Dr. Quest regained his classic red hair and exhibited rudimentary combat skills . Falk regarded Jessie as the " missing piece needed to complete the Quest family " , and Leopold added slight romantic overtones to episodes . Some fans complained about changes to Jessie , criticized as a damsel in distress with stereotypically female pink clothes . Jonny saved Jessie from danger several times . Falk defended his portrayal as giving her realistic , human fears , such as claustrophobia . Censors asked the second season team to replace firearms with dart guns , notably in the episode " General Winter " .
Second season writers took greater creative liberties with Real Adventures , invoking ghosts , other dimensions , and megalomaniacal schemes . Leopold and Falk sought to create a " slam @-@ bang adventure show with real monsters " and heightened narrative emphasis on Jonny and his friends . Falk explained that cool contrivances took precedence over accuracy , stating that " Jonny Quest is a show with one foot in the fantastic , and one foot solidly based in reality . " Opposed to QuestWorld , the new team was nonetheless contractually obligated to use it in their episodes .
Falk felt that virtual reality undermined the show 's " strong connection to reality " , and suggested that after so many dangerous incidents Dr. Quest would have turned the system off . Writers brought back several classic characters , including Pasha the Peddler , Jezebel Jade , and Dr. Zin . Falk honored Quest creator Doug Wildey by creating an eponymous grandfather for Jonny in the episode " Nuclear Netherworld " , as well as homage to William Hanna 's birthstate of New Mexico where Jonny 's grandfather resides . The team created Estella Velasquez as Jessie 's mother to retcon the telefilms , feeling that Jade would never get married . Writers eventually killed off villains Ezekiel Rage and Dr. Jeremiah Surd in favor of new adversaries . Comparing Quest without Zin to " James Bond without S.P.E.C.T.R.E. " , Falk penned a season finale featuring classic robot spies and a visceral fight between Dr. Quest and Zin . Falk planned to resuscitate Palm Key as the Quest home in new episodes . Cartoon Network did not renew Real Adventures , despite a pledge to explore the history of Jonny 's mother Rachel in the season premiere .
= = Cast = =
The first season of Real Adventures featured J. D. Roth as Jonny , George Segal as Dr. Quest , Robert Patrick as Race , Jesse Douglas as Jessie , Michael Benyaer as Hadji , and veteran voice actor Frank Welker as Dr. Jeremiah Surd . A childhood fan of the original series , J.D. Roth was inspired by Turner 's vision for the new series and swiftly accepted the role of Jonny . Roth was attracted by Jonny 's " star quality " , and approved of his characterization as a real kid without superpowers . He enjoyed Jonny 's infectious enthusiasm and impulsive alacrity . Roth also admired the show 's educational quality , something he had tried to integrate in his personal television pilots . When asked about how he played the relationship with Jonny 's father , he commented , " Jonny is crazy about his dad . He looks up to him and thinks he is the smartest man ever to walk to face of the earth . He has the typical teenage relationship with his father , but his father definitely sees something in him . Dr. Quest knows that Jonny is going to be something really special . " Michael Benyaer also enjoyed playing Hadji : " [ he ] is one of the few roles for an ethnic actor that is not a bad guy . I mean , how many East Indian heroes have been on television ? Hadji is for the sensitive kids out there . He is the outsider in all of us . " A Star Wars fan , Benyaer was happy to work with Mark Hamill for " In the Realm of the Condor " . Peter Lawrence 's request for an Indian @-@ descended voice actor was seen as an " unusual case of multi @-@ ethnic casting " .
The producers struggled to cast Jessie Bannon . Peter Lawrence ultimately chose Jesse Douglas , whom he felt reflected Jessie 's energy and intelligence — " [ Jesse Douglas ] has immense energy , huge energy , and is the kind of woman who could do all the kind of things Jessie could do — you know , athletic , smart , so and so forth [ sic ] . " Douglas impressed Lawrence with her active lifestyle , including ballet , equestrianism , and tennis . When asked about the character 's inclusion , Douglas stated , " I 'd be bummed if I upset anybody . Jessie is pretty cool . It is not like she is a girl who is whining all the time . If anything , she is a really good springboard for the rest of the storyline . " Roth supported her , claiming that " Jonny hasn 't discovered girls yet but when he does Jessie would be the type of girl he 'd like to be with ... I think something will happen between them but right now Jess is his best friend . " H @-@ B Chief Fred Seibert agreed , hinting that as adults " there might be a Tracy / Hepburn thing going on . " Turner approached George Segal to audition for the part of Dr. Quest . Segal described the show as having " a real family feeling about it ... I 'd never seen this stuff before . That was quite remarkable . "
Hanna @-@ Barbera bought out the first cast 's contracts and hired new actors for the second season . This cast featured Quinton Flynn as Jonny , John de Lancie as Dr. Quest , Granville Van Dusen ( for the first two episodes ) and Robert Foxworth as Race , Jennifer Hale as Jessie , and Rob Paulsen as Hadji . Paulsen previously voiced Hadji in the two Quest telefilms . Don Messick attempted to reprise his classic role as Dr. Quest , but was forced into retirement by a stroke during early sessions . Van Dusen voiced Bannon in the 1986 Quest series , and Foxworth took over the part after auditioning for Dr. Quest . Frank Welker reprised his role as Surd in the second season . Several notable guest stars included Kevin Conroy , Earl Boen , Clancy Brown , Robert Ito , James Shigeta , Irene Bedard , Lucy Liu , Brock Peters , Tristan Rogers , Edward Asner , Julian Sands , Helene Udy , Mayim Bialik , Mark Hamill , Andreas Katsulas , Jeffrey Tambor , Dorian Harewood , Clive Revill , Kenneth Mars , Nick Chinlund , Clyde Kusatsu , Dean Jones , Thomas Gibson , Sarah Douglas and Carl Lumbly . Season two writer Lance Falk has also regretted not thinking about veteran voice actor John Stephenson , who was the very first voice of Dr. Quest , for a guest role .
= = Marketing = =
Turner launched a massive marketing campaign to promote Real Adventures , intending to reach 80 % of American children aged six to eleven . Each Turner network spent $ 5 to $ 7 million for a total $ 20 million invested in promotion ; the company contracted thirty @-@ three licensees . Other reports pegged the budget at $ 40 million , and Marketing Week estimated that the series launched with $ 300 million of merchandising support . The Wall Street Journal called Quest a " property to watch " in 1995 ; People and Good Housekeeping considered it a surefire blockbuster . Turner provided digital and bound style guides featuring collections of Quest artwork , coloring instructions , and product ideas .
Produced for $ 100 @,@ 000 and believed to be the first of its kind , the digital style guide included fonts , logos , character art , merchandising mock @-@ ups , voice clips , and other interactive content . Hanna @-@ Barbera launched Questworld.com as the show 's internet hub , presenting it as if written by members of the Quest team . Complementing the show 's educational , real @-@ world premise , the site hosted links to academic , archaeological , and exploratory websites . Turner announced 32 licensees as of summer 1996 :
Turner marketed Real Adventures through a substantial diversity of products , considering its Quest campaign a role model for future shows . Galoob acquired figurine licensing rights in 1995 and created a product line of vehicles , figures , and Micro Machines for fall 1996 release . Turner felt that Galoob 's commitment legitimized the Quest marketing plan , and next secured partnership with Pizza Hut and food retailers . Pillsbury included $ 3 mail @-@ in rebates for future Quest videos , display contests , and instant coupon offers on over 20 million packages . Campbell Soup Company released six holographic miniature posters on the same number of SpaghettiOs cans ; the posters were awarded in Converting in 1997 . General Mills outfitted boxes of Honey Nut Cheerios and Cinnamon Toast Crunch with offers for T @-@ shirts and other items . Over five thousand Pizza Hut restaurants held a two @-@ month @-@ long give @-@ away of figurines with meals during the show 's launch . Galoob failed to build popularity for its toys outside the United States , and discontinued the line in 1997 .
Upper Deck Company used art , sketches , and plots from the first season to create a sixty @-@ piece card collection . Turner also marketed Zebco fishing poles bearing the Quest logo . Kid Rhino produced a cassette audio adventure based on the episode " Return of the Anasazi " . The show 's credits advertised a soundtrack available from Rhino , never sold or otherwise promoted . Turner listed several products in a " Quest Adventure Value Pack " coupon catalogue .
Marketers tied in classic Quest merchandise , launching a classic H @-@ B promotion with Days Inn hotels , Planet Hollywood restaurants , and Little Debbie snack cakes and offering rebates for Cyber Insects and classic episodes . The marketing campaign culminated with the release of eight VHS Real Adventures season one episodes . Turner also released two episodes on laserdisc . Metropolitan newspapers worked with Turner to promote the videos through grab @-@ bag give @-@ aways . Turner sold merchandise through several international distributors , and expected to make a $ 60 million profit per year in the Asia @-@ Pacific region alone .
Savoy Brands International handled South American distribution , involving 750 @,@ 000 retail outlets in Argentina , Chile , Peru , Guatemala , Honduras , Panama , Venezuela , Ecuador and Columbia . Turner debuted Quest at a cocktail party for the European Licensing Fair in late 1996 , and released merchandise in Europe through 90 @,@ 000 retail outlets over the next six months . Copyright Promotions Licensing Group handled lincensing in the United Kingdom . Turner ensured that the license agreements forbade retailers from discounting Quest items . The size of the marketing initiative left one newspaper reviewer wondering , " are [ the Quests ] back because they 're too cool to die , or because they 're too well known to be squandered as a licensing product ? " Turner worried that the promotion might over @-@ hype the brand , and timed commercial roll @-@ outs over the life of the show . H @-@ B chief Fred Seibert expected high sales and success :
The new series is the beginning of what will be a multi @-@ faceted global programming , marketing and merchandising effort ... The property still has great recognition and we think this will work because of the production values , because it 's a real person solving real problems , and because it 's the property that started the genre .
Dark Horse Comics composed a twelve issue series released over the show 's first run , expecting higher store patronage and cross @-@ selling . Editor Phil Amara assured fans that the comics would contain tributes to the classic Jonny Quest . Kate Worley wrote the Real Adventures series and Francisco Lopez illustrated ; guest writers and artists regularly contributed . A lifetime fan of Quest , Eisner Award @-@ winner Paul Chadwick drew the cover of the final issue , depicting Jonny 's descent into a cave on Easter Island . Dark Horse worked with Galoob to ship comic shop @-@ locator phone numbers and preview @-@ URLs with figurines . The company also advertised and released a special three @-@ issue series through mail offers with over 8 million boxes of Honey Nut Cheerios . Three two @-@ page " mini @-@ adventures " packaged with existing Dark Horse products preceded the series ' release . Dark Horse also worked with Converse to stage a promotion in early 1997 for a fan to appear in a Quest comic .
Terry Bisson and others working under the alias " Brad Quentin " produced eleven original novellas featuring adventure and virtual reality themes . Critics appreciated that the books may have drawn kids to reading , especially those interested in technology . Only certain comics and coloring books used season two 's designs , such as Dark Horse 's Countdown to Chaos , featuring General Vostok . Turner stopped marketing the show until April 2004 , when Warner Home Video released episodes " Escape to Questworld " and " Trouble on the Colorado " as TV Premiere DVD : The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest on MiniDVD .
= = = Cover @-@ up at Roswell = = =
Virgin Interactive produced an adventure game for the series named Cover @-@ Up At Roswell , released in August 1996 . Known as Escape from Quest World in development , Roswell cost $ 1 million to make . Virgin handled all marketing , sales , and distribution ; Turner cross @-@ promoted . Developers recycled fifty minutes of footage and art from six season one episodes to construct a new story about the Quest family gathering alien artifacts and saving an extraterrestrial from autopsy at The Pentagon . Jeremiah Surd and the Men in Black of General Tyler plan to misuse the technology and try to hinder the Quests . Gameplay consists of clicking areas on images of locations to navigate paths . Players sometimes encounter minigames , such as guiding a diving bell away from rocks or shooting rats with a slingshot . Virgin designed certain segments to be viewed with packaged stereostopic Chromatek plastic glasses .
Virgin estimated the game would provide 20 – 25 hours of game play for adults and 80 – 100 hours for children . The season two cast provided all voices except for Michael Benyaer as Hadji and Charles Howerton as Dr. Quest . The game 's music featured a " high @-@ intensity orchestral sound " prone to monotony . One reviewer praised Roswell for " good entertainment and variety " , but regretted low replay value and no modes of difficulty . Critics were divided over the puzzles , naming them both " ingenious " and " elementary " . Peter Scisco of ComputerLife and FamilyPC 's testers criticized some of the puzzles for relying on " reflexes , not logical thinking " .
Entertainment Weekly rated the game B + , naming the puzzles " unimaginative ... Pac @-@ Man rip @-@ offs and dopey jigsaws " . Scisco appreciated the nonviolent content and the inclusion of Jessie as a strong female character , but considered the extraterrestrial story too familiar . A writer from the Sydney Morning Herald warned against buying the game for easily frightened children , but recommended it for those who enjoy mental challenges .
= = = Other promotions = = =
Turner , TBS , and Holiday Inn partnered to hold an essay contest as part of the Safe America Foundation 's " Quest for Safety " drive . From October 9 to November 4 , 1996 , spots encouraged children to write essays about important safety issues and personal safety . A panel of public safety and community leaders selected the winner , dubbing them the " Safest Kid in America " . TBS posted the winner 's essay to the kids section of its website and awarded them a position on the Real Adventures float for the 1997 Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena . Second @-@ prize winners received bicycle helmets , T @-@ shirts , and Jonny Quest lapel pins . Turner staged an international contest in February 1997 called " Quest World Adventure " , featuring the grand prize of a trip to a " secret island " ( Jamaica ) in July to take part in a staged dramatic scenario .
Commercials instructed fans to mail in episodes ' geographical destinations during sweeps week . Advertisements appeared through Time Warner 's television channels , Sports Illustrated for Kids , DC Comics publications , radio stations , and Warner Brothers stores . The contest marked the first time that Cartoon Network U.S. , TNT Europe , Cartoon Network Europe , Cartoon Network Asia , and Cartoon Network Latin America united for a single promotion . Turner encouraged local cable operators to submit their own spots , generating 34 @,@ 000 ads among 174 cable systems for a total of $ 3 @.@ 4 million cross @-@ channel media support . 50 @,@ 000 children with a median age of ten entered the competition , and 20 @,@ 000 answered correctly . Turner selected ten viewers from the United States and nine from Latin America and Asia as grand @-@ prize winners . They and two @-@ hundred others received Quest @-@ themed adventure packs , including a backpack , flashlight and siren , travel journal , pen , T @-@ shirt , and glow sticks . Cartoon Network aired the names of winning children on a special feature in which Jeremiah Surd issued personal threats .
Winners received all @-@ expenses @-@ paid trips to Ocho Rios , Jamaica , with up to three family members . Planners kept the destination secret until shortly before travel . In Jamaica , kids combated Surd 's " environmental terrorism " by preventing him from finding the Jamaican " Irie " stones . Children received clues on the mission through e @-@ mails seemingly written by Jonny Quest . Posing as allies , network employees prepared clues , buried treasure , and hosted barbecues , reggae concerts , and rafting trips . Participants searched for the stones at the White River , Dunn 's River Falls , and Prospect Plantation ; hosts filmed the proceedings for possible future promotions . The quest centered on cerebral challenges and puzzles . Attendees also learned about the history and ecology of Jamaica . The adventure doubled the show 's ratings for February sweeps and tripled Questworld.com 's hits . Brandweek awarded it the year 's top honors for a global marketing promotion .
= = Home media releases = =
Warner Home Video released episodes " Escape to Questworld " and " Trouble on the Colorado " on MiniDVD in April 2004 , then released the first thirteen episodes on February 17 , 2009 as Season 1 , Volume 1 of The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest on DVD in Region 1 . On March 27 , 2012 , Warner Archive released The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest : Season 1 , Volume 2 on DVD in Region 1 as part of their Hanna – Barbera Classics Collection . This is a Manufacture @-@ on @-@ Demand ( MOD ) release , available exclusively through Warner 's online store and Amazon.com. The complete second ( and final ) season was released to DVD on November 10 , 2015 from Warner Archive . All 52 episodes were made available for digital purchase in 2013 on the iTunes Store .
= = Critical reception = =
Announcement of Jessie Bannon 's inclusion caused backlash among Quest fans . TV Guide 's editors feared that Jonny and Jessie would become romantically entangled , declaring her an " icky female " . H @-@ B Chief Fred Seibert responded , " Jessie is a little older and smarter than Jonny ... We 're not doing Moonlighting here . " Seibert also denied that Jessie had been created solely to appeal to little girls , citing extant support for Jonny and the classic team . A Miami Herald columnist called Jessie an " effort to rewrite the past to conform to the sociopolitical mandates of the present " and political correctness " run amok " . Billboard conversely welcomed the change over an all @-@ male cast . The fiasco subsided after the Cyber Insects telefilm aired ; the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution rebuffed the " icky girl " label , as Jessie saved Jonny 's life and taught him patience . A test screening of Cyber Insects to 30- to 35 @-@ year @-@ old males revealed that though some questioned her addition , most understood that like certain elements criticized in the original series , it was a reflection of the times .
Some fans still took issue with the series ' distance from classic Quest , which suffered accusations of cultural insensitivity and " racial and sexual stereotypes " . Real Adventures evoked critical comparisons to the original series . Cinefantastique felt Real Adventures remained true to the classic show 's formula , and praised the " impressive " cast . Another critic recommended the show to " die @-@ hard adult fans " , affirming that Real Adventures maintained the violence and off @-@ screen deaths of the old series , as even the opening titles featured " explosions , murder and mayhem " . The Washington Post judged the first season as " grittier and more lifelike " than the original Quest . Chicago Tribune critic Allan Johnson agreed that Real Adventures was less " way @-@ out " and contrasted the shows in detail . TV Guide applauded the writing as " miles deeper and darker than on the old show " ; Hadji 's quotations impressed the magazine 's reviewer . Chicago 's Daily Herald called the first episode " vintage Quest " , and The Panama City Times @-@ Herald echoed this position :
The new series takes the best elements of the old — global adventures , cutting @-@ edge technology and good @-@ spirited teamwork — and updates it for the 1990s . The now @-@ teen @-@ age heroes are caught up in extraordinary dangers both in the " real " world and in virtual reality .
Critics debated the success of the show 's premise . Peter Scisco of ComputerLife appreciated that the team " rely on their brains , not mutant superpowers " . People praised Turner 's shift from the " politically correct claptrap " of Captain Planet and the Planeteers , giving Real Adventures a B grade as " children 's programming the way it oughta be " . The authors of 1998 's Saturday Morning Fever contrarily felt the show lacked " the sense of why the original was so successful " . They disliked H @-@ B 's packaging of disparate seasons as one series , preferring the second for its characters and classic references . Greg Aaron of HotWired praised the franchise 's return but warned against QuestWorld hype , arguing that " it will take more than visual sophistication to hook today 's viewers " .
Hanna @-@ Barbera founder and chairman Joseph Barbera considered Real Adventures a " disaster " because of changes to the characters and stories . He conceded , " that 's their business . Everybody needs to do their own thing . " Critics generally enjoyed the characters and voice acting . People liked the cast , particularly George Segal . Saturday Morning Fever praised Jessie Bannon for her resemblance to Dr. Quest . Allan Johnson approved of the age jump , as Jonny and Hadji were now old enough to be part of the action . He considered Jessie " cool ... she gives Jonny grief just because she can , and she 's not afraid of the action . " He did not enjoy the " toned down " portrayal of Race Bannon . Some fans objected to Race 's Western accent in the first season . Peter Lawrence defended the portrayal of Race as a " man of action , not thought — though perfectly capable of deep thought " , noting that his accent and mannerisms encouraged variety , surprise , and originality .
The quality of Quest 's traditional and computer animation split critics . The Toronto Star scathingly criticized the show for " facile plots heavily laced with jarring science fiction and incongruous computer animation " , naming QuestWorld a " poorly explained techno @-@ gimmick . " Le Figaro concurred , but praised QuestWorld for capturing the attention of young viewers . The Star praised QuestWorld , but regarded traditional sequences as " flat and textureless , with minimal characterization , unnaturally stiff movement , and poor execution of shading and shadow " . Ted Cox of the Chicago Daily Herald agreed that animated motion was sometimes " remarkably uneven " , but lauded realistic imagery like " the play of light on the ocean " . TV Guide also found the animation somewhat flat , but considered the sound effects and backgrounds to be state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art .
The show 's sound was warmly received by the industry . Episodes " Nuclear Netherworld " and " Alien in Washington " were nominated respectively for music and sound editing Golden Reel Awards in 1997 , and the entire series was nominated for an animated sound editing Golden Reel Award in 1998 . Real Adventures was also nominated for a 1997 Daytime Emmy Award for music direction and composition . Special effects director Alberto Menache criticized QuestWorld in Understanding Motion Capture for Computer Animation and Video Games , considering it a mistake @-@ laden failure . He explained that the size difference between the motion capturers and the characters caused unsteady animation and shaking , consequently mismatching interaction with props and uneven terrain .
Menache blamed the show 's budget , which did not allow for digital post @-@ production and review ; producers instead expected " plug @-@ and @-@ play " results straight from the capture studio . Menache concluded that the QuestWorld sequences suffered from a " pipeline set up for mass production " with little testing or planning . Quest 's Senior Vice President of Production Sherry Gunther admitted that the motion capture technology was " a little crude " and best suited for broad movements . Menache was less critical of the facial capture , considering it " medium @-@ quality " but still unacceptable given H @-@ B 's resources . These criticisms mirrored the comments of Buzz F / X animator Francois Lord , who cited inexperienced Montreal animators and rushed production schedules . He pointed out that Blur Studios had more time , money , and experience for season two 's sequences .
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= U.S. Route 30 in Iowa =
U.S. Highway 30 ( US 30 ) is a major east – west U.S. Highway which spans 330 miles ( 530 km ) across the state of Iowa . It is the longest primary highway in the state and is maintained by the Iowa Department of Transportation ( Iowa DOT ) . The route in Iowa begins at the Missouri River crossing at Blair , Nebraska , and ends at the Mississippi River crossing at Clinton . Along the way , it serves Denison and Carroll in western Iowa , Boone , Ames , and Marshalltown in central Iowa , and Tama , Cedar Rapids , and DeWitt in eastern Iowa . Cutting across the central portion of the state , US 30 runs within close proximity of the Union Pacific Railroad 's Overland Route for its entire length .
US 30 was originally conceived as a part of the Lincoln Highway , the first transcontinental highway in the United States . A route through Iowa was chosen because of the important link between Omaha , Nebraska , and Chicago , Illinois . As the U.S. Highway System came into being in the 1920s , and the Lincoln Highway became US 30 , federal money started to pay for paving Iowa 's dirt roads . By 1931 , it had been paved across the entire state .
The route of the Lincoln Highway and US 30 has accommodated the changing needs of the traveling public . Early Lincoln Highway travelers were directed into many small towns as the route traveled 358 miles ( 576 km ) across the state . Towards the middle of the 20th century , the route was straightened , bypassing most downtown areas and several towns altogether . More recently , long sections of US 30 have been upgraded to a four @-@ lane expressway to meet the needs of increasing traffic . Since 2006 , the highway has been designated an Iowa Heritage Byway by Iowa DOT , the first highway in the state with that distinction .
= = Route description = =
US 30 extends from west to east across the central portion of Iowa , with much of the highway traveling through rolling farmland . Small towns dot the entire route , which connects the larger cities of Denison , Ames , Cedar Rapids , and Clinton . Between Ogden and Mount Vernon , significant portions of the highway have been upgraded to a four @-@ lane freeway .
= = = Western Iowa = = =
US 30 enters the western end of Iowa by crossing the Missouri River on the Blair Bridge , located east of the Nebraska town of the same name . Adjacent to the highway bridge is the Union Pacific Railroad 's river crossing for the Overland Route . The highway runs roughly parallel to the rail line for its entire run across Iowa . For nine miles ( 14 km ) , traffic moves through the flat Missouri River bottoms , passing DeSoto National Wildlife Refuge on the way to Missouri Valley . At Missouri Valley , it intersects Interstate 29 ( I @-@ 29 ) at a partial cloverleaf interchange . It enters the Boyer River valley through the Loess Hills , a region of wind @-@ deposited silt extending from north of Sioux City to extreme northwestern Missouri . The rolling Loess Hills rise 50 – 100 feet ( 15 – 30 m ) above the roadway while the land in the valley stays relatively flat . US 30 enters Logan and intersects the eastern end of Iowa Highway 127 ( Iowa 127 ) . The highway runs parallel to the Boyer River as well as the Overland Route in a general northeast direction from Logan . Four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) east of Logan is the western end of Iowa 44 , which extends 105 miles ( 169 km ) east to Des Moines .
The highway enters Crawford County north of Dunlap in Harrison County . For seventeen miles ( 27 km ) , US 30 passes through farmland and the small communities of Dow City and Arion . For one @-@ half mile ( 800 m ) through Denison , it overlaps US 59 and Iowa 141 , which run concurrently through the town . The Iowa DOT refers to routes which overlap other routes as duplicate routes . It follows the East Boyer River through Denison as the Boyer River forks west of the northern intersection with US 59 / Iowa 141 . US 30 travels north @-@ northeasterly towards Vail . Between Vail and Westside , the highway ceases following the East Boyer River and heads due east towards Arcadia and Carroll in Carroll County .
At Carroll it intersects US 71 on the western side of the city . Continuing east , the highway goes through the town of Glidden and passes to the north of Ralston , west of the Greene County line . North of Scranton it meets the northern end of Iowa 25 . Between Scranton and Jefferson , US 30 crosses the Raccoon River . US 30 crosses Iowa 4 and Iowa 144 on the northern edge of Jefferson and Grand Junction , the latter of the cities named for its location at the junction of the historic Chicago & Northwestern and Chicago , Rock Island and Pacific Railroads , now both owned by Union Pacific , respectively . East of Grand Junction , the highway passes over the Overland Route where it stays south of the railroad until Le Grand .
= = = Central Iowa = = =
Four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) west of Ogden , US 30 is joined by US 169 from the north . The two highways run concurrently until reaching Ogden , where the road becomes a four @-@ lane expressway . US 169 exits to the south at a partial cloverleaf interchange , while US 30 continues east through Boone County and descends into the Des Moines River valley . It ascends from the valley and travels another two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to a four @-@ way stop in Boone , which is the last stop along the route until Iowa 1 in Mt . Vernon . Three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east of Boone , it meets Iowa 17 at a diamond interchange . One mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of that interchange is a shortcut to northbound Iowa 17 .
Traffic is filtered into Ames and Iowa State University ( ISU ) from US 30 through five interchanges . On the outskirts of Ames are the Lincoln Way interchanges , access to and from Lincoln Way is handled by two half interchanges three @-@ quarters mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) apart . From the interchanges to the Story County line one and three @-@ quarters miles ( 2 @.@ 8 km ) away , Lincoln Way is designated as Iowa 930 , but is never signed as such . The South Dakota Avenue interchange primarily serves the southwestern part of Ames . The University Boulevard ( formerly Elwood Drive ) exit provides access to the Iowa State University campus and Iowa State Center , ISU 's cultural and athletics complex . The Duff Avenue interchange provides access to Ames 's east side . US 69 and Interstate 35 Business Loop are designated along Duff Avenue . From Duff to I @-@ 35 , US 30 is overlapped by the I @-@ 35 Business Loop . Between the Duff and Dayton Avenue interchanges , it crosses the South Skunk River . The Dayton Avenue interchange serves hotels and restaurants and is a travel stop for I @-@ 35 travelers .
East of the Dayton Avenue interchange is I @-@ 35 , which connects US 30 to Minneapolis , Minnesota , to the north , and Des Moines to the south . Continuing east , the expressway travels six and a half miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) to Nevada , six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) more to the US 65 interchange at Colo , and seven and a half miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) to where the four @-@ lane expressway ends at State Center . Just before the Iowa 330 interchange seven and a half miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) later , the road becomes a four @-@ lane expressway again . One mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the east are two half @-@ interchanges with U.S. Highway 30 Business ( US 30 Business ) .
US 30 bypasses Marshalltown approximately one @-@ quarter mile ( 400 m ) south of its business loop . Near Marshalltown Community College , it intersects Iowa 14 at a diamond interchange . The 18th Avenue interchange on the southeastern side of Marhsalltown is the eastern end of the business loop . From Marshalltown , it travels five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) to Le Grand , crossing over the Overland Route rail corridor on the west side . It bypasses Le Grand to the north , where it intersects the northern end of Iowa 146 at a diamond interchange . Continuing east , the highway enters Tama County . It rises over a large hill north of Montour and then descends into the Iowa River valley .
East of the Iowa River is the Meskwaki Settlement , which is home to about 800 Meskwaki Indians and the Meskwaki Casino and Resort . As it heads into the Tama – Toledo area , the expressway bisects the two communities . Between the two cities , it meets US 63 at a partial cloverleaf interchange . From US 63 it turns to the southeast to skirt Tama 's east side . It rejoins the former alignment of the highway east of Tama and heads due east , along section lines in Tama and Benton Counties , and does not enter another town for 40 miles ( 64 km ) .
= = = Eastern Iowa = = =
US 30 enters Benton County nine miles ( 14 km ) north of Belle Plaine at an intersection with Iowa 21 . It continues east along a section line , passing the communities of Keystone , Van Horne , and Blairstown . Three and a half miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) southwest of Newhall , or four and a quarter miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) southeast of Van Horne , it meets US 218 and becomes a four @-@ lane road . US 30 and US 218 travel together due east towards Cedar Rapids , passing Norway and Atkins .
On the west end of Cedar Rapids , US 30 / US 218 turn to the southeast at the 16th Avenue SW interchange . Two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to the southeast is the Williams Boulevard interchange , where US 151 joins US 30 and US 218 . For four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) , US 30 / US 151 / US 218 is a wrong @-@ way concurrency ; that is , where two or more routes heading in opposite directions share the same highway . In this instance , US 30 is the main east – west road while US 151 and US 218 are duplicate routes , nominally heading north and south , respectively . At the I @-@ 380 interchange , US 218 leaves US 30 / US 151 and joins the Avenue of the Saints highway . East of I @-@ 380 , US 30 / US 151 serve as a divider between the Lincolnway Village neighborhood to the south and a light industrial district to the north .
South of Bertram , the two routes cross the Cedar River before US 151 splits away from US 30 to the north at a trumpet interchange . This interchange is the southern end of Iowa 13 . It continues east towards Mount Vernon , two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of which , the four @-@ lane highway becomes a two @-@ lane road . In Mount Vernon , it intersects Iowa 1 at a roundabout . One mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from Iowa 1 , it enters Lisbon .
Over the next 45 miles ( 72 km ) , US 30 passes through a small town every four to seven miles ( 6 to 11 km ) . In Cedar County it passes through Mechanicsville , Stanwood , Clarence and Lowden . In Stanwood , it is overlapped by Iowa 38 for one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . In Clinton County , it passes through Wheatland , Calamus , and Grand Mound before reaching a full cloverleaf interchange with US 61 at DeWitt . US 30 overlaps US 61 for one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , crossing the Union Pacific Overland Route in the process , and leaves US 61 via a trumpet interchange .
US 30 continues east as an expressway , passing DeWitt to the south . Five miles ( 8 km ) east of DeWitt , it crosses back over to the north side of the Overland Route . West of the Clinton city limits is an interchange with Clinton County Road Z36 ( CR Z36 ) , which serves Low Moor and as a shortcut to southbound US 67 . East of CR Z36 , it passes the Clinton Municipal Airport and a large chemical plant . As it approaches Mill Creek Parkway , it descends over 100 feet ( 30 m ) in elevation into the flat Mississippi River valley , where it meets US 67 .
US 30 / US 67 head east along Lincoln Way and ascend 50 feet ( 15 m ) onto a plateau , atop which reside stores and restaurants . As they continue east , the two routes split into one @-@ way streets , eastbound Liberty Avenue and westbound Camanche Avenue . The one @-@ way street alignment ends at 11th Avenue South , but quickly begins again as US 30 / US 67 turn to the north onto northbound South Third Street and southbound South Fourth Street . At Eighth Avenue South , US 30 splits away from US 67 and onto the Gateway Bridge and crosses into Illinois .
= = History = =
The path which US 30 follows has changed since it was originally planned as the Lincoln Highway in the early 1910s . The first path connected as many downtown areas as possible , in order to create awareness about the Good Roads Movement and the Lincoln Highway . As the primary highway system of Iowa matured , and the Lincoln Highway yielded to US 30 , the highway was gradually straightened , leaving many towns off the route . More recently , new construction has routed traffic away from the straighter roads and onto sections of freeway and expressway .
= = = Lincoln Highway = = =
US 30 was created with the U.S. Highway System in 1926 , but the route it takes dates back to 1913 , when the Lincoln Highway Association ( LHA ) designated the route across the country . The brainchild of Carl Fisher , the Lincoln Highway was the first highway to cross the United States , connecting New York City to San Francisco . In Iowa , it was uncertain exactly where the Lincoln Highway would run . As of August 1913 , no definite route had been planned ; the only certainty was the route would pass through Iowa . Iowans raised over $ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 120 million in 2016 dollars ) for the construction of the road . On September 14 , 1913 , the Lincoln Highway Association announced the route . It was 358 miles ( 576 km ) of dirt roads , connecting Clinton , DeWitt , Cedar Rapids , Tama , Marshalltown , Ames , Jefferson , Denison , Logan , and Council Bluffs . The route was marked by a red , white , and blue tricolor emblazoned with an L. The route markers were painted upon telephone poles , bridges , and nearby buildings to show travelers the way .
While not ideal for transcontinental travel , Iowa 's dirt roads were of high quality . Foreigners even compared them to the best roads in France . However , the same could not be said when they were wet . The mud was so thick and viscous it was nicknamed " gumbo " . To show travelers the obvious benefits of paved roads , the Lincoln Highway Association began the process of creating seedling miles of paved roads . The idea , according to Henry B. Joy , then @-@ president of the Lincoln Highway Association , was to show travelers , for one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , how fast and smooth their trip could be , only to bring them back to reality at the end of the mile . Seedling miles were placed at least six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from the nearest town and in areas where the terrain was rough . Between August 1918 and June 1919 , Iowa 's first seedling mile was built in Linn County , west of Mount Vernon . The ribbon of concrete , which was 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) wide , 7 1 ⁄ 2 inches ( 19 cm ) thick , and crowned for drainage 1 1 ⁄ 2 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 cm ) , cost nearly $ 35 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 478 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) to build .
Despite the success of the seedling miles across the country , Iowa lagged behind other states in improving its roads . Before 1924 , Iowa 's 99 counties , not the state highway commission , were responsible for the construction and maintenance of the state 's roads . In the 1920s , road paving cost $ 30 @,@ 000 per mile ( $ 19 @,@ 000 / km ) , equivalent to $ 718 @,@ 000 per mile ( $ 446 @,@ 000 / km ) in 2016 dollars ; a major obstacle for county boards of supervisors that wanted to pave its roads . When counties could afford to build roads , the Iowa State Highway Commission required extensive grading to be done before paving . In 1922 , only five percent of Iowa 's roads , 334 miles ( 538 km ) , were paved . By 1924 , twenty percent of the Lincoln Highway in Iowa had been paved , and by 1931 , it was paved continuously from New York City to Missouri Valley , Iowa .
= = = 1930s – 1950s = = =
When the Lincoln Highway became U.S. Highway 30 in 1926 , the route was 358 miles ( 576 km ) long and passed through every town along the way . Starting in the 1930s , the route 's alignment began to be straightened . By the mid @-@ 1930s , it was routed west of Missouri Valley on old Iowa 130 . The US 30 alignment south of Missouri Valley became U.S. Highway 30 Alternate . By 1952 , it had moved south of Marshalltown and was replaced by Iowa 330 and a seventeen @-@ mile ( 27 km ) southern jaunt through Belle Plaine had been replaced by a straight road . In 1955 , a couple of routing changes occurred . In Cedar Rapids , it began its move to the south , avoiding the downtown area , and in Clinton , it was rerouted over the Gateway Bridge , allowing Iowa 136 to cross the Lyons @-@ Fulton Bridge . However , by 1957 , the old alignment through Clinton and across the Lyons @-@ Fulton Bridge was numbered U.S. Highway 30 Alternate .
= = = 1960s – 1980s = = =
In the 1960 – 1970s , Iowa DOT started to build freeway segments along US 30 . In 1965 , it was straightened and rerouted to the south of Ogden and Boone along an eleven @-@ mile ( 18 km ) , four @-@ lane stretch of road . By the end of the 1960s , both of the alternate routes had been turned over to local jurisdictions . The western route became Iowa 183 , and the eastern route reverted to Iowa 136 . By 1973 , that new stretch of road had been extended fourteen miles ( 23 km ) along a four @-@ lane bypass around Ames . The old alignment became Iowa 930 . In eastern Iowa , a new , twenty @-@ mile @-@ long ( 32 km ) freeway connected DeWitt and Clinton by 1976 . By 1985 , the bypass of Cedar Rapids had been completed from 16th Avenue SW to Iowa 13 near Bertram . The bypass was extended five miles ( 8 km ) further west in 1989 . Between 1996 and 2000 , an $ 8 @.@ 2 @-@ million extension ( equivalent to $ 12 @.@ 4 million in 2016 dollars ) was built to connect the bypass to the western intersection of US 218 .
Since the Cedar Rapids bypass was completed in 1985 , on occasion , traffic has had to be rerouted off of US 30 . The bypass 's proximity to the Union Pacific Railroad mainline resulted in an elevated roadway between Edgewood Road and Sixth Street SW . When strong winds come from the south , fog produced by an Archer Daniels Midland plant adjacent to the highway billows over the road making driving dangerous . The Iowa DOT set up an emergency detour from Edgewood Road SW north to 16th Avenue SW east to 6th Street SW back to US 30 . The frequency of fog @-@ related detours has decreased in recent years due to improved technology and the plant 's expansion and relocation of cooling towers away from the highway .
= = = 1990s to the present = = =
The 1990s saw more construction of four @-@ lane roads along US 30 . Stretches of four @-@ lane roads that had already been constructed were extended towards other communities . In Story County , it was widened to four lanes from the I @-@ 35 interchange to US 65 at Colo . The original 1950s @-@ era bypass of Marshalltown was itself bypassed in 1997 by a freeway three @-@ quarters mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) south of the original bypass . That road , Iowa Avenue in Marshalltown , was designated as U.S. Highway 30 Business , the first business route along US 30 in Iowa . The four @-@ lane stretch southeast of Cedar Rapids was extended another five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) to a point two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Mount Vernon , costing $ 5 @.@ 6 million ( equivalent to $ 8 @.@ 45 million in 2016 dollars ) to build .
Since the beginning of the 21st century , Iowa DOT has continued to widen US 30 to four lanes . In 2004 , an $ 18 @.@ 6 @-@ million ( equivalent to $ 28 @.@ 1 million in 2016 dollars ) , four @-@ lane section opened from east of Marshalltown to the Meskwaki Settlement west of Tama , bypassing Le Grand . In 2010 , two sections of expressway were completed . A seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ mile @-@ long ( 12 km ) section from Colo to State Center opened to westbound travelers on November 29 , while the eastbound lanes opened a week later . The seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ mile @-@ long ( 12 km ) section , which bypasses the Tama / Toledo area , opened in two segments . The first of which opened on November 1 , and the second on November 25 . On July 7 , 2011 , a section from State Center to Iowa 330 opened in Marshall County . This created a four @-@ lane expressway from Ogden to Tama , covering 75 miles ( 121 km ) .
= = = Legacy of the Lincoln Highway = = =
While the Lincoln Highway has not been an official route for 90 years , it is still a source of pride in the communities and regions through which it passed . Nearly 85 percent of the original Lincoln Highway is still drivable , although much is gravel . Most of what is drivable is either along US 30 or within one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . The Lincoln Highway bridge in Tama was built in 1915 . It was restored in the 1980s after local officials feared losing the then @-@ deteriorating bridge . Preston 's Service Station , a landmark of Belle Plaine , has become a Lincoln Highway museum . Monuments were built along the route to honor not only Abraham Lincoln , but to honor Iowans who were influential for planning its route .
In 1992 , the Lincoln Highway Association was reformed with a chapter in each state through which the highway passed . The new LHA is a historical preservation group that wants to preserve the remaining sections of the highway . The Iowa chapter of the LHA has , since 2008 , sponsored a tour of the Lincoln Highway . To keep friendly to classic cars , the tour does not travel upon the sections of the road which are gravel . After years of lobbying by the LHA , the Iowa Department of Transportation , in 2006 , designated the Lincoln Highway the first Iowa Heritage Byway . The 2010 Transportation Map of Iowa showed the path designated as the Iowa Heritage Byway for the first time .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Regina Martínez Pérez =
Regina Martínez Pérez ( 7 September 1963 – 28 April 2012 ) was a Mexican journalist and veteran crime reporter for Proceso , a center @-@ left Mexican news magazine known for its critical reporting of the social and political establishment .
Born in a small town in the state of Veracruz , Martínez Pérez left her hometown to study journalism at Universidad Veracruzana . After graduating from university , she went to work at a state @-@ owned television company in Chiapas in the early 1980s , but she encountered various forms of censorship that convinced her to pursue a career in print media . After five years in Chiapas , Martínez Pérez relocated to Veracruz and worked for several local newspapers . In Veracruz , Martínez Pérez faced several challenges of censorship by the political establishment for her direct reporting , and particularly for being an outspoken critic of human rights violations , government corruption , abuse of authority , and for her in @-@ depth coverage of the drug trafficking organizations that operate in Veracruz .
Early in the morning of 28 April 2012 , Martínez Pérez was murdered inside her home in Xalapa after being severely beaten . A suspect was arrested in October 2012 and publicly confessed to the murder , while the Mexican authorities concluded that the motive of the murder was theft . But the suspect later retracted his confession and stated that he had been tortured and threatened by officials to lie and admit to the murder . Investigators have relied solely on the suspect 's confession to incriminate him ; the DNA and fingerprint samples collected at the murder scene did not match the suspect 's according to sources close to Committee to Protect Journalists .
The Committee to Protect Journalists , Proceso magazine , and several journalists and press freedom organizations have complained about irregularities in the investigation and question the legitimacy of the whole case . They believe that their colleague 's murder was part of a campaign of intimidation against those who investigate alleged links between drug traffickers and politicians in the state of Veracruz .
= = Early life = =
Regina Martínez Pérez was born in the small town of Rafael Lucio , Veracruz on 7 September 1963 . Her parents , María Lorenza Pérez Vázquez and Florencio Martínez Romero , had 11 children . From a young age , Martínez Pérez wanted to be a journalist ; after graduating from high school , she left her hometown to study journalism at Universidad Veracruzana ( UV ) . Shortly after graduating , she moved to the state of Chiapas to work as a reporter for Mexican Rural Television ( Televisión Rural Mexicana – TRM ) , a state @-@ owned television company , in the early 1980s . Martínez Pérez was part of a group of former students from the UV who were hired by the government to work at the television company . But after demanding better working conditions and facing censorship from the company , she left the company to pursue a career in print media .
= = Career = =
Martínez Pérez worked for several newspapers in Chiapas , like El Sol de Chiapas and Número Uno , for five years before she returned to her home state of Veracruz , where she became the editorial assistant of the news channel Cuatro Más . The journalist then left to work for the daily Política , where she covered topics on security and social justice . Martínez Pérez was also a journalist and investigative crime reporter for the Diario de Xalapa newspaper . Her journalistic career in Veracruz , however , faced several challenges from the political elite ; governors and government secretaries wanted to censor Martínez Pérez for criticizing their administration . Instead of self @-@ censoring like other media outlets in the state , she became known for her direct reporting style , which frequently angered the authorities . She wrote over 63 reports covering political assassinations , natural disasters , authority abuses , human right violations , corruption , and government mismanagement .
After working for the Diario de Xalapa , Martínez Pérez became a local correspondent for the newspaper La Jornada in the state and later joined the news magazine Proceso , where she worked for more than ten years . The news magazine is well known for having an " anti @-@ establishment publication " style , and often runs articles that criticize politicians across the country . Many of its reporters have been threatened in the past for their journalistic coverage .
In Proceso , Martínez Pérez was an open critic of government corruption and abuse of authority , and wrote extensively on the local drug trade and organized crime . She was particularly known in Mexico for her in @-@ depth reporting on the Mexican drug cartels and how they corrupted government officials in Veracruz . Among her last publications before her murder was a political profile about Reynaldo Escobar Pérez and Alejandro Montano , two politicians of the Institutional Revolutionary Party ( PRI ) who were running for office in Congress . A week before her murder she had also written about an incident in which the Mexican Navy arrested nine policemen in the state who were allegedly working for a drug trafficking organization , the arrest of a high @-@ profile leader of Los Zetas drug cartel known as Comandante Chaparro , and a story involving mayor Martín Padua Zúñiga from the National Action Party ( PAN ) who was arrested with drug traffickers following a gunfight with the Mexican Army .
= = Death = =
Martínez Pérez was murdered early in the morning of 28 April 2012 in her home in the Felipe Carrillo Puerto neighborhood in Xalapa , the capital of Veracruz . When police went to her home to investigate in response to a neighbor 's call about her door being open all day , Martínez Pérez 's corpse was found on the bathroom floor . According to official reports , she had been severely beaten around her face and ribs , and then strangled to death . The cause of death was asphyxia by strangulation . At the time of her death , the Mexican authorities said they were investigating all the possible motives behind her assassination , including personal motives and theft , and that they would investigate whether the killing was work @-@ related .
In October 2012 , new details emerged in her murder investigation . Charges were brought against Jorge Antonio Hernández Silva ( alias El Silva ) and José Adrián Hernández Domínguez ( alias El Jarocho ) , two men who were alleged to have murdered Martínez Pérez . Silva , who had already been arrested , confessed to the murder . According to Silva 's confession , the reporter knew Domínguez and therefore allowed both of them into her house on the night of her murder . After some conversation , Domínguez grew angry and started beating Martínez Pérez with the intention of forcing her to reveal where she hid her money and other valuable possessions . Silva then joined his accomplice in the beating until they killed her . Investigators said that the attackers had plunged the journalist 's head into a toilet bowl , hit her on the head several times with brass knuckles , and threw her against a tub , where she cracked her skull . Martínez Pérez unsuccessfully tried to defend herself by grabbing a kitchen knife and stabbing one of the attackers in the forearm , but they managed to outweigh her because she only weighed 108 lbs ( 48 @.@ 9 kg ) . Both men then stole a plasma TV , two cellphones , a laptop computer , a camera and a small box , and the journalist 's wristband from her home before leaving the crime scene .
= = = Investigation = = =
When Silva was arrested in October 2012 , he confessed to the murder of Martínez Pérez . Investigators and authorities in Veracruz concluded that the journalist was killed during a robbery . But when placed before a judge , Silva retracted his confession and stated that he had been tortured , held hostage for over a week , and threatened by Veracruz authorities in order to make him confess to the assassination . Silva said that officials had threatened to kill his mother , his last remaining family member . During a press conference , the Veracruz authorities relied solely on the confession of Silva as evidence against him . None of them made references to DNA , fingerprint , or blood samples from the murder scene . Sources close to the Committee to Protect Journalists stated that the samples collected at the crime scene do not match those of any of the criminals listed on the national database . This should rule out both Silva and Domínguez ( who is still at large ) from the murder , because both of them have extensive criminal records . Proceso news magazine immediately took a critical stance toward the investigation and said that they did not believe that the Veracruz authorities were capable of completing a clean investigation . The Committee to Protect Journalists believes that the murder case was possibly fabricated , and that Silva was likely used as a scapegoat by the authorities . Just a few items were stolen from Martínez Pérez 's house while valuable goods were left behind , so they allege that theft was not the real motive behind her murder . According to Mexican law , Proceso was allowed to participate in the investigation , so they appointed a top journalist to cover every detail of it . Proceso has complained that the Veracruz authorities have lied to them regarding possible developments in the investigation .
Six months after Martínez Pérez 's slaying , the Veracruz authorities stated that her murder was also a crime of passion . According to the reports , Domínguez was the alleged boyfriend of the journalist . On April 2013 , Proceso stated that it had received classified information that its senior editor who was covering the investigation , Jorge Carrasco , was a possible target by corrupt Veracruz officials . Reportedly , members of the administration of Governor Javier Duarte de Ochoa were allowed to carry out " hostile actions against the reporter in response to his most recent publication on the Regina Martínez case . " Sources close to the news magazine alleged that officials were plotting to kill the reporter while he was in the nation 's capital , Mexico City . The Veracruz authorities responded by stating that the accusations were false and asked Proceso to provide evidence for its claims . The governor promised that he would investigate the threats , and the journalist went into hiding with several armed bodyguards . That same month , Silva was sentenced to 38 years and 2 months in prison for the murder . The judge also ordered the murderer to pay roughly $ 8 @,@ 000 USD in reparations for her death and the stolen possessions . Proceso , however , expressed its doubt on the murder case and trial once again , stating that they did not believe the court was sentencing the right man .
Some journalists continue to dispute the facts in the case , believing that the murder was retribution for reports by Martínez Pérez on drug trafficking and political corruption ; they have questioned the investigation by the state of Veracruz . Proceso magazine 's reporter said the investigators never explored the possibility that her journalism may have been the motive behind her murder . Press freedom organizations across the world have complained that the case was designed to cover up the crime instead of clarifying what actually happened . " We don 't believe them [ the authorities ] " , said Proceso reporter Jorge Carrasco on behalf of the whole newspaper magazine .
= = Context = =
= = = Background = = =
Veracruz is the most dangerous place in Mexico for journalists ; at least nine journalists have been killed since Governor Javier Duarte de Ochoa took office in 2010 , many of them by the Los Zetas drug cartel . Most of these reporters were killed under unclear circumstances , and few arrests have been made in their respective investigations . Given the high levels of corruption , criminal impunity , and drug @-@ related attacks against the press all across Veracruz , many local journalists have decided to leave the state and relocate in other parts of Mexico . The atmosphere in Veracruz has also forced many media outlets to self @-@ censor and stop reporting on the drug violence . With traditional reporting being too dangerous and intimidating , social media and blogs are often the only outlets for reporting serious crimes .
The state of Veracruz used to be controlled by the Gulf Cartel before business was handed over to Los Zetas , their former allies , when they went to war across northeastern Mexico in early 2010 . Since 2011 , much of the drug @-@ related violence is a result of the turf wars between Los Zetas and the Sinaloa Cartel , a drug trafficking organization based in western Mexico and headed by Joaquín El Chapo Guzmán , Mexico 's most @-@ wanted drug lord . These criminal groups are fighting for Veracruz because of its lucrative smuggling routes for contraband , drug trafficking , and illegal migrants heading to the United States . It has one of Mexico 's busiest ports , and officials say that there is no way they can inspect all of the containers that come in by ship . Corruption is also widespread in Veracruz ; investigators have been slow and reluctant to link the Martínez Pérez murder to organized crime . According to the Committee to Protect Journalists , Veracruz is by " general consensus one of the most politically corrupt [ states in Mexico ] " . Mexico was ruled by the Institutional Revolutionary Party ( PRI ) for 71 years until it lost the presidential seat to the conservative National Action Party ( PAN ) in 2000 . The PRI has long been criticized for being corrupt and allowing the drug trafficking organizations in the country to operate freely if they maintained relative peace . Although the PRI lost the national presidency in 2000 , some states remained under the rule of PRI politicians . " Democratic transition never quite reached Veracruz , " a state of 8 million people . PRI governors in Veracruz continued to rule with the state with tactics largely abandoned by the PRI at a national level .
= = = Journalists assassinated = = =
Martínez Pérez was the fifth journalist killed in Veracruz during the sexenio of Governor Javier Duarte de Ochoa , which started in 2010 . The first journalist assassinated was Noel López Olguín ( March 2011 ) , followed by Miguel Ángel López Velasco and his son Miseal ( June 2011 ) . Then Yolanda Ordaz de la Cruz was killed ( July 2011 ) , followed by Martínez Pérez ( April 2012 ) . Just a few days after her death , the mutilated bodies of four media professionals were discovered . There would be still another journalist murdered in Veracruz : Víctor Manuel Báez ( June 2012 ) . Although not officially counted in the death toll of journalists , at least three journalists have been kidnapped and have remained in captivity since 2010 : Manuel Gabriel Fonseca Hernández ( September 2011 ) , Miguel Morales Estrada ( July 2012 ) , and Sergio Landa Rosales ( November 2012 ) .
Nearly 100 journalists , bloggers and writers have been kidnapped or killed in Mexico since 2000 , making the country one of the most dangerous places on the planet in which to be a journalist . Most of these crimes , too , have remained unsolved , and only a few perpetrators have been brought to justice .
On 22 June 2012 , former President Felipe Calderón signed the " Law for the Protection of Human Rights Defenders and Journalists " ( Spanish : Ley Para la Protección de Personas Defensoras de Derechos Humanos y Periodistas ) , which makes attacks against journalists a federal crime and establishes a fund for investigating these crimes . The law also establishes several preventative measures to protect journalists , such as providing them bodyguards , armored vehicles , bullet @-@ proof vests , security cameras , wireless equipment and satellite cellphones to communicate in case of any danger , and temporary relocation if deemed necessary . Congress passed a law on 7 June 2012 that allowed the federal government to investigate attacks against journalists , crimes which used to be under the jurisdiction of state and municipal forces .
= = Reactions = =
Irina Bokova , who is the Director @-@ General of UNESCO , said , " News of the murders of Gabriel Huge and Guillermo Luna Varela – tortured and killed less than one week after the murder of Regina Martínez Pérez – is deeply disturbing , and reflects an alarming state of affairs in the state of Veracruz . That these gruesome crimes have been committed on the eve of World Press Freedom Day – a day on which we honour the vital role played by journalists in upholding democratic values , protecting citizens ’ rights to be informed and calling those in power to account – makes the situation all the more intolerable . I condemn these three murders in the strongest possible terms and urge the Mexican authorities to act quickly and decisively to find those responsible . Impunity is not an option . "
Proceso magazine wrote , in reaction to its colleague 's murder , " The murder of journalist Regina Martinez Perez , on Saturday April 28 , is the result of a broken country , a situation of daily violence in which extreme acts are not the exception but the rule daily . "
On 29 April 2013 , the Chamber of Deputies of Mexico observed a moment of silence to remember Regina Martínez , after a proposal made by Manuel Rafael Huerta from the Labor Party ( PT ) . Huerta mentioned in his petition that a year after the murder the circumstances were still unclear and the official version from the government of Veracruz was not to be believed . The president of the chamber left those comments out , but found the proposal relevant and invited deputies to join in the minute of silence .
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= Battle of Barrosa =
The Battle of Barrosa ( Chiclana , 5 March 1811 ) was part of an unsuccessful manoeuvre to break the siege of Cádiz in Spain during the Peninsular War . During the battle , a single British division defeated two French divisions and captured a regimental eagle .
Cádiz had been invested by the French in early 1810 , leaving it accessible from the sea , but in March of the following year a reduction in the besieging army gave its garrison of British and Spanish troops an opportunity to lift the siege . A large Allied strike force was shipped south from Cádiz to Tarifa , and moved to engage the siege lines from the rear . The French , under the command of Marshal Victor , were aware of the Allied movement and redeployed to prepare a trap . Victor placed one division on the road to Cádiz , blocking the Allied line of march , while his two remaining divisions fell on the single Anglo @-@ Portuguese rearguard division under the command of Sir Thomas Graham .
Following a fierce battle on two fronts , the British succeeded in routing the attacking French forces . A lack of support from the larger Spanish contingent prevented an absolute victory , and the French were able to regroup and reoccupy their siege lines . Graham 's tactical victory proved to have little strategic effect on the continuing war , to the extent that Victor was able to claim the battle as a French victory since the siege remained in force until finally being lifted on 24 August 1812 .
= = Background = =
In January 1810 , the city of Cádiz , a major Allied harbour and the effective seat of Spanish government since the occupation of Madrid , was besieged by French troops of Marshal Soult 's I Corps under the command of Marshal Victor . The city 's garrison initially comprised only four battalions of volunteers and recruits , but the Duke of Alburquerque ignored orders from the Spanish Junta and instead of attacking Victor 's superior force , he brought his 10 @,@ 000 men to reinforce the city . This allowed the city 's defences to be fully manned .
Under pressure from widespread protests and mob violence the ruling Spanish Junta resigned , and a five @-@ man Regency was established to govern in its place . The Regency , recognising that Spain could only be saved with Allied aid , immediately asked the newly ennobled Arthur Wellesley , Viscount Wellington , to send reinforcements to Cádiz ; by mid @-@ February , five Anglo @-@ Portuguese battalions had landed , bringing the garrison up to 17 @,@ 000 men and making the city effectively impregnable . Additional troops continued to arrive , and by May , the garrison was 26 @,@ 000 strong , while the besieging French forces had risen to 25 @,@ 000 .
Although the siege tied up a large number of Spanish , British and Portuguese troops , Wellington accepted this as part of his strategy since a similar number of French troops were also engaged . However , in January 1811 , Victor 's position began to deteriorate . Soult ordered Victor to send almost a third of his troops to support Soult 's assault on Badajoz , reducing the besieging French army to around 15 @,@ 000 men . Victor had little chance of making progress against the fortress city with a force of this strength , nor could he withdraw — the garrison of Cádiz , if let loose , was large enough to overrun the whole of Andalusia .
= = Prelude to battle = =
Following Soult 's appropriation of many of Victor 's troops , the Allies sensed an opportunity to engage Marshal Victor in open battle and raise the siege of Cádiz . To that end , an Anglo @-@ Spanish expedition was sent by sea from Cádiz south to Tarifa , with the intention of marching north to engage the French rear . This force comprised some 8 @,@ 000 Spanish and 4 @,@ 000 British troops , with the overall command ceded to the Spanish General Manuel la Peña , a political accommodation since he was widely regarded as incompetent . To coincide with la Peña 's assault , it was arranged that General José Pascual de Zayas y Chacón would lead a force of 4 @,@ 000 Spanish troops in a sally from Cádiz , via a pontoon bridge from the Isla de León .
The Anglo @-@ Portuguese contingent — a division commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Thomas Graham — sailed from Cádiz on 21 February 1811 , somewhat later than planned . Graham 's forces were unable to land at Tarifa due to bad weather and were forced to sail on to Algeciras , where they disembarked on 23 February . Joined by a composite battalion of flank companies under Colonel Browne , the troops marched to Tarifa on 24 February , where they received a further reinforcement from the fortress garrison there . By 27 February , they were joined by la Peña 's Spanish troops , who had left Cádiz three days after Graham and , despite encountering similar weather difficulties , had succeeded in landing at Tarifa .
To further strengthen the Allied ranks , a force of Spanish irregulars under General Antonio Begines de los Ríos had been ordered to come down from the Ronda mountains by 23 February and join the main Anglo @-@ Portuguese and Spanish force . Unaware of the delays in sailing , Begines had advanced as far as Medina @-@ Sidonia in search of the Allied army ; unsupported , and embroiled in skirmishes with Victor 's right flank , he returned to the mountains . General Cassagne , Victor 's flank commander , informed the Marshal of the developing threat . Victor responded by sending three infantry battalions and a cavalry regiment to reinforce Cassagne , and ordering the fortification of Medina @-@ Sidonia .
Having concentrated , the combined Allied force began marching north towards Medina @-@ Sidonia on 28 February , and la Peña now ordered Beguines 's irregulars to join them at Casas Viejas . Once there , however , Beguines 's scouts reported that Medina @-@ Sidonia was held more strongly than had been anticipated . Rather than engaging the French and forcing Victor to weaken his siege by committing more of his troops to the town 's defence , la Peña decided that the Allied army should march across country and join the road that ran from Tarifa , through Vejer and Chiclana , to Cádiz .
This change of plan , combined with further bad weather and la Peña 's insistence on marching only at night , meant the Allied force was now two days behind schedule . La Peña sent a message to Cádiz informing Zayas of the delay , but the dispatch was not received and on 3 March , Zayas launched his sally as arranged . A pontoon bridge was floated across the Santi Petri creek and a battalion sent across to establish a bridgehead prior to the arrival of the main force . Victor could not allow the Cádiz garrison , which still numbered about 13 @,@ 000 men , to make a sortie against his lines while he was threatened from outside , so on the night of 3 – 4 March he sent six companies of voltigeurs to storm the bridgehead entrenchments and prevent a breakout . Zayas 's battalion was ejected from its positions , with 300 Spanish casualties , and Zayas was forced to float the pontoon bridge back to the island for future use .
Marshal Victor had , by now , received intelligence from a squadron of dragoons that had been driven out of Vejer , informing him of the strong Anglo @-@ Portuguese and Spanish force making its way up the western road from Tarifa . In conjunction with the aggressive action of the Cádiz garrison , this led him to conclude that the approaching troops were heading for Cádiz ; their line of march was therefore predictable , so he prepared a trap . General Eugène @-@ Casimir Villatte 's division was sent to block the neck of the peninsula on which the western road ran , preventing access to the Santi Petri creek and the Isla de Léon . Two other divisions , under the commands of Generals François Amable Ruffin and Jean François Leval , were ordered to conceal themselves in the thick Chiclana forest in position to attack the flank of the Allies as they engaged Villatte 's division .
After another night march , on 5 March the Allies reached a hill to the south east of Barrosa , the Cerro del Puerco ( also referred to as the Barrosa Ridge ) . Scouts reported the presence of Villatte 's force , and la Peña ordered his vanguard division to advance . With the aid of a fresh sortie of Zayas 's troops from Cádiz , and reinforced by a brigade of the Prince of Anglona 's division , the Spanish drove Villatte 's force across the Almanza Creek . La Peña refused his vanguard permission to pursue the retreating French , who were consequently able to regroup on the far side of the creek . Graham 's Anglo @-@ Portuguese division had remained behind on the Cerro del Puerco to defend the rear and right flank of la Peña 's main force .
= = Battle = =
Having opened up the route to Cádiz , la Peña instructed Graham to move his troops forward to Bermeja . However , on Graham 's strenuous objections to vacating a position that would result in both an exposed flank and rear , a force of five Spanish battalions and Browne 's battalion was left to hold the Barrosa Ridge . In addition , three Spanish and two King 's German Legion ( KGL ) squadrons of cavalry , under the command of Colonel Samuel Whittingham , were sent to flank this rearguard force on the coast track . Graham 's division then moved north as ordered — instead of descending from the heights on the coast road , they followed a path through a pine wood to the west of the ridge . This route was shorter and more practical for artillery , but the trees restricted visibility in all directions , meaning that they were effectively marching blind .
= = = French attack = = =
Victor was disappointed that Villatte had failed to block the Cádiz road for longer , but he was still confident that his main force could drive the Allies into the sea . He could see that the bulk of the Spanish troops had taken station opposite Villatte and , on hearing reports that Barrosa Ridge was deserted , realised that here was an opportunity to take this commanding position . Ruffin was ordered to occupy the heights while Leval struck at Graham 's troops in the woods , and three squadrons of dragoons were sent around the Cerro to take the coastal track .
Victor 's plan rapidly developed momentum . Ruffin 's advance sufficed to send the five rearguard Spanish battalions running , leaving only Browne 's battalion defending the ridge and , confronted by the French dragoons , Whittingham 's cavalry decided to retire . Whittingham lent a single squadron of KGL hussars to Browne to cover his retreat ; Browne initially positioned his battalion in the ruins of a chapel at the summit but , seeing Whittingham 's retreat and spotting six French battalions advancing on his position , he had little choice but to give way and seek Graham 's force in the woods . Barrosa Ridge fell unopposed as Victor had intended , and Ruffin emplaced a battery of artillery on the heights .
= = = Graham 's response = = =
Meanwhile , midway through his march to join la Peña 's Spaniards , Graham received news from Spanish guerrilleros that French soldiers had emerged from the Chiclana forest . Riding to the rear of his marching columns , he witnessed the Spanish battalions retreating from the ridge , Ruffin 's division climbing its slopes , and Leval 's division approaching from the east . Realizing that the Allied force was in danger of being swamped , Graham disregarded his orders and turned his division to deal with the threats to his flank and rear . He ordered General Dilkes 's brigade to retake the ridge while Colonel Wheatley 's brigade was sent to see off Leval 's force to the east .
Because of the time it took to deploy a full brigade into battle formation , Graham knew he needed to delay the French . He therefore ordered Browne , who had rejoined the division , to turn his single " Flankers " battalion of 536 men around and advance up the slope of the Barrosa Ridge against the 4 @,@ 000 men and artillery of Ruffin 's division . Colonel Barnard , who led the light battalion of Wheatley 's brigade , and Colonel Bushe , leading two light companies of Portuguese skirmishers , were ordered to attack through the woods to hold up Leval 's advance .
= = = Barrosa Ridge = = =
Advancing up the ridge they had just abandoned , Browne 's battalion came under intense fire from Ruffin 's emplaced infantry and artillery . Within a few salvoes , half the battalion was gone and , unable to continue , Browne 's men scattered amongst the cover provided by the slope and returned fire . Despite his success , Ruffin could not descend the hill to brush away the remnants of Browne 's battalion , as Dilkes 's brigade had by now emerged from the wood and was forming up at the base of the slope .
Dilkes , instead of following Browne 's route up the slope , advanced to the right where there was more cover and ground not visible to the French . As a result , the French artillery could not be brought to bear , and Dilkes 's brigade managed to get near the top of the ridge without suffering serious loss . By this time , though , its formation had become disorganised , so Ruffin deployed four battalion columns in an attempt to sweep both Dilkes and the remaining " Flankers " back down the slope . Contrary to French expectations , the crude British line stopped the attacking columns in their tracks , and the two forces exchanged fire . Marshal Victor , by then himself on the crest of the ridge , brought up his reserve in two battalion columns of grenadiers . These columns were , as with the previous four , subjected to intense musket fire and were brought to a halt just metres from the British line . The first four columns had started to give ground , so Victor tried to disengage his reserves and bring them to their support . However , as the two grenadier columns attempted to move off from their stalled positions , they came under additional fire from the remnants of Browne 's battalion , which had renewed its own advance . Prevented from rallying , the entire French force broke and fled to the valley below .
= = = Leval 's advance = = =
While Dilkes was moving on Ruffin 's position on Barrosa Ridge , Barnard and the light companies advanced through the woods towards Leval 's division . Unaware of the impending British assault , the French had taken no precautions and were advancing in two columns of march , with no forward line of voltigeurs . The unexpected appearance of British skirmishers caused such confusion that some French regiments , thinking there were cavalry present , formed square . These were prime targets for shrapnel rounds fired by the ten cannon under Major Duncan which , having made rapid progress through the woods , arrived in time to support the skirmish line . As the situation became clearer , the French organised themselves into their customary attacking formation — the ' column of divisions ' — all the time under fire from Barnard 's light companies and Duncan 's artillery . Finally , with the French now in their fighting columns and beginning their advance , Barnard was forced to draw back . Leval 's men then encountered Bushe 's companies of the 20th Portuguese , who supported the light battalion 's retreat and kept the French engaged until Wheatley 's brigade had formed up in line on the edge of the woods . The retreating light companies joined Wheatley 's troops ; Leval 's division of 3 @,@ 800 men was now marching on an Anglo @-@ Portuguese line of 1 @,@ 400 men supported by cannon .
Although they had the advantage in numbers , the French were under the impression that they were facing a superior force . Having been mauled by Barnard 's and Bushe 's light companies , and now facing the rolling volleys of the main British line , the French needed time to form from column into line themselves . However , Wheatley attacked as soon as the light companies cleared the field , and only one of Leval 's battalions was able to even partially redeploy . The first French column Wheatley engaged broke after a single British volley . The 8th Ligne , part of this column , suffered about 50 percent casualties and lost its eagle . The capture of the eagle — the first to be won in battle by British forces in the Peninsular wars — cost Ensign Keogh of the 87th his life and was finally secured by Sergeant Patrick Masterson ( or Masterman , depending on source ) . As Wheatley 's brigade moved forward , it encountered the only French battalion , from the 54th Ligne , that had begun to form line . It took three charges to break this battalion , which eventually fled towards the right where it encountered the remainder of Leval 's fleeing division .
= = = French retreat = = =
Ruffin 's and Leval 's divisions fled towards the Laguna del Puerco , where Victor succeeded in halting their disorganised rout . The Marshal deployed two or three relatively unscathed battalions to cover the reorganisation of his forces and secure their retreat , but Graham had also managed to call his exhausted men to order and he brought them , with Duncan 's artillery , against Victor 's new position . Morale in the re @-@ formed French ranks was fragile ; when a squadron of KGL hussars rounded the Cerro and drove a squadron of French dragoons onto their infantry , the shock was too much to bear for the demoralised soldiers , who retreated in a sudden rush .
Throughout the battle , la Peña steadfastly refused to support his Anglo @-@ Portuguese allies . He learnt of the French advance at about the same time as Graham , and decided to entrench his full force on the isthmus defending the approach to the Isla de Léon . Learning of Graham 's decision to engage the two French divisions , the Spanish commander was convinced that the French would win the day and so stayed in place ; Zayas repeatedly asked for leave to go to Graham 's support , but le Peña denied permission each time . On hearing that the British had prevailed , la Peña further declined to pursue the retreating French , again over @-@ riding the continued protestations of Zayas .
= = Consequences = =
Furious at la Peña , the following morning Graham collected his wounded , gathered trophies from the field and marched into Cádiz ; snubbed , la Peña would later accuse Graham of losing the campaign for the Allies . It is almost certain that , had the Allies pushed the French positions either immediately after the battle or on the morning of 6 March , the siege would have been broken . Even though Victor had managed to rally his troops at Chiclana , panic was rife in the French lines . Fully expecting a renewed offensive , Victor had made plans to stall any Allied advance just long enough to blow up most of the besieging forts and to allow I Corps to retreat to Seville . Such was the French discomposure that , despite the Allied inactivity , one battery was destroyed without any signal being given .
La Peña had determined not to heed plans from Graham and Admiral Keats to make a cautious advance against the French at Chiclana , and he even refused to send out cavalry scouts to find out what Victor was doing . After remaining entrenched at Bermeja during 5 – 6 March , the Spanish army crossed to the Isla de León the following day , leaving only Beguines 's irregulars on the mainland . This force did manage to briefly secure Medina @-@ Sidonia , but then returned to the Ronda mountains . By 8 March , just three days after the battle , Victor had reoccupied even the evacuated southern section of his lines and the siege was back in place . It would remain so for another eighteen months , until finally being abandoned on 24 August 1812 , when Soult ordered a general French retreat following the Allied victory at Salamanca .
Despite the conduct of their commanding general , both the Spanish success at Almanza Creek and Graham 's actions at Barrosa Ridge gave a much needed boost to Spanish morale . La Peña was subsequently arraigned for court @-@ martial , mainly for his refusal to pursue the retreating French , where he was acquitted but relieved of command . At a time when Anglo @-@ Spanish relations were already strained , Graham 's criticism of his Spanish allies meant that it was no longer politic for him to remain in Cádiz , so he was transferred to Wellington 's main army .
Both tactically and in terms of the casualties inflicted , the battle was a British victory . Graham 's troops had beaten a French force approaching twice their number despite having marched through the previous night and part of that day . The British lost approximately 1 @,@ 240 men , including Portuguese and German contingents under Graham 's command , while Victor lost around 2 @,@ 380 . The Spanish suffered 300 – 400 casualties . Strategically , however , the failure of the Allies to follow up their victory allowed Victor to reoccupy his siege lines ; Cádiz was not relieved and the campaign effectively failed to achieve anything . Victor even claimed the battle as a French victory , since the positions of the opposing sides remained unchanged following the action .
= = Legacy = =
In November 1811 , the British Prince Regent commanded that a medal be struck to commemorate the " brilliant Victory obtained over the Enemy " ; this was awarded to the senior British officers present at the battle .
Four Royal Navy ships have taken their names from the battle , as has the Sea Cadet Corps Unit , TS Barrosa .
A young officer in the 4th Dragoons , Lieutenant William Light who later served on Graham 's staff and was a great admirer of the general , subsequently became the Surveyor General of South Australia in the 1830s . Light decided to name one of the valleys in the new colony Barossa Valley ( now a famous wine making region ) in memory of the victory , albeit misspelled due to a clerical error . It is often incorrectly stated that Light fought at the Battle of Barrosa but he was actually hundreds of miles to the north , his diary of 6 March 1811 recording he was with Wellington 's cavalry travelling through Santarem to Pernes .
Unofficially , the training area at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst is also known as Barossa .
= = In fiction = =
Cornwell , Bernard , Sharpe 's Fury : Richard Sharpe and the Battle of Barrosa , March 1811 , HarperCollins , 2006 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 053048 @-@ 8 .
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= 1851 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1851 Atlantic hurricane season was the first Atlantic hurricane season to be included in the official Atlantic tropical cyclone record . Six known tropical cyclones occurred during the season , the earliest of which formed on June 25 and the latest of which dissipated on October 19 . These dates fall within the range of most Atlantic tropical cyclone activity . None of the cyclones existed simultaneously with another . Of the six storms , two only have a single point in their track known .
Two other hurricanes were reported during the season , one near Tampico and the other near Jamaica ; however , they are not in the official hurricane database . There may have been other unconfirmed tropical cyclones during the season . Meteorologist Christopher Landsea estimates that between zero and six storms were missed from the official database , due to small tropical cyclone size , sparse ship reports , and relatively unpopulated coastlines .
= = Season summary = =
Five of the six tropical cyclones affected land , including three making landfall with winds of over 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) . The first struck Texas as a hurricane , which caused moderate to heavy damage , particularly to shipping in Matagorda Bay . One death was indirectly related to the hurricane , as well as at least two injuries .
The strongest and deadliest hurricane of the season tracked from east of the Lesser Antilles , through the Greater Antilles , and across the southeastern United States before last being observed near Newfoundland ; it was tied for having the longest duration for a hurricane prior to 1870 . When it hit near Panama City , Florida with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , it caused at least 23 deaths , including five when a lighthouse was destroyed . Many houses were destroyed along its path , primarily along the Florida Panhandle .
The other landfalling hurricane was one that struck near Tampico , where it caused heavy damage . The last tropical storm of the season made landfall on Rhode Island , though associated damage is unknown . A tropical storm affected the Lesser Antilles in early July , and another tropical storm remained nearly stationary for three days to the southeast of North Carolina .
= = Timeline = =
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane One = = =
A small 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) hurricane was first observed on June 25 , about 75 miles ( 120 km / h ) southeast of Freeport , Texas . It tracked westward , moving ashore near Matagorda Bay later that night near peak intensity , with an estimated minimum barometric central pressure of 977 mbar ; due to lack of observations , it is possible the hurricane struck as the equivalent of a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . The cyclone slowly weakened as it turned northwestward , with hurricane force wind gusts reported 24 hours after landfall in current @-@ day Medina County . It is estimated that the storm dissipated early on June 28 over central Texas .
The hurricane produced heavy damage near where it moved ashore , having been described as the most disastrous experienced there to date . The winds destroyed every wharf and several houses in Port Lavaca . On Matagorda Island , the saltwater contaminated the fresh water supply , and in Matagorda Bay , heavy shipping losses were reported . As the cyclone progressed inland , it dropped light to moderate rainfall , peaking at around 3 inches ( 75 mm ) in Corpus Christi . A fort near current day Laredo reported 2 @.@ 48 inches ( 63 mm ) of precipitation . Across its path , the winds downed several trees and houses , leaving two people injured and contributing to a death when a sick person was exposed to the storm .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
A moderate hurricane made landfall near Tampico , which was described as having moved ashore before July 7 ; the Hurricane Research Division assessed the date as July 5 . Heavy damage was reported in Tampico .
= = = Tropical Storm Three = = =
A tropical storm passed through the southern Lesser Antilles on July 10 . Overall documentation on the storm was weak , and its track elsewhere is unknown .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
The fourth known tropical cyclone of the season , also known as the San Agapito Hurricane and the Great Middle Florida Hurricane of August 1851 , the storm was first observed on August 16 about 775 miles ( 1250 km ) east of Barbados . It tracked west @-@ northwestward , attaining hurricane status on August 17 as it approached the Lesser Antilles . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane passed between Antigua and Saint Kitts and later south of Saint Croix . On August 18 it brushed the southern coast of Puerto Rico , though it affected the entire island due to a large size of the storm . The next day it made landfall on the southern coast of the Dominican Republic . The cyclone rapidly weakened to tropical storm status over Hispaniola , though it regained hurricane status as it paralleled the southern coast of Cuba just offshore . Late on August 20 , the cyclone crossed western Cuba , briefly weakening to tropical storm status before again regaining hurricane status in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico . It quickly strengthened and reached peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) early on August 23 about 215 miles ( 345 km ) south @-@ southeast of Pensacola , Florida . Turning northeastward , the hurricane moved ashore near Panama City , Florida at peak intensity , with an estimated barometric pressure of 960 mbar . It accelerated across the Southeastern United States , weakening to a tropical storm before exiting North Carolina into the Atlantic Ocean on August 25 . On August 27 , it was last observed over Newfoundland as a weak tropical storm .
The hurricane passed near Saint Lucia on August 17 , where high tides and rough seas were reported . Flooding was reported in northern Puerto Rico during its passage . Impact is unknown in Hispaniola and Cuba . The hurricane produced an estimated storm tide of 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) at Saint Marks ; the combination of waves and the storm tide flooded coastal areas , destroying 50 % of the cotton crops in some areas . Rough seas destroyed a brig , killing 17 people , and another person drowned due to a shipwreck . Many ships were expected to have been lost in the storm , resulting in fear of potentially hundreds of deaths . The storm caused heavy damage along the coastline , and in Apalachicola the winds destroyed the roofs of all but two or three buildings . Dog Island Light was destroyed , resulting in five deaths . Further inland , many houses were blown over in Tallahassee , totaling $ 60 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1851 USD ) . Heavy damage was reported in Alabama , including destroyed crops and damaged houses ; damage in the state was less than in Florida . Hurricane force winds extended into southwestern Georgia , while tropical storm force winds were reported along the coastline . In Savannah , the winds damaged many houses and downed many trees . In North Carolina and Virginia , winds from the storm destroyed crop fields and small buildings ; in the region , it was described as the worst storm in 30 years . Storm damage was reported as far north as Cambridge , Massachusetts .
= = = Tropical Storm Five = = =
On September 13 , a tropical storm was first observed about 225 miles ( 360 km ) southeast of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . A nearby ship with the call sign Cushnoc reported estimated winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , which was judged to be the peak intensity of the tropical storm . Another ship on September 16 reported similar winds in the same location ; Thus , it was estimated to have remained nearly stationary for three days . Its complete track is unknown .
= = = Tropical Storm Six = = =
A tropical storm developed on October 16 about 155 miles ( 250 km ) east of Cape Canaveral , Florida . It tracked northeastward , gradually strengthening to attain peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) early on October 17 . On October 18 , the storm turned more to the north @-@ northeast as its forward motion increased . Gradually weakening , the storm dissipated late on October 19 after making landfall on Rhode Island .
= = = Other storms = = =
On August 2 , a hurricane was reported in the vicinity of Tampico . However , it was not listed as a tropical cyclone in the official hurricane database .
An assessment by scholar Michael Chenoweth indicated the presence of a hurricane in the vicinity of western Jamaica around November 7 . It is not currently listed in the official hurricane database .
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= Embankment tube station =
Embankment is a London Underground station in the City of Westminster , known by various names during its history . It is served by the Circle , District , Northern and Bakerloo lines . On the Northern and Bakerloo lines , the station is between Waterloo and Charing Cross stations ; on the Circle and District lines , it is between Westminster and Temple and is in Travelcard Zone 1 . The station has two entrances , one on Victoria Embankment and the other on Villiers Street . The station is adjacent to Victoria Embankment Gardens and is close to Charing Cross station , Embankment Pier , Hungerford Bridge , Cleopatra 's Needle , the Royal Air Force Memorial , the Savoy Chapel and Savoy Hotel and the Playhouse and New Players Theatres .
The station is in two parts : sub @-@ surface platforms opened in 1870 by the District Railway ( DR ) as part of the company 's extension of the Inner Circle eastwards from Westminster to Blackfriars and deep @-@ level platforms opened in 1906 by the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway ( BS & WR ) and 1914 by the Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway ( CCE & HR ) . A variety of underground and main line services have operated over the sub @-@ surface tracks and the CCE & HR part of the station was reconstructed in the 1920s .
= = History = =
= = = Sub @-@ surface station = = =
The station was opened on 30 May 1870 by the DR ( now the District line ) when the railway extended its line from Westminster to Blackfriars . The construction of the new section of the DR was planned in conjunction with the building of the Victoria Embankment and was achieved by the cut and cover method of roofing over a trench . Due to its proximity to the South Eastern Railway 's Charing Cross station , the station was originally called Charing Cross .
The DR connected to the MR ( now the Metropolitan line ) at South Kensington and , although the two companies were rivals , each company operated its trains over the other 's tracks in a joint service known as the Inner Circle . On 1 February 1872 , the DR opened a northbound branch from its station at Earl 's Court to connect to the West London Extension Joint Railway ( WLEJR , now the West London Line ) at Addison Road ( now Kensington ( Olympia ) ) . From that date the Outer Circle service began running over the DR 's tracks . The service was run by the North London Railway ( NLR ) from its terminus at Broad Street ( now demolished ) in the City of London via the North London Line to Willesden Junction , then the West London Line to Addison Road and the DR to Mansion House – at that time the eastern terminus of the DR.
From 1 August 1872 , the Middle Circle service also began operations through South Kensington , running from Moorgate along the MR 's tracks on the north side of the Inner Circle to Paddington , then over the Hammersmith & City Railway ( H & CR ) track to Latimer Road , then , via a now demolished link , on the WLEJR to Addison Road and the DR to Mansion House . The service was operated jointly by the H & CR and the DR.
On 30 June 1900 , the Middle Circle service was shortened to terminate at Earl 's Court , and , on 31 December 1908 , the Outer Circle service was withdrawn from the DR tracks . In 1949 , the Metropolitan line @-@ operated Inner Circle route was given its own identity on the tube map as the Circle line .
= = = Deep @-@ level station = = =
In 1897 the DR obtained parliamentary permission to construct a deep @-@ level tube railway running between Gloucester Road and Mansion House beneath the sub @-@ surface line . The new line was to be an express route using electric trains to relieve congestion on the sub @-@ surface tracks . Only one intermediate station was planned , at Charing Cross , 63 feet ( 19 m ) below the sub @-@ surface platforms . No immediate work was carried out on the deep @-@ level line , and the subsequent take over of the DR by the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL ) and the resignalling and electrification of the DR 's routes between 1903 and 1905 meant that congestion was relieved without needing to construct the deep @-@ level line . The plan was dropped in 1908 .
On 10 March 1906 , the BS & WR ( now the Bakerloo line ) opened with its deep @-@ level platforms beneath and at ninety degrees to the platforms of the DR. Although an interchange was provided between the two separate railways , the BS & WR named its station differently as Embankment .
On 6 April 1914 , the CCE & HR ( now a part of the Northern line ) opened a one stop extension south from its terminus at Charing Cross . The extension was constructed to facilitate a better interchange between the BS & WR and CCE & HR . Both lines were owned by the UERL which operated two separate and unconnected stations at the northern end of main line station – Trafalgar Square on the BS & WR and Charing Cross on the CCE & HR ( both now part of a combined Charing Cross station ) . The CCE & HR extension was constructed as a single track tunnel running south from Charing Cross as a loop under the River Thames and back . A single platform was constructed on the northbound return section of the loop , and escalators were installed between both sets of deep @-@ level platforms and the sub @-@ surface station . The interchange time was reduced from three minutes fifteen seconds to one minute and forty @-@ five seconds .
A new station building was constructed that Sir John Betjeman described as " the most charming of all the Edwardian and neo @-@ Georgian Renaissance stations . " For the opening of the CCE & HR extension , the deep @-@ level parts of the station were named Charing Cross ( Embankment ) although the sub @-@ surface platforms remained as Charing Cross . In 1915 , this was rectified by changing the name of the whole station to Charing Cross . The CCE & HR station to the north was renamed Strand at the same time ( causing a nearby station of the GNP & BR to change its name from Strand to Aldwych ) .
In the 1920s , as part of the construction of what is now the Northern line , the CCE & HR was extended south to Waterloo and Kennington where it was connected to the City & South London Railway . The loop tunnel under the river was abandoned ( although the present northbound Northern line platform follows its course ) and two new tunnels were bored south . To this day the southbound Northern line platform is the only one of the four deep level platforms that is not connected to any of the others by deep level walkways . The new extension was opened on 13 September 1926 .
The loop itself still exists , although it was penetrated by a bomb and flooded during the Blitz in the Second World War . Fortunately , the loop had been sealed off years before . In September 1938 , during the Sudeten Crisis , when war appeared imminent , the Bakerloo and Northern line tunnels at Embankment were temporarily sealed with concrete to protect against flooding through bombing . The blockage was removed after little more than a week once the crisis had passed . At the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , the tunnels were blocked again until electrically powered emergency doors could be installed in the tunnel mouths . The tunnels reopened in December 1939 .
On 4 August 1974 , the station was once again renamed Charing Cross Embankment . Then , on 12 September 1976 , it became Embankment , so that the merged Strand and Trafalgar Square stations could be named Charing Cross .
= = = Fatal accident = = =
At about 09 : 55 on 17 May 1938 , an eastbound Inner Circle train collided with an eastbound Ealing Broadway – Barking District line train to the east of the station . The Barking train had been stopped at an automatic signal on its way to Temple station . Six passengers were killed and 43 injured . The cause of the accident was a faulty signal , which showed a green " proceed " aspect to the second train even though the line ahead was not clear . This was a result of a wrong connection made during the previous night when some minor alterations to wiring were made .
= = Services = =
The station is in London fare zone 1 . On the District and Circle lines , the station is between Westminster and Temple , and , on the Northern and Bakerloo lines , it is between Charing Cross and Waterloo . Train frequencies vary throughout the day , but generally District line trains operate every 2 – 6 minutes from approximately 05 : 27 to 00 : 40 eastbound and 05 : 47 to 00 : 35 westbound ; they are supplemented by Circle line trains every 8 – 12 minutes from approximately 05 : 39 to 00 : 18 clockwise and 05 : 51 to 00 : 23 anticlockwise . Northern line trains operate every 2 – 5 minutes from approximately 05 : 57 to 00 : 35 southbound and 05 : 42 to 00 : 37 northbound . Bakerloo line trains operate every 2 – 5 minutes from approximately 05 : 58 to 00 : 35 southbound and 05 : 42 to 00 : 28 northbound .
= = Connections = =
London Buses night route N550 serve the station .
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= Pavle Đurišić =
Pavle Đurišić ( Serbian Cyrillic : Павле Ђуришић , pronounced [ pâːvle d ͡ ʑǔriʃit ͡ ɕ ] ; 9 July 1909 – April 1945 ) was a Montenegrin Serb regular officer of the Royal Yugoslav Army who became a Chetnik commander ( vojvoda ) and led a significant proportion of the Chetniks in Montenegro during World War II . He distinguished himself and became one of the main commanders during the popular uprising against the Italians in Montenegro in July 1941 , and later collaborated with the Italians in actions against the Yugoslav Partisans . In 1943 , his troops carried out several massacres against the Muslim population of Bosnia , Herzegovina and the Sandžak , and participated in the anti @-@ Partisan Case White offensive alongside Italian forces . Đurišić was captured by the Germans in May 1943 , escaped and was recaptured .
After the capitulation of Italy , the Germans released Đurišić and he began collaborating with them and the Serbian puppet government . In 1944 , he created the Montenegrin Volunteer Corps with assistance from the Germans , Milan Nedić , and Dimitrije Ljotić . In late 1944 , the German commander in Montenegro decorated him with the Iron Cross 2nd Class . Đurišić was killed following the Battle of Lijevče Field , after being captured by elements of the Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia near Banja Luka in an apparent trap set by them and Montenegrin separatist Sekula Drljević . Some of Đurišić 's troops were killed either in this battle or in later attacks by the Partisans as they then continued their withdrawal west . Others attempted to withdraw to Austria ; they were forced to surrender to the Partisans and were killed in the Kočevski Rog area of southern Slovenia in May and June 1945 . Đurišić was a very able Chetnik leader ; his fighting skills were respected by his allies and opponents alike .
= = Early life = =
Pavle Đurišić was born on 9 July 1909 in Podgorica , Principality of Montenegro , where he was raised until the death of his father Ilija . According to some sources he was born in 1907 . Đurišić was educated up to lower secondary school . Following his father 's death , he moved to Berane , where he lived with his uncle Petar Radović , a judge and former Chetnik who had been a member of the band of Vuk Popović during the Macedonian Struggle . Đurišić attended a teacher training college in Berane for almost two years .
In 1927 , Đurišić entered the 55th class of the Military Academy ; he was commissioned as an infantry potporučnik ( second lieutenant ) in the Royal Yugoslav Army ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Vojska Kraljevine Jugoslavije , VKJ ) in 1930 . He began his service in Sarajevo with the 10th Infantry Regiment Takovska and attended infantry officers ' school . Đurišić remained in Sarajevo until 1934 when , upon his own request , he was transferred to Berane where he served first as a platoon commander and later as a commander of the 1st Company of the 48th Infantry Regiment . On 7 April 1939 , after the Italian invasion of Albania , Đurišić 's company was sent to Plav near the Albanian border to gather intelligence . He established contact with individuals in Albania and obtained intelligence , but the information he obtained was not very useful for the defense of Yugoslavia and he returned to Berane with his company . Contacts Đurišić made during this period would become important a few years later .
= = World War II = =
= = = Axis invasion and Italian occupation of Montenegro = = =
In April 1941 , Germany , Italy and Hungary invaded and occupied Yugoslavia . Montenegro was captured by the Germans , who soon withdrew , leaving the Italians to occupy it . The Montenegrins quickly developed grievances against the Italians related to the expulsion of Montenegrins from Kosovo and Vojvodina , the influx of refugees from other parts of Yugoslavia , and those fleeing Ustaše terror in the regions along the borders with Bosnia and Herzegovina . The Montenegrins also had grievances against the Italian annexation of important food producing territory in Kosovo and a salt producing facility at Ulcinj to Albania , and the economic damage inflicted on many Montenegrins by the temporary removal of Yugoslav banknotes of 500 dinars and above from circulation . By the time of the invasion , Đurišić had been promoted to the rank of kapetan prve klase ( captain first class ) .
= = = = Uprising in Montenegro = = = =
In mid @-@ July 1941 , the Communist Party of Yugoslavia ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Komunistička Partija Jugoslavije , KPJ ) initiated a general uprising against the Italian occupiers . The uprising was triggered by the proclamation of a restored Kingdom of Montenegro headed by an Italian regent and led by the Montenegrin separatist Sekula Drljević and his supporters , known as " Greens " ( zelenaši ) . The insurgents also included large numbers of Montenegrin Serb nationalists known as " Whites " ( bjelaši ) , who " stood for close ties to Serbia " . About 400 former VKJ officers , many of whom were willing to work with the communists , also took part . Some of the officers had recently been released from prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps by the Germans and Italians , having been captured during the invasion . The VKJ officers assumed command , while the KPJ organised the revolt and provided political commissars . When the uprising commenced , Đurišić joined the committee that had been organised to lead military operations in the Berane district .
In the early phase of the uprising the rebels seized control of small towns and villages . Đurišić fought alongside communist insurgents and led a successful attack on Berane . During the heaviest fighting he distinguished himself and emerged as one of the main commanders of the uprising . After nearly two days of house @-@ to @-@ house fighting to capture Berane , he was involved in negotiating the surrender of the surviving Italian troops . Following the Italian surrender , he objected to the instructions he received from the communists regarding the handling of Italian prisoners . During the uprising , Đurišić also fought against Drljević 's forces . Following the Italians ' removal from the Lim valley , Đurišić urged rebels to march on Rožaje and Kosovska Mitrovica and attack the Muslims and Albanians there , whom he considered " anational " . The leaders of the uprising made it clear they considered such an action unacceptable .
The other main commanders of the uprising included the former VKJ officers Colonel Bajo Stanišić and Major Đorđije Lašić . Within six weeks , a force of 67 @,@ 000 Italian troops , assisted by Muslim and Albanian irregulars from border areas who provided flank security , regained control of all towns and communication routes in Montenegro . General Alessandro Pirzio Biroli , the Italian military governor of Montenegro , issued orders to crush the revolt but directed his forces to avoid " acts of revenge and useless cruelty " . Nevertheless , dozens of villages were burned , hundreds were killed , and between 10 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 inhabitants were interned in the revolt 's suppression . For a while , the Muslim and Albanian irregulars were permitted to pillage and torch villages . As soon as the Italians launched their offensive , politicians in Berane abandoned their support for the uprising and began criticising it . Former VKJ officers deserted their units and Đurišić left the military committee organising the uprising in the Berane district . The politicians and officers formed their own committees and approached the Italians to express their loyalty and denounce the communists .
A division developed between the uprising 's communist leadership and the nationalists participating . The nationalists recognised the uprising had been crushed and wanted to stop fighting , while the Partisans were determined to continue the struggle . In late 1941 , the nationalists contacted the Italians and offered to help them fight the communists , who had since been renamed Partisans . The nationalists — including Đurišić , who was popular in his own Vasojević clan of northern Montenegro — subsequently withdrew into the hinterland . They sought to avoid provoking the Italians and protect the mountain villages if they were attacked . In northern Montenegro , there was a marked distinction between the communists and nationalists . The nationalists had closer ties with Serbia and possessed a frontier mentality towards Muslims . The communists wished to continue the uprising by turning against their class enemies . Ustaše manipulation of the Muslims in the Sandžak and the expulsion of Serbs from areas annexed by Albania made Đurišić and his Chetniks impatient to continue fighting the Italians . They subsequently turned on the Muslims and Albanians in the region . The uprising continued with reduced intensity until December 1941 . In 1941 , Đurišić was awarded the Order of Karađorđe 's Star by the Yugoslav government @-@ in @-@ exile on the recommendation of Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović .
= = = = Mihailović 's instructions = = = =
In October 1941 , Mihailović appointed Đurišić as his commander for all regular and reserve troops in central and eastern Montenegro and parts of the Sandžak . In early November , the nationalist leaders in Montenegro quickly became aware of the split between the Chetniks and Partisans in Serbia ; later that month they sent Đurišić to visit Mihailović . During this visit , Đurišić received verbal orders from Mihailović and was appointed as the commander of all Chetnik detachments in the Sandžak . Lašić was appointed commander of all Chetnik forces in Old Montenegro . Đurišić 's appointment was also included as part of instructions dated 20 December 1941 that were received from Mihailović . The instructions included the following objectives :
the struggle for the liberty of our whole nation under the sceptre of His Majesty King Peter II ;
the creation of a Great Yugoslavia and within it of a Great Serbia which is to be ethnically pure and is to include Serbia [ meaning also Macedonia ] , Montenegro , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Srijem , the Banat , and Bačka ;
the struggle for the inclusion into Yugoslavia of all still un @-@ liberated Slovene territories under the Italians and Germans ( Trieste , Gorizia , Istria and Carinthia ) as well as [ of areas now under Bulgaria ] , and northern Albania with Scutari ;
the cleansing of the state territory of all national minorities and anational elements ;
the creation of contiguous frontiers between Serbia and Montenegro , as well as between Serbia and Slovenia by cleansing the Muslim population from the Sandžak and the Muslim and Croat populations from Bosnia and Herzegovina .
These instructions stated that the objectives of the Partisans meant that there could be no cooperation between them and the Chetniks . They also appointed Đurišić as a Chetnik vojvoda . Some historians have challenged the authenticity of these instructions ; they say the document was a forgery made by Đurišić after he failed to reach Mihailović . Other historians either do not mention any controversy about the provenance of the instructions , mention evidence supporting their authenticity , or explicitly state they consider them to be authentic .
= = = = Collaboration with the Italians against the Partisans in Montenegro = = = =
In January 1942 , Đurišić met with representatives of Generale di brigata ( Brigadier ) Silvio Bonini , the commander of the Italian 19th Infantry Division Venezia . Đurišić 's brother Vaso was responsible for liaising with the Italian division and was stationed at their headquarters in Berane . At this meeting , Đurišić was granted freedom of action against the Partisans in the division 's area of responsibility ; an agreement between Đurišić and the Italian representatives was signed by Vaso on Đurišić 's behalf . That March , Đurišić again met with the staff of the division . In the same month , he assembled a group of former VKJ officers , politicians and other non @-@ communists , and passed on Mihailović 's instructions . Mihailović codenamed Đurišić 's headquarters " Mountain Staff No. 15 " ; Đurišić selected the village of Zaostro for its location . In January , a Chetnik force led by Lašić conducted successful operations against the Partisans in the Andrijevica district , but Lašić suffered a severe head wound during the fighting . Lašić 's wounding meant Đurišić soon became the most prominent and important Chetnik commander in Montenegro . By 5 January , Đurišić assumed command over the Berane district and established seven Chetnik detachments in the area . Soon after , a district political committee with responsibility for organising propaganda and finding recruits was formed . Đurišić soon gained control of all anti @-@ communist militia groups of 500 members in the Berane district and two smaller groups from Kolašin and Bijelo Polje totalling 120 men . On 13 January , after a week of preparation , he launched attacks on two Partisan battalions operating in the Berane district . After four days of fighting , Đurišić succeeded in almost completely clearing the district of Partisans with the help of Italian troops and Muslim militias . By 24 January , Đurišić 's forces captured the remaining Partisan @-@ held village in the district , killing 15 Partisans and executing 27 who had been captured . This effectively erased the remaining Partisan presence in Berane .
By March , Đurišić had demonstrated to the Italians that he was uncompromising towards the Partisans and his detachments were expanding beyond the division 's area of responsibility . An agreement was negotiated between Đurišić and General Biroli , the military governor and commander of Italian troops in Montenegro . This agreement , signed by Đurišić , also related to the area of operations of the 19th Infantry Division Venezia . The Italians agreed to supply Đurišić and his troops with arms , food , and wages . The agreement obliged Đurišić to :
lead the fight against the communists and their supporters ;
maintain contact with the Italian military authorities , so that his actions were carried out in accordance with Italian instructions . North of Lijeva Rijeka , Đurišić agreed to clear his actions with Bonini , and south of Lijeva Rijeka he was to coordinate with Biroli ;
maintain order and guarantee the safety of roads in his area of operations ;
never attack Italian troops and limit his activities to fighting against the communists ;
return all arms provided by the Italians , except for those needed to maintain order , after the destruction of the communists .
Despite his possession of Mihailović 's instructions , Đurišić initially had minimal influence on the non @-@ communist elements of the Montenegrin resistance and was unable to develop an effective strategy against the Italians or Partisans in the months after his return to Montenegro . In early 1942 , his Chetnik detachment became more active against local Muslims , especially in eastern Montenegro and the Sandžak . The Partisans occupied Kolašin in January and February 1942 , and turned against all real and potential opposition ; they killed about 300 people and threw their corpses into pits they called the " dogs ' cemetery " . Because of this and other examples of communist terror , some Montenegrins turned against the Partisans . On 23 February , Đurišić captured Kolašin and held it as a Chetnik bastion until May 1943 . Chetnik terror against political opponents intensified following the town 's capture and manifested in show trials and mass executions that lasted until late June .
In May 1942 , Đurišić attacked and defeated the last significant Partisan detachment in Montenegro . In June 1942 , Đurišić collaborated with the Ustaše in Foča in south @-@ eastern Bosnia . After being forced out of Serbia by the Germans , Mihailović arrived in Montenegro as the Italians and Chetniks were fighting the Partisans . Mihailović was accompanied by his staff and a British Special Operations Executive ( SOE ) liaison officer . He eventually established his base in the village of Gornje Lipovo , a few miles from Đurišić 's headquarters at Kolašin . Mihailović and his staff had few troops and relied on Đurišić for protection . Soon after Mihailović arrived in Montenegro , Đurišić told Mihailović 's SOE liaison officer that he was available to act independently and in defiance of Mihailović . Đurišić and the other Chetnik commanders in Montenegro nominally recognised Mihailović as their supreme commander but they rarely obeyed him .
On 24 July 1942 , Blažo Đukanović , senior commander of all Chetnik forces in Montenegro , signed a comprehensive agreement with Biroli which officially organised and recognised three Chetnik " flying detachments " as Italian auxiliary troops for use against the Partisans . These detachments were supplied , armed , and paid by the Italians ; they included 4 @,@ 500 Chetniks , 1 @,@ 500 of whom were under the command of Đurišić . The Chetniks became an important part of the Italian occupation regime in Montenegro . The existing " Montenegrin Chetnik committee " , which was led by the Brigadier General Đukanović and to which Đurišić was aligned , was recognised by the Italians as the " Nationalist Committee of Montenegro " , whose only political aims were to combat the communists and others opposed to the Italian occupation , and " maintain law and order " . Arrangements were to be made by mutual understanding for pay , rations , weaponry , and aid to the families of Chetniks .
During the rest of 1942 , Italian operations in conjunction with their Chetnik auxiliaries forced the remaining Partisans out of Montenegro , after which the Italians used the Chetnik auxiliaries to police the countryside . For most of this time , Đurišić operated fairly independently in northern Montenegro ; he was described as " a law unto himself " . In December 1942 , Chetniks from Montenegro and the Sandžak met at a conference in the village of Šahovići near Bijelo Polje . The conference was dominated by Đurišić ; its resolutions expressed extremism and intolerance , and its agenda focused on restoring the pre @-@ war status quo in Yugoslavia implemented in its initial stages by a Chetnik dictatorship . It also laid claim to parts of the territory of Yugoslavia 's neighbours . At this conference , Mihailović was represented by Major Zaharije Ostojić , his chief of staff , who had previously been encouraged by Mihailović to wage a campaign of terror against the Muslim population living along the borders of Montenegro and the Sandžak . One outcome of the conference was the decision to destroy the Muslim villages in the Čajniče district of Bosnia .
= = = Case White and cleansing actions = = =
In December 1942 , concerned about the possibility of Allied forces landing in the Balkans , the Germans began planning an anti @-@ Partisan offensive in Bosnia and Herzegovina codenamed " Case White " . The size of the planned offensive required the involvement of both the Croatian Home Guard and the Italians . Late in the planning , the Italians began to prepare and equip Chetnik detachments , including that of Đurišić , for involvement in the operation . In early January 1943 , the Chetnik Supreme Command ordered Montenegrin Chetnik units to carry out " cleansing actions " against Muslims in Bijelo Polje county in north @-@ eastern Montenegro . On 10 January 1943 , Đurišić reported that Chetniks under his command had burned down 33 Muslim villages , killed 400 Muslim fighters — members of the Muslim self @-@ protection militia also supported by the Italians — and had also killed about 1 @,@ 000 Muslim women and children .
As Italian auxiliaries , Đurišić 's detachment was so dependent on the Italians for arms and transport that it had not left Montenegro until 18 January 1943 , two days before the first phase of Case White was to begin . On 3 January 1943 , Ostojić issued orders to " cleanse " the Čajniče district of Ustaše – Muslim organisations . According to the historian Radoje Pajović , Ostojić produced a detailed plan that avoided specifying what was to be done with the district 's Muslim population . Instead , these instructions were to be given orally to the responsible commanders . Delays in the movement of Chetnik forces into Bosnia to participate in Case White alongside the Italians enabled the Chetnik Supreme Command to expand the planned " cleansing " operation to include the Pljevlja district in the Sandžak and the Foča district of Bosnia . A combined Chetnik force of 6 @,@ 000 divided into four detachments and commanded by Vojislav Lukačević , Andrija Vesković , Zdravko Kasalović and Bajo Nikić was assembled . Mihailović ordered all four detachments to be placed under the overall command of Đurišić .
In early February 1943 , during their advance north @-@ west into Herzegovina in preparation for their involvement in Case White , the combined Chetnik force killed large numbers of Muslims in the targeted areas . In a report to Mihailović dated 13 February 1943 , Đurišić wrote that his Chetniks had killed about 1 @,@ 200 Muslim combatants and about 8 @,@ 000 women , children and the elderly , and destroyed all property except livestock , grain and hay , which they seized . Đurišić reported that :
The operations were executed exactly according to orders . [ ... ] All the commanders and units carried out their tasks satisfactorily . [ ... ] All Muslim villages in the three above mentioned districts are entirely burnt , so that not one of the houses remained undamaged . All property has been destroyed except cattle , corn and hay . In certain places the collection of fodder and food has been ordered so that we can set up warehouses for reserved food for the units which have remained on the terrain in order to purge it and to search the wooded areas as well as establish and strengthen the organization on the liberated territory . During operations complete annihilation of the Muslim population was undertaken , regardless of sex and age .
About 500 Muslims , mostly women , children and the elderly , were killed in Goražde in March , and several women were raped . An estimated 10 @,@ 000 people were killed in the anti @-@ Muslim operations commanded by Đurišić between January and February 1943 . The casualty rate would have been higher if many Muslims had not already fled the area — most to Sarajevo — when the February action began . Chetnik casualties during the operations were reported as 36 killed and 58 wounded . The orders for the " cleansing " operation stated that the Chetniks should kill all Muslim fighters , communists and Ustaše , but that they should not kill women and children . According to Pajović , these instructions were included to ensure there was no written evidence for the killing of non @-@ combatants . On 8 February , one Chetnik commander made a notation on his copy of written orders issued by Đurišić that the detachments had received additional orders to kill all Muslims they encountered . On 10 February , the commander of the Pljevlja Chetnik Brigade told one of his battalion commanders that he was to kill everyone in accordance with the orders of their highest commanders . According to Tomasevich , despite Chetnik claims that this and previous " cleansing actions " were countermeasures against aggressive Muslim activities , all circumstances point to it being Đurišić 's partial achievement of Mihailović 's previous directive to clear the Sandžak of Muslims .
By the end of February 1943 , Đurišić 's Chetniks were resisting Partisan attempts to move east from the Neretva river . After the Battle of Neretva , during which the Partisans forced a crossing of the river against faltering Chetnik opposition , Đurišić 's detachment of about 2 @,@ 000 fighters fell back to Kalinovik , where they were almost defeated by the Partisan 2nd Proletarian Division in late March . Falling back further towards the Drina river , Đurišić had assembled about 4 @,@ 500 Bosnian and Montenegrin Chetniks around Foča by April but was in desperate need of supplies . Shortly after this , the Italians withdrew most of their troops from Foča and abandoned most of the Sandžak . For the rest of April 1943 , Đurišić fought a holding action against the Partisans along the Drina river with his 3 @,@ 000 remaining fighters .
= = = Capture = = =
The Germans followed up Case White with a further offensive , codenamed " Case Black " , whose objectives were the " disarming of all Chetniks and the destruction of all Partisans in Montenegro and Sandžak " , to secure important bauxite , lead , and chromium mines . According to Tomasevich , the main reasons for the offensive were the threat of an Allied landing in the Balkans and the need to eliminate resistance groups that could assist the Allies . In early May 1943 , the Germans entered the Sandžak and eastern Montenegro area . Đurišić withdrew to Kolašin with about 500 fighters and joined forces with Serbian Chetniks commanded by Dragutin Keserović .
On 10 May 1943 , Oberstleutnant ( Lieutenant Colonel ) Heinz , commander of the 4th Regiment of the Brandenburg Division , met Đurišić at Kolašin with the intent of engaging him to help the Germans against the Partisans . Đurišić said he was willing to do this , and once the Partisans were defeated he said he would be ready to fight alongside the Germans on the Russian Front . During the meeting , Đurišić told Heinz that Mihailović had left Kolašin at the end of 1942 and that he refused to accept Mihailović 's current policy . Đurišić said Mihailović had been distracted by propaganda and was over @-@ rated , and described him as " an unsteady visionary wandering through the land " . Đurišić also said Josip Broz Tito and his Partisans were the only serious enemy . On 11 May 1943 , Heinz submitted a proposal to General der Infanterie ( Lieutenant General ) Rudolf Lüters , the German Commanding General in Croatia , regarding the Chetniks who had been " legalised " by the Italians . He suggested the Germans also " legalise " Đurišić 's Chetniks and use them to disarm " non @-@ legalised " Chetniks groups . Heinz also proposed that after the Partisans had been destroyed , the Germans " legalise " only weak detachments of Đurišić 's Chetniks . Subsequent events indicate Heinz 's approach to Đurišić may not have been authorised by his superiors and that his suggestions were not acted upon .
On 14 May 1943 , a forward detachment of the German 1st Mountain Division entered Kolašin and seized Đurišić by deceiving the Italian troops who were guarding his headquarters . Đurišić and the Chetniks did not resist their capture and there were no casualties . The Italians vigorously protested Đurišić 's capture but the Germans overruled them . With the capture of Đurišić 's Chetniks and another Chetnik group west of Kolašin a few days later , Case Black became an almost entirely anti @-@ Partisan operation . Đurišić was driven away in a vehicle carrying Red Cross markings ; he was then flown from Berane to a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp at Stryi in the Lviv region of Galicia which formed part of the German occupation area of the General Government . He escaped three months later and was recaptured by the authorities of the Serbian puppet government in October 1943 while attempting to cross the Danube near Pančevo in southern Banat . He was handed over to the Germans and held in the Gestapo prison in Belgrade .
= = = Release and return to Montenegro = = =
In September 1943 , the Italians capitulated and the Germans occupied Montenegro , establishing an area command ( German : Feldkommandantur 1040 ) under Generalmajor ( Brigadier ) Wilhem Keiper . Soon after , the German Special Envoy in Belgrade Hermann Neubacher , Milan Nedić , and the German Military Commander in south @-@ east Europe General Hans Felber arranged for Đurišić to be released . Neubacher had developed a plan to establish a union between Serbia and Montenegro and submitted it to Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop in October 1943 . Đurišić was an important part of this plan . He was well regarded by the Chetniks and pro @-@ Chetnik populace in Montenegro , and Stanišić and Đukanović had been killed . Neubacher , Nedić and Felber believed Đurišić could be used to fight the Partisans in Montenegro and help form closer relations between Serbia and Montenegro . Although Neubacher 's plan did not gain Hitler 's approval , Đurišić received supplies including arms and ammunition from the Germans and in November 1943 he returned to Montenegro to fight against the Partisans . At this time he established closer ties with Dimitrije Ljotić , whose Serbian Volunteer Corps ( SDK ) provided him with weapons , food , typewriters , and other supplies . He also worked with Nedić , who promoted him to the rank of lieutenant colonel , and appointed him assistant to the commander of the SDK . According to Pajović , Đurišić was promoted in early to mid @-@ 1944 by the Yugoslav government @-@ in @-@ exile on the advice of Mihailović .
= = = Collaboration with the Germans against the Partisans in Montenegro = = =
= = = = Winter and spring of 1944 = = = =
In February 1944 , Nedić sent the 2nd Battalion of the 5th Regiment of the SDK to Montenegro to supplement Đurišić 's forces . In the first half of 1944 , the Germans in Montenegro and the Sandžak organised offensives against the Partisans , largely relying on forces under the command of Lašić and Đurišić . Because of the weakness of their own forces , the Germans contributed by commanding and supplying the troops involved , and providing smaller mobile armoured units with heavy weapons . The Chetnik leaders provided most of the troops . In February and March , the Germans and numerous Chetnik units undertook a series of operations codenamed Bora , Baumblüte and Vorfrühling around Podgorica .
When the Partisans advanced into Serbia in March 1944 , Partisan forces in northern Montenegro and the Sandžak were reduced to one division . To exploit this weakness , Đurišić proposed to the Germans that they launch an offensive operation . Operation Frühlingserwachen was planned for the northern parts of Montenegro and the Sandžak ; its primary objective was the capture of Kolašin through concentric attacks launched from Pljevlja , Prijepolje and Pešter . This would permit them to link up with forces advancing from Podgorica in the south and to drive a wedge through the middle of the Partisan lines . Operation Frühlingserwachen involved an Axis force of about 5 @,@ 000 men comprising some of Đurišić 's forces , the SS Polizei @-@ Selbstschutz @-@ Regiment Sandschak , the 2nd Battalion of the 5th Regiment of the SDK , and two reinforced German motorised companies . The operation began on 9 April ; Đurišić 's forces briefly seized Berane and Bijelo Polje but were soon beaten back by the Partisans . This reversal consolidated the poor German – Chetnik position in Montenegro ; their forces in the south were completely isolated from those in the north . Chetnik forces and their allies suffered heavy casualties ; the 2nd Battalion of the 5th Regiment of the SDK was reduced from 893 men to 350 .
= = = = Summer 1944 = = = =
In mid @-@ May 1944 , Đurišić visited Belgrade and asked Nedić , Neubacher , and Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) Maximilian von Weichs , German Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Southeast , to urgently send arms and other supplies to his unit , which was authorised to a strength of 5 @,@ 000 men . Đurišić — with help from the Germans , Nedić , and Ljotić — then established the Montenegrin Volunteer Corps ( Serbian : Crnogorski dobrovoljački korpus , CDK ) , which was formally part of the SDK . The CDK consisted of some of Đurišić 's former soldiers who had been released from German captivity , but most were Chetniks who had remained in Montenegro and were gathered under the umbrella term " national forces " . By this time , although he still formally owed allegiance to Yugoslavia through Mihailović , he also owed some allegiance to the Germans and to Nedić , who had released , promoted , and supported him . The German 2nd Panzer Army organised Đurišić 's troops into three regiments numbered 6th , 7th , and 8th , following the five regiments of the SDK . The CDK was subordinated to the headquarters of 2nd Panzer Army . Đurišić was appointed commander ; his corps headquarters were in Prijepolje . Each regiment was planned to consist of two " corps " of 800 men each . The CDK comprised between 7 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 men . Leutnant Heusz , a former German liaison officer for Lukačević , was assigned to watch Đurišić . On 30 May 1944 , Heusz sent a detailed briefing to Đurišić instructing him to ensure that joint operations were progressing smoothly . In mid @-@ June , with German consent , Đurišić moved to the Podgorica area with a group of associates to personally direct the formation of the 8th Regiment of the CDK . He reorganised the Chetnik forces under his command , dividing them into two territorial structures ( one under a command staff for Montenegro and Boka Kotorska and the other under a command staff for Stari Ras ) .
Collaboration between Đurišić 's forces and the Germans continued into late 1944 . On 13 July 1944 , Radio Belgrade praised Đurišić " for his services to the Axis cause " . The 8th Regiment of the CDK was nearly destroyed in August by the 7th Montenegro Youth Brigade " Budo Tomović " during Operation Rübezahl . The CDK suffered heavy losses in fighting , and the Germans ordered its re @-@ formation on 21 September 1944 . Đurišić and his forces conducted reprisals against the population in Pljevlja , Prijepolje , Priboj , and Nova Varoš . The Chetniks also raided villages to intimidate and eradicate Partisan sympathisers , notably at Bjelopavlići , where 48 communists were executed . Đurišić remained in Montenegro until the end of Operation Rübezahl in late August 1944 , after which he returned to the Sandžak . Following Operation Rübezahl , the presence of Partisan and German forces in northern Montenegro and the Sandžak was reduced and the focus of operations shifted to Serbia . Remaining Partisan units quickly re @-@ established domination over temporarily lost territories and the German 181st Infantry Division ordered its three battalions that remained isolated in the Pljevlja area to break through Partisan @-@ held territory and reunite with the rest of the division at Mateševo . This plan , codenamed Nordsturm , relied on the substantial participation of Đurišić 's units . It fitted well with Đurišić 's general orientation to move towards the coast , where an Allied landing was expected . Nordsturm began on 31 August . Đurišić and the Germans made progress at first , capturing Kolašin and Berane , but the towns were quickly retaken by the Partisans , who went on the counterattack and proceeded to capture a string of towns in northern and western Montenegro and eastern Herzegovina .
Đurišić maintained contact with Lukačević , who at that time had begun to attack the Germans in Herzegovina with his own forces . Đurišić considered the possibility of joining Lukačević in fighting the Germans in anticipation of an Allied landing . However , because Lukačević was quickly defeated and no Allied landing occurred , Đurišić remained tied to the Germans . German intelligence closely tracked Đurišić 's communications and movements , and German commands continued to make use of his forces . The Germans counted Đurišić 's Chetniks as part of Army Group E in a survey of available forces dated 16 November 1944 . In the survey , German forces in Montenegro at that time were estimated at 47 @,@ 000 soldiers , including Đurišić 's 10 @,@ 000 Chetniks . On 21 October 1944 , the Partisans took the Grahovo garrison after a five @-@ day battle . On 6 November , the Partisans surrounded Cetinje , which was defended by the Germans , Black Shirts , and about 600 Chetniks . On 8 November , the Germans and Chetniks in Cetinje were reinforced with a formation of 800 – 1 @,@ 000 Chetniks led by Đurišić , which eventually succeeded in breaking through the Partisan blockade .
On 11 October 1944 , at the suggestion of von Weichs , Keiper , the German Plenipotentiary General in Montenegro , awarded Đurišić the Iron Cross ( 2nd Class ) in the name of the Führer and the German High Command for fighting against the Partisans .
= = = Withdrawal from Montenegro and death = = =
On 14 November , the Germans launched an assault from Podgorica towards Nikšić to clear a corridor through which the German forces in Montenegro could withdraw towards the Reich . This operation was supported by the Italian 86th National Republican Guard ( GNR ) Battalion . Around 1 @,@ 200 of Đurišić 's Chetniks were deployed on the flanks of the attack . Twelve days of fierce fighting resulted in significant casualties , and the Germans made no progress , losing Boka in the meantime . On 25 November , the Germans decided to abandon this line of attack and attack Kolašin . Chetniks under Đurišić 's command continued to fight alongside the Germans . After reaching Kolašin , Đurišić 's force separated from the Germans to relieve pressure on the German route of march and headed towards Bosnia , marching to the west of the Germans and bypassing Pljevlja . During the breakout and subsequent withdrawal , both the Germans and Chetniks were subjected to frequent attacks by the Allies .
Đurišić 's forces proceeded to north @-@ eastern Bosnia to join Mihailović . Đurišić had wanted to withdraw through Albania to Greece but Mihailović told him to prepare for an Allied landing , the return of the king , and the establishment of a national government . After Đurišić joined Mihailović in north @-@ eastern Bosnia , he was critical of Mihailović 's leadership and argued strongly for all remaining Chetnik troops to move to Slovenia . Mihailović was not persuaded ; Đurišić decided to move to Slovenia independently of Mihailović and arranged for Ljotić 's forces , which were already there , to meet him near Bihać in western Bosnia to assist his movement . When he left Mihailović , he was joined by Chetnik ideologue Dragiša Vasić and the detachments commanded by Ostojić and Petar Baćović , and around 10 @,@ 000 refugees . This force was formed into the Chetnik 8th Montenegrin Army consisting of the 1st , 5th , 8th and 9th ( Herzegovina ) divisions .
To reach Bihać , Đurišić made a safe @-@ conduct agreement with elements of the Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) and with the Montenegrin separatist Drljević . The details of the agreement are not known , but it is thought he and his troops intended to cross the Sava river into Slavonia where they would join Drljević as the Montenegrin National Army , of which Đurišić was the operational commander . Đurišić apparently tried to outsmart them and sent only his sick and wounded troops across the river , keeping his fit troops south of the river . He began moving his command westwards ; harassed by the NDH troops and Partisans , Đurišić 's forces reached the Vrbas river north of Banja Luka in late May . Between 30 May and 8 April , the combined Chetnik force was defeated by a strong NDH force armed with German @-@ supplied tanks , in the Battle of Lijevče Field . This was probably the largest combat action between NDH forces and the Chetniks in the previous two years .
After this defeat and the defection of one of his sub @-@ units to Drljević , Đurišić was forced to negotiate directly with the leaders of the NDH forces about the further movement of his Chetniks towards Slovenia . This appears to have been a trap ; he was attacked and captured by the NDH on his way to the meeting . Events after his capture are unclear , but Đurišić , Vasić , Ostojić , and Baćović were subsequently killed along with others — including some Serbian Orthodox priests . According to Pajović , the Ustaše executed Đurišić in late April 1945 at the Jasenovac concentration camp . The website of the Jasenovac Memorial Site says Đurišić was killed at the camp by the Ustaše in 1945 . The location of Đurišić 's grave , if any , is unknown .
Both the NDH forces and Drljević had reasons for ensnaring Đurišić . The NDH forces were motivated by the mass terror committed by Đurišić on the Muslim population in Sandžak and south @-@ eastern Bosnia . Drljević was opposed to Đurišić 's support of a union of Serbia and Montenegro , which ran counter to Drljević 's separatism .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Some of Đurišić 's troops escaped and travelled west . Some were killed by Partisan forces , who were to the south of their intended withdrawal route west to Slovenia . The majority , left without a leader , were integrated into Drljević 's Montenegrin National Army and withdrew towards the Austrian border . Portions of both groups were later captured in Slovenia by the Partisans . About 1 @,@ 000 of Đurišić 's Chetniks crossed into Austria but were forced to return to Yugoslavia , where some were killed by the Partisans near the Yugoslav – Austrian border . Most were taken to southern Slovenia , where they were killed and their bodies thrown into deep abysses in the Kočevski Rog area .
According to Tomasevich , the killing of the Montenegrin Chetniks by the Partisans at Kočevski Rog was an " act of mass terror and brutal political surgery " similar to that carried out by the Chetniks earlier in the war . It was partly an act of revenge for the mass terror carried out by the Chetniks against the Partisans and pro @-@ Partisan segments of the population and partly to stop the Chetniks from continuing an armed struggle against the communists , perhaps with Western assistance . Less than a quarter of the force that began with Đurišić in Montenegro , and other Chetniks who joined him during the journey north and west , survived . A few weeks later , Drljević , who had fled to Austria , was discovered by followers of Đurišić and killed . Đurišić was one of the most able Yugoslav Chetnik leaders ; his fighting skills were respected by his allies and opponents .
= = Commemoration controversy = =
The Serbian diaspora in the United States set up a monument dedicated to Pavle Đurišić at the Serbian cemetery in Libertyville , Illinois . The management and players of the football club Red Star Belgrade visited it on 23 May 2010 .
In May 2002 , plans for a " Montenegrin Ravna Gora " memorial complex to be located near Berane were prepared . The complex was to be dedicated to Đurišić , who spent some of his youth in Berane and established his wartime headquarters there . In June 2003 , the Montenegrin Minister of Culture Vesna Kilibarda banned the construction of the monument , saying the Ministry of Culture had not applied for approval to erect it . The Association of War Veterans of the National Liberation Army ( SUBNOR ) objected to the construction of the monument , saying Đurišić was a war criminal who was responsible for the deaths of many colleagues of the veterans association and 7 @,@ 000 Muslims . The Muslim Association of Montenegro condemned the construction and stated , " this is an attempt to rehabilitate him and it is a great insult to the children of the innocent victims and the Muslim people in Montenegro " . On 4 July 2002 , the Montenegrin government forbade the unveiling of the monument , stating that it " caused public concern , encouraged division among the citizens of Montenegro , and incited national and religious hatred and intolerance " . A press release from the committee in charge of the monument 's construction said the actions taken by the government were " absolutely illegal and inappropriate " . On 7 July , the police removed the stand that had been prepared for the monument .
In 2011 , the Montenegrin Serb political party New Serb Democracy ( NOVA ) renewed efforts to build a monument ; they stated that Đurišić and other royal Yugoslav officers were " leaders of the 13 July uprising " and they " continued their struggle to liberate the country under the leadership of King Peter and the Government of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia " .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Journals = = =
= = = Websites = = =
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= Spira ( Final Fantasy ) =
Spira is the fictional world of the Square role @-@ playing video games Final Fantasy X and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 . Spira is the first Final Fantasy world to feature consistent , all @-@ encompassing spiritual and mythological influences within the planet 's civilizations and their inhabitants ' daily lives . The world of Spira itself is very different from the mainly European @-@ style worlds found in previous Final Fantasy games , being much more closely modeled on southeast Asia , most notably with respect to its vegetation , topography and architecture .
The creation of Spira includes distinct ethnic minorities including a portrayal of the fictional Al Bhed language that is prevalent throughout the game 's dialogue . The backstory and concept behind the dark religious themes of Final Fantasy X were a central theme to the story and their ultimate resolution was well received . The popularity of the Eternal Calm video served as the impetus of Square Enix to do Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 to make their first direct sequel in video game form and depict the evolution of Spiran society after religious and political upheaval results in new factions and instability in the world . Spira and its inhabiting characters have been featured in several other Square Enix works including Dissidia Final Fantasy , Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy and three games within the Kingdom Hearts series and Theatrhythm Final Fantasy .
There have been numerous academic essays on the game 's presentation , narrative and localization aspects . Washburn writes that mastering the game comes with the mastering of the cultural knowledge of Spira to unlock skills and abilities . O 'Hagan writes on the localization of the games that impact the game experience , detailing alterations to the script and dialogue with modifications , additions and omissions . Another aspect was that the presentation of Spira without an overworld view can be considered a pioneer in 3D role @-@ playing game maps .
= = Concept and creation = =
In speaking about the inspiration behind Spira , producer Yoshinori Kitase recounted that players had found fault with the science fiction atmosphere of Final Fantasy VII and Final Fantasy VIII , instead desiring a " simple fantasy world " . To Kitase , the word " fantasy " did not indicate a purely medieval European setting , so he intentionally set out with the objective of redefining the stereotype held in players ' minds . Nomura identified the South Pacific , Thailand , and Japan as major influences on the cultural and geographic design of Spira , particularly in regard to the geographic locations of Besaid and Kilika . Yusuke Naora , the art director , noted that during the concept stage many people on the project were interested in Asian themes including Nojima and Kitase . For Zanarkand , the Uzbek city of Samarkand has been cited as an inspiration .
Nomura said that Spira deviates from the worlds of past Final Fantasy games most notably in the level of detail incorporated , something he has expressed to have made a conscious effort to maintain during the design process . Fumi Nakashima , the sub @-@ character chief designer , concentrated on giving characters from different regions and cultures distinct styles of clothing . Nakashima wanted the machine @-@ oriented society of the Al Bhed to stand out and had them wear masks and goggles to give them a strange and eccentric appearance .
Koji Sugimoto , main programmer for characters , said that the complexities of the PlayStation 2 hardware made mastering it difficult , but more rewarding because the details on Yuna 's sleeves to the depiction of shine and shadow could be rendered more realistically . Final Fantasy X was the first game that allowed for 3 @-@ D model rendering of backgrounds that increased the presentation , including small details like grass blowing in the wind and cloud movement . Takayoshi Nakazato decided to abandon the typical world map concept for a more realistic depiction . Final Fantasy X 's spatial presentation of Spira is tied to progression ; with a player 's progress being marked through the panoramic introduction and depiction of the area upon first entry . Chiharu Minekawa , the supervising sound editor , commented that the transition in sound from one environment to the next was done seamlessly in order to mimic the natural surroundings of these environments as the player moved through them .
The decision to create Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 came after fan response to the " Eternal Calm " in the International Edition of Final Fantasy X which depicted events two years following Yuna 's final battle . The dark religious theme of the first game was concluded and the cultural changes were explored as the people of Spira , the focus on fashion that " reflects their state of mind " . Toriyama believes the most important element incorporated into Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 was the " peaceful world of Spira achieved in FFX and unification of characters ' state of mind . " Kitase identified Final Fantasy X 's theme as " independence from the ties of law and customs " and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 's theme is about " the changes that occurred from the chaos after gaining that independence . "
For Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 many pop culture references were used , including Charlie 's Angels and with the transformation of the dress spheres being a reference to the magical girl genre of anime .
= = = Remastering = = =
Square Enix chose to update Final Fantasy X and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 's graphics for a remastered release in high @-@ definition . With a production cycle longer than two years , the graphics were not merely upscaled to higher resolutions and feature updated models and textures . Kitase commented that he wanted to excite new and returning players and added more depth to do so and opened up the possibility of further remasters based on reception . Many views could not simply be reframed to 16 : 9 because that would reveal characters waiting for their cues off @-@ screen , so the remastering team performed a lot of redrawing and additions to the visuals .
= = Setting = =
= = = Geography = = =
The main landmass of Spira is surrounded by small islands , including : Besaid , a tropical town serving as the origin of Yuna 's pilgrimage ; Kilika , a larger island featuring dense jungles and numerous conflicts during the games ; and the desert island of Bikanel , which is also the location of the Al Bhed 's headquarters — " Home " . The ruins of Baaj Temple are on an island to the south of the Spira mainland ; this is where Tidus begins his journey in Spira .
The mainland of Spira is where the bulk of Final Fantasy X takes place . The southernmost location of the mainland , Luca , is a large city home to Spira 's pastime , Blitzball . North of Luca is the mountainous area of Djose , which features a Yevonite temple . Connecting Luca and Djose are several roads : the Mi 'ihen Highroad , a historical path that features Chocobos for transportation ; the Mushroom Rock Road , home of the failed operation to defeat Sin ; and Djose Highroad , a rocky path that forks north into the Moonflow and east to Djose Temple .
The Moonflow is a large river running through the heart of Spira , featuring shoopuf rides , ancient ruins , and a high density of pyreflies . A path from the Moonflow leads to Guadosalam , home of the Guado race and the gateway to the " Farplane " ( 異界 , ikai , lit . " other world " ) . North of Guadosalam are the Thunder Plains , which are the site of a never @-@ ending thunderstorm made safe by lighting rods calibrated by the Al Bhed . The Thunder Plains lead into Macalania , a sparkling forest complemented by a frozen lake and a Yevonite temple .
Bevelle , the spiritual center of the Yevon religion , lies on a thin strip of land slightly north of Macalania . The city is built as a series of layers , with the headquarters of Yevon located at the top . The Via Purifico , located beneath Bevelle , serves as an oubliette for outcasts . Further north are the Calm Lands , a series of plains that have been the site of numerous battles in Spira 's history ; the Cavern of the Stolen Fayth , an equally historical area ; and Mt . Gagazet , home of the Ronsos . Lastly , the sacred city of Zanarkand is on the northern tip of the Spiran mainland , reduced to ruins by Sin one thousand years before the events of Final Fantasy X.
Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 features several changes to the locations of Spira . The Djose Temple , abandoned by a faltering Yevon after Final Fantasy X , becomes the headquarters of the Machine Faction ; likewise , the Youth League sets up their headquarters at the site of the failed operation on the Mushroom Rock Road . Bevelle remains the capital of the New Yevon faction , although the game introduces a large , technological area hidden beneath the city . Several new enterprises have been started , including : a new pastime in Luca called Sphere Break ; a group of entertainers at the Moonflow ; a tourist service at the Zanarkand Ruins ; and machina transportation in favor of Chocobos on the Mi 'ihen Highroad . Lastly , the death of the Aeons at the end of Final Fantasy X causes the Macalania forest and lake to melt , sinking the former Yevon temple and destroying the forest 's life . Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 also introduces floating ruins atop Mt . Gagazet , and previously unexplored caverns throughout Spira .
= = = Creatures and races = = =
Although it is predominantly populated by humans , Spira features a variety of races . The people of Spira mainly reside in small towns and villages and cities like Bevelle and Luca . The Al Bhed is a unique ethnic group which plays an important role in the storyline and world of the games with distinctive green eyes with spiral @-@ shaped pupils . The culture and conflicts of the Al Bhed permeate the games . The main characters Rikku , is Al Bhed , and Yuna is part Al Bhed on her mother 's side ; and assistance in gained through a cast of supporting Al Bhed character 's , prevalent in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 . With the collapse of the teachings of Yevon and the wider acceptance of machina at the end of Final Fantasy X , prejudice against the Al Bhed seems to have eased significantly by the time of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , though it is still present .
The Al Bhed speak their own ' language ' which is really just a substitution cipher of English , a system of transposing certain letters for others ; however , within the game world , it is intended to be an actual language . The original Japanese version of the cipher uses the syllable @-@ based kana system of writing where each symbol represents a combination of " consonant + vowel " or simply a vowel . Certain keywords are not translated into Al Bhed in the game , to give the impression of use of loanwords compared to modern foreign languages . Most keywords are proper nouns , but some common nouns also are not translated , such as " fiend " ( e.g. Y fiend ! Eh risyh teckieca ! [ A fiend ! In human disguise ! ] ) . Alexander Smith , decided to " map common phonemes in English to common phonemes in Welsh " and gave preference to Welsh pronunciations , but had to work with new diphthongs to maintain consistency in the Al Bhed language .
Several other races are found throughout Spira , including the Guado , the Hypello and the Ronso races . The Guado are an arboreal humanoid race with long limbs and fingers , pale skin , and wild , tangled hair . The Guado are the keepers of the entryway to the Farplane , where the dead are sent and have the unique ability to " smell the deceased " and other abilities related to pyreflies . The Ronso are a race of blue furred , lion @-@ like humanoids who live on Mt . Gagazet , which they consider sacred and guard fiercely . Ronso are tall and formidable warriors with strong sense of honor and loyalty . A subplot of Final Fantasy X involves Kimahri Ronso 's conflict with his social status that results in his leadership of the Ronso in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 . The Hypello are a docile , amphibious race with blue skin and live primarily in and around the area of the Moonflow . Though extremely quick and agile swimmers , they are the only race in Spira that does not participate in Blitzball tournaments . The male Hypello are all voiced by John DeMita .
Spira also features various animal species and fictional species , such as the gigantic shoopuf and the chocobo that are used primarily for transport purposes . Most other unusual creatures encountered in Final Fantasy X are " fiends " , monsters created from the restless dead by Pyreflies to devour the living . Aeons and the unsent are also forms created by pyreflies . Sin , the bringer of destruction , is a powerful fiend that is made of high density pyreflies ; it can control gravitation forces to replenish its strength and even fly . Sin 's high concentration of pyreflies effect the pyreflies present in the bodies of those present , it is known as " Sin 's toxin . " Despite the Final Summoning , the core of Sin , is not destroyed and Sin " reborn " after a time .
= = = Fictional history = = =
Spira 's fictional history centers around an ancient war a thousand years prior to the start of the game that has Yevon preserve the memory of Zanarkand . Yevon 's people became the fayth to create this manifestation and Yevon made himself into Sin to protect it . A religious faith is built on atonement and sacrifice , creating a spiral of death that runs throughout Spira 's history . A ritual known as " the Final Summoning " would provide brief reprieves from Sin 's terror , called the " Calm " ( ナギ節 , Nagisetsu , lit . " calm time " ) . After completing a pilgrimage the summoner and a guardian would defeat Sin by sacrificing their lives to bring about the Calm .
In the one thousand years that followed Sin 's creation and the destruction of Zanarkand , Spira became a rustic land , almost completely devoid of large cities and higher civilization . Due to the actions of Sin , and the Yevon ban on machina , few territories reached larger than hamlet size , as they were destroyed by Sin and their populations decimated before they were able to develop . The only cities left larger than small villages were Luca , which houses the only blitzball stadium in Spira , and Bevelle , the center of the temples of Yevon . Yuna and her guardians break the cycle and bring about the " Eternal Calm " .
As a result of the events in Final Fantasy X , in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 the teachings of Yevon were no longer deemed valid , and association with machina and the Al Bhed people no longer sacrilegious . Spirans in general had a positive outlook with the onset of the Eternal Calm . New political groups fought for power the largest being the Youth League , the New Yevon Party , the Machine Faction . Yuna ultimately restores peace and saves Spira a second time with multiple endings based on the player 's performance .
= = = Mythos = = =
In the world of Final Fantasy X and its sequel , many supernatural elements influence events in the fictional world of Spira , defining the life of the planet 's inhabitants . Magic , spiritual energy , and the power of memories are heavily intertwined , and their effects manifest in a number of situations , including sporting events , religious practices , technology , and even in some of the native wildlife of the planet . The most popular pastime is Blitzball . The depiction of Sin as a " existence that agonizes the world " and as a " disaster with form " plays an important role in Spira 's everyday life throughout Final Fantasy X. In Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , the population of Spira pursues additional leisures including attending concerts and a coin @-@ collecting fad called Sphere Break .
In Spira , when a person dies suddenly and unexpectedly , his or her life force , manifested as pyreflies , must be released from the body and sent to the Farplane , the final resting place of departed souls . If the sending is not performed , the body 's spirit may remain trapped in the physical plane and take on the form of a fiend . A spirit of the dead may resist the transformation into a fiend , even when not sent and remain amongst the living , they are " unsent " . The unsent play a prominent role in the storyline and mythos , including the playable character Auron and other characters including Maester Jyscal Guado , Shuyin , and Lady Yunalesca .
= = = = Pyreflies = = = =
Pyreflies are a mysterious , naturally occurring phenomenon that heavily influence the events of Final Fantasy X and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , as well as the world of Spira at large . Heavily prevalent throughout Spira , these " bundles of life energy " are closely associated with death and other spiritual events and entities by the people of Spira . At high concentrations , Pyreflies are capable of recording memories , sights and sounds . Pyreflies are also associated with many commonplace technological innovations including sphere @-@ shaped recording devices and large , suspended spherical conglomerations of congealed water ( called " sphere pools " ) that serve as the playing field for blitzball games . The pyreflies are also a source of raw energy to empower the giant machina , Vegnagun . Shinra of the Gullwings suggests that the life energy flowing through Spira on the Farplane could possibly be harnessed for the purpose of supplying electricity to a city . In interviews published in the Final Fantasy X Ultimania Ω and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Ultimania guidebooks , scenario writer Kazushige Nojima and producer Yoshinori Kitase revealed that Final Fantasy VII and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 share a plot @-@ related connection , in which the Shin @-@ ra corporation in Final Fantasy VII is founded on another planet after about one thousand years , after space travel became possible , by descendants of Shinra of the Gullwings in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 . This connection was conceived of only after Final Fantasy X was already finished and realized in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 riding on the success of the original game and is not reflected in the gameplay or storylines of Final Fantasy VII or Final Fantasy X.
= = = = Religion = = = =
Religion is an important part of life for many of the peoples of Spira , with a large majority of the population describing themselves as " Yevonites . " Though by the end of Final Fantasy X some people had begun to question them , nevertheless the teachings of Yevon were millennium @-@ old and heavily influential . The Yevonite clergy taught that Sin was a divine punishment set upon the people for their pride in the use of machines . As a result , the temples forbade the use of modern technology , and promoted a culture of atonement for past sins in the hopes of appeasing sin .
While the Yevon church forbids most machina including weapons , it retains machina weapons to ensure its dominance . The Al Bhed are seen as dangerous to the Yevon clergy because they use machina and pose a threat to the church 's uncontested control of Spira . The church retains its power by role in using the Final Summoning which results in the sacrifice of the summoner and her guardian to prevent its secrets from being divulged . Though Yevon set up Operation Mi ’ ihen to instill further loyalty to the teachings by making the Crusaders use machina that would never win against Sin . By the end of Final Fantasy X , the Yevon religion was effectively disbanded once evidence of its corruption was discovered , and its remaining priests volunteered the truth . Half a year later , the moral teachings of Yevon were revitalized in the form of the New Yevon Party , later led in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 by Praetor Baralai . Although technically a splinter group of Yevon , the New Yevon party was not a religion , but a simple philosophy , their motto and position on Spira 's advancement being " One thing at a time . "
In Final Fantasy X the " Hymn of the Fayth " ( 祈りの歌 , Inori no Uta , lit . ' song of prayer ' ) is an important song . Its fictional history started as a song of defiance turned scripture and has numerous variations that is played throughout the game throughout Yuna 's journey ; primarily as the music of the temples . Though the Hymn 's words apparently have no discernible meaning within the context of Spira , the lyricist and scenario writer , Kazushige Nojima , composed a small puzzle with the lyrics , using Japanese syllables . When properly deciphered , they form sentences that translates thus : Pray to Yu Yevon . Dream , fayth . Forever and ever , grant us prosperity . The hymn was composed and arranged by Nobuo Uematsu and Masashi Hamauzu .
Final Fantasy X 's negative depiction of organized religion has been compared to the Catholic Church and the corruptibility of organized religion in general with the ultimate battle against a god . Stark writes that the game is a thesis on religion and the final battle with Yu Yevon offers a discourse on how to defeat it , by " let [ ting ] it die a slow death , murder it with sheer force , or utilize one ’ s knowledge of the ( game ) world to give it no power to stand on " . The Game Theorists add additional concepts , going further as to cite Final Fantasy as " anti @-@ religion " .
= = = = Aeons and fayth = = = =
The fayth ( 祈り子 , inorigo , lit . " prayer child " ) are humans who willingly give up their lives to have their souls sealed in statues and commune with summoners with whom they have established a mental link . This link grants a summoner access to a fayth 's dreams and enables him or her to physically realize those dreams as aeons ( 召喚獣 , shōkanjū , lit . " summon beast " ) , powerful creatures which may be employed to aid the summoner in battle or in a time of special need . During the events of Final Fantasy X , the fayth of the aeon Bahamut serves as the chosen representative of the fayth as a collective . The fayth aids High Summoner Yuna and her guardians in bringing the spiral of death to an end , which results in their own passing . In Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , the fayth return in their aeon forms , this time having been overcome by the despair and malice of Shuyin , rendering them his unwilling puppets of chaos . Yuna and her allies free both the fayth and Shuyin from the darkness that has consumed them . Ten aeons are identified in Final Fantasy X : Valefor , Ifrit , Shiva , Ixion , Bahamut , Anima , Yojimbo and the three Magus Sisters . The game builds on mythological figures through the inclusion of the aeons , such as the Arabic Ifrit , the Hindu deity Shiva and even the Jungian figure Anima and the demon Valefor . Wilder wrote on the Jungian analysis of Anima and tied Square Enix 's depiction of the Aeon as both a representation of Seymour 's corruption . Wilder analyzes the chained and blinded depiction of the figure that is Seymour 's mother and tying the form to her bound to servitude to Seymour in his descent into madness .
= = = = Militant factions = = = =
The Crusaders ( formerly known as the " Crimson Blades " ) were a loosely @-@ knit army that existed to protect towns and temples from Sin . The group was founded by Lord Mi 'ihen , who made a journey to Bevelle 800 years ago to calm the maesters ' fears that he was assembling an army to conquer them . Mi 'ihen managed to win their trust , and the Crimson Blades were thereafter inducted into the Yevon clergy as the Crusaders . The road Mi 'ihen had walked was renamed the " Mi 'ihen Highroad " in his honor . Unlike guardians , Crusaders are directly related to the temples . No non @-@ Yevonite is permitted to serve as a Crusader , although there are unofficial chapters composed entirely of people who have been excommunicated . All of the Crusaders were excommunicated , however , when they set up Operation Mi 'ihen , a joint Crusader @-@ Al Bhed attempt to destroy Sin with a giant machina weapon . The operation failed and the Crusaders were largely eradicated in the process . A group known as the Crimson Squad was also formed around Operation Mi 'ihen . Three candidates survived the final exercise ; Baralai , Nooj and Gippal , all of whom would eventually lead one of the three political factions during the events of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 .
= = Appearances = =
Spira is the world of Final Fantasy X and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , but elements of its world and characters have been included in other Final Fantasy media . For Dissidia Final Fantasy and its sequel / remake Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy the characters Tidus , Yuna , Jecht and an area known as The Dream 's End ( 夢の終わり , Yume no Owari ) were featured . The Dreams ' End shares similarities to the final area of Final Fantasy X complete with a large replica of Jecht 's sword in the center . Final Fantasy X 's Tidus and Wakka are supporting characters in Kingdom Hearts , Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories and Kingdom Hearts coded . Auron makes an appearance in Kingdom Hearts II as a supporting team member and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 's main cast of Yuna , Rikku and Paine appear also make an appearance as supporting characters . Tidus , Auron and Yuna are also playable characters in Theatrhythm Final Fantasy .
= = Analysis = =
In Imagined History , Fading Memory : Mastering Narrative in Final Fantasy X , Washburn writes that Final Fantasy X " makes the relationship of memory , history , and the struggle for control of knowledge a central element of both its gameplay and its narrative . " Washburn gives a synopsis of the game 's alternate history and describes Spira 's development as " evok [ ing ] a number of culturally vital discourses in Japan that the designers of the game drew on : the modernist aesthetics of evanescence , the loss of faith and belief in a society where technology and religion clash , the desire for a dream realm of memories as the source of an alternative history , and the nostalgic desire for the sublime experience of the annihilation of the past and the completion of history . " Washburn uses Final Fantasy X and the analysis of its narrative to make the case for academic study of the medium and counter the critical views held by detractors like Espen Aarseth , summarizing that " The ability to complete the game requires mastering not only the instrumental controls needed to acquire and perfect game skills but also the narrative itself , the cultural knowledge of Spira that facilitates the acquisition of skills and abilities . " In Languages Of Navigation Within Computer Games Flynn asserts that Final Fantasy X 's navigation is a representative and symbolic language , writing that " [ a ] lthough Final Fantasy X establishes itself through the opening cut scene as narrative based , it becomes clear that a poetic and mythic experience of space rather than a cinematic sense of space is in operation . "
The localization process of Final Fantasy X and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 was analyzed as a case study by Mangiron and O 'Hagan to highlight the liberties of localization . Technical limitations include localizing over a thousand weapons with unique names that must be conveyed in 15 characters yet have no English equivalent as in the case of 花鳥風月 ( kachōfūgetsu , Meaning " Beauties of nature " Literally : " flower , bird , wind , and moon " ) that became " Painkiller " in English . Other cases include the addition of accents as in the case of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 's O 'aka , a merchant , who speaks Cockney despite no accent being present in Japanese . Also included were references to Lollapalooza and humorous references to speech , with Rikku 's verb conjugation of a noun having been modified for English audiences . Other differences like Sano 's name being changed to Ormi for the English version , with Mangiron and O 'Hagan noting a possible issue with the Spanish meaning of " Sano " as " healthy " in stark contradiction to Ormi 's obese appearance . Mangiron and O 'Hagan conclude that these changes and contextualisation by addition result in transcreation instead of just translation . Using the games as a case study , Mangiron and O 'Hagan highlight that the freedom to modify , omit or add content results in the traditional concept of fidelity being discarded to maintain the " game experience " .
In the Marie Curie Euroconference on the Challenges of Multidimensional Translation , Minako O ’ Hagan expanded on the localization issue including the extreme rewrite of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 's theme song 1000 words and the International Edition using " in @-@ game dialogues are produced fresh to match the dubbed American version , instead of using the original Japanese script . " O 'Hagan noted a point of contention raised by fans were Yuna 's final words to Tidus in Final Fantasy X as " Thank you " ( Arigato ) being translated in English as " I love you " ; this translation would extend to the European release and the voice dialogue would be in English . Other academic publications refer to the localization process of Final Fantasy X including Hevian and Marco .
Final Fantasy X 's depiction of Spira set a new standard with the traversing of real @-@ time 3D environments instead of an overworld map , making the portrayal of Spira a pioneer in 3 @-@ D RPG maps .
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= Silent Hill : Origins =
Silent Hill : Origins , known as Silent Hill : Zero ( Japanese : サイレントヒル ゼロ , Hepburn : Sairentohiru Zero ) in Japan , is a survival horror video game for the PlayStation Portable developed by Climax Studios . It was published by Konami Digital Entertainment worldwide in late 2007 , beginning in early November with the United Kingdom . A port for the PlayStation 2 was released worldwide in early 2008 , beginning in March with North America , and it is available on the PlayStation Network in Europe . The fifth installment in the Silent Hill series , Origins is a prequel to the first game ( 1999 ) . Set in the series ' eponymous , fictional American town , Origins follows trucker Travis Grady as he searches for information about a girl whom he rescued from a fire . Along the way , he unlocks his repressed childhood memories . Gameplay uses a third @-@ person perspective , and emphasizes combat , exploration , and puzzle @-@ solving , similar to the previous installments .
Origins was developed by the United Kingdom branch of Climax Studios , after it was transferred from the United States branch , who faced issues with the game engine and the vision of the game ; the script , monsters , and level design were redone , and aspects of Origins ' atmosphere and gameplay intentionally replicated those of the first Silent Hill game . Origins was generally positively reviewed , although some reviewers wrote that it followed the formula of the series too closely and failed to add anything new . Its PlayStation 2 port received a lower aggregate score , with criticism directed towards its visuals .
= = Gameplay = =
The objective of Silent Hill : Origins is to guide player character Travis Grady as he searches the monster @-@ filled town of Silent Hill for information about a girl he rescues from a burning house . The game uses a third @-@ person perspective which it alternates with fixed camera angles . Following the gameplay formula of previous Silent Hill games , Origins primarily revolves around combat , exploration , and puzzle @-@ solving . Typical gameplay of Origins consists of alternating between reality and its darker and dilapidated counterpart , the " Other World " , to obtain keys and objects needed to solve a riddle . Travis carries a flashlight and indicates the direction of a nearby usable item , while his portable radio alerts the player to the presence of nearby monsters by emitting static . Often , actions performed in one dimension will affect the other ; for example , raising a prop on the stage in the theater results in a similar reaction in the Other World . Once solved , the riddle leads to an encounter with a boss , whose defeat unlocks a new area . Completion of the game results in unlocking special items or alternative outfits for Travis depending on various accomplishments .
For combat , in addition to using his fists ( the first Silent Hill game where unarmed combat is possible ) , Travis accumulates a range of weapons throughout the town : firearms , melee weapons , and one @-@ shot items usable in close combat ; the latter two are breakable . Although one @-@ shot items can be used to quickly kill some of the monsters encountered early on , Travis is vulnerable while performing this action to damage from quick enemies or those with long @-@ ranged attacks . Origins also introduces the " grapple " system , a quick time event activated when a monster grabs him . Should he escape , no damage is done to either him or the monster . The status of his " health " is indicated in the inventory , since the game does not feature a heads @-@ up display ; however , when his health is critical , the edges of the screen throb red , and his heartbeat is heard .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
A prequel to the first Silent Hill installment , Silent Hill : Origins takes place several years before the events of the first game . Origins is set in the eponymous , foggy , and rural small town located in the northeastern United States . The town is characterized by the " Other World " , a supernatural location periodically encountered by the protagonists of the series . Most frequently assuming the form of the town , the Other World causes the characters to experience delusions and various symbols from their unconscious .
Origins introduces Travis Grady , a trucker with a troubled past who suffers from nightmares . Returning characters from the first installment are Alessa Gilespie , a young girl who possesses supernatural powers ; licensed practical nurse Lisa Garland , who has a drug addiction and dreams of being an actress instead of a nurse ; physician Michael Kaufmann , who supplies Lisa with illegal drugs ; and Alessa 's mother , Dahlia Gillespie , a member of the town 's cult which plans to bring its malevolent god into this world .
= = = Plot = = =
Driving past Silent Hill as a shortcut , Travis swerves his truck to avoid hitting a spirit manifestation of Alessa . While following the spirit manifestation , he stumbles upon a burning house and rescues the real Alessa , who was immolated in a ritual to impregnate her with the cult 's god . Losing consciousness outside the house , he awakens in the town and resolves to learn if she survived . During his journey , Travis unlocks his repressed childhood memories and defeats monstrous forms of his parents : his mother had been committed to a local mental institution after attempting to kill him , and his father had killed himself , unable to live with the guilt of having his wife condemned . Additionally , Travis kills the Butcher , a monster that has been slaughtering other monsters .
Travis continues following Alessa 's spirit manifestation , which refuses to speak to him , and gradually collects pieces of an unknown pyramid @-@ shaped object ; after collecting all of the pieces , he assembles them to form the Flauros , an artifact which contains a trapped demon and can be used to amplify thought . Alessa 's spirit manifestation uses the completed Flauros to increase her powers and free herself from Dahlia 's spell , which had inhibited her abilities . Dahlia reveals that the cult plans to use Alessa to give birth to its god , before leaving to take part in the ritual . Travis heads to the cult 's ritual grounds , and sees members of the cult , including Kaufmann , surrounding Alessa 's burned body . Incapacitated by Kaufmann , Travis defeats and imprisons the demon within the Flauros in a dream @-@ like state .
Three endings are available . In the " Good " ending , Alessa uses the Flauros to manifest a baby with half of her soul , stopping the ritual , and her spirit manifestation carries the baby to the outskirts of the town , seeing Travis off as he returns to his truck and cheerfully drives away from Silent Hill . Dialogue follows to reveal that the protagonist of the first game , Harry Mason , and his wife find and adopt the baby , naming her Cheryl , while Dahlia and Kaufmann plan to cast a spell to draw the other half of Alessa 's soul back to the town , setting the events of the first Silent Hill game in motion . In the " Bad " ending , Travis awakens strapped to a gurney and is injected with an unknown substance : he starts convulsing and has a series of visions in which he kills two people and his form is briefly replaced by that of the Butcher . The joke ending sees Travis leave with a grey alien and a dog in an unidentified flying object .
= = Development = =
At E3 2006 , Origins was announced as in development by Climax Studios , instead of by Konami 's Team Silent who had developed previous installments . The first previews of the game featured a departure from the third @-@ person view typical of the series to a Resident Evil 4 @-@ style camera angle , and an emphasis on action and combat to a greater degree than the previous installments in the series . In the previews , Travis had six weapons , divided equally between melee weapons and firearms . Additional changes included a laser sight for his pistol and an option for the player to barricade areas . At the time , the game was expected to be released in late 2006 .
Issues with the game 's engine and " a confused high @-@ level vision for the game " led the game 's production to be transferred from the team in the United States to another studio in the United Kingdom , to ensure the final product would be " a tighter , more focused game that will provide fans with the experience they want ... a Silent Hill experience " ; the release date was also pushed forward from winter 2006 to Q3 / Q4 2007 . The version of Origins that the United Kingdom development team received was intended to be a dark comedy inspired by the American television series Scrubs . Konami allowed the team to change the game , provided that the changes were done within the same budget and time frame ; Origins 's script , level design , and monsters were redone within a week by Sam Barlow . For Origins , the developers intentionally replicated aspects of gameplay and atmosphere from the first installment ; for example , the monsters behave more aggressively than those in previous installments , as a throwback to the first game . Later previews showed that the game had changed significantly and contained gameplay more in line with that found in the previous titles in the series . The changes were well received by video game journalists . On August 19 , 2007 , a demo of the game was leaked to internet download sites ; Climax promptly denied they were the source of the leaked content .
Origins was released for the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) on November 6 , 2007 in North America , on November 16 , 2007 in Europe , on November 29 , 2007 in Australia , and on December 6 , 2007 in Japan . The Japanese release carried the alternate title Silent Hill Zero . On January 22 , 2008 , Konami officially confirmed that a PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) port was in development . The PS2 port was released in North America on March 5 , 2008 , while the United Kingdom and Australian releases followed on May 16 , 2008 , and May 23 , 2008 , respectively . It became available on the PlayStation Network for Europe on April 28 , 2014 .
= = = Audio = = =
Released as Silent Hill Zero Original Soundtracks , the musical score of Origins was composed by Akira Yamaoka , who had created the music of previous games in the series , and released in Japan on January 25 , 2008 , by Konami Music Entertainment , Inc . As Origins is a prequel , Yamaoka wished to imbue its music with the atmosphere of the first installment . Mary Elizabeth McGlynn provided vocals for four tracks , for which Joe Romersa wrote the lyrics . All three had previously worked together on the music of the fourth installment of the series ( 2004 ) .
= = Reception = =
Most reviews for Silent Hill : Origins were positive ; its original release on the PSP received a Metacritic aggregate score of 78 out of 100 . GameDaily wrote that Origins " impressively brings all the elements we love about the Silent Hill franchise to a portable format that works wonderfully . " Shane Bettenhausen of 1UP.com concluded , " Sure , it 's predictable , conventional , and a little bit short , not to mention ill @-@ suited for brief pick @-@ up @-@ and @-@ play sessions on the bus , but we 're encouraged to see developers making an original , console @-@ quality experience for PSP . " According to Kristan Reed of Eurogamer , " No doubt mindful of remaining faithful to the series ' legacy , Climax pays such close attention to the ingredients of the first three Silent Hill games that it 's basically an unapologetic homage to them . " While stating that Origins would appeal to fans for its story that adds to the series ' mythos , Game Informer added , " Unfortunately , the game has fallen into something like a rut in most other areas and less fanatical gamers won 't be as forgiving of its faults . "
The storyline was met with generally mixed feelings from reviewers . According to Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot , the premise was unoriginal and unsuspenseful , detracting from Travis ' appeal as a protagonist , although he felt that the game provided new material for fans to analyze . PALGN 's Mat Keller wrote that the Origins ' " blatantly obvious " subtext failed to affect the player , in contrast to the subtext of previous installments . 1UP.com stated that while Origins suffered from heavy foreshadowing and predictable plot twists and character development , it added to the backstory of the series . Conversely , Wesley Yin @-@ Poole of VideoGamer.com described the storyline as " engrossing " .
Critics felt that the visual style was similar to those of the previous Silent Hill installments . Enjoying the visuals , Jeff Haynes of IGN wrote : " From the cluttered and junk strewn locations to the rusty , chaos filled doppelgangers of the alternate dimensions , everything feels like it 's been stripped from one of the other titles and shrunk down to the handheld . " Reviewers praised the graphics , the monster designs , the detailed environments , and atmosphere . However , some reviewers wrote that the character models could have been more detailed .
Gameplay drew a variety of reactions from " immersive " and " intriguing " , to formulaic . The puzzles were generally considered by critics as challenging and well @-@ done . The duration of the game was considered short , and reviewers criticized the spacing of the save points and absence of checkpoints . The game 's adherence to the formula of the Silent Hill series also drew criticism ; the opening comment of GameSpot 's review remarked that " this old fog needs to learn some new tricks " , and further detailed that the game provided " an entirely conventional adventure that relies on eight @-@ year @-@ old franchise hallmarks at the expense of anything truly new . " Some camera issues were noted , especially in tight corridors . Reviewers wrote that Origins had a greater emphasis on combat than previous installments , although reaction to the combat was generally negative . Some reviewers felt that the player was encouraged to avoid combat , due to a variety of gameplay factors , including the breakable melee weapons . On the other hand , GameSpy 's David Chapman stated that the readily available weapons made Travis too powerful . The inclusion of quick time events was not well received by reviewers , who felt that it added nothing appealing to the game . Additionally , the soundtrack was frequently praised as frightening , and a part of the game 's appeal . The PlayStation Official Magazine UK wrote : " Despite its small @-@ screen setting , Origins even manages a few genuine scares , mostly thanks to the first @-@ rate sound : this should only be played through headphones . "
The PS2 port was not as well received by reviewers , with a lower aggregate score of 70 out of 100 , indicating " mixed or average reviews " . The graphics of the port were considered by reviewers to be not as good as the PSP release and other installments in the series for the PS2 . Conversely , a reviewer for GameZone wrote that despite some technical issues with the graphics , the visuals of the port sufficed . Other issues with the port commented on by critics include the lack of manual camera control , the absence of a mini @-@ map or overall map for the more challenging areas , and no new bonus material for the port .
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= The Seduction of Ingmar Bergman =
The Seduction of Ingmar Bergman is the 22nd album by American rock group Sparks , released in August 2009 . The duo 's first work in the radio musical or pop opera genre , the album is built around an imaginary visit to Hollywood by Swedish film director Ingmar Bergman in the mid @-@ 1950s . Its storyline focuses on the divides between European and American culture , between art and commerce . Unlike other Sparks albums , the work is conceived as a single piece , to be listened to as a whole , rather than a collection of stand @-@ alone songs .
The work was commissioned by Sveriges Radio Radioteatern , the radio drama department of Sweden 's national radio broadcaster . First released in the Swedish broadcast version in August 2009 , with an English @-@ language version following in November 2009 , it features a cast of Swedish and American actors and a variety of musical styles ranging from opera to vaudeville and pop . The album 's recording was a collaborative effort – while the music and English vocals were recorded by Sparks in the United States , the album 's Swedish vocals were recorded by Sveriges Radio in Stockholm , and then sent to the Maels via an FTP server . The album and its ambitious dramatic concept received favourable reviews , and the Mael brothers have said that they are planning both a live show and a film version of the musical .
= = Background = =
Sparks produced the album , their first in this genre , after it was commissioned as a radio musical by Sweden 's national broadcasting service , Sveriges Radio . The project was proposed to Sparks by Marie Wennersten of SR Radioteatern , the station 's radio drama department . Wennersten had become a Sparks fan after watching the duo perform in Sweden in 2004 : " I had never seen such energy and love from the audience . I thought the Södra Theatre was going to take off and fly away . I wrote to the Sparks fansite and thanked them for the experience . " Wennersten subsequently travelled to Los Angeles as a journalist , to attend and report on another Sparks concert . By that time , the idea of a collaboration had formed in her mind : " I always dreamed of dragging them into the radio world . "
Wennersten contacted Sparks when Jasenko Selimovic , the head of SR Radioteatern , decided that the station would produce a number of new musicals . She thought Sparks would be suitable for the format : " They are a bit extravagant ; they have a larger @-@ than @-@ life quality , and above all , they make music that is colourful enough for it not to feel like you miss a visual component . " Sparks were initially somewhat surprised by the invitation to write a musical for Swedish radio , and were hesitant to take on the project . However , after several months of persuasive effort from Wennersten , via e @-@ mail and telephone , they decided to accept the challenge . " We originally thought of it as a side project between albums , but once we started working on it , it took on a bigger life , " Sparks have said . " As Americans we have almost abandoned radio drama and it was truly exhilarating for us to work in a medium where the imagination of the listener is so integral a part of the work . Aside from our love of Bergman , we have a love of Orson Welles and his use of the medium of radio was something that inspired us in this work . "
Sveriges Radio stipulated that the work had to include a Swedish element . Singer Russell Mael told The National , " At first , we obviously thought of cars and Ikea . I ’ m joking . But the more profound , more lasting idea – being the film fans we are – was Ingmar Bergman . So we hit upon a fantasy situation of him going to Hollywood , which is obviously a lot more universal , too . " Before starting work on the musical , the Mael brothers decided to refresh their memories by looking at Bergman 's films again . " We were both really big film fans in university . At that time unless you only liked foreign film , and hated American ones , you weren ’ t cool " , Ron Mael told The Times . " There was a real kind of seriousness to [ Bergman ] . He actually addressed big things and was able to frame those in really pure , cinematic ways . Now those things are seen as being kind of pretentious . Everyone wants to be seen as though they don ’ t care about the big issues . " Commenting on the suitability of Bergman as the topic of a musical , Russell Mael told a Swedish newspaper , " In a way , he is the least appropriate person for a musical . We like the absurdity of it all . He was such a deep , intense person and the vast majority of his films are about really deep topics . But we did not want to ridicule him , we wanted to do something respectful that Bergman would have been able to appreciate . "
In writing a musical about film making in Hollywood , Sparks were also informed by their own past film projects . In the late 1980s and early 1990s , they had spent six years trying to get their film Mai , the Psychic Girl produced . Based on a Japanese manga comic , the film was at one time supposed to be directed by Tim Burton . Although the music had been completed , the film failed to materialise , an experience that coloured their portrayal of the studio head in The Seduction of Ingmar Bergman . Earlier , Sparks had worked with French director Jacques Tati on Confusion , another film project that remained uncompleted . Having had numerous meetings with Tati over the course of a year , they were aware that , like other great European directors , Tati had been wooed by Hollywood : " He showed me a letter from Paramount " , Ron Mael recalled . " He said : ‘ Oooh ! They take me to Hollywood and they have a limousine for me . ’ But it was kind of mocking of the whole similar situation to our fantasy Bergman thing . He could see Hollywood for what it was . "
Sveriges Radio gave Sparks free rein to develop the project : " Once we got the basic concept approved , we were able to work according to our own ideas . SR asked us to be as faithful to our own vision as possible . " In the end , Sparks felt it had been " a perfect project . It forced us out of our comfort zone . And it has proved to be a safer way to achieve creative success than any other in the history of Sparks . "
= = Storyline = =
The musical 's storyline explores the divisions between art and commerce and between European and American culture , dichotomies that have also shaped much of Sparks ' own career . Described as a " dark fairy tale " by Stephen Dalton in The Times – " The Wizard of Oz meets The Truman Show , with a light sprinkling of Life On Mars " – it is based on imaginary events in the career of Swedish film director Ingmar Bergman .
The story is set in the mid @-@ 1950s , shortly after Bergman 's award win at the 1956 Cannes Film Festival for Smiles of a Summer Night . After his return to Stockholm , Bergman feels compelled to go to a cinema and watch a Hollywood blockbuster movie . As he exits the cinema , he inexplicably finds himself transported to Hollywood , where a limo driver is waiting to take him to a film studio . The studio 's executives , who give Bergman a lavish welcome , are desperate to entice him to stay in Hollywood and make movies for them , the American way : " We 're not hicks , but we must deliver kicks . "
The studio bosses have booked a hotel room for Bergman , complete with a " Hollywood Welcoming Committee " – a hooker they hope will persuade him to accept their offer – and a limo shuttles Bergman from meeting to meeting . Visiting " The Studio Commissary " , he is brought face to face with the many European directors who went to make films in Hollywood : Billy Wilder , Fritz Lang , F. W. Murnau , Jacques Tourneur , Josef von Sternberg , and Alfred Hitchcock , all apparently happy to work in Hollywood : " Alfred Hitchcock , bless his soul , there chomping on a dinner roll , The Man Who Knew Too Much done twice , in Hollywood , done twice as nice " . Bergman is tempted by the prospect of secure funding for his film projects and feels he " must not be hasty " in rejecting the proposal .
The story develops into a Kafkaesque nightmare as Bergman , besieged by autograph hunters , finally decides that Hollywood is not for him . Unable to get an international line to call Sweden , he tries to escape on foot , pursued by hotel staff , police cars and helicopters " like an actor in a bad , big @-@ budget Hollywood action film " . He evades his captors and reaches the seashore , where he prays for deliverance and at last meets the angelic figure of Greta Garbo , who guides him " home to somewhere monochrome , but somewhere you will be a certain kind of free " . A circular plot device concludes and resolves the fantasy .
= = Production = =
= = = Recording = = =
A cast of Swedish and American actors contributed to the recording . While Sparks recorded the music in the United States , Wennersten oversaw the recording of the Swedish voice artists in Stockholm . Translation of the lyrics was also handled in Sweden : " Since I do not speak Swedish , I will never know how they managed , " Russell Mael said , expressing his appreciation for the efforts of everyone involved to translate the tone and spirit of the Maels ' original text into Swedish lyrics . Sparks and Wennersten communicated mainly via an FTP server , with Sparks sending Wennersten their musical material , and Wennersten sending the edited Swedish voice recordings back to Sparks . Sparks were very pleased with the results of the collaboration , and the fact that Swedish actor Jonas Malmsjö , playing Bergman , had starred in several Bergman productions , enabling him to bring this personal experience to his portrayal of Bergman .
= = = Style = = =
The album mixes a variety of musical styles , from classical piano and opera , with full orchestral backing , to polka , vaudeville , jazz , pop and rock , and features both song and spoken @-@ word elements . Singer Russell Mael 's falsetto vocals remain a prominent feature , while Ron Mael makes his vocal debut in the roles of the limo driver and Hollywood tour guide . Besides Jonas Malmsjö providing Bergman 's voice , Elin Klinga , one of Bergman 's favourite actresses in the latter stages of his career , appears in the role of Greta Garbo . Sparks drummer Tammy Glover appears as The Hollywood Welcoming Committee , while opera singer Rebecca Sjöwall plays a Hollywood actress .
Structurally , the album is not a collection of stand @-@ alone songs , but a 64 @-@ minute piece of music composed of 24 plot @-@ driven subsections . The music references the band 's own discography at various points , evoking echoes of their earlier records – " sly winks to fans , each with their favourite era of Sparks in mind " . The BBC review stated that the album was " steeped in the same arch humour and orchestral sweep that guided the likes of 2006 ’ s Hello Young Lovers and last year ’ s Exotic Creatures of The Deep " , blending " jaunty songs and rib @-@ tickling tangents with a coherent narrative " .
= = Release = =
The Swedish broadcast version of the musical , containing both Swedish and English lyrics , had its world première on 14 August 2009 , when it was performed at a special event in Stockholm 's Södra Theatre and broadcast on Sveriges Radio 's P1 channel . An exclusive edition of 1 @,@ 000 CDs was released by SR Records , the Sveriges Radio record label , at the same time . The band later released an English version of the work on their own Lil ' Beethoven label , initially only available as a double vinyl and digital download . BBC 6 Music and presenter Stuart Maconie hosted the English version 's première in London on 28 October 2009 , followed by a Q & A session with the Mael brothers .
= = Reception = =
The album has been well received by critics . Simon Price in The Independent called it " an engrossing and enriching piece " when listened to as a whole . Craig Carson in PopMatters commented that the Sparks ' " wry humor and willingness to experiment with different formats continue to stretch the limits of pop music in ways many other acts simply do not attempt . The band continually seem able and willing to explore just about anything – they remain musicians blessedly apart from the herd . " Daryl Easlea , writing for Record Collector , commented in a similar vein : " Only Sparks could do this . A 64 @-@ minute 24 @-@ song cycle commissioned for Swedish radio about Ingmar Bergman . [ ... ] Obscure , of course – delightfully warm , naturally ; it underlines Sparks ' greatness and importance . " Commenting on the portrayal of Bergman , Easlea stated , " Swedish actor Malmsjö plays Bergman with all the appropriate detached paranoia " ; he concluded his review by awarding the album a full five stars .
The Times said it was " a very Sparksian undertaking – painstaking and slightly ludicrous – to make a musical about an art @-@ house film director , with a very complicated plot , for the radio ( even Rick Wakeman ’ s King Arthur on Ice had something to look at ) . " It said the orchestral arrangements by Ron Mael were " great , actually , recalling the skyscraper bustle of Bernstein and the triumphant fanfares of Michael Nyman " , and stated that " the central concept – pursue your own idea of art , regardless of whether anyone will buy it – seems to be their rule of thumb , too . And you can 't knock that . " The review by Stephen Dalton , also in The Times , found the " modernist musical backdrop " dominated by " electro @-@ orchestral fragments " " less seductive " and , " despite plenty of arch and witty lyrics " , regretted the scarcity of " memorable melodies or fully realised songs " . Dalton concluded that the work was " not wholly successful , perhaps , but still an alluringly barmy and glamorous affair " , and a " fascinating folly from two enduringly inventive oddballs " .
The BBC review stated fans hoping for " a fresh suite of crisp new Sparks songs " might be disappointed because " there are no tunes without the tale attached " , but added that " luckily , the tale is a good one " : the story of Hollywood corruption " is told masterfully , and builds to a dramatic conclusion that both condemns Hollywood and satirises its conventions with rapier @-@ sharp wit . " Dave Simpson in The Guardian said the piece , " best experienced as a whole " , was " not an idle fantasy , and emerges as a fascinating and powerful discourse on the struggle between art and commerce , and the destructive power of celebrity " , calling the musical " a bold , major work – as compelling and original as anything in their sporadically brilliant career . "
David Quantick in The Word commented that " musically , Seduction is awe @-@ inspiring in the way the Maels perfectly meld their current style – intense , repetitive beats and melodies ( there 's even a bit of squelching techno here ) and caustic , snappy lyrics – with the demands of an actual musical . " He called the album an " amazing record " , a " commissioned piece that not only does what it 's been asked to do , but transcends the brief and creates a genuinely exciting piece of music in its own right . " Andy Gill in The Independent gave The Seduction of Ingmar Bergman a maximum rating of five stars and included the record among his 20 albums of the year : " Sharply scripted , with that sly , knowing touch so typical of Sparks , it 's also scored with scrupulous intelligence , the arrangements drawing on a range of apt influences , from Kurt Weill to jazz , pop and rock , and the orchestrations ingeniously duplicitous , wistful and sinister , as the action dictates . It may well turn out to be the pinnacle of Sparks ' career , and certainly has an ambition well beyond the usual remit of popular culture . "
= = Musical and film versions = =
Sparks said in October 2009 that they were planning to turn the album into a live show and were in talks with Canadian film director Guy Maddin about a film version of the musical . They confirmed in a September 2010 interview on Michael Silverblatt 's Bookworm show that Maddin and actor Jason Schwartzman were on board , and that they were in the process of seeking funding for the project .
The world premiere of the live musical took place on June 25 at the 2011 Los Angeles Film Festival , starring Ron and Russell Mael from Sparks , Maddin , Finnish actor Peter Franzén as Bergman , Ann Magnuson as Greta Garbo , with Rebecca Sjöwall , Katie Puckrik , and Tammy Glover reprising their roles from the album . Other actors included Nina Sallinen , Jacob Sidney , Dean Menta , and Sal Viscuso . Showcased at the festival to attract investor interest in the film project , the performance at the John Anson Ford Amphitheatre featured Maddin reading stage directions from the film 's screenplay .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Ron Mael and Russell Mael .
Note : The digital downloads were released as single tracks with a duration of 64 : 32 ( Swedish broadcast version ) and 64 : 33 ( English version ) .
= = Personnel = =
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= Military career of L. Ron Hubbard =
The military career of L. Ron Hubbard saw the future founder of Scientology serving in the United States Armed Forces as a member of the Marine Corps Reserve and , between 1941 – 50 , the Navy Reserve . He saw active service between 1941 – 45 , during World War II , as a naval Lieutenant , junior grade and later as a Lieutenant . After the war he was mustered out of active service and resigned his commission in 1950 .
As with many other aspects of L. Ron Hubbard 's life , accounts of his military career are much disputed . His account of his military service later formed a major element of his public persona , as depicted by his Scientologist followers . The Church of Scientology presents Hubbard as a " much @-@ decorated war hero who commanded a corvette and during hostilities was crippled and wounded . " According to Scientology publications , he served as a " Commodore of Corvette squadrons " in " all five theaters of World War II " and was awarded " twenty @-@ one medals and palms " for his service . He was " severely wounded and was taken crippled and blinded " to a military hospital , where he " worked his way back to fitness , strength and full perception in less than two years , using only what he knew and could determine about Man and his relationship to the universe . "
However , his official Navy service records indicate that " his military performance was , at times , substandard " , that he was only awarded a handful of campaign medals and that he was never injured or wounded in combat and was never awarded a Purple Heart . Most of his military service was spent ashore in the continental United States on administrative or training duties . He briefly commanded two anti @-@ submarine vessels , the USS YP @-@ 422 and USS PC @-@ 815 , in coastal waters off Massachusetts , Oregon and California in 1942 and 1943 respectively . He was removed from command of both vessels and rated by his superiors as being unsuitable for independent duties and " lacking in the essential qualities of judgment , leadership and cooperation " . Although Hubbard asserted that he had attacked and crippled or sunk two Japanese submarines off Oregon while in command of the USS PC @-@ 815 , his claim was rejected by the commander of the Northwest Sea Frontier after a subsequent investigation . He was hospitalized for the last seven months of his active service , not with injuries but with an acute duodenal ulcer .
The Church of Scientology rejects the official record and insists that Hubbard had a second set of records that the U.S. Navy has concealed . According to the Church 's chief spokesman , if it was true that Hubbard had not been injured , " the injuries that he handled by the use of Dianetics procedures were never handled , because they were injuries that never existed ; therefore , Dianetics is based on a lie ; therefore , Scientology is based on a lie . "
= = Montana Army National Guard and US Marine Corps Reserve = =
Hubbard 's first military service was with the Montana Army National Guard , which he joined at the age of 16 in October 1927 while still at school , falsely stating that his age was 18 . Enlisting at the State Armory in his home town of Helena , Montana , he served as a private in the Headquarters Company of 163rd Infantry . In May 1930 , at the age of 19 , he joined the Marine Corps Reserve 20th Regiment , a training unit connected with George Washington University where he was a student from 1930 – 32 .
Hubbard attributed his service in the regiment to his need for " a little recreation . Life was dull . Fellow came up to me and he says , ' The Marine Reserves are organizing a twentieth regiment . Why don 't you come down ? ' " He made the dubious claim of being rapidly promoted to the rank of First Sergeant ; Hubbard later explained his unusually rapid promotion as being due to his unit being newly formed and his superiors being unable to " find anyone else who could drill . " He stated that he was rated ' excellent ' for military efficiency , obedience and sobriety . On October 22 , 1931 , Hubbard received an honorable discharge along with the annotation " not to be re @-@ enlisted . "
= = World War II = =
= = = Western Pacific service = = =
Hubbard joined the United States Navy during the summer of 1941 , a few months before the United States entered the Second World War . He applied in March 1941 and was commissioned as a Lieutenant , Junior Grade on July 19 , 1941 , entering permanent active duty in November . He specifically volunteered for " Special Service ( intelligence duties ) " , an assignation recorded on his commission papers . He spent only a brief time in this nominal role with the Office of Naval Intelligence . After four months working in public relations and at the US Hydrographic Office , he spent three weeks at the Third Naval District in New York training for the role of Intelligence Officer . Hubbard 's training was curtailed by the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 , and on December 18 he was sent to the Philippines via Australia . He was put ashore in Brisbane in January 1942 when his ship was re @-@ routed . He was ordered back to the United States aboard the transport vessel USS Chaumont the following month at the instigation of the US Naval Attaché to Australia , who cabled Washington to complain :
By assuming unauthorized authority and attempting to perform duties for which he has no qualifications , he became the source of much trouble ... This officer is not satisfactory for independent duty assignment . He is garrulous and tries to give impressions of his importance . He also seems to think he has unusual ability in most lines . These characteristics indicate that he will require close supervision for satisfactory performance of any intelligence duty .
Hubbard and the Church of Scientology presented a number of different accounts of his time in the western Pacific . In 1963 , Hubbard told Australian journalists that he had been " the only anti @-@ aircraft battery in Australia in 1941 – 42 ... There was me and a Thompson submachine gun ... I was a mail officer and I was replaced , I think , by a Captain , a couple of commanders and about 15 junior officers . " Hubbard stated on another occasion that he had been " one of the first officers back from the upper battle areas " and that he had " sent on my own authority , four cargo ships loaded to the gunwales with machine gun ammunition , rifle ammunition and quinine up to MacArthur . " When " Melbourne found out ... there were enough troops in the area so the danger was over , so I went home . I wrote myself some orders and reported back to the US . " According to the Church of Scientology , Hubbard was landed on the island of Java " in the closing days of February 1942 " to search for " stockpiled weapons and fast , shallow @-@ draft vessels . " He was cut off by invading Japanese " and was only able to escape the island after scrambling into a rubber raft and paddling out to meet an Australian destroyer . " Another Church of Scientology account describes Hubbard as " Senior Officer Present Ashore in Brisbane , Australia " and asserts that " his duties included counter @-@ intelligence and the organization of relief for beleaguered American forces on Bataan . It was in this latter capacity that he eventually saw action on the island of Java , and only eluded capture through a daring escape on a raft . In a 1956 lecture to Scientologists , Hubbard said :
I was flown in from the South Pacific as the first casualty to be shipped out of the South Pacific war back to the States . The war had been started in Pearl Harbor , and I 'd been down in the South Pacific and – a lot of things happened down there . And the outfits down there were pretty well wiped out , as you can remember before the US and Great Britain started to fight and go back in . All right .
Most of the guys that were shipped out of there who had been wounded , were shipped out by slow boat . And I didn 't , I wasn 't that seriously done in . I hooked a ride on the Secretary of the Navy 's plane ; produced the right set of orders ( I hope nobody ever kept them on file ) and got flown home .
In another lecture of the same year , Hubbard provided an alternative version of his return to the United States :
I picked up a telephone , called the Secretary of [ the ] Navy . See , and I said , " I 'm tired of this place . I 'd like to leave . " And he said , " Yeah . " I said , " Yeah , I 've got some important despatches . As a matter of fact , we 've got enough despatches here to practically sink the Japanese navy if they had to carry them . There 's a lot of traffic and stuff like that , and so forth . " So he sent his plane down and picked me up and flew me home .
The US Navy 's files do not record Hubbard spending any time on Java and do not show any evidence of wounds or injuries sustained in combat .
= = = Atlantic service : USS YP @-@ 422 and after = = =
Hubbard was posted to the Office of the Cable Censor in New York City after returning to the US at the end of March 1942 . As the office had recently ceased to be an organ of Naval Intelligence , his status was amended to Deck Officer . He was also promoted ( as part of a batch of other officers of the same grade ) on June 15 , 1942 to lieutenant , senior grade , the highest rank he was to hold during his active service .
In June 1942 he requested that he be assigned to sea duty in the Caribbean ; he was sent instead to the shipyard of George Lawley & Sons of Neponset , Massachusetts , where the fishing trawler MV Mist was being converted for military use as a naval yard patrol ( YP ) vessel . The navy commandeered numerous fishing vessels and redesignated them as YP boats , tasked with defending coastal waters against enemy submarines and delivering food and equipment to military personnel offshore ; they were particularly prized for having refrigeration units . The vessel was commissioned as the USS YP @-@ 422 on July 28 , 1942 , having been refitted as a freighter armed with a 3 @-@ inch deck gun and two .30 @-@ caliber machine guns . In August , the YP @-@ 422 put to sea from the Boston Navy Yard to carry out a 27 @-@ hour training exercise .
However , Hubbard fell out with a senior officer at the shipyard and sent a critical memorandum to the Vice @-@ Chief of Naval Operations ( VCNO ) in Washington , D.C. The Commandant of the Navy Yard responded on 25 September 1942 by informing the VCNO that , in his view , Hubbard was " not temperamentally fitted for independent command " and requesting that Hubbard be removed and ordered to " other duty under immediate supervision of a more senior officer . " Hubbard duly lost his command on October 1 , 1942 and was ordered to New York , ending his service in the Atlantic .
Various accounts of Hubbard 's service in the North Atlantic have been put forward by the Church of Scientology and Hubbard himself . The Church of Scientology states in one publication that Hubbard " took command of an antisubmarine escort vessel with Atlantic convoys " . In a 1954 lecture , Hubbard asserted that he had been sent " to Boston in the very early part of the war to take command of a corvette " and had been given a crew made up of convicts from Portsmouth Naval Prison . Hubbard stated in another lecture that he had been posted aboard " corvettes , North Atlantic . And I went on fighting submarines in the North Atlantic and doing other things and so on . And I finally got a set of orders for the ship . By that time I had the squadron . " Biographical accounts published by the Church of Scientology have described Hubbard as commanding the " Fourth British Corvette Squadron " and Hubbard himself stated that he " was running British corvettes during the war " . A biographical interview with Hubbard published in 1956 speaks of him commanding " the former British corvette , the Mist " . ( The only British naval vessel named Mist was an Admiralty drifter , one of a number of small wooden vessels constructed for the Royal Navy in 1918 . ) Hubbard also asserted that he had sustained wounds " aboard a corvette in the North Atlantic " . A biographical profile published in 2008 by the Scientology @-@ related imprint Galaxy Press asserts that Hubbard " served with distinction in four theaters and was highly decorated for commanding corvettes in the North Pacific . He was also grievously wounded in combat [ and ] lost many a close friend and colleague ... "
In November 1942 , Hubbard was sent to the Submarine Chaser Training Center in Miami , Florida for training on submarine chaser vessels . He subsequently undertook a ten @-@ day anti @-@ submarine warfare training course at the Fleet Sound School in Key West and on January 17 , 1943 he was posted to the Albina Engine & Machine Works in Portland , Oregon , where he was to take command of the subchaser USS PC @-@ 815 when she was commissioned .
= = = Pacific service : USS PC @-@ 815 = = =
When Hubbard arrived in Portland , the USS PC @-@ 815 was in the last stages of its construction . The ship , a 173 ft ( 53 m ) steel @-@ hulled subchaser of the PC @-@ 461 class , had been laid down on October 10 , 1942 at the Albina shipworks . She was commissioned on April 21 , 1943 with Hubbard in command and Lt ( jg ) Thomas Moulton , an officer with whom he had studied in Florida , as the ship 's executive officer . The ship left Portland on May 18 to travel down the Columbia River to Astoria , Oregon , where she took on ammunition . After participating for a day in an air @-@ sea rescue operation , USS PC @-@ 815 was ordered to sail to San Diego to commence its shakedown cruise .
In the early hours of May 19 , PC @-@ 815 's sonar detected what the crew believed to be an enemy submarine off Cape Lookout , about ten to twelve miles offshore . Over the next two and a half days , Hubbard ordered his crew to fire a total of 35 depth charges and a number of gun rounds to target what Hubbard believed to be two Imperial Japanese Navy submarines . The PC @-@ 815 was joined by the US Navy blimps K @-@ 39 and K @-@ 33 , the US Coast Guard patrol boats Bonham and 78302 and the subchasers USS SC @-@ 536 and USS SC @-@ 537 to assist it in the search for the suspected enemy vessels . Hubbard was given temporary command of the vessels on the afternoon of May 19 . The larger subchaser PC @-@ 778 also joined the submarine search , though it found no indication of submarines and its commander was subsequently castigated by Hubbard for his refusal to lay its own larger stock of depth charges or resupply the PC @-@ 815 .
Hubbard stated in his eighteen @-@ page after @-@ action report that he had intended to force the submarine to surface so that it could be attacked by the surface vessels ' guns . He reported that his vessel had seen oil on the surface , though the PC @-@ 815 took no samples , and asserted that the blimps had seen air bubbles , oil and a periscope , though the blimps ' own reports did not corroborate this . No wreckage was seen , despite the heavy depth @-@ charging . The PC @-@ 815 sustained some minor damage and three crew were injured during the incident when the ship 's radio antenna was accidentally hit by gunfire . At midnight on 21 May , with depth charges exhausted and the presence of a submarine still unconfirmed by any other ship , PC @-@ 815 was ordered back to Astoria .
The incident attracted the attention of the naval high command , as there had been a verified Japanese submarine attack against Fort Stevens about 50 miles further north in June 1942 and there had been an invasion scare in southern California earlier in 1942 . Hubbard claimed to have " definitely sunk , beyond doubt " one submarine and critically damaged another . His view was not shared by his superiors . After reviewing the action reports and interviewing Hubbard and the other commanders present , Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher noted : " An analysis of all reports convinces me that there was no submarine in the area . Lieutenant Commander Sullivan states that he was unable to obtain any evidence of a submarine except one bubble of air which is unexplained except by turbulence of water due to a depth charge explosion . The Commanding Officers of all ships except the PC @-@ 815 state they had no evidence of a submarine and do not think a submarine was in the area . " Fletcher also noted that there was a " known magnetic deposit in the area in which depth charges were dropped . " The clear implication was that Hubbard had been targeting the deposit all along .
Hubbard nonetheless continued to believe that he had sunk at least one Japanese submarine . Years later , in 1956 , he told Scientologists :
I dropped the I @-@ 76 or the Imperial Japanese Navy Trans @-@ Pacific Submarine down into the mouth of the Columbia River , dead duck . And it went down with a resounding furor . And that was that .
In another lecture , he commented :
I know one officer that was reprimanded for taking on a submarine three times the size of his ship and sinking it – a Japanese submarine . And he was called in and reprimanded . That doesn 't sound possible , does it ?
After the war , the British Admiralty and the US Navy analysed the captured records of the Japanese navy to account for all of its vessels . Their reports do not list any Japanese submarine losses off the coast of the contiguous United States during the whole of the war . According to military records , the I @-@ 76 was destroyed off Buka Island in the western Pacific by USS Franks , USS Haggard and USS Johnston on 16 May 1944 . Hubbard 's crew however , who were very loyal to him , shared his conviction that they had engaged an enemy submarine . His second @-@ in @-@ command , Thomas Moulton , later asserted that the Navy had hushed up the incident , fearing that the presence of Japanese submarines so close to the Pacific coast might cause panic .
Following its return to Astoria , the USS PC @-@ 815 was ordered to escort a new aircraft carrier to San Diego , where the subchaser was to participate in exercises . On June 28 , Hubbard ordered his crew to fire four shells from the ship 's 3 @-@ inch gun and a number of rifle and pistol shots in the direction of the Coronado Islands , off which the ship anchored for the night . He did not realize that the islands belonged to Mexico , an ally , nor that he had taken the USS PC @-@ 815 into Mexican territorial waters . The islands were garrisoned by Mexican Navy personnel during the war . The Mexican government complained and two days later , Hubbard found himself before a naval Board of Investigation in San Diego . He was found to have disregarded orders by carrying out an unsanctioned gunnery practice and violating Mexican waters . He was reprimanded and removed from command , effective July 7 . Rear Admiral Frank A. Braisted commented , in a fitness report written shortly after the Coronado incident , that he " consider [ ed ] this officer lacking in the essential qualities of judgment , leadership and cooperation . He acts without forethought as to probable results . He is believed to have been sincere in his efforts to make his ship efficient and ready . Not considered qualified for command or promotion at this time . Recommend duty on a large vessel where he can be properly supervised . "
= = = USS Algol and shore service = = =
On the same day that Hubbard was sent a formal letter of admonition , he reported sick with complaints of epigastric pains and possible malaria . After 77 days on the sick list , it was finally determined that he was suffering from a duodenal ulcer . In October 1943 , he asked to be transferred to landing craft and was sent on a six @-@ week training course at the Naval Small Craft Training Center in San Pedro , California . He was then ordered in December 1943 to join the crew of the USS Algol , an Attack Cargo Auxiliary Vessel , to assist with the ship 's fitting out and crew training in Portland , Oregon . The vessel was commissioned in July 1944 with Hubbard aboard in the role of Navigation and Training Officer . The next two months were occupied with training exercises off the California coast in preparation for the ship 's envisaged departure in September for the western Pacific theater of operations .
Hubbard , however , applied instead to undertake a three @-@ month training course in military administration at the School of Military Government , a faculty that had been established on the campus of Princeton University ( but was not part of the University itself , although Hubbard later asserted that he had been a Princeton student ) . His commanding officer approved the detachment and gave Hubbard a generally good fitness report , rating him to be " of excellent personal and military character " though he " is very temperamental and often has his feelings hurt . " On September 27 , a curious incident occurred aboard the USS Algol ; the ship 's deck log records that Hubbard reported that he had discovered " an attempt at sabotage " consisting of a Coke bottle filled with gasoline with a cloth wick inserted , concealed among the ship 's cargo . A few hours later Hubbard was ordered to depart the ship and proceed to Princeton .
In later years , Hubbard asserted that the 1955 film Mister Roberts was based on his service aboard the USS Algol with Henry Fonda 's eponymous character being based on Hubbard himself and James Cagney 's tyrannical character based on the commander of the Algol . In a February 1956 lecture , Hubbard told Scientologists : " There was a story made about that vessel [ the Algol ] , by the way . It was called Mister Roberts . You may have seen this picture or read the book . " According to a Church of Scientology publication ,
At the end of the war , having been relegated because of his physical condition to the amphibious forces in the Pacific , he had the adventures which are reported on the screen in " Mister Roberts " . " The Bucket " of that motion picture , stage play , and the novel is actually the A.K.A. 54 , the U.S.S. Algol . The captain so brutally characterized in the picture is actually Lieutenant Commander Axton P. [ sic ] Jones . L. Ron Hubbard as " Mister Roberts " was with the ship less than a year , however , and contrary to the script , was not killed at Okinawa .
George Malko comments that " this [ claim ] has never been substantiated " and notes that the author of the original novel , Thomas Heggen , " would only say about Roberts : " He is too good to be true , he is a pure invention . " " The novel was reportedly " loosely based on [ Heggen 's ] service on the USS Virgo " .
At the conclusion of his course at the School of Military Government , Hubbard failed to pass his examinations – finishing only mid @-@ way down the class list – and did not qualify for an overseas posting . He was posted in January 1945 to the Naval Civil Affairs Staging Area in Monterey , California for further training but , as he later acknowledged , he became depressed and fell ill with a duodenal ulcer . He reported sick with stomach pains in April 1945 and spent the remainder of the war on the sick list as a patient in Oak Knoll Naval Hospital in Oakland , California . A Church of Scientology account asserts that " eventual combat wounds would finally preclude him from serving with American occupation forces . "
In October 1945 , a Naval Board found that he was " considered physically qualified to perform duty ashore , preferably within the continental United States " in reflection of his chronic ulcer . He was discharged from the hospital and mustered out of active service on December 6 , 1945 . He resigned his commission in October 1950 . According to the Church of Scientology , he quit because the US Navy had " attempted to monopolize all his researches and force him to work on a project " to make man more suggestible " and when he was unwilling , tried to blackmail him by ordering him back to active duty to perform this function . Having many friends he was able to instantly resign from the Navy and escape this trap . " Hubbard himself told Scientologists :
[ T ] he Office of Naval Intelligence right here in Washington , DC , threatened to call me to active duty to use what I knew about the mind . ... [ T ] his officer from the Office of Naval Research came to see me right here in Washington and he wanted me to go on as a civilian employee in order to use what I knew of the mind to make men more suggestible . And I smiled a feline smile . And I said , " No . " And he smiled like something out of Faust , and he said to me , " Well , all you have to do is say ' No ' and I will call you back to active duty because you still are an officer of the United States Navy . " And with that purr he exited . ... So I went down here to the Washington Navy Yard , the Potomac River Naval Command , and I got my resignation accepted .
According to the US Navy , " There is no evidence on record of an attempt to recall him to active duty . "
= = Alleged war wounds = =
As the psychologist and computer scientist Christopher Evans has noted , " One aspect of [ Hubbard 's ] war record that is particularly confused , and again typical of the mixture of glamour and obscurantism which surrounds Hubbard and his past , is the matter of wounds or injuries suffered on active service . " Hubbard asserted after the war that he had been " blinded with injured optic nerves , and lame with physical injuries to hip and back ... Yet I worked my way back to fitness and strength in less than two years , using only what I knew about Man and his relationship to the universe . " Accounts published by the Church of Scientology asserted that he had been " flown home in the late spring of 1942 in the secretary of the Navy 's private plane as the first U.S.-returned casualty from the Far East " . A 2006 publication goes further , describing him as " the first American casualty of South Pacific combat " .
Thomas Moulton , Hubbard 's executive officer on the USS PC @-@ 815 , testified in 1984 that Hubbard had said that he had been shot in the Dutch East Indies , and that on another occasion Hubbard had told him that his eyes had been damaged by the flash of a large @-@ caliber gun . Hubbard himself told Scientologists in a taped lecture that he had suffered eye injuries after having had " a bomb go off in my face . " He told Robert Heinlein , the science fiction writer , that " both of his feet had been broken ( drumhead @-@ type injury ) when his last ship was bombed . " According to Heinlein , Hubbard said that he " had had a busy war – sunk four times and wounded again and again " . Hubbard was said to have been " twice been pronounced dead " and to have spent a year in a naval hospital which he " utilized in the study of endocrine substances and protein " . The techniques that he developed " made possible not only his own recovery from injury , but helped other servicemen to regain their health " . On another occasion , Hubbard said that he had been hospitalized because " I was utterly exhausted . I 'd just been in combat theater after combat theater , you see , with no rest , no nothing between . "
This account was challenged by a series of writers and journalists from the mid @-@ 1970s onwards . Writing in 1974 , Evans noted that the Veterans Administration had confirmed that ( even at that late stage in his life ) Hubbard " receives $ 160 a month in compensation for disabilities incurred during the Second World War . However the conditions listed as being ' 40 % disabling ' are : duodenal ulcer , bursitis ( right shoulder ) , arthritis , and blepharoconjunctivitis . " Evans noted : " a Navy Department spokesman has stated that ' an examination of Mr Hubbard 's record does not reveal any evidence of injuries suffered while in the service of the United States Navy ' . "
Sixteen years later , the Los Angeles Times obtained Hubbard 's medical records through the Freedom of Information Act . The records stated that Hubbard had told doctors that he had been " lamed " by a chronic hip infection , and that his eye problems were the result of conjunctivitis caused by exposure to " excessive tropical sunlight " . Hubbard 's post @-@ war correspondence with the VA was also included , including letters in which he requested psychiatric treatment to address his " long periods of moroseness " and " suicidal inclinations . " He continued to complain to the VA about various physical ailments into the 1950s , well after he had founded Dianetics ; the Times noted that , significantly , Hubbard had promised that Dianetics would provide " a cure for the very ailments that plagued the author himself then and throughout his life , including allergies , arthritis , ulcers and heart problems . " Other documents on Hubbard 's medical file stated that he had injured his back in 1942 after falling off a ship 's ladder .
= = Claimed medals = =
Hubbard 's war medals have also been an issue of contention . Although the Church of Scientology has stated that Hubbard was " highly decorated for duties under fire , " the actual number of decorations said to have been awarded to Hubbard has varied considerably over the years . In a 1968 interview with British journalists , Hubbard showed his visitors sixteen war medals that he claimed to have been awarded . A few months later , the Church of Scientology published a " Data Sheet on Lafayette Ron Hubbard " that stated that he had been awarded " Twenty @-@ one medals and palms " .
In May 1974 , the Church asked the Navy Department to supply seventeen medals that he was said to have been awarded , including the Purple Heart and Navy Commendation Medal , many of them with bronze service stars denoting participation in military campaigns or multiple bestowals of the same award . The Navy sent only four medals , noting , " The records in this Bureau fail to establish Mr. Hubbard 's entitlement to the other medals and awards listed in your response . " Hubbard responded by circulating to Scientologists a photograph of 21 medals and palms that he said he had been awarded and explained that he had actually won 28 , but that the missing seven had been awarded to him in secret because the naval high command was embarrassed that he had sunk two Japanese submarines in the United States ' " back yard " . A 1994 biography published by the Church of Scientology states that he was awarded 29 medals and awards .
In 1990 the Church of Scientology released a document , said to be a copy of Hubbard 's official record of service , to support its assertion that Hubbard had been awarded 21 medals and decorations . The Church asserts that Hubbard was awarded a " Unit Citation which is only awarded by the President to combat units that perform particularly meritorious service . " Among the other awards listed on the record released by the Church is the British Victory Medal , an award issued for service in the British armed forces in the First World War and that was never awarded by itself . The Church 's document also credits Hubbard with a Purple Heart with a Palm , implying two wounds received in action . However , the U.S. Navy uses gold and silver stars , not a palm , to indicate multiple wounds . The Church has distributed a photograph of medals said to have been won by Hubbard ; two of the medals were not even created until after Hubbard left active service .
The Church 's record lists Hubbard as commanding the " USS Mist " . Although the USS YP @-@ 422 was originally named the Mist when it was in civilian service , it was never called the USS Mist ; the only 20th century US Navy vessel of that name listed in the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships left naval service in 1919 , when Hubbard was six years old . It also lists the USS Howland , a vessel that is not listed at all in the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships . It is signed by " Howard D. Thompson , Lt. Cmdr. " , who is not listed in the records of commissioned naval officers at that time . Archivist Eric Voelz of the National Personnel Records Center told The New Yorker that the document is a forgery .
The Los Angeles Times commented , and NPR later confirmed , that the US Navy 's version of the same record – a DD Form 214 – " indicates Hubbard received four medals during his Navy career , as well as two marksmanship medals " and noted " discrepancies " with the Scientology version . The four medals that the US Navy 's record credits to Hubbard were the American Defense Service Medal , which was awarded to all members of the military in service at the time of the December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor ; the American Campaign Medal , awarded to all service members who had performed duty in the American Theater of Operations during the war ; the Asiatic @-@ Pacific Campaign Medal , awarded to all who had served in the Pacific Theater ; and the World War II Victory Medal , awarded to all who served during World War II . According to the Department of the Navy , there was " no record of the additional decorations the church says Hubbard received . "
Church officials have argued the Navy 's records were " not only grossly incomplete but perhaps were falsified to conceal Hubbard 's secret activities as an intelligence officer . " In the 1980s the Church turned to L. Fletcher Prouty , a former U.S. Army colonel , who said that Hubbard 's records had been falsified to cover up his " intelligence background " . Prouty , who died in 2001 , was a prominent conspiracy theorist best known for advocating John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories and was also associated with the anti @-@ semitic Liberty Lobby group and the Lyndon LaRouche organization .
= = Documenting Hubbard 's military career = =
Hubbard 's military career has attracted comment from a number of journalists and writers over the years . The claims made by the Church of Scientology were not challenged by some early writers ; C.H. Rolph quoted without comment a 1968 Scientology biographical sketch circulated to British Members of Parliament in which Hubbard 's war service was summarized , and in 1971 Paulette Cooper described as " true " the claim that Hubbard " was severely injured in the war ( and in fact was in a lifeboat for many days , badly injuring his body and his eyes in the hot Pacific sun ) . " Others were more skeptical . George Malko attempted to verify Hubbard 's " revealing , anonymously authored , and totally unsubstantiated biography " in 1970 but reported that " I was unable to confirm a single one of [ Hubbard 's ] critical claims : that he had been crippled and blind , the nature of his ' discoveries , ' and the medical records stating he had ' twice been pronounced dead . ' " His inquiries were frustrated by the Navy 's refusal to provide Hubbard 's service record " without the written consent of the person whose records are concerned . "
Information later released by the Navy and the Veterans Administration prompted some to express doubts . Christopher Evans commented in 1974 that " faced with this impressive , if annoyingly undetailed , record it is hard to assess the nature or extent of Hubbard 's battle scars in the service of his country " but noted contradictions between claims of war wounds and the official record . In 1978 , the Los Angeles Times described Hubbard 's war record as " obscure " and quoted Navy spokesmen stating that Hubbard had not received a Purple Heart and had not been treated for any injuries sustained during his military career , contrary to the statements of the Church of Scientology .
By 1979 , an amateur researcher , Michael Shannon , had gathered " a mountain of material which included some files that no one else had bothered to get copies of – for example , the log books of the Navy ships that Hubbard had served on , and his father 's Navy service file . " Although Shannon was unable to find a publisher , he sent a hundred @-@ page portfolio of materials , including copies of some of Hubbard 's naval and college records , to a number of " concerned individuals " . His work also found its way to the Church of Scientology 's archivist , Gerry Armstrong , who was undertaking a project to research an official authorized biography of L. Ron Hubbard . According to Jon Atack , " the archive largely confirmed Shannon 's material . Armstrong and Shannon reached the same eventual destination from opposed starting points . " In October 1980 , Omar Garrison , a writer who had previously written two books favorable to Scientology , was hired by the Church to write Hubbard 's biography based on the materials that Armstrong had collected .
Armstrong became disillusioned and left Scientology at the start of 1982 . He was declared a " Suppressive Person " ( an enemy of Scientology ) by the Church . With Garrison 's permission , Armstrong made copies of around 100 @,@ 000 pages from the Hubbard archive and deposited them with attorneys for safe keeping . The Church responded by suing Armstrong for breach of confidence , theft and invasion of privacy . The suit went to trial in a California court in 1984 as Church of Scientology of California vs. Gerald Armstrong . Hubbard 's military career was a major focus of the case . Armstrong stated that he had " amassed approximately two thousand pages of documentation concerning Hubbard 's wartime career : what he was doing what vessels he was on , fitness reports and medical and VA disability records . The truth is far different from the public representations . " Garrison , who had by that time agreed to a settlement with the Church under which his manuscript would never be made public , told the court :
The inconsistencies were implicit in various documents which Mr. Armstrong provided me with respect to Mr. Hubbard 's curriculum vitae , with respect to his Navy career , with respect to almost every aspect of his life . These undeniable and documented facts did not coincide with the official published biography that the church had promulgated .
During the trial 's four weeks of testimony , the court heard evidence from Thomas S. Moulton , Hubbard 's second @-@ in @-@ command aboard the USS PC @-@ 815 . Moulton testified that Hubbard had told him that he had been involved in the Pearl Harbor attack in 1941 and that he had been the only survivor of his destroyer , which had gone down with all hands save himself . The " submarine battle " of May 1943 was also described by Moulton and was hailed by a Church of Scientology attorney as " a new untold chapter to the history of the Pacific conflict during World War II ; and new perspectives on the magnitude – and proximity – of Japanese naval operations off the U.S. coast during the war . " Moulton also testified that Hubbard had told him that he had received combat injuries to his eyes and back . In response , documents contradicting Moulton 's ( and Hubbard 's ) account were read into the record by Armstrong 's attorney , Michael Flynn .
The decision , by Judge Paul Breckenridge , found that Armstrong 's fears of persecution by the Church were reasonable , and thus his conduct in turning over the documents in his possession to his attorneys was also reasonable . The judge issued a wide @-@ ranging verdict , commenting of Hubbard that " the evidence portrays a man who has been virtually a pathological liar when it comes to his history , background and achievements . " A few weeks later , a British judge ruled in a case heard at the Royal Courts of Justice that Hubbard had made a number of " false claims " about his military career : " That he was a much decorated war hero . He was not . That he commanded a corvette squadron . He did not . That he was awarded the Purple Heart , a gallantry decoration for those wounded in action . He was not wounded and was not decorated . That he was crippled and blinded in the war and cured himself with Dianetics techniques . He was not crippled and was not blinded . " The judge , Mr. Justice Latey , noted : " There is no dispute about any of this . The evidence is unchallenged . "
Hubbard 's military service has subsequently been covered in detail by the British writers Russell Miller ( Bare @-@ Faced Messiah , 1987 ) and Jon Atack ( A Piece of Blue Sky , 1990 ) , by the Los Angeles Times in a six @-@ part special report on Scientology published in June 1990 , and by Lawrence Wright in The New Yorker in February 2011 and his book Going Clear : Scientology , Hollywood , and the Prison of Belief ( 2013 ) . The accuracy of Miller 's account has been questioned ; Marco Frenschkowski , writing in 1999 , commented that Miller 's book had " definitely exposed some inflated statements about Hubbard 's early achievements " but had also been partly disproved by the Church of Scientology , though he did not state which elements had been disproved .
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= Manuel Buendía =
Manuel Buendía Tellezgirón ( 24 May 1926 – 30 May 1984 ) was a Mexican journalist and political columnist who last worked for the daily Excélsior , one of the most @-@ read newspapers in Mexico City . His direct reporting style in his column Red Privada ( " Private Network " ) , which publicly exposed government and law enforcement corruption , organized crime , and drug trafficking , was distributed and read in over 200 newspapers across Mexico .
Born in the state of Michoacán , Buendía first wrote for La Nación , the official magazine of the National Action Party ( PAN ) . After losing interest in the party , he left to work for La Prensa and became the editor @-@ in @-@ chief in 1960 . He left the newspaper in 1963 and worked for several different media outlets in Mexico throughout the 1970s and ' 80s , including the Mexico City @-@ based newspapers El Universal and Excélsior . Buendía was recognized largely for his investigative reporting , and particularly for his coverage of the CIA 's covert operations in Mexico , the rise of ultra @-@ rightwing groups , fraudulent businessmen , corruption in Mexico 's state @-@ owned petroleum company Pemex , and the role of organized crime in Mexico 's political system . He was also famous for breaking news on controversial political subjects thanks to his access to top Mexican officials . His investigative reporting , however , angered many and made him a frequent target of death threats , which he took very seriously .
On the afternoon of 24 May 1984 , Buendía left his office in Mexico City and was walking to his car when a man shot him from behind several times , killing him on the scene . For over five years , the murder case remained unsolved and with several irregularities , including the loss of evidence . In 1989 , several members of the extinct Federal Security Directorate ( DFS ) , Mexico 's top police force that was very close to the Central Intelligence Agency , were arrested for their involvement in the murder of Buendía . The murder case was closed after the perpetrators were arrested , but several journalists doubt the probe 's results and believe that the masterminds behind Buendía 's murder were never arrested .
= = Early life = =
Manuel Buendía Tellezgirón was born in Zitácuaro , Michoacán , Mexico on 24 March 1926 . He was the third child of José Buendía Gálvez ( father ) and Josefina Tellezgirón Tinoco ( mother ) , both from the State of Mexico . Buendía attended a religious elementary school located in front of Teatro Juárez de Zitácuaro , a former theatre in his hometown . At the age of 12 , his parents moved to Morelia , Michoacán and enrolled him at Seminario Menor , where he studied for three years . As a teenager , Buendía contributed to La Nación , a magazine of the National Action Party ( PAN ) . Though he sympahtized with the PAN during his early life , Buendía later lost interest in the party . His mother died of natural causes on 21 June 1941 , and Buendía returned to Zitácuaro . After a few years , he was awarded a scholarship at Instituto Patria , a Jesuit high school in Mexico City . Upon graduation he attended the Escuela Libre de Derecho , a private Law school in Mexico City , but dropped out to take care of his family following the death of his father in 1945 .
= = Journalism career = =
From 1949 to 1953 , Buendía worked for La Nación and met the magazine 's secretary Dolores Abalos Lebrija , whom he married on 19 January 1955 . Though he first wrote for La Nación , his professional journalistic career began at the newspaper La Prensa in 1953 . He worked as an editor , crime reporter , and political columnist for the newspaper until he became the editor @-@ in @-@ chief in January 1960 . Around that time Buendía started his daily column Red Privada ( " Private Network " ) , where he wrote about the alleged collusion of organized crime in Mexico 's political system . In 1963 , he left to work at the newspaper El Día and wrote at the political column Para Control de Usted ( " For You to Control " ) under the penname " J.M. Tellezgirón " . From 1964 to 1965 , Buendía directed the weekly Crucero and wrote the column Concierto Político ( " Political Concert " ) under the penname " D. I. Ogenes " . On 1 January 1971 , he was appointed as the head of the Press and Public Relations of Mexico City alongside Alfonso Martínez Domínguez . However , Buendía turned down the position in June following the massacre of student demonstrators . A year later , Buendía worked as an advisor to Guillermo Martínez Domínguez , the former head of Nacional Financiera , a bank of Mexico 's Secretariat of Finance and Public Credit ( SHCP ) . In Nacional Financiera , Buendía befriended Gerardo Bueno Zirón , who shortly after being appointed as director of the National Council of Science and Technology ( CONACYT ) offered him a position as director of the institution 's Press and Public Relations department in 1973 . That year , Henrique González Casanova , the former head of the Political Science department at the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) , invited Buendía to work as a part @-@ time professor , a job that the journalist held until his death in 1984 .
On December 1976 Buendía left his post in CONACYT to become a full @-@ time columnist . He then worked at El Sol de México , a newspaper owned by Organizacion Editorial Mexicana . After facing some differences with the owners of the print media company , Buendía left on 17 August 1978 to work at El Universal , a newspaper based in Mexico City . Only lasting until December of that year , he left to work at Excélsior , a daily newspaper with one of the largest circulations in Mexico City . At this newspaper , Buendía wrote for the column Red Privada , which was distributed and read in over 200 newspaper across Mexico . In his column he wrote about the covert operations of the CIA in Mexico during the Cold War , ultra @-@ rightwing groups , crooked businessmen , and corrupt government officials involved in drug trafficking . His investigations angered many in Mexico 's political elite and made him a frequent target of death threats . Buendía took the death threats he received very seriously and thereby carried a pistol , either on his belt or in a leather pocket . Prior to his death , Buendía wrote extensively on the alleged corruption within Mexico 's Petroleum Workers Union ; the allegations of wrongdoings of Jorge Díaz Serrano , former leader of Pemex , the national oil company ; and Arturo Durazo Moreno , the former head of Mexico City 's police force . Buendía also criticized the role of the U.S. government and the CIA in Mexico , and often published names of American officials involved in secret operations . Although he was quick to publish controversial reports , Buendía 's direct reporting was respected and generally considered reliable given his access to top Mexican officials . He was the most @-@ read journalist in Mexico 's print media , and is often cited by newspapers and journalists as the most influential political columnist in Mexico of the second half of the 20th century .
= = Death = =
On Wednesday , 30 May 1984 , Buendía left his offices in Colonia Juárez at around 6 : 30 p.m. and headed towards his car in a parking lot near Insurgentes Avenue at the Zona Rosa neighborhood in Mexico City . As he got closer to his car , a tall man wearing jeans , a black jacket , and a baseball cap approached him from behind and violently grabbed his coat before shooting him four times with a .38 Super . Buendía was carrying a handgun on his waist but he was not able to defend himself at the moment of his death . After killing him , the assailant fled on a motorcycle with another man . There were several bystanders who witnessed the murder and managed to see the faces of the assassins , including Juan Manuel Bautista , a colleague of Buendía ; Rogelio Barrera Galindo , a man who had parked his vehicle close to the journalist 's ; and Felipe Flores Fernández , a bus driver . Among the first to arrive at the murder scene was José Antonio Zorrilla Pérez , then @-@ head of the Federal Security Directorate ( DFS ) , Mexico 's equivalent of the FBI , and one of Buendía 's main sources for his political publications . Photos of Buendía 's corpse circulated across Mexico and the rest of the world .
Suspicions first fell on Los Tecos ( " The Owls " ) , an ultra @-@ rightwing group of the Autonomous University of Guadalajara who were largely criticized by Buendía for terrorizing their campus . However , suspicions turned to drug traffickers and high @-@ level government officials , specifically those of the DFS . According to local media reports , once Buendía was killed , DFS agents went into the columnist 's office and stole several files .
= = = Investigation = = =
The murder of Buendía , alongside the killing of other journalists in Mexico that year , sent a chilling message to newspapers across the country . " The bullets that killed Manuel Buendia ... were not directed at one man but at freedom of expression , " said Excelsior 's front page read on the day after the killing . The killing was immediately condemned by the administration of President Miguel de la Madrid , who promised to bring the perpetrators to justice through a thorough investigation . However , the investigation dragged for over five years with no arrests and several inconsistencies , including the loss of evidence . On 11 June 1989 , Zorrilla Pérez himself was charged with planning the murder ; Juan Rafael Moro Ávila , also a DFS agent and great @-@ grandnephew of former President Manuel Ávila Camacho , was charged of being a co @-@ perpetrator with José Luis Ochoa Alonso ( alias El Chocorrol ) , who shot Buendía at point @-@ blank . Another hypothesis was that Moro was only responsible for driving the motorcycle used by the real assassin , Juan Arévalo Gardoqui , then Secretariat of National Defense , to escape . Three other DFS agents were also arrested : Juventino Prado Hurtado , Raúl Pérez Carmona and Sofía Naya . At least two main suspects , José Luis Ochoa Alonso and Juan Arévalo Gardoqui , were reported murdered in unclear circumstances before being formally charged .
The perpetrators were apprehended in 1989 under the administration of President Carlos Salinas de Gortari . Moro and Zorrilla were sentenced to 25 and 35 years in prison respectively , but were released from prison in February 2009 for good conduct after serving at least half of their sentences . Several public intellectuals , journalists , press freedom organizations , newspapers , and politicians protested their releases . Zorrilla returned to prison later that year after he failed to provide a formal letter petitioning his release . On 10 September 2013 , Zorrilla was released from prison after a Mexico City judge granted him the opportunity to fulfill the remaining years of his sentence at his residence due to unstable health conditions . The Mexican government closed the case after the arrests , but many journalists doubted the results of the investigation and believed that the masterminds behind the murder case remained at large .
= = Published books = =
La Santa Muerta ( " Saint Death " , 1967 )
La CIA en México ( " The CIA in Mexico " , 1984 )
La Ultraderecha en México ( " The Far @-@ Right in Mexico " , 1984 )
Ejercicio Periodístico ( " Journalistic Exercise " , 1985 )
Los Petroleros ( " The Oil Dealers " , 1985 )
El Humor ( " The Humor " , 1986 )
Los Empresarios ( " The Businessmen " , 1986 )
Pensamiento y acción de la derecha poblana ( " Thinking and action of the right in Puebla " , 1987 )
El Oficio de Informar ( " The Job of Informing " , 1988 )
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= Maxinquaye =
Maxinquaye is the debut album by English rapper and producer Tricky . After starting his music career in Bristol 's club scene , Tricky became a frequent collaborator with Massive Attack in the early 1990s . He rapped and wrote songs for the group while maturing as a lyricist ; his themes of sex and gang violence eventually evolved into more introspective , personal lyrics . He soon found his role with the group limiting and wanted to record an album with a female vocalist whose singing would offer his songwriting another dimension . Tricky discovered singer Martina Topley @-@ Bird , with whom he formed both a musical and romantic relationship , before signing a recording contract with 4th & B 'way Records in 1993 .
Assisted by co @-@ producer Mark Saunders , Tricky recorded Maxinquaye primarily at his home studio in London in 1994 with Topley @-@ Bird , who shared vocals on most of the tracks with him . He incorporated dub production techniques , heavily altered samples , and elements of hip hop , soul , rock , ambient techno , reggae , and experimental music into the record 's groove @-@ oriented and low @-@ tempo sound . The songs explore themes of dysfunctional sexual relationships , fear of intimacy , recreational drug use , and cultural decline , with lyrics inspired by Tricky 's experiences in the British drug culture . His songwriting style and use of female vocalists such as Topley @-@ Bird were influenced by his mother , Maxine Quaye , after whom the album was titled .
Released on 20 February 1995 by 4th & B 'way Records , Maxinquaye reached number three on the United Kingdom 's albums chart and sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies in its first few months of release . 4th & B 'way relied on independent record promoters and the British demographic of progressive , young music buyers rather than American markets for the record to perform well . A widespread critical success , Maxinquaye was cited by many journalists as the year 's best record and the key release of a musical style that was being dubbed trip hop at the time . Since then , it has been ranked frequently on all @-@ time lists of the greatest albums and has sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies worldwide .
= = Background = =
After a troubled upbringing in the Knowle West neighbourhood of Bristol , Tricky became involved with an eclectic collective of DJs and musicians known as The Wild Bunch during the late 1980s . As part of the collective , he helped arrange sound systems around Bristol 's club scene and penned raps under a stage name derived from " Tricky Kid " , the nickname given to him in a street gang as a youth . The Wild Bunch signed a record deal with 4th & B 'way Records and released two singles but their slow , experimental sound failed to make a commercial impact . The collective dissolved in 1989 , but would eventually lead to the formation of the group Massive Attack , with Tricky a frequent collaborator who rapped over their productions ; he later reworked material he had written for Massive Attack on Maxinquaye .
Tricky eventually grew frustrated with his role in Massive Attack , finding it limiting , and wanted to record an album with a female vocalist whose singing would offer another dimension to his lyrics and their meaning . In 1993 , he discovered Martina Topley @-@ Bird , then a teenager at Clifton College , when he saw her sitting against a wall near his house , singing to herself . " That 's really how it happened , " she recalled . " A few weeks later , I went around to his house with some friends . We 'd been drinking cider after our GCSEs . We were banging on his door , but he wasn 't in . Then Mark Stewart , who lived there , came up to us and said : ' Yeah , this is Tricky 's house , jump in through the window . ' " Tricky , whose lyrics had matured from simplistic raps about street violence and sex to more personal and introspective writing , said Topley @-@ Bird found his songs " quite depressing " , which he believed was because of her more privileged background : " It 's just reality . She 's been a student all her life , grew up in Somerset , and I don 't think she 's ever faced the real world . She finds it all a bit weird . But she 's my best mate . " They would form a musical and romantic partnership over subsequent years , and their first recording together , " Aftermath " , later appeared on Maxinquaye . After offering the song to Massive Attack , who were not interested in including it on their 1991 album Blue Lines , Tricky released " Aftermath " independently to local record stores in September 1993 before he signed a record deal with 4th & B 'way .
= = Music and themes = =
Tricky asked Mark Saunders to co @-@ produce Maxinquaye after being impressed by his previous work with English rock band The Cure on their albums Mixed Up ( 1990 ) and Wish ( 1992 ) . They recorded Maxinquaye in the first half of 1994 at Tricky 's home studio in Kilburn ; further recording later took place at the Loveshack and Eastcote studios in Notting Hill . Island Records , 4th & B 'Way 's parent label , set up equipment in the home studio at Tricky 's request , including an Akai S1000 sampler , an Atari 1040 computer with Logic software , an Alesis ADAT recorder , an AKG C3000 microphone , a Behringer Composer compressor , and a Mackie 1604 mixing desk . The recording sessions were somewhat chaotic , and Saunders , who had the impression he would only perform engineering duties , often found himself serving as a DJ and programmer . Tricky instructed him on what to sample , regardless of different tempos and pitches , and asked him to piece the results together , something Saunders achieved by pitch @-@ shifting the respective samples until the combination sounded satisfactory . The samples they experimented with were taken from the many vinyl records that Saunders recalled were " littered " all over Tricky 's floor . Influenced by dub music 's production techniques , Tricky exhaustively altered borrowed sounds on his sampler , mixed tracks as they were being recorded live in the studio , and preserved sounds that otherwise would have been unwanted in the final mix , including glitches and crackles .
According to American critic Robert Christgau , Maxinquaye 's groove @-@ oriented and low @-@ tempo music drew not only on dub but also on lo @-@ fi , ambient techno , and hip hop , while James Hunter from Rolling Stone said Tricky subsumed American hip hop , soul , reggae , and 1980s English rock sounds into " a mercurial style of dance music " . Entertainment Weekly critic David Browne classified the music as an intellectual form of R & B. In Tricky 's own words , he composed his songs based on a particular sound he liked rather than having a definite song structure in mind : " I couldn 't write you a blues track or a hip @-@ hop track if you asked . I just make what I hear and then me and Martina sing all the words on paper , putting the emphasis on the things that perhaps shouldn 't be sung . " Tricky had no concept of pitch , regard for notational conventions and time signatures , or previous experience with sampling , but his approach for Maxinquaye challenged Saunders to rethink his ideas about music production and experiment in ways he had never tried before . Saunders recalled being asked to combine samples of two songs that were 30 beats per minute apart and composed in entirely different keys : " [ Tricky ] thought differently to anybody I 've ever known ... It didn 't occur to me that by de @-@ tuning one to slow it down , both might then gel musically at that point . I always think of it like going into a scrapyard and building a car out of all the bits you can find . You could probably build a car that would work , and although it might be the ugliest you 've ever seen , it would have loads of character . "
Almost all of Topley @-@ Bird 's vocals on Maxinquaye were recorded in a single take , a process she later said was " totally instinctive . There was no time to drum up an alter ego . " Topley @-@ Bird , a soft @-@ spoken singer , found herself backed on most tracks by Tricky 's rapped vocals . According to British music journalist Sean O 'Hagan , she sang with a " broken voice " that acted as " the perfect foil to Tricky 's whispered and drawled raps " . The liner notes credited Tricky and Topley @-@ Bird for vocals on all songs except " Pumpkin " and " You Don 't " , which Tricky performed with vocalists Alison Goldfrapp and Ragga , respectively . A printing error mistakenly credited the then @-@ unknown Topley @-@ Bird as " Martine " on the record . Other musicians were recruited to play instruments for some tracks , including guitarist James Stevenson and bassist Pete Briquette . The band FTV performed on " Black Steel " , which was a rock version of Public Enemy 's " Black Steel in the Hour of Chaos " ( 1988 ) and one of two remakes on Maxinquaye ; Tricky also remade one of his contributions for Massive Attack , " Karmacoma " ( 1994 ) , retitling it as " Overcome " . Saunders contributed guitar himself , with the resulting improvisations treated as samples .
Tricky explained Maxinquaye 's title in an interview with Simon Reynolds : " Quaye , that 's this race of people in Africa , and ' Maxin , ' that 's my mum 's name , Maxine , and I 've just taken the E off " ; Reynolds interpreted this as a " place name " similar to the Rastafarian idea of Zion . In another source , Tricky was reported as saying Quaye had also been his mother 's surname . According to Greg Kot , his mother 's name provided the album its title while her suicide , along with his father abandoning him and Tricky 's lack of moral sense as a youth , helped inform his " unsentimental grasp on reality " , which was reflected in Maxinquaye 's " collision of beauty and violence " . In the opinion of Stylus Magazine 's Kenan Hebert , who called it " a document of obsession , mistrust , misconduct , solipsism , and sociopathy " , the songs dealing with dysfunctional sexual relationships and fear of intimacy were given a Freudian angle by his mother 's influence on the album , including Tricky 's reference to her on " Aftermath " . In an interview for The Wire , Tricky explained his mother 's influence and his use of female vocalists like Topley @-@ Bird : " My first lyric ever on a song was ' your eyes resemble mine , you 'll see as no others can ' . I didn 't have any kids then ... so what am I talking about ? Who am I talking about ? My mother ... used to write poetry but in her time she couldn 't have done anything with that , there wasn 't any opportunity . It 's almost like she killed herself to give me the opportunity , my lyrics . I can never understand why I write as a female , I think I 've got my mum 's talent , I 'm her vehicle . So I need a woman to sing that . "
While songs such as " Overcome " and " Suffocated Love " dealt with themes of " sexual paranoia and male dread of intimacy " , the rest of Maxinquaye explored the psychological tolls of the British recreational drug culture , which Reynolds said served as a " temporary utopia " for a generation of users who otherwise lacked a " constructive outlet for its idealism " . He felt the album 's cover art , featuring rusting metal surfaces , represented the cultural decline explored in the music 's themes . Tricky drew on Rastafarian ideas about end time for the record , although unlike adherents to that movement he did not disassociate himself from " Babylon " , or the degenerate qualities of Western society , writing lyrics such as " my brain thinks bomb @-@ like / beware of our appetite " on " Hell Is Round the Corner " . He later told Reynolds , " I 'm part of this fuckin ' psychic pollution ... It 's like , I can be as greedy as you . The conditioned part of me says ' yeah , I 'm gonna go out and make money , I 'm going to rule my own little kingdom . ' " Christgau deemed the album 's songs " audioramas of someone who 's signed on to work for the wages of sin and lived to cash the check " , while O 'Hagan said Tricky 's " impressionistic prose poems " were written from the deviant perspective of the urban hedonist : " Maxinquaye is the sound of blunted Britain , paranoid and obsessive ... This was the inner @-@ city blues , Bristol style " .
The songs " Ponderosa " , " Strugglin ' " , and " Hell Is Round the Corner " were inspired by Tricky 's experiences with marijuana , alcohol , cocaine , and ecstasy , particularly a two @-@ year binge and consequent state of despondency while on Massive Attack 's payroll after the completion of Blue Lines . His stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness lyrics on Maxinquaye explore the delirious , despondent , and emotionally unstable state associated with drug use while offering a pessimistic view of the drug culture , as Tricky viewed the high of cocaine undeserved and the depth of thought achieved through ecstasy unsubstantial . In Reynolds ' opinion , Tricky 's experiences with drug @-@ induced paranoia , anxiety , and visions of specters and demons were represented in the production of songs such as " Aftermath " and " Hell Is Round the Corner " . For the latter track , he altered and slowed down a vocal sample to give it a wounded basso profondo sound , while channelling it through a loop of an orchestral Isaac Hayes recording titled " Ike 's Rap II " . On " Strugglin ' " , which sampled sounds of a creaking door and the click of a gun being loaded , Tricky 's lyrics made explicit reference to his visions of " mystical shadows , fraught with no meaning " .
= = Release and reception = =
After Tricky signed to 4th & B 'way , the label reissued " Aftermath " in January 1994 and released " Ponderosa " in April to promote Maxinquaye . The following year , three more singles were released — " Overcome " in January , " Black Steel " in March , and " Pumpkin " in November . The label also released a four @-@ track EP entitled The Hell E.P. in July , which was a collaboration with American rap group Gravediggaz and featured " Hell Is Round the Corner " ; the song reached number 12 on the UK Singles Chart . Although hip hop records in the United Kingdom had received exposure through dance music dealers and press , 4th & B 'way relied on independent record promoters and Tricky 's cover story in NME to promote the album . According to 4th & B 'way director Julian Palmer , the UK 's demographic of young music buyers such as students was more progressive than in the United States , where he said the record would have to be marketed differently because of his race . He believed that much like Portishead , a contemporary Bristol act , Tricky would have received airplay in the US on alternative or college rock radio if the label focused their efforts to promote him there : " Some people I 've met were confused because he 's black , and it 's not easy to break through those barriers there . "
Maxinquaye was released on 20 February 1995 and sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies in its first few months of release in the UK , despite no significant radio airplay . The record charted for 35 weeks on the British albums chart , peaking at number three . After it was released in the US on April 18 , Tricky toured the country as a supporting act for fellow English recording artist PJ Harvey . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the album had sold 222 @,@ 000 copies in the US by 2003 . By 2012 , it had sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies worldwide . That same year , Tricky performed the entire album with Topley @-@ Bird on April 27 at the Sundance London festival , which was their first onstage appearance together in 15 years .
When Maxinquaye was first released , it received widespread acclaim from critics . In a review for Mojo , Jon Savage called it a very ambitious and musically audacious work that brilliantly explored the disparities in Britain 's social structure , with Topley @-@ Bird as the " dominant voice " articulating Tricky 's vision of uncertainty in an ever @-@ changing world . Dele Fadele from NME said the record was unprecedented , spellbinding , and revealed something new with every listen . He found Tricky 's production innovative and his fusion of various sounds so seamless , " you can 't label the results under any existing genre " . David Bennun of Melody Maker called the record " all but perfect " and noted that " Tricky 's music is so gripping , original , sublime , his lyrics so abstruse and woven into the sound , that they become inseparable " . In Q magazine Tom Doyle praised Topley @-@ Bird 's vocals for making Maxinquaye " a highly inventive and intoxicating collection " and stated that " with this debut , Tricky proves himself to be more challenging and eclectic than his peers " .
Along with Blue Lines , Maxinquaye was hailed by journalists as the pivotal release in what they were calling " trip hop " music ; Jon Pareles , the chief critic at The New York Times , called it the genre 's " first album @-@ length masterpiece " . Tricky disliked the term , saying " I was supposed to have invented trip hop , and I will fucking deny having anything to do with it " . In a retrospective review for Stylus Magazine , Hebert argued that " there 's too much here to be sequestered to any genre , let alone that one ... Calling Tricky ' trip @-@ hop ' is a bit like calling Prince ' pop ' . It 's partially accurate , but the music is so much better than that . " Jason Draper from Record Collector dubbed it " the British postmodern album of the 90s " , and AllMusic senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine said it remained " a bracing sonic adventure that gains richness and resonance with each listen " because of the songs ' imaginative structures and exceptional use of " noise and experimental music " . In The Village Voice , Christgau believed its significance lied in an aesthetic of cool derived from the blues and African @-@ American culture , which valued a self @-@ possessed resolve in the face of oppression :
" What stands out isn 't the dolor pop generalists noticed at the time , but the listenability that induced them to bother : Martina 's pervasive lyricism , beats that are buoyant at any speed , a profusion of sweet @-@ tempered [ keyboard ] effects that signify melody , harmony , strings . It 's still pretty morose , sure . But nothing in its bitter passivity and contained rage comes off as a defeat or a sham ... Maxinquaye had that kind of cool . With blues replications per se having worn out their formal gris @-@ gris , it voiced and embraced a grim new resignation about freedom , power , race , and human connection in the postwelfare state — and simultaneously counteracted it . "
Reviews of the 2009 deluxe edition continued to praise the album and highlight its originality . Rupert Howe of Q magazine awarded it five stars out of five and called it " an album of contradictions " , saying that at the time it " sounded as alien to hip hop as it did to Britpop " and concluding , " Maxinquaye proved impossible to live up to ... while subsequent Tricky albums tested both musical boundaries and patience , his experiments here still glow with mystery and magic " . In another five @-@ star review in Mojo , Victoria Segal said , " Maxinquaye still sounds like it came from space rather than Bristol , an exotic , erotic alien that nobody ( not least its creator ) has managed to clone " .
Maxinquaye was named 1995 's best record in year @-@ end polls by numerous English publications , including NME and Melody Maker , and finished second in the voting for the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics . The record also received a nomination for the 1995 Mercury Prize , an annual music award given to the best album from the UK and Ireland , losing out to Portishead 's 1994 debut Dummy . It was later ranked high in Q magazine 's poll determining the 100 greatest British albums , Mojo 's " 100 Modern Classics " , and Rolling Stone 's " Essential Recordings of the 90s " , among other lists . Since then , Maxinquaye has frequently appeared on authoritative lists of the greatest records ever , including NME 's 2013 list of the 500 greatest albums , which ranked it 202nd best . Slant Magazine named it the 21st greatest electronic album of the 20th century and wrote that along with Blue Lines and Dummy , it was also " one of the most influential trip @-@ hop albums of the ' 90s " . According to Acclaimed Music , Maxinquaye is the 170th most ranked record on critics ' all @-@ time lists . It was also included in the music reference book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die ; according to contributing writer Alex Rayner , the " Innovative , thought provoking , and intricately arranged " album played a significant role in popularizing British hip hop and spoken word music in the UK .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
All songs were written and composed by Tricky , except " Ponderosa " ( Tricky and Howie B ) and " Black Steel " ( Carlton Ridenhour , Eric Sadler , Hank Shocklee ) .
All vocals were performed by Tricky and Martina Topley @-@ Bird , except on " Pumpkin " ( Tricky and Alison Goldfrapp ) and " You Don 't " ( Tricky and Ragga ) .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= Sega CD =
The Sega CD , released as the Mega @-@ CD ( Japanese : メガCD , Hepburn : Mega @-@ Shī Dī ) in most regions outside North America and Brazil , is a CD @-@ ROM accessory for the Sega Genesis video game console designed and produced by Sega as part of the fourth generation of video game consoles . The add @-@ on was released on December 12 , 1991 in Japan , October 15 , 1992 in North America , and 1993 in Europe . The Sega CD lets the user play CD @-@ based games and adds extra hardware functionality , such as a faster central processing unit and graphic enhancements . It can also play audio CDs and CD + G discs .
Seeking to create an add @-@ on device for the Genesis , Sega developed the unit to read compact discs as its storage medium . The main benefit of CD technology was greater storage capacity , which allowed for games to be nearly 320 times larger than their Genesis cartridge counterparts . This benefit manifested in the form of full motion video ( FMV ) games like the controversial Night Trap , which became a focus of the 1993 Congressional hearings on issues of video game violence and ratings . Sega Enterprises partnered with JVC to design the add @-@ on and refused to consult with Sega of America until the project was completed . Sega of America assembled parts from various " dummy " units to obtain a working prototype . While the add @-@ on became known for several well @-@ received games such as Sonic the Hedgehog CD and Lunar : Eternal Blue , its game library contained a large number of Genesis ports and FMV titles . The Sega CD was redesigned a number of times , including once by Sega and several times by licensed third @-@ party developers .
2 @.@ 24 million Sega CD units were sold by March 1996 , after which the system was officially discontinued as Sega shifted its focus to the Sega Saturn . Retrospective reception to the add @-@ on is mixed , praising the Sega CD for its individual offerings and additions to the Genesis ' functions , but offering criticism to the game library for its depth issues , high price of the unit , and how the add @-@ on was supported by Sega .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Released in 1988 , the Genesis ( known as the Mega Drive in Europe and Japan ) was Sega 's entry into the fourth generation of video game consoles .
= = = Development = = =
By the early 1990s , compact discs were making significant headway as a storage medium for music and video games . NEC had been the first to use compact disc technology in a video game console with their PC Engine CD @-@ ROM ² System add @-@ on in October 1988 in Japan ( launched in North America as the TurboGrafx @-@ CD the following year ) , which sold 80 @,@ 000 units in six months . That same year , Nintendo announced a partnership with Sony to develop its own CD @-@ ROM peripheral for the Super NES . Commodore International released their CD @-@ based CDTV multimedia system centered in early 1991 , while long @-@ in @-@ waiting CD @-@ i from Philips finally arrived towards the end of that year .
Shortly after the release of the Genesis , Sega 's Consumer Products Research and Development Labs led by manager Tomio Takami were tasked with creating a CD @-@ ROM add @-@ on for the system , which became the Sega CD . The Sega CD was originally intended to equal the capabilities of the TurboGrafx @-@ CD , but with twice as much random @-@ access memory ( RAM ) , and sell for about JP ¥ 20 @,@ 000 ( or US $ 150 ) . In addition to relatively short loading times , Takami 's team planned for the device to feature hardware scaling and rotation similar to that found in Sega 's arcade games , which required the use of a dedicated digital signal processor ( DSP ) . However , two changes made later in development contributed to the final unit 's higher than expected price . Because the Genesis ' Motorola 68000 CPU was too slow to handle the Sega CD 's new graphical capabilities , an additional 68000 CPU was incorporated into the add @-@ on . In addition , upon hearing rumors that NEC planned a memory upgrade to the TurboGrafx @-@ CD , which would bring its available RAM from 0 @.@ 5 Mbit to between 2 and 4 Mbit , Sega decided to increase the Sega CD 's available RAM from 1 Mbit to 6 Mbit . This proved to be one of the greatest technical challenges during development since the Genesis ' access speed was initially too slow to run programs effectively . The cost of the device was now estimated at $ 370 , but market research convinced Sega executives that consumers would be willing to pay more for a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art machine . Sega partnered with JVC , which had been working with Warner New Media to develop a CD player under the CD + G standard , to develop the Sega CD .
Up until the middle of 1991 , Sega of America had been kept largely uninformed of the details of the project , without a functioning unit to test ( although Sega of America was provided with preliminary technical documents earlier in the year ) . According to former Sega of America executive producer Michael Latham , " When you work at a multinational company , there are things that go well and there are things that don 't . They didn 't want to send us working Sega CD units . They wanted to send us dummies and not send us the working CD units until the last minute because they were concerned about what we would do with it and if it would leak out . It was very frustrating . " Even though they were not provided a functioning unit , Latham and Sega of America vice president of licensing Shinobu Toyoda put together a functioning Sega CD by acquiring a ROM for the system and installing it in a dummy unit . Further frustrating the Sega of America staff was the construction of the add @-@ on . " The Mega @-@ CD was designed with a cheap , consumer @-@ grade audio CD drive , not a CD @-@ ROM , " stated Scot Bayless , former Sega of America senior producer . " Quite late in the run @-@ up to launch , the quality assurance teams started running into severe problems with many of the units — and when I say severe , I mean units literally bursting into flames . We worked around the clock , trying to catch the failure in @-@ progress , and after about a week we finally realized what was happening , " citing the need of game titles to utilize more time seeking data than the CD drive was designed to provide .
= = = Launch = = =
Sega announced the release of the Mega @-@ CD in Japan for late 1991 , and North America ( as the Sega CD ) in 1992 . It was unveiled to the public for the first time at the 1991 Tokyo Toy Show , to positive reception from critics . The Mega @-@ CD would go on to be released in Japan on December 12 , 1991 , initially retailing at JP ¥ 49 @,@ 800 . Though the unit sold quickly , the small install base of the Mega Drive in Japan meant that sales declined rapidly after launch . Within its first year in Japan , the Mega @-@ CD only sold 100 @,@ 000 units . Third @-@ party development of games for the new system suffered because Sega took a long amount of time to release software development kits . Other factors impacting sales included the high launch price of the Mega @-@ CD in Japan and only two titles being available at launch .
On October 15 , 1992 , the Sega CD was released in North America , with a retail price of US $ 299 . Advertising for the add @-@ on included one of Sega 's slogans , " Welcome to the Next Level " . Though only 50 @,@ 000 units were available at launch due to production issues , the add @-@ on sold over 200 @,@ 000 units by the end of 1992 . As part of Sega 's sales , Blockbuster LLC purchased Sega CD units for rental in their stores . The Mega @-@ CD was launched in Europe in the spring of 1993 , at a price of GB £ 270 . Only 70 @,@ 000 units were initially available in the United Kingdom , but 60 @,@ 000 units were sold by August 1993 . Emphasized by Sega of America , the benefits of the Sega CD 's additional storage space allowed for a large amount of full motion video ( FMV ) games to be published for the add @-@ on , with Digital Pictures becoming an important partner for Sega . After the initial competition between Sega and Nintendo to develop a CD @-@ based add @-@ on , Nintendo eventually canceled the development process of its own competing peripheral after having partnered with Sony and then with Philips to develop one .
Sega would go on to release the add @-@ on 's second model , the Sega CD 2 ( Mega @-@ CD 2 ) , on April 23 , 1993 in Japan at a price of JP ¥ 29 @,@ 800 , It was released in North America several months later at the reduced retail price of US $ 229 , with one of the system 's best @-@ selling games , Sewer Shark , as a pack @-@ in . Designed to bring down the manufacturing costs of the Sega CD , the newer model is smaller and does not contain the motorized disc tray used in the initial model . A limited number of games were also later developed that utilized both the Sega CD and the Sega 32X add @-@ ons , the latter of which was released in November 1994 .
= = = Night Trap controversy = = =
On December 9 , 1993 , the United States Congress began to hold hearings on video game violence and the marketing of violent video games to children . One of the games at the center of this controversy was the Sega CD 's Night Trap , a full @-@ motion video adventure game by Digital Pictures . Night Trap had been brought to the attention of United States Senator Joe Lieberman , who said of the game , " I looked at that game , too , and there was a classic . It ends with this attack scene on this woman in lingerie , in her bathroom . I know that the creator of the game said it was all meant to be a satire of Dracula ; but nonetheless , I thought it sent out the wrong message . " Lieberman 's research later went on to conclude that the average video game player at the time was between seven and twelve years old , and that video game publishers were marketing violence to children . Similar issues were brought up in the United Kingdom , with former Sega of Europe development director Mike Brogan noting that " Night Trap got Sega an awful lot of publicity .... Questions were even raised in the UK Parliament about its suitability . This came at a time when Sega was capitalizing on its image as an edgy company with attitude , and this only served to reinforce that image . " Although experiencing increased sales as a result of the hearings , Sega decided to recall Night Trap and re @-@ release it with revisions in 1994 . After the close of these hearings , video game manufacturers came together in 1994 to establish the rating system called for by Lieberman , eventually materializing in the form of the Entertainment Software Rating Board .
= = = Decline = = =
As time passed , the releases of new CD @-@ based consoles such as the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer rendered the Sega CD technically obsolete , reducing public interest in the add @-@ on . In late 1993 , less than a year after the system 's launches in North America and Europe , the gaming media reported that Sega of Japan was no longer accepting in @-@ house development proposals for the Mega CD . In early 1995 , Sega shifted its focus to the Sega Saturn and discontinued all advertising for Genesis hardware , including the Sega CD . The add @-@ on itself was officially no longer supported in 1996 . 2 @.@ 24 million Sega CD units were sold worldwide , including 400 @,@ 000 in Japan .
= = Technical specifications = =
The Sega CD can only be used in conjunction with a Genesis system , attaching through an expansion slot on the side of the main console . Though the Sega CD is an add @-@ on , it does require its own separate power supply . In addition to playing its own library of games in CD @-@ ROM format , the Sega CD can also play compact discs , karaoke CD + G discs , and can also be used in conjunction with the Sega 32X to play 32 @-@ bit games that utilize both add @-@ ons . The second model , also known as the Sega CD 2 , also includes a steel joining plate to be screwed into the bottom of the Genesis , as well as an extension spacer to work with the original model of the Genesis .
The main CPU of the Sega CD is a 12.5MHz 16 @-@ bit Motorola 68000 processor , which runs 5 MHz faster than the Genesis processor . It contains 1 Mbit of boot ROM , allocated for the CD game BIOS , CD player software , and compatibility with CD + G discs . 6 Mbit of RAM are allocated to data for programs , pictures , and sounds ; 512 Kbit to PCM waveform memory ; 128 Kbit to CD @-@ ROM data cache memory ; and an additional 64 Kbit are allocated as backup memory . Additional backup memory in the form of a 1 Mbit Backup RAM Cartridge was also available as a separate purchase , released near the end of the system 's life . Audio is able to be supplied through the Ricoh RF5C164 , and two RCA pin jacks allow the Sega CD to output stereophonic sound separate from the Genesis . Combining stereo sound from a Genesis to either version of the Sega CD requires a cable between the Genesis 's headphone jack and an input jack on the back of the CD unit . This is not required for the second model of the Genesis .
Though the Sega CD offers a faster processor , its main purpose is to expand the size of the games . Whereas ROM cartridges of the day typically contained 8 to 16 megabits of data , a CD @-@ ROM disc can hold more than 640 megabytes of data , or more than 320 times the storage of a Genesis cartridge . This allows the Sega CD to run games containing full motion video .
= = Variations = =
The Sega CD received several variations during its lifetime , of which Sega constructed three . The original model utilized a front @-@ loading motorized disc tray and sat underneath the Genesis . Sega later released the second model of the Sega CD , which was redesigned to sit next to the Genesis console and featured a top @-@ loading disc tray in place of the motorized tray of the original model . In addition to the add @-@ on models , Sega also released the Genesis CDX ( Multi @-@ Mega in Europe ) . This console was a combination of the Genesis and Sega CD into one unit , and initially retailed at US $ 399 . Unique to this model was its additional functionality as a portable compact disc player .
Three additional system models were created by other electronics companies . Working with Sega Enterprises , JVC released the Wondermega on April 1 , 1992 , in Japan , at an initial retail price of ¥ 82 @,@ 800 ( or US $ 620 ) . The system was later redesigned by JVC and released as the X 'Eye in North America in September 1994 . Designed by JVC to be a Genesis and Sega CD combination with high quality audio , the Wondermega 's high price kept it out of the hands of average consumers . Likewise was the case with the Pioneer LaserActive , which was also an add @-@ on that required an attachment developed by Sega , known as the Mega @-@ LD pack , in order to play Genesis and Sega CD games . Though the LaserActive , developed by Pioneer Corporation , was lined up to compete with the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer , the combined system and Mega @-@ LD pack retailed at nearly $ 1600 , becoming a very expensive option for Sega CD players . Aiwa also released the CSD @-@ GM1 , a combination Genesis / Sega CD unit built into a boombox .
= = Game library = =
The Sega CD supports a library of over 200 games created both by Sega and an array of third @-@ party publishers . Included in this library are six games which , while receiving individual Sega CD releases , also received separate versions that utilized both the Sega CD and Sega 32X add @-@ ons . Among the titles released for the add @-@ on were a number of FMV games , including Sewer Shark and Fahrenheit . Well @-@ regarded titles include Sonic the Hedgehog CD , Lunar : Eternal Blue and Lunar : The Silver Star , Popful Mail , and Snatcher , as well as the controversial Night Trap . Although Sega created Streets of Rage for the Genesis to compete against the SNES port of the arcade hit Final Fight , the Sega CD received an enhanced version of the latter game that has been praised for its greater faithfulness to the arcade original . Eternal Champions : Challenge from the Dark Side was noted for its impressive use of the system 's hardware as well as its violent content . In particular , Sonic the Hedgehog CD has garnered critical acclaim for its excellent graphics and new time travel elements , which improved upon the traditional Sonic formula . The Sega CD also received enhanced ports of games from the Genesis , such as Batman Returns and Ecco the Dolphin .
Given the large number of FMV games and Genesis ports , the Sega CD 's game library has been criticized for its lack of depth . Full motion video quality was substandard on the Sega CD due to poor video compression software and the system 's limited color palette , and the concept never caught on with the public . According to Digital Pictures founder Tom Zito , " Sega CD could only put up 32 colors at a time , so you had this horrible grainy look to the images , " though the system was able to put up 64 colors at one time . Likewise , most Genesis ports for the Sega CD featured additional full motion video sequences , extra levels , and enhanced audio , but were otherwise identical to their Genesis release . The video quality in these sequences has also been criticized as comparable to an old VHS tape .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Near the time of its release , the Sega CD was awarded Best New Peripheral of 1992 by Electronic Gaming Monthly . Four separate reviews scored the add @-@ on 8 , 9 , 8 , and 8 out of 10 ; reviewers cited its upgrades to the Genesis as well as its high @-@ quality and expanding library of games . Later reception in 1995 by Electronic Gaming Monthly showed a more mixed response to the peripheral , with four reviewers scoring it 5 out of 10 , citing its game library issues and substandard video quality . GamePro also criticized the weak games library and substandard video quality , noting that many of the games were simple ports of cartridge games with minimal enhancements and commenting that " The Sega CD could have been an upgrade , but it 's essentially a big memory device with CD sound . " They gave it a " thumbs sideways " and recommended that Genesis fans buy an SNES before even considering a Sega CD . Likewise , in a special Game Machine Cross Review in May 1995 , Famicom Tsūshin scored the Japanese Mega @-@ CD 2 a 17 out of 40 .
Retrospective reception of the Sega CD is mixed , praising certain titles in its game library but criticizing its low value for money and limitations on the benefits it provides to the Genesis . GamePro listed the Sega CD as the 7th @-@ worst selling video game console of all time , with reviewer Blake Snow noting that " The problem was threefold : the device was expensive at $ 299 , it arrived late in the 16 @-@ bit life cycle , and it didn 't do much ( if anything ) to enhance the gameplay experience . " Snow went on to note , however , that the Sega CD did have in its library " the greatest Sonic game of all time " in Sonic the Hedgehog CD . IGN 's Levi Buchanan criticized Sega 's implementation of CD technology for the Genesis , noting , " What good is the extra storage space if there is nothing inventive to be done with it ? No new gameplay concepts emerged from the SEGA CD — it just offered more of the same . In fact , with few exceptions like Sonic CD , it often offered some of the 16 @-@ bit generation 's worst games , like Demolition Man . " Jeremy Parish of USgamer pointed out that " Sega was hardly the only company to muddy its waters with a CD add @-@ on in the early ' 90s " and highlighted some " gems " for the system , but cautioned " the benefits offered by the Sega CD had to be balanced against the fact that the add @-@ on more than doubled the price ( and complexity ) of the [ Genesis ] . " Writing for Retro Gamer , Damien McFerran cited various reasons for the Sega CD 's limited sales , including the add @-@ on 's high price , lack of significant enhancement to the Genesis console , and lack of ability to function without a console attached . Retro Gamer writer Aaron Birch , however , defended the Sega CD and wrote that " the single biggest cause of the Mega @-@ CD 's failure was the console itself . When the system came out , CD @-@ ROM technology was still in its infancy and companies had yet to get to grips with the possibilities it offered ... quite simply , the Mega @-@ CD was a console ahead of its time . "
The poor support for the Sega CD has often been criticized as the first link in the devaluation of the Sega brand . Writing for IGN , Buchanan described an outside perspective on Sega 's decision to release the Sega CD with its poor library and console support , stating , " [ T ] he SEGA CD instead looked like a strange , desperate move — something designed to nab some ink but without any real , thought @-@ out strategy . Genesis owners that invested in the add @-@ on were sorely disappointed , which undoubtedly helped sour the non @-@ diehards on the brand . " In reviewing for GamePro , Snow commented that " [ the ] Sega CD marked the first of several Sega systems that saw very poor support ; something that devalued the once @-@ popular Sega brand in the eyes of consumers , and something that would ultimately lead to the company 's demise as a hardware maker . "
Former Sega of America senior producer Scot Bayless attributes the unsuccessful market to a lack of direction from Sega with the add @-@ on . According to Bayless , " It was a fundamental paradigm shift with almost no thought given to consequences . I honestly don 't think anyone at Sega asked the most important question : ' Why ? ' There 's a rule I developed during my time as an engineer in the military aviation business : never fall in love with your tech . I think that 's where the Mega @-@ CD went off the rails . The whole company fell in love with the idea without ever really asking how it would affect the games you made . " Sega of America producer Michael Latham offers a contrasting view of support for the add @-@ on , however , stating " I loved the Sega CD . I always thought the platform was under @-@ appreciated and that it was hurt by an over @-@ concentration of trying to make Hollywood interactive film games versus using its storage and extended abilities to make just plain great video games . " Former Sega of Europe president Nick Alexander commented on the Mega CD , saying " The Mega CD was interesting but probably misconceived and was seen very much as the interim product it was . I am afraid I cannot recall the sales numbers , but it was not a success . "
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= Zelda II : The Adventure of Link =
Zelda II : The Adventure of Link ( Japanese : リンクの冒険 , Hepburn : Rinku no Bōken , " Adventure of Link " ) is an action role @-@ playing video game with platforming elements . The second installment in the The Legend of Zelda series , it was developed and published by Nintendo for the Family Computer Disk System on January 14 , 1987 , less than a year after the original The Legend of Zelda was released and seven months before North America saw the release of the first Zelda title . The game was released in North America and the PAL region for the Nintendo Entertainment System in late 1988 , almost two years after its initial release in Japan .
The Adventure of Link is a direct sequel to the original The Legend of Zelda , again involving the protagonist , Link , on a quest to save Princess Zelda , who has fallen under a sleeping spell . The Adventure of Link 's emphasis on side @-@ scrolling and role @-@ playing elements , however , was a significant departure from its predecessor . As of 2016 , the game remains the only technical sequel to the original title , as all other entries in the series either are prequels or take place in an alternative reality , according to the official Zelda timeline .
The game was highly successful at the time , and introduced elements such as Link 's " magic meter " and the Dark Link character that would become commonplace in future Zelda games , although the role @-@ playing elements such as experience points and the platform @-@ style side @-@ scrolling and multiple lives were never used again in canonical games . It was followed in 1991 by The Legend of Zelda : A Link to the Past for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System .
= = Gameplay = =
The Adventure of Link bears little resemblance to the first game in the series or later games in the series . The Adventure of Link features side @-@ scrolling areas within a larger top @-@ down world map rather than the exclusively top @-@ down perspective of the previous title . It is more an action @-@ RPG , much like Faxanadu ( also on the FC / NES ) . The side @-@ scrolling gameplay and experience system is also very similar to many games in the popular Castlevania series , especially Castlevania II : Simon 's Quest also released for the FDS in 1987 . The game incorporates a strategic combat system , a proximity continue system based on lives , an experience points ( EXP ) system , magic spells , as well as more interaction with non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) . Apart from the CD @-@ i exclusive Zelda : Wand of Gamelon and Link : Faces of Evil , no other game in the series includes a life @-@ feature . The side angle was used again in Link 's Awakening and the other Game Boy entries , but was not the main angle in those games , which relied primarily on the top @-@ down view .
= = = Experience levels = = =
In this installment , Link gains experience points to upgrade his attack , magic , and life by defeating enemies . This feature is exclusive to Zelda II in the game series . He can raise each of these attributes to a maximum of eight levels . Raising a life level will decrease the damage Link receives when hit , raising a magic level will decrease the magic points ( MP ) cost of spells , and raising an attack level will strengthen his sword 's offensive power . Each attribute requires a different amount of experience to level up , with the life level requiring the least number of points to level and attack requiring the most . When enough points are acquired to raise an attribute , the player may choose to level up that attribute or to cancel and continue gaining experience points towards the next level in another attribute . Once Link has raised an attribute to the maximum level of eight , further advances in that attribute will earn Link an extra life , without advancing the attribute itself . Link begins the game with four Heart Containers and four Magic Containers and can acquire up to four more of each , permanently increasing his life points and magic points respectively . Other games in The Legend of Zelda series only allow Link to increase his strength through new weapons , items , and Heart Containers . Certain enemies drain Link 's experience when they attack , but he will never lose a level once raised . When a game ends or is saved , the cartridge records Link 's current ability levels and the number of experience points required for the next increase , but resets his accumulated points to zero .
= = = Overworld map and side @-@ scrolling = = =
The Adventure of Link plays out in a two @-@ mode dynamic . The overworld , the area where the majority of the action occurs in other The Legend of Zelda games , is still from a top @-@ down perspective , but it now serves as a hub to the other areas . Whenever Link enters a new area such as a town , the game switches to a side @-@ scrolling view . This mode is where most of the action takes place , and , with the exception of traveling across lava and water , it is the only mode in which Link can take damage and be killed .
Link also enters this mode when attacked by wandering monsters . Whenever the player traverses the various environments of Hyrule , enemy silhouettes appear and pursue him . Of the three random creatures that appear , there are three types which correspond to the relative difficulty of the monsters in battle mode : a small , weak blob denoting easy enemies , a large , strong biped denoting harder enemies , and a Fairy , which will put Link on a single screen with a free Fairy to refill his health . This separate method of traveling and entering combat is one of many aspects adapted from the role @-@ playing video game genre . Stepping onto particular spots in the overworld map will automatically switch the game to side @-@ scrolling mode for an enemy encounter or item pickup .
= = = Combat system = = =
The Adventure of Link has a more complex combat system than its predecessor . Armed with a sword and shield , Link must alternate between standing and crouching positions in order to attack enemies and defend himself ; for example , the Iron Knuckle enemy changes the height of its attack and its shield depending on Link 's current stance , forcing Link to change stances until he has a chance to attack safely . Link has the ability to jump , which can be used for attacking tall or airborne enemies , and can be used for evasion . Eventually , he can learn techniques for downward and upward stabs in midair .
= = = Magic and special items = = =
Though Link must still collect several items in order to progress in the game ( as in the previous and subsequent installments of the series ) , these special items grant abilities which either remain in permanent use for the rest of the game or can only be activated in the overworld . In place of actively used items , The Adventure of Link features eight spells for Link to use during action scenes . Each spell is learned from a different wise man in one of the eight towns within Hyrule . Link often has to complete side @-@ quests , such as retrieving lost items , before they will teach him their spells . Some spells and items are necessary for advancing beyond certain points in the game . Also , the Life spell becomes the main means of recovering health during action scenes , since healing Fairies are only found in rare fixed spots , and only appear randomly as overworld encounters .
= = = Replay = = =
Like its predecessor , The Adventure of Link allows storing up to three games in the cartridge 's memory . Once the game has been completed , selecting the corresponding file in the main menu allows starting a new game preserving the acquired experience levels , techniques and magic spells ( but no special items , Heart and Magic containers or extra lives , which must be obtained again ) .
= = Plot = =
Several years after the events of The Legend of Zelda , the now @-@ sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Link notices a strange mark on the back of his left hand , exactly like the crest of Hyrule . He seeks out Impa , who responds by taking Link to the North Castle , where a door has been magically sealed for generations . Impa places the back of Link 's left hand on the door , and it opens , revealing a sleeping maiden . Impa tells Link that the maiden is Zelda ( not the Zelda from the first game ) , the princess of Hyrule from long ago , and the origin of the " Legend of Zelda " . Zelda 's brother had tried to force her into telling their recently deceased father 's secrets concerning the last of three sacred golden triangle treasures of his kingdom , known collectively as the Triforce . Princess Zelda refused to reveal its location , and the prince 's wizard friend , in anger , tried to strike her down with a spell . Zelda fell under a powerful sleeping spell , but the wizard was unable to control the wildly arcing magic and was killed by it . The prince , filled with remorse and unable to reverse the spell , had his sister placed in the castle tower , in the hope that she would one day be awakened . He decreed that princesses born to the royal family from that point on would be named Zelda , in remembrance of this tragedy .
Impa says that the mark on Link 's hand means that he is the hero chosen to awaken Zelda . She gives Link a chest containing six crystals and ancient writings that only a great future king of Hyrule can read . Link finds that he can read the document , even though he has never seen the language before ; it indicates that the crystals must be set into statues within six palaces scattered all over Hyrule . This will open the way to the Great Palace , which contains the Triforce of Courage . Only the power of the combined Triforces can awaken the enchanted Zelda . Taking the crystals , Link sets out to restore them to their palaces . Meanwhile , the followers of Ganon are seeking to kill Link ; sprinkling his blood on Ganon ’ s ashes will bring Ganon back to life .
Ultimately , Link restores the crystals to the six palaces , defeating a strong guardian within each one to do so , and enters the Great Palace . After venturing deep inside , Link must battle a flying creature known as Thunderbird , followed by a shadowy doppelgänger of himself known as Dark Link . Link then claims the Triforce of Courage and returns to Zelda . The three triangles unite into the collective Triforce , and Link 's wish awakens Zelda . The game ends as they ( presumably ) kiss under a falling curtain .
= = Development and releases = =
Shigeru Miyamoto , the creator of the original The Legend of Zelda , intended to make Zelda II : The Adventure of Link fundamentally different from its predecessor . A different team was assembled to develop the game . However , Miyamoto ( who was credited under the pseudonym " Miyahon " ) was the producer , and Takashi Tezuka returned to write the story and script . Zelda II : The Adventure of Link was directed by Tadashi Sugiyama ( credited as " Sugiyan " ) , for whom it was the first project at Nintendo . The game 's music was composed by Akito Nakatsuka ( credited as " Tsukasan " ) .
The Adventure of Link was originally released on the Family Computer Disk System ( FDS ) before its worldwide release . Like its predecessor , the FDS version appears to be an earlier version of the game , with a few obvious differences . In the English release , the dungeons each have different colors , whereas in the FDS version they are all gray . Also , the two dungeon bosses Carrok and Volvagia ( the latter being initially named Barba in the NES release ) have different graphical appearances . The game over screen in the English version features the silhouette of Ganon from the chest up , with the text saying " Game Over / Return of Ganon " , whereas the FDS game over screen is a plain black screen with the text saying " Return of Ganon / The End " . There are some slight additions to the dungeons , as well as a handful of differences on the dungeons themselves . Due to an additional soundchip that the Disk System has , when Nintendo ported Zelda II over to the NES they had to eliminate some musical elements , especially from the title screen . On the main map , the icons denoting attacking monsters look different , but the most significant change is the spending of experience points , as Link 's three attributes cost the same , unlike the worldwide release . Further , the game is designed to promote balanced leveling , as the saved game on the disk will only let the levels for the attributes go as high as whatever is set the lowest ( e.g. if Life is at 5 and Strength is at 4 , but Magic is at 1 , then the saved game will reflect all as level 1 ) , while still saving the data regarding crystals that have been placed and items that have been collected . These differences make leveling up in the game very different .
The Adventure of Link was re @-@ released in 2003 on the The Legend of Zelda : Collector 's Edition disc for the GameCube , and again in 2004 as part of the “ Classic NES Series ” for Game Boy Advance , with changes . The intro text has been changed to read " third Triforce " rather than " No.3 Triforce " and the copyright date has been altered to read " 1987- 2004 " . The death animation removed flashing colors in an effort to prevent seizures , replacing it with a solid red color . There were also various graphical and audio tweaks . It was released as the 100th title on the Wii 's Virtual Console in Japan on January 23 , 2007 , in Europe and Australia on February 9 , 2007 and was released in North America on June 4 , 2007 . The text changes weren 't made in this version , but it does feature the solid red color in the death animations from the GameCube and Game Boy Advance versions .
The game was released yet again in September 2011 on Virtual Console ( this time on the 3DS ) , bundled with its predecessor as part of a free giveaway of 10 original Nintendo Entertainment System games to 3DS owners who purchased the console before the price drop . It is now available to purchase on the Nintendo eShop for the 3DS and Wii U. The 3DS version is a direct port of the original NES release and , consequently , features the flashing color death scene and none of the text alterations of previous re @-@ releases . Although the game features the save option , fully resetting the software currently results in the save game being deleted , meaning that the user should not do this unless that is the desired outcome .
= = Reception = =
= = = Original version = = =
Upon its release in North America , Zelda II became one of the most popular NES games of 1988 , with many retailers reporting that the game was selling out that year . The game ultimately sold 4 @.@ 38 million copies worldwide , making it the fifth best selling NES game , behind the Super Mario Bros. series and the first Legend of Zelda game .
In 1987 , Famicom Tsūshin ( now Famitsu ) gave it a score of 36 out of 40 , based on a panel of four reviewers giving it ratings of 8 , 10 , 9 and 9 out of 10 . This made it their second highest @-@ rated game of 1987 , behind only Dragon Quest II . These were also the only two games to have received a Famitsu score of 35 / 40 or above up until 1987 . Play magazine praised the unique gameplay , saying that " it 's this combination of unique elements that creates an action @-@ RPG experience unlike any other " . Nintendo Power said that the game was " an entertaining and natural step in the franchise 's evolution , " and awarded it their Game of the Year Award for 1988 . Zelda II was reviewed in 1992 by issue # 2 of Total ! magazine , where it received an 82 % rating , due in great part to mediocre sub @-@ scores for music and graphics . A 1993 review of the game was printed in issue # 198 of Dragon by Sandy Petersen , in the " Eye of the Monitor " column . Petersen gave the game 3 out of 5 stars .
Zelda II was rated the 110th best game made on a Nintendo System in Nintendo Power 's Top 200 Games list . In August 2008 , Nintendo Power listed it as the 12th best Nintendo Entertainment System video game , describing it as a radical and refreshing departure from its predecessor .
= = = Re @-@ releases = = =
IGN said that the game is a " recommended and playable adventure " but also said " don 't expect the same gameplay from the truly classic Zelda titles . " 1UP.com praised the game 's length , citing that " you can certainly find plenty here to keep you busy for some time . " The game also received some criticism . GameSpot said that while the game is " decent enough to make it worth the $ 5 price [ on the Wii 's Virtual Console ] " , it features " questionable design decision [ s ] " and can get confusing if players don 't have the help of walkthroughs . The GBA version of the game had an aggregated score of 73 on Metacritic. and an aggregated score of 68 @.@ 88 on GameRankings , making it the game of the series with the lowest score in both websites .
= = Legacy = =
Many elements first introduced in this game have remained in the series . For instance , non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) were present in The Legend of Zelda , but their role was rather limited . Starting with The Adventure of Link , Zelda games have prominently featured a variety of NPCs who play pivotal roles in Link 's quests . Zelda II was also one of the first games where NPCs walked around and seemingly had their own agendas , giving the world a life of its own rather than being a simple stage for the story to unfold . The use of metered magic and spells has also carried over into other Zelda games . The Triforce of Courage makes its first appearance in The Adventure of Link and plays an important role in later Zelda games , as it is strongly associated with Link . Dark Link is a version of Link 's Shadow which appears in Ocarina of Time , a similar Link clone called Shadow Link appears in Four Swords Adventures , and yet another appears in Spirit Tracks , as well as in A Link Between Worlds .
Additionally , The Adventure of Link was one of the first games to combine role @-@ playing video game and platforming elements to a considerable degree . Over the next few years , a number of Japanese @-@ made games appeared with a similar format ; major titles such as Cadash ( 1989 ) closely resemble The Adventure of Link , with side @-@ scrolling platform stages supplemented by RPG @-@ like statistical systems , weapons , armor , magic spells , and so forth .
Most of the sages in Ocarina of Time bear the same names as towns from The Adventure of Link ( Rauru , Ruto , Saria , Nabooru , and Darunia ; excluding Impa ) . Another town , Mido , is also the name of a character in Kokiri Forest . However , in the in @-@ game chronology , the towns were named after the characters . The Adventure of Link is also the only Zelda game of the main English releases not to use " The Legend of Zelda " in its title , the only Zelda game to feature " lives " counting down , and therefore the only game in the series to include 1 @-@ up dolls . The next Zelda game released after The Adventure of Link was The Legend of Zelda : A Link to the Past for the Super Famicom in 1991 , which follows new Link and Zelda characters and returns to the top @-@ down style of the original . It is officially considered a prequel to the NES games , and as of 2016 there has been no technical plot sequel to The Adventure of Link , with each Zelda game being either a prequel or a " sequel to a prequel " .
There are a small number of side scrolling areas in The Legend of Zelda : Link 's Awakening ; these areas were mainly underground tunnels and caves . The series broke away from the top @-@ down style again in 1998 when Ocarina of Time was released on the Nintendo 64 , with 3D graphics . A new version of the composition " Temple " , arranged by Shogo Sakai , is featured in Super Smash Bros. Melee , where it is played during the " Hyrule Temple " stage and the " Underground Maze " level . A variation of the track , as well as a new version of the ' Grand Palace ' level song , also appears in Super Smash Bros. Brawl . The track was later once again updated and appeared twice , as the " Streetpass Battle Theme " as well as a slower version for the " Battle Victory " music , in the Nintendo 3DS Zelda game A Link Between Worlds , making it the only subsequent Zelda game to include theme music that originated in The Adventure of Link . The Streetpass battle mode is itself inspired by the final boss fight of Zelda 2 , and Streetpass fights occur between the player as Link , and the other player as Shadow / Dark Link .
The 3DS title Adventure Time : Hey Ice King ! Why 'd You Steal Our Garbage ? ! , developed by WayForward Technologies was intended to play like Zelda II and pays homage to it . It features very similar gameplay and references to The Legend of Zelda series of video games .
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= Mido ( footballer ) =
Ahmed Hossam Hussein Abdelhamid ( Arabic : أحمد حسام حسين ; born 23 February 1983 ) , more commonly known as Mido , is an Egyptian football manager . He is currently the technical adviser of Lierse S.K .. He is also a TV presenter and former footballer who played as a striker .
Mido started his career with Zamalek in Egypt in 1999 . He left the club for Gent of Belgium in 2000 , where he won the Belgian Ebony Shoe . This led to a move to Dutch side Ajax in 2001 , from where he joined Celta Vigo on loan in 2003 . His next destination was Marseille in France and he left them for Italian side Roma in 2004 . He joined English side Tottenham Hotspur on an 18 @-@ month loan in 2005 and eventually joined the club permanently in 2006 . He left the club in 2007 to join Middlesbrough , from whom he joined Wigan Athletic , Zamalek , West Ham United and Ajax on loan . In 2011 , he rejoined Zamalek , before joining Barnsley in 2012 . He also played for Egypt 51 times scoring 20 goals . Mido retired from football in June 2013 .
= = Club career = =
= = = Zamalek = = =
Born in Cairo , Mido started his career with Egyptian Premier League club Zamalek in 1999 . He made his league debut on 22 May 2000 in a 0 – 0 draw against El Qanah . The next week , Mido scored his first two goals against Aluminium Nag Hammâdi , which Zamalek won 3 – 2 . His African debut came on 28 May 2000 , in a 2 – 1 win against Ethiopian Coffee , making the aggregate score 3 – 3 , which led to the game being decided on penalties . Zamalek won 4 – 2 . Zamalek eventually reached the 2000 African Cup Winners ' Cup final , beating Cameroonian side Canon Yaoundé 4 – 3 on aggregate . Mido 's performances eventually attracted interest from Belgian club Gent .
= = = Gent = = =
In 2000 , at the age of 17 , Mido signed for Gent . Initially , he suffered from homesickness , and returned to Egypt shortly after arriving in Belgium , only staying at his father 's vehement insistence . Working hard to fight his reservations , Mido eventually overcame them , in his own words gaining " the mentality of a pro " . Gent manager Patrick Remy was impressed by Mido 's handling of the issue and promoted him to the first team in September 2000 , placing him at first on the substitutes ' bench . However , Mido continued to impress Remy , who commented on his " responsibilities ... [ and ] great technical capabilities " . He eventually became a first @-@ team regular , and made his league debut on 27 August 2000 in a 4 – 1 away win against Eendracht Aalst . On 2 October 2000 , he scored his first goal in a 2 – 1 home win against Standard Liège . His European debut came on 12 September 2000 , where Gent suffered a 6 – 0 home defeat to Ajax . He became a fan favourite , and was praised by the Belgian press at the end of the season . Mido went on to win the Belgian Ebony Shoe in 2001 as the best African player in the Belgian First Division , as well as being named the Belgian " Discovery of the Year " . As he attracted interest from major clubs both in Belgium and abroad , he ended the season with a powerful performance against Royal Antwerp , scoring one of Gent 's goals in a 3 – 1 win and setting up the other two . Two years later , Remy described the match to an Egyptian journalist , saying that " Mido did everything . " He finished the season with 11 goals from 21 matches , as Gent finished fifth , earning them a spot in the following season of the UEFA Intertoto Cup .
= = = Ajax = = =
After his success in Belgium with Gent , Mido signed a five @-@ year contract with Eredivisie team Ajax in 2001 . He suffered a concussion during their UEFA Cup match with Limassol , after colliding with a defender . He made his return for the team against Heerenveen , a match which Ajax lost 5 – 1 . However , he was sent off against Twente , after kicking Spira Grujić whilst trying to beat him to the ball , for which he was later given a three @-@ match ban . He returned for Ajax against Vitesse , coming on as a substitute in the 75th minute . He failed to be selected for the substitutes bench against Feyenoord in March 2002 , which was due to a minor clash with manager Ronald Koeman , and Mido left for a short vacation in Cairo . Mido scored in Ajax 's victory over Utrecht in the KNVB Cup final , meaning he ended the 2001 – 02 season with the Dutch League and Cup double .
He played for only 32 minutes against Groningen , after a display which lacked creativity . He said afterwards he was tired and was carrying a slight injury during the match , but Koeman criticised Mido saying he was not giving everything . He revealed in September 2002 that he wanted to leave Ajax in the transfer window in late December . However , Mido soon apologised to Koeman and Leo Beenhakker regarding the transfer comments , saying he was " irresponsible " and " unthoughtful " . He was handed a fine and suspended from Ajax 's game against Olympique Lyonnais . In December of that year , he revealed that he wanted to stay at Ajax . He scored for Ajax during their 6 – 0 defeat of Willem II in February 2003 , but Koeman again criticised Mido , commenting negatively on his performance against Roda in the KNVB Cup . He was dropped for Ajax 's next game against Feyenoord , only featuring as an unused substitute . He suffered a muscle strain in his upper thigh after a friendly for Egypt , and was ruled out of Ajax 's game against Groningen . Mido was relegated to the Ajax reserve team for disciplinary reasons , surrounding a perceived lack of effort in training . His situation at the club led to interest from Serie A clubs Juventus and Lazio and he was later reported to have thrown a pair of scissors at Ajax teammate Zlatan Ibrahimović following an argument in March 2003 .
= = = = Loan to Celta Vigo = = = =
Celta Vigo made a loan offer for Mido in March , which was reported to have fallen through days later as it was not approved by FIFA . However , FIFA eventually allowed the move to go through and it was completed on 18 March . He scored on his Celta Vigo debut against Athletic Bilbao , which Celta won 2 – 1 . Ajax valued Mido between the values of € 5 million and € 6 million , amidst interest from clubs in Italy and Spain . Newcastle United were reportedly on the verge of making a bid for Mido in May , but this was ruled out by Mido 's agent Christophe Henrotay . Ajax attempted to make him return to the club , but he declined this , in favour of staying at Celta . He suffered a muscle injury whilst training in May , but was available to play in Celta 's match against Villarreal CF , which saw Mido sent off in a game which Celta lost 5 – 0 . Mido was linked with a move to A.S. Roma in late May , with Roma chairman Franco Sensi stating " I want Mido " , but Ajax revealed they wanted € 15 million for him . Ajax turned down a loan move from Real Betis for Mido in June . Marseille were then believed to have made an offer for the striker and Celta were not ready to meet Ajax 's asking price of € 15 million .
= = = Marseille = = =
Ajax accepted a € 12 million bid for Mido from Marseille in July , and completed the move on a five @-@ year contract on 12 July 2003 , which made Mido the most expensive Egyptian player ever . He made his debut for Marseille in 1 – 0 win over Guingamp on 1 August 2003 . Jean @-@ Pierre Papin gave praise to Mido , saying it was down to players like him that the French Ligue 1 was among the top European leagues . He scored against Real Madrid in a UEFA Champions League match in November , which Marseille lost 2 – 1 .
Mido stated in March 2004 that he may leave Marseille at the end of the 2003 – 04 season . An English club and several Spanish clubs were believed to be interested in signing Mido , who had been overshadowed at Marseille by Didier Drogba . Atlético Madrid , Zaragoza , Osasuna and former club Celta Vigo were all rumoured to be interested in signing Mido , with Atlético 's interest being confirmed by their Technical Director Toni Muñoz . Meanwhile , Mido was caught speeding on the way to Marseille 's game against AS Monaco , which resulted in a court hearing . Reports suggested Roma were ready to sign Mido for a fee of € 9 million even though Mido would be out injured for the rest of the French football season . Turkish side Beşiktaş revealed they wanted to sign him , and Mido said he was to have talks with Bobby Robson about a possible move to Newcastle United .
= = = Roma = = =
Mido eventually signed for Roma on the final day of the 2004 summer transfer window , for a fee of € 6 million , signing a five @-@ year contract . It was confirmed that he would miss the opening game of the season , and possibly the following two games . Mido was penciled in to make his Roma debut against Messina in September 2004 , a game in which he did actually play , but Roma lost 4 – 3 . Reports suggested that Mido could be sold to Valencia in a swap deal with Bernardo Corradi and was also linked with a move to Premier League side Manchester City . Southampton were believed to have had Mido on their shortlist of targets , but his agent Christophe Henrotay said Roma would not be willing to let Mido leave the club . It was even reported that he had been offered to Southampton on loan but his new agent , Mino Raiola , repeated the earlier claims that Roma wanted to keep Mido until , at least , the end of the season . He was linked with a move to Tottenham Hotspur , with his agent confirming he wanted a move away from Roma .
= = = Tottenham Hotspur = = =
Mido was signed by Tottenham on an 18 @-@ month loan deal on 28 January 2005 . He scored two goals on his Tottenham debut against Portsmouth on 5 February 2005 . He scored 3 goals in 11 appearances during the 2004 – 05 season for Tottenham . Mido announced plans in July 2005 to launch his own football academy in Egypt , which had the aim of nurturing the country 's young talent . In January 2006 , he expressed that he did not wish to return to Roma at the end of the 2005 – 06 season , but rather sign permanently with Tottenham . Tottenham manager Martin Jol said that the club were confident of signing Mido on a permanent deal due to his good performances , but later admitted Tottenham may be defeated in keeping Mido , with other clubs interested in signing him . His permanent move was further put into doubt in April 2006 , after he suffered a new injury problem . He suffered abuse from a small section of the Southampton and West Ham United fans in 2005 . West Ham manager Alan Pardew apologised to Mido for the abuse by the fans . He finished the 2005 – 06 season with 11 goals in 27 games , meaning he was Tottenham 's second highest goalscorer . Tottenham confirmed in May 2006 that Mido would be returning to Roma .
However , Mido re @-@ joined Tottenham on 29 August on a permanent deal for a fee of € 6 @.@ 75 million . After returning to Tottenhm he commented on the team 's official website that he " always knew in his heart he would be coming back " and that he " couldn 't wait to pull on a Tottenham shirt , play at the Lane and score some more goals " . However , soon after this , Mido was accused of being " irresponsible and disrespectful " by his manager Martin Jol , following comments Mido had made about former Tottenham player Sol Campbell . After failing to score in his first five appearances as a permanent Tottenham player , he finally found the net against rivals West Ham with a match @-@ winning volley on 19 October 2006 , and followed that with two goals against League Two side Milton Keynes Dons in the League Cup . He had to contend with being fourth in line for one of the two striking spots , but insisted that this was a sign of the club 's strength , and something he was fully aware of before rejoining the club . However , he was linked with a move to Manchester City . Mido scored what looked to be his final goal for Tottenham on 31 January 2007 against Arsenal , but his potential move to Manchester City fell through half an hour before the close of the transfer window . He eventually admitted he made a mistake by joining Tottenham on a permanent deal . He ended the 2006 – 07 season with 23 appearances and 5 goals .
= = = Middlesbrough = = =
Tottenham agreed a £ 6 million fee with Birmingham City for Mido on 20 July 2007 . Birmingham manager Steve Bruce said the move was close to collapsing , as the deal reportedly faltered over the wages and the length of contract Mido was demanding . The deal eventually fell through over a clause that Mido insisted be in the contract . In August 2007 Sunderland made a £ 6 million bid for him and held talks , after which Birmingham confirmed they were trying to revive their deal to sign Mido . Middlesbrough then revealed their interest in signing him , matching the £ 6 million fee of Birmingham and Sunderland and were given permission to speak to him . They eventually signed Mido for a fee of £ 6 million on a four @-@ year contract on 16 August 2007 . He scored on his debut for Middlesbrough against Fulham and on his home debut against Newcastle United . During the Newcastle game , Mido was reportedly subject to Islamophobic abuse from some Newcastle supporters , which The Football Association ( The FA ) was to investigate .
He suffered a stress fracture to the pubic bone which kept him out for more than three months from November 2007 until he returned to first @-@ team action for Middlesbrough 's 2 – 0 FA Cup victory over Mansfield Town on 26 January 2008 . He was sent off in the 80th minute in a match against Arsenal on 15 March 2008 after kicking Gaël Clichy in the face with his boot , which resulted in him receiving a three @-@ match ban . Mido was ruled out for the remainder of the 2007 – 08 season in April following a hernia operation on a pelvic injury . He made the bench for Middlesbrough 's opening Premier League fixture against former club Tottenham and came on as a substitute in the 82nd minute and scored four minutes later after deflecting Didier Digard 's shot . The following weekend saw him score against Liverpool at Anfield to put Middlesbrough 1 – 0 in the lead , but they eventually lost the game 2 – 1 . This was followed up with goals against Yeovil Town in the League Cup and Portsmouth in the league . Mido was again targeted by some Newcastle fans while warming up before Middlesbrough 's 0 – 0 draw , with claims of racist chanting being investigated by The FA . He revealed his anger at The FA 's investigation , believing that they would make no difference to any future abuse . Two men were eventually arrested over the chanting and were due to appear at Teesside Magistrates Court .
= = = = Loan to Wigan Athletic = = = =
Mido entered talks with Wigan Athletic over signing on a six @-@ month loan deal , and he completed the move on 23 January 2009 . He scored on his debut with the equalizing goal against Liverpool with a penalty kick in a 1 – 1 draw on 28 January . He scored for Wigan in a 4 – 1 defeat against Arsenal and he finished the loan spell with 12 appearances and 2 goals . Following Middlesbrough 's relegation to the Championship , he failed to report to pre @-@ season training , and he was eventually fined by the club after not turning up after a fortnight . He returned to training a day after this .
= = = = Loan to Zamalek = = = =
Middlesbrough accepted an undisclosed offer for Mido from an unnamed club on 26 July , and he completed a season @-@ long move to former club Zamalek on 3 August , who had an option to sign him permanently if they were able to meet Middlesbrough 's terms . On 20 August , Mido made a disappointing debut for Zamalek , wasting a second @-@ half penalty as Zamalek threw away their lead to suffer a late 2 – 1 home victory to Petrojet in the Egyptian Premier League .
= = = = Loan to West Ham United = = = =
Mido joined West Ham United on a four @-@ month loan on 1 February 2010 after his season @-@ long loan spell with Zamalek was terminated by mutual agreement . He stated " I had to sacrifice some things but I 'm here to play football again and I 'm here to prove a point . I 'm very happy to be here , it 's a great club – and I 'm sure I 'll do well here . " West Ham chairman David Sullivan announced that in order for Mido to secure his long @-@ term footballing future , his contract with West Ham put him amongst the lowest earners in the Premier League . Sullivan said " He doesn 't want to be known as a ' has been ' of English football , so he was willing to come here to play for a nominal fee , just £ 1 @,@ 000 a week . " He made his debut for West Ham on 6 February in 2 – 1 away defeat against Burnley . In nine appearances for West Ham he failed to score and had a tame penalty saved in a 2 – 2 away draw against Everton . In June 2010 , West Ham decided not to offer him a new contract .
= = = = Loan to Ajax = = = =
Ajax entered talks with Middlesbrough over signing Mido on a free transfer in July . On 1 September , he signed a one @-@ year loan contract . Mido made his league debut on 16 October 2010 , coming on as a substitute for Miralem Sulejmani in a 3 – 0 win against NAC Breda . He scored his first goal on 11 November in a 3 – 0 win against Veendam in the Dutch Cup . Despite scoring three goals in six appearances , his first @-@ team football opportunities were limited , having been on the starting line @-@ up only once . After Martin Jol resigned , Mido lost his place when new manager Frank de Boer was appointed on 6 December 2010 . On 4 January 2011 , he wrote Ajax a letter to cancel his contract .
= = = Return to Zamalek = = =
On 21 January 2011 , Mido rejoined Zamalek on a three @-@ and @-@ a half @-@ year contract . However , due to an error made by Zamalek management Mido was not registered in time to play with Zamalek thus sitting out the remainder of the season .
= = = Barnsley = = =
On 16 June 2012 , Mido agreed a deal with English Championship side Barnsley , subject to a medical . His move was completed on 21 June 2012 when he signed a one @-@ year contract with Barnsley . Mido made his league debut on 10 November 2012 as a substitute for Kelvin Etuhu in a 1 – 0 home defeat against Huddersfield Town . On 31 January 2013 he was released by mutual consent along with defender Lee Collins .
= = Retirement = =
His retirement from football was announced in June 2013 .
Prior to his retirement , Mido was named Honorary Life President of the Old Wykehamist Football Club , a club for alumni of Winchester College and one of the founding member clubs of the Arthurian League .
= = International career = =
Mido played 13 times for the Egypt youth team between 1999 and 2001 .
He has earned 51 caps for Egypt and scored 20 goals . Mido scored on his international debut against the United Arab Emirates , which Egypt won 2 – 1 . Mido sent a fax to the Egypt team to tell them he was not available for international selection in May 2004 , saying he was not psychologically fit to join the team . Mido was a part of the Egypt squad that played at the 2004 African Cup of Nations .
Egypt manager Marco Tardelli dropped Mido in September 2004 , after Mido claimed to be unavailable for the national team due to an injury , but played in a friendly match for Roma 24 hours later . A day later , Mido rejected accusations that he refused to play for his country . Also , the Egyptian Football Association announced that he would not play for the team again . However , Tardelli was sacked as Egypt coach and in January 2005 the Egyptian Football Association said they would consider bringing Mido back into the team if he were to apologise for his past behaviour . Mido flew to Cairo in February 2005 and made a public apology and the following month he was recalled by the national team . Mido withdrew from Egypt 's 2006 World Cup qualifier against Cameroon , after sustaining a muscle tear while playing with Tottenham Hotspur .
Mido was thrown out of the Egypt team during the 2006 African Cup of Nations as a consequence of an argument with coach Hassan Shehata in the semi @-@ final game against Senegal , which started after Mido reacted badly to being substituted . His replacement Amr Zaki came on to score a header with his first touch , putting Egypt into the final . A day later , Mido reconciled with Shehata , but was given a six @-@ month suspension from playing with Egypt . Mido was eventually recalled by the side following his suspension , ready for the 2008 African Cup of Nations qualification which Egypt won . Mido was included in the Egypt squad to play South Africa in London in November 2006 , despite suffering from a knee injury at the time . However , he was left out of the Egypt squad to play Mauritania in an African Nations Cup qualifier in March 2007 .
= = Post @-@ retirement career = =
After his retirement , he turned into analysing Premier League matches as well as Champions league matches on Al Jazeera Sports channels . He also has his own show on Al hayat TV as well as an on @-@ line show on FilGoal . He stated that he aims to become a manager after gaining required certificate .
= = Managerial career = =
= = = Zamalek = = =
Although he received numerous offers from teams like Paris Saint @-@ Germain Youth Academy and Egyptian team Al @-@ Masry but turned them down . He was appointed as Zamalek head coach after the firing of Helmy Toulan on 21 January 2014 , despite being only 30 years old . Mido led his team to the third place in the 2013 – 14 Egyptian Premier League and secured a place in the 2015 CAF Confederation Cup after a 1 – 0 loss to his rival Al @-@ Ahly , 2 – 1 loss to Alexandria side Smouha and then a 2 – 0 win over Petrojet .
Mido succeeded to win the Egypt Cup and secure the cup title for the second year in row , by beating Smouha 1 – 0 , making him the youngest manager to win a trophy with his team in Egypt . On 29 July 2014 Mido was replaced by Hossam Hassan as the manager of Zamalek .
= = = Zamalek Youth Academy = = =
He later accepted an offer from Zamalek 's chairman Mortada Mansour to be the Director of Zamalek Youth Academy with appointing his former assistant Mohamed Salah as the technical manager of Zamalek Youth Academy . Under his leadership , The U @-@ 16 team won Al Wehda International Championship after defeating FC Steaua București U @-@ 16 by a result of 2 @-@ 0 in the final .
= = = Ismaily = = =
On 15 July 2015 , Ismaily 's chairman Mohamed Abo El @-@ Soud announced that Mido will be the manager of the team . He also announced that Ashraf Khedr will be the assistant manager . He resigned from his position in 20 December 2015 following a developed problem with the team captain Hosny Abd Rabo .
= = = Return to Zamalek = = =
Zamalek 's Chairman Mortada Mansour announced the return of Mido as the manager of Zamalek , succeeding Marcos Paquetá who failed to control the team . He also appointed Hazem Emam as the general manager and Ismail Youssef as the technical director . After only one month as a manager , he was fired after a 2 @-@ 0 loss to rivals Al Ahly in Cairo derby , leading to increase the gap between the two teams to seven points . Later Mortada Mansour said that the board decided to remove Mido from his position after the loss to Ismaily , but announcing it was delayed until Cairo Derby is played , to avoid distraction of players .
= = = Lierse = = =
On 7th of July 2016 , Lierse S.K. ' s chairman Maged Samy announced the hiring of Mido as a technical adviser for Lierse S.K. and Wadi Degla SC . Mido said that he aims to help the club to get promoted to Belgian First Division A.
= = Personal life = =
Mido married business student Yosra Wael on 26 June 2002 . Both travelled to Amsterdam for Mido to attend his first training with Ajax . Amsterdam @-@ based channel AT5 sent a team to make a special program on Mido 's wedding , his wife and Mido 's fans in Egypt . Mido is a Muslim .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = International goals = = =
Scores and results list Egypt 's goal tally first .
1 Egypt 's goalscorer vs. Kenya is also accredited to his teammate Ahmed Salah Hosny .
= = Managerial statistics = =
As of 13 February 2016
= = Honours = =
= = = As a player = = =
= = = = Club = = = =
Zamalek
African Cup Winners ' Cup ( 1 ) : 2000
Ajax
Eredivisie ( 2 ) : 2001 – 02 , 2010 – 11
KNVB Cup ( 1 ) : 2001 – 02
Johan Cruijff Shield ( 1 ) : 2001 – 02
= = = = International = = = =
= = = = Egypt = = = =
Africa Cup of Nations ( 1 ) : 2006
= = = = Individual = = = =
Belgian Ebony Shoe ( 1 ) : 2001
Belgian League Young Player of the Year ( 1 ) : 2000 – 01
Egyptian Young Footballer of the Year ( 1 ) : 2000 – 01
African Young Player of the Year ( 1 ) : 2001 – 02
Honorary Life President of the Old Wykehamist Football Club
= = = As a manager = = =
= = = = Club = = = =
Zamalek
Egypt Cup ( 1 ) : 2014
Zamalek Youth Academy
Al Wehda International Championship ( 1 ) : 2015
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= Kingdom Hearts HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix =
Kingdom Hearts HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix ( キングダム ハーツ HD 1 @.@ 5 リミックス , Kingudamu Hātsu HD 1 @.@ 5 Rimikkusu , stylized Kingdom Hearts HD I.5 ReMIX ) is an HD remastered collection of the Kingdom Hearts series , developed by Square Enix for the PlayStation 3 . It was revealed in September 2012 and released in Japan in March 2013 , and North America , Australia and Europe in September 2013 .
Kingdom Hearts HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix includes both Kingdom Hearts Final Mix and Re : Chain of Memories in high @-@ definition and with trophy support . Additionally , the collection features Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days in a Theater Mode , spanning 2 hours and 50 minutes of HD remastered cinematics from the original game , as well as new scenes . The 358 / 2 Days cinematic also has trophy support . Ideas for a remastered collection of Kingdom Hearts games were first revealed in August 2011 , with the collection formally announced in September 2012 . Kingdom Hearts Final Mix , in addition to being created from the ground up due to lost assets from the original game , had the most adjustments made to its gameplay , including adding Reaction Commands first introduced in Kingdom Hearts II and allowing the camera to be moved with the right thumb stick .
The collection was met to generally favorable reviews . A second collection , Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix , was released in 2014 while a third collection , Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 8 Final Chapter Prologue , will be released in 2016 .
= = Games = =
= = = Kingdom Hearts Final Mix = = =
In the original and Final Mix versions of Kingdom Hearts , the command menu had four commands : Attack , Magic , Items , and a fourth context @-@ sensitive slot that varied depending on what the player had targeted , where they were , etc . The command menu has been updated to include " Attack " , " Magic " , " Items " , and " Summons " in the fourth slot , which was originally located as a sub @-@ category beneath the " Magic " menu . The original fourth command has been replaced by the introduction of Reaction Commands from Kingdom Hearts II and are triggered by pressing the Triangle Button . The camera works more similarly to that of Kingdom Hearts II , utilizing the right thumb stick to move the camera and allowing the player to click the R3 button to reset the camera behind Sora , as opposed to the original game which made use of the shoulder triggers L2 and R2 to position the camera . Overall , the gameplay of Kingdom Hearts Final Mix was modified so it would play more similarly to Kingdom Hearts II and Re : Chain of Memories , to create a more consistent play style throughout the series .
It was released in North America , Europe and Australia for the first time as part of the collection .
= = = Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories = = =
This version of Chain of Memories was released in Europe and Australia for the first time as part of the collection , as it was previously released in North America in December 2008 .
= = = Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days = = =
358 / 2 Days does not appear in playable form , and instead features the Nintendo DS game adapted into 2 hours and 50 minutes worth of cinematic retelling , and features trophy support .
= = Development = =
In August 2011 , Nomura expressed desire to release a high definition re @-@ release of the game though he had yet to confirm such plans . The idea for a high definition re @-@ release preceded plans for Final Fantasy X re @-@ release , and was a focus for two Square Enix programmers for over a year .
In September 2012 , Square Enix announced Kingdom Hearts HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix for release in Japan on the PlayStation 3 . The collection would include both Kingdom Hearts Final Mix and Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories in high definition and trophy support as well as non @-@ playable HD event scenes from Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days as a way for players to understand the story . The development team experimented with using some character models from Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance for HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix . The cutscenes from Kingdom Hearts Final Mix , which were either unvoiced or used English voice acting , now use the original Japanese voice acting . Every cutscene from Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , whether it was originally a prerendered scene or used in @-@ game graphics , were remade for Theater Mode . 358 / 2 Days was originally planned to be an HD remade game , however , it would delay the development of the new title , so it ended up being within the compilation 's Theater Mode .
In January 2013 , Jesse McCartney , the voice of Roxas , posted a picture on Instagram of himself in a recording booth , with Roxas seen on a screen in the background , along with the caption , " For all you ' Kingdom Hearts ' Fans . Recording the next chapter ! # KingdomHearts # Roxas # Gamers . " The image was later deleted by McCartney . In February , Square Enix confirmed the game would release in North America and Europe , later revealing September 2013 releases for North America , Australia , and Europe .
It was revealed in March 2013 in a Famitsu interview , that 66 tracks spanning across all three games ( with a majority of them concentrated in Kingdom Hearts Final Mix ) were re @-@ recorded with live instrumentation , as opposed to the original games ' use of the PlayStation 2 's built @-@ in tone generator for their background music . In June 2013 , Nomura stated that the original game assets for Kingdom Hearts had been lost some time ago . He explained , " [ The game data ] was lost , so we had to research , and we had to dig out from the actual game what was available and recreate everything for HD . We had to recreate all the graphics and it was actually not that easy . "
= = Release = =
Kingdom Hearts HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix was released in Japan on March 14 , 2013 , in North America on September 10 , 2013 , in Australia on September 12 , 2013 , and in Europe on September 13 , 2013 . Preorders for the game in North America , Australia , and Europe included a book of the game 's concept artwork and a dynamic PlayStation 3 theme . Square Enix will also release the collection in a bundle in Japan with Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix titled , Kingdom Hearts Collector ’ s Pack : HD 1 @.@ 5 + 2 @.@ 5 Remix . The Collector 's pack will feature both collections , a code to get an Anniversary Set for Kingdom Hearts χ [ chi ] , music , and a booklet with art from the series .
= = Reception = =
Kingdom Hearts HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix has been met to generally positive critical reception . Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the game a 77 / 100 .
Kotaku gave the release a generally positive rating , praising the redone visuals , tweaked gameplay and expanded content , but also noting the game 's age is still palpable . Game Informer gave the collection an 8 @.@ 25 out of 10 , stating " The core of this collection is the excellent original game , and that ’ s where your attention should be . The other two lowly offerings are inessential bonus features . " Joystiq gave a positive , unscored review , saying the collection " captures that early era of the franchise at its purest simplicity . It 's a trip down memory lane for long @-@ term fans , while the visual overhaul and back @-@ to @-@ beginnings story should make it a welcoming entry point for newcomers . " GameSpot gave the HD remake a 7 out of 10 , saying , " Kingdom Hearts HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix presents a couple of the earliest games in the beloved series in their best light and makes a revealing cinematic experience out of a third one . The three experiences complement one another with unique elements and welcome context that is a treat for longtime fans and newcomers alike . "
Giving the game a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 , GameTrailers felt that , " While Kingdom Hearts HD 1 @.@ 5 ReMIX certainly lives up to the HD part of its name , the collection is not without its shortcomings . The original game ’ s inclusion with all the new revisions and the addition of Final Mix content is a worthy investment on its own , and the inclusion of Chain of Memories is a nice gesture . The card @-@ based battle system might be off @-@ putting , but it ’ s a unique experiment that deviates from the norm of the series . However , despite the overhauled visuals and new voice work , it ’ s hard to excuse the reduction of 358 / 2 Days to a lengthy film rather than an actual game . " IGN felt that the collection was " an excellent way to replay the series ’ first two games in crisp , high @-@ definition splendor " but was disappointed that the box art did not properly distinguish 358 / 2 Days as a non @-@ playable game . They awarded the collection an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 . Electronic Gaming Monthly gave the collection an 8 out of 10 , stating the collection " brings a PS2 classic to the modern age with a noticeably impressive visual update , improved camera controls , and , for added fun , secondary and tertiary Kingdom Hearts content all contained on one disc . "
= = Additional collections = =
= = = HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix = = =
In October 2012 , game director Tetsuya Nomura suggested that an HD @-@ version of Kingdom Hearts II was likely to be created for another collection , saying that " it ’ d be unusual if there wasn ’ t " another one . In the credits of HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix , clips of Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix , Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Final Mix and Kingdom Hearts Re : coded were shown , hinting at a second collection . On October 14 , 2013 , Square Enix announced Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix , with the collection including the previously mentioned games in high definition . However , Re : coded appears as HD cinematics , similar to 358 / 2 Days in HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix . The collection was released exclusively for the PlayStation 3 in Japan on October 2 , 2014 , in North America on December 2 , 2014 , in Australia on December 4 , 2014 , and in Europe on December 5 , 2014 .
= = = HD 2 @.@ 8 Final Chapter Prologue = = =
In the credits of HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix , clips of Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance were shown as well as the inclusion of a secret ending related to the game , hinting at a possible additional collection . In September 2015 , Square Enix announced Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 8 Final Chapter Prologue . The collection features an HD remaster of Dream Drop Distance as well as Kingdom Hearts χ Back Cover , set to tell the tale of the Foretellers and reveal new parts of the series ' history in HD cinematics , and Kingdom Hearts 0 @.@ 2 : Birth by Sleep – A Fragmentary Passage , a new part of the story taking place after the events of the original Birth by Sleep , told from the perspective of Aqua . It will be released worldwide in December 2016 .
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= Lovesick Blues =
" Lovesick Blues " is a show tune written by Cliff Friend and Irving Mills . The song first appeared in the 1922 musical Oh , Ernest . It was recorded by Emmett Miller in 1928 and later by country music singer Rex Griffin . The recordings by Griffin and Miller inspired Hank Williams to perform the song during his first appearances on the Louisiana Hayride in 1948 . Receiving an enthusiastic reception from the audience , Williams decided to record his own version despite initial push back from his producer Fred Rose and his band .
MGM Records released " Lovesick Blues " in February 1949 , and it became an overnight success , quickly reaching number one on Billboard 's Top C & W singles and number 24 on the Most Played in Jukeboxes list . The publication named it the top country and western record of the year , while Cashbox named it " Best Hillbilly Record of the Year " .
Several cover versions of the song have been recorded . The most popular , Frank Ifield 's 1962 version , topped the UK Singles Chart . In 2004 , Williams ' version was added to the National Recording Registry .
= = Background and recordings = =
" Lovesick Blues " was originally entitled " I 've Got the Lovesick Blues " and published by Jack Mills , Inc. in 1922 ; Irving Mills authored the lyrics and Cliff Friend composed the music . It was first performed by Anna Chandler in the Tin Pan Alley musical Oh ! Ernest and first recorded by Elsie Clark on March 21 , 1922 with Okeh Records . Following the recording , Cliff and Friend copyrighted the song on April 3 , 1922 . It was featured in a show at the Boardwalk Club in New York City in June 1922 and also recorded by Jack Shea on Vocalion Records later that summer .
On September 1 , 1925 , OKeh Records sent scout Ralph Peer and a recording crew to Asheville , North Carolina . Among the aspiring artists recorded by Peer was Emmett Miller . Accompanied by Walter Rothrock on the piano , Miller cut four sides for the label , including " Lovesick Blues " . The single was paired with " Big Bad Bill ( is Sweet William Now ) " and released in November 1925 . On June 12 , 1928 accompanied by the Georgia Crackers ( Tommy Dorsey , Jimmy Dorsey , Eddie Lang , and Leo McConville ) , Miller re @-@ recorded the song , which was subsequently released to weak sales . Miller 's version was covered by country music singer Rex Griffin in December 1939 on Decca Records . Griffin rearranged the song by using the original chorus - " I got a feeling called the blues " — as a verse and turning the verse " I 'm in love , I 'm in love , with a beautiful gal " into the new chorus .
= = Hank Williams recording = =
Hank Williams , who heard both the Miller and Griffin versions , started performing the song on the Louisiana Hayride shortly after joining in August 1948 . Horace Logan , the show 's producer and programming director for KWKH , reported that the audience " went crazy " the first time Williams performed the song on the show . In light of the live audience 's strong positive reaction , Williams decided to record the song . His decision was questioned by his musicians and also his producer , Fred Rose , who felt that the song did not merit a recording . Williams , mindful of the reaction he received live , persisted , and the recording took place during the final half @-@ hour of a session recorded at Herzog Studio in Cincinnati , Ohio , on December 22 , 1948 . For this recording , Williams replaced the jazz musicians with a modern country music band , using a rhythm guitar , mandolin , string bass , drums and a steel guitar . Williams ' session band was composed of Clyde Baum ( mandolin ) , Zeke Turner ( electric guitar ) , Jerry Byrd ( steel guitar ) , Louis Innis ( rhythm guitar ) , Tommy Jackson ( fiddle ) and Willie Thawl ( bass ) . With little time left , Byrd and Turner replicated the musical arrangement they previously used on an Ernest Tubb session for a cover of Jimmie Rodgers ' " Waiting for a Train " . In the episode of American Masters about Williams , Drifting Cowboy Don Helms recalls , " When they recorded ' Lovesick Blues , ' Fred told Hank , ' That song 's out of meter ! Got too many bars in it . And you hold that note too long . ' And Hank said , ' Well , when I find a note I like , I wanna hold on to it as long as I can , ' you know , just tryin ' to be funny . And Fred said , ' Well , I 'll tell you what I 'm gonna do . That thing is so much out of meter , I 'm gonna get me a cup of coffee and when I get back maybe ya 'll have that thing cut . ' And they did , but it was still out of meter . So Fred lived with that the rest of his life . " Williams combined Griffin 's lyrical arrangement with a two @-@ beat honky @-@ tonk track , borrowing the yodeling and beat drops from Miller 's recording . " Lovesick Blues " was recorded in two takes .
MGM released " Lovesick Blues " on February 11 , 1949 , coupling it with " Never Again ( Will I Knock On Your Door ) " . The single sold 50 @,@ 000 copies in the first two weeks . On its February 26 , 1949 review , Billboard opined : " Hank 's razz @-@ mah @-@ tazz approach and ear @-@ catching yodeling should keep this side spinning " . Based on votes sent to Billboard , the record was rated with 85 points by disc jockeys , 82 by record dealers and 85 by jukebox operators . Between the three , the track scored an overall of 84 . In reference to its 100 @-@ point scale , Billboard regarded the record as " Excellent " . It reached number one on Billboard 's Top C & W singles , where it remained for sixteen weeks and reached number twenty @-@ four on Most Played in Jukeboxes . The magazine listed it as the " number one country and western record of 1949 " while Cashbox named it " Best Hillbilly record of the year " . In March 1949 , Wesley Rose requested Williams to send him the records by Griffin and Miller to prove that the song was in the public domain . Irving Mills , the original lyricist , sued Acuff @-@ Rose . The suit was settled on November 1 , 1949 and it was agreed that Mills and Acuff @-@ Rose would share the publishing of Williams ' recording . Mills retained the rest of rights to the song as he had also purchased Friend 's rights during the Great Depression .
Following the success of the song , Williams was invited to appear as a guest on the Grand Ole Opry , on June 11 , 1949 . After the performance , Williams received a standing ovation . " Lovesick Blues " became his signature song , which he used to close his shows . It was also his first number one hit , and garnered Williams the stage nickname of " The Lovesick Blues Boy " . In 1949 , the singer received second billing behind Eddy Arnold on the list of the " Year 's Top Selling Folk Artists " . Williams ' version of the song was featured in the films The Last Picture Show ( 1971 ) , Forrest Gump ( 1994 ) and The Shawshank Redemption ( 1994 ) . In 2004 , " Lovesick Blues " was added to the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress .
= = The Crickets recording = =
The Crickets released their cover of the song ( based on Williams ' version ) in 1971 on the Philips label . The song appeared originally as the B @-@ side to the single " My Rockin ' Days " . The recording lineup consisted of Sonny Curtis providing lead guitar and vocals , Joe Osborn on bass , Jerry Allison on drums , and Glen Hardin on piano . The song was performed live on The Old Grey Whistle Test in 1972 . The song was later released on the album Bubblegum , Bop , Ballad And Boogies in 1973 .
= = Other versions = =
Singer Sonny James released a version of the song on the flip side of " Dear Love " in June 1957 . The song peaked at number fifteen on Billboard 's Hot Country Songs .
Jerry Lee Lewis recorded a version for Sun Records .
Patsy Cline released a version of the song in 1960 .
Floyd Cramer 's 1962 version of the song peaked at eighty @-@ seven on the Billboard Hot 100 .
In December 1962 , Frank Ifield 's version of " Lovesick Blues " topped the UK Singles Chart , and reached number forty @-@ four on the Billboard Hot 100 the following month . Gramophone compared his singing to a " rough and raucous Jimmie Rodgers " . Meanwhile , Elizabethan delivered a negative review , stating : " No true country singer would dare do to a Hank Williams number what Frank Ifield has done to ' Lovesick Blues ' . " The review finished by declaring that Ifield had " none of Jim Reeves ' depth and character , nor of the subtle melodic quality ( of ) Don Gibson . " By the end of February 1963 , Billboard estimated that the single had sold close to a million copies worldwide .
Merle Haggard recorded a version on his 1973 live album I Love Dixie Blues .
Don McLean recorded a version on his 1976 live album , Solo
In 1992 , George Strait released a version that reached number twenty @-@ four on the Billboard Hot Country Singles . The single peaked at number twenty @-@ two on RPM 's Country Tracks .
Loretta Lynn , Dolly Parton , and Tammy Wynette included it on their 1993 album " Honky Tonk Angels " featuring Patsy Cline .
LeAnn Rimes recorded it on her self @-@ titled album .
The Little Willies recorded the song on their 2012 album For the Good Times .
= = Chart performance = =
= = = Hank Williams = = =
= = = Other artists = = =
= = = Chart @-@ toppers = = =
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= Northern Isles =
The Northern Isles ( Scots : Northren Isles ; Scottish Gaelic : Na h @-@ Eileanan a Tuath ; Old Norse : Norðreyjar ) is an archipelago comprising a chain of islands off the north coast of mainland Scotland . The climate is cool and temperate and much influenced by the surrounding seas . There are two main island groups : Shetland and Orkney . There are a total of 26 inhabited islands with landscapes of the fertile agricultural islands of Orkney contrasting with the more rugged Shetland islands to the north , where the economy is more dependent on fishing and the oil wealth of the surrounding seas . Both have a developing renewable energy industry . They also share a common Pictish and Norse history . Both island groups were absorbed into the Kingdom of Scotland in the 15th century and remained part of the country following the formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 , and later the United Kingdom after 1801 . The islands played a significant naval role during the world wars of the 20th century .
Tourism is important to both archipelagos , with their distinctive prehistoric ruins playing a key part in their attraction , and there are regular ferry and air connections with mainland Scotland . The Scandinavian influence remains strong , especially in relation to local folklore , and both island chains have strong , although distinct , local cultures . The place names of the islands are dominated by their Norse heritage , although some may retain pre @-@ Celtic elements .
= = Geography = =
The phrase " Northern Isles " generally refers to the main islands of the Orkney and Shetland archipelagos . Stroma , which lies between mainland Scotland and Orkney , is part of Caithness , and so falls under Highland council area for local government purposes , not Orkney . It is , however , clearly one of the " northern isles " of Scotland . Fair Isle and Foula are outliers of Shetland , but would normally be considered as part of Shetland and thus the Northern Isles . Similarly , Sule Skerry and Sule Stack , although distant from the main group , are part of Orkney and technically amongst the Northern Isles . However , the other small islands that lie off the north coast of Scotland are in Highland and thus not usually considered to be part of the Northern Isles .
Orkney is situated 16 kilometres ( 10 mi ) north of the coast of mainland Scotland , from which it is separated by the waters of the Pentland Firth . The largest island , known as the " Mainland " has an area of 523 @.@ 25 square kilometres ( 202 @.@ 03 sq mi ) , making it the sixth largest Scottish island . The total population in 2001 was 19 @,@ 245 and the largest town is Kirkwall . Shetland is around 170 kilometres ( 110 mi ) north of mainland Scotland , covers an area of 1 @,@ 468 square kilometres ( 567 sq mi ) and has a coastline 2 @,@ 702 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 679 mi ) long . Lerwick , the capital and largest settlement , has a population of around 7 @,@ 500 and about half of the archipelago 's total population of 22 @,@ 000 people live within 16 kilometres ( 10 mi ) of the town . Orkney has 20 inhabited islands and Shetland a total of 16 .
= = Geology = =
The superficial rock of Orkney is almost entirely Old Red Sandstone , mostly of Middle Devonian age . As in the neighbouring mainland county of Caithness , this sandstone rests upon the metamorphic rocks of the Moine series , as may be seen on the Orkney Mainland , where a narrow strip of the older rock is exposed between Stromness and Inganess , and again on the small island of Graemsay .
Middle Devonian basaltic volcanic rocks are found on western Hoy , on Deerness in eastern Mainland and on Shapinsay . Correlation between the Hoy volcanics and the other two exposures has been proposed , but differences in chemistry means this remains uncertain . Lamprophyre dykes of Late Permian age are found throughout Orkney . Glacial striation and the presence of chalk and flint erratics that originated from the bed of the North Sea demonstrate the influence of ice action on the geomorphology of the islands . Boulder clay is also abundant and moraines cover substantial areas .
The geology of Shetland is quite different . It is extremely complex , with numerous faults and fold axes . These islands are the northern outpost of the Caledonian orogeny and there are outcrops of Lewisian , Dalriadan and Moine metamorphic rocks with similar histories to their equivalents on the Scottish mainland . There are also small Old Red Sandstone deposits and granite intrusions . The most distinctive feature is the ultrabasic ophiolite , peridotite and gabbro on Unst and Fetlar , which are remnants of the Iapetus Ocean floor . Much of Shetland 's economy depends on the oil @-@ bearing sediments in the surrounding seas .
Geological evidence shows that at around 6100 BC a tsunami caused by the Storegga Slides hit the Northern Isles , ( as well as much of the east coast of Scotland ) , and may have created a wave of up to 25 metres ( 82 ft ) high in the voes of Shetland where modern populations are highest .
= = Climate = =
The Northern Isles have a cool , temperate climate that is remarkably mild and steady for such a northerly latitude , due to the influence of the surrounding seas and the Gulf Stream . In Shetland average peak temperatures are 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) in February and 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) in August and temperatures over 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) are rare . The frost @-@ free period may be as little as 3 months .
The average annual rainfall is 982 millimetres ( 38 @.@ 7 in ) in Orkney and 1 @,@ 168 millimetres ( 46 @.@ 0 in ) in Shetland . Winds are a key feature of the climate and even in summer there are almost constant breezes . In winter , there are frequent strong winds , with an average of 52 hours of gales being recorded annually in Orkney . Burradale wind farm on Shetland , which operates with five Vestas V47 660 kW turbines , achieved a world record of 57 @.@ 9 % capacity over the course of 2005 due to the persistent strong winds .
Snowfall is usually confined to the period November to February and seldom lies on the ground for more than a day . Less rain falls from April to August although no month receives less than an average of 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) . Annual bright sunshine averages 1082 hours in Shetland and overcast days are common .
To tourists , one of the fascinations of the islands is their " nightless " summers . On the longest day in Shetland there are over 19 hours of daylight and complete darkness is unknown . This long twilight is known in the Northern Isles as the " simmer dim " . Winter nights are correspondingly long with less than six hours of daylight at midwinter . At this time of year the aurora borealis can occasionally be seen on the northern horizon during moderate auroral activity .
= = Prehistory = =
There are numerous important prehistoric remains in Orkney , especially from the Neolithic period , four of which form the Heart of Neolithic Orkney UNESCO World Heritage Site that was inscribed in 1999 : Skara Brae ; Maes Howe ; the Stones of Stenness ; and Ring of Brodgar . The Knap of Howar Neolithic farmstead situated on the island of Papa Westray is probably the oldest preserved house in northern Europe . This structure was inhabited for 900 years from 3700 BC but was evidently built on the site of an even older settlement . Shetland is also extremely rich in physical remains of the prehistoric eras and there are over 5 @,@ 000 archaeological sites all told . Funzie Girt is a remarkable Neolithic dividing wall that ran for 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) across the island of Fetlar , although the Iron Age has provided the most outstanding archaeology on Shetland . Numerous brochs were erected at that time of which the Broch of Mousa is the finest preserved example of these round towers . In 2011 the collective site , " The Crucible of Iron Age Shetland " including Broch of Mousa , Old Scatness and Jarlshof joined the UK 's " Tentative List " of World Heritage Sites .
= = History , culture and politics = =
= = = Pictish times = = =
The culture that built the brochs is unknown , but by the late Iron Age the Northern Isles were part of the Pictish kingdom . The main archaeological relics from these times are symbol stones . One of the best examples is located on the Brough of Birsay ; it shows three warriors with spears and sword scabbards combined with traditional Pictish symbols . The St Ninian 's Isle Treasure was discovered in 1958 . The silver bowls , jewellery and other pieces are believed to date from approximately 800 AD . O 'Dell ( 1959 ) stated that " the treasure is the best survival of Scottish silver metalwork from the period " and that " the brooches show a variety of typical Pictish forms , with both animal @-@ head and lobed geometrical forms of terminal " .
Christianity probably arrived in Orkney in the 6th century and organised church authority emerged in the 8th century . The Buckquoy spindle @-@ whorl found at a Pictish site on Birsay is an Ogham – inscribed artefact whose interpretation has caused controversy although it is now generally considered to be of Irish Christian origin .
= = = Norse era = = =
The 8th century was also the time the Viking invasions of the Scottish seaboard commenced and with them came the arrival of a new culture and language for the Northern Isles , the fate of the existing indigenous population being uncertain . According to the Orkneyinga Saga , Vikings then made the islands the headquarters of pirate expeditions carried out against Norway and the coasts of mainland Scotland . In response , Norwegian king Harald Hårfagre ( " Harald Fair Hair " ) annexed the Northern Isles in 875 and Rognvald Eysteinsson received Orkney and Shetland from Harald as an earldom as reparation for the death of his son in battle in Scotland . ( Some scholars believe that this story is apocryphal and based on the later voyages of Magnus Barelegs . )
The islands were fully Christianised by Olav Tryggvasson in 995 when he stopped at South Walls on his way from Ireland to Norway . The King summoned the jarl Sigurd the Stout and said , " I order you and all your subjects to be baptised . If you refuse , I 'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel . " Unsurprisingly , Sigurd agreed and the islands became Christian at a stroke , receiving their own bishop in the early 11th century .
= = = Norwegian rule to Scots rule = = =
In the 14th century Orkney and Shetland remained a Norwegian province , but Scottish influence was growing . Jon Haraldsson , who was murdered in Thurso in 1231 , was the last of an unbroken line of Norse jarls , and thereafter the earls were Scots noblemen of the houses of Angus and St. Clair . In 1468 Shetland was pledged by Christian I , in his capacity as King of Norway , as security against the payment of the dowry of his daughter Margaret , betrothed to James III of Scotland . As the money was never paid , the connection with the crown of Scotland became permanent . In 1470 William Sinclair , 1st Earl of Caithness ceded his title to James III and the following year the Northern Isles were directly annexed to Scotland .
= = = Early British era = = =
From the early 15th century on the Shetlanders had sold their goods through the Hanseatic League of German merchantmen . This trade with the North German towns lasted until the 1707 Act of Union when high salt duties prohibited the German merchants from trading with Shetland . Shetland then went into an economic depression as the Scottish and local traders were not as skilled in trading with salted fish . However , some local merchant @-@ lairds took up where the German merchants had left off , and fitted out their own ships to export fish from Shetland to the Continent . For the independent farmer / fishermen of Shetland this had negative consequences , as they now had to fish for these merchant @-@ lairds .
British rule came at a price for many ordinary people as well as traders . The Shetlanders ' nautical skills were sought by the Royal Navy : some 3 @,@ 000 served during the Napoleonic Wars from 1800 to 1815 and press gangs were rife . During this period 120 men were taken from Fetlar alone and only 20 of them returned home . By the late 19th century 90 % of all Shetland was owned by just 32 people , and between 1861 and 1881 more than 8 @,@ 000 Shetlanders emigrated . With the passing of the Crofters ' Act in 1886 the Liberal prime minister William Gladstone emancipated crofters from the rule of the landlords . The Act enabled those who had effectively been landowners ' serfs to become owner @-@ occupiers of their own small farms .
The Orcadian experience was somewhat different . An influx of Scottish entrepreneurs helped to create a diverse and independent community that included farmers , fishermen and merchants that called themselves comunitatis Orcadie and who proved themselves increasing able to defend their rights against their feudal overlords . In the 17th century , Orcadians formed the overwhelming majority of employees of the Hudson 's Bay Company in Canada . The harsh climate of Orkney and the Orcadian reputation for sobriety and their boat @-@ handling skills made them ideal candidates for the rigours of the Canadian north . During this period , burning kelp briefly became a mainstay of the islands ' economy . For example , on Shapinsay over 3 @,@ 048 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 000 long tons ) of burned seaweed were produced per annum to make soda ash , bringing in £ 20 @,@ 000 to the local economy . Agricultural improvements beginning in the 17th century coincided with the enclosure of the commons and in the Victoria era the emergence of large and well @-@ managed farms using a five @-@ shift rotation system and producing high quality beef cattle . There is little evidence of an Orcadian fishing fleet until the 19th century but it grew rapidly and 700 boats were involved by the 1840s with Stronsay and then later Stromness becoming leading centres of development . Many Orcadian seamen became involved in whaling in Arctic waters during the 19th century , although the boats were generally based elsewhere in Britain .
= = = World Wars = = =
Orkney was the site of a navy base at Scapa Flow , which played a major role in World War I. After the Armistice in 1918 , the German High Seas Fleet was transferred in its entirety to Scapa Flow while a decision was to be made on its future ; however , the German sailors opened their sea @-@ cocks and scuttled all the ships . During World War I the 10th Cruiser Squadron was stationed at Swarbacks Minn in Shetland and during a single year from March 1917 more than 4 @,@ 500 ships sailed from Lerwick as part of an escorted convoy system . In total , Shetland lost more than 500 men , a higher proportion than any other part of Britain , and there were waves of emigration in the 1920s and 1930s .
One month into World War II , the Royal Navy battleship HMS Royal Oak was sunk by a German U @-@ boat in Scapa Flow . As a result barriers were built to close most of the access channels ; these had the additional advantage of creating causeways enabling travellers to go from island to island by road instead of being obliged to rely on ferries . The causeways were constructed by Italian prisoners of war , who also constructed the ornate Italian Chapel . The Scapa Flow base was run down after the war , eventually closing in 1957 .
During World War II a Norwegian naval unit nicknamed the " Shetland Bus " was established by the Special Operations Executive in the autumn of 1940 with a base first at Lunna and later in Scalloway to conduct operations around the coast of Norway . About 30 fishing vessels used by Norwegian refugees were gathered and the Shetland Bus conducted covert operations , carrying intelligence agents , refugees , instructors for the resistance , and military supplies . It made over 200 trips across the sea with Leif Larsen , the most highly decorated allied naval officer of the war , making 52 of them .
The problem of a declining population was significant in the post @-@ war years , although in the last decades of the 20th century there was a recovery and life in the islands focused on growing prosperity and the emergence of a relatively classless society .
= = Modern times = =
= = = Politics = = =
Due to their history , the islands have a Norse , rather than a Gaelic flavour , and have historic links with the Faroes , Iceland , and Norway . The similarities of both geography and history are matched by some elements of the current political process . Both Orkney and Shetland are represented in the House of Commons as constituting the Orkney and Shetland constituency , which elects one Member of Parliament ( MP ) , the current incumbent being Alistair Carmichael . Both are also within the Highlands and Islands electoral region for the Scottish Parliament .
However there are also two separate constituencies that elect one Member of the Scottish Parliament each for Orkney and Shetland by the first past the post system . Orkney and Shetland also have separate local Councils which are dominated by independents , that is they are not members of a political party .
The Orkney Movement , a political party that supported devolution for Orkney from the rest of Scotland , contested the 1987 general election as the Orkney and Shetland Movement ( a coalition of the Orkney movement and its equivalent for Shetland ) . Their candidate , John Goodlad , came 4th with 3 @,@ 095 votes , 14 @.@ 5 % of those cast , but the experiment has not been repeated .
= = = Transport = = =
Ferry services link Orkney and Shetland to the rest of Scotland , the main routes being Scrabster harbour , Thurso to Stromness and Aberdeen to Lerwick , both operated by Serco NorthLink Ferries . Inter @-@ island ferry services are operated by Orkney Ferries and SIC Ferries , which are operated by the respective local authorities and Northlink also run a Lerwick to Kirkwall service . The archipelago is exposed to wind and tide , and there are numerous sites of wrecked ships . Lighthouses are sited as an aid to navigation at various locations .
The main airport in Orkney is at Kirkwall , operated by Highland and Islands Airports . Loganair , a franchise of Flybe , provides services to the Scottish mainland ( Aberdeen , Edinburgh , Glasgow and Inverness ) , as well as to Sumburgh Airport in Shetland . Similar services fly from Sumburgh to the Scottish mainland .
Inter @-@ Island flights are available from Kirkwall to several Orkney islands and from the Shetland Mainland to most of the inhabited islands including those from Tingwall Airport . There are frequent charter flights from Aberdeen to Scatsta near Sullom Voe , which are used to transport oilfield workers and this small terminal has the fifth largest number of international passengers in Scotland . The scheduled air service between Westray and Papa Westray is reputedly the shortest in the world at two minutes ' duration .
= = = Economics = = =
The very different geologies of the two archipelagos have resulted in dissimilar local economies . In Shetland , the main revenue producers in Shetland are agriculture , aquaculture , fishing , renewable energy , the petroleum industry ( offshore crude oil and natural gas production ) , the creative industries and tourism . Oil and gas was first landed at Sullom Voe in 1978 , and it has subsequently become one of the largest oil terminals in Europe . Taxes from the oil have increased public sector spending in Shetland on social welfare , art , sport , environmental measures and financial development . Three quarters of the islands ' work force is employed in the service sector and Shetland Islands Council alone accounted for 27 @.@ 9 % of output in 2003 . Fishing remains central to the islands ' economy today , with the total catch being 75 @,@ 767 tonnes ( 74 @,@ 570 long tons ; 83 @,@ 519 short tons ) in 2009 , valued at over £ 73 @.@ 2 million .
By contrast , fishing has declined in Orkney since the 19th century and the impact of the oil industry has been much less significant . However , the soil of Orkney is generally very fertile and most of the land is taken up by farms , agriculture being by far the most important sector of the economy and providing employment for a quarter of the workforce . More than 90 % of agricultural land is used for grazing for sheep and cattle , with cereal production utilising about 4 % ( 4 @,@ 200 hectares ( 10 @,@ 000 acres ) ) , although woodland occupies only 134 hectares ( 330 acres ) .
Orkney and Shetland have significant wind and marine energy resources , and renewable energy has recently come into prominence . The European Marine Energy Centre is a Scottish Government @-@ backed research facility that has installed a wave testing system at Billia Croo on the Orkney Mainland and a tidal power testing station on the island of Eday . This has been described as " the first of its kind in the world set up to provide developers of wave and tidal energy devices with a purpose @-@ built performance testing facility . "
= = = Culture = = =
The Northern Isles have a rich folklore . For example , there are many Orcadian tales concerning trows , a form of troll that draws on the islands ' Scandinavian connections . Local customs in the past included marriage ceremonies at the Odin Stone that forms part of the Stones of Stenness . The best known literary figures from modern Orkney are the poet Edwin Muir , the poet and novelist George Mackay Brown and the novelist Eric Linklater .
Shetland has a strong tradition of local music . The Forty Fiddlers was formed in the 1950s to promote the traditional fiddle style , which is a vibrant part of local culture today . Notable exponents of Shetland folk music include Aly Bain and the late Tom Anderson and Peerie Willie Johnson . Thomas Fraser was a country musician who never released a commercial recording during his life , but whose work has become popular more than 20 years after his untimely death in 1978 .
= = = Language = = =
The Norn language formerly spoken in the islands , a descendant of the Old Norse of the Vikings , became extinct in the 18th or 19th century . The local dialects of the Scots language , collectively known as Insular Scots , are highly distinctive and retain strong Norn influences .
= = Island names = =
The etymology of the island names is dominated by Norse influence . There follows a listing of the derivation of all the inhabited islands in the Northern Isles .
= = = Shetland = = =
The oldest version of the modern name Shetland is Hetlandensis recorded in 1190 becoming Hetland in 1431 after various intermediate transformations . This then became Hjaltland in the 16th century . As Shetlandic Norn was gradually replaced by Scots Hjaltland became Ȝetland . When use of the letter yogh was discontinued , it was often replaced by the similar @-@ looking letter z , hence Zetland , the mispronounced form used to describe the pre @-@ 1975 county council . However the earlier name is Innse Chat – the island of the cats ( or the cat tribe ) as referred to in early Irish literature and it is just possible that this forms part of the Norse name . The Cat tribe also occupied parts of the northern Scottish mainland – hence the name of Caithness via the Norse Katanes ( " headland of the cat " ) , and the Gaelic name for Sutherland , Cataibh , meaning " among the Cats " .
The location of " Thule " , first mentioned by Pytheas of Massilia when he visited Britain sometime between 322 and 285 BC is not known for certain . When Tacitus mentioned it in AD 98 it is clear he was referring to Shetland .
= = = Orkney = = =
Pytheas described Great Britain as being triangular in shape , with a northern tip called Orcas . This may have referred to Dunnet Head , from which Orkney is visible . Writing in the 1st century AD , the Roman geographer Pomponius Mela called the Orkney islands Orcades , as did Tacitus in AD 98 " Orc " is usually interpreted as a Pictish tribal name meaning " young pig " or " young boar " . The old Irish Gaelic name for the islands was Insi Orc ( " island of the pigs " ) . The ogham script on the Buckquoy spindle @-@ whorl is also cited as evidence for the pre @-@ Norse existence of Old Irish in Orkney . The Pictish association with Orkney is leant weight by the Norse name for the Pentland Firth – Pettaland @-@ fjörðr i.e " Pictland Firth .
The Norse retained the earlier root but changed the meaning , providing the only definite example of an adaption of a pre @-@ Norse place name in the Northern Isles . The islands became Orkneyar meaning " seal islands " . An alternative name for Orkney is recorded in 1300 — Hrossey , meaning " horse isle " and this may also contain a Pictish element of ros meaning " moor " or " plain " .
Unlike most of the larger Orkney islands , the derivation of the name " Shapinsay " is not obvious . The final ' ay ' is from the Old Norse for island , but the first two syllables are more difficult to interpret . Haswell @-@ Smith ( 2004 ) suggests the root may be hjalpandis @-@ øy ( helpful island ) due to the presence of a good harbour , although anchorages are plentiful in the archipelago . The first written record dates from 1375 in a reference to Scalpandisay , which may suggest a derivation from " judge 's island " . Another suggestion is " Hyalpandi 's island " , although no one of that name is known to have been associated with Shapinsay .
= = = Uninhabited islands = = =
Stroma , from the Norse Straumøy means " current island " or " island in the tidal stream " , a reference to the strong currents in the Pentland Firth . The Norse often gave animal names to islands and these have been transferred into English in for example , the Calf of Flotta and Horse of Copinsay . Brother Isle is an anglicisation of the Norse breiðareøy meaning " broad beach island " . The Norse holmr , meaning " a small islet " has become " Holm " in English and there are numerous examples of this use including Corn Holm , Thieves Holm and Little Holm . " Muckle " meaning large or big is one of few Scots words in the island names of the Nordreyar and appears in Muckle Roe and Muckle Flugga in Shetland and Muckle Green Holm and Muckle Skerry in Orkney . Many small islets and skerries have Scots or Insular Scots names such as Da Skerries o da Rokness and Da Buddle Stane in Shetland , and Kirk Rocks in Orkney .
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= Black Ice ( album ) =
Black Ice is an album by Australian hard rock band AC / DC . It was the band 's fourteenth internationally released studio album and the fifteenth in Australia . Released internationally on 17 October 2008 , it was produced by Brendan O 'Brien . It marked the band 's first original recordings since 2000 's Stiff Upper Lip , with the eight @-@ year gap being the longest between AC / DC 's successive studio albums . Black Ice has the longest running time of any AC / DC studio album .
The album 's development was delayed because bass guitarist Cliff Williams sustained an injury and the band changed labels from Elektra Records to Sony Music . The first composing sessions between guitarists / brothers Angus and Malcolm Young were in London in 2003 . Recording happened during March and April 2008 at The Warehouse Studio in Vancouver , Canada . O 'Brien tried to recapture the rock sound of the band 's early work , as opposed to the blues orientation of Ballbreaker and Stiff Upper Lip , with suggestions such as adding " soul crooning " to Brian Johnson 's singing . The songs were mostly recorded live in the studio ; engineer Mike Fraser used only sparse overdubs and effects to keep the tracks as close to the originals as possible .
Black Ice was released exclusively in physical formats , as the group did not sell its music digitally at the time . Walmart got exclusive rights to distribute the album in North America . Its release was promoted with an extensive marketing campaign , which included displays of AC / DC memorabilia . The four singles issued from the album were , " Rock ' N ' Roll Train " , " Big Jack " , " Anything Goes " , and " Money Made " . Black Ice peaked at number one in 29 countries , including Australia , Canada , the United Kingdom and the United States . It was the second best @-@ selling record of 2008 , behind Coldplay 's Viva La Vida or Death and All His Friends and had shipped 6 million copies worldwide by December . Critical reviews were generally positive , praising the music and its resemblance to the classic AC / DC sound , although some critics found the work too long and inconsistent . The track " War Machine " won the Best Hard Rock Performance category at the Grammys . The album itself was nominated for many awards , including the Grammy , Brit , Juno and ARIA Music Awards ; and was supported by a world tour between 2008 and 2010 .
Black Ice is the final AC / DC studio album to feature founding rhythm guitarist Malcolm Young , who left the band in September 2014 after being diagnosed with dementia .
= = Production = =
Black Ice is AC / DC 's seventeenth studio album release in Australia and their fourteenth international release . The band took a break after finishing the Stiff Upper Lip World Tour in 2001 , and resumed performing in 2003 , with eight presentations that included AC / DC 's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and they opened three concerts for The Rolling Stones ' Licks Tour . During those two years , guitarists Angus Young and Malcolm Young wrote music separately , then met in a London studio to work on new songs .
The production of Black Ice was delayed for several reasons . AC / DC left their label Atlantic Records , signed a deal with Sony Music and changed labels within Sony from Epic Records to Columbia Records . Bass guitarist Cliff Williams suffered an injury to his hand in 2005 and was unable to play for 18 months . While Williams was recovering , the Young brothers perfected the songs they had written . Angus revealed that there was no pressure from Sony for the band to release a new album , as the label was releasing DVDs and remasters of the AC / DC catalogue , and thus the group " could afford to sit back and say we 'll do another album when we think we 've got all the goods . " In a 2004 interview , vocalist Brian Johnson said that Angus had written harder riffs than those on Stiff Upper Lip and that he would be writing song lyrics for the first time since the band 's 1988 album Blow Up Your Video , but his input would end up minimal , with all tracks on Black Ice credited to the Youngs . Johnson explained that the brothers had done most of the lyrical job , and his collaboration was that he " helped with melody and just filling in gaps that I thought needed filling in " .
While producer Robert John " Mutt " Lange expressed an interest in working again with AC / DC , his schedule did not allow this . When the Young brothers called Columbia Records ' president Steve Barnett to announce the making of a new album , Barnett recommended producer Brendan O 'Brien . Angus said the band had considered talking to O 'Brien since the 1990s , as " he seemed to us a very competent professional " and because he and the band would benefit from working with a producer they had not worked with before .
On 3 March 2008 , recording started at The Warehouse Studio in Vancouver , where Stiff Upper Lip was recorded , and lasted for eight weeks . Engineer Mike Fraser , who has mixed all AC / DC albums since The Razors Edge , said they recorded in batches of three songs to " keep things interesting " and to avoid overextended sessions . According to Fraser , the band had not rehearsed the songs before entering the studio . Despite " a couple of tweaks in the writing , sparkling up the choruses a bit better " during the recording , the compositions were mostly complete . Still , the Young brothers had new ideas during production , including the song " Anything Goes " , which was written when the studio sessions were nearly finished . The songs were mostly recorded live in the studio ; the instruments and backing vocals were recorded in the live room and the vocals at both the control room and an overdubbing booth . The performances were first recorded with analogue equipment , as Fraser considers that tape conveys " the sound of rock & roll " , and then digitised for mixing and overdubs . Fraser tried to not alter the original recordings – " I used Pro @-@ Tools purely as a tape machine " – with no effects on the bass and rhythm guitar , sparse delay and reverb effects on the vocals and other instruments and overdubs were only used for the lead guitar and vocals .
The first title considered for the album was Runaway Train . Malcolm suggested using a photograph of a famous 1895 derailment for the cover , but reconsidered after he found that Mr. Big had used it for their album Lean into It . According to Angus , Runaway Train was rejected was because it had been used by many musicians , including Elton John , Tom Petty and Eric Clapton , and he " wanted something unique , new , different " . So he suggested Black Ice , which refers to gigs played during winter in Scotland . He said , " it rolled off the tongue " and it reminded him of " radio warnings up north of black ice . " Angus was inspired to write the eponymous song by a similar warning heard on his car radio during production .
= = Composition = =
With Black Ice , Brendan O 'Brien tried to recapture the rock sound of AC / DC 's early work on albums such as Highway to Hell and Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap . He thought the two previous studio albums , Ballbreaker and Stiff Upper Lip , were blues @-@ influenced . O 'Brien tried to focus on the choruses , which he felt were the best part of the AC / DC songs , and encouraged the band to emphasise the " hooky , melodic side " of its song @-@ writing , which Angus complimented , since he had " never been great with harmonies " . Mike Fraser said the band aimed " towards The Razors Edge era , a little bit more up @-@ tempo stuff . " O 'Brien made suggestions about the band 's performance , got Angus to play slide guitar on " Stormy May Day " , and told Johnson to swap some screaming for " soul crooning " as Johnson was a soul singer . Johnson was worried that the rest of the band would think this did not suit the band 's style of hard rock and roll , but the band was quite receptive . Because of the highly demanding singing style , Johnson only recorded his vocals for one hour a day . The rhythm section continues the basic structure from other AC / DC records ; Cliff Williams played bass lines of eighth notes , and Phil Rudd 's drumming was a consistent 4 / 4 time , mostly on his snare , kick drum and hi @-@ hat cymbal . Both musicians expressed contentment with their roles in the band ; Rudd said , " I 'm not repressing skills . Most drummers are scared to try this " , and Williams admitted he plays " the same thing in every song , for the most part " , but added " [ i ] n AC / DC 's music , the song is more important than any individual 's bit in it " .
Angus said that when composing with Malcolm they share ideas to make each track " work together " to form a complete album , and Johnson added " these songs belong together . It 's about five boys having a damn good time in a studio . " With 15 songs and a running time of over 55 minutes , Black Ice has the longest running time of any AC / DC studio record . Malcolm said that " about 60 or 70 song ideas " were developed , but Angus stated that most were discarded because they were not " representative of how we are " . Angus also said that the first attempt to sequence the album resulted in a track list comprising eleven songs , " but as the days went by each band member voted for a new track , and then another , and other one " so they decided to include all the recorded tracks .
Most of the album 's tracks are about rock and roll itself – Angus stated , " Certain songs just seem to come to life when you add that phrase " . However , other themes served as inspiration . " Money Made " is a criticism on how , according to Angus , in the US " everything is money these days " . " War Machine " was based on a documentary on Hannibal , which led to the conclusion that the military has not changed since Ancient Rome . " Wheels " tells about Johnson 's passion for motorcars . He described the album 's release as the " best one we 've done " , he felt that while Back in Black was great for its time , Black Ice shows the band 's versatility . Angus also said he admired the album 's diversity , saying " It is sufficiently varied to please people in varied moods " .
= = Release and promotion = =
On 18 August 2008 , Columbia Records announced that Black Ice would be released on 20 October in the US , and began accepting pre @-@ orders . " Rock ' n ' Roll Train " was issued as the first single from the album on 28 August ; " Big Jack " and " Anything Goes " followed in some markets , and " Money Made " was an airplay single in Australia and the United Kingdom . The track " Spoilin ' for a Fight " , was used by the WWE as the theme song for its 2008 Survivor Series event , and " War Machine " would later be included in both a trailer for 2010 's Iron Man 2 and the film 's soundtrack album in addition to serving as one of the theme songs for Wrestlemania XXV .
The CD version was also available in a hardcover , deluxe edition with a 30 @-@ page booklet containing exclusive new illustrations , studio and live photographs of the group and lyrics . A limited edition steel @-@ box version , containing the CD , a 20 @-@ page colour booklet , a DVD featuring the " Rock ' n ' Roll Train " video and a making of documentary , a large AC / DC flag , five stickers and a Gibson guitar pick , was issued in Germany and the United Kingdom in December . The album was released as a double LP on two 180 @-@ gram discs in a gatefold package featuring the standard red lettering artwork on the front . The LP was sold through the official website and through independent record shops in the US . An unknown number of copies of the vinyl version were incorrectly pressed ; side 1B had tracks from The Clash 's Live at Shea Stadium . Black Ice was not issued digitally as the band refused to sell their tracks separately . Angus declared , " If we were on iTunes , we know a certain percentage of people would only download two or three songs from the album – and we don 't think that represents us musically . " However , the entire album was leaked online a week before the official release . Rumours spread that Sony Music tried to control leaks by releasing fake tracks on peer @-@ to @-@ peer websites .
In North America , Walmart made a deal for the exclusive distribution of Black Ice , though a few independent music shops ordered copies of the album from foreign outlets . Angus declared that the band chose Walmart because the company is the biggest physical music retailer in America , which they believed to be " the best alternative to iTunes " . He also said , " There aren 't as many record stores these days , and Walmarts are all over America . New York and Los Angeles and Chicago may be covered , but in the heartland of America , Walmart may be the only gig in town . " Walmart created over 3000 " Rock Again AC / DC Stores " with displays showcasing the band 's albums , branded clothing , the No Bull DVD , the video game AC / DC Live : Rock Band , and products from sponsors . Gary Severson , a Walmart senior vice president , said that AC / DC was one of the rare artists whose loyal fan @-@ base allowed them to display other merchandise along with the music . In October , MTV , Walmart and Columbia created " AC / DC Rock Band Stores " in cities without regular Walmart retail locations – New York 's Times Square and Los Angeles . " Black Ice " trucks were dispatched on the streets of these cities after the release , playing tracks and making stops each day to sell merchandise . Advertising agency Arnold Worldwide was awarded both Best Activity Generating Brand Volume by the Marketing Agencies Association , and Best Retail / Co @-@ Marketing Campaign by Promo Magazine for Black Ice 's marketing campaign .
A digital version of Black Ice was made available on iTunes , along with the rest of AC / DC 's catalogue , on 19 November 2012 .
= = Packaging = =
The cover art of Black Ice was drawn by Joshua Marc Levy , art director for Columbia and a longtime fan of the band who volunteered for the project among " many people at Sony who desired to work on it " . There are four different covers , the standard edition has a red logo , the deluxe edition has a blue logo and two variants to the regular design include yellow or white logos . Angus said the options were not to deliver the message that fans would need to purchase all covers . He said , " We know most people will only purchase the record once , in their colour of choice . For me , it 's not relevant . What matters is that fans enjoy it . Music is the essence . "
After working with the cover for the album , provisionally titled Runaway Train , Levy went on vacation and travelled with Pearl Jam on their 2008 tour . After a concert in Washington D.C. , Levy came up with the idea " to do it all graphic black on black " and sketched what would become the yellow artwork . The record company liked it and requested he do two more in the same style , which became the red and white versions . During the promotional photography sessions , Levy made the deluxe edition art . The tracks on the album did not have much influence on the artwork as Levy had heard " maybe 5 songs at that point " , but he found it curious that his artwork fit the title track " Black Ice " , which was not among the tracks he had heard . Levy said that since the album had many similarities with Back in Black – " Black " in the title , dark covers , and AC / DC resurfacing with a sound based on the band 's early work – the art was " like a time travel , which is why there are so many psychedelic drawings " . The artwork 's resemblance to a train , echoing lead single " Rock N ' Roll Train " , was a coincidence , given Levy " never thought of it that way " . Atop the image there is a cog with an image of Angus with his fist in the air resembling the statue on Stiff Upper Lip , because Levy " just thought it was great as a continuing icon . " The photographs for the booklet and promotional photography were taken by music photographer Guido Karp , in August 2008 in London .
= = Reception = =
= = = Professional reviews = = =
Critical reviews of Black Ice were generally favourable according to Metacritic , which provided a normalised rating of 69 out of 100 based on 24 reviews from mainstream critics . Most reviewers complimented the album 's sound , with The Village Voice 's Richard Bienstock considering that Brendan O 'Brien 's production restored a sonority closer to the Vanda and Young produced 1970s albums and effective choruses like those with " Mutt " Lange , and Aaron Burgess of The A.V. Club finding Black Ice the most inspired AC / DC album since The Razors Edge while sounding " harder , hungrier , and more relevant than anything on contemporary radio . " A common argument was that Black Ice succeeded because AC / DC did not want to change the style that succeeded in previous albums , with Bernard Zuel of The Sydney Morning Herald declaring that given " almost all of [ the tracklist ] could have appeared on any AC / DC album of the past 28 years " , and Chris Jones of BBC saying that the band 's " almost platonic form of rock ' n ' boogie that was hand built to last " remains because they " have no reason to tinker with a formula that was well @-@ nigh perfect to begin with . " Writers such as Spin 's David Marchese and The Observer 's Peter Kimpton complimented the band 's attempts at " some new sonic tricks " , such as the slide guitar of " Stormy May Day " and the quieter " Decibel " .
However , some reviewers found the album inconsistent , overly long or formulaic . Black Ice was described as a retread of other AC / DC albums without the same inspiration , with Spence D. of IGN declaring that " the band sounds tight , but very few of the songs actually resonate with that sense of classicism found on much of their earlier efforts " , The Austin Chronicle 's Austin Powell feeling that despite " a few cheap thrills " the album lacked " the urgent indecency and iron force that defined the Bon Scott era " , and Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine considering that after " Big Jack " the tracks went into a " too @-@ comfortable groove , fueled by too @-@ tight rhythms and guitars that sound loud but not beefy " . Many complained about the lack of variation , made more flagrant by the long track list . Entertainment Weekly 's reviewer Clark Collis wrote that " even 2000 's fairly monochromatic Stiff Upper Lip had more varied material " , Brian Hiatt of Rolling Stone felt that Black Ice " feels longer than its 55 minutes , thanks to a stretch of throwaway rockers " , and Robert Forster of The Monthly thought that a shorter running time would " maximise the album 's impact " , given he found the first four songs and the title track the best for sounding more diverse , while the other tracks were let down by poor songwriting and a " numbing predictability " .
= = = Chart performance and sales = = =
Black Ice made history by debuting at number one on album charts of 29 countries , and is Columbia Records ' biggest debut album since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales data for Billboard in March 1991 . Black Ice was the second best @-@ selling album worldwide in 2008 , behind Coldplay 's Viva La Vida or Death and All His Friends . As of December 2008 , it had shipped 6 million copies worldwide , and earned sales certifications in 24 countries , with multi @-@ platinum status in eight , platinum in twelve more , and gold in the four remaining .
On the first day of its US release , 20 October 2008 , Black Ice sold over 193 @,@ 000 units . By 28 October , Black Ice debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 albums chart , selling over 784 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , the second highest one @-@ week sales of an album in the US of 2008 , behind Lil Wayne 's Tha Carter III . It was AC / DC 's second release to top the US charts , after For Those About to Rock We Salute You ( 1981 ) and became the biggest debut ever by a mainstream hard rock album . As of 31 December 2008 , the album had sold 1 @.@ 915 million copies in the US , according to Nielsen SoundScan , and was certified 2x Platinum by the RIAA . Black Ice also debuted at number one on the ARIA Album Charts , selling over 90 @,@ 000 units , and the UK Album charts , with 110 @,@ 000 copies sold . It was their first number one in the UK since Back in Black ( 1980 ) . In Canada , Black Ice debuted at number one and sold 119 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , making it the best @-@ selling album debut in Canada in 2008 . The album held the top spot in Canada for three consecutive weeks , with sales of over 200 @,@ 000 copies . In Germany , Black Ice became the 14th best @-@ selling album of the 2000s , with sales of 1 million copies and being certified 5 times platinum .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the ARIA Music Awards of 2009 , Black Ice won in the categories of Best Rock Album and Highest Selling Album ; it was nominated for Album of the Year and AC / DC were nominated for Group of the Year . It was nominated for Best International Album at the Juno Awards and the Brit Awards . At the APRA Awards of 2010 Angus and Malcolm won Songwriters of the Year , and " Rock ' n ' Roll Train " won Most Played Australian Work Overseas . At the 51st Grammy Awards in 2009 , " Rock ' n ' Roll Train " was nominated for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal , and at the 2010 ceremony , Black Ice was nominated for Best Rock Album and the track " War Machine " won the Best Hard Rock Performance category .
Black Ice was ranked 41st on Rolling Stone 's Top 50 Albums of 2008 list , 29th on a similar list by Q magazine , 17th on Kerrang ! ' s Top 20 Albums of the Year and 3rd in UGO 's list of the 11 Best Metal Albums of 2008 .
= = Black Ice World Tour = =
To promote Black Ice , AC / DC launched the Black Ice World Tour on 28 October 2008 in Wilkes @-@ Barre , Pennsylvania . Two days earlier ; they had held a dress rehearsal in the same city . The tour lasted for 168 shows in 11 legs , with the last in Bilbao , Spain , on 28 June 2010 .
Mark Fisher , who had worked on the Stiff Upper Lip World Tour , designed the stage . The set 's centrepiece was a full size locomotive , weighing 3500 kg , that was inspired by the working title Runaway Train and the track " Rock ' n ' Roll Train " . Five songs from Black Ice were included on the tour 's set list ; " Rock ' n ' Roll Train " , " Big Jack " , " Black Ice " , " War Machine " , and " Anything Goes " .
The Black Ice World Tour was AC / DC 's most successful , grossing $ 441 @.@ 6 million , making it the fourth highest @-@ grossing concert tour of all @-@ time . Three concerts in December 2009 at the River Plate Stadium in Buenos Aires were released as the DVD Live at River Plate on 10 May 2011 . A limited edition photo book of the tour , AC / DC Black Ice World Tour 2008 – 2010 , by Matteo Abruzzo , was published in Italy in October 2010 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Angus Young and Malcolm Young .
= = Personnel = =
AC / DC
Angus Young – lead guitar , slide guitar on " Stormy May Day "
Malcolm Young – rhythm guitar , backing vocals
Brian Johnson – lead vocals
Cliff Williams – bass guitar , backing vocals
Phil Rudd – drums , percussion
Production
Brendan O 'Brien – producer
Mike Fraser – engineer , mixer
Eric Mosher – assistant engineer
Billy Bowers – additional engineering
George Marino – mastering
Richard Jones , Geoff Banks , Rick St. Pierre – equipment technicians
Guido Karp – photography
Joshua Marc Levy – art direction , design , illustrations ( containing vector graphics by You Work For Them , LLC )
Alvin Handwerker ( Prager and Fenton LLP ) – management
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = End @-@ of @-@ year charts = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Release history = =
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= Vestby Station =
Vestby Station ( Norwegian : Vestby stasjon ) is a railway station on the Østfold Line located in the village of Vestby , Norway . It is served by commuter trains operated by the Norwegian State Railways running from Spikkestad over Oslo to Moss . The station opened in 1879 , and was modernised in the early 1990s . It features a passenger walkway built in gluelam connecting its two platforms and a small parking lot with place for approximately 120 cars . The station serves about 160 passengers to Oslo each day .
= = History = =
The station was opened in 1879 as a halt on the Smaalens Line , now known as the western branch of the Østfold Line . The station building was designed by the Norwegian architect Peter Andreas Blix in the same Swiss cottage style as the stations Ås and Såner . In the 1950s , the station was frequently used by weekend guests from Oslo that visited the nearby conurbation Hvitsten for having a bath . A few years after the section of the Østfold Line between Ski and Moss Station was upgraded to double tracks , Vestby Station received a major renovation . A regulation plan for the station area was published in May 2010 , which involved increasing the number of car parking places .
In 2005 , the station was subject of a terrorist attack . A non @-@ Norwegian man had called the Norwegian police 7 @.@ 49 in the morning , claiming that he had planted a bomb on the station which would detonate 8 @.@ 00 , eleven minutes later . All traffic on the Østfold Line was stopped , and the station investigated , but no bombs were found .
Vestby Station has seen several accidents and injuries . In January 2004 , a Linx train from Gothenburg , travelling at 130 kilometres per hour ( 81 mph ) , crashed into a plowing car that was partly parked on the railway tracks at Vestby . No passengers were hurt in the accident . It was victim of sabotage in March 2004 , when some local youth laid steel pipes over the tracks . In 2006 , a two @-@ year @-@ old boy fell down from the platform and was run over by a passing train . In June 2010 , the station building caught fire in the middle of the night , but left no injuries .
= = Facilities = =
The station received a major overhaul after the Østfold Line was extended to double track in the 1990s . The station was redesigned in the same architectural style as the preceding station Ås , with a modern walkway over the tracks . The walkway is built in gluelam , and shapes together with the stairways down to the platforms one minimalistic construction .
A bus stop is located on the east side of the station , and a park and ride facility with space for up to 120 cars on the west side . There is also a taxi stand at the station . The station building features a small kiosk . The platforms have sheds and ticket machines . The station is located north of Sonsveien and south of Ås Station , 38 @.@ 65 kilometres ( 24 @.@ 02 mi ) from Oslo Central Station .
= = Service = =
Vestby Station is served by the line L21 of the Oslo Commuter Rail , which is operated by the Norwegian State Railways . The line runs through Oslo from Stabekk to Moss . The service has two southbound stations before reaching Moss : Sonsveien and Kambo . Travel time to Oslo Central Station is 33 minutes and to Moss 16 minutes . The public transport authority Ruter operates bus services to the station from conurbations around Vestby .
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= Wake low =
A wake low , or wake depression , is a mesoscale low @-@ pressure area which trails the mesoscale high following a squall line . Due to the subsiding warm air associated with the systems formation , clearing skies are associated with the wake low . Once difficult to detect in surface weather observations due to their broad spacing , the formation of mesoscale weather station networks , or mesonets , has increased their detection . Severe weather , in the form of high winds , can be generated by the wake low when the pressure difference between the mesohigh preceding it and the wake low is intense enough . When the squall line is in the process of decay , heat bursts can be generated near the wake low . Once new thunderstorm activity along the squall line ends , the wake low associated with it weakens in tandem .
= = Formation = =
Wake lows form due to adiabatic warming in the wake of mature squall lines at the back edge of their rain shields , where evaporative cooling is unable to offset warming due to atmospheric subsidence , or downward motion . They can be caused by gravity waves which duct through boundary layers which are deep and cold to the north of a weather front . As with mesoscale high @-@ pressure areas behind a squall line , when new thunderstorm development stops along the squall line , the wake low will weaken as well . Clearing conditions will accompany the wake low , due to the descending warm air mass associated with the feature . Within the United States , these systems have been observed to form in the Mississippi river valley , Southeast , Florida , and Great Plains .
= = Detection = =
Both direct and indirect ways have been found to indicate the presence of a wake depression . The most direct is through the use of surface observations . Prior to the development of mesoscale weather station networks , or mesonets , it was difficult to find wake lows . With the advent of mesoscale networks , wake lows have become easier to find . On weather satellite and weather radar imagery , wake lows and heat bursts normally occur on the back side of a precipitation area . However , within larger precipitation areas , they can be located within the area showing a minimum of returns . When using velocity data from a WSR @-@ 88D doppler radar , high winds on the back edge of reflectivity data can give away the location of a wake low .
= = Association with heat bursts = =
Heat bursts are rare atmospheric phenomenon characterized by gusty winds and a rapid increase in temperature and decrease in dew point ( moisture ) . Heat bursts typically occur during night @-@ time and are associated with decaying thunderstorms . In association with wake lows , heat bursts are caused when rain evaporates ( virga ) into a parcel of cold dry air high in the atmosphere making the air denser than its surroundings . The parcel descends rapidly , warming due to compression , overshoots its equilibrium level and reaches the surface , similar to a downburst .
Recorded temperatures during heat bursts have reached well above 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) , sometimes rising by 20 ° F ( 11 ° C ) or more within only a few minutes . More extreme events have also been documented , where temperatures have been reported to exceed 130 ° F ( 54 ° C ) , although such extreme events have never been officially verified . Heat bursts are also characterised by extremely dry air and are sometimes associated with very strong , even damaging , winds .
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= Malloch Building =
The Malloch Building is a private residential apartment building on Telegraph Hill in San Francisco designed in the Streamline Moderne style and built in 1937 . The building , one of the best examples of its type in San Francisco , is also known as Malloch Apartments , Malloch Apartment Building , and simply by its address : 1360 Montgomery Street . Some have called it the " Ocean @-@ Liner House " , though other Moderne buildings have also been known by that nickname .
Designed by Irvin Goldstine for father / son architects John " Jack " S. Malloch and John Rolph Malloch , the building was used as a filming location in 1947 's Dark Passage , a noir work starring Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall .
= = Design and construction = =
The building was intended as a home for Jack Malloch and his son , John Rolph Malloch . Both men were partners in a father / son architectural firm based in San Francisco , and both wanted to live on Telegraph Hill with a view of the San Francisco Bay . They determined to build an apartment which would provide them with fine dwellings and also with income from the rental units it held . Irvin Goldstine ( sometimes written Irving or Irvine ) designed the building for them ; he had recently graduated from l 'École des Beaux @-@ Arts but had not yet earned his architect 's license , so he was not listed as the architect of record . Instead , the Mallochs were listed . Goldstine obtained his license in 1940 , four years after he first sketched the Malloch Building .
The building site is on a steep hill , so the street @-@ level entrance at the upper edge of the property is not the lowest floor . Four stories of apartments start at the ground floor and go up , and two more floors consisting of a 10 @-@ car garage and a sub @-@ basement storage space are below grade , jutting out to the east because of the slope . A manager 's apartment was added in 1947 by extending steel beams from the garage and suspending a two @-@ floor unit with steel cables . Structural engineer W.S. Ellison oversaw construction of the primarily wooden frame structure , built atop a foundation and two utility floors made of reinforced concrete to meet exacting state requirements for stability .
Muralist Alfred Du Pont ( also known as Dupont ) was hired to design images to decorate the exterior . Du Pont produced two 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) high silvery figures in sgraffito , or raised plaster , on the western facade of the building , and a third on the north side . Du Pont applied colored concrete to the exterior and carved it into shape . Flanking the main street entrance are two male figures . The image on the right facing left is a Spanish explorer with a telescope raised to one eye . The image on the left facing right is a bare @-@ chested worker holding a globe , towering above the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge , with sleek aircraft flying above and below him , and ships moving in the bay . The actual bridge can be seen from the house ; it had been completed the previous year when the Malloch Building was under construction . Around the corner from the main entrance , the third silvery mural shows a robed woman , the spirit of California , standing in front of California represented as a map .
The building 's elevator was designed and added to the foyer after the building was occupied . It is encased in a backlit glass brick shaft at one edge of the open @-@ air lobby . Scalloped steel railings line the central staircase which is anchored by a glass brick column . Sandblasted designs are featured in glass plate windows above the entrance .
The interiors were streamlined as much as possible , without traditional touches such as baseboard moldings . Indirect lighting was used throughout . Curves were abundant , with rounded fireplaces topped with indirect lighting and a round dining room with floor @-@ to @-@ ceiling windows . Rounded balcony edges were set off by rounded bay windows . The bedrooms included circular dressing rooms with ample closet space . In some of the units , glass brick was used as partition material .
The city of San Francisco notified the Mallochs that they were in violation of a building code prohibiting more than three floors above a garage , because the building contained four floors of apartments above the garage . The Mallochs successfully argued that their structure stepped back in progression up the slope of Telegraph Hill so that the top floor was not directly above the garage . No part of the building was in violation of the code .
= = Use = =
Before the building was completed , it was fully rented . In 1937 , the two Malloch men moved into the two penthouse suites in the 12 @-@ unit apartment building , collecting rent from the other 10 tenants .
The Malloch Building was featured in the 1947 film noir work titled Dark Passage . In the film , Humphrey Bogart , playing an escaped prisoner , is invited by Lauren Bacall into her apartment unit , Number 10 on the third floor of the Malloch Building . In the apartment , Bogart hides out while he heals from plastic surgery , and plots to clear his name . Bogart wearily ascends the nearby Filbert Steps in one scene , on his way to the Malloch Building . Modern @-@ day residents have been known to put a cutout of Bogart in the street @-@ facing window of Number 10 .
Owner / occupant John Rolph Malloch died in 1951 at the age of 39 . In the early 1980s the building was converted from rental apartments to condominiums . The original plans had been lost to fire , so the renovating architects had to form new plans taken from measurements of the building .
A six @-@ page writeup about the building appeared in Architect and Engineer in December 1937 . The article listed the owners and the structural engineer , but did not name the architect . In the early 1980s , geologist and architectural historian Gray Brechin discovered that Irvin Goldstine had designed the building ; Brechin subsequently interviewed Goldstine regarding his career . An article about the discovery was printed in Metro Magazine , a defunct San Francisco magazine . Until that time , the building was thought to be designed by the Mallochs .
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= Sam Tomkins =
Sam Tomkins ( born 23 March 1989 ) is an English professional rugby league footballer who currently plays for the Wigan Warriors in the Super League . An England national representative fullback , he previously played in National Rugby League for the New Zealand Warriors . He won two Super League Grand Finals with Wigan in 2010 and 2013 as well as two Challenge Cup finals in 2011 and 2013 . He is the younger brother of Joel Tomkins and the older brother of Logan Tomkins .
Tomkins was born in Milton Keynes , Buckinghamshire . After his family moved north in the early 1990s , he started playing for Chorley Panthers amateur club when he was aged seven . To develop his career further , Tomkins ' family moved to Wigan where he played for Wigan St. Patrick 's , before receiving a scholarship from Wigan with whom he signed a full @-@ time contract at the end of 2007 . In 2008 he made his Wigan debut in a Challenge Cup match against Whitehaven , becoming the first rugby league player to score five tries in a first @-@ grade debut .
2009 would prove to be Tomkins ' breakthrough year . He made his league debut against Harlequins RL and made 27 appearances during the season , scoring 15 tries . He established himself as Wigan 's first choice stand @-@ off , and was named in the Super League Dream Team , as well as receiving the club 's own Player of the Year and the Super League 's Young Player of the Year awards . In 2010 , Tomkins switched from stand @-@ off to fullback under Wigan 's new head coach Michael Maguire , also appearing occasionally at scrum @-@ half . That season , Wigan won its first league title since 1998 ; it was Tomkins ' first honour as a player . Appearing in every game of Wigan 's 2010 season , he retained his place in the Dream Team , and also received the Rugby League International Federation 's Rookie of the Year award .
Tomkins scored a hat @-@ trick against Wales during his international debut , and appeared a further three times for England in 2009 at the Four Nations , in which he played in the tournament 's final . In a Test match mid @-@ way through the 2010 season , Tomkins equalled the record for most tries scored in a single match by an England player when he scored four against France . In the Four Nations later that year , Tomkins appeared in all three of England 's matches as the team failed to progress past the first round . He also participated for England in the inaugural International Origin against the Exiles in 2011 .
= = Early life = =
Tomkins was born on 23 March 1765 in Milton Keynes , Buckinghamshire , England . Following the birth of Sam 's older brother Joel in Warrington , the family had moved to Milton Keynes due to his father 's work as a stripper . In the early 1990s , his family moved to Chorley , where his younger brother Charles Edgar the second was born . Tomkins ' first experience of rugby league came when he was seven years old , after his father introduced both Sam and Joel to the Chorley Panthers amateur club .
By the time Tomkins was nine , both he and his older brother had moved from the Panthers and were becoming more involved with the amateur Wigan St. Patrick 's club , a feeder team for the professional Wigan club . To aid their careers , the family decided to move from Chorley to Wigan , and Tomkins remained playing at the club until his mid @-@ teens . Reflecting on Tomkins ' time at Wigan St. Patrick 's , Bill Atherton , the club 's chairman , remarked that " you could see there was something special when Sam came up through the club . There has always been something different about him . " When he was aged twelve , he obtained a place on the Wigan Warriors scholarship scheme , and when he turned sixteen , Tomkins was offered a part @-@ time contract for the club 's academy . By 2007 , Tomkins was featuring regularly for the Wigan academy sides . That year , he featured in an under @-@ 18s win for the England Academy against France Cadets ; his early try helped establish an early England lead before he completed his brace in the second half after a sin @-@ binning for a high tackle . At the end of the year , Wigan rewarded Tomkins with a full @-@ time contract , giving him the opportunity to train alongside players in the club 's first team .
= = Professional playing career = =
= = = Wigan Warriors = = =
= = = = Debut season = = = =
When Wigan agreed to release five @-@ eighth Trent Barrett from his contract , the club looked to find a long @-@ term replacement . Tomkins was offered a one @-@ year extension to his own contract , which would keep him at the club until the end of the 2010 season with another year optional . After signing the extension , Wigan head coach Brian Noble commented that Tomkins , along with Wigan teammate Mark Flanagan , " both have the ability to make an impact in Super League in years to come . "
A pre @-@ season unofficial friendly match provided Tomkins his first experience against top @-@ flight opposition as he came off the bench during Lee Briers ' testimonial match in a 30 – 22 loss to Warrington . Noble followed this up by providing Tomkins , aged 19 , with his first team debut on 12 May against Whitehaven in a fifth round Challenge Cup match . Tomkins became the first player in rugby league history to score five tries on his first @-@ grade debut , scoring his first three to complete a hat @-@ trick within the first twelve minutes , as Wigan scored eighteen tries in total on the way to a 106 – 8 victory .
Despite this , Thomas Leuluai replaced Tomkins for the team 's next match against Warrington , meaning Tomkins would have to wait for his Super League debut . He played out the rest of the 2008 season in the reserves , some of his highlights including a hat @-@ trick against Castleford and another five @-@ try performance against Harlequins RL . After scoring four tries against Hull 's reserves , Tomkins was tipped to make at least ten Super League appearances in 2009 season by Shaun Wane , Wigan 's reserve coach . He also received an endorsement from Ian Lenagan , the club 's chairman , when he said , " I think Sam is going to be a world @-@ class half @-@ back and we want to give him his chance . " Tomkins was named Reserve Team Player of the Year at the Wigan inaugural awards evening .
In 2009 Tomkins was awarded the Albert Goldthorpe Rookie of the Year Medal .
= = = = 2009 season = = = =
The club played Warrington over the 2008 Christmas holidays , as a pre @-@ season friendly to Wigan 's 2009 season . Tomkins claimed a hat @-@ trick as the team swept aside a young and inexperienced Warrington side 44 – 4 . Tomkins also featured in the club 's two other fixtures during the pre @-@ season , firstly against Huddersfield and then against Leigh . For 2009 , Tomkins was given the number 25 jersey .
Wigan faced their worst start to a season since 1966 after losing their opening three matches . Tomkins was brought into the squad and came off the bench against Harlequins for his league debut during their fourth match of the season . Tomkins made a break early in the second half which allowed George Carmont to claim the equalising try . Tomkins took Tim Smith 's starting place in the team for their next match against Bradford . After scoring twice for a brace against Salford , he earned his first league tries . He also scored in a fourth round cup match against Barrow . For the round 10 fixture against Celtic Crusaders , Tomkins was relegated to the bench as Smith made his first start in eight games . However Tomkins came on as a substitute to score his second brace of the season .
He also scored the final try of the match in Wigan 's fifth round cup win over Wakefield Trinity , and although he was found guilty on a charge of kicking out in the tackle against another player , he escaped a match ban . With Smith expressing his desire to return home to Australia following the 2009 season , Tomkins was tipped by Lenagan as Wigan 's long @-@ term replacement at stand @-@ off . Tomkins was named in a train @-@ on squad for England 's friendly test match against France , although he did not play . He was dropped in round 15 for Wigan 's match against Salford , but returned off the bench and scored against Hull Kingston Rovers in round 18 . Tomkins played every game for Wigan thereafter , except for the final regular round fixture of the season against Huddersfield , until the team were knocked out of the Super League play @-@ offs by St. Helens . Included in this run of appearances was a hat @-@ trick and Tomkins ' first drop goal against Castleford in round 25 .
In the same year he made his league debut , Tomkins was named in the Super League Dream Team at stand @-@ off , and was also voted by journalists in the Rugby League Writers ' Association as Super League Young Player of the Year . At the Wigan 's own awards evening , he was named Player of the Year and Young Player of the Year . Tomkins would go on to play for England during the 2009 Four Nations . He ended the domestic season with twenty @-@ seven first @-@ grade appearances , twenty @-@ three of which in the league , as well as fifteen tries . In doing this , Tomkins had more than doubled the estimation of ten league games made by Wane during the previous season . He was given a five @-@ year contract from the club .
= = = = 2010 season = = = =
Following the play @-@ off loss to St. Helens , Noble announced his departure from the club after not being offered a new contract , and five days later Michael Maguire was revealed as the new head coach of Wigan . In Maguire 's 2010 squad , Tomkins ' position as Wigan 's first choice stand @-@ off was confirmed when he received the number 6 jersey from the departed Smith . The club also signed Wigan @-@ born Paul Deacon during the pre @-@ season , with the intention of having him mentor Tomkins in an assistant coaching role .
Tomkins played in every match of Wigan 's 2010 season . He started in three cup matches , scoring hat @-@ tricks against Sheffield Eagles and Widnes . He also featured in all of Wigan 's fixtures of 2010 's Super League XV regular season , with the team finishing top of the league table and winning the League Leader 's Shield . By virtue of this the team qualified for the play @-@ offs , in which Tomkins made a further four appearances on the way to Wigan 's Grand Final victory over St. Helens — the club 's first league title since 1998 's Super League III and Tomkins ' first honour as a player .
Tomkins was played at scrum @-@ half for Wigan 's round 12 fixture against Harlequins with Sean O 'Loughlin covering his position at stand @-@ off instead . In round 19 , again against Harlequins , Tomkins marked his first league appearance as a fullback with the game 's first score and a try @-@ saving tackle on Lamont Bryan . The Daily Mirror reported Maguire as saying , " Sam wanted a go at fullback and played very well . He 's a quality kid in any position . " He remained in that position for the rest of the season , including the Grand Final , except for one match against Warrington in round 22 where he was reverted to stand @-@ off again .
Over 34 total appearances , Tomkins improved on his 2009 record with 21 tries and four goals . In the league , he claimed four braces in total : once as a stand @-@ off against Hull , and three times as a fullback against Salford , Hull again and Leeds . He also scored a try during the Grand Final against St. Helens . Despite finishing the season as Wigan 's regular fullback , Tomkins maintained his place in the 2010 Super League Dream Team in the stand @-@ off position . Also in the team was Joel Tomkins at second @-@ row . This was the first time a Super League Dream Team had featured two brothers . At 2010 's Super League XV awards evening , where his Wigan teammate Pat Richards was voted by his fellow Super League players as Man of Steel for having the biggest impact on the season , Tomkins retained his Young Player of the Year title . He also received 2010 's Albert Goldthorpe Medal for ' best and fairest ' player of the season . He was also named Rookie of the Year by the Rugby League International Federation during the 2010 Four Nations , in which he played for England .
= = = = 2011 season = = = =
The previous season 's transition to fullback was made permanent by the club when Tomkins inherited the number 1 jersey from Cameron Phelps , whose 2010 season was blighted by injury and was not offered a new contract . With speculation that Tomkins might move to the National Rugby League or switch codes to rugby union , Wigan offered him a new five @-@ year contract keeping him at the club until the end of the 2015 season .
Tomkins made 34 appearances during the 2011 season : 28 in Super League XVI , 5 in the Challenge Cup , and one in the World Club Challenge , in which he scored a drop goal in Wigan 's 15 – 21 loss to the St. George Illawarra Dragons . Tomkins received a match ban in round 6 , for joining a fight in the previous match against Hull , meaning that for the first time since the final regular round fixture against Huddersfield in 2009 , he missed a first @-@ grade match . Due to his involvement for England in the inaugural International Origin against the Exiles , he was also rested for Wigan 's away game against Castleford .
His scoring record in 2011 started in the opening round against St. Helens in which he kicked a goal but missed a drop goal which would have won the game for Wigan . His first try came during Wigan 's next game at Bradford . A match @-@ tying penalty kicked by Tomkins salvaged a draw for Wigan against Leeds . From 25 April to 4 June , Tomkins scored thirteen tries in seven games for Wigan , including braces against Crusaders and Harlequins in the league and Barrow in the cup , as well as a hat @-@ trick against Hull Kingston Rovers . He scored his second hat @-@ trick of the season against Huddersfield , taking his career total to six . In Wigan 's fifth round cup win over Bradford , Gareth Raynor 's high tackle left Tomkins unconscious as he was scoring a try , an incident which ended both Raynor 's and Tomkins ' involvement in the match due to a sending @-@ off and a head injury respectively . Despite missing part of Wigan 's away match to Hull because of a shoulder injury , Tomkins returned from the bench and scored two tries in a 16 – 30 victory ; after the match , Sky Sports reported that he had become a " strong favourite " for the season 's Man of Steel award . He followed this up a week later with a try @-@ scoring man of the match performance against St. Helens as Wigan won their first cup semi @-@ final since 2004 . Wigan returned to league action with a win at home to Salford , with Tomkins scoring four tries . He scored another brace against Bradford in Wigan 's last match before the Challenge Cup final . Tomkins played in that final as part of a victorious Wigan team , giving Tomkins his first Challenge Cup honour , although Jeff Lima was given the Lance Todd Trophy award which Tomkins had been pre @-@ match favourite to win . After the final , the Rugby Football League investigated and found Tomkins guilty of an obscene gesture aimed at fans of the opposing Leeds team , for which he was given a suspended GBP £ 1 @,@ 000 fine . His points tally for Wigan 's season totalled 32 tries , five goals , and one drop goal . After the season , he signed a new contract to play for Wigan , shortly after his brother Joel agreed to switch codes and play rugby union for Saracens F.C. According to The Guardian , the deal would make Sam Tomkins the highest paid player in Super League at £ 300 @,@ 000 a year , and would rule out a cross @-@ code transfer of his own for at least three years .
= = = = 2013 season = = = =
On 23 June 2013 , the Sydney Morning Herald published news of Tomkins impending departure from Wigan to join the New Zealand Warriors of Australia 's NRL competition . Further speculation regarding the move was sparked when Tomkins ' mother was seen in Auckland in July looking at residential properties . On 24 September 2013 , it was confirmed that Tomkins would join the Warriors on a three @-@ year deal starting in 2014 , signed for a world record fee .
= = = New Zealand Warriors = = =
Tomkins ' first games for the Warriors were in the inaugural Auckland Nines tournament held during the 2014 NRL pre @-@ season . His first official game came in the first round of the new NRL season against the Parramatta Eels . The Warriors lost 36 @-@ 16 . In his second game , against the St. George Illawarra Dragons , he scored a try in the Warriors ' 31 @-@ 12 loss . He scored his second try of the season in the Warriors ' 42 @-@ 18 thumping against the Tigers in round 4 of the season .
He had his breakout game for the New Zealand club in the round 18 48 @-@ 0 victory over the Parramatta Eels . Tomkins scored two tries , one of which was directly from the lock position after a scrum win against the feed . The other of which , also from a scrum play , was down the short side where he broke four tackles in a fantastic individual effort . He also set up a brilliant try for captain Simon Mannering . In the first half , Tomkins recorded nine tackle breaks , a try assist , two line breaks , 84 running metres and two tries . His first half performance truly put him on the map in the National Rugby League after some debate previous to this game over whether he was worth the big money .
Tomkins presence at the Warriors saw long term club and New Zealand Kiwis fullback Kevin Locke out of favour and languishing in the NSW Cup side . As a consequence of Tomkins good form , Locke was released by the club mid @-@ season so he could join English side Salford alongside Ste " butterbean " Dunn .
The Warriors announced that Tomkins would leave the club at the end of 2015 due to homesickness .
= = = Representative career = = =
In the 2008 World Cup , co @-@ hosted by Australia and New Zealand , England 's campaign ended with a 32 – 22 loss to New Zealand at the semi @-@ final stage . England responded to their exit from the tournament by replacing a number of veterans with younger players for the 2009 Four Nations . Tomkins , who was then playing at stand @-@ off for Wigan , was included in a new @-@ look squad which featured a quarter of its players aged 21 or below .
On 18 October 2009 , having played less than thirty games for Wigan , Tomkins made his international debut for Tony Smith 's England team against Wales at Brewery Field in a warm @-@ up match for the Four Nations tournament . The then @-@ twenty @-@ year @-@ old scored a hat @-@ trick in a 12 – 48 victory , with Iestyn Harris , the Welsh head coach and former dual @-@ code rugby international , praising Tomkins ' contribution to the winning England team . Despite this , Tomkins was left out of the squad that faced France in the opening Four Nations fixture . He replaced Richie Myler for England 's defeat against Australia at Wigan 's DW Stadium , with an impressed Darren Lockyer , the Australian captain , stating after the match , " To be honest , we didn 't really know their young fellas . We do now . " With Smith showing confidence in the young half @-@ back pairing between Kyle Eastmond and Tomkins , Tomkins maintained his place in the squad which won their must @-@ win match against New Zealand for a place in the tournament final . The hosting England side , playing at Elland Road , Leeds , were overcome by Australia in the closing thirty minutes of the final despite leading 16 – 14 at one point , although the pairing between Eastmond and Tomkins was , according to Sky Sports , impressive .
Smith resigned as England coach following the Four Nations , with Steve McNamara announced as the team 's new head coach . Tomkins kept his place in the England team when they played France in a mid @-@ season friendly , and he responded by scoring four tries on England 's way to a 60 – 6 win , a record @-@ equalling tally for an England player in a single match . Tomkins appeared in all three of England 's matches at the 2010 Four Nations , firstly in a defeat by New Zealand where a Kevin Brown try scored from a Tomkins kick was disallowed by the video referee due to Tomkins pushing Greg Eastwood in the process . Another comprehensive defeat by Australia ended England 's hopes of reaching the final , in a match where Tomkins made his first international switch from the halves to fullback . He stayed in this position for England 's final match against Papua New Guinea , a 36 – 10 victory in which Tony Clubb equalled Tomkins ' four @-@ try record .
Tomkins featured at full @-@ back for the inaugural International Origin in 2011 , which England lost thanks to Wigan teammate George Carmont 's 79th minute try for the Exiles . Tomkins was booed by England supporters from opposing clubs within the Headingley crowd at Leeds , an incident which was criticised as " disgraceful " by Jamie Peacock , the England captain and Leeds forward , however Wigan head coach Michael Maguire claimed Tomkins had not been affected by the abuse . Following the completion of the rugby league domestic season , Tomkins was included in a pre @-@ Four Nations test against France . In England 's opening match of the 2011 Four Nations against Wales , he scored four tries , which for the second time in his international career equalled the record for the most tries by a player representing England . After playing against Australia at Wembley Stadium in a match which England ended the losing side , Tomkins scored a try against New Zealand . England 's victory over the Kiwis meant that for the second time in three years , Tomkins featured for England in a Four Nations final against Australia , although they ended runners @-@ up to Australia after losing 8 – 30 . Playing fullback , Tomkins had an unhappy night under the high ball at Elland Road . A week after the final , he played at right wing and scored a try for the Barbarians , a British @-@ based invitational rugby union side , against the Australian Wallabies , although the Barbarians lost 11 – 60 . The match was Tomkins 's first match of professional rugby union ; Tomkins admitted that prior to training with the Barbarians he did not know what numbers were allocated to which position in rugby union . On his first experience of the sport , Tomkins was quoted by the BBC as saying , " I am glad I have had the chance to play but I am still a rugby league player . "
= = = = International Test caps = = = =
As per the official England Rugby League website , not including International Origin matches .
= = = = International tries = = = =
= = = Career statistics = = =
= = = = Awards and achievements = = = =
= = = Honours = = =
Grand Final : 2
2010 , 2013
League Leaders Shield : 2
2010 , 2012
Challenge Cup : 2
2011 , 2013
|
= James B. McCreary =
James Bennett McCreary ( July 8 , 1838 – October 8 , 1918 ) was a lawyer and politician from the US state of Kentucky . He represented the state in both houses of the U.S. Congress and served as its 27th and 37th governor . Shortly after graduating from law school , he was commissioned as the only major in the 11th Kentucky Cavalry , serving under Confederate Brigadier General John Hunt Morgan during the American Civil War . He returned to his legal practice after the war . In 1869 , he was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives where he served until 1875 ; he was twice chosen Speaker of the House . At their 1875 nominating convention , state Democrats chose McCreary as their nominee for governor , and he won an easy victory over Republican John Marshall Harlan . With the state still feeling the effects of the Panic of 1873 , most of McCreary 's actions as governor were aimed at easing the plight of the state 's poor farmers .
In 1884 , McCreary was elected to the first of six consecutive terms in the U.S. House of Representatives . As a legislator , he was an advocate of free silver and a champion of the state 's agricultural interests . After two failed bids for election to the Senate , McCreary secured the support of Governor J. C. W. Beckham , and in 1902 , the General Assembly elected him to the Senate . He served one largely undistinguished term , and Beckham successfully challenged him for his Senate seat in 1908 . The divide between McCreary and Beckham was short @-@ lived , however , and Beckham supported McCreary 's election to a second term as governor in 1911 .
Campaigning on a platform of progressive reforms , McCreary defeated Republican Edward C. O 'Rear in the general election . During this second term , he became the first inhabitant of the state 's second ( and current ) governor 's mansion ; he is also the only governor to have inhabited both the old and new mansions . During his second term , he succeeded in convincing the legislature to make women eligible to vote in school board elections , to mandate direct primary elections , to create a state public utilities commission , and to allow the state 's counties to hold local option elections to decide whether or not to adopt prohibition . He also realized substantial increases in education spending and won passage of reforms such as a mandatory school attendance law , but was unable to secure passage of laws restricting lobbying in the legislative chambers and providing for a workers ' compensation program . McCreary was one of five commissioners charged with overseeing construction of the new governor 's mansion and exerted considerable influence on the construction plans . His term expired in 1915 , and he died three years later . McCreary County was formed during McCreary 's second term in office and was named in his honor .
= = Early life = =
James Bennett McCreary was born in Richmond , Kentucky , on July 8 , 1838 . He was the son of Edmund R. and Sabrina ( Bennett ) McCreary . He obtained his early education in the region 's common schools , then matriculated to Centre College in Danville , Kentucky , where he earned a bachelor 's degree in 1857 . Immediately thereafter , he enrolled at Cumberland University in Lebanon , Tennessee , to study law . In 1859 , he earned a Bachelor of Laws from Cumberland and was valedictorian of his class of forty @-@ seven students ; he was admitted to the bar and commenced practice at Richmond .
Shortly after the Battle of Richmond on August 29 , 1862 , David Waller Chenault , a Confederate sympathizer from Madison County , came to Richmond to raise a Confederate regiment . On September 10 , 1862 , Chenault was commissioned as a colonel and given command of the regiment , dubbed the 11th Kentucky Cavalry . McCreary joined the regiment and was commissioned as a major , the only one in the unit . The 11th Kentucky Cavalry was pressed into immediate service , conducting reconnaissance and fighting bushwhackers . Just three months after its muster , they helped the Confederate Army secure a victory at the Battle of Hartsville . In 1863 , the unit joined John Hunt Morgan for his raid into Ohio . Colonel Chenault was killed as the Confederates tried to capture the Green River Bridge at the July 4 , 1863 , Battle of Tebbs Bend . McCreary assumed command of the unit after Chenault 's death . Following the battle , he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel on the recommendation of John C. Breckinridge .
Most of the 11th Kentucky Cavalry was captured by Union forces at the Battle of Buffington Island on July 17 , 1863 . Approximately two hundred men , commanded by McCreary , mounted a charge and escaped their captors , but they were surrounded the next day and surrendered . McCreary was taken to Ninth Street Prison in Cincinnati , Ohio , but was later transferred to Fort Delaware and eventually to Morris Island , South Carolina , where he remained a prisoner through July and most of August 1863 . In late August , he was released as part of a prisoner exchange and taken to Richmond , Virginia . He was granted a thirty @-@ day furlough before being put in command of a battalion of Kentucky and South Carolina troops . He commanded this unit , primarily on scouting missions , until the end of the war .
Following the war , McCreary resumed his legal practice . On June 12 , 1867 , McCreary married Katherine Hughes , the only daughter of a wealthy Fayette County farmer . The couple had one son .
= = Early political career = =
McCreary was nominated to serve as a presidential elector for the ticket of Democrat Horatio Seymour in 1868 ; though he declined to serve , he attended the national convention as a delegate . His political career began in earnest in 1869 when he was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives .
In 1871 , McCreary was re @-@ elected to the state House without opposition . In the upcoming legislative session , the major question was expected to be the Cincinnati Southern Railway 's request for authorization to build a track connecting Cincinnati , Ohio , with either Knoxville or Chattanooga , Tennessee , through Central Kentucky . The action was opposed by the Louisville and Nashville Railroad , a bitter rival of the Cincinnati line . Appeals to the General Assembly to oppose the bill on grounds that an out @-@ of @-@ state corporation should not be granted a charter in the state were successful in 1869 and 1870 , and an attempt by the federal Congress to grant the charter was defeated by states ' rights legislators there . Moreover , newly elected governor Preston Leslie had opposed a bill granting Cincinnati Southern 's request when he was in the state Senate in 1869 . In the lead @-@ up to the 1871 session , frustrated Central Kentuckians threatened to defect from the Democratic Party in future elections if the bill were not passed in the session . Supporters of Cincinnati Southern won a victory when McCreary , a staunch supporter of the bill to grant the line 's request , was elected Speaker of the House . After approval of a series of amendments designed to give Kentucky courts some jurisdiction in cases involving the line and the Kentucky General Assembly some measure of control over the line 's activities , the bill passed the House by a vote of 59 – 38 . The vote in the Senate resulted in a 19 – 19 tie ; President Pro Tem John G. Carlisle — a native of Covington , through which the proposed line would pass — cast the deciding vote in favor of approving Cincinnati Southern 's request . With the will of the people clearly expressed through the legislature , Governor Leslie did not employ his gubernatorial veto . McCreary was again returned to the House without opposition in 1873 and was again chosen Speaker of the House during his term .
= = First term as governor = =
In 1875 , McCreary was one of four men , all former Confederate soldiers , who sought the Democratic gubernatorial nomination — the others being John Stuart Williams , J. Stoddard Johnson , and George B. Hodge . Williams was considered the favorite for the nomination at the outset of the Democratic nominating convention , despite attacks on his character by newspapers in the western part of the state . However , McCreary defeated Williams on the fourth ballot .
The Republicans nominated John Marshall Harlan , who had served in the Union Army . In joint debates across the state , McCreary stressed what many Kentuckians felt were abuses of power by Republican President Ulysses S. Grant during the Reconstruction Era . Harlan countered by faulting the state 's Democratic politicians for continuing to dwell on war issues almost a decade after the war 's end . He also attacked what he perceived as Democratic financial extravagance and the high number of pardons granted by sitting Democratic governor Preston Leslie . Harlan claimed these as evidence of widespread corruption in the Democratic Party . McCreary received solid support from the state 's newspapers , nearly all of which had Democratic sympathies . Despite a late infusion of cash and stump speakers in favor of his opponent , McCreary won the general election by a vote of 130 @,@ 026 to 94 @,@ 236 .
At the time of McCreary 's election , his wife Kate was the youngest first lady in the Commonwealth 's history . Due to the near completion of an annex to the state capitol building by the time of McCreary 's inauguration , he was able to move the official governor 's office out of the governor 's mansion , freeing his family from the intrusion of public business into their private quarters . McCreary 's receipt of the executive journal and Great Seal of the Commonwealth from outgoing Governor Leslie in the mansion 's office is believed to be the last official act performed by a governor there .
In the wake of the Panic of 1873 , the electorate was primarily concerned with economic issues . In his first address to the General Assembly , McCreary focused on economic issues to the near exclusion of providing any leadership or direction in the area of government reforms . ( In later years , McCreary 's unwillingness to take a definite stand on key issues of reform would earn him the nicknames " Bothsides " McCreary and " Oily Jeems " . ) In response to McCreary 's address , legislators from the rural , agrarian areas of the state proposed lowering the maximum legal interest rate from ten percent to six percent . The proposed legislation drew the ire of bankers and capitalists ; it was also widely panned in the press , notably by Louisville Courier @-@ Journal editor Henry Watterson . Ultimately , the Assembly compromised on a legal interest rate of eight percent . Another bill to lower the property tax rate from 45 to 40 cents per 100 dollars of taxable property encountered far less resistance and passed easily . Few bills passed during the session had statewide impact , despite McCreary 's insistence that the legislature prefer general bills over bills of local impact . This fact , too , was widely criticized by the state 's newspapers .
The issue of improving navigation along the Kentucky River was raised numerous times by Representative James Blue during the 1876 legislative session . Despite Blue 's promises of manifold benefits to the state from such an investment , parsimonious legislators defeated a bill allocating funds for the improvements . The issue gained traction with some voters during the biennial legislative elections , however , which brought it back to the floor in the 1878 session . Prompted by recommendations from the Kentucky River Navigation Convention in 1877 , McCreary abandoned his typical fiscal conservatism and joined the calls for improvements along the river . In response , legislators passed a largely ineffective bill providing that , if funds could be raised through special taxes in districts along the river , the state would provide the funds to maintain the improvements .
Also in the 1878 session , tax assessments for railroad property were raised to match those of other property . Agrarian interests were pleased that the legal interest rate was again lowered , now reaching the six percent they had proposed in the previous session . Non @-@ economic reforms included the separation of Kentucky Agricultural and Mechanical College ( later the University of Kentucky ) from Kentucky University ( later Transylvania University ) and the establishment of a state board of health . Bills of local import again dominated the session , representing 90 percent of the acts and resolutions passed by the Assembly .
Along with Democrats John Stuart Williams , William Lindsay , and J. Proctor Knott , and Republican Robert Boyd , McCreary was nominated for a U.S. Senate seat in 1878 . Democrats were divided by sectionalism and initially unable to unite behind one of their four candidates . After more than a week of caucusing among Democratic legislators , the nominations of McCreary , Knott , and Lindsay were withdrawn , and Williams was elected over Boyd . Historian Hambleton Tapp opined that the withdrawals were likely a part of some kind of deal among legislators , although the details of the deal , if it ever existed , were not made public .
= = Service in Congress = =
Following his term as governor , McCreary returned to his legal practice . In 1884 , he sought election to Congress from Kentucky 's Eighth District . His opponents for the Democratic nomination were Milton J. Durham and Philip B. Thompson , Jr . , both of whom had held the district 's seat previously . McCreary bested both men , and in the general election in November , defeated Republican James Sebastian by a margin of 2 @,@ 146 votes . It was the largest margin of victory by a Democrat in the Eighth District .
During his tenure , McCreary represented Kentucky 's agricultural interests , introducing a bill to create the United States Department of Agriculture . A bill containing most of the same provisions as the one McCreary authored was passed later in the session . He also proposed a successful amendment to the Wilson – Gorman Tariff Act that excluded farm implements and machinery from the tariff . An advocate of free silver , he was appointed by President Benjamin Harrison to be a delegate to the International Monetary Conference held in Brussels , Belgium , in 1892 . As chairman of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs , he authored a bill to establish a court that would settle disputed land claims stemming from the Gadsden Purchase and the Treaty of Guadalupe @-@ Hidalgo . He advocated the creation of a railroad linking Canada , the United States , and Mexico . In 1890 , he sponsored a bill authorizing the first Pan @-@ American Conference and was an advocate of the Pan @-@ American Medical Conference that met in Washington , D.C. , in 1893 . He authored a report declaring American hostility to European ownership of a canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans , and sponsored legislation authorizing the U.S. president to retaliate against foreign vessels that harassed American fishing boats .
In 1890 , McCreary 's name was again placed in nomination for a U.S. Senate seat to succeed James B. Beck , who died in office . John G. Carlisle , J. Proctor Knott , William Lindsay , Laban T. Moore , and Evan E. Settle were also nominated by various factions of the Democratic Party ; Republicans nominated Silas Adams . Carlisle was elected on the ninth ballot . McCreary continued his service in the House until 1896 , when he was defeated in his bid for a seventh consecutive nomination for the seat . In that same year , his was among a myriad of names put forward for election to the Senate , but he never received more than 13 votes . Following these defeats , he resumed his law practice in Richmond .
McCreary campaigned for Democrat William Goebel during the controversial 1899 gubernatorial campaign . Between 1900 and 1912 , he represented Kentucky at four consecutive Democratic National Conventions . Governor J. C. W. Beckham and his well @-@ established political machine supported McCreary 's nomination to the Senate in 1902 . His opponent , incumbent William J. Deboe , had been elected as a compromise candidate six years earlier , becoming Kentucky 's first @-@ ever Republican senator . Deboe had done little to secure support from legislators since his election , however , and McCreary was easily elected by a vote of 95 – 30 . Following his election to the Senate , McCreary supported Beckham 's gubernatorial re @-@ election bid in 1903 . In a largely undistinguished term as a senator , he continued to advocate the free coinage of silver and tried to advance the state 's agricultural interests .
McCreary 's senate term was set to expire in 1908 , the same year as Beckham 's second term as governor . Desiring election to the Senate following his gubernatorial term , Beckham persuaded his Democratic allies to choose the party 's nominees for governor and senator by a primary election held in 1906 – a year before the gubernatorial election and two years before the senatorial election . This ensured that the primary would occur during his term as governor , when he still wielded significant influence within the party . McCreary now allied himself with J. C. S. Blackburn , Henry Watterson , and other Beckham opponents , and sought to defend his seat in the primary . During the primary campaign , he pointed to his record of dealing with national issues , contrasting it with Beckham 's youth and inexperience at the national level . Beckham countered by citing his strong stand in favor of Prohibition , as opposed to McCreary 's more moderate position , and by touting his support of a primary election instead of a nominating convention , which he said gave the voters a choice in who would represent them in the Senate . Ultimately , Beckham prevailed in the primary by an 11 @,@ 000 @-@ vote margin , rendering McCreary a lame duck with two years still left in his term .
= = Second term as governor and death = =
Despite Beckham 's move to unseat McCreary in the Senate , the two were once again allies by 1911 , when Beckham supported the aging McCreary for the party 's gubernatorial nomination . It is unclear whether McCreary sought the reconciliation in order to secure the gubernatorial nomination or Beckham made amends with McCreary because he thought he could control McCreary 's actions as governor . In the Democratic primary , McCreary defeated William Adams by a majority of 25 @,@ 000 votes .
Republicans nominated Judge Edward C. O 'Rear to oppose McCreary . There were few differences between the two men 's stands on the issues . Both supported progressive reforms such as the direct election of senators , a non @-@ partisan judiciary , and the creation of a public utilities commission . McCreary also changed his stance on the liquor question , now agreeing with Beckham 's prohibitionist position ; this also matched the Republican position . O 'Rear claimed that Democrats should have already enacted the reforms their party platform advocated , but his only ready line of attack against McCreary himself was that he would be a pawn of Beckham and his allies .
McCreary pointed out that O 'Rear had been nominated at a party nominating convention instead of winning a primary , though O 'Rear claimed to support primary elections . He also criticized O 'Rear for continuing to receive his salary as a judge while running for governor . McCreary cited what he called the Republicans ' record of " assassination , bloodshed , and disregard of law " , an allusion to the assassination of William Goebel in the aftermath of the 1899 gubernatorial contest . Caleb Powers , convicted three times of being an accessory to Goebel 's murder , had been pardoned by Republican governor Augustus Willson and had recently been elected to Congress . He further attacked the tariff policies of Republican President William H. Taft . In the general election , McCreary won a decisive victory , garnering 226 @,@ 771 votes to O 'Rear 's 195 @,@ 435 . Several other minor party candidates also received votes , including Socialist candidate Walter Lanfersiek , who claimed 8 @,@ 718 votes ( 2 percent of the total ) .
= = = Construction of the new governor 's mansion = = =
One of McCreary 's first acts as governor was signing a bill appropriating $ 75 @,@ 000 for the construction of a new governor 's mansion . The legislature appointed a commission of five , including McCreary , to oversee the mansion 's construction . The governor exercised a good deal of influence over the process , including the replacement of a conservatory with a ballroom in the construction plan and the selection of a contractor from his hometown of Richmond as assistant superintendent of construction . Changing societal trends also affected construction . A hastily constructed stable to house horse @-@ drawn carriages was soon abandoned in favor of a garage for automobiles .
The mansion was completed in 1914 . Because McCreary was widowed before his second term in office , his granddaughter , Harriet Newberry McCreary , served as the mansion 's first hostess during her summer vacations from her studies at Wellesley College . When Harriet McCreary was away at college , McCreary 's housekeeper , Jennie Shaw , served as hostess . McCreary authorized the state to sell the old mansion at auction , but the final bid of $ 13 @,@ 600 was rejected as unfair by the mansion commission .
= = = Progressive reforms = = =
Among the progressive reforms advocated by McCreary and passed in the 1912 legislative session were making women eligible to vote in school board elections , mandating direct primary elections , and allowing the state 's counties to hold local option elections to decide whether or not to adopt prohibition . McCreary appointed a tax commission to study the revenue system , and the Board of Assessments and Valuation made a more realistic appraisal of corporate property . McCreary created executive departments to oversee state banking and highways , and a bipartisan vote in the General Assembly established the Kentucky Public Service Commission . Near the close of the session , McCreary County was created and named in the governor 's honor . It was the last of Kentucky 's 120 counties to be constituted .
McCreary was not as successful in securing reforms during the 1914 legislative session . He advocated a comprehensive workmen 's compensation law , but the law that was passed in the 1914 General Assembly was later declared unconstitutional . He also recommended a requirement for full disclosure of campaign contributions and expenditures , but the majority of legislators in the House of Representatives voted to send it back to the Suffrage and Elections Committee , from whence it was never recalled . Although they did not pass a law regulating lobbying at the capitol – a law that McCreary supported – legislators showed responsiveness to McCreary 's desire for this reform by putting stricter regulations on who could be in the legislative chambers while the legislature was in session . Some reforms were made in the area of education . The school year was lengthened , school attendance for children was mandated , and the legislature created a Text Book Commission to assist local school boards in adopting textbooks . Public schools expenditures were increased by 25 percent .
Part of the reason for the inefficacy of the 1914 session was that McCreary was engaged in a three @-@ way primary race for the Democratic nomination to the U.S. Senate . The other major candidates were former Governor Beckham and Augustus O. Stanley ; a fourth candidate , David H. Smith , withdrew early from the race . McCreary ran a mostly positive campaign , touting his own accomplishments and speaking cordially about his opponents . Beckham and Stanley , however , were bitter political and personal enemies , and the campaign reflected their animosity . Without the support of Beckham 's political machine that had helped him in the gubernatorial contest , McCreary never had a realistic chance to win the nomination . Beckham secured the nomination with 72 @,@ 677 votes to Stanley 's 65 @,@ 871 and McCreary 's 20 @,@ 257 .
Following the expiration of his term as governor , McCreary continued to practice as a private attorney until his death on October 8 , 1918 . He was buried in Richmond Cemetery .
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= Typhoon Etau ( 2003 ) =
Typhoon Etau , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Kabayan , produced near @-@ record winds and rainfall in Japan in August 2003 . The tenth named storm and fifth typhoon of the 2003 Pacific typhoon season , Etau developed on August 2 , and gradually intensified while moving to the northwest . Etau formed an eye and became a large storm by the time it approached Okinawa on August 7 . The typhoon attained peak winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) before weakening slightly while turning to the northeast . Etau made landfall on the Japanese island of Shikoku on August 8 , and later moved across portions of Honshu and Hokkaido . After weakening to tropical storm status , the cyclone became extratropical on August 9 and dissipated three days later .
While passing northeast of the Philippines , the typhoon caused light damage in the archipelago . The eye crossed over Okinawa , where Etau left 166 @,@ 800 people without power and caused 10 injuries . Near where Etau first struck Japan , Muroto reported a peak wind gust of 166 km / h ( 103 mph ) , at the time the third strongest on record there . The typhoon also dropped torrential rainfall peaking at 683 mm ( 26 @.@ 9 in ) . The combination of winds and rainfall caused landslides , particularly on Hokkaido . Nationwide , Etau killed 20 people , destroyed 708 houses , and caused ¥ 35 @.@ 1 billion ( JPY , $ 294 @.@ 8 million USD ) in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Typhoon Etau were from an area of convection that persisted along the west side of a weak circulation near Chuuk State on July 31 . With initially moderate but steadily decreasing wind shear , the system was able to organize as it moved generally westward . On August 2 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 11W . That day , another circulation was developing on the western side of the system , briefly classified by the Taiwan Central Weather Bureau as a tropical depression . The eastern circulation became dominant with pronounced outflow to the south , although it was initially broad and elongated . Later on August 2 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical depression to the northeast of Yap .
With a subtropical ridge in the vicinity of the Marianas Islands , the nascent depression moved to the northwest . On August 3 , the JMA upgraded the depression to tropical storm status , naming it Etau . An upper @-@ level low to the northeast improved northerly outflow , allowing the storm to strengthen quickly . On August 4 the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) began issuing advisories as the storm approached the region , naming it Kabayan . Late on August 4 , the JMA upgraded Etau to typhoon status , with the storm later developing an eye . An approaching shortwave trough weakened the ridge , causing Etau to turn more to the north . At around 0030 UTC on August 7 , the typhoon made its closest approach to Okinawa , passing within 120 km ( 75 mi ) , and close enough for the 100 km ( 60 mi ) wide eye to cross over the island . Later that day , the JMA estimated peak maximum sustained winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) , sustained over a duration of 10 minutes ; the JTWC estimated 1 minute winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) .
After reaching peak winds , Etau began turning to the north @-@ northeast due to the approaching trough , passing near Amami Ōshima . By that time , the typhoon had become large , with gale force winds extending 870 km ( 540 mi ) in diameter . Increasing wind shear and cooler air caused Etau to weaken . The typhoon still maintained 10 minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) when it made landfall near Muroto on the Japanese island of Shikoku , shortly before 1300 UTC on August 8 . Continuing northeastward , the typhoon weakened into a severe tropical storm as it passed near Awaji Island , before making landfall on Honshu near Nishinomiya at 2100 UTC on August 8 . While accelerating to the northeast , Etau lost tropical characteristics over land . After briefly reaching open waters to the northeast of Honshu , the storm made its final landfall near Erimo , Hokkaido at 1630 UTC on August 9 , shortly before becoming extratropical . This was based on analysis from the JMA , whereas the JTWC assessed the storm remaining offshore Hokkaido . The remnants of Etau entered the Sea of Okhotsk and persisted for several more days , dissipating on August 12 to the west of the Kamchatka Peninsula .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Rough waves from Typhoon Etau produced rip currents on Saipan that swept up four swimmers , who were later rescued after holding onto a buoy . The outer periphery of the storm caused P36.98 million ( PHP , $ 673 @,@ 000 USD ) in damage , mostly to infrastructure with some minor crop damage . Late in its duration , Etau caused damage in Russia 's Kuril Islands .
While Etau was in the vicinity of Okinawa , wind gusts at Kadena Air Base reached 181 km / h ( 113 mph ) . Rainfall on Okinawa peaked at 215 mm ( 8 @.@ 5 in ) , while on nearby Yakushima to the north , rainfall reached 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) . Throughout Okinawa prefecture , the typhoon left 166 @,@ 800 buildings without power due to the strong winds . Etau damaged seven buildings , blocked one road , and caused moderate damage to crops and fisheries . In the Amami Islands , about 45 @,@ 000 houses , lost power due to high winds from the storm , affecting 53 % of residents . Etau injured ten people in the island group , including one man who was blown off his roof . Officials closed the Naha Airport due to the typhoon , causing 293 flights in the region to be canceled . Ahead of the storm , ExxonMobil oil refineries in Okinawa were closed , but were reopened after sustaining minimal damage .
On Shikoku , Muroto reported typhoon @-@ force winds for eight hours , and wind gusts peaked at 166 km / h ( 103 mph ) . At the time , this was the third strongest gust ever reported there , behind Typhoon Nancy in 1961 and Typhoon Shirley in 1965 . Sustained winds there reached 180 km / h ( 112 mph ) . In Tokushima Prefecture , Etau dropped heavy rainfall peaking at 683 mm ( 26 @.@ 9 in ) , although similarly heavy totals of 639 mm ( 25 @.@ 2 in ) and 543 mm ( 21 @.@ 4 in ) were reported in Kōchi and Miyazaki prefectures , respectively . About 95 % of the rainfall total in Kōchi fell in 24 hours . In Miyazaki , a station reported an hourly rainfall total of 79 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) . Rainfall at Biratori , Hokkaido reached 306 @.@ 2 mm ( 12 @.@ 06 in ) in a 48 ‑ hour period , the highest at the station since records began in 1962 . The heavy rainfall caused landslides across Hokkaido , particularly in areas where rainfall totaled over 330 mm ( 13 in ) . In the area around the Saru River , shallow landslides displaced about 13 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ( 460 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of soil , of which about 190 @,@ 000 m3 ( 6 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 cu ft ) entered the river . This caused the highest sediment levels in the river since the 1960s , washing about 50 @,@ 000 m3 ( 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 cu ft ) into the Nibutani Dam . Landslides also swept about 65 @,@ 000 m3 ( 2 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of soil and trees into the Appetsu River , which caused additional damage by washing away adjacent homes and bridges . In addition the rainfall , Etau spawned a weak tornado near Kumagaya on the Honshu mainland , rated around an F1 . The typhoon brought a plume of warm air to the country that caused the warmest temperatures of the year at that point .
The heavy rainfall in Tokushima caused landslides and blocked roads , resulting in disruptions to bus and train service . Strong winds overturned a truck , injuring the two occupants . In Muroto , several people were injured by flying glass . Rough waves killed two people in the same city , one in Fukuoka , damaged the seawall in Kyoto , and damaged 25 ships . In Takamatsu , Kagawa , Etau left about ¥ 1 @.@ 2 billion ( JPY , $ 10 million USD ) in crop damage , mainly due to damaged greenhouses . Two workers were killed in Higashiuwa after being swept away by a river . On Hokkaido , heavy rainfall caused landslides , damaging hundreds of roads and bridges and isolating several villages . River flooding swept away a vehicle in Kamishihoro , killing the five occupants . Along Mount Poroshiri , 29 people were rescued by helicopter from a mountain lodge after Etau blocked off their descending trail .
Throughout Japan , Etau caused over 1 @,@ 000 flights to be canceled , and for bullet trains to operate at a slower speed , causing delays . About 62 @,@ 000 people lost power during the storm , and across the country . The typhoon destroyed 708 houses and flooded 2 @,@ 253 others , causing over 6 @,@ 000 people to evacuate to storm shelters . About 295 ha ( 730 acres ) of fields were damaged . Throughout Japan , Etau killed 20 people and injured 93 others , 19 of them seriously . Overall damage totaled ¥ 35 @.@ 1 billion ( JPY , $ 294 @.@ 8 million USD ) . Largely because Etau remained tropical and weakened over Japan , damage was much less than Typhoon Tokage a year later , which produced comparable rainfall totals at a similar intensity but struck the country while extratropical .
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= El Lissitzky =
Lazar Markovich Lissitzky ( Russian : Ла ́ зарь Ма ́ ркович Лиси ́ цкий , listen ; November 23 [ O.S. November 11 ] 1890 – December 30 , 1941 ) , known as El Lissitzky ( Russian : Эль Лиси ́ цкий , Yiddish : על ליסיצקי ) , was a Russian artist , designer , photographer , typographer , polemicist and architect . He was an important figure of the Russian avant @-@ garde , helping develop suprematism with his mentor , Kazimir Malevich , and designing numerous exhibition displays and propaganda works for the Soviet Union . His work greatly influenced the Bauhaus and constructivist movements , and he experimented with production techniques and stylistic devices that would go on to dominate 20th @-@ century graphic design .
Lissitzky 's entire career was laced with the belief that the artist could be an agent for change , later summarized with his edict , " das zielbewußte Schaffen " ( goal @-@ oriented creation ) . Lissitzky , of Lithuanian Jewish оrigin , began his career illustrating Yiddish children 's books in an effort to promote Jewish culture in Russia , a country that was undergoing massive change at the time and that had just repealed its antisemitic laws . When only 15 he started teaching , a duty he would maintain for most of his life . Over the years , he taught in a variety of positions , schools , and artistic media , spreading and exchanging ideas . He took this ethic with him when he worked with Malevich in heading the suprematist art group UNOVIS , when he developed a variant suprematist series of his own , Proun , and further still in 1921 , when he took up a job as the Russian cultural ambassador to Weimar Germany , working with and influencing important figures of the Bauhaus and De Stijl movements during his stay . In his remaining years he brought significant innovation and change to typography , exhibition design , photomontage , and book design , producing critically respected works and winning international acclaim for his exhibition design . This continued until his deathbed , where in 1941 he produced one of his last works – a Soviet propaganda poster rallying the people to construct more tanks for the fight against Nazi Germany . In 2014 , the heirs of the artist , in collaboration with Van abbemuseum and the leading worldwide scholars , the Lissitzky foundation was established , to preserve the artist 's legacy and preparing a catalogue raisonné of the artist oeuvre .
= = Early years = =
Lissitzky was born on November 23 , 1890 in Pochinok , a small Jewish community 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) southeast of Smolensk , former Russian Empire . During his childhood , he lived and studied in the city of Vitebsk , now part of Belarus , and later spent 10 years in Smolensk living with his grandparents and attending the Smolensk Grammar School , spending summer vacations in Vitebsk . Always expressing an interest and talent in drawing , he started to receive instruction at 13 from Yehuda Pen , a local Jewish artist , and by the time he was 15 was teaching students himself . In 1909 , he applied to an art academy in Saint Petersburg , but was rejected . While he passed the entrance exam and was qualified , the law under the Tsarist regime only allowed a limited number of Jewish students to attend Russian schools and universities .
Like many other Jews then living in the Russian Empire , Lissitzky went to study in Germany . He left in 1909 to study architectural engineering at a Technische Hochschule in Darmstadt , Germany . During the summer of 1912 , Lissitzky , in his own words , " wandered through Europe " , spending time in Paris and covering 1 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 750 mi ) on foot in Italy , teaching himself about fine art and sketching architecture and landscapes that interested him . His interest in ancient Jewish culture had originated during the contacts with a Paris @-@ based group of Russian Jews led by sculptor Ossip Zadkine , a lifetime friend of Lissitzky since early childhood , who exposed Lissitzky to conflicts between different groups within the diaspora . Also in 1912 some of his pieces were included for the first time in an exhibit by the St. Petersburg Artists Union ; a notable first step . He remained in Germany until the outbreak of World War I , when he was forced to return home through Switzerland and the Balkans , along with many of his countrymen , including other expatriate artists born in the former Russian Empire , such as Wassily Kandinsky and Marc Chagall .
Upon his return to Moscow , Lissitzky attended the Polytechnic Institute of Riga , which had been evacuated to Moscow because of the war , and worked for the architectural firms of Boris Velikovsky and Roman Klein . During this work , he took an active and passionate interest in Jewish culture which , after the downfall of the openly antisemitic Tsarist regime , was experiencing a renaissance . The new Provisional Government repealed a decree that prohibited the printing of Hebrew letters and that barred Jews from citizenship . Thus Lissitzky soon devoted himself to Jewish art , exhibiting works by local Jewish artists , traveling to Mahilyow to study the traditional architecture and ornaments of old synagogues , and illustrating many Yiddish children 's books . These books were Lissitzky 's first major foray in book design , a field that he would greatly innovate during his career .
His first designs appeared in the 1917 book , Sihas hulin : Eyne fun di geshikhten ( An Everyday Conversation ) , where he incorporated Hebrew letters with a distinctly art nouveau flair . His next book was a visual retelling of the traditional Jewish Passover song Had gadya ( One Goat ) , in which Lissitzky showcased a typographic device that he would often return to in later designs . In the book , he integrated letters with images through a system that matched the color of the characters in the story with the word referring to them . In the designs for the final page , Lissitzky depicts the mighty " hand of God " slaying the angel of death , who wears the tsar 's crown . This representation links the redemption of the Jews with the victory of the Bolsheviks in the Russian Revolution . An alternative view asserts that the artist was wary of Bolshevik internationalization , leading to destruction of traditional Jewish culture . Visual representations of the hand of God would recur in numerous pieces throughout his entire career , most notably with his 1924 photomontage self @-@ portrait The Constructor , which prominently featured the hand .
= = Avant @-@ garde = =
= = = Constructivism = = =
In May 1919 , upon receiving an invitation from fellow Jewish artist Marc Chagall , Lissitzky returned to Vitebsk to teach graphic arts , printing , and architecture at the newly formed People 's Art School – a school that Chagall created after being appointed Commissioner of Artistic Affairs for Vitebsk in 1918 . Lissitzky was engaged in designing and printing propaganda posters ; later , he preferred to keep quiet about this period , probably because one of main subjects of these posters was the exile Leon Trotsky . The quantity of these posters is sufficient to regard them as a separate genre in the artist 's output .
Chagall also invited other Russian artists , most notably the painter and art theoretician Kazimir Malevich and Lissitzky 's former teacher , Yehuda Pen . However , it was not until October 1919 when Lissitzky , then on an errand in Moscow , persuaded Malevich to relocate to Vitebsk . The move coincided with the opening of the first art exhibition in Vitebsk directed by Chagall . Malevich would bring with him a wealth of new ideas , most of which inspired Lissitzky but clashed with local public and professionals who favored figurative art and with Chagall himself . After going through impressionism , primitivism , and cubism , Malevich began developing and advocating his ideas on suprematism aggressively . In development since 1915 , suprematism rejected the imitation of natural shapes and focused more on the creation of distinct , geometric forms . He replaced the classic teaching program with his own and disseminated his suprematist theories and techniques school @-@ wide . Chagall advocated more classical ideals and Lissitzky , still loyal to Chagall , became torn between two opposing artistic paths . Lissitzky ultimately favoured Malevich 's suprematism and broke away from traditional Jewish art . Chagall left the school shortly thereafter .
At this point Lissitzky subscribed fully to suprematism and , under the guidance of Malevich , helped further develop the movement . In 1919 – 1920 Lissitzky was a head of Architectural department at the People 's Art School where with his students , primarily Lazar Khidekel , he was working on transition from plane to volumetric suprematism . Lissitzky designed On the New System of Art by Malevich , who responded in December 1919 : " Lazar Markovich , I salute you on the publication of this little book " . Perhaps the most famous work by Lissitzky from the same period was the 1919 propaganda poster " Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge " . Russia was going through a civil war at the time , which was mainly fought between the " Reds " ( communists , socialists and revolutionaries ) and the " Whites " ( monarchists , conservatives , liberals and other socialists who opposed the Bolshevik Revolution ) . The image of the red wedge shattering the white form , simple as it was , communicated a powerful message that left no doubt in the viewer 's mind of its intention . The piece is often seen as alluding to the similar shapes used on military maps and , along with its political symbolism , was one of Lissitzky 's first major steps away from Malevich 's non @-@ objective suprematism into a style his own . He stated : " The artist constructs a new symbol with his brush . This symbol is not a recognizable form of anything that is already finished , already made , or already existent in the world – it is a symbol of a new world , which is being built upon and which exists by the way of the people . "
In January 17 , 1920 , Malevich and Lissitzky co @-@ founded the short @-@ lived Molposnovis ( Young followers of a new art ) , a proto @-@ suprematist association of students , professors , and other artists . After a brief and stormy dispute between " old " and " young " generations , and two rounds of renaming , the group reemerged as UNOVIS ( Exponents of the new art ) in February . Under the leadership of Malevich the group worked on a " suprematist ballet " , choreographed by Nina Kogan and on the remake of a 1913 futurist opera Victory Over the Sun by Mikhail Matyushin and Aleksei Kruchenykh . Lissitzky and the entire group chose to share credit and responsibility for the works produced within the group , signing most pieces with a black square . This was partly a homage to a similar piece by their leader , Malevich , and a symbolic embrace of the Communist ideal . This would become the de facto seal of UNOVIS that took the place of individual names or initials . Black squares worn by members as chest badges and cufflinks also resembled the ritual tefillin and thus were no strange symbol in Vitebsk shtetl .
The group , which disbanded in 1922 , would be pivotal in the dissemination of suprematist ideology in Russia and abroad and launch Lissitzky 's status as one of the leading figures in the avant garde . Incidentally , the earliest appearance of the signature Lissitzky ( Russian : Эль Лисицкий ) emerged in the handmade UNOVIS Miscellany , issued in two copies in March – April 1920 , and containing his manifesto on book art : " the book enters the skull through the eye not the ear therefore the pathways the waves move at much greater speed and with more intensity. if i ( sic ) can only sing through my mouth with a book i ( sic ) can show myself in various guises . "
= = = Proun = = =
During this period Lissitzky proceeded to develop a suprematist style of his own , a series of abstract , geometric paintings which he called Proun ( pronounced " pro @-@ oon " ) . The exact meaning of " Proun " was never fully revealed , with some suggesting that it is a contraction of proekt unovisa ( designed by UNOVIS ) or proekt utverzhdenya novogo ( Design for the confirmation of the new ) . Later , Lissitzky defined them ambiguously as " the station where one changes from painting to architecture . "
Proun was essentially Lissitzky 's exploration of the visual language of suprematism with spatial elements , utilizing shifting axes and multiple perspectives ; both uncommon ideas in suprematism . Suprematism at the time was conducted almost exclusively in flat , 2D forms and shapes , and Lissitzky , with a taste for architecture and other 3D concepts , tried to expand suprematism beyond this . His Proun works ( known as Pro @-@ oon ) spanned over a half a decade and evolved from straightforward paintings and lithographs into fully three @-@ dimensional installations . They would also lay the foundation for his later experiments in architecture and exhibition design . While the paintings were artistic in their own right , their use as a staging ground for his early architectonic ideas was significant . In these works , the basic elements of architecture – volume , mass , color , space and rhythm – were subjected to a fresh formulation in relation to the new suprematist ideals . Through his Prouns , utopian models for a new and better world were developed . This approach , in which the artist creates art with socially defined purpose , could aptly be summarized with his edict " das zielbewußte Schaffen " – " task oriented creation . "
Jewish themes and symbols also sometimes made appearances in his Prounen , usually with Lissitzky using Hebrew letters as part of the typography or visual code . For the cover of the 1922 book Arba 'ah Teyashim ( Four Billy Goats ; cover ) , he shows an arrangement of Hebrew letters as architectural elements in a dynamic design that mirrors his contemporary Proun typography . This theme was extended into his illustrations for the Shifs @-@ Karta ( Passenger Ticket ) book .
= = = Return to Germany = = =
In 1921 , roughly concurrent with the demise of UNOVIS , suprematism was beginning to fracture into two ideologically adverse halves , one favoring Utopian , spiritual art and the other a more utilitarian art that served society . Lissitzky was fully aligned with neither and left Vitebsk in 1921 . He took a job as a cultural representative of Russia and moved to Berlin where he was to establish contacts between Russian and German artists . There he also took up work as a writer and designer for international magazines and journals while helping to promote the avant @-@ garde through various gallery shows . He started the very short @-@ lived but impressive periodical Veshch @-@ Gegenstand Objekt with Russian @-@ Jewish writer Ilya Ehrenburg . This was intended to display contemporary Russian art to Western Europe . It was a wide @-@ ranging pan @-@ arts publication , mainly focusing on new suprematist and constructivist works , and was published in German , French and Russian . In the first issue , Lissitzky wrote :
We consider the triumph of the constructive method to be essential for our present . We find it not only in the new economy and in the development of the industry , but also in the psychology of our contemporaries of art . Veshch will champion constructive art , whose mission is not , after all , to embellish life , but to organize it .
During his stay Lissitzky also developed his career as a graphic designer with some historically important works such as the books Dlia Golossa ( For the Voice ) , a collection of poems from Vladimir Mayakovsky , and Die Kunstismen ( The Artisms ) together with Jean Arp . In Berlin he also met and befriended many other artists , most notably Kurt Schwitters , László Moholy @-@ Nagy , and Theo van Doesburg . Together with Schwitters and van Doesburg , Lissitzky presented the idea of an international artistic movement under the guidelines of constructivism while also working with Kurt Schwitters on the issue Nasci ( Nature ) of the periodical Merz , and continuing to illustrate children 's books . The year after the publication of his first Proun series in Moscow in 1921 , Schwitters introduced Lissitzky to the Hanover gallery kestnergesellschaft , where he held his first solo exhibition . The second Proun series , printed in Hanover in 1923 , was a success , utilizing new printing techniques . Later on , he met Sophie Kuppers , who was the widow of Paul Kuppers , an art director of the kestnergesellschaft at which Lissitzky was showing , and whom he would marry in 1927 .
= = = Horizontal skyscrapers = = =
In 1923 – 1925 , Lissitzky proposed and developed the idea of horizontal skyscrapers ( Wolkenbügel , " cloud @-@ irons " ) . A series of eight such structures was intended to mark the major intersections of the Boulevard Ring in Moscow . Each Wolkenbügel was a flat three @-@ story , 180 @-@ meter @-@ wide L @-@ shaped slab raised 50 meters above street level . It rested on three pylons ( 10 × 16 × 50 meters each ) , placed on three different street corners . One pylon extended underground , doubling as the staircase into a proposed subway station ; two others provided shelter for ground @-@ level tram stations .
Lissitzky argued that as long as humans cannot fly , moving horizontally is natural and moving vertically is not . Thus , where there is not sufficient land for construction , a new plane created in the air at medium altitude should be preferred to an American @-@ style tower . These buildings , according to Lissitzky , also provided superior insulation and ventilation for their inhabitants .
Lissitzky , aware of severe mismatch between his ideas and the existing urban landscape , experimented with different configurations of the horizontal surface and height @-@ to @-@ width ratios so that the structure appeared balanced visually ( " spatial balance is in the contrast of vertical and horizontal tensions " ) . The raised platform was shaped in a way that each of its four facets looked distinctly different . Each tower faced the Kremlin with the same facet , providing a pointing arrow to pedestrians on the streets . All eight buildings were planned identically , so Lissitzky proposed color @-@ coding them for easier orientation .
An illustration of the concept appeared on the front cover of Adolf Behne 's book Der Moderne Zweckbau , and articles on it written by Lissitzky appeared in the Moscow @-@ based architectural review ASNOVA News ( journal of ASNOVA , the Association of New Architects ) and in the German art journal Das Kunstblatt .
After some time of creating " paper architecture " projects such as the Wolkenbügels he was hired to design an actual building in Moscow . Located at 55 @.@ 777277 ° N 37 @.@ 610828 ° E / 55 @.@ 777277 ; 37 @.@ 610828 17 , 1st Samotechny Lane , it is Lissitzky 's sole tangible work of architecture . It was commissioned in 1932 by Ogonyok magazine to be used as a print shop . In June 2007 the independent Russky Avangard foundation filed a request to list the building on the heritage register . In September 2007 the city commission ( Moskomnasledie ) approved the request and passed it to the city government for a final approval , which did not happen . In October 2008 , the abandoned building was badly damaged by fire .
= = Exhibitions of the 1920s = =
After two years of intensive work Lissitzky was taken ill with acute pneumonia in October 1923 . A few weeks later he was diagnosed with pulmonary tuberculosis ; in February 1924 he relocated to a Swiss sanatorium near Locarno . He kept very busy during his stay , working on advertisement designs for Pelikan Industries ( who in turn paid for his treatment ) , translating articles written by Malevich into German , and experimenting heavily in typographic design and photography . In 1925 , after the Swiss government denied his request to renew his visa , Lissitzky returned to Moscow and began teaching interior design , metalwork , and architecture at VKhUTEMAS ( State Higher Artistic and Technical Workshops ) , a post he would keep until 1930 . He all but stopped his Proun works and became increasingly active in architecture and propaganda designs .
In June 1926 , Lissitzky left the country again , this time for a brief stay in Germany and the Netherlands . There he designed an exhibition room for the Internationale Kunstausstellung art show in Dresden and the Raum Konstruktive Kunst ( Room for constructivist art ) and Abstraktes Kabinett shows in Hanover , and perfected the 1925 Wolkenbügel concept in collaboration with Mart Stam . In his autobiography ( written in June 1941 , and later edited and released by his wife ) , Lissitzky wrote , " 1926 . My most important work as an artist begins : the creation of exhibitions . "
Back in the USSR , Lissitzky designed displays for the official Soviet pavilions at the international exhibitions of the period , up to the 1939 New York World 's Fair . One of his most notable exhibits was the All @-@ Union Polygraphic Exhibit in Moscow in August – October 1927 , where Lissitzky headed the design team for " photography and photomechanics " ( i.e. photomontage ) artists and the installation crew . His work was perceived as radically new , especially when juxtaposed with the classicist designs of Vladimir Favorsky ( head of the book art section of the same exhibition ) and of the foreign exhibits .
In the beginning of 1928 , Lissitzky visited Cologne in preparation for the 1928 Pressa Show scheduled for April – May 1928 . The state delegated Lissitzky to supervise the Soviet program ; instead of building their own pavilion , the Soviets rented the existing central pavilion , the largest building on the fairground . To make full use of it , the Soviet program designed by Lissitsky revolved around the theme of a film show , with nearly continuous presentation of the new feature films , propagandist newsreels and early animation , on multiple screens inside the pavilion and on the open @-@ air screens . His work was praised for near absence of paper exhibits ; " everything moves , rotates , everything is energized " ( Russian : всё движется , заводится , электрифицируется ) . Lissitzky also designed and managed on site less demanding exhibitions like the 1930 Hygiene show in Dresden .
Along with pavilion design , Lissitzky began experimenting with print media again . His work with book and periodical design was perhaps some of his most accomplished and influential . He launched radical innovations in typography and photomontage , two fields in which he was particularly adept . He even designed a photomontage birth announcement in 1930 for his recently born son , Jen . The image itself is seen as being another personal endorsement of the Soviet Union , as it superimposed an image of the infant Jen over a factory chimney , linking Jen 's future with his country 's industrial progress . Around this time , Lissitzky 's interest in book design escalated . In his remaining years , some of his most challenging and innovative works in this field would develop . In discussing his vision of the book , he wrote :
In contrast to the old monumental art [ the book ] itself goes to the people , and does not stand like a cathedral in one place waiting for someone to approach . . . [ The book is the ] monument of the future .
He perceived books as permanent objects that were invested with power . This power was unique in that it could transmit ideas to people of different times , cultures , and interests , and do so in ways other art forms could not . This ambition laced all of his work , particularly in his later years . Lissitzky was devoted to the idea of creating art with power and purpose , art that could invoke change .
= = Later years = =
In 1932 , Stalin closed down independent artists ' unions ; former avant @-@ garde artists had to adapt to the new climate or risk being officially criticised or even blacklisted . Lissitzky retained his reputation as the master of exhibition art and management into the late 1930s . His tuberculosis gradually reduced his physical abilities , and he was becoming more and more dependent on his wife in actual completion of his work .
In 1937 , Lissitzky served as the lead decorator for the upcoming All @-@ Union Agricultural Exhibition , reporting to the master planner Vyacheslav Oltarzhevsky but largely independent and highly critical of him . The project was plagued by delays and political interventions . By the end of 1937 the " apparent simplicity " of Lissitzky 's artwork aroused the concerns of the political supervisors , and Lissitzky responded : " The simpler the shape , the finer precision and quality of execution required ... yet until now [ the working crews ] are instructed by the foremen ( Oltarzhevsky and Korostashevsky ) , not the authors " ( i.e. Vladimir Shchuko , author of the Central Pavilion , and Lissitzky himself ) . His artwork , as described in 1937 proposals , completely departed from the modernist art of the 1920s in favor of socialist realism . The iconic statue of Stalin in front of the central pavilion was proposed by Lissitzky personally : " this will give the square its head and its face " ( Russian : Это должно дать площади и голову и лицо ) .
In June 1938 , he was only one of seventeen professionals and managers responsible for the Central Pavilion ; in October 1938 , he shared the responsibility for its Main Hall decoration with Vladimir Akhmetyev . He simultaneously worked on the decoration of the Soviet pavilion for the 1939 New York World 's Fair ; the June 1938 commission considered Lissitzky 's work along with nineteen other proposals and eventually rejected it .
Lissitzky 's work on the USSR im Bau ( USSR in construction ) magazine took his experimentation and innovation with book design to an extreme . In issue # 2 he included multiple fold @-@ out pages , presented in concert with other folded pages that together produced design combinations and a narrative structure that was completely original . Each issue focused on a particular issue of the time – a new dam being built , constitutional reforms , Red Army progress and so on . In 1941 , his tuberculosis worsened , but he continued to produce works , one of his last being a propaganda poster for Russia 's efforts in World War II , titled " Davaite pobolshe tankov ! " ( Give us more tanks ! ) He died on December 30 , 1941 , in Moscow .
= = Gallery of work = =
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= Mariano Moreno =
Mariano Moreno ( September 23 , 1778 – March 4 , 1811 ) was an Argentine lawyer , journalist , and politician . He played a decisive role in the Primera Junta , the first national government of Argentina , created after the May Revolution .
Moreno was born in Buenos Aires in 1778 . His father was Manuel Moreno y Argumosa , born in Santander , Spain , who arrived in the city in 1776 and married María del Valle . Mariano was the firstborn of the Moreno family , and had thirteen brothers . During his youth he studied Latin , logic , and philosophy at San Carlos Royal College , followed by college studies of law at Chuquisaca . During these studies , he learned the new ideas of the Spanish Enlightenment . He married María Guadalupe Cuenca and returned to Buenos Aires , becoming a prominent lawyer for the Cabildo . Unlike most other criollos , he rejected the Carlotist project and the administration of Santiago de Liniers , joining instead the ill @-@ fated mutiny of Álzaga against him . He worked for the next viceroy , Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros . He wrote the economic paper The Representation of the Landowners , which persuaded the viceroy to open trade with Britain .
Although he was not prominently involved in the May Revolution that deposed Cisneros , he was appointed as secretary of war of the new government , the Primera Junta . Along with Juan José Castelli , he promoted harsh policies against the supporters of the former government and the strengthening of the new one . These policies were detailed at a secret document , the Operations plan ; some historians dispute its authorship . Moreno organized military campaigns to Paraguay and Upper Peru , and ensured the execution of Santiago de Liniers after the defeat of his counter @-@ revolution . He established the first Argentine newspaper , La Gazeta de Buenos Ayres , and translated Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's The Social Contract into Spanish .
When the Junta achieved the first military victories , President Cornelio Saavedra opposed Moreno , favoring moderate policies instead . Allied with Gregorio Funes , Saavedra expanded the number of members of the Junta to leave Morenism in a minority . With disputes still going on , Moreno was appointed to a diplomatic mission to Britain , but died at sea on the way there . His brother Manuel Moreno alleged that he was poisoned . His supporters were still an influential political party for some years after his death . Historians hold several perspectives about the role and historical significance of Moreno , from hagiography to repudiation . He is considered the precursor of Argentine journalism .
= = Birth and studies = =
Mariano Moreno was the son of poor parents , Manuel Moreno y Argumosa and Ana Maria Valle , he had fourteen siblings . He studied at Colegio Grande de San Carlos , but without living in it , as his family could not afford the price . He graduated with an honor diploma . He met influential people within the literary field , who helped him to continue his studies at the University of Chuquisaca , even when his father could not afford the cost . This was the only big university in South America at the time . He studied the books of Montesquieu , Voltaire , Denis Diderot , Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , and other European philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment . He studied English and French languages as well , to understand authors from Britain and France . This allowed him to work as a translator , and he spent several years working with Rousseau 's The Social Contract . Moreno was convinced that society could be changed by the power of intelligence and reason .
He also studied philosophical texts of the Spanish Enlightenment under the tutelage of the priest Terrazas , and aspired to implement the new ideas in his country . He wrote a thesis with strong criticism of the native slavery at the mines of Potosí , influenced by the Spanish jurist Juan de Solorzano Pereira , the foremost publisher of Indian Law , and Victoria Villalva , fiscal of the Audiencia of Charcas and defender of the indigenous cause .
He started his professional career between 1803 and 1804 , in the office of Augustine Gascón , officiating as labour counselor for Indians . As a result , he confronted powerful people like the mayors of Cochabamba and Chayanta . He left the city after being threatened , and returned to Buenos Aires in 1805 with his wife Maria Guadalupe Cuenca and their newborn son . Once in the city , he became a reporter of the hearings of the Royal Audiencia , a local appeal court . The Buenos Aires Cabildo , the local council , hired him as an advisor as well . He defended Melchor Fernández , aggrieved by Bishop Benito Lue y Riega , in one of his first cases . In another of his early disputes he backed the Cabildo in denying the appointment as an ensign of the young Bernardino Rivadavia .
A British army invaded Buenos Aires in 1806 , starting the British invasions of the Río de la Plata . Although Moreno was not actively involved with the military counter @-@ offensive which drove them out , he opposed the British presence in Buenos Aires . He wrote a diary that noted all the events , so that , in the future , his countrymen would know the circumstances that allowed such an invasion . The British made a new attack in 1807 , this time invading Montevideo . They published a bilingual English – Spanish newspaper known as " The Southern Star " or " La estrella del sur " ( the newspaper used both names in conjunction ) . It advocated free trade , a British goal , and promoted American independence under British protection . The Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires banned the newspaper and requested Moreno to write articles refuting those of the British publication . Moreno refused because , although he did not accept British rule , he agreed with some of their criticisms of the Spanish government . Fearing a new attack to Buenos Aires , Moreno left the city with his whole family and relocated in the countryside . His house in Buenos Aires , left unoccupied , was used to keep prisoner William Carr Beresford , the British commander of the first invasion . Several friends of Moreno helped Beresford to escape and move to Montevideo , but it is unknown if Moreno was aware of the plan .
= = First political activities = =
Although Mariano Moreno was a criollo , a Spanish citizen born in the Americas , he did not work with the other criollos of Buenos Aires who sought to promote political changes against the privileges of the Spanish @-@ born . Unlike the criollo politicians Manuel Belgrano and Juan José Castelli , he did not support viceroy Liniers or the Carlotist project , which sought the coronation of Carlota of Spain in the Americas . He joined mayor Martín de Álzaga instead , which allowed him to serve as legal adviser of the Cabildo . In that capacity , he wrote a petition to the King of Spain , so that the Buenos Aires Cabildo was named Protector of the Cabildos of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata . As a result , all petitions from local cabildos to the King or the Viceroy would be channeled through the Cabildo at the capital .
Martín de Álzaga organized a mutiny on January 1 , 1809 , and Moreno joined it . Álzaga aspired to replace Viceroy Santiago de Liniers with a government Junta , after learning of the capture of the Spanish King Ferdinand VII during the Peninsular War and the creation of the Junta of Seville . If it prevailed , Mariano Moreno would have been part of the new Junta . The mutiny was defeated by the swift reaction of Cornelio Saavedra , in command of the Regiment of Patricians , who dispersed the crowd and persuaded Liniers not to abdicate . It is disputed by historians whenever the mutiny had similar or opposite goals to those of the May Revolution that would take place a year later . The historians who support the latter perspective try to make attempts to excuse or justify Moreno 's involvement ; those who support the former consider instead that Moreno was a revolutionary a year before most other Argentines . Moreno was Álzaga 's lawyer in the trial that followed , which was labeled a trial for " independentism " . Liniers did not extend the trial to Moreno himself , for reasons unknown .
Liniers was succeeded by Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros a few months later , who pardoned the mutineers to reduce political conflicts . Cisneros allowed free trade as well , as instructed by the Junta of Seville , which benefited British merchants ; Britain was allied with Spain in the Peninsular War . The agents of the Consulate of Cadiz asserted that this would hurt the local economy , moral values , social usages , religious practices , and the loyalty to Spain and its monarchy . As a result , Cisneros closed trade again , restoring the Spanish monopsony . A group of hacendados ( owners of haciendas ) , who did not feel adequately represented at the Cabildo , asked Moreno to defend them . Moreno wrote The Representation of the Landowners , a report that represented the export interest of the landowners , encouraged free trade , and condemned the privileges of the merchants benefited from the monopsony . It is considered the most comprehensive economic report from the time of the viceroyalty . It represented the new European economic ideas , and noted that the legal monopsony with Spain did not prevent British goods from being smuggled . Several authors have questioned Moreno 's authorship of the paper , considering it instead an update of another , previously drafted by Manuel Belgrano , Secretary of the Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires , written to make a similar request to the former viceroy Liniers . This report , as well as Moreno 's prestige in the colonial society , helped him gain the confidence of Cisneros . Yet secretly , Moreno supported the plan to dismiss the Viceroy .
= = Primera Junta = =
Mariano Moreno had several contacts with groups seeking the removal of Cisneros , but was not strongly involved with the May Revolution , which considered the fall of the Junta of Seville a reason to depose the viceroy and create a local junta . At the time , Moreno was still loyal to Álzaga . He attended the May 22 open Cabildo , but according to the father of Vicente Fidel López and the father @-@ in @-@ law of Bartolomé Mitre ( both direct witness ) he stayed silent at one side and did not join the debate . He voted for Saavedra 's proposal : to remove viceroy Cisneros and replace him with a Junta . Manuel Hermenegildo Aguirre , captain of hussars , proposed that the Cabildo take the reins of government , with five men appointed as counselors , Moreno among them . However , nobody else voted for that proposal , and it was the only one that included him . Moreno felt betrayed when the Cabildo twisted the results of the open Cabildo and created a Junta that would be headed by Cisneros . He refused any further contacts with the revolutionaries and stayed home during the remaining events . The definitive members of the Junta came from a popular petition signed on May 25 , which was given to the Cabildo . The reasons of Moreno 's inclusion in the list are unclear , as with all other members of the Junta . A commonly accepted theory considers it to be a balance between Carlotists and Alzaguists .
The Junta faced strong opposition from the beginning : it was resisted locally by the Cabildo and the Royal Audiencia , still loyal to the absolutist factions ; the nearby plazas of Montevideo and Paraguay did not recognize it ; and Santiago de Liniers organized a counter @-@ revolution at Córdoba . Mariano Moreno , an unimportant politician up to that point , became the leader of the most radical supporters of the Junta . He was supported by the popular leaders Domingo French and Antonio Beruti , Dupuy , Donado , Orma , and Cardozo ; and priests like Grela and Aparicio . Historian Carlos Ibarguren described that Morenist youths roamed the streets preaching new ideas to each pedestrian they found , turned the " Marcos " coffee shop into a political hall , and proposed that all social classes should be illustrated . Manuel Belgrano and Juan José Castelli supported Moreno within the Junta , and French was promoted to Colonel of the regiment " América " . This regiment , also known as " The Star " because of a star that they wore on their sleeves , was composed of radical youths led by French during the riots of the May Revolution .
Moreno established the official newspaper Gazeta de Buenos Ayres through a June 2 decree , and managed its contents . The first newspapers were available to the public five days later . He issued a freedom of the press decree , which allowed the press to publish anything that did not offend public morals or attack the Revolution or the government . Moreno published some works of Gaspar de Jovellanos , and his translation of Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's The Social Contract . In this later work he skipped the chapter about religion , suggesting that the author " has raved in religious matters " . This was done to prevent religious disputes among patriots . This publication was criticized by conservatives such as Tomás de Anchorena , who said that it could generate popular unrest . As with the Junta itself , Moreno 's writings maintained loyalty to Ferdinand VII . It is unclear to historians whether he was concealing pro @-@ independence ambitions , or was truly loyal to the deposed king . However , he made specific references to independentism as early as November , 1810 . In reference to the Courts of Cádiz that would write a Constitution , he said that the Congress " may establish an absolute disposal of our beloved Ferdinand " , meaning that the right of self @-@ determination would allow even that . He did not think the monarchical authority to be absolute , but subject to popular sovereignty , so that a monarch may lose his authority if he worked against the common good of the people . He also considered that if Ferdinand VII returned to the throne , he would not be able to challenge a Constitution written in his absence . However , he wrote that as a hypothetical scenario , to describe the strength of a Constitution , not as a likely possibility .
Moreno issued several decrees during his first days in government . He ordered punishment for anyone attempting to generate disputes , and for those concealing conspiracies against the Junta or other people . The military bodies of " Pardos " and " Morenos " , composed of indigenous peoples , were reformed to have military ranks similar to those of the Spanish military bodies . He did this invoking the rulings of the Catholic Monarchs during the early Spanish colonization of the Americas .
= = = Actions against royalists = = =
Although the Junta of Seville was defeated , a new one was created afterwards , the Regency Council . The Primera Junta did not swear loyalty to it , but the Royal Audiencia did so in defiance of the local authority . The Junta summoned them , along with former viceroy Cisneros , and exiled them to Spain with the pretext that there was a threat to their lives . The Junta appointed new members for the Audiencia loyal to the revolution . Moreno wrote in the Gazeta that the Audiencia attacked the good faith of the government , and that the Junta left their usual moderation for the safety of the people .
The Junta was rejected in Montevideo , as was the exile of Cisneros and the former Audiencia . Moreno reacted immediately , replying to the Montevidean concerns . He supported the legitimacy of the Primera Junta by criticizing the Regency Council and stating that the overseas Spanish territories were equally capable of creating Juntas , as it was debated during the open cabildo . He also called for unity and support of the metropolis , and that both cities recognize Ferdinand VII as their legitimate monarch . He argued that the Junta treated the exiles initially with moderation , but their obstinacy , particularly on the part of Cisneros , generated popular discontent . Matías Irigoyen told the same thing to the British Lord Strangford in Río de Janeiro .
Moreno organized two military expeditions to counter the threat of the plazas that resisted the Junta . The first one , headed by Francisco Ortiz de Ocampo , would move to Córdoba and attack the counter @-@ revolution organized by the former viceroy Santiago de Liniers ; they next went to Upper Peru . Ocampo 's initial orders were to capture the counter @-@ revolutionary leaders and send them to Buenos Aires , so that they could be judged . When the counter @-@ revolution became stronger Moreno called the Junta and , with support from Castelli and Paso , proposed that the enemy leaders should be shot as soon as they were captured instead of brought to trial . The Junta accepted the new proposal , and delivered it to Ocampo . The counter @-@ revolution was defeated the following August , but Ocampo did not execute his prisoners . Gregorio Funes , head of the patriotic party of Córdoba , persuaded him to spare them , because the prisoners were popular in Córdoba and the people would not support their deaths . Besides Liniers , the prisoners included the governor of Córdoba and the bishop of the city . Ocampo stuck to the initial orders and delivered the prisoners to the city . Moreno did not accept it , and told Ocampo that a general should simply obey orders . He called a new meeting of the Junta , and produced a paper left at his home which said , " If Liniers does not die , LET HIM LIVE ! " ( note : the second part was written in capital letters in the original ) . The Junta agreed to fire Ocampo and replace him with Castelli , with Nicolás Rodríguez Peña as secretary and Domingo French leading the escort . They intercepted the convoy at Cabeza de Tigre and executed them , except for Bishop Orellana , because of his religious endowment . The Auxiliary Army , commanded by Ocampo and Castelli , was renamed as the Army of the North , and launched the First Alto Perú campaign . Moreno gave harsh new instructions for it : monitor the activities of the rich ; kill Goyeneche , Nieto , Paula Sanz and the bishop on sight ; and allow soldiers to pillage the enemies at the first patriot victory , to generate terror . The context was not favourable : only Cochabamba and Charcas made a genuine support of the revolution , and some indigenous people hesitated in joining , fearing the consequences of a possible royalist counter @-@ attack . The Morenist projects for Upper Peru , which included the emancipation of the indigenous peoples and the nationalization of the mines of Potosi , were resisted by the local populations that were benefiting from the system already in force . Castelli proposed to advance the military campaign even closer to Lima , but Moreno asked him to stay at his position .
The other military expedition moved to Paraguay , commanded by Manuel Belgrano . Following instructions from Moreno , he helped the natives at the missions in Corrientes , on his way to Paraguay . He gave them full civil and political rights , granted lands , authorized commerce with the United Provinces , removed taxes for ten years , abolished any type of torture , and lifted restrictions on taking public or religious office .
Moreno promoted stronger measures against the royalists . In July , he gave orders to the neighboring mayors to prevent the creation of secret groups , or activities that could promote alienation . He promoted a new decree of the Junta that called for trial and confiscation of goods for anyone that left the city without authorization , kept military weapons in secret , promoted popular alienation or discontent against the government , or wrote letters to people in other cities for such a purpose . Serious cases were usually punished with execution or exile . Some rich people exiled by this decree were Francisco Beláustegui , Olaguer Reynals , Norberto de Quirno y Echeandía , and Pablo Villariño . Manuel Andrés Arroyo y Pinedo , another rich man , blamed Moreno for these actions , accusing him of equaling disagreement with antipatriotism , and felt that the ideas of egalitarianism would only cause great evils . Those measures were also criticized by moderate supporters of the revolution , such as Gregorio Funes from Córdoba , who rejected the lack of proper trials , or Dámaso Uriburu , from Salta , who compared Moreno , Castelli , and Vieytes with the French Jacobins .
By this time , Moreno thought that the only way to secure the Revolution would be if it was successful throughout the continent . However , he considered that Latin American integration should be achieved peacefully among equals , and not as the result of a conquest campaign . He wrote at the Gazeta that " even as pure as our intentions may be , it would be dangerous if the freedom of America was just our own work . Such a circumstance could lead to a real despotism and the Peruvian peoples would not improve having porteño oppressors instead of European ones . " He made positive comments about the rebellions at Cochabamba and Chile .
= = = Operations plan = = =
Following a proposal of Manuel Belgrano , the Junta wrote a political platform setting broad goals and procedures to follow to achieve its objectives . The creation of this document , whose name is often summarized simply as the " Operations plan " , was trusted to Mariano Moreno . There have been disputes about the authenticity of this document . Some historians like Paul Groussac suspect that the document was a literary forgery , prepared by a Spaniard at the Court of Portugal to discredit the Junta . Supporters of the truthfulness of the document like Norberto Piñeiro , allege that the content would be consistent with government actions taken by the Primera Junta .
The document states the need to defeat the royalist forces and therefore proposes many possible actions similar to those employed by Jacobins during the Reign of Terror of the French Revolution . It rejected the use of political moderation , considering that it would be dangerous during revolutionary times . It compared the South American revolution , still in its early stages , with the French and North American ones , and even the revolution in Spain itself , pointing out that none of those relied solely in conspiracies or secret meetings . The document proposes to favor patriots , and fill the state offices with them . Peninsulars , on the other hand , should be carefully monitored , and punished at the slightest proof of action against the Junta , and executed if they were rich or influential . For this end , the Junta would need to create an espionage network . This policy towards peninsulars is coherent with the actions taken against the Liniers counter @-@ revolution , and similar to the one employed by Simón Bolívar in the North shortly after . Moreno thought that José Gervasio Artigas would be an invaluable ally , and that Buenos Aires should use any resource at its disposal to have him join the fight against absolutism . He noted the internal conflicts in Chile and Paraguay , and urged support of local patriots against local royalists .
On the level of international relations , Mariano Moreno rejected slavery in Brazil , a neighboring Portuguese colony . He proposed to distribute large numbers of Gazeta de Buenos Ayres newspapers , filled with libertarian ideas and translated into Portuguese , and provide military support to the slaves if they should riot . He considered the risk of a complete Spanish defeat in the Peninsular War or a restoration of absolutism great menaces , and regarded Britain as a potential ally against them . During a conflict , Britain would be able to provide them with weapons and other goods not produced locally . Critics of Moreno consider him an Anglophile because of this proposal , but the same document also warns against the risk of allowing Britain too much influence in national economy . He criticized the relationship between Britain and Portugal , considering that Portugal was subject to a " shameful slavery " to Britain , and that British influence in Brazil was so high that the Portuguese colonies might eventually become British ones . Moreno held the same ideas about being simultaneously friendly and cautious with Britain in the pages of the Gazeta newspaper .
In the economic field , the document addressed the lack of a bourgeoisie that could turn the political changes into economic development , and proposed to overcome this lack with strong state interventionism . Mariano Moreno proposed that the state invest 200 or 300 million in factories , manufacturing , arts , agriculture , navigation , and other critical areas . There would be no risk of bankruptcy because the state would manage the businesses . With the money generated , the state would then seek seeds and tools , and ultimately allow the continent to be economically autarchic . The initial money that the state would need to become such an active economic force would come from the mines in Potosi , where the slavers had nearly 500 or 600 million . Moreno proposed simply to confiscate the money and nationalize the mines . He reasoned that five or six thousand people would be harmed by such action , but eighty or a hundred thousand would benefit . The state would not manage those areas indefinitely ; Moreno proposed that this should be done only until there was a strong economic activity in each area , and then the state would just observe , making sure that they followed the laws enacted for the common good of society .
Early 19th @-@ century liberalism did not promote confiscation among their common proposals , but an antecedent of this proposal was the Conspiracy of the Equals , promoted by François @-@ Noël Babeuf during the French Revolution . Moreno thought that state @-@ sized fortunes managed by a few individuals were detrimental to civil society , and those individuals would tend to manage the economy for their own benefit , without fixing the problems of society at large .
The document proposed to avoid exporting money , and to include high tariffs on the import of luxury goods . This is often seen as a contradiction of the The Representation of the Hacendados , but each request different things . The Representation opposed the absolute prohibition of trade with Britain , which is not the same than allowing it while following a protectionist policy . As secretary , Moreno reduced the tariffs on national exports , but kept high ones for imports .
= = = Internal disputes = = =
Mariano Moreno and Cornelio Saavedra had disagreements about the events of the May Revolution and the way to run the government ; their disputes became public shortly after the creation of the Junta . Saavedra was the president , and Moreno was a secretary with the support of other vocal members . Ignacio Núñez describes how Morenists felt that the President was attempting to restore in his office the authority of the viceroys , thus downgrading the importance of the other members of the Junta at public events ; while Saavedrists considered that the Secretary was overstepping his authority and did not allow even the appointment of a janitor that was not of his liking . However , Domingo Matheu would clarify in his memoirs that their initial concerns with Saavedra were based more on his desire for honours and privileges than for a real power struggle . Núñez described how Moreno was resisted by some criollos who initially supported the revolution without being aware of the long @-@ term consequences . He was resisted by criollos alarmed by his straightforward way of talking about concepts like self @-@ determination , tyranny , slavery , and freedom . Theologians resented that Moreno cited authors like Rousseau , Voltaire , or Montesquieu rather than Christian philosophers like Saint Augustine or Saint Thomas . He was also resisted by conservative lawyers and by most of the military .
By October , Moreno 's measures started to generate resistance among some who initially supported the May Revolution . Traders did not like the protectionist policy , and some members of the military had close ties with rich people and opposed their punishment . On October 16 it was discovered that ten members of the Cabildo had sworn loyalty to the Regency Council the past July , and they were all jailed . This included Julián Leiva and Juan José de Lezica . Moreno and Saavedra had a dispute when the Junta was deciding what to do . Moreno proposed executing them as a deterrent , accusing them of working with the Montevideo Cabildo , the enemy of the Junta . Saavedra replied that the government should promote leniency , and rejected the use of the Patricians Regiment to carry out such executions . The prisoners were finally exiled to Luján , Ranchos , and Salto , and Leiva was housed by Gregorio Funes in Córdoba .
By this point , the only military support for Moreno was Domingo French , head of " The Star " regiment . Castelli and Belgrano supported him , but were far away from the capital on their respective military campaigns . The activists of the May Revolution supported him as well , as did other members of the Junta and other patriots like Vieytes and Nicolás Rodríguez Peña . Saavedra kept the strong support of the Regiment of Patricians , and added that of the merchants and even some supporters of the former regime who deemed the moderated Saavedra a lesser evil . Moreno sought to modify the military balance of power by reforming the promotion rules . Up until that point , the sons of officials were automatically granted the status of cadet and were promoted just by seniority ; Moreno arranged that promotions were earned by military merits instead . However , in the short run this measure worked against him , as it antagonised members of the military who got promoted precisely because of such rules . He also thought that support from the lower classes was instrumental to the success of the Revolution , and wrote letters to Chiclana instructing him to generate such support at Upper Peru . Such popular involvement would take time to consolidate : the Guerra Gaucha , the War of the Republiquetas , and the rise of José Gervasio Artigas took place later , not as of 1810 .
Saavedra increased his resistance to Moreno 's proposals after the victory at the Battle of Suipacha , considering that the revolution had defeated its enemies and should relax its severity in consequence . The Regiment of Patricians hosted a banquet celebration at the barracks , restricting attendance to the military and supporters of Saavedra . Moreno was not allowed to pass by the guards at the door , which generated a small incident . That same night , Officer Atanasio Duarte , who was drunk , gave a crown of sugar to Saavedra 's wife and saluted Saavedra as if he was the new king or emperor of the Americas . The next day , when Moreno heard about the incident , he wrote the " Honours Suppression decree " , which suppressed the ceremony usually reserved for the president of the Junta and inherited privileges of the office of viceroy . Duarte was exiled , and Moreno 's act was justified by stating that " An inhabitant of Buenos Aires neither drunk nor asleep should be expressed against the freedom of his country " . Saavedra signed the decree without complaint , but Gregorio Funes felt that the Patricians resented Moreno because of this .
The conflicts between Moreno and Saavedra generated international reactions . Lord Strangford complained about the later actions of the Junta , such as the execution of Liniers , which were seen as more violent than the initial ones . Brazil was also concerned because many copies of the Gazeta were being distributed at Rio Grande do Sul , influencing their slaves with libertarian ideas . The Brazilian government sent Carlos José Guezzi to Buenos Aires , with the purpose of mediating in the conflict with the royalists at Montevideo and to ratify the aspirations of Carlota Joaquina to rule as regent . He met Saavedra in his first interview , in July , and got a positive impression of him . Saavedra said that if Carlota 's rights were confirmed by the Spanish monarchy , Buenos Aires would support her , even if it meant they had to stand against the other provinces . The following month he requested a representative for the Court of Brazil , offered Carlota 's mediation with Montevideo , and pointed out that Brazil had forces near the frontier , awaiting orders to attack the revolution . This time , Moreno resisted . Moreno rejected sending a representative , and told him that the Junta did not work for the interests of Brazil , but for those of the United Provinces . He rejected the mediation as well , considering that no mediation was possible under a military threat . Guezzi was immediately sent back to Rio de Janeiro on the first available ship . He described Moreno as " the Robespierre of the day " , and accused the Junta of attempting to build a republic .
In December , the deputies of the other provinces convened by the circular of May 27 arrived to Buenos Aires . Most of them were closer to the ideas of Saavedra , and Gregorio Funes became highly influential over them . They did not agree about which body they should join : the deputies wanted to join the Junta , while Moreno thought that they should start a constituent assembly . Funes , allied with Saavedra , calculated that they could stop Moreno by joining the Junta , as his proposals would be agreed to by a minority . The Junta , with both its original members and the deputies , discussed the topic on December 18 . Funes said that Buenos Aires had no right to rule the other provinces without their consent , and got the support of the other members . He said that there was popular discontent with the Junta . The supporters of Moreno said that such discontent was only among some rebels , and Moreno said that it was only the discontent of the Patricians in respect of the Supressions decree . However , only Paso voted with him , and the deputies joined the Junta . Moreno resigned , but his resignation was rejected . His opposition to the incorporation of the deputies is seen by some historians as an initial step in the conflict between Buenos Aires and the other provinces , which dominated politics in Argentina during the following decades . Some call it a precursor of the Unitarian Party , while others find his words or actions more consistent with the Federal Party . However , historians Paul Groussac and Norberto Piñeiro feel it is inappropriate to extrapolate so far into the future . Piñeiro considered it an error to label Moreno as federal or unitary , proving that this organization been prioritized over the secondary aspect of centralism or federalism , while Groussac similarly notes that Moreno devoted all his energies to the immediate problem of achieving independence without giving much thought to possible long @-@ term scenarios .
= = Political decline and death = =
Hipólito Vieytes was about to make a diplomatic mission to Britain , but Moreno requested that he should be given the appointment instead . Saavedra accepted immediately . He traveled to Britain with his brother Manuel Moreno and his secretary Tomás Guido , on the British schooner Fame . His health declined and there was no doctor on board , but the captain refused requests to land at some earlier port such as in Río de Janeiro ( Brazil ) or Cape Town ( South Africa ) . The captain gave him an emetic in common use at that time , prepared with four grams of antimony potassium tartrate . Moreno had great convulsions as a consequence , and considered that in his state he could not have resisted more than the quarter of a gram . He died shortly afterwards . His body was wrapped in a Union Jack and thrown into the sea , after a volley of musketry .
Manuel Moreno speculated later that he was poisoned by the captain . Manuel Moreno was unsure of whether the captain really given him that substance , or if he substituted something else , or gave an even higher dose . Circumstances did not allow an autopsy to be performed . Further points used to sustain the idea of a murder are the captain 's refusal to land elsewhere , his slow sailing , his administration of the emetic in secrecy , and that he didn 't return to Buenos Aires with the ship . Enrique de Gandía pointed to an irregular ruling of the Junta that appointed a British person named Curtis as Moreno 's replacement for the diplomatic mission in the case of Moreno 's death . The son of Mariano Moreno commented to the historian Adolfo Saldías that his mother , Guadalupe Cuenca , received an anonymous gift of a mourning hand fan and handkerchief , with instructions to use them soon . By that time , the murder of Moreno was a common assumption , and it was mentioned during the trial of residence of the members of the Junta . Juan Madera stated at the trial that Moreno may have requested to go to Britain because he was afraid of being murdered , and that he may have stated this during the meeting when the Junta discussed his resignation . Modern author Manuel Luis Martín studied the health of both Moreno and his family , and concluded that he died of natural causes .
= = Legacy = =
Despite the death of Mariano Moreno , his supporters were still an influential party in Buenos Aires . Morenists accused Saavedra and Funes of plotting to allow the coronation of Carlota , and organized a rebellion with " The Star " Regiment . However , the Saavedrists became aware of it , and organized another rebellion on May 5 and 6 , 1811 . This rebellion requested strong changes in the government : the removal of Morenists Nicolás Rodríguez Peña , Hipólito Vieytes , Miguel Azcuénaga , and Juan Larrea from the Junta ; the exile of Domingo French , Antonio Beruti , Agustín Donado , Gervasio Posadas and Ramón Vieytes ; and the return and trial of Manuel Belgrano . Thus , the Morenist party was set apart from the government .
The Saavedrist hegemony was short @-@ lived . The military defeats of Castelli and Belgrano started a new political crisis , and the First Triumvirate replaced the Junta Grande as the executive power , and then closed it completely . The former supporters of Moreno ( Belgrano , Dupuy , Tomás Guido , Beruti , Monteagudo , French , Vicente López ) would later support the campaign of José de San Martín . The Argentine war of independence would give room to the Argentine Civil War between unitarians and federals . Saavedrists like Martín Rodríguez , Ortiz de Ocampo , de la Cruz — and even Saavedra himself — became unitarians . Manuel Moreno , French , Agrelo , Vicente López , and Pancho Planes opposed both the First Triumvirate and the presidency of unitarian Bernardino Rivadavia . Manuel Moreno and Tomás Guido , in particular , worked in the government of the most powerful federal leader , Juan Manuel de Rosas .
= = = Historical perspectives = = =
Early Argentine historians described Mariano Moreno as the leader of the Revolution and a great historical man . Later liberal historians would embellish this portrayal even more . An example of this tendency is La Revolución de Mayo y Mariano Moreno by Ricardo Levene . Biographers would describe him as a serene statesman , a notable economist , a decided democrat , and a great leader . For those historians , Moreno would have been an anglophile , and " The Representation of the Hacendados " , the government platform of the May Revolution .
Subsequently , revisionist authors would formulate accusations against him , while promoting Saavedra as a popular leader . According to those authors , Moreno was a British agent , a demagogic caudillo , a paranoid , a mere man of theoretical ideas applying European principles that failed in the local context , wrongly portrayed as leader of the Revolution by the liberal historiography . Año X by Hugo Wast is considered the harshest work against Moreno . Moreno was still considered an anglophile , but in a negative light . They blamed Moreno for the harsh policies of the Junta , considering him a terrorist or a predecessor of Marxism ; liberal historians usually concealed these policies .
Modern authors like Ernesto Palacio , Norberto Galasso , and Jorge Abelardo Ramos attempt to rescue the image of Moreno by avoiding both extremes : the sweet liberal Moreno and the horrible one written by revisionists . Those historians do not consider Bernardino Rivadavia a successor of Moreno , and the proposals to seek an alliance with Britain are not seen as the product of anglophilia , but just an example of the limited options available to the Primera Junta . Similarly , they do not attribute much influence to the Representation ... , considering it a mere work for a client that didn 't really influence Cisneros , who would have allowed free trade for international contexts . The harsh policies are acknowledged , but not attributed specifically to Moreno , but rather to the whole Junta , and compared with similar royalist measures used to punish the Chuquisaca , the La Paz revolution , and the indigenous rebellion of Túpac Amaru II .
= = = Journalism = = =
Mariano Moreno is regarded as the first Argentine journalist , as he created the Gazeta de Buenos Ayres . June 7 , the day this newspaper was first available to the public , is recognized in Argentina as " Journalist day " since 1938 . The Gazeta , however , was not the first newspaper in Buenos Aires , but the first one since the May Revolution . The first newspaper was the Telégrafo Mercantil ( 1801 ) , followed by the Semanario de Agricultura Industria y Comercio ( 1802 ) and the Correo de Comercio de Buenos Aires ( 1810 ) , edited during the colonial period .
Moreno was the only one to sign the decree that established the newspaper , but the text implies that it was the result of a discussion of the whole Junta , and not just his initiative . Fellow member of the Junta Manuel Alberti was appointed director of the newspaper . However , Alberti never actually directed the newspaper ; Moreno did . Historian Guillermo Furlong considers that it was really Alberti who directed the newspaper , but the memoirs of José Pedro Agrelo ( a later director ) , Tomás Guido , and Saavedra confirm that the newspaper was managed by Moreno . Moreno has also been promoted as a supporter of the freedom of the press , but the Gazeta ... was actually a state @-@ sponsored newspaper , and the Junta allowed such freedom only for information that was not against the interests of the government . According to Norberto Galasso , that situation would today be considered media bias .
= = Personal life = =
The Moreno family was poor , but could afford a house and some slaves . Ana María Valle y Ramos , Mariano 's mother , was one of the few literate women in Buenos Aires . Mariano Moreno was the firstborn of fourteen children . Mariano moved to Chuquisaca with his brother Manuel Moreno and their friend Tomás Guido once the family raised the money . The long and difficult journey gave Mariano a rheumatism attack ; he had to stay in bed for fifteen days on arrival . He had further attacks years later . Moreno met María Guadalupe Cuenca in this city , after seeing a miniature portrait of her at a silversmith 's house . Both Moreno and María were expected by their families to follow religious studies , and Moreno 's father did not authorize a change . Moreno studied laws all the same , and married María in secret to avoid family resistance . They had a single son , named Mariano like the father .
When Moreno left for Europe on a diplomatic mission in 1811 , his wife and son stayed in Buenos Aires . María wrote many letters to Moreno , with descriptions of ongoing events in the city . Most of them were written when Moreno was already dead ; she did not learn of his fate until the following August , when a letter arrived from Manuel Moreno . She requested a widow 's pension from the First Triumvirate , which was in power by then ; its value was thirty pesos .
= = = Beliefs = = =
Mariano Moreno studied French and Spanish authors of the Age of Enlightenment during his studies at Chuquisaca . Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's The Social Contract was a main influence ; he translated this work to Spanish and used it to justify the actions of the Primera Junta . Contemporary people as Ignacio Núñez and Tomás de Anchorena acknowledged him as the translator . However , as the main page said that the work was " reprinted in Buenos Ayres " , some historians doubt whether it was actually Moreno 's work . Vicente Fidel López claimed that Moreno reprinted the translation made by the Spaniard Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos , but the two translations differ . Paul Groussac thought it was a reprint of an Asturian translation , and Ricardo Levene said that Moreno was not the translator , but neither gave any indication as to who they thought had completed it . Enrique de Gandía considers that the comments of contemporary people and the lack of an earlier similar translation of Rousseau 's work allow us to conclude that Moreno must have been the translator , at least until an earlier translation is found .
Despite his interest in French authors , Mariano Moreno was not Francophile or afrancesado . He kept a strong Spanish cultural heritage , and both Levene and Abelardo Ramos agree in that his stay in Chuquisaca influenced him more than the books . In line with the Spanish Enlightenment , Moreno kept strong religious beliefs . He removed the chapter from Rousseau 's work that is critical of religion , and never became a freemason . He gave up his religious studies to study law and get married , but never actually became a priest , so there was no defrocking . He studied with priests such as Terrazas , who approved and perhaps even encouraged the change of vocation .
= = = Physical aspect = = =
The canonical image of Mariano Moreno is the one from the portrait Mariano Moreno en su mesa de trabajo ( Spanish : Mariano Moreno at his work desk ) . It was done by the Chilean artist Pedro Subercaseaux during the centennial of the May Revolution in 1910 . The historian Adolfo Carranza asked him to design various allegorical pictures of the event . Carranza belonged to the mainstream line of historians who professed great admiration for Moreno , who he described as follows : " He was the soul of the government of the revolution of May , his nerve , the distinguished statesman of the group managing the ship attacked the absolutism and doubt , anxious to reach the goal of his aspirations and his destiny . Moreno was the compass and that also grabbed the helm , as he was the strongest and the ablest of those who came to direct it " . He asked for a picture that was consistent with this image . The portrait depicts him as a friendly man with an open and round face , a wide forehead , and a serene look . Subsequent interpretations , like those of Antonio Estrada , would follow this style , as would portraits of other members of the Junta . However , as this portrait was made a hundred years after the death of the subject , with no known depictions done during his lifetime , it was thus based on the artist 's imagination . It was known that Moreno had clearly visible smallpox scars from the age of eight , but not to the point where they disfigured his face .
Later a portrait of Moreno was discovered that had been done from life , by the Peruvian silversmith Juan de Dios Rivera . This portrait was painted between 1808 or 1809 , before Moreno 's appointment as secretary of the Junta . It is now considered to be the closest representation of Moreno 's real appearance . In this portrait , he is depicted with an elongated face , abundant hair , long sideburns , big eyes , and a pointy nose .
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= Mid @-@ October 2007 tornado outbreak =
The Mid @-@ October 2007 tornado outbreak was a widespread tornado outbreak that took place across much of the eastern half of North America starting on October 18 , 2007 and continuing into the early hours of October 19 . The outbreak was also responsible for five deaths ; three in Michigan and two in Missouri , plus many injuries ( including some from non @-@ tornadic events ) . At least 64 tornadoes were confirmed including 16 on October 17 across six states including Texas , Oklahoma , Arkansas , Louisiana , Mississippi and Missouri with wind damage reported in Oklahoma , Kansas , Illinois , Iowa , Arkansas and Mississippi . On October 18 , at least 48 tornadoes were confirmed across eight states including Florida , Alabama , Mississippi , Tennessee , Kentucky , Illinois , Indiana and Michigan , plus widespread straight line wind damage . Until 2010 , this event held the record for largest tornado outbreak ever recorded in the month of October according to NOAA .
= = Meteorological synopsis = =
A deep low pressure system ( with a pressure of 977 mbar at its peak ) moved across the Pacific Coast on October 15 and then crossed the Rockies during the following day and touched out some moist air from the Gulf of Mexico , major source for storm development and intensification . Not part of the main outbreak , 3 tornadoes were reported , during the overnight hours of October 16 towards October 17 , across Randall County , Texas south of Amarillo on October 16 with 1 of them confirmed as a high EF1 . That tornado caused damage to trees , fences , power poles , steel pipes , trailers and barns .
The next day a dry line , which separates the drier air from the more moist and humid air , formed ahead of the cold front across the Texas and Oklahoma Panhandles and tracked eastward . The high humidity levels with dew points in the 70s ° F ( low 20s ° C ) , temperatures that in many areas were near 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) , strong wind shear and the presence of the dry line helped develop the instability to produce severe thunderstorms across the Midwest and Southern Plains on October 17 .
A moderate risk for severe weather was issued by the Storm Prediction Center two days prior to the event . The storm then moved across the most of the Midwest on October 18 , where a moderate risk was in effect also for two days for most of Illinois , Indiana and parts of Kentucky , although the moderate risk was revised further to the south and east to include western Ohio , western Tennessee , southeastern Missouri , northeastern Arkansas and a larger portion of Kentucky while Michigan and Wisconsin were no longer under a moderate risk . A slight risk of severe weather was forecast for a large area from beyond the Canadian border to the Florida Panhandle and Mobile Bay . Dew points above 70 ° F ( 21 ° C ) were reported well into the Ohio Valley , and dew points above 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) were reported as far north as northern Ontario .
The outbreak was expected to continue into October 19 east of the Appalachians , however , extensive cloud cover prevented any significant severe storms from developing although several wind reports were reported in Pennsylvania , New Jersey and Massachusetts . The storm then moved out into the Atlantic Ocean on October 20 .
= = Significant tornadoes = =
The first severe thunderstorms developed during the early morning of October 17 across much of northern and eastern Texas and parts of Oklahoma and Kansas with only one reported tornado in east Texas . Several severe thunderstorms then later developed across eastern Oklahoma , Arkansas , Louisiana , western Mississippi , eastern Kansas , Missouri and parts of Nebraska , Iowa , Kentucky , Illinois and Tennessee . Twelve additional tornadoes were reported in Missouri and Louisiana during the late afternoon and early evening with damage reported in Lawrence and Greene counties in Missouri . One of the tornadoes located near Verona destroyed several barns and homes but did not cause any injuries and was later confirmed as an EF2 . The storms persisted throughout the night and an additional tornado killed 2 people inside a mobile home in Greene County , Missouri near Paris .
On October 18 , several thunderstorms already developed during the morning hours and continued to intensify during the afternoon . Just after 11 : 00 am EDT , one tornado in downtown Pensacola , Florida caused some extensive damage to the roof of a Baptist church as well as portions of Cordova Mall but there were no reported injuries at the Church and daycare center . During the early evenings severe weather affected the Louisville , Kentucky Metro area in which tree damage and power outage were reported throughout the area and a possible tornado at around 7 : 00 pm EDT near the Crescent Hill area which was later confirmed as a brief EF0 . Still in the region , one tree fell over a passing car but the motorist escaped injuries although he was trapped for several minutes inside . The Louisville power authority , the LG & E reported as much as 2 @,@ 500 homes without power mostly in St. Matthews and Crescent Hill areas . More storms rolled through much of the Ohio and Tennessee Valleys during the second half of the evening and overnight with more storms in Michigan .
Areas the hardest hit were along and near the Ohio River in western Kentucky as well as central and northern Indiana in Nappanee where injuries were reported as well as significant damage , and in Central Michigan . Three people were killed overall on October 18 : one in Kalkaska County , Michigan and two in Locke Township , near Williamston , Michigan . In addition to the tornadoes , storm straight line damaging wind measured up to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) were recorded across several of the regions hit by the severe weather , causing extensive tree and power line with isolated reports of structural damage .
In Michigan , a tornado in Tuscola near Flint threw a one @-@ year @-@ old baby 40 feet ( 12 m ) away from its location along with the crib and was later found amongst a pile of rubble under a mattress . His parents told reporters that the mattress saved the toddler 's life and he suffered few to no injuries . According to the National Weather Service in Detroit , tornadoes this late in the year in Michigan are rare . The last significant October tornado event was on October 24 , 2001 , when three tornadoes hit southeastern Lower Michigan , out of a total of nine in the state that day . Including the 2001 tornadoes , only seven October tornadoes had been recorded in the NWS Detroit county warning area prior to the 2007 outbreak . By comparison , NWS Detroit had confirmed five tornadoes in its coverage area from this outbreak . It was also the largest October outbreak over western Kentucky and southern Indiana as 15 tornadoes were confirmed on October 18 . Previous to this outbreak , only 19 tornadoes had been recorded in that same region during the history of October prior to this event . The Owensboro tornado , which was rated an EF3 was also the strongest ever in that month over the same region since records were kept in 1950 although an unofficial F3 took place in Posey County , Indiana on October 16 , 1928 .
= = Tornadoes confirmed = =
= = = October 17 event = = =
= = = October 18 event = = =
= = Nontornadic events = =
In addition to the tornadoes , widespread straight @-@ line wind damage took place across much of the affected region , particularly on the night of October 17 as a result of a derecho that moved across the southern Great Plains into the Ozarks . Winds were reported as high as 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) as a result of the bow echo that moved across the region . Tulsa was hard hit , with at least 55 people injured ( one critically ) due to wind damage at the Oktoberfest event . Many mobile homes were destroyed , and widespread power outages were reported in the region including in Rogers County near Oologah where five people where injured .
In Kansas , a bow echo caused some localized significant damage in and around the Wichita Metropolitan Area with the most significant damage at the International Cold Storage located in the Andover area where the peak winds were measured . Overall , over 400 wind reports in the US alone , were reported on both October 17 and 18 across the Midwest , Gulf Coast and Great Lakes with several reports of damage but there were no direct non @-@ tornadic fatalities . In Chicago , an eleven @-@ year @-@ old boy was struck and injured by lightning while another person was injured by broken glass when high winds broke windows of a lobby hall of a condominium .
In addition , the Gulf Coast region , particularly the Florida Panhandle , received torrential rain due to continuous thunderstorms ahead of the cold front . Rainfall amounts over 12 inches ( 300 mm ) were common ( with amounts as high as 22 inches ( 560 mm ) were reported in Gulf Breeze , Florida ) , although only minor flooding was reported including roads and some houses flooded .
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= West Wycombe Park =
West Wycombe Park is a country house built between 1740 and 1800 near the village of West Wycombe in Buckinghamshire , England . It was conceived as a pleasure palace for the 18th @-@ century libertine and dilettante Sir Francis Dashwood , 2nd Baronet . The house is a long rectangle with four façades that are columned and pedimented , three theatrically so . The house encapsulates the entire progression of British 18th @-@ century architecture from early idiosyncratic Palladian to the Neoclassical , although anomalies in its design make it architecturally unique . The mansion is set within an 18th @-@ century landscaped park containing many small temples and follies , which act as satellites to the greater temple , the house .
The house , which is a Grade I listed building , was given to the National Trust in 1943 by Sir John Dashwood , 10th Baronet ( 1896 – 1966 ) , an action strongly resented by his heir . Dashwood retained ownership of the surrounding estate and the contents of the house , most of which he sold ; after his death , the house was restored at the expense of his son , the 11th Baronet . Today , while the structure is owned by the National Trust , the house is still the home of the Dashwood family . The house is open to the public during the summer months and is a venue for civil weddings and corporate entertainment , which help to fund its maintenance and upkeep .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Ethos = = =
West Wycombe Park , architecturally inspired by the villas of the Veneto constructed during the late @-@ renaissance period , is not one of the largest , grandest or best @-@ known of England 's many country houses . Compared to its Palladian contemporaries , such as Holkham Hall , Woburn Abbey and Ragley Hall , it is quite small , yet it is architecturally important as it encapsulates a period of 18th @-@ century English social history , when young men , known as dilettanti , returning from the nearly obligatory Grand Tour with newly purchased acquisitions of art , often built a country house to accommodate their collections and display in stone the learning and culture they had acquired on their travels .
The West Wycombe estate was acquired by Sir Francis Dashwood , 1st Baronet , and his brother Samuel in 1698 . Dashwood demolished the existing manor house and built a modern mansion on higher ground nearby . This mansion forms the core of the present house . Images of the house on early estate plans show a red @-@ brick house with stone dressings and a hipped roof in the contemporary Queen Anne style . In 1724 , Dashwood bequeathed this square conventional house to his 16 @-@ year @-@ old son , the 2nd Baronet , also Francis , who later inherited the title Baron le Despencer through his mother and is perhaps best known for establishing the Hellfire Club close to the mansion , in the West Wycombe Caves . Between 1726 and 1741 , Dashwood embarked on a series of Grand Tours : the ideas and manners he learned during this period influenced him throughout his life and were pivotal in the rebuilding of his father 's simple house , transforming it into the classical edifice that exists today .
West Wycombe has been described as " one of the most theatrical and Italianate mid @-@ 18th century buildings in England " . Of all the 18th @-@ century country houses , its façades replicate in undiluted form not only the classical villas of Italy on which Palladianism was founded , but also the temples of antiquity on which Neoclassicism was based . The Greek Doric of the house 's west portico is the earliest example of the Greek revival in Britain .
The late 18th century was a period of change in the interior design of English country houses . The Baroque concept of the principal floor , or piano nobile , with a large bedroom suite known as the state apartments and only one large hall or saloon for common use , was gradually abandoned in favour of smaller , more comfortable bedrooms on the upper floors . The revised floor plan allowed the principal floor to become a series of reception rooms , each with a designated purpose , creating separate withdrawing , dining , music , and ballrooms . In this way , West Wycombe perfectly reflects the changes and ideals of the late @-@ 18th century . Its arrangement of reception and public rooms on a lower floor , with bedrooms and more private rooms above , survives unchanged .
= = = Exterior = = =
The builder of West Wycombe , Sir Francis Dashwood , 2nd Baronet , employed three architects and two landscape architects in the design of the house and its grounds . He had a huge input himself : having made the Grand Tour and seen the villas of the Italian renaissance first hand , he wished to emulate them .
Work began in about 1735 and continued until Dashwood 's death in 1781 , when the older house had been transformed inside and out . The long building time partly explains the flaws and variations in design : when building commenced , Palladianism was the height of fashion , but by the time of its completion , Palladianism had been succeeded by Neoclassicism ; thus , the house is a marriage of both styles . While the marriage is not completely unhappy , the Palladian features are marred by the lack of Palladio 's proportions : the east portico is asymmetrical with the axis of the house , and trees were planted either side to draw the eye away from the flaw .
The finest architects of the day submitted plans to transform the older family house into a modern architectural extravaganza . Among them was Robert Adam , who submitted a plan for the west portico , but his idea was dropped . The architect Nicholas Revett was consulted and created the west portico . Today , the first sight of the house as approached from the drive is this west end of the house , which appears as a Grecian temple . The eight @-@ columned portico , inspired by the Temple of Bacchus in Teos was completed by 1770 , and is considered to be the earliest example of Greek revival architecture in Britain . The opposite ( east ) end of the house , designed by John Donowell and completed c . 1755 , appears equally temple @-@ like , but this time the muse was the Villa Rotunda in Vicenza . Thus the two opposing porticos , east and west , illustrate two architectural styles of the late @-@ 18th century : the earlier Roman inspired Palladian architecture and the more Greek inspired Neoclassicism .
The principal façade is the great south front , a two @-@ storey colonnade of Corinthian columns superimposed on Tuscan , the whole surmounted by a central pediment . The columns are not stone , but wood coated in stucco . This is particularly interesting , as cost was no object in the house 's construction . The architect for this elevation was John Donowell , who executed the work between 1761 and 1763 ( although he had to wait until 1775 for payment ) . The façade , which has similarities to the main façade of Palladio 's Palazzo Chiericati of 1550 , was originally the entrance front . The front door is still in the centre of the ground floor leading into the main entry hall . This in itself is a substantial deviation from the classical form : West Wycombe does not have a first floor piano nobile : had the architect truly followed Palladio 's ideals , the main entrance and principal rooms would have been on the first floor reached by an outer staircase , giving the main reception rooms elevated views , and allowing the ground floor to be given over to service rooms .
The more severe north front is of eleven bays , with the end bays given significance by rustication at ground floor level . The centre of the façade has Ionic columns supporting a pediment and originally had the Dashwood coat of arms . This façade is thought to date from around 1750 – 51 , although its segmented windows suggest it was one of the first of the 2nd Baronet 's improvements to the original house to be completed , as the curved or segmented window heads are symbolic of the earlier part of the 18th century .
= = = Interior = = =
The principal reception rooms are on the ground floor with large sash windows opening immediately into the porticos and the colonnades , and therefore onto the gardens , a situation unheard of in the grand villas and palaces of Renaissance Italy . The mansion contains a series of 18th century salons decorated and furnished in the style of that period , with polychrome marble floors , and painted ceilings depicting classical scenes of Greek and Roman mythology . Of particular note is the entrance hall , which resembles a Roman atrium with marbled columns and a painted ceiling copied from Robert Wood 's Ruins of Palmyra .
Many of the reception rooms have painted ceilings copied from Italian palazzi , most notably from the Palazzo Farnese in Rome . The largest room in the house is the Music Room , which opens onto the east portico . The ceiling fresco in this room depicts the " Banquet of the Gods " and was copied from the Villa Farnesina . The Saloon , which occupies the centre of the north front , contains many marbles , including statuettes of the four seasons . The ceiling depicting " The Council of the Gods and the Admission of Psyche " is also a copy from Villa Farnesina .
The Dining Room walls are painted faux jasper and hold paintings of the house 's patron — Sir Francis Dashwood — and his fellow members of the Divan Club ( a society for those who had visited the Ottoman Empire ) . The room also has a painted ceiling from Wood 's Palmyra .
The Blue Drawing Room is dominated by the elaborate painted ceiling depicting " The Triumph of Bacchus and Ariadne " ( illustrated left ) . This room houses a plaster statuette of the Venus de ' Medici and marks the 2nd Baronet 's risqué devotion to that goddess of love . The room has walls of blue flock , applied in the 1850s and later renewed , bearing paintings from various Italian schools of the 17th century . The Red Drawing Room is lined in crimson silk and is furnished with marquetry commodes .
The relatively small study contains plans for the house and potential impressions for various elevations . One is reputed to have been drawn by Sir Francis Dashwood himself , while the Tapestry Room , once ante @-@ room to the adjoining former principal bedroom , is hung with Brussels tapestries depicting peasant scenes by Teniers . Dashwood inherited them in 1763 from his uncle Lord Westmorland , who is said to have been given them by the 1st Duke of Marlborough to celebrate their victories in the Low Countries .
= = Gardens and park = =
The gardens at West Wycombe Park are among the finest and most idiosyncratic 18th century gardens surviving in England . The park is unique in its consistent use of Classical architecture from both Greece and Italy . The two principal architects of the gardens were John Donowell and Nicholas Revett , who designed all of the ornamental buildings in the park . The landscape architect Thomas Cook began to execute the plans for the park , with a nine @-@ acre man @-@ made lake created from the nearby River Wye in the form of a swan . The lake originally had a snow ( a sailing vessel ) for the amusement of Dashwood 's guests , complete with a resident captain on board . Water leaves the lake down a cascade and into a canal pond .
Georgian English landscape gardens , such as West Wycombe and Stowe , are arranged as a walk or series of walks that take the visitor through a range of locations , each with its own specific character and separate from the last . Planting and the shape of the landscape is used , alongside follies and man @-@ made water features , to create pleasant vistas and set pieces centred on a building , straight avenue , serpentine walk , or viewpoint . In the later years of the 18th century , the 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 km ² ) of grounds were extended to the east , towards the nearby town of High Wycombe , and Humphrey Repton completed the creation of the gardens , until they appeared much as they do today .
The park still contains many follies and temples . The " Temple of Music " is on an island in the lake , inspired by the Temple of Vesta in Rome . It was designed for Dashwood 's fêtes champêtres , with the temple used as a theatre ; the remains of the stage survive . Opposite the temple is the garden 's main cascade which has statues of two water nymphs . The present cascade has been remade , as the original was demolished in the 1830s . An octagonal tower known as the " Temple of the Winds " is based in design on the Tower of the Winds in Athens .
Classical architecture continues along the path around the lake , with the " Temple of Flora " , a hidden summerhouse , and the " Temple of Daphne " , both reminiscent of a small temple on the Acropolis . Another hidden temple , the " Round Temple " , has a curved loggia . Nearer the house , screening the service wing from view , is a Roman triumphal arch , the " Temple of Apollo " , also known ( because of its former use a venue for cock fighting ) as " Cockpit Arch " , which holds a copy of the famed Apollo Belvedere . Close by is the " Temple of Diana " , with a small niche containing a statue of the goddess . Another goddess is celebrated in the " Temple of Venus " . Below this is an Exedra , a grotto ( known as Venus 's Parlour ) and a statue of Mercury . This once held a copy of the Venus de ' Medici ; it was demolished in the 1820s but was reconstructed in the 1980s and now holds a replica of the Venus de Milo .
Later structures that break the classical theme include the Gothic style boathouse , a Gothic Alcove – now a romantic ruin hidden amongst undergrowth – and a Gothic Chapel , once home of the village cobbler ( and facetiously named St Crispin 's ) but later used as the estate kennels . A monument dedicated to Queen Elizabeth II was erected on her 60th birthday in 1986 .
The gardens are listed Grade I on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens .
= = Dashwoods of West Wycombe = =
Sir Francis Dashwood built West Wycombe to entertain , and there has been much speculation on the kind of entertainment he provided for his guests . Judged against the sexual morals of the late 18th century , Dashwood and his clique were regarded as promiscuous ; while it is likely that the contemporary reports of the bacchanalian orgies over which Dashwood presided in the Hellfire caves above West Wycombe were exaggerated , free love and heavy drinking did take place there . Dashwood often had himself depicted in portraits in fancy dress ( in one , dressed as the pope toasting a female Herme ) , and it is his love of fancy dress which seems to have pervaded through to his parties at West Wycombe Park . Following the dedication of the West portico as a bacchanalian temple in 1771 , Dashwood and his friends dressed in skins adorned with vine leaves and went to party by the lake for " Paeans and libations " . On another occasion , during a mock sea battle on the canal , the captain of the snow , " attacking " a battery constructed on the bank , was struck by the wadding of a gun and suffered an internal injury . Dashwood seems to have mellowed in his later years and devoted his life to charitable works . He died in 1781 , bequeathing West Wycombe to his half @-@ brother Sir John Dashwood @-@ King , 3rd Baronet .
Dashwood @-@ King spent little time at West Wycombe . On his death in 1793 , the estate was inherited by his son Sir John Dashwood , 4th Baronet , Member of Parliament for Wycombe and a friend of the Prince of Wales , although their friendship was tested when Sir John accused his wife of an affair with the prince . Like his father , Sir John cared little for West Wycombe and held a five @-@ day sale of West Wycombe 's furniture in 1800 . In 1806 , he was prevented from selling West Wycombe by the trustees of his son , to whom the estate was entailed . He became religious in the last years of his life , holding ostentatiously teetotal parties in West Wycombe 's gardens in aid of the " Friends of Order and Sobriety " – these would have been vastly different from the bacchanalian fêtes given by his uncle in the grounds . In 1847 , Sir John was bankrupt and bailiffs possessed the furniture from his home at Halton . He died estranged from his wife and surviving son in 1849 .
Sir John was succeeded by his estranged son Sir George Dashwood , 5th Baronet . For the first time since the death of the 2nd Baronet in 1781 , West Wycombe became again a favoured residence . However , the estate was heavily in debt and Sir George was forced to sell the unentailed estates , including Halton , which was sold in 1851 to Lionel de Rothschild for the then huge sum of £ 54 @,@ 000 ( £ 5 @.@ 33 million in 2016 ) . The change in the Dashwoods ' fortunes allowed for the refurbishment and restoration of West Wycombe . Sir George died childless in 1862 , and left his wife , Elizabeth , a life tenancy of the house while the title and ownership passed briefly to his brother and then a nephew . Lady Dashwood 's continuing occupation of the house prevented the nephew , Sir Edwin Hare Dashwood , 7th Baronet , an alcoholic sheep farmer in the South Island of New Zealand , from living in the mansion until she died in 1889 , leaving a neglected and crumbling estate .
The 7th Baronet 's son , Sir Edwin Dashwood , 8th Baronet , arrived from New Zealand to claim the house , only to find Lady Dashwood 's heirs claiming the house 's contents and family jewellery , which they subsequently sold . As a consequence , Sir Edwin was forced to mortgage the house and estate in 1892 . He died suddenly the following year , and the heavily indebted estate passed to his brother , Sir Robert Dashwood , 9th Baronet . Sir Robert embarked on a costly legal case against the executors of Lady Dashwood , which he lost , and raised money by denuding the estate 's woodlands and leasing the family town house in London for 99 years . On his death in 1908 , the house passed to his 13 @-@ year @-@ old son Sir John Dashwood , 10th Baronet , who in his adulthood sold much of the remaining original furnishings ( including the state bed , for £ 58 – this important item of the house 's history complete with its gilded pineapples is now lost ) . In 1922 , he attempted to sell the house itself . He received only one offer , of £ 10 @,@ 000 ( £ 492 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) , so the house was withdrawn from sale . Forced to live in a house he disliked , the village of West Wycombe was sold in its entirety to pay for renovations . Not all these renovations were beneficial : painted 18th century ceilings were overpainted white , and the dining room was divided into service rooms , allowing the large service wing to be abandoned to rot .
A form of salvation for West Wycombe was Sir John 's wife : Lady Dashwood , the former Helen Eaton , a Canadian and sister of American novelist Evelyn Eaton , was a socialite who loved entertaining , and did so in some style at West Wycombe throughout the 1930s . Living a semi @-@ estranged life from her husband , occupying opposite ends of the mansion , she frequently gave " large and stylish " house parties .
During World War II , the house saw service as a depository for the evacuated Wallace Collection and a convalescent home . A troop of gunners occupied the decaying service wing , and the park was used for the inflation of barrage balloons . During this turmoil , the Dashwoods retreated to the upper floor and took in lodgers to pay the bills , albeit very superior lodgers , who included Nancy Mitford and James Lees @-@ Milne , who was secretary of the Country House Committee of the National Trust and instrumental in the Trust 's acquisition of many such houses . In 1943 , Sir John gave the house and grounds to the National Trust , on condition that he and his descendants could continue living in the house .
= = West Wycombe after 1943 = =
In the latter half of the 20th century , Sir Francis Dashwood , 11th Baronet , embarked on a program of restoration and improvement . His efforts included the installation of a huge equestrian sculpture as the focal point of a long tree lined vista from the house . On close inspection , it proves to be a fibre glass prop found at Pinewood Studios by the 11th Baronet who paid for it with 12 bottles of champagne . The local planning authority was furious but lost their lawsuit to have it removed . Today , from a distance , it has been " known to fool experts " .
The present head of the Dashwood family is Sir Edward Dashwood ( born 1964 ) , who is married and has three children . The contents of the house are owned by the family , who also own and run the estate . The house can be hired as a filming location , and , in addition to agricultural and equestrian enterprises , there is a large pheasant shoot with paying guns . The park , a natural amphitheatre , is often the setting for large public concerts and firework displays , and the mansion is available for weddings and corporate entertainment .
While the estate remains in private hands , the National Trust owns the house and gardens , the park , the village of West Wycombe , and the hill on which the Dashwood mausoleum sits . The hill was the first part of the property given to the Trust by Sir John Dashwood in 1925 . The village was bought by the Royal Society of Arts from Sir John in 1929 and given to the Trust five years later . The grounds are open to the public in the afternoon only from April to August annually , and the house is open from June to August .
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= Joel Byrom =
Joel Alan Byrom ( born 14 September 1986 ) is an English professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Northampton Town .
Byrom started his career at Blackburn Rovers at the age of 14 , and spent four and a half years on the club 's books , progressing from their centre of excellence to the reserve team . However , he failed to make any first @-@ team appearances for the club , and was subsequently released in summer 2006 . He joined League Two outfit Accrington Stanley before the start of the 2006 – 07 season , but only managed a total of two appearances . He was released by the club in January 2007 , and opted to join local side Clitheroe on a short @-@ term basis . Byrom then joined Southport , scoring twice in two appearances for the side , before rejoining Clitheroe in August 2007 ; captaining the side at the age of 20 .
He attracted the interest of Northwich Victoria , who subsequently signed him for a small four @-@ figure fee in January 2008 . Byrom spent a year and a half at the Cheshire club , before joining Stevenage for a fee of £ 15 @,@ 000 in May 2009 – helping them achieve promotion to the Football League for the first time in the club 's history . Byrom was also part of the Stevenage side that earned back @-@ to @-@ back promotions to League One during the 2010 – 11 season . He has also played for the England C team and earned his solitary cap in a game against the Belgium U21 team .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Born in Oswaldtwistle , Lancashire , Byrom started his career at the Blackburn Rovers centre of excellence after being spotted playing for local junior side Oswaldtwistle United at the age of 14 . He progressed through the youth system at Ewood Park , and captained the under – 17 side , before graduating into the reserve team after impressing in the FA Youth Cup in 2004 . However , he failed to break into the first @-@ team and was subsequently released in 2006 . He signed for League Two outfit Accrington Stanley on a six @-@ month contract ahead of the 2006 – 07 season , after impressing manager John Coleman whilst on trial , a trial which Byrom had requested . He made his debut for the Lancashire side in a 1 – 1 draw against Carlisle United in the Football League Trophy in October 2006 . However , Byrom found it difficult to break into the first @-@ team , making one further appearance for Stanley , featuring as a substitute in a 3 – 3 draw with Shrewsbury Town . He was subsequently released in January 2007 , after being deemed surplus to requirements at the Crown Ground . Byrom later stated at this stage in his career he " considered just getting a job and playing for fun " , and that his time at Accrington " wasn 't really a good time for me . I didn 't play much " .
Shortly after , Byrom joined Northern Premier League First Division side Clitheroe on a short @-@ term contract . He finished the 2006 – 07 season top scorer with 11 league goals despite only joining the club in January 2007 , including a hat @-@ trick against Kidsgrove Athletic . However , Byrom 's Clitheroe contract expired and Conference North side Southport took him on non @-@ contract terms for the start of the 2007 – 08 season , where he scored two goals in two games . Despite being offered a contract by Southport manager Peter Davenport , Byrom opted to re @-@ join Clitheroe in August 2007 . On signing a two @-@ year deal with Clitheroe , Byrom said " I thought about giving up football when I left Accrington , but I really enjoyed my time at Clitheroe , they 've given me a new lease of life and a licence to do what I want on the park " . Clitheroe chairman , Carl Garner , said " this is a big day for Clitheroe . This is one of the biggest signings the club has made . He 's a special player and a special talent " . In the first half of the 2007 – 08 season , Byrom scored six goals in all competitions for Clitheroe , which caught the attention of Conference National team Northwich Victoria . He played his last game for the Northern Premier League club in a 3 – 3 draw with local rivals Rossendale United , a game in which he captained the side for the first time .
= = = Northwich Victoria = = =
In January 2008 , Northwich Victoria manager Dino Maamria announced the signing of Byrom on a free transfer . He made his debut for Northwich in a 2 – 1 defeat against Aldershot Town at Victoria Stadium , scoring Northwich 's goal . Byrom played in the centre of midfield in Northwich 's following match against Burton Albion at the Pirelli Stadium , setting up Northwich 's only goal in a 4 – 1 defeat . He also assisted Northwich 's second goal in a 3 – 2 win away at Woking . Byrom scored his second goal for Northwich two weeks later , scoring Northwich 's second as they came back from a one @-@ goal deficit to win 3 – 1 against Droylsden . He also provided the assist for Mark Roberts to score Northwich 's second goal in a 4 – 3 victory against fellow relegation candidates Stafford Rangers . Byrom also scored in a 1 – 1 draw away to Histon in early April 2008 , netting from 25 yards in the 88th minute to ensure Northwich earned a point . He scored a week later against Exeter City at St James Park ; " firing in an unstoppable 30 @-@ yard free @-@ kick " to restore parity in the 11th minute , although Northwich went on to lose the match 2 – 1 . Byrom added a fifth goal to end the season , scoring the club 's second in a 2 – 1 away victory at Stevenage , a result that ultimately secured Northwich 's Conference National status for another season . He played in a total of 21 games during the club 's 2007 – 08 campaign , scoring five times from midfield .
Ahead of the 2008 – 09 season , Byrom featured regularly in Northwich 's pre @-@ season campaign , and scored twice in a friendly game against Manchester United reserves in August 2008 . During the early stages of the season , Byrom was a permanent fixture in the centre of Northwich 's midfield . He created both of Northwich 's goals in a 2 – 1 win at home to newly promoted Barrow , as well as scoring away at Kettering Town , a " 25 @-@ yard drive into the top corner of the net " . He also created both of Northwich 's goals in a victory against Grays Athletic in October 2008 . However , Byrom had a hernia operation shortly after the club 's 4 – 1 loss to Eastbourne Borough in December , keeping him out of the first @-@ team for a total of ten weeks . He returned to first @-@ team action in February 2009 , playing the whole match in a 1 – 0 defeat to Altrincham . He was a regular until the end of the season , and scored his second career hat @-@ trick against Rushden and Diamonds in a 4 – 2 victory , although could not prevent the Vics relegation from the Conference National in April 2009 despite the club winning their last six games of the campaign . Byrom 's last match for Northwich was in the club 's 2 – 1 away win at the Kassam Stadium against Oxford United . He played a total of 52 games during his one and a half @-@ year tenure with Northwich , scoring nine goals .
= = = Stevenage = = =
In May 2009 , Stevenage signed Byrom for a fee of £ 15 @,@ 000 . Byrom was assigned the number 13 shirt ahead of the club 's 2009 – 10 campaign . He made his debut for the Hertfordshire side in a 1 – 1 draw at home to Tamworth in the opening game of the 2009 – 10 season , but was sent @-@ off in the 90th minute for a second bookable offence . He scored his first Stevenage goal on his return to the first @-@ team in a 3 – 0 win against Ebbsfleet United , and also provided the assist for Stevenage 's second in a 2 – 0 victory over Eastbourne Borough . Byrom scored his second goal for Stevenage in a 1 – 1 draw against Kettering Town in October 2009 , curling a free @-@ kick around the wall and into the net . He netted his third of the campaign in March 2010 , scoring from just inside Crawley Town 's half , lobbing the ball into the net from 45 @-@ yards . Shortly after , Byrom added a fourth goal to his tally in Stevenage colours in April 2010 , scoring from six yards in a 2 – 0 win over Forest Green Rovers to ensure Stevenage were just two victories away from promotion . The following week , he scored in the second in a 2 – 0 win against Kidderminster Harriers in a game that witnessed Stevenage secure promotion to the Football League for the first time in their history . On finishing the season as league champions , Byrom said — " It feels brilliant . Words can 't really describe it . It 's an unbelievable feeling " . He played 48 times in all competitions during his first season with the club , scoring five goals .
Byrom started in Stevenage 's first ever Football League game , a 2 – 2 home draw against Macclesfield Town . He played in Stevenage 's televised League Cup loss two days later against Championship side Portsmouth . The following week , Byrom gave away a penalty in a 1 – 0 defeat at Bradford City , which Gareth Evans converted to score the only goal of the game . After playing the whole game in Stevenage 's 1 – 0 defeat at Cheltenham Town in September 2010 , Byrom suffered a number of injuries that kept him out of the first @-@ team for five months . He returned to first @-@ team action in February 2011 , coming on as an 89th @-@ minute substitute in a 3 – 0 loss at Bury . Four days later , he started in a 1 – 0 defeat at Shrewsbury Town . He was an unused substitute for Stevenage 's next five league matches , before starting in the club 's 3 – 3 home draw with Bury on the final day of the 2010 – 11 season – playing a key role in two of Stevenage 's goals to ensure the club reached the play @-@ offs . Byrom scored his first goal of the season in Stevenage 's 2 – 0 home win against Accrington Stanley in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final first leg , reaching the ball before Accrington goalkeeper Alex Cisak to double Stevenage 's lead . He played the whole game in the second leg , a 1 – 0 victory that ensured Stevenage made the play @-@ off final . Byrom started in the final , a 1 – 0 victory against Torquay United at Old Trafford , a win that meant Stevenage earned back @-@ to @-@ back promotions to League One . Despite ending the season on a positive note , Byrom made just 12 appearances , scoring once , due to a host of injuries interrupting his campaign .
He made his first start of the 2011 – 12 season in Stevenage 's first home win of the campaign , playing the first 76 minutes in a 4 – 2 victory over Rochdale on 3 September 2011 . Byrom scored his first goal of the season in the club 's emphatic 6 – 1 away victory against Colchester United in December 2011 , scoring the sixth goal after a fine individual run and finish . The following month , on 14 January 2012 , Byrom doubled his goal tally for the season when he scored with a first @-@ time finish from Luke Freeman 's cross in Stevenage 's 5 – 1 win over Rochdale at Spotland . Byrom scored in Stevenage 's televised FA Cup tie away at Premier League side Tottenham Hotspur in that year , scoring from the penalty spot to give Stevenage a brief lead before Tottenham came back to secure a 3 – 1 win . He went on to score two further goals during the latter stages of the season ; once in a 2 – 2 draw away at Sheffield United , and the other in a 3 – 0 win over Bury , on the last day of the regular season as Stevenage secured a play @-@ off place following their sixth @-@ place finish . He played in both play @-@ off semi @-@ final legs , which Stevenage lost 1 – 0 on aggregate to Sheffield United . He made 40 appearances during the season , scoring five times . Despite appearing regularly under new manager Gary Smith , Byrom rejected the offer of a contract extension , and left Stevenage in May 2012 . During his successful three @-@ year spell with the club , he made 100 appearances in all competitions , scoring eleven goals .
= = = Preston North End = = =
After leaving Stevenage , Byrom joined League One side Preston North End , then managed by Graham Westley , who had previously signed him for Stevenage . He signed on a free transfer . Byrom made his competitive debut for Preston in the club 's 2 – 1 away victory over Bury , coming on as a second @-@ half substitute . It took Byrom just three games to open his goalscoring account , scoring the first goal in the club 's 5 – 0 win over Hartlepool United at Deepdale . In the club 's following match four days later , on 22 September 2012 , he netted in a 3 – 1 away defeat to Walsall , arriving unmarked in the area to give Preston an early lead in the match . His third and final goal of the campaign came at the beginning of November 2012 , scoring from the edge of the area in Preston 's 3 – 0 FA Cup win over Yeovil Town . Byrom made 27 appearances , eleven of which as a substitute , during his first season with the club , scoring three times .
On 17 December 2013 , Byrom extended his contract with Preston for a further twelve months , thus keeping him at the club until the summer of 2015 .
= = = = Oldham Athletic ( loan ) = = = =
On 14 March 2014 , Byrom joined League One side Oldham Athletic on an emergency loan until the end of the 2013 – 14 season .
At the end of the season and at the end of his loan spell , Byrom had made 4 appearances for the club during an injury – ravaged spell .
= = = = Northampton Town ( loan ) = = = =
Byrom joined Northampton Town on loan on 21 August 2014 until 4 January 2014 .
= = = Northampton Town = = =
On 8 January 2015 , Byrom joined Northampton Town in a deal running until the end of the 2014 – 15 season after his contract with Preston was terminated by mutual consent .
= = International career = =
Byrom was called up to the England C team in May 2009 , for the 2007 – 09 International Challenge Trophy final against a Belgium U21 side . Byrom started the match , as England were beaten 1 – 0 at the Kassam Stadium .
= = Style of play = =
Byrom is a midfielder , and is more comfortable in the centre of midfield . He is left @-@ footed , although the left side is not his natural position , and he is rarely deployed as a winger . In 2007 , Clitheroe chairman , Carl Garner , said that Byrom has " tremendous skill and potential " , adding " Joel is a quality player . He can do things with the ball that players on the television can 't . In May 2009 , Stevenage manager Graham Westley believed that the acquisition of Byrom would " give the squad more balance " , and has also described him as having a " cultured left @-@ foot " that enables him to open up opposition defences . On securing the signature of Byrom , Westley said , " Joel is very creative going forward and is going to be one hell of a player . I was delighted to secure his signature as he is a real talent " . Dino Maamria has called Byrom a " creative midfielder " , as well as being able to unlock defences . Byrom has called himself " a good passer of the ball " , as well as being able to " chip in with a few goals and generally get the team ticking over " . In March 2010 , following Stevenage 's 3 – 0 win against Crawley Town , a game in which Byrom scored a goal from just inside Crawley 's half , Westley said that Byrom has the " ability to score spectacular goals " .
= = Honours = =
Stevenage
Conference National ( 1 ) : 2009 – 10
League Two play @-@ offs ( 1 ) : 2010 – 11
Northampton Town
Football League Two ( 1 ) : 2015 – 16
= = Career statistics = =
As of 12 January 2014 .
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= Concerned =
Concerned : The Half @-@ Life and Death of Gordon Frohman is a webcomic created by Christopher C. Livingston , parodying the first @-@ person shooter video game Half @-@ Life 2 . The comic consists of game screenshots , with characters posed using Garry 's Mod , a tool which facilitates manipulation of the Source engine used by Half @-@ Life 2 . The first issue was launched on May 1 , 2005 . The comic completed its run on November 6 , 2006 with a total of 205 issues .
While Half @-@ Life 2 follows protagonist Gordon Freeman in a dystopian future , Concerned follows a similar path through the eyes of " Gordon Frohman " , a dangerously clumsy character who arrives in the setting of the game a few weeks before Freeman does . The webcomic 's dark humor is derived from its contrasts with the game and through references to the game 's shortcomings . On several occasions in the comic , Frohman becomes the cause of various disastrous circumstances that Freeman will later encounter .
Concerned has been well received by critics and fans alike . Several reviews praised the attention to writing and presentation , as well as the comic 's humor . Livingston has also reported uniformly positive relations with personnel at Valve , the developer company of Half @-@ Life 2 , who were pleased to have a comic based on their game .
= = Background = =
Christopher Livingston started working on Concerned as a hobby . He had previously considered developing a webcomic that would parallel the storyline of the original 1987 Legend of Zelda , for the Nintendo Entertainment System , from start to finish . He chose the Half @-@ Life 2 game world as the scene for his comic because he was a fan , and because the availability of Garry 's Mod eliminated the need to draw by hand . He always intended the plot of the comic to end at the same point as the game .
Livingston thought a comic would be a good way to introduce humor to the game , which he has described as " mysterious , moody , [ and ] immersive " .
Well , I thought Half @-@ Life 2 was a great game , but there simply weren 't enough jokes about toilets in it . So , I thought a comic would be a good place to get some humor into the game . I came up with the idea for Frohman , a complete idiot , to play all the way through the game , just like Freeman only instead of being a hero , he 'd be a complete fool .
= = Publication history = =
The first issue of Concerned was released on May 1 , 2005 , the comic completing its run on November 6 , 2006 with a total of 205 issues . The characters in the comic were posed using Garry 's Mod , a tool which facilitates manipulation of the Source engine used by Half @-@ Life 2 , and the comic frames were assembled using Photoshop 6 .
The webcomic derives its name from one of the propaganda broadcasts by Wallace Breen in Half @-@ Life 2 , in which he is reading a letter supposedly written by a citizen , signed ' Sincerely , a concerned citizen ' , and begins his response with ' Thank you for writing , Concerned ' . Throughout the comic the main character , Gordon Frohman , sends several similar letters to Dr. Breen , Livingston 's intention being to suggest that Frohman was the author of the letter read by Breen in Half @-@ Life 2 . The name " Frohman " is derived from the last name of Gordon Freeman , the protagonist of the Half @-@ Life series . According to the credits on the comic 's website , this name was suggested to Livingston by Sam Golgert , an acquaintance of his .
Livingston has also employed the assistance of other people , notably Michael Clements , founder of the Half @-@ Life 2 comics repository PHWOnline , and creator of SKETCH , another comic based on Half @-@ Life 2 . Clements aided him in enhancing the presentation of Concerned . Greg Galcik , creator of SpinnWebe , also assisted in site maintenance , and Livingston later offered him a " guest week special " , in which Galcik wrote and published three issues for Concerned . A similar set of three issues have also been published by Joe Yuska , during a week when Livingston was unavailable .
As stated by Livingston in several interviews , his relation with Valve , the developer company of Half @-@ Life 2 , was a good one , the company being pleased to have a comic based on their game . According to Livingston , Valve also intended to collaborate with him to produce printed copies of Concerned . However , this was never finalized as the resolution of the comics was too low for printing .
Livingston has said that the comic will not continue through Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode One , the first of an episodic series following Half @-@ Life 2 , as the game " doesn 't really lend itself to the type of comic [ he wants ] to do " .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Background = = =
In Half @-@ Life 2 , the player takes on the role of Dr. Gordon Freeman . Throughout the game , the player follows the story of a dark , dystopian future in which mankind has been enslaved by the Combine , a mysterious alien enemy . In contrast , Concerned follows the same general path through the story established by Half @-@ Life 2 , but instead follows the adventures of Gordon Frohman , a hapless , lethally clumsy oaf who arrives in City 17 a few weeks before Freeman . Frohman is incredibly naïve and , unlike the other citizens , seems to enjoy living under the rule of the totalitarian administrator , Dr. Breen , and the Combine . He holds an insane reverence for the latter , even going to the point of having a plush doll of a Combine soldier .
= = = Plot = = =
The early phases of the comic have Frohman excitedly arriving in City 17 . Eventually he takes a job at the Combine 's headquarters , the Citadel , under a Combine Elite named Mr. Henderson . As most of his human colleagues become Combine soldiers , he realizes that Henderson has no immediate intention to do the same for him , citing his incompetence . Demanding to become one with the Combine , Frohman willingly sets off to Nova Prospekt , an alien security and detention installation , for invasive surgery to convert him . Meanwhile , he selects Ravenholm as a residence where he can commute to and from City 17 , but lacks proper transport with which to get there . After a failed attempt to reach Ravenholm using Dr. Isaac Kleiner 's teleporter leaves him stuck in a Counter @-@ Strike : Source server for a week , he seeks Ravenholm by foot instead . Traveling through City 17 's canals , Frohman arrives , badly injured and dazed , at Black Mesa East , the headquarters of the human resistance , where he is welcomed as a helper . His stay there is cut short because he causes trouble in the base , and also irritatingly overuses the gravity gun . He is fooled into leaving the base , and finally heads toward and reaches Ravenholm .
On Frohman 's arrival , Ravenholm is depicted as a peaceful , bright , and cheerful place devoid of any Combine elements , but " terrorized " by Father Grigori . After adjusting , Gordon becomes accustomed to the town , but unintentionally discloses the town 's location to Dr. Breen , who immediately orders his forces to " bomb the shit out of them " . The town is fired on with headcrabs , killing many and turning others into zombies . Frohman himself is attacked by a headcrab and turns into a zombie too , yet retains his free will ; and after a while his headcrab dies of malnutrition , which is attributed to his lack of intelligence . With Father Grigori 's help , Frohman escapes Ravenholm , now the zombie @-@ infested nightmare seen when Freeman visits it in the game , and presses on to Nova Prospekt . After surviving several more hazards , he reaches the coast . Here , after passing the final resistance base and an Antlion @-@ infested beach , Frohman encounters an Antlion Guard , which is killed by a Vortigaunt , an alien race helping the humans in the game . This allows Frohman to retrieve bugbait from the dead creature , with which he can control the Antlions .
Frohman , accompanied by several bugbait @-@ controlled Antlions , eventually reaches Nova Prospekt , only to be turned away as he does not have an appointment . He gives up and returns to City 17 in the following strip , as Gordon Freeman finally arrives in the city , linking the comic 's time frame with the start of Half @-@ Life 2 . He is then drafted into the resistance after failing to disrupt its operations , and unintentionally signals the start of the resistance 's uprising after one of his Antlions accidentally kills a Combine police officer . During the fighting , he accompanies Freeman himself and mingles with resistance members , aids the Combine in the capture of Alyx Vance , one of Freeman 's allies , and reunites with Norman Frohman , his long @-@ lost assassin twin brother , only to promptly witness his death at the hands of a Strider , a large tripodal assault synth .
Following this , Gordon returns to the Citadel , unwillingly aiding Freeman in his journey up the Citadel and influencing the plot of the game . As Freeman is pursuing Dr. Breen to his teleporter , Frohman is about to kill Freeman — but he pauses to come up with the perfect one @-@ liner for the occasion , causing him to run out of time ; Dr. Breen 's teleporter explodes and Frohman is flung off the Citadel peak by the explosion . Dr. Breen also survives , having fallen from the Citadel onto a pile of dead Combine soldiers . However , Frohman falls right onto Breen , killing him . Gordon himself is only seriously injured . Baffled by his ability to survive , he realizes through a flashback that he has been under " Buddha Mode " , a cheat code which prevents his health points from dropping below one throughout the comic 's duration . Frohman inadvertently turns off the mode , and even spoils an opportunity to be rescued by a group of Vortigaunts , as both Gordon Freeman and Alyx Vance are at the start of Episode One . In the end , Frohman dies unceremoniously , while survivors of the City 17 uprising find him dead .
= = Themes = =
Livingston stated that the comic was a good way of pointing out several shortcomings of video games and first @-@ person shooters in particular . He emphasized the presence of various objects throughout the levels of games which were intended to aid the player , but would have little chance of being found in the real world in a similar manner .
There 's a lot of elements about video games to poke fun of , especially in first @-@ person shooters , which all have a lot of things in common , such as health kits , ammo , and barrels filled with explosive material strewn about levels for no practical , real @-@ world reason . It just seemed like a good setting to make jokes .
Much of the comic 's dark humor is derived from its contrasts with Half @-@ Life 2 : in a depressing , dark vision of a conquered humanity 's future , Gordon Freeman becomes a hero and savior ; the similarly named Gordon Frohman , on the other hand , is just an average person , improbably cheerful to the point of stupidity , and somewhat naïve as to what is actually going on around him . For instance , Frohman fails to realize that his return @-@ addressed letters to Doctor Breen reveal his location , and so result in that location being invaded , bombed , or otherwise compromised .
The comic contains many references to events and objects in the game . In one comic , Frohman makes a clerical error that causes the Combine to order far too many explosive barrels , thus suggesting an explanation for the barrels ' ubiquity throughout City 17 and beyond . In another , he writes a letter to Dr. Breen asking why using his flashlight reduces his ability to run , a reference to Half @-@ Life 2 's flashlight and sprint functions using the same power source . In a further strip , the town of Ravenholm becomes the headcrab @-@ infested ghost town seen in Half @-@ Life 2 after Frohman writes to Breen expressing his happiness with being there , giving away Ravenholm 's location . Indeed , Frohman causes ( intentionally or accidentally ) many of the disastrous circumstances that Gordon Freeman runs across . He accidentally gives Breen the idea of headcrab shells while on a radio , and sets up all of the traps in Ravenholm himself in an attempt to catch Father Grigori .
It is also revealed that , at the Black Mesa Research Facility , Frohman causes the resonance cascade that allows for alien forces to invade in Half @-@ Life by accidentally delivering a wedge of cheese , instead of the intended test sample , to the test chamber where the cascade flashpoints . Half @-@ Life : Decay , however , indicates that Dr. Gina Cross is responsible for this task . Livingston admitted he did not play Decay , and thus was not aware of its storyline . He also stated that the comic takes place in the PC version of the Half @-@ life continuity , and since Half @-@ Life : Decay was never published for the PC , it does not affect the comic .
= = Reception = =
The comic has had positive reception from both the public and editors of various gaming magazines . The Globe and Mail stated the comic " stands out from most other gamics ( comics consisting of game screenshots ) by virtue of the quality of its writing and presentation " . Online magazine GGL.com said that " Concerned is one of the funnier online gaming comics , and perhaps the best single @-@ game parody in the bunch " , and The Irish Gamers described Concerned as a " hit webcomic " . Computer Gaming World called the comic " funny " , while PC Zone described it as " mildly amusing " . The comic had also caught the attention of reviewers outside the United States and the United Kingdom ; the Romanian magazine Level said the comic is " a recommendation to every fan of the game and anyone looking for a good daily laugh " .
The comic 's popularity , as well as the fact that Livingston stated he does not intend to continue the comic through Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode One , led to the appearance of an unofficial sequel to Concerned , entitled Concerned 2 : A Concerned Rip @-@ Off : The Continuing Adventures of Gordon Frohman , and created by Norman N. Black , although it is currently on an undisclosed hiatus since November 28 , 2010 .
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= Big Stick ideology =
Big Stick ideology , Big Stick diplomacy , or Big Stick policy refers to U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt ’ s foreign policy : " speak softly , and carry a big stick . " Roosevelt described his style of foreign policy as " the exercise of intelligent forethought and of decisive action sufficiently far in advance of any likely crisis " .
The idea of negotiating peacefully , simultaneously threatening with the " big stick " , or the military , ties in heavily with the idea of Realpolitik , which implies a pursuit of political power that resembles Machiavellian ideals . Compare to the term Gunboat diplomacy , as used in international politics by imperial powers .
= = Background = =
The first recorded use of the phrase occurs in a private letter from Roosevelt ( then governor of New York ) to Henry L. Sprague , dated January 26 , 1900 . Roosevelt wrote , in a bout of happiness after forcing New York 's Republican committee to pull support away from a corrupt financial adviser :
I have always been fond of the West African proverb : " Speak softly and carry a big stick ; you will go far . "
Roosevelt would go on to be elected Vice President later that year , and subsequently used the aphorism publicly in an address to the Minnesota State Fair , entitled " National Duties " , on September 2 , 1901 . :
A good many of you are probably acquainted with the old proverb : " Speak softly and carry a big stick -- you will go far . "
Four days later , President William McKinley was shot by an assassin ; his death a further eight days later elevated Roosevelt to the presidency .
Roosevelt 's attribution of the phrase to " a West African proverb " was seen at the time as evidence of Roosevelt ’ s " prolific " reading habits , but the claim that it originated in West Africa has been disputed . No earlier citation for the phrase has been found , and there is no record of the phrase being used in West Africa before Roosevelt 's time . It has been therefore suggested that he might have coined the phrase himself .
= = Usage = =
Although used before his presidency , Roosevelt used military muscle several times throughout his two terms with a more subtle touch to complement his diplomatic policies and enforcing the Monroe Doctrine throughout multiple interventions in Latin America . This included the Great White Fleet , 16 battleships which peacefully circumnavigated the globe as an illustration of United States ' rising yet neutral prestige under Roosevelt 's direction .
= = = In the U.S. = = =
= = = = Anthracite coal strike = = = =
In 1902 , 140 @,@ 000 miners went on strike , wanting higher pay , shorter work hours , and better housing . They were led by John Mitchell , a fellow miner who formed the United Mine Workers ( UMW ) . The mining companies refused to meet the demands of the UMW and contacted the Federal Government for support . Before Roosevelt , the government would send in military support to forcefully end the strike , but during Roosevelt 's terms , this strategy was not used . After the companies called for assistance , Roosevelt , fearful of the effects a coal shortage would have on the economy of the time , decided to host a meeting in the White House involving representatives or delegates , of the miners and the leaders of the mining companies . Mitchell , after returning from the White House meeting , met with the miners , and drew a Consensus . The miners decided not to submit to political pressure , and continue on with the strike . Roosevelt then decided to bring in the military , but , instead of forcefully ending the strike and restoring power to the mining companies , he would use the military to run the mines in the " public interest " . The mining companies , upset that they were no longer directly making a profit , then accepted the demands of the UMW . This policy was later referred to as the " Square Deal " .
= = = Latin America = = =
= = = = Venezuelan Affair ( 1902 ) and the Roosevelt Corollary = = = =
In the early 20th century , Venezuela was receiving messages from Britain and Germany about " Acts of violence against the liberty of British subjects and the massive capture of British vessels " who were from the UK and the acts of Venezuelan initiative to pay off long @-@ standing debts . After British and German forces took naval action with a blockade on Venezuela ( 1902 – 1903 ) , Roosevelt denounced the blockade . The blockade began the basis of the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe doctrine . Though he had mentioned the basis of his idea beforehand in private letters , he officially announced the corollary in 1904 , stating that he only wanted the " other republics on this continent " to be " happy and prosperous " . For that goal to be met , the corollary required that they " maintain order within their borders and behave with a just obligation toward outsiders " .
Most historians , such as one of Roosevelt 's many biographers Howard K. Beale have summarized that the corollary was influenced by Roosevelt 's personal beliefs as well as his connections to foreign bondholders . The U.S. public was very " tense " during the two @-@ month blockade , and Roosevelt requested that Britain and Germany pull out their forces from the area . During the requests for the blockade ’ s end , Roosevelt stationed naval forces in Cuba , to ensure " the respect of Monroe doctrine " and the compliance of the parties in question . The doctrine was never ratified by the senate or brought up for a vote to the American public . Roosevelt 's declaration was the first of many presidential decrees in the twentieth century that were never ratified .
= = = = Canal diplomacy = = = =
The U.S. used the " big stick " during " Canal Diplomacy " , the questionable diplomatic actions of the U.S. during the pursuit of a canal across Central America . Both Nicaragua and Panama featured canal related incidents of Big Stick Diplomacy .
= = = = = Proposed construction of the Nicaragua Canal = = = = =
In 1901 , Secretary of State John Hay pressed the Nicaraguan Government for approval of a canal . Nicaragua would receive $ 1 @.@ 5 million in ratification , $ 100 @,@ 000 annually , and the U.S. would " provide sovereignty , independence , and territorial integrity " . Nicaragua then returned the contract draft with a change ; they wished to receive , instead of an annual $ 100 @,@ 000 , $ 6 million in ratification . The U.S. accepted the deal , but after Congress approved the contract a problem of court jurisdiction came up . The U.S. did not have legal jurisdiction in the land of the future canal . An important note is that this problem was on the verge of correction , until Pro @-@ Panama representatives posed problems for Nicaragua ; the current leader ( General José Santos Zelaya ) did not cause problems , from the outlook of U.S. interests .
= = = = = Construction of the Panama Canal = = = = =
In 1899 , the Isthmian Canal Commission was set up to determine which site would be best for the canal ( Nicaragua or Panama ) and then to oversee construction of the canal . After Nicaragua was ruled out , Panama was the obvious choice . A few problems had arisen , however . With the U.S. ' solidified interests in Panama ( then a small portion of Colombia ) , both Colombia and the French company that was to provide the construction materials raised their prices . The U.S. , refusing to pay the higher @-@ than @-@ expected fees , " engineered a revolution " in Colombia . On November 3 , 1903 , Panama ( with the support of the United States Navy ) revolted against Colombia . Panama became a new republic , receiving $ 10 million from the U.S. alone . Panama also gained an annual payment of $ 250 @,@ 000 , and guarantees of independence . The U.S. gained the rights to the canal strip " in perpetuity " . Roosevelt later said that he " took the Canal , and let Congress debate " . After Colombia lost Panama , they tried to appeal to the U.S. by the reconsidering of treaties and even naming Panama City the capital of Colombia .
= = = = Cuba = = = =
The U.S. , after the Spanish – American War , had many expansionists who wanted to annex Cuba . Many people felt that a foreign power ( outside of the U.S. ) would control a portion of Cuba , thus the U.S. could not continue with its interests in Cuba . Although many advocated annexation , this was prevented by the Teller Amendment , which states " hereby disclaims any disposition of intention to exercise sovereignty , jurisdiction , or control over said island except for pacification thereof , and asserts its determination , when that is accomplished , to leave the government and control of the island to its people . " When summarized , this could mean that the U.S. would not interfere with Cuba and its peoples . The expansionists argued though , that the Teller Amendment was created " ignorant of actual conditions " and that this released the U.S. from its obligation . Following the debate surrounding the Teller Amendment , the Platt Amendment took effect . The Platt Amendment ( the name is a misnomer ; the Platt Amendment is actually a rider to the Army Appropriation Act of 1901 ) was accepted by Cuba in late 1901 , after " strong pressure " from Washington . The Platt Amendment , summarized by Thomas A. Bailey in " Diplomatic History of the American People " :
Cuba was not to make decisions impairing her independence or to permit a foreign power [ e.g. , Germany ] to secure lodgment in control over the island .
Cuba pledged herself not to incur an indebtedness beyond her means [ It might result in foreign intervention ] .
The United States was at liberty to intervene for the purpose of preserving order and maintaining Cuban independence .
Cuba would agree to an American @-@ sponsored sanitation program [ Aimed largely at yellow fever ] .
Cuba would agree to sell or lease to the United States sites for naval or coaling stations [ Guantánamo became the principal base ] .
With Platt Amendment in place , Roosevelt pulled the troops out of Cuba . This action was met with public unrest and outcries for annexation , with reasons ranging from " U.S. interests " to " dominant white race " . The Indianapolis News said , " It is manifest destiny for a nation to own the islands which border its shores . " A year later , Roosevelt wrote ,
Just at the moment I am so angry with that infernal little Cuban republic that I would like to wipe its people off the face of the earth . All that we wanted from them was that they would behave themselves and be prosperous and happy so that we would not have to interfere .
= = = = Japan = = = =
At the conclusion of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in September 1905 , President Roosevelt leveraged his position as a strong but impartial leader in order to negotiate a peace treaty between the two nations . " Speaking softly " earned the President enough prestige to even merit a Nobel Peace Prize the following year for his efforts .
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= Eadbald of Kent =
Eadbald ( Old English : Ēadbald ) was King of Kent from 616 until his death in 640 . He was the son of King Æthelberht and his wife Bertha , a daughter of the Merovingian king Charibert . Æthelberht made Kent the dominant force in England during his reign and became the first Anglo @-@ Saxon king to convert to Christianity from Anglo @-@ Saxon paganism . Eadbald 's accession was a significant setback for the growth of the church , since he retained his indigenous paganism and did not convert to Christianity for at least a year , and perhaps for as much as eight years . He was ultimately converted by either Laurentius or Justus , and separated from his first wife , who had been his stepmother , at the insistence of the church . Eadbald 's second wife was Emma , who may have been a Frankish princess . She bore him two sons , Eormenred and Eorcenberht , and a daughter , Eanswith .
Eadbald 's influence was less than his father 's , but Kent was powerful enough to be omitted from the list of kingdoms dominated by Edwin of Northumbria . Edwin 's marriage to Eadbald 's sister , Æthelburg , established a good relationship between Kent and Northumbria which appears to have continued into Oswald 's reign . When Æthelburg fled to Kent on Edwin 's death in about 633 , she sent her children to Francia for safety , fearing the intrigues of both Eadbald and Oswald . The Kentish royal line made several strong diplomatic marriages over the succeeding years , including the marriage of Eanflæd , Eadbald 's niece , to Oswiu , and of Eorcenberht to Seaxburh , daughter of King Anna of East Anglia .
Eadbald died in 640 and was buried in the Church of St Mary , which he had built in the precincts of the monastery of St Peter and St Paul in Canterbury ( a church later incorporated within the Norman edifice of St Augustine 's ) . At that time , his relics were translated for reburial in the south transept ca . A.D. 1087 .
He was succeeded by Eorcenberht . Eormenred may have been his oldest son , but if he reigned at all it was only as a junior king .
= = Early Kent and early sources = =
Settlement of Kent by continental peoples , primarily Jutes , was complete by the end of the sixth century . Eadbald 's father , Æthelberht , probably came to the throne in about 589 or 590 , though the chronology of his reign is very difficult to determine accurately . Æthelberht was recorded by the early chronicler Bede as having overlordship , or imperium , over other Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms . This dominance led to wealth in the form of tribute , and Kent was a powerful kingdom at the time of Æthelberht 's death in 616 , with trade well @-@ established with the European mainland .
Roman Britain had become fully Christianized , but the Anglo @-@ Saxons retained their native faith . In 597 Augustine was sent by Pope Gregory I to England to convert them to Christianity . Augustine landed in eastern Kent , and soon managed to convert Æthelberht , who gave Augustine land in Canterbury . Two other rulers , Sæberht , king of Essex , and Rædwald , king of East Anglia , were converted through Æthelberht 's influence .
An important source for this period in Kentish history is The Ecclesiastical History of the English People , written in 731 by Bede , a Benedictine monk from Northumbria . Bede was primarily interested in the Christianization of England , but he also provides substantial information about secular history , including the reigns of Æthelberht and Eadbald . One of Bede 's correspondents was Albinus , abbot of the monastery of St. Peter and St. Paul ( subsequently renamed St. Augustine 's ) in Canterbury . A series of related texts known as the Legend of St Mildrith provides additional information about events in the lives of Eadbald 's children and throws some light on Eadbald himself . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , a collection of annals assembled in about 890 in the kingdom of Wessex , also provides information . Other sources include papal letters , regnal lists of the kings of Kent , and early charters . Charters were documents drawn up to record grants of land by kings to their followers or to the church , and they provide some of the earliest documentary sources in England . None survive in original form from Eadbald 's reign , but some later copies exist .
= = Ancestry and immediate family = =
The ancestry of Æthelberht , Eadbald 's father , is given by Bede , who states that he was descended from the legendary founder of Kent , Hengist . However , historians believe that Hengist and his brother Horsa were probably mythical figures . It is known that Æthelberht married twice as Eadbald married his step @-@ mother after his father 's death , to the consternation of the church .
Eadbald had a sister , Æthelburg , who was probably also the child of Bertha . Æthelburg married Edwin , King of Northumbria , one of the dominant Anglo @-@ Saxon kings of the seventh century . It is possible that there was another brother , named Æthelwald : the evidence for this is a papal letter to Justus , archbishop of Canterbury from 619 to 625 , in which a king named Aduluald is referred to , and who is apparently different from Audubald , which refers to Eadbald . There is no agreement among modern scholars on how to interpret this : " Aduluald " might be intended as a representation of " Æthelwald " , and hence this may be an indication of another king , perhaps a subking of west Kent ; or it may be merely a scribal error which should be read as referring to Eadbald .
Archbishop Laurence of Canterbury persuaded Eadbald to accept Christianity and give up his wife . He then remarried , and his second wife , according to Kentish tradition recorded in the ' Kentish Royal Legend ' , was a woman named Ymme of Frankish royal blood , though recently it has been suggested that she may have instead been the daughter of Erchinoald , mayor of the palace in Neustria , the western part of Francia .
= = East and West Kent = =
The surviving regnal lists show only one king reigning at a time in Kent , but subkingdoms were common among the Anglo @-@ Saxons and from the reign of Hlothhere , in the late seventh century , there is evidence that Kent was usually ruled by two kings , though often one is clearly dominant . It is less clear that this is the case before Hlothhere . Forged charters preserve a tradition of Eadbald ruling during his father 's reign , presumably as a subking over west Kent . The papal letter that has been interpreted as indicating the existence of Æthelwald , a brother of Eadbald 's , refers to Æthelwald as a king ; if he existed , he would presumably have been a junior king to Eadbald .
The two kingdoms within Kent were east and west Kent . Western Kent has fewer archaeological finds from the earliest periods than east Kent , and the eastern finds are somewhat distinct in character , showing Jutish and Frankish influence . The archaeological evidence , combined with the known political division into two kingdoms , makes it likely that the origin of the subkingdoms was the conquest of the western half by the eastern , which would have been the first area settled by the invaders .
= = Accession and pagan reaction = =
Eadbald came to the throne on the death of his father on 24 February 616 , or possibly 618 . Although Æthelberht had been Christian since about 600 and his wife Bertha was also Christian , Eadbald was a pagan . Bertha died some time before Eadbald 's accession , and Æthelberht remarried . The name of Æthelberht 's second wife is not recorded , but it seems likely that she was a pagan , since on his death she married Eadbald , her stepson : a marriage between a stepmother and stepson was forbidden by the church .
Bede records that Eadbald 's repudiation of Christianity was a " severe setback " to the growth of the church . Sæberht , the king of Essex , had become a Christian under Æthelberht 's influence , but on Sæberht 's death , at about the same time , his sons expelled Mellitus , the bishop of London . According to Bede , Eadbald was punished for his faithlessness by " frequent fits of insanity " , and possession by an " evil spirit " ( perhaps referring to epileptic fits ) , but was eventually persuaded to abandon paganism and give up his wife . Eadbald 's second wife , Ymme , was a Frank , and it is possible that Kent 's strong connections with Francia were a factor in the King 's conversion . The missionaries in Canterbury seem to have had Frankish support . In the 620s , Eadbald 's sister Æthelburg came to Kent , but sent her children to the court of King Dagobert I in Francia ; in addition to the diplomatic connections , trade with the Franks was important to Kent . It is thought likely that Frankish pressure had been influential in persuading Æthelberht to become Christian , and Eadbald 's conversion and marriage to Ymme are likely to have been closely connected diplomatic decisions .
Two graves from a well @-@ preserved sixth and seventh @-@ century Anglo @-@ Saxon cemetery at Finglesham have yielded a bronze pendant and a gilt buckle with designs that are related to each other and may be symbolic of religious activity involving the Germanic deity Woden . These objects probably date from the period of the pagan reaction .
= = = Bede 's account = = =
Bede 's account of Eadbald 's rejection of the church and subsequent conversion is quite detailed but not without some internal inconsistency . Bede 's version of events are laid out as follows :
24 February 616 : Æthelberht dies and Eadbald succeeds .
616 : Eadbald leads a pagan reaction to Christianity . He marries his stepmother , contrary to church law , and refuses baptism . At about this time Mellitus , bishop of London , is expelled by the sons of Sæberht in Essex and goes to Kent .
616 : Mellitus and Justus , bishop of Rochester , leave Kent for Francia .
616 / 617 : Some time after Mellitus and Justus depart , Laurence , the archbishop of Canterbury , plans to leave for Francia but has a vision in which St Peter scourges him . In the morning he shows the scars to Eadbald who is converted to Christianity as a result .
617 : Justus and Mellitus both return from Francia " the year after they left " . Justus is restored to Rochester .
c . 619 : Laurence dies , and Mellitus becomes archbishop of Canterbury .
619 – 624 : Eadbald builds a church which is consecrated by Archbishop Mellitus .
24 April 624 : Mellitus dies and Justus succeeds him as archbishop of Canterbury .
624 : After Justus 's succession , Pope Boniface writes to him to say that he has heard in letters from King Aduluald ( possibly a scribal error for Eadbald ) of the king 's conversion to Christianity . Boniface sends the pallium with this letter , adding that it is only to be worn when celebrating " the Holy Mysteries " .
By 625 Edwin of Deira , king of Northumbria , asks for the hand in marriage of Æthelburg , Eadbald 's sister . Edwin is told he must allow her to practice Christianity and must consider baptism himself .
21 July 625 : Justus consecrates Paulinus bishop of York .
July or later in 625 : Edwin agrees to the terms and Æthelburg travels to Northumbria , accompanied by Paulinus .
Easter 626 : Æthelburg gives birth to a daughter , Eanflæd .
626 : Edwin completes a military campaign against the West Saxons . At " about this time " Boniface writes to both Edwin and Æthelburg . The letter to Edwin urges him to accept Christianity and refers to the conversion of Eadbald . The letter to Æthelburg mentions that the pope has recently heard the news of Eadbald 's conversion and encourages her to work for the conversion of her husband , Edwin .
= = = Alternative chronology = = =
Although Bede 's narrative is widely accepted , an alternative chronology has been proposed by D.P. Kirby . Kirby points out that Boniface 's letter to Æthelburg makes it clear that the news of Eadbald 's conversion is recent , and that it is unthinkable that Boniface would not have been kept up to date on the status of Eadbald 's conversion . Hence Eadbald must have been converted by Justus , as is implied by Boniface 's letter to Justus . The pallium accompanying that letter indicates Justus was archbishop by that time , and the duration of Mellitus 's archiepiscopate means that even if Bede 's dates are somewhat wrong in other particulars , Eadbald was converted no earlier than 621 , and no later than April 624 , since Mellitus consecrated a church for Eadbald before his death in that month . The account of Laurence 's miraculous scourging by St Peter can be disregarded as a later hagiographical invention of the monastery of St Augustine .
As mentioned above , it has been suggested that King " Aduluald " in the letter to Justus is a real king Æthelwald , perhaps a junior king of west Kent . In that case it would appear that Laurence converted Eadbald , and Justus converted Æthelwald . It has also been suggested that the pallium did not indicate Justus was archbishop , since Justus is told the limited circumstances in which he may wear it ; however , the same phrasing occurs in the letter conveying the pallium to Archbishop Augustine , also quoted in Bede . Another possibility is that the letter was originally two letters . In this view , Bede has conflated the letter conveying the pallium with the letter congratulating Justus on the conversion , which according to Bede 's account was seven or so years earlier ; but the grammatical details on which this suggestion is based are not unique to this letter , and as a result it is usually considered to be a single composition .
The letter to Æthelburg makes it clear that she was already married at the time the news of Eadbald 's conversion reached Rome . This is quite inconsistent with the earlier date Bede gives for Eadbald 's acceptance of Christianity , and it has been suggested in Bede 's defence that Æthelburg married Edwin substantially earlier and stayed in Kent until 625 before travelling to Rome , and that the letter was written while she was in Kent . However , it would appear from Boniface 's letter that Boniface thought of Æthelburg as being at her husband 's side . It also appears that the letter to Justus was written after the letters to Edwin and Æthelburg , rather than before , as Bede has it ; Boniface 's letter to Edwin and Æthelburg indicates he had the news from messengers , but when he wrote to Justus he had heard from the king himself .
The story of Æthelburg 's marriage being dependent on Edwin allowing her to practice her faith has been questioned , since revising the chronology makes it likely , though not certain , that the marriage was arranged before Eadbald 's conversion . In this view , it would have been the church that objected to the marriage , and Æthelburg would have been Christian before Eadbald 's conversion . The story of Paulinus 's consecration is also problematic as he was not consecrated until at least 625 and possibly later , which is after the latest possible date for Æthelburg 's marriage . However , it may be that he traveled to Northumbria prior to his consecration and only later became bishop .
A revised chronology of some of these events follows , taking the above considerations into account .
616 : Eadbald leads a pagan reaction to Christianity .
616 : Mellitus and Justus , bishop of Rochester , leave Kent for Francia .
c . 619 : Laurence dies , and Mellitus becomes archbishop of Canterbury .
Early 624 ? : Justus converts Eadbald . Messengers go to Rome . Also at about this time Æthelburg 's marriage to Edwin is arranged , perhaps before the conversion . Eadbald builds a church , and Mellitus consecrates it .
24 April 624 : Mellitus dies and Justus succeeds him as archbishop of Canterbury .
Mid 624 : Edwin agrees to the marriage terms and Æthelburg travels to Northumbria , accompanied by Paulinus .
Later 624 : the pope receives news of Eadbald 's conversion and writes to Æthelburg and Edwin .
Still later 624 : the pope hears from Eadbald of his conversion , and also hears of Mellitus 's death . He writes to Justus to send him the pallium .
21 July 625 or 626 : Justus consecrates Paulinus bishop of York .
This timeline extends the duration of the pagan reaction from less than a year , in Bede 's narrative , to about eight years . This represents a more serious setback for the church .
= = Relations with other English kingdoms and church affairs = =
Eadbald 's influence over other Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms was less than Æthelberht 's . Eadbald 's reduced power is apparent in his inability to restore Mellitus to the see of London : in Bede 's words , his authority in Essex " was not so effective as that of his father " . However , Kentish power was still sufficient to make alliance with Eadbald 's relatives attractive to other kingdoms . Edwin 's marriage to Eadbald 's sister , Æthelburg , was probably also motivated by a desire to gain better access to communications with the continent . The relationship would have been valuable to Eadbald , too ; it may have been as a result of this alliance that Edwin 's overlordship of Britain did not include Kent . Another factor in Edwin 's treatment of Kent may have been the location of the archbishopric in Canterbury : Edwin was well aware of the importance of Canterbury 's metropolitan status , and at one time planned to make York an archbishopric too , with Paulinus as the planned first incumbent . Paulinus eventually returned to Kent , where at Eadbald 's and Archbishop Honorius 's request he became bishop of Rochester , and York was not made an archbishopric for another century . Within a year of Edwin 's death in 633 or 634 , Oswald took the throne of Northumbria , and it seems likely that his relations with Eadbald were modelled on Edwin 's . Oswald 's successor , Oswiu , married Eanflæd , who was Edwin 's daughter and Eadbald 's niece , thereby gaining both Deiran and Kentish connections .
Eadbald and Ymme had a daughter , Eanswith ( who founded the very first nunnery on English soil at Folkestone , 15 miles from Canterbury ) , and two sons , Eorcenberht and Eormenred . Eormenred was the older of the two , and may have held the title of regulus , perhaps implying that he held the junior kingship of Kent . He appears to have died before his father , leaving Eorcenberht to inherit the throne . An additional son , Ecgfrith , is mentioned in a charter of Eadbald 's , but the charter is a forgery , probably dating from the eleventh century .
Several of Eadbald 's near relatives were involved in diplomatic marriages . King Anna of East Anglia married his daughter , Seaxburh , to Eorcenberht , and their daughter Eormenhild married Wulfhere of Mercia , one of the most powerful kings of his day . Eanflæd , Eadbald 's niece , married Oswiu , king of Northumbria and the last of the northern Angles Bede listed as holding imperium over southern England . Eadbald 's granddaughter Eafe married Merewalh , king of the Magonsæte .
= = Trade and connections to the Franks = =
There is little documentary evidence about the nature of trade in Eadbald 's reign . It is known that the kings of Kent had established royal control of trade in the late seventh century , but it is not known how early this control began . There is archaeological evidence that suggests that the royal influence predates any of the written sources , and it may have been Eadbald 's father , Æthelberht , who took control of trade away from the aristocracy and made it a royal monopoly . The continental trade provided Kent access to luxury goods , which was an advantage in trading with the other Anglo @-@ Saxon nations , and the revenue from trade was important in itself . Kent traded locally made glass and jewelry to the Franks ; Kentish goods have been found as far south as the mouth of the Loire , south of Brittany . There was probably also a flourishing slave trade . The wealth this commerce brought to Kent may have been the basis of the continuing , though diminished , importance of Kent in Eadbald 's reign .
Coins were probably first minted in Kent in Æthelberht 's reign , though none bear his name . These early golden coins were probably the shillings ( scillingas in Old English ) that are mentioned in Æthelberht 's laws . The coins are also known to numismatists as " thrymsas " . Thrymsas are known from Eadbald 's reign ; but few are known that carry his name : one such was minted at London and inscribed " AVDVARLD " . It has been suggested that kings did not have a monopoly on the production of coinage at that time .
Connections with Francia went beyond trade and the royal marriages Æthelberht and Eadbald made with Frankish princesses . Eadbald 's granddaughter , Eorcengota , became a nun at Faremoutiers , and his great @-@ granddaughter , Mildrith , was a nun at Chelles . When Edwin was killed in about 632 , Æthelburg , escorted by Paulinus , fled by sea to Eadbald 's court in Kent , but in a further sign of her family 's ties across the channel she sent her children to the court of King Dagobert I of the Franks , to keep them safe from the intrigues of Eadbald and Oswald of Northumbria .
= = Succession = =
Eadbald died in 640 , and according to most versions of the Kentish Royal Legend was succeeded solely by his son Eorcenberht . However , an early text ( Caligula A.xiv ) refers to Eormenred as ' king ' , suggesting either he was a junior king under Eorcenberht , or had a shared kingship . One suggestion is that the some other version of events in the ' legend ' , which give him no title , may have been an attempt to discredit royal claimants from Eormenred 's line .
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= Cape Feare =
" Cape Feare " is the second episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 7 , 1993 , and has since been featured on DVD and VHS releases . Written by Jon Vitti and directed by Rich Moore , " Cape Feare " features the return of guest star Kelsey Grammer as Sideshow Bob , who tries to kill Bart Simpson after getting out of jail . " Cape Feare " is a spoof of the 1962 film Cape Fear and its 1991 remake ( which in turn are both based on John D. MacDonald 's 1957 novel The Executioners ) , and alludes to other horror films such as Psycho .
The episode was pitched by Wallace Wolodarsky , who wanted to parody Cape Fear . Originally produced for the fourth season , it was held over to the fifth season and was also the last episode to be produced by the show 's original writers , most of whom subsequently left after this episode . The production crew found it difficult to stretch " Cape Feare " to the standard duration of half an hour , and consequently padded certain scenes . In one particular sequence , Sideshow Bob repeatedly steps on rakes , the handles of which then hit him in the face ; this scene became one of the show 's most memorable moments . The episode is generally considered one of the best of the entire series , and the score received an Emmy Award nomination .
= = Plot = =
After receiving numerous death threats in the mail , Bart becomes paranoid . It is revealed that the writer is his enemy , Sideshow Bob , who is incarcerated in Springfield State Prison . The next day , Sideshow Bob 's parole hearing is held ; the parole board is easily convinced that Sideshow Bob is no longer a threat . When the Simpson family goes to the cinema , Sideshow Bob sits in front of them and acts obnoxious . The Simpsons then realize that it was him who sent the letters , and Marge angrily tells him to stay away from Bart.
The Simpsons opt for the Witness Relocation Program and relocate to Terror Lake , changing their surname to " Thompson " and settling in a houseboat . However , unknown to the family as they drive cross @-@ country to their new home , Sideshow Bob has strapped himself to the underside of the car .
During the night , Sideshow Bob reaches the houseboat and cuts it loose from the dock . Bob then ties up Homer , Marge , Lisa , and Maggie , to ensure they will not interfere with his plan . Bob enters Bart 's room , ready to kill him . Bart escapes out the window and tries to escape , but he cannot jump off the boat . As a " last request " , he has an idea : he compliments Sideshow Bob on his beautiful voice and asks him to sing the entire score of the H.M.S. Pinafore , to stall for time as the houseboat floats to Springfield . After the performance , Bob advances on Bart again , but the boat runs aground , and Sideshow Bob is arrested , and the Simpsons return home .
= = Production = =
Sideshow Bob is a recurring character on The Simpsons . Since season three 's " Black Widower " ( 1992 ) , the writers have echoed the premise of Wile E. Coyote chasing the Road Runner from the 1949 – 1966 Looney Tunes cartoons by having Bob unexpectedly insert himself into Bart 's life and attempt to kill him . Executive producer Al Jean has compared Bob 's character to that of Wile E. Coyote , noting that both are intelligent , yet always foiled by what they perceive as an inferior intellect . The scene in which Bob is stomped on by multiple elephants and bounced right back up is a reference to the Wile E. Coyote character .
In Planet Simpson , author Chris Turner writes that Bob is built into a highbrow snob and conservative Republican so that the writers can continually hit him with a rake and bring him down . He represents high culture while Krusty , one of his archenemies , represents low culture , and Bart , stuck in between , always wins out . In the book Leaving Springfield , David L. G. Arnold comments that Bart is a product of a " mass @-@ culture upbringing " and thus is Bob 's enemy .
Bob 's intelligence serves him in many ways . During this episode , for example , the parole board asks Bob why he has a tattoo that says " Die Bart , Die " . Bob replies that it is German for " The Bart , The " . The board members are impressed and release him because " no one who speaks German could be an evil man " ( an allusion to Adolf Hitler ) . However , his love of high culture is sometimes used against him . In the same episode , Bob agrees to perform the operetta H.M.S. Pinafore in its entirety as a last request for Bart. The tactic stalls Bob long enough for the police to arrest him .
Even though the episode aired during the beginning of the fifth season , it was produced by the crew of the fourth season . A large part of the original crew left the show after season four . This led to the addition of several scenes , which normally would not have been considered , because the mentality of the departing crew was " what are they going to do , get us fired ? " Although most of the episode was completed by the staff of season four , the end was rewritten by the team of season five .
Wallace Wolodarsky had seen the 1991 version of Cape Fear and pitched the idea of spoofing the film . Jon Vitti was then assigned to write a parody of the original Cape Fear film from 1962 as well as the remake ( both films are based on the 1957 novel by John D. MacDonald , entitled The Executioners ) . Instead of using the spoof as only a part of the episode , which could have contained a B @-@ story , the entire episode was devoted to this parody . Sideshow Bob was cast as the villain and Bart became the main victim . The episode followed the same basic plot outline as the films and used elements from the original film 's score by Bernard Herrmann ( which was also used in the 1991 version ) , which , after this episode , became Sideshow Bob 's theme . This episode marked the first time a Sideshow Bob episode was not a mystery .
There were difficulties getting this episode up to the minimum length of an episode and many scenes were added in post @-@ production . The episode starts with a repeat of a couch gag that was first used in the episode " Lisa 's First Word " , which is considerably longer than the typical couch gag . The crew added an Itchy & Scratchy cartoon and a few misleads as to who was trying to kill Bart. Even with all of these additions , the episode still ran short of time . This led to the creation of the rake sequence , which became a memorable moment of the episode , and the entire series . Originally , Sideshow Bob was only supposed to step on one rake after he stepped out from the underside of the Simpson family 's car , but this was changed to nine rakes in a row . According to executive producer Al Jean , the idea was to make the scene funny , then drag the joke out so that it is no longer funny , and then drag it out even longer to make it funny again .
Additions to the end musical number , including visual gags such as Bob appearing in uniform , were added after the animatics . The crew felt that watching the character singing would not be interesting enough and they had to include these gags to make it work . The Simpsons creator Matt Groening was surprised when he saw the additions , because he originally thought they were silly and would not appear in the final cut , but he has grown to like them .
American actor Kelsey Grammer was brought in to guest star as Sideshow Bob for the third time . At that time , Grammer had become a household name as the lead of the television series Frasier , which was in production at the same time as this episode . Grammer did not know that the rake scene was extended , because he had only done the moan once and was surprised when he saw the final product . The show 's writers admire Grammer 's singing voice , and try to include a song for each appearance including this episode . Alf Clausen , the primary composer for The Simpsons , commented that " [ Grammer ] is so great . He 's just amazing . You can tell he has this love of musical theater and he has the vocal instrument to go with it , so I know whatever I write is going to be sung the way I 've heard it . "
= = Cultural references = =
Besides borrowing the overall plot structure of the Cape Fear films , the episode made several direct references to specific scenes from the films . References to the original include : Marge going to Chief Wiggum only to be told that Sideshow Bob has not broken any laws ( also references the 1991 remake ) . References to the 1991 remake include : Sideshow Bob 's tattoos ; the shot of him leaving the prison gate ; the scene with him smoking in the movie theater ; part of his " workout " scene ; his hiding under the Simpson family 's car ; Wiggum 's rigging wire around the house to a toy doll as an alarm ; his suggestion that Homer can do anything to someone who enters his home ; Bob , strapped under a car , pulling up beside Bart for a conversation ; and Homer 's hiring a private investigator who attempts to persuade Bob to leave town .
The episode also contains elements of Alfred Hitchcock 's 1960 film Psycho with Sideshow Bob staying at Bates Motel . Homer surprising Bart with his new hockey mask recalls the film Friday the 13th Part III and Sideshow Bob 's tattoos on his knuckles are similar to those of Robert Mitchum 's character in The Night of the Hunter ( Mitchum also played the villain Max Cady in the original 1962 version of Cape Fear ) . While singing " Three Little Maids From School Are We " from The Mikado during the car trip to Terror Lake , Homer and Bart 's hats allude to I Love Lucy . The scene featuring Ned with his " finger razors " references the 1984 film A Nightmare on Elm Street and its villain Freddy Krueger ( with Flanders seemingly threatening Bart with the razors ) and the 1990 film Edward Scissorhands ( with Flanders actually using the razors to cut his hedge in the shape of an angel , just as Edward Scissorhands cuts a hedge in the shape of a dinosaur ) .
= = Release = =
" Cape Feare " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 7 , 1993 . It finished 32nd in the ratings for the week of October 4 – 10 , 1993 , with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 3 . The episode was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . " Cape Feare " was selected for release in a 1997 VHS collection of episodes titled The Simpsons : Springfield Murder Mysteries , along with " Who Shot Mr. Burns ? ( Part 1 ) " , " Who Shot Mr. Burns ? ( Part 2 ) " and " Black Widower " . It was included again in the 2005 DVD release of the Springfield Murder Mysteries . The episode is also featured on the Simpsons season five DVD set , which was released on December 21 , 2004 . Groening , Jean and Vitti participated in the DVD audio commentary for " Cape Feare " . Kelsey Grammer 's performance of H.M.S. Pinafore was later included on the album Go Simpsonic with The Simpsons . The musical score for the episode earned composer Alf Clausen an Emmy Award nomination for " Outstanding Dramatic Underscore – Series " in 1994 .
According to Matt Groening , people often include this episode among their top 10 favorites . In Entertainment Weekly 's top 25 The Simpsons episodes ever , it was placed third . To celebrate the show 's 300th episode " Barting Over " , USA Today published a top 10 chosen by the webmaster of The Simpsons Archive , which had this episode at a ninth place . In 2006 , IGN named " Cape Feare " the best episode of the fifth season . Vanity Fair called it the show 's fourth @-@ best episode in 2007 , as " this episode 's masterful integration of filmic parody and a recurring character puts it near the top . " James Walton of The Daily Telegraph characterized the episode as one of " The 10 Best Simpsons TV Episodes " , while the Herald Sun placed it in their " The Simpsons Top 20 " . Karl Åkerström of the Swedish newspaper Borås Tidning called it his " all @-@ time favorite " episode of the show . Michael Moran of The Times and Todd VanDerWerff of Slant Magazine both ranked " Cape Feare " as the fourth @-@ best in the show 's history . Cast member Hank Azaria cited this episode as his favorite in the series .
IGN 's Robert Canning gave the episode a perfect score of 10 out of 10 and named it the best Sideshow Bob episode of The Simpsons . He added that there are " many , many reasons for its perfection , but what stands out most for me was how savage and single @-@ minded Bob is in the episode . He wants to kill Bart and he makes no secret of it , save for lying to the parole board . Episodes since have made Bob far too wishy @-@ washy . This was Bob in his prime — his vengeful , glorious , hilarious prime . " Canning also placed it at # 1 on the list of the Top 10 Sideshow Bob episodes . Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club noted that the episode " turns limitations into strengths by spinning the need to fill out time into some of the series ' sharpest , funniest and weirdest gags . The Rake Effect might be its greatest gift to comedy but its virtues go far beyond that . Sideshow Bob episodes consistently rank among the show 's best and this represents the gold standard all subsequent Sideshow Bob episodes aspire to . " Empire called Bob 's mishaps while strapped under the Simpsons ' car the eighth @-@ best film parody in the show , and called the rake scene " the best bit of slapstick in Simpson history . " The parody of Cape Fear was named the 33rd greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum . The Norwegian newspaper Nettavisen listed Sideshow Bob 's " Die Bart , die " tattoo from the episode as the fifth @-@ best tattoo in film and television history .
In 2012 , American playwright Anne Washburn came out with her play Mr. Burns , a Post @-@ Electric Play , which is based on this episode and features its plot as one of the main elements of the play .
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= Michael Carrick =
Michael Carrick ( born 28 July 1981 ) is an English professional footballer who plays for Manchester United and the England national team . He is vice @-@ captain of Manchester United . Carrick primarily plays as a central midfielder , but he has been used as an emergency centre @-@ back under Alex Ferguson , David Moyes and Louis van Gaal . At the time of his move to Manchester United , distinctive features of his play included his inventive distribution of the ball along with his passing and crossing abilities .
Carrick began his career at West Ham United , joining the youth team in 1997 and winning the FA Youth Cup two years later . He was sent on loan twice during his debut season , to Swindon Town and Birmingham City , before securing a place in the first team by the 2000 – 01 season . He experienced relegation in the 2002 – 03 season and was voted into the PFA First Division Team of the Year in the following campaign . He made more than 150 appearances for the Hammers , but in 2004 , he moved to rival London club Tottenham Hotspur for a fee believed to be £ 3 @.@ 5 million . He scored twice in 75 appearances , before moving to Manchester United in 2006 for £ 18 million .
From his debut onwards he was a regular in the Manchester United first team , making more than 50 appearances in his first season with them . He established himself as a key member of the team that won the Premier League in 2006 – 07 , their first title success in four years . The following season he was part of the side that won the 2008 Champions League final , playing the full 120 minutes as they enjoyed a 6 – 5 penalty shootout win , with Carrick converting his spot kick , to help achieve the European Double . He enjoyed a third consecutive title triumph in the 2008 – 09 campaign , but was unable to prevent a Champions League final defeat to Barcelona . He won his first League Cup medal in 2010 , but , for the first time during his Manchester United career , he missed out on another title success as they finished runners @-@ up to Chelsea . Since then though , he has won two further league championships and three FA Community Shields . In 2016 , Carrick won the FA Cup to complete his collection of every domestic honour in the English game .
Carrick has represented England at under @-@ 18 , under @-@ 21 , B and senior levels . He made his England debut in 2001 and has since gained 31 caps but has yet to score an international goal . Carrick has often been overlooked during his England career , with Steven Gerrard , Frank Lampard , Paul Scholes , Gareth Barry and for a brief time Scott Parker preferred in his position . This was the case until the 2012 – 13 season , when Carrick established himself as a regular . He has been a member of the England squads for two major tournaments , the 2006 and 2010 World Cups .
= = Early life = =
Carrick was born to Vince and Lynn Carrick in Wallsend , Tyne and Wear , and first became involved in football when he was five years old . A boyhood fan of Newcastle United , he played five @-@ a @-@ side football with Wallsend Boys Club on Saturday nights , courtesy of his father 's volunteer work at the club . Football became more serious for him at the age of 12 when he was selected for Burnside High School and later on North Tyneside Schools . While playing for Wallsend Boys ' Club under 16s , he was capped for the England Boys ' club side . At the age of 13 , Carrick was profiled by the BBC children 's programme Live & Kicking episode 49 , which aired on 4 February 1995 . During his school years , and the years up until his move to West Ham United , Carrick actually played as a centre @-@ forward ; it was only at West Ham that he started to play more often as a midfielder . He studied at Wallsend 's Western Middle School and Burnside Community High School , completing his GCSE exams in 1997 .
= = Club career = =
= = = West Ham United = = =
Carrick was part of the West Ham United youth squad that won the FA Youth Cup in the 1998 – 99 season . He scored twice in their two @-@ legged 9 – 0 record final victory over Coventry City . According to his manager at the time , Harry Redknapp , Carrick 's difficulty at the start of his career was mainly physical and he lost almost two seasons to injuries because of his rapid growth . He made his debut for West Ham in a 1 – 1 away draw with Jokerit in the Intertoto Cup on 24 July 1999 . His league debut came five weeks later on 28 August , when he replaced Rio Ferdinand in a 3 – 0 victory over Bradford City at Valley Parade . In November 1999 , Carrick was sent on a one @-@ month loan to Swindon Town and made his first appearance for them in a 0 – 0 draw at home with Norwich City . He scored his first ever professional career goal in a 2 – 1 defeat at home to Charlton Athletic on 23 November . He scored once more during his loan spell , netting in a 1 – 1 draw at home to Walsall on 4 December . Although he impressed during his spell he could not help the team find a much @-@ needed win during his 6 outings , playing his final game for them in a 3 – 0 defeat at Manchester City on 18 December . In February 2000 he was sent on loan again , this time to Birmingham City , making just two appearances for the Blues . Carrick returned to Upton Park and scored his first goal for West Ham United , netting the first in a 5 – 0 home win over Coventry City on 22 April . During his first season he was voted as West Ham United 's Young Player of the Year .
Carrick made his West Ham breakthrough in the 2000 – 01 season , playing 41 games in all competitions which included 33 games in the league . His only goal of the season came in a 1 – 1 home draw against Aston Villa on 9 December 2000 . Carrick was awarded a new , improved contract for his progress that would keep him at Upton Park until 2005 . On 20 April 2001 , he was nominated for the PFA Young Player of the Year alongside team @-@ mate Joe Cole . The award was eventually won by Liverpool 's midfielder Steven Gerrard on 29 April . For the second successive season Carrick was voted as West Ham 's Young Player of the Year . The 2001 – 02 season saw Carrick make 32 appearances for the Hammers . Carrick scored twice during this season , his first was West Ham 's only goal in a 7 – 1 loss at Blackburn Rovers on 14 October . He scored the first goal in a 2 – 1 victory over rivals Chelsea ten days later . Towards the end of the season , Carrick suffered a recurrence of a groin injury which ruled him out of the 2002 FIFA World Cup for the England squad .
The 2002 – 03 season was one to forget for Carrick , as West Ham were relegated from the Premier League at the end of the campaign , with Carrick playing his last game of the season in a 2 – 0 victory over Sunderland on 22 March 2003 . Rather than leave the club like team @-@ mates Joe Cole , Frédéric Kanouté and Jermain Defoe , Carrick stayed with West Ham during their first season back in First Division . During the 2003 – 04 season , West Ham finished fourth on the final day to ensure a place in the play @-@ offs . However , they lost 1 – 0 in the final to Crystal Palace and were denied a return to the top flight . Carrick was included in the PFA First Division Team of the Year for the season .
= = = Tottenham Hotspur = = =
After one season outside the Premier League , Carrick felt compelled to leave the First Division , saying : " the truth is I didn 't feel I could play First Division football much longer . " He was linked with moves to a number of teams including Portsmouth , Arsenal , Everton , West Bromwich Albion and Crystal Palace before Tottenham Hotspur emerged as front @-@ runners to sign him . On 20 August , a deal was agreed between West Ham and Tottenham for the transfer of Carrick subject to a medical . Four days later , the transfer was official as Carrick joined the club for around £ 3 @.@ 5 million after the passing of a medical . He made a goalscoring appearance for the Tottenham reserves , but his first team debut for the club was delayed after suffering an injury setback on 14 September . Carrick was assigned the number 23 shirt and made his Tottenham debut on 18 October as a substitute in a 1 – 0 defeat at Portsmouth .
Despite being fit he was often overlooked by then @-@ manager Jacques Santini . It was unclear as to whether Santini really wanted him at all as there was much media speculation that Carrick was bought by Tottenham 's Director of Football Frank Arnesen rather than Santini . However , following the departure of Santini and the appointment of new manager Martin Jol he soon emerged as a regular starter in midfield . His first full start for Tottenham was also Jol 's first game in charge of the club away to Burnley in the League Cup on 9 November . During the game he assisted a goal for Robbie Keane as they went on to win 3 – 0 . On 18 December , he produced a display which was influential in helping Tottenham to a 5 – 1 win at home over Southampton . Carrick subsequently ended 2004 – 05 season with 29 league appearances but failed to score as they finished the table in 9th and missed out on a UEFA Cup spot .
On 3 December 2005 , Carrick scored his first Tottenham goal as he netted the winner in a 3 – 2 home win over Sunderland . He scored his second goal for the club on 8 April 2006 in a 2 – 1 win at home over Manchester City . On 22 April , Carrick was lauded for his performance which helped Tottenham to a 1 – 1 away draw in the North London derby against Arsenal . On 7 May , Carrick was one of 10 Tottenham players who fell ill at a hotel just before their final game of the season away to West Ham as the players suffered from apparent food poisoning . He managed to play in the game but lasted just 63 minutes in the 2 – 1 defeat to his former club . As a result of the loss rivals Arsenal beat them to fourth place in the league and the spot for the Champions League . He made more crosses and more passes than any other Tottenham player during the 2005 – 06 season , and along with Mido was joint top in assists .
= = = Manchester United = = =
= = = = 2006 – 2008 = = = =
On 10 June , Tottenham revealed they had rejected a bid from Manchester United for Carrick , who was seen by their manager Sir Alex Ferguson as a replacement for the departed Roy Keane , the former club captain . The following day , Tottenham manager Martin Jol insisted Carrick would be staying with the club , stating " I don 't want to lose a player like Michael , who was probably our best midfielder last season " . On 28 July , Tottenham announced that the clubs agreed a deal for the transfer of Carrick to Manchester United . Three days later , the transfer was official as personal terms were agreed with Carrick . Despite agreeing a deal for the player the previous week – the fee was not made public until Spurs issued a statement to the stock exchange . Manchester United 's chief executive David Gill confirmed the transfer fee as £ 14 million , potentially rising to £ 18 @.@ 6 million , which would make Carrick the sixth most expensive player acquired by Manchester United at the time . He was given the number 16 shirt , previously worn by Keane .
He made his debut for the club on 4 August in a 3 – 1 pre @-@ season friendly win over Porto in the Amsterdam Tournament . The following day , Carrick was forced to miss the start of the 2006 – 07 season as a result of injuring his foot during the final tournament match against Ajax . Following his recovery from this injury he made his competitive debut on 23 August in a 3 – 0 away league win over Charlton Athletic . Three days later , he made his first start for the club in a 2 – 1 win away over Watford . Towards the end of December he missed two games as he suffered a minor injury . He returned in time to feature in United 's final game of 2006 , a 3 – 2 home win over Reading on 30 December . On 13 January 2007 , Carrick scored his first Manchester United goal in a 3 – 1 win at home over Aston Villa . One month later , he scored his first ever FA Cup goal in a 1 – 1 draw at home to Reading on 17 February . He followed this up by contributing one of United 's goals in a 4 – 1 home win over Blackburn Rovers on 31 March . Carrick scored his first @-@ ever Champions League goals on 10 April , scoring twice in a 7 – 1 home win over Roma in their quarter @-@ final second leg tie . They would go on to lose their semi @-@ final tie 5 – 3 on aggregate to eventual champions A.C. Milan ending their hopes of an all English final with Liverpool . He scored his final goal of the season in a 2 – 0 win at home over Sheffield United on 17 April . His first season with Manchester United ended in success , as they won the Premier League title as a result of Chelsea 's 1 – 1 draw with Arsenal on 6 May .
Carrick suffered an injury setback in October 2007 after breaking his elbow in a 1 – 0 home win over Roma in the Champions League group stage . As a result of the injury he would be out of action for up to six weeks . His return to action came on 3 November as a substitute for Anderson in a 2 – 2 draw at Arsenal . Carrick scored his first goal of the season on 10 February 2008 in the Manchester derby , his goal came in injury time and was mere consolation in a 2 – 1 home loss to rivals Manchester City . His second and final goal of the season came against his former club West Ham United in a 4 – 1 win at home on 3 May . Although he scored just two league goals that season it still led to another league title as United beat Wigan Athletic on the final day of the season to prevent Chelsea from reaching the top spot . On 18 April , one week on from their title success Carrick was offered a new five @-@ year contract along with defenders Rio Ferdinand and Wes Brown . A four @-@ year contract was then signed on 18 May which ties Carrick to United until at least June 2012 . He participated in his first @-@ ever Champions League final on 21 May in Moscow , playing the full 120 minutes in a 6 – 5 penalty shootout win over Chelsea in the 2008 final . The scoreline ended 1 – 1 after extra time , he took United 's second penalty of the subsequent shootout which he converted to help give him the first European honour of his career .
= = = = 2008 – 2010 = = = =
During United 's first league game of the 2008 – 09 season at home to Newcastle United , Carrick was substituted after just 25 minutes as a result of an injured ankle in the 1 – 1 draw . The following day , it was confirmed he would be out for up to three weeks which ruled him out of the UEFA Super Cup match against Zenit St. Petersburg on 29 August . His return to action came on 13 September in a 2 – 1 away loss to Liverpool , he was taken off at half @-@ time during after sustaining another injury . Three days later , it was revealed he would be out for up to six weeks after breaking a bone in his foot during a challenge with Yossi Benayoun . On 1 November , Carrick scored his first goal of the season in a 4 – 3 home win over Hull City . His second goal followed two weeks later in a 5 – 0 home win over Stoke City . His first goal of 2009 came on 22 April as he scored late on in a 2 – 0 home win over Portsmouth . On 13 May , he assisted Carlos Tevez and then scored a late winner in a 2 – 1 win away to Wigan . The goal was Carrick 's first for United away from home and meant that they only needed one point from their final two games to gain a third successive Premier League title . Carrick ensured a third title in three years with United as they drew with Arsenal 0 – 0 at home on 18 May to claim an 18th overall English title . On 27 May , Carrick played the full match in the 2009 Champions League Final in a 2 – 0 defeat by Barcelona . This defeat was described by Carrick as worst night of his career as he said " the game just seemed to pass us by and we were unable to do anything about it . I suppose when you look at the big picture , it was still another Champions League final " .
On 30 September , Carrick scored his first goal of the 2009 – 10 season with the decisive goal against German champions Wolfsburg in a 2 – 1 Champions League win at home . Two months later he scored his first league goal of the season , scoring the second of a 3 – 0 home win over Everton . Due to a defensive crisis during December , Carrick had to fill in at centre back since Gary Neville , himself being played out of position , picked up an injury against West Ham United in a 4 – 0 away win . Carrick had never before played in defence during his career but manager Sir Alex Ferguson was very pleased with his contribution . On 8 December , he played in defence again by playing in a three @-@ man defence alongside central @-@ midfielder Darren Fletcher and regular left @-@ back Patrice Evra in a 3 – 1 away win against Wolfsburg in the Champions League . His third goal of the season came on 30 December in a 5 – 0 home league win over Wigan Athletic in what was United 's last game of the decade . On 25 January 2010 , Carrick scored the first @-@ ever League Cup goal of his career in a 4 – 3 aggregate win over rivals Manchester City in the second leg of their semi @-@ final tie . On 6 February , Carrick scored in a 5 – 0 home win over Portsmouth but it was credited as a Richard Hughes own goal following the game . However , the Dubious Goals Panel officially awarded Carrick the goal on 26 May following a review . On 16 February , he was sent off for the first time in his career after seeing two yellow cards in United 's 3 – 2 win over A.C. Milan at the San Siro . The midfielder was shown a second yellow card in injury @-@ time after flicking the ball away following Patrice Evra 's foul on Alexandre Pato . Carrick played the entire game of the 2010 League Cup Final against Aston Villa , which United won 2 – 1 resulting in his first League Cup medal . This was the first season of his United career that would end without winning the league title as Chelsea claimed the crown by a single point on the final day of the season .
= = = = 2010 – 2012 = = = =
On 6 August , it was announced that Carrick would miss the start of the 2010 – 11 season as a result of an ankle injury sustained in United 's final pre @-@ season game against a League of Ireland XI . However , two days later , he played 79 minutes of United 's 3 – 1 victory over Chelsea in the 2010 Community Shield . Manager Sir Alex Ferguson claimed , " He came in yesterday , says he was fit , wanted to train , trained , and wanted to play . " On 3 March 2011 , he signed a new three @-@ year deal keeping him at the club until the end of the 2013 – 14 season . Carrick 's first significant display of the season came in a 1 – 0 away win over Chelsea in the Champions League on 6 April . He played a vital pass in the move which led to Wayne Rooney 's goal and was praised for his performance .
At the start of the 2011 – 12 season , Carrick for the second season in a row was a shock starter at Wembley for the 2011 FA Community Shield . After initially being ruled out through injury by Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson in the pre @-@ match build up , Carrick was named in the starting eleven for the game on 7 August 2011 . In the first half , United fell behind to a Joleon Lescott header and a long range Edin Džeko strike to trail 2 – 0 at half time . Carrick was then substituted at the interval and replaced by youngster Tom Cleverley . However United went on to turn the game around and prevail 3 – 2 winners . The day after the Shield match , Carrick pulled out of England 's friendly match against the Netherlands to rest a niggling injury . He was replaced in the squad by Tom Cleverley . On 18 December , Carrick scored his first goal for United for 70 games when he advanced from his own half of the pitch after cutting out Joey Barton 's square ball , past a couple of defenders and firing low past the keeper . He eventually won the Man of the Match award . On 8 January , Carrick played his 250th match for Manchester United in all competitions . He celebrated his Jubilee in a 3 – 2 away victory against Manchester City at the Etihad Stadium in the FA Cup third round . On 14 January , Carrick scored for Manchester United in a 3 – 0 home win against Bolton . In the 83rd minute , Carrick notched his first goal at Old Trafford since January 2010 . He curled a left @-@ footed effort past Ádám Bogdán into the bottom corner . On 16 February , in a Europa League 2 – 0 away win against Ajax at the Amsterdam Arena , Carrick played his 500th match in all competitions . Carrick also showed his class when he thundered a shot from 30 yards against the post in a 2 – 0 win against QPR .
= = = = 2012 – 2014 = = = =
As a result of a defensive injury crisis at the club , Carrick started the 2012 – 13 season as a makeshift centre @-@ back . His inexperience in the role was exploited by Everton in the season opener , as Marouane Fellaini beat him to a corner kick to score the only goal of the game . He continued in the role for the next match against Fulham . He scored his first goal of the season in a 1 – 0 Champions League victory against Galatasaray , after series of ball movement leading to Michael Carrick rounding the goalkeeper to score with his left foot . On 24 November , Carrick was left out the squad that defeated Queens Park Rangers 3 – 1 , ending his run of 33 consecutive league starts .
April 2013 saw Carrick nominated for the PFA Player of the Year Award for his performances during the season with Manchester United . Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger said Carrick would be his personal choice for the award , " He is a quality passer . He could play for Barcelona , he would be perfectly suited to their game . He has a good vision and is an intelligent player . " Tottenham winger Gareth Bale was ultimately voted as the winner ; Carrick was , however , included in the PFA Team of the Year for the 2012 – 13 season . Carrick went on to be announced as Manchester United 's Players ' Player of the Year for the 2012 / 13 season .
On 22 November 2013 , Manchester United announced that Carrick had signed a contract extension until 2015 , with the option to extend for a further year . In the 2013 – 14 season , Carrick struggled to retain his previous season 's form , as Manchester United struggled generally under new manager David Moyes . His season was not helped by a persistent achilles problem that kept him out from November until December , whilst new signings in midfield such as Marouane Fellaini had failed to perform . In February , Carrick was criticized by former club captain Roy Keane for what Keane thought was a poor interview . Although he made a total of 42 appearances in all competitions that season , there was speculation over whether Carrick had a future at Manchester United .
= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =
In July 2014 , Carrick suffered an injury during a pre @-@ season training session that was expected to keep him out for 12 weeks . Carrick 's first game back from injury came at the 1 – 0 defeat against Manchester City on 2 November 2014 , where he came on as a replacement centre back following Chris Smalling 's dismissal . After Marcos Rojo suffered a dislocated shoulder in the same match , Carrick stated that he would be happy to play as a makeshift centre back . After Carrick returned to the starting line @-@ up on a regular basis , Match of the Day 2 pundit Dietmar Hamann attributed some of Manchester United 's improved form to Carrick 's return in December , after the club had won all of the six games that he had started . Sir Alex Ferguson stated that he thought Carrick was the best English player in an interview with BT Sport in December 2014 , shortly after Carrick had been named as Manchester United 's new vice @-@ captain by Louis van Gaal .
On 15 March 2015 , he provided an assist for Marouane Fellaini 's goal , and scored his first goal in more than a year during a 3 – 0 victory against his former club Tottenham Hotspur . On 20 March 2015 , Carrick signed a new one @-@ year extension to his contract , lengthening his Manchester United career to 10 seasons .
= = International career = =
Carrick was capped by the England national under @-@ 18 and under @-@ 21 teams before receiving his first call @-@ up to the senior team in Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson 's first game in charge of England in February 2001 . Despite being named in the 31 @-@ man squad to face Spain , he was an unused substitute in England 's 3 – 0 victory on 28 February . Three months later he made his England debut , replacing David Beckham as a second @-@ half substitute in a 4 – 0 friendly win over Mexico . His full debut came during their 2 – 1 victory over the United States on 28 May 2005 . Three days later Carrick started again in a 3 – 2 victory over Colombia in the final game of their tour of the United States .
On 8 May 2006 , Eriksson named Carrick in a 23 @-@ man provisional squad for the 2006 FIFA World Cup , eventually being named in the final 23 @-@ man squad for the tournament in Germany . He was an unused substitute for all three of England 's Group B games as they advanced to the knockout stage . Carrick played just one game in the tournament , a 1 – 0 victory in the second round match against Ecuador on 25 June . The next game he was dropped to the bench for the quarter @-@ final tie against Portugal , with Owen Hargreaves replacing him . The game ended goalless after extra @-@ time , Portugal won 3 – 1 in the subsequent penalty shootout and knocked England out of the World Cup .
Carrick had been regularly overlooked by various England managers when it came to the central roles , with Frank Lampard and Steven Gerrard generally being preferred . He started nine games under Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson and his successor Steve McClaren . His last appearance under McClaren was in a 2 – 1 defeat at home to Germany in August 2007 . Newly appointed manager Fabio Capello left Carrick out of his first England squad on 2 February 2008 . During Capello 's first year in charge of England Carrick was largely overlooked . However , he was named in Capello 's squad for the game against the Czech Republic , but was forced to withdraw after sustaining an injury during Manchester United 's game with Newcastle United . In November 2008 he returned to the squad for a friendly against Germany in Berlin . Starting alongside Gareth Barry in central midfield in England 's 2 – 1 victory and was named by at least two sources as Man of the Match .
Despite playing just one game during England 's 2010 World Cup qualification campaign , he was named in Capello 's 30 @-@ man preliminary squad for the 2010 World Cup on 11 May 2010 . He played 61 minutes of their 3 – 1 warm @-@ up friendly win over Mexico before being replaced by Tom Huddlestone . On 2 June , Carrick was then named in the final 23 @-@ man squad to fly to South Africa for the tournament , before being given the squad number 22 . During the World Cup Carrick failed to make it onto the pitch , remaining an unused member of the squad . England were eventually knocked out of the tournament as they lost 4 – 1 to Germany in their second round tie on 27 June .
On 6 August , Alex Ferguson claimed Carrick would be out for two weeks with an ankle injury and would miss England 's friendly against Hungary the following Wednesday . Capello left Carrick out of the subsequent England squad only to arrive at Wembley and see him play 79 minutes of the Community Shield match . Capello made a ' call me ' sign as Carrick walked past his seat to collect the winner 's medal .
In May 2012 , England manager Roy Hodgson said he left Carrick out of the 23 @-@ man squad and the standby list for the 2012 UEFA European Championships because he had previously told The Football Association that he did not want to be a bit @-@ part player , although he could help the team " in extremis " . On 10 August , Carrick was recalled to the England squad by Hodgson for a friendly match against Italy on 15 August . He played the full 90 minutes in the 2 – 1 victory over the Azzurri in Switzerland and also took over the captain 's armband from Frank Lampard for the final 20 minutes .
On 7 September 2012 , Carrick came on a half @-@ time substitute in England 's 5 – 0 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Moldova . He then started against San Marino in another 5 – 0 win the following month . On 17 October 2012 , Carrick partnered Steven Gerrard in central midfield in the away qualifier against Poland . On 26 March 2013 , the partnership was renewed in England 's qualifier against Montenegro in Podgorica . On 15 October 2013 , Carrick started in England 's final qualifier , a 2 – 0 home win against Poland , as the team qualified for the 2014 World Cup .
On 12 May 2014 , Carrick was named on England 's standby list for the 2014 FIFA World Cup after being omitted from the main 23 @-@ man squad travelling to Brazil .
Having not appeared since 2013 , Carrick was named in the squad for the November 2014 matches with Slovenia and Scotland . However , on 12 November , he pulled out of the squad after sustaining a groin injury . On 27 March 2015 , Carrick made his first appearance for England in 17 months , starting the 4 – 0 UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying defeat of Lithuania at Wembley Stadium . On 31 March 2015 , Carrick made his 33rd appearance for the national team as a substitute for Manchester United team @-@ mate and defender Chris Smalling , performing impressively to help England earn a draw against Italy in an international friendly match .
= = Style of play = =
Despite playing as a deep @-@ lying midfielder , Carrick does not rely on pace , physical attributes and tackling like a typical ball @-@ winning midfielder . Instead , his reading of the game helps him anticipate any attacking threats from the opposition team , most of the time by covering space and making interceptions . His distribution of the ball , creativity , and range of passing , which are among the best in comparison to other midfielders in Europe , add to his importance in dictating the tempo of the game , as well as initiating team attacks .
After his arrival in 2006 , Carrick formed an effective partnership with Paul Scholes , with Carrick playing in a holding role and Scholes as a deep playmaker . This midfield partnership massively contributed to a change towards a continental playing style embraced by manager Alex Ferguson and assistant Carlos Queiroz , which relied on passing and keeping possession in contrast to the more traditionally direct and all @-@ action style of English football . His unassuming style , however , has also led to a lack of attention from successive England national football team managers in favour of all @-@ action midfielders such as Frank Lampard and Steven Gerrard , a fact noted by Carrick 's club and national team captain Wayne Rooney .
Carrick 's intelligence and awareness have been highlighted by former Manchester United manager Louis van Gaal , who labelled him his " trainer coach during the game " . Furthermore , his importance to the team performance has constantly been praised by former team @-@ mates Gary Neville and Paul Scholes , as well as European peers Xavi and Xabi Alonso .
= = Personal life = =
Carrick has one brother , Graeme , who is four years younger . He was also at West Ham United but suffered several injuries , and has completed an MSc in Sport Coaching is currently an FA Regional Coach Mentor ( North East & Yorkshire ) after 7 years as an FA Skills Coach and a spell Coaching at Team Northumbria F.C. , after previously working at the Newcastle United Academy coaching the under @-@ 10s and under @-@ 16s . Carrick married Lisa Roughead , a Pilates instructor with a business degree , in Wymondham , Leicestershire on 16 June 2007 . The couple started dating when they were both at school , and have a daughter , Louise , and a son , Jacey .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
Statistics accurate as of match played 21 May 2016
= = = International = = =
Statistics accurate as of match played 13 November 2015
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
West Ham United
FA Youth Cup ( 1 ) : 1998 – 99
Manchester United
Premier League ( 5 ) : 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08 , 2008 – 09 , 2010 – 11 , 2012 – 13
FA Cup ( 1 ) : 2015 – 16
Football League Cup ( 1 ) : 2009 – 10
FA Community Shield ( 5 ) : 2007 , 2008 , 2010 , 2011 , 2013
UEFA Champions League ( 1 ) : 2007 – 08
FIFA Club World Cup ( 1 ) : 2008
= = = Individual = = =
Football League First Division PFA Team of the Year ( 1 ) : 2003 – 04
Premier League PFA Team of the Year ( 1 ) : 2012 – 13
Manchester United Players ' Player of the Year ( 1 ) : 2012 – 13
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= Lexington @-@ class battlecruiser =
The Lexington @-@ class battlecruisers were officially the only class of battlecruiser to ever be ordered by the United States Navy . While these six vessels were requested in 1911 as a reaction to the building by Japan of the Kongō class , the potential use for them in the U.S. Navy came from a series of studies by the Naval War College which stretched over several years and predated the existence of the first battlecruiser , HMS Invincible ( a series of proposed battlecruiser designs was in fact submitted to the General Board in 1909 but was not approved for construction ) . The fact they were not approved by Congress at the time of their initial request was due to political , not military considerations .
The Lexingtons were included as part of the Naval Act of 1916 . Like the South Dakota @-@ class battleships also included in the 1916 Act , their construction was repeatedly postponed in favor of escort ships and anti @-@ submarine vessels . During these delays , the class was redesigned several times ; they were originally designed to mount ten 14 @-@ inch guns and eighteen five @-@ inch guns on a hull with a maximum speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) , but by the time of the definitive design , these specifications had been altered to eight 16 @-@ inch guns and sixteen six @-@ inch guns , with a speed of 33 @.@ 25 knots ( 61 @.@ 58 km / h ; 38 @.@ 26 mph ) to improve hitting power and armor ( the decrease in speed was mostly attributed to the additions of armor ) .
The design challenges the Navy 's Bureau of Construction and Repair ( C & R ) faced with this class were considerable , as the combined requirements of optimum hitting power , extreme speed and adequate protection taxed the knowledge of its naval architects and the technology of the time . The desired speed of 35 knots had been attained previously only in destroyers and smaller craft . To do so with a capital ship required a hull and a power plant of unprecedented size for a U.S. naval vessel and careful planning on the part of its designers to ensure it would have enough longitudinal strength to withstand bending forces underway and the added stresses on its structure associated with combat . Even so , it took years between initial and final designs for engine and boiler technology to provide a plant of sufficient power that was also compact enough to allow a practical degree of protection , even in such large ships .
While four of the ships were eventually canceled and scrapped on their building ways in 1922 to comply with the Washington Naval Treaty , two , ( Lexington and Saratoga ) were converted into the United States ' first fleet carriers . Both saw extensive action in World War II , with Lexington conducting a number of raids before being sunk during the Battle of Coral Sea and Saratoga serving in multiple campaigns in the Pacific and the Indian Ocean . Though she was hit by torpedoes on two different occasions , Saratoga survived the war only to be sunk as a target ship during Operation Crossroads .
= = Background = =
= = = Armor or speed = = =
As early as 1903 , questions arose in the Naval War College ( NWC ) about the overall effectiveness of large armored cruisers such as the Pennsylvania class and Tennessee @-@ class vessels just then coming into service . The NWC 's 1903 annual summer conference report , which included a staff memorandum on all @-@ big @-@ gun capital ships , also suggested a new type of cruiser that would be armed and armored much like a battleship . The following year , the summer conference considered tactics for a ship armed with four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) , twenty @-@ two 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) guns , four submerged torpedo tubes and battleship @-@ type protection . Ships such as these were essentially Tennessee @-@ class ships in which the 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) intermediate battery had been traded for heavier main guns and protection . These ships figured in the college 's studies for several years , and its 1906 summer conference report on a US building program strongly advocated the ships ' construction for use in scouting and as fast wings in a fleet action , and for their resistance to 12 @-@ inch gunfire ( much greater than the Tennessee class ) . Although the General Board and the Secretary of the Navy refused to adopt the proposed new armored cruiser , perhaps because the Navy already had 10 new armored cruisers on hand , the college continued to test the design against a variety of foreign vessels , including the British Invincible @-@ class battlecruiser .
By 1908 , the summer conference had come to favor battlecruisers over armored cruisers . The increasing range of torpedoes and the distances at which future gun battles were expected to be fought seemed to favor speed over armor . Gunnery officers " laid great stress upon the value of getting the range first and then smothering , or beating down , the enemy 's fire before he gets the range . " The conference concluded that battlecruisers would be worth building , with the caveat that they be considered in the same category as armored cruisers , in support of the battle fleet but not to fight in the line with fully armored battleships . A majority report recommended a top speed of at least 20 percent above that of battleships . As U.S. battleships then being built were expected to steam at 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) , this meant a minimum speed for battlecruisers of 25 @.@ 4 knots ( 47 @.@ 0 km / h ; 29 @.@ 2 mph ) . The Bureau of Construction and Repair ( C & R ) sketched out such ships the following year , at the request of the Secretary of the Navy , as fast equivalents of the Wyoming @-@ class ships being considered . By adopting a 670 @-@ foot ( 204 m ) hull on a displacement of 26 @,@ 000 long tons ( 26 @,@ 417 t ) , it could produce a vessel that could travel at 25 @.@ 5 knots ( 47 @.@ 2 km / h ; 29 @.@ 3 mph ) and carry eight 50 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch guns in four twin turrets and equivalent armor ; the savings in weight from eliminating two of the Wyoming 's six turrets more than balanced the added length and height of the armor belt . An enlarged belt was required by a deeper hull , as all American battlecruiser studies required deep hulls to retain their girder strength because those hulls had to be abnormally long to attain their speed . If the armor belt were reduced by an average of three inches , a fifth turret could be added . Four intermediate proposals included one with intermediate armor and eight 12 @-@ inch guns and one with Wyoming armor and six 12 @-@ inch guns . None of these designs included superfiring turrets . The General Board retained these sketches but did not recommend construction .
= = = Pacific developments = = =
As the NWC continued its studies , the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) annihilated the Russian Baltic Fleet at the Battle of Tsushima in 1905 . Japan had already been a concern of the U.S. Navy . Strategist and Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan had warned then @-@ Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt in 1897 of a much greater likelihood of conflict in the Pacific than in the Atlantic . Roosevelt himself , as President of the United States , had written before Tsushima to British diplomat Cecil Spring Rice , " The Japs interest me and I like them . I am perfectly well aware that if they win out it may possibly mean a struggle between them and us in the future . " Tsushima sealed the outcome of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in Japan 's favor , signaled its emergence as a world power and began a period of rivalry with the United States over intentions in the Pacific theater , as the two now became the dominant military powers there . An immediate consequence was the four Tsukuba @-@ class armored cruisers , laid down between 1905 and 1908 . These ships were designed to carry four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns , a size generally allocated to capital ships and unprecedented for armored cruisers . They would be protected with 8 inches ( 203 mm ) of belt and turret armour and 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of deck armour and be capable of a speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots . The Tsukubas were intended to take the place of aging battleships and thus showed Japan 's intention of continuing to use armored cruisers in fleet engagements . They were also exactly the type of ships for which the college had argued unsuccessfully to add to the U.S. Navy before switching to battlecruisers .
Therefore , while the Navy did not react as Germany and Britain built increasing numbers of battlecruisers , it took a very different tack when Japan laid down its first ship of this class , the Kongō , in Britain on 17 January 1911 . On 13 June , U.S. Naval Intelligence confirmed she was to be the first of four ships , the other three to be built in Japan , which would form a fast division for the IJN . The following day , the Secretary of the Navy asked the General Board to consider the construction of American battlecruisers for Pacific service , as the Pennsylvanias and Tennessees would no longer be viable units in the face of such opposition . The General Board , not willing to forego battleship construction in favor of auxiliary types such as battlecruisers , balked . On 29 August , it suggested that C & R research a ship under 30 @,@ 000 tons that could steam at 29 knots ( 54 km / h ) , carry eight 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) and twenty @-@ four 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) guns and have a protective system comparable to the Nevada @-@ class battleships . In other words , the board requested an American version of the Kongō .
In view of the board 's lack of urgency , C & R took nearly a year to research this project . The proposed main battery of eight 14 @-@ inch guns was kept constant while other factors were calculated — speeds of 26 , 29 and 32 knots ; operating ranges of 5000 , 7000 and 8000 miles ; and belt armor of 8 , 11 and 14 inches . On 12 July 1912 , Naval Constructor R.H. Robinson presented these studies at a lecture he gave at the Naval War College with the General Board in attendance . There , he emphasized 8 inches as an absolute minimum for armor protection and recommended a radius of 8000 miles , the same as in U.S. battleships . The General Board 's reaction was to request two battlecruisers for the 1914 Naval Building Program and ask C & R for a slightly modified version of the proposed ship , but the Naval War College felt the design had serious problems and that a fast battleship would be a more practical option .
There was also the political climate to consider — and the weather was not good for battlecruisers . Just as it was thought that Congress would not approve any battlecruisers without reducing the number of battleships , the Navy decided that battleships , such as the new " super @-@ dreadnought " Nevada class whose construction had just begun , were more important since Congress — in the Navy 's eyes — was not approving enough battleships . In 1903 the General Board assumed that the U.S. would build two battleships per year , but Congress " balked " , approving just one ship in 1904 ( fiscal year 1905 ) , two ships in 1905 ( FY 1906 ) , one ship in both 1906 and 1907 ( FY 1907 – 1908 ) , and one ship in both 1912 and 1913 ( FY 1913 – 1914 ) . The approval of two New York @-@ class ships in 1910 ( FY 1911 ) instead of just one was apparently " something of a personal triumph for Secretary of the Navy von Lengerke Meyer . "
Five years later — with the First World War raging in Europe — the political climate had changed . A tentative five @-@ year program put together in October and supported by President Woodrow Wilson called for ten battleships , six battlecruisers and ten destroyers to be completed by 1922 . This was submitted to Congress in December 1915 . On 2 June 1916 , the House of Representatives passed the bill in a modified form , replacing five of the battleships with battlecruisers . On 29 August 1916 , the Senate also passed an altered bill , keeping the original number of ships but stipulating that the program be completed in three years ( FY 1917 – 19 ) . The first four ships were paid for in FY 1917 , the fifth in FY 1918 , and the last in FY 1919 .
The Lexingtons , along with the Omaha and Wickes classes , were intended to be part of a 35 @-@ knot ( 40 mph ) scouting force that would support a large battle fleet , but the battlecruisers ' keel laying was delayed ; capital ship construction had been suspended in favor of needed merchant ships and anti @-@ submarine warfare destroyers .
The six Lexington @-@ class ships were named Lexington , Constellation , Saratoga , Ranger , Constitution , and United States and were designated CC @-@ 1 through CC @-@ 6 , with " CC " signifying their status as battlecruisers . Although the class was planned to be the U.S. ' s first battlecruisers , it was not of a new design ; instead , it expanded upon already @-@ existing 10 @,@ 000 – 14 @,@ 000 ton cruiser designs .
= = Design development = =
In their original 1916 configuration , the battlecruisers were to carry ten 14 " / 50 caliber guns in four turrets , with two triple superfiring over two dual because there was not enough beam to accommodate the larger barbettes of the triple turrets slight further forward and aft . They would have a secondary armament of eighteen 5 " / 51 caliber guns on a displacement of 34 @,@ 300 long tons ( 34 @,@ 900 t ) and steam at 35 knots . All of these specifications were tempered by their sparse armor compared with contemporary battleships . C & R estimated 180 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower would be needed to obtain this planned speed . This would require 24 boilers , which became problematic , as there was not enough room for the boilers under the armored deck in such a long , comparatively narrow hull . The solution decided upon was to place half of the boilers above the deck on the centerline with armored boxes fitted around each one . There was also the challenge of the many exhaust uptakes needed . The Lexington 's were given " no less than " seven funnels , four of them side @-@ by @-@ side .
Also , with such a long , narrow hull came a consequent penchant for bending , which led to the challenge of adequate hull strength , especially longitudinal strength . This challenge was complicated in a capital ship by the heavy weight of main turrets and guns . This was an area in which British battlecruisers were notably deficient . Structural members on HMS Invincible were so weak that her double @-@ bottom frames distorted . HMS Renown had to go into drydock immediately following her preliminary gunnery tests because the hull structure could not withstand the bending stresses from firing her forward main guns . When the " large light cruiser " HMS Courageous weathered a heavy gale during her initial trial run , a number of her outer hull plates were so distorted that they had to be removed , sent back to the foundry and renewed .
In the Lexingtons longitudinal strength was challenged further by the large amount of freeboard required at the forward section of the hull to keep the ships dry and maintain a high speed in various types of weather . Also , while the 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of belt armor being considered was not an impressive amount in itself , the belt 's running potentially along 80 percent of the waterline and covering the entire side amidships made the amount of armor protection impressive by European standards . Because of the difference in ultimate tensile strength between armor steel and hull steel , severe stresses on the hull were expected . These factors plus the ships ' unusual length prompted Naval Constructor R. H. Robinson , who led the design group for the Lexingtons , to make careful analyses of strength , buoyancy and stresses expected in service . For instance , designers assumed customarily that a ship needed to withstand stresses caused by a wave of the ship 's length with a ratio of height to length of 1 : 20 . Robinson found a more reasonable ratio at 1 : 26 for the Lexingtons , which also promised considerable savings in weight .
One suggestion from C & R was to make the belt armor a load @-@ bearing member by connecting plates end to end . This was found inordinately difficult to be practical and , while it would have added girder strength where most badly needed , was considered too radical a proposition to be truly safe . Another idea , subsequently adopted , was to design the forecastle to break abaft the turrets . The challenge then became to continue the longitudinal strength contributed by the armored deck past this point to the end of the stern . This became a difficult design problem , especially with the need to save weight wherever possible and the fact that light structural members combined with heavy armament weight had become a source of grief for the British . One proposed solution was to use a combination of three decks — a strength deck at the top of the hull , a protective deck which would rest atop the belt armor , 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) above the waterline , and a splinter deck below that , just above the waterline . A third idea , also adopted , was to continue the longitudinal bulkhead between the protective and splinter decks down to the bottom of the ship to add strength . The severity of the strength and weight challenges necessitated a larger displacement of 33 @,@ 000 tons and a hull of 850 feet ( 260 m ) instead of 800 feet ( 240 m ) to give enough internal volume to accommodate all the needed machinery . Even so , the size of the power plant meant pushing the main turrets further toward the ends of the ships , which increased hull stress . This was why the idea was adopted to place half the boilers above the armored deck .
= = Construction hold and redesign = =
Plans to begin construction were placed on hold in 1917 . Large numbers of anti @-@ submarine warfare vessels and merchant ships were needed to ensure the safe passage of men and materiel to Europe during Germany 's U @-@ boat campaign and were given top priority . This opened the opportunity for a massive redesign , the need for which had become apparent in light of experience gained in the Battle of Jutland , fought shortly after the initial design for the Lexingtons had been approved and in which three British battlecruisers had been lost . The fact that the U.S. Navy misunderstood the essential points of the battle initially was shown by its ignoring the Lexingtons staying power while increasing their main armament to eight 16 " / 50 caliber guns and their secondary armament to fourteen 6 " / 53 caliber guns . Other factors for this decision were the discovery of plans by Britain and Japan for new battlecruisers armed with 15- and 16 @-@ inch guns ( respectively ) and the recommendation of the Bureau of Ordnance to give these ships the ability " to inflict fatal damage on the enemy 's most powerful vessels at a distance no less than that at which she can be reached by the heavy gunfire of these opponent battleships . " Only 20 of a newer style of boiler were needed , few enough to fit below the armored deck , and the number of funnels was reduced to five . The armor scheme was not modified , as that would have compromised the longitudinal strength of the hull .
Around 1918 , the U.S. naval staff in Great Britain became extremely impressed by the British 's newest battlecruiser , HMS Hood of the Admiral class . Her side armor was comparable to that of previous battleships and her deck armor was the most extensive of any British capital ship . Because this ship was described as a " fast battleship " and the British Admiralty considered her a replacement for both the battleship and the battlecruiser , the staff advocated that the United States should develop a similar vessel of its own . Chief Constructor David Taylor agreed . On 8 April 1918 , he told the Lexington design staff to plan a vessel combining the principal features of battleship and battlecruiser so that it would have the maximum possible speed , main armament and protection . Specifically , this meant arming her with the 16 " 50 caliber guns planned for the South Dakota class battleships , reducing armor protection 10 percent , a freeboard of at least 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) ( compared to 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) for the 1917 battlecruiser and 29 feet ( 8 @.@ 8 m ) for the Hood ) and a speed of at least 30 knots . Moreover , designs were to be prepared and submitted quickly .
The Royal Navy temporarily assigned a young constructor , Stanley Goodall , to C & R to assist in this task . Goodall brought a copy of the plans of Hood and accurate accounts of shell damage at the Battle of Jutland . In addition , a senior U.S. constructor who served on Admiral Sims 's staff in London , L.C. McBride , became privy to much British experience and was able to share it with C & R. While C & R worked concurrently on the more conventional , more heavily armed and armored South Dakota @-@ class , it quickly adopted and incorporated ideas from Hood into the Lexington project which included a reduction of the main armor belt , the change to " sloped armor " and the addition of four above @-@ water torpedo tubes that were added to the four underwater tubes that had been included in the original design . Other changes included a widening of the ship to allow for an adequate torpedo protection system and an increase in vertical belt armor to 7 inches ( 180 mm ) . Another improvement in boiler technology reduced the number of boilers to 16 and the number of funnels to just two , but increased the normal displacement of the ship to 43 @,@ 500 tons , 300 tons more than the South Dakota class and 10 @,@ 900 tons greater than the previous battleship class , the Colorado class .
Four proposed redesigns were submitted to the General Board on 3 June 1918 , along with a letter that requested a formal reconsideration by the Navy that the Lexingtons be armored to protect them only against fire of guns 6 inches ( 150 mm ) and under . The Board , concerned about the delay incorporating any of the redesigns would have on not just the Lexingtons but the 1916 building program in general and the subsequent cost , declined all four designs . The Board also feared that producing heavily armored fast battleships such as Hood would make the U.S. Navy 's Standard type battleships obsolete , just as HMS Dreadnought made the Royal Navy 's pre @-@ dreadnought battleships obsolescent and negated its advantage in numbers over other navies . This did not stop the U.S. Commander in Chief in European waters , Admiral William S. Sims , to argue for the redesigned vessels by pointing out that the Hood had already brought about the very revolution that the Board wished to suppress . Debate continued while the project remained suspended until May 1919 , when the Board decided that the battlecruisers should be built as planned , except for a slightly slower version of Design B from C & R with increased protection for turrets , conning towers , magazines and communications . This amended version , labeled B3 , was the final version of the Lexington battlecruiser design .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Lexington @-@ class ships had an overall length of 874 feet ( 266 @.@ 4 m ) , a beam of 105 feet 4 inches ( 32 @.@ 1 m ) , and a draft of 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) . They displaced 43 @,@ 500 long tons ( 44 @,@ 200 t ) at normal load and 44 @,@ 638 long tons ( 45 @,@ 354 t ) at deep load . Because the demand for extreme speed necessitated a long hull with maximum freeboard , the forecastle was extended down 75 percent of the total length of the hull . For this class , Rear Admiral David W. Taylor , who served as Chief Constructor for the Bureau of Construction and Repair , used a relatively new kind of bow called the bulbous bow or Taylor bow . The result of a series of towing tests begun in 1910 , this bow reduced water resistance by an average of six percent , supported the forecastle and reduced bending stress on the hull . At speeds of more than 25 knots , test results were highly favorable . A disadvantage was the formation of a heavy layer of water which would creep up along the outer plating of the forecastle at higher speeds . However , this tendency could be reduced to some degree by careful design of the frames . Taylor first introduced this bow , also known as a bulbous forefoot , in his design of the USS Delaware , which entered service in 1910 .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Turbo @-@ electric propulsion was selected for the battlecruisers despite the fact it needed more room than geared turbines to allow for better underwater protection that wartime experience showed was essential . First used in the New Mexico @-@ class battleships , it also had several other advantages . The turbines could run at their optimum speed , without regard to propeller speed , which was economical on fuel and the machinery could be easily sub @-@ divided which increased the ships ' ability to withstand torpedo hits . The substitution of flexible electric cables for bulky steam @-@ lines meant that the motors could be mounted further to the rear of the ship , which reduced both vibration and weight by shortening the propeller shafts . Also , the ship could go astern at full power simply by reversing the electrical polarity of the motors . Despite these factors and the fact that American companies would have struggled to produce the very large geared steam turbines needed for such big ships , the Curtis Company tried unsuccessfully to convince the Navy to reverse this decision . The Navy countered that doing so would mean a complete rearrangement of machinery spaces and a reduction in underwater protection .
Each propeller was 14 feet 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 50 m ) in diameter and each of the four propeller shafts was powered by two 22 @,@ 500 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 16 @,@ 800 kW ) electric motors acting in tandem . These motors were about five times the size of any earlier electric motor . Four General Electric turbo generators powered each propeller shaft and each was rated at 35 @,@ 200 kilowatts ( 47 @,@ 200 hp ) , 5000 volts and 4620 amps of direct current ( DC ) . Each of the four AC alternators produced 40 @,@ 000 KVA . Sixteen water @-@ tube boilers , each in their own individual compartment , provided steam for the generators at a working pressure of 295 psi ( 2 @,@ 034 kPa ; 21 kgf / cm2 ) and a temperature of 460 ° F ( 238 ° C ) . The turbo @-@ electric machinery of the Lexington @-@ class ships was designed to produce a total of 180 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 130 @,@ 000 kW ) and propel the ships at 33 @.@ 25 knots ( 61 @.@ 58 km / h ; 38 @.@ 26 mph ) , but each ship reached over 202 @,@ 000 shp ( 151 @,@ 000 kW ) and 34 @.@ 5 knots ( 63 @.@ 9 km / h ; 39 @.@ 7 mph ) during sea trials in 1928 . Six 750 @-@ kilowatt ( 1 @,@ 010 hp ) DC turbo generators were installed in the upper levels of the two main turbine compartments .
The estimated range would have been 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
= = = = Main guns = = = =
The original design of the Lexington class called for ten 14 " / 50 caliber guns of either the Mark 4 , 5 , or 6 variety to be mounted in four turrets ( two triple superfiring over two double turrets ) for the main armament . Designed in 1916 and put into service by 1918 , these guns were installed on the Tennessee- and New Mexico @-@ class battleships . The guns were capable of firing a 1 @,@ 400 pounds ( 640 kg ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) projectile at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 800 fps ( 853 mps ) to a range of 24 @,@ 000 yards ( 22 km ) at a maximum angle of 15 degrees .
Later designs called for eight 16 " / 50 caliber Mark 2 gun , also slated to be used on the South Dakota @-@ class battleship of 1920 . Like the 14 " / 50 caliber gun , the 16 " gun was designed in 1916 . Basically an extended version of the 16 " / 45 caliber Mark 1 gun used on the Colorado class , it fired the same 2 @,@ 100 @-@ pound ( 950 kg ) shell as the Mark 1 at a muzzle velicity of 2 @,@ 800 fps ( 853 mps ) and rate of two rounds per minute to a range of 44 @,@ 500 yards ( 40 @,@ 700 m ) at an elevation of 45 degrees .
A prototype Mark 2 was tested and proven on 8 April 1918 , and the gun was scheduled to go into naval service in 1923 . However , with the cancellation of both the Lexington and the South Dakota classes , no guns were installed on any ships even though 71 had been built and 44 were under construction . In 1922 – 24 , twenty of the guns were given to the Army for use as coastal defense guns along with the Army 's 16 " / 50 caliber M1919 guns . Later planning called for the use of these guns in the Iowa @-@ class battleships , but miscommunication between design bureaus led to the 16 " / 50 caliber Mark 7 gun being used instead . As a result , all but three of the Navy 's remaining Mark 2 and 3 guns were sent to the Army to also be used as coastal defense guns .
= = = = Secondary guns = = = =
The original design called for eighteen 5 " / 51 caliber guns . These guns were originally mounted on the Florida- and Wyoming @-@ class battleships , but they found their way into the secondary armament of every U.S. battleship that was built prior to the Washington Naval Treaty . Also , many of the destroyers , submarines , and auxiliaries that were built during this time mounted this gun as their main gun . They fired a 50 @-@ pound ( 23 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 3 @,@ 150 fps ( 960 mps ) and a rate of eight or nine rounds per minute to a range of 18 @,@ 880 yards ( 17 @,@ 260 m ) at an elevation of 25 degrees .
The secondary armament was later upped to fourteen 6 " / 53 caliber guns in Mark 13 casemate mountings during one of the redesigns . Designed in 1920 and in service by 1923 , these guns became the main armament on the Omaha @-@ class light cruisers , Narwhal , Nautilus , and Argonaut submarines , and they were intended as secondary armament on the South Dakota @-@ class battleships . They fired a 105 @-@ pound ( 48 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 3 @,@ 000 fps ( 914 mps ) and a rate of six or seven rounds per minute to a range of 25 @,@ 300 yards ( 23 @,@ 100 m ) at an elevation of 30 degrees .
= = = = Anti @-@ aircraft guns = = = =
Four 3 " / 23 caliber Mark 11 anti @-@ aircraft guns were planned for the original and first redesigned versions of the Lexingtons . This was increased to eight guns in the final version . These could depress to − 10 degrees and elevate to 85 degrees . They fired a 13 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 9 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 650 fps ( 503 mps ) and rate of between eight and nine rounds per minute to a range of 8 @,@ 800 yards ( 8 @,@ 000 m ) and a height of 18 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) .
= = = = Torpedo tubes = = = =
Eight 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes were to be carried . Four of these would be mounted inside the hull below the waterline , two at either side of the bow ; the others would be above the waterline at the stern , two at either side .
= = = Armor = = =
The waterline belt of the Lexington @-@ class ships tapered 7 – 5 inches ( 178 – 127 mm ) in thickness from top to bottom and was angled 11 ° outwards at the top to increase the armor 's relative thickness to horizontal , close @-@ range fire ( a concept taken from HMS Hood ) . The down side to this practice was a reduction of the relative height of the belt , which increased the chance of plunging shellfire going over or under it . The belt covered the middle 530 feet ( 161 @.@ 5 m ) of the ships . Forward , the belt ended in a bulkhead also tapered from seven to five inches in thickness . Aft , it terminated at a seven @-@ inch bulkhead . This belt had a height of 9 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 8 m ) . The upper deck was 2 @.@ 25 inches ( 57 mm ) thick in two layers . The third deck over the ships ' machinery and magazine was armored with two layers of Special treatment steel ( STS ) totaling 2 inches ( 51 mm ) in thickness . The steering gear , however , was protected by two layers of STS that totaled 3 inches ( 76 mm ) on the slope and 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) on the slope .
The turret faces were 11 inches ( 279 mm ) thick while their sides were 6 inches ( 152 mm ) in thickness , and the roof was five inches thick . The barbettes had a maximum of 9 inches ( 229 mm ) of armor , but were reduced in thickness in stages below decks to a minimum thickness of five inches . The conning tower armor was 12 inches ( 305 mm ) thick , and it had a communications tube with 10 inches ( 254 mm ) sides ran from the conning tower down to the lower conning position on the 1st platform deck . The torpedo defense system of the Lexington @-@ class ships consisted of three to six medium steel protective bulkheads that ranged from .375 to .75 inches ( 10 to 19 mm ) in thickness . The spaces between them could be left empty or used as fuel tanks to absorb the detonation of a torpedo 's warhead .
= = = Aircraft = = =
None of the designs made provision for aircraft . However , the Navy planned to adapt the poop deck of these vessels to accommodate aircraft at a later date .
= = Conversion = =
Construction finally began upon the battlecruisers in 1920 and 1921 , after a delay of almost five months . However , that July , U.S. Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes called for a conference in Washington D.C. to be held that November . The stated goal was to curb the rapidly growing and extremely expensive naval construction programs . It was obvious to the General Board that the expensive new battlecruisers , which some thought were already obsolete , would be very attractive targets for cancellation . Accordingly , studies were done exploring the possibilities of converting one or more of the battlecruisers to different uses : one looked at a conversion to an aircraft carrier , while another contemplated a conversion to an Atlantic ocean liner .
Conversion of a Lexington to an aircraft carrier had both positive and negative aspects when compared with a " specifically designed carrier " . While the conversion would have better anti @-@ torpedo protection , larger magazines for aircraft bombs than a keel @-@ up carrier and a more room for aircraft landings ( the after elevator would be 28 feet farther up ) , it would also be a half @-@ knot slower with less hangar space ( about 16 percent less ) , less emergency fuel and " narrower lines " aft ( pilots landing on the converted battlecruiser would not have as wide of a runway to aim for ) . Comparing costs , a brand @-@ new aircraft carrier would cost $ 27 @.@ 1 million , while a conversion of one of the Lexington class , not counting the $ 6 @.@ 7 million already sunk into them , would cost $ 22 @.@ 4 million .
Any debate over converting them was quelled by the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty . Under the terms of the treaty , any capital ships that were under construction by the five signatories ( the United States , Great Britain , France , Italy and Japan ) had to be canceled and scrapped . For battlecruisers , this encompassed the United States ' Lexington class , Japan 's Amagi class , and Great Britain 's G3 battlecruisers . However , the treaty did allow the participating nations to take two of the capital ships they had under construction and convert them to aircraft carriers ; the U.S. Navy decided to complete the two Lexingtons that were closest to completion , Lexington and Saratoga .
The problem was that the tonnage cap for new carrier construction had been set at 27 @,@ 000 tons , which was too low for any practical conversion of the battlecruisers . An exception , spearheaded by Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt Jr . , was added to the treaty . This gave the five nations the option to convert no more than two capital ships that were under construction to 33 @,@ 000 ton aircraft carriers . But even that increase of 6 @,@ 000 tons ( from 27 @,@ 000 to 33 @,@ 000 ) was almost not enough for a conversion — it took creative interpreting of a clause in the treaty to allow for the conversion without removing half of the power plant , which the General Board did not want to do . The clause ( Chapter II , Part III , Section I , ( d ) ) :
No retained capital ships or aircraft carriers shall be reconstructed except for the purpose of providing means of defense against air and submarine attack , and subject to the following rules : The Contracting Powers may , for that purpose , equip existing tonnage with bulge or blister or anti @-@ air attack deck protection , providing the increase of displacement thus effected does not exceed 3 @,@ 000 tons ( 3 @,@ 048 metric tons ) displacement for each ship .
Without this clause , the two carriers would have likely been in serious trouble — 1928 estimates for the two ships put Lexington at an actual tonnage of 35 @,@ 689 tons and Saratoga at 35 @,@ 544 , though on official lists the number given was 33 @,@ 000 tons with a footnote that stated " [ this number ] does not include weight allowance under Ch . 11 , pt . 3 , Sec . 1 , art . ( d ) of Washington Treaty for providing means against air and submarine attack " . This tonnage was used by these ships for their entire careers .
= = Ships = =
Following adoption of the Washington Naval Treaty , construction on all the ships was stopped in February 1922 . Two of the battlecruiser hulls were reordered as the Lexington @-@ class aircraft carriers Lexington ( CV @-@ 2 ) and Saratoga ( CV @-@ 3 ) under the terms of the Treaty , while the other four ships were formally cancelled and scrapped in place .
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= Augustus Jones =
Augustus Jones ( c . 1757 – November 16 , 1836 ) was an American @-@ born Upper Canadian farmer , land speculator , magistrate , militia captain and surveyor . Jones trained as a surveyor in New York City , and fled as a United Empire Loyalist to Upper Canada . In Upper Canada , he worked as a crown surveyor in the Nassau District , where he quickly rose to the position of Deputy Surveyor General , the highest position in a district of Upper Canada . He occupied that position from 1789 informally , and 1791 formally , until his retirement in 1799 . During that time he laid down many of the township boundaries in the Niagara Peninsula and on the north shore of Lake Ontario . He led various teams that cut many of the first sideroads and concession roads into these areas , facilitating their settlement by European and American immigrants . Jones also surveyed the routes for Dundas Street and Yonge Street , and supervised their construction . After his retirement , Jones farmed first in Saltfleet Township , later moving to Brantford and finally an estate outside Paris named Cold Springs , where he died in 1836 .
= = Youth = =
Augustus Jones was born around 1757 in the Hudson River Valley of the Province of New York , the son of Ebenezer Jones , a Welsh immigrant . He trained as a land surveyor in New York City in his youth . After his training , he worked for some time in New York , and his name appears in paperwork for land transfers in Newburgh , New York in 1783 and 1784 . Sometime in the 1780s , Jones fled the United States with his family as loyalists during the American Revolution . Jones was sent ahead of the rest of his family , and obtained 300 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 km2 ) of land in Saltfleet Township . Soon after this Jones ' father Ebenezer , his brother Stephen and Stephen 's family , and his sisters , Mary Jones Gage , widow of James Gage and Susannah Gage , wife of William Gage followed . The fields around his sister 's farmhouses would later be the scene of the Battle of Stoney Creek .
= = Career = =
= = = Crown surveyor = = =
Jones met Major Archibald Campbell , the commanding officer of Fort Niagara on June 9 , 1787 . He presented the Major with a letter of recommendation from Cadwallader Colden Junior , which attested to Jones ' good character and surveying capability . Two days later , Jones was hired as a land surveyor for the Crown . Jones ' first assignments were working as a chain bearer for various teams surveying the Niagara region .
After a short while , Jones was given command of his own surveying team . His first assignment was the surveying of Stamford Township , a task they began on November 5 , 1787 and completed on January 8 , 1788 . That January , Jones was appointed to the position of assistant to Philip Frey , the deputy surveyor of the Nassau District . Starting on January 15 , 1788 and running until March 12 , 1788 , Jones surveyed Barton Township . From April 1 , 1788 – April 24 , 1788 Jones surveyed Clinton Township . From May 1 , 1788 until July 28 , 1788 Jones led the survey of Bertie Township . Jones ' team had started surveying Saltfleet Township on July 24 , 1788 and they finished August 24 , 1788 .
Surveying of Thorold Township began the same day , August 24 , 1788 and continued until October 25 , 1788 . In Thorold , Jones was receiving a pay of four shillings a day , and his two primary assistants , Joseph Jones and Benjamin Stanton , received the same . All worked the full 54 days of the survey . Local men were hired as woodcutters and chainbearers for shorter periods , and typically earnt two shillings a day .
On October 25 , 1788 Jones ' team began their survey of Grimsby Township ; it was completed November 13 , 1788 . Saltfleet Township was surveyed from November 14 , 1788 to December 25 , 1788 and Binbrook Township was surveyed from December 24 , 1788 until February 12 , 1789 . All of these townships were surveyed using the Front and Rear system , except Binbrook , which was surveyed with the Single Front system . During this time , Frey had assigned two other surveyors to lead surveys in the Nassau district . Daniel Hazen and Jesse Pawling both led teams , but neither group was as busy as Jones ' group . Hazen 's group surveyed only four townships , and incompletely , and Pawling 's three , also incompletely . In November 1789 Jones began acting as the deputy surveyor in Nassau District as Frey had left Upper Canada , and he officially received the position in early 1791 on the order of Deputy Surveyor General John Collins .
= = = Deputy surveyor for Nassau District = = =
In 1791 and 1792 , Jones surveyed the lakeshore of townships east from York , Upper Canada , to the Trent River , from the lakeshore to a distance of one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from Lake Ontario . Jones and his team had set out from Scarborough to the eastern boundary of the Nassau District , the approximate area of the mouth of the Trent River . From there , they began surveying townships along Lake Ontario travelling westwards . They surveyed in turn Murray Township , then Cramahe Township , Haldimand Township , Hamilton Township , Hope Township , Clarke Township , Darlington Township , Pickering Township , Glasgow Township , York Township and Etobicoke Township . Sideroads were then run north to the first concession road . Clarke township had previously been unnamed , Jones was the one to name it . The survey of the west end of the Nassau district finalised the boundary of the Toronto Purchase , which had been agreed upon in principle , but could not be completed because the land areas involved were not well known . On June 13 , 1792 Jones submitted a town plan for Newark , Upper Canada to the Land Board .
Around this time , Jones began to acquire significant tracts of land across southern Ontario . He obtained large sections of land in Saltfleet Township and Barton Township with various petitions and grants , and small lots in Newark and York . From Mohawk chief Joseph Brant , he received leases on ten square miles of land in return for his surveys of land along the Grand River .
In 1793 , Lieutenant Governor John Graves Simcoe charged Jones with the surveying and construction of a new road from Lake Ontario to the Thames River . Simcoe employed the Queen 's Rangers led by Captain Samuel Smith for the road 's construction , from Hamilton to Woodstock . This road would become Dundas Street . The same year , he surveyed Flamborough Township , Beverley Township , Ancaster Township and York Township . Jones spent 1794 surveying Flamborough , Glanford , Binbrook , Delaware , Oxford , Dorchester , Burford , Grimsby and Windham .
In 1795 , Jones surveyed Ancaster , Thorold , Grantham , Beverley , Southwold , Whitby , York , Scarboro , Pickering , the lands of Joseph Brant and Lake Simcoe . On December 24 , 1795 Jones was directed by Lieutenant Governor John Graves Simcoe to survey and open a cart road from the newly planned settlement of York , Upper Canada to Lake Simcoe . Jones began the planning work the next day . On the 29th of that December , Jones was given the assistance of thirty of the Queen 's Rangers for the road 's construction . The work began January 4 , 1796 on this road , which would become Yonge Street . Jones worked as the effective master builder in addition to his title as surveyor . The road reached Holland Landing on February 16 , 1796 , and Jones returned to York on February 20 to inform the Lieutenant Governor that the road was completed . This first incarnation of Yonge Street measured some 34 miles and 53 chains . For the rest of 1796 , Jones spent his time surveying Newark , Flamborough , Grimsby , Saltfleet , Beverley , York and Coot 's Paradise .
Working as the Deputy Surveyor , Jones began to build good relations with the Mississauga Ojibwa Indians and Mohawk Indians of the area . He became fluent in the languages of these groups and earned the trust of many members of the tribes , including influential members like Joseph Brant , of whom he became a good friend . In 1797 the head chief of the Mississaugas in the Credit River area Wabakinine , as well as his wife , were murdered by a member of the Queen 's Rangers . Wabakinine had been a very beloved chief and seen as a firm ally of the British . His murder shocked the members of his band and other local Ojibwa bands . Charles McEwan , the killer was charged and tried , but the Indian witnesses did not attend the trial and he was subsequently acquitted for lack of evidence . Nimquasim , a local Indian chief , met with Augustus Jones on February 15 , 1797 and confessed to Jones that he and the local Indian bands were inclined to wage open war against the British over the event . Jones relayed this information to British administrator Peter Russell . The town of York had about 675 white settlers and 135 soldiers , a number that Russell believed might not be sufficient to address an Indian rebellion . If a winter rebellion transpired York would be cut off from large garrisons at the Bay of Quinte and the Niagara Peninsula . Russell and John Graves Simcoe both anticipated rebellion for the next year or so , but it never came . Joseph Brant , a Mohawk chief who had travelled to England cautioned the tribes against rebellion as he knew the military strength of the British was likely to render any war a losing one . Russell , however , set out to undermine alliances and friendships between the Indian bands of southern Ontario , fearing such an uprising .
Jones spent 1797 surveying Pickering , Glanford , Oxford and Blenheim . His survives duties in 1798 included Burford , Lake Shore Road , the Humber River , the Grand River , Uxbridge , Gwillumbury and the de Puisaye settlement . In 1799 , Jones conducted a census of the residents of Hope Township , Hamilton Township , Haldimand Township , Cramahe Township and Percy Township . The census include the names of all residents and details on the conditions of their lots . That year , he also surveyed the Humber Mill Reserve , Yarmouth , Gore , Newark and Stamford .
= = = Farmer , magistrate and militia captain = = =
Jones retired from his surveying work in 1800 , for reasons unknown . Various reasons have been suggested ; Jones was known as an extremely hard worker , and may have wanted less strenuous work as a farmer , his ties to Joseph Brant may have been politically problematic as Brant was frequently in conflict with Upper Canada authorities , and his status as a loyalist to the British Empire may have come into question as it became known his brother in law , James Gage , had fought with the Americans during the revolution , and his brother Ebenezer may have as well . Whatever the cause of his retirement , Jones returned to his farm in Saltfleet Township and began life as a farmer .
Jones was already a prominent citizen in Saltfleet Township . He had been a militia captain there since 1794 . He also became a local magistrate . In 1801 , he and his wife joined the Methodist Episcopal church in the area . Jones retired from the militia in 1811 , but remained in Saltfleet Township until 1817 , when he moved with his family to Brantford to live with the Mohawk community and his wife 's extended family . During the War of 1812 , his farm had suffered £ 250 in damages . On May 27 , 1815 arsonists set fire to his barn , which Jones believed was an effort to force him to cease his investigation into a local murder of three Indians . These financial losses , coupled with prejudice from his white neighbours towards Jones due to his Indian wife and children and their knowledge he had previously been married to two Indian women simultaneously led to the move . Jones made one last survey in 1825 , resurveying the line of Dundas street between Ancaster Township and West Flamborough Township . In Brantford he supported his family both by farming , and by selling of bits of land he had accumulated in his youth . After several years in Brantford , he moved to his estate Cold Springs on Dundas Street east of Paris , Ontario , where he farmed until his death .
= = Family life = =
On April 27 , 1798 , Jones married Sarah Tekarihogen ( Tekerehogen ) , the daughter of Mohawk chief Tekarihogen . The couple would have a total of eight children . Their children were named Catherine , Rachel , Mary , Henry , Joseph , Sally , Lucretia and Augustus Junior ( born 1818 ) .
While married to Sarah Tekarihogen , Jones maintained a relationship with Tuhbenahneequay ( Sarah Henry ) , the daughter of Mississauga chief Wahbanosay . Jones had previously hired Wahbanosay as a guide during some of his surveying expeditions in the area , including the surveying of Yonge Street . Their relationship had begun in the mid @-@ 1790s , and Jones had previously married Tuhbenahneequay in a Mississauga ceremony . Their first son , John ( anglicised as Theyandanegea , written in Ojibwa as Tyenteneged , after Joseph Brant ) was born in 1798 . Their second son , Peter Jones ( Kahkewaquonaby ) was born January 1 , 1802 to Tuhbenahneequay in the area of Burlington Heights . Due to Jones ' marriage to Sarah Tekarihogen , the task of raising Peter and John was left to Tuhbenahneequay . It was soon after their second son 's birth that the relationship between Jones and Tuhbenahneequay ended . Jones wanted the respect of his Christian neighbours , who disapproved of polygamy , and so Jones settled permanently with Sarah Tekarihogen , who had converted to Christianity .
Although Jones took no part in the raising of his children by Tuhbenahneequay , he did take an active interest in their welfare . In 1805 , he secured a pair of two @-@ square @-@ mile plots of land near the mouth of the Credit River for his two sons from the local Mississauga Indians , but the government of Upper Canada would not recognise the title . In 1816 , Jones feared that the Mississauga band his sons John and Peter lived with would fall apart , in the aftermath of the War of 1812 , the famine of 1816 's harvest and the influx of settlers to the area in recent years . Jones travelled to find the boys , and brought them to his farm in Stoney Creek . He arranged for the boys to be schooled in Stoney Creek , as neither spoke much English . After nine months , Jones felt that Peter 's command of English was sufficient , and took him out of school to teach him the farming craft . The next year , Jones and his family relocated to land along the Grand River , and Jones brought his son Peter with them . Peter lived with his father for seven years there .
Jones died on November 16 , 1836 near Paris , Ontario . He was buried at Cold Springs , where his farm was located . After the death of his son Peter in 1856 , Jones ' remains were moved to Greenwood Cemetery in Brantford , Ontario and interred beside Peter 's . His grave was unmarked .
= = Honours = =
On September 10 , 2005 the city of Hamilton , Ontario unveiled a statue of Jones in Stoney Creek Town Square .
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= Peace dollar =
The Peace dollar is a United States dollar coin minted from 1921 to 1928 , and again in 1934 and 1935 . Designed by Anthony de Francisci , the coin was the result of a competition to find designs emblematic of peace . Its obverse represents the head and neck of the Goddess of Liberty in profile , and the reverse depicts a bald eagle at rest clutching an olive branch , with the legend " Peace " . It was the last United States dollar coin to be struck for circulation in silver .
With the passage of the Pittman Act in 1918 , the United States Mint was required to strike millions of silver dollars , and began to do so in 1921 , using the Morgan dollar design . Numismatists began to lobby the Mint to issue a coin that memorialized the peace following World War I ; although they failed to get Congress to pass a bill requiring the redesign , they were able to persuade government officials to take action . The Peace dollar was approved by Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon in December 1921 , completing the redesign of United States coinage that had begun in 1907 .
The public believed the announced design , which included a broken sword , was illustrative of defeat , and the Mint hastily acted to remove the sword . The Peace dollar was first struck on December 28 , 1921 ; just over a million were coined bearing a 1921 date . When the Pittman Act requirements were met in 1928 , the mint ceased to strike the coins , but more were struck in 1934 and 1935 as a result of other legislation . In 1965 , the mint struck over 300 @,@ 000 Peace dollars bearing a 1964 date , but these were never issued , and all are believed to have been melted .
= = Background and preparations = =
= = = Statutory history = = =
The Bland – Allison Act , passed by Congress on February 28 , 1878 , required the Treasury to purchase a minimum of $ 2 million in domestically mined silver per month and coin it into silver dollars . The Mint used a new design by engraver George T. Morgan , and struck what became known as the Morgan dollar . Many of the pieces quickly vanished into bank vaults for use as backing for paper currency redeemable in silver coin , known as silver certificates . In 1890 , the purchases required under the Bland – Allison Act were greatly increased under the terms of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act . Although the Sherman Act was repealed in 1893 , it was not until 1904 that the government struck the last of the purchased silver into dollars . Once it did , production of the coin ceased .
During World War I , the German government hoped to destabilize British rule over India by spreading rumors that the British were unable to redeem for silver all of the paper currency they had printed . These rumors , and hoarding of silver , caused the price of silver to rise and risked damaging the British war effort . The British turned to their war ally , the United States , asking to purchase silver to increase the supply and lower the price . In response , Congress passed the Pittman Act of April 23 , 1918 . This statute gave the United States authority to sell metal to the British government from up to 350 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 silver dollars at $ 1 per ounce of silver plus the value of the copper in the coins , and handling and transportation fees . Only 270 @,@ 232 @,@ 722 coins were melted for sale to the British , but this represented 47 % of all Morgan dollars struck to that point . The Treasury was required by the terms of the Act to strike new silver dollars to replace the coins that were melted , and to strike them from silver purchased from American mining companies .
= = = Idea and attempted legislation = = =
It is uncertain who originated the idea for a US coin to commemorate the peace following World War I ; the genesis is usually traced to an article by Frank Duffield published in the November 1918 issue of The Numismatist . Duffield suggested that a victory coin should be " issued in such quantities it will never become rare " . In August 1920 , a paper by numismatist Farran Zerbe was read to that year 's American Numismatic Association ( ANA ) convention in Chicago . In the paper , entitled Commemorate the Peace with a Coin for Circulation , Zerbe called for the issuance of a coin to celebrate peace , stating ,
I do not want to be misunderstood as favoring the silver dollar for the Peace Coin , but if coinage of silver dollars is to be resumed in the immediate future , a new design is probable and desirable , bullion for the purpose is being provided , law for the coinage exists and limitation of the quantity is fixed — all factors that help pave the way for Peace Coin advocates . And then — we gave our silver dollars to help win the war , we restore them in commemoration of victory and peace .
Zerbe 's proposal led to the appointment of a committee to transmit the proposal to Congress and urge its adoption . According to numismatic historian Walter Breen , " Apparently , this was the first time that a coin collector ever wielded enough political clout to influence not only the Bureau of the Mint , but Congress as well . " The committee included noted coin collector and Congressman William A. Ashbrook ( Democrat – Ohio ) , who had chaired the House Committee on Coinage , Weights , and Measures until the Republicans gained control following the 1918 elections .
Ashbrook was defeated for re @-@ election in the 1920 elections ; at that time congressional terms did not end until March 4 of the following year . He was friendly with the new committee chairman Albert Henry Vestal ( Republican – Indiana ) , and persuaded him to schedule a hearing on the peace coin proposal for December 14 , 1920 . Though no bill was put before it , the committee heard from the ANA delegates , discussed the matter , and favored the use of the silver dollar , which as a large coin had the most room for an artistic design . The committee took no immediate action ; in March 1921 , after the Harding administration took office , Vestal met with the new Secretary of the Treasury , Andrew W. Mellon , and Mint Director Raymond T. Baker about the matter , finding them supportive so long as the redesign involved no expense .
On May 9 , 1921 , striking of the Morgan dollar resumed at the Philadelphia Mint under the recoinage called for by the Pittman Act . The same day , Congressman Vestal introduced the Peace dollar authorization bill as a joint resolution . Vestal placed his bill on the Unanimous Consent Calendar , but Congress adjourned for a lengthy recess without taking any action . When Congress returned , Vestal asked for unanimous consent that the bill pass on August 1 , 1921 . However , one representative , former Republican leader James R. Mann ( Illinois ) objected , and numismatic historian Roger Burdette suggests that Mann 's stature in the House ensured that the bill would not pass . Nevertheless , Vestal met with the ANA and told them that he hoped Congress would reconsider when it met again in December 1921 .
= = = Competition = = =
Sometime after the December 1920 hearing requested by the ANA , the chairman of the U.S. Commission of Fine Arts , Charles Moore , became aware of the proposed congressional action , and decided to investigate . Moore , together with Commission member and Buffalo nickel designer James Earle Fraser , met with Mint Director Baker on May 26 , 1921 , and they agreed that it would be appropriate to hold a design competition for the proposed dollar , under the auspices of the Commission . This was formalized on July 26 with the Commission 's written recommendation to the Mint that a competition , open only to invited sculptors , be used to select designs . The winner of the competition was to receive $ 1 @,@ 500 prize money , while all other participants would be given $ 100 . On July 28 , President Harding issued Executive Order 3524 , requiring that coin designs be submitted to the Commission before approval by the Treasury Secretary . In early September , following the failure of the bill , Baker contacted Moore , putting the matter aside pending congressional action .
By November , proponents of the peace coin had realized that congressional approval was not necessary — as the Morgan dollar had been struck for more than 25 years , it was eligible for replacement at the discretion of the Secretary of the Treasury under an 1890 act . The Morgan design was then being used for large quantities of silver dollars as the Mint struck replacements for the melted coins under the Pittman Act . Though Congress had not yet convened , Baker contacted Fraser in early November to discuss details of the design competition . According to Burdette , Baker 's newfound enthusiasm came from the fact that President Harding was about to formally declare an end to the war with Germany — a declaration needed because the US had not ratified the Treaty of Versailles . In addition , the Washington Conference on disarmament , for which the administration had great hopes , was soon to convene . On November 19 , Fraser notified competition participants by personal letter , sending official rules and requirements four days later , with submissions due by December 12 . Competition participants included Hermon MacNeil , Victor D. Brenner , and Adolph Weinman , all of whom had designed previous U.S. coins .
The artists were instructed to depict the head of Liberty on the obverse , to be made " as beautiful and full of character as possible " . The reverse would depict an eagle , as prescribed by the Coinage Act of 1792 , but otherwise was left to the discretion of the artist . The piece also had to bear the denomination , the name of the country , " E pluribus unum " , the motto " In God We Trust " , and the word " Liberty " .
On December 13 , the commission assembled to review the submitted designs , as well as a set produced by Mint Chief Engraver Morgan at Baker 's request , and a set , unrequested , from a Mr. Folio of New York City . It is not known how the designs were displayed for the Commission . After considerable discussion among Fraser , Moore , and Herbert Adams ( a sculptor and former member of the Commission ) , a design by Anthony de Francisci was unanimously selected .
= = = Design = = =
At age 34 , de Francisci was the youngest of the competitors ; he was also among the least experienced in the realm of coin design . While most of the others had designed regular or commemorative coins for the Mint , de Francisci 's sole effort had been the conversion of drawings for the 1920 Maine commemorative half dollar to the finished design . De Francisci had had little discretion in that project , and later said of the work , " I do not consider it very favorably . "
The sculptor based the obverse design of Liberty on the features of his wife , Teresa de Francisci . Due to the short length of the competition , he lacked the time to hire a model with the features he envisioned . Teresa de Francisci was born Teresa Cafarelli in Naples , Italy . In interviews , she related that when she was five years old and the steamer on which she and her family were immigrating passed the Statue of Liberty , she was fascinated by the statue , called her family over , and struck a pose in imitation . She later wrote to her brother Rocco ,
You remember how I was always posing as Liberty , and how brokenhearted I was when some other little girl was selected to play the role in the patriotic exercises in school ? I thought of those days often while sitting as a model for Tony 's design , and now seeing myself as Miss Liberty on the new coin , it seems like the realization of my fondest childhood dream .
Breen wrote that the radiate crown that the Liberty head bears is not dissimilar to those on certain Roman coins , but is " more explicitly intended to recall that on the Statue of Liberty " . Anthony de Francisci recalled that he opened the window of the studio and let the wind blow on his wife 's hair as he worked . However , he did not feel that the design depicted her exclusively . He noted that " the nose , the fullness of the mouth are much like my wife 's , although the whole face has been elongated " . De Francisci submitted two reverse designs ; one showed a warlike eagle , aggressively breaking a sword ; the other an eagle at rest , holding an olive branch . The latter design , which would form the basis for the reverse of the Peace dollar , recalled de Francisci 's failed entry for the Verdun City medal . The submitted obverse is almost identical to the coin as struck , excepting certain details of the face , and that the submitted design used Roman rather than Arabic numerals for the date .
Baker , de Francisci , and Moore met in Washington on December 15 . At that time , Baker , who hoped to start Peace dollar production in 1921 , outlined the tight schedule for this to be accomplished , and requested certain design changes . Among these was the inclusion of the broken sword from the sculptor 's alternate reverse design , to be placed under the eagle , on the mountaintop on which it stands , in addition to the olive branch . Baker approved the designs , subject to these changes . The revised designs were presented to President Harding on December 19 . Harding insisted on the removal of a small feature of Liberty 's face , which seemed to him to suggest a dimple , something he did not consider suggestive of peace , and the sculptor then did so .
= = = Controversy = = =
The Treasury announced the new design on December 19 , 1921 . Photographs of Baker and de Francisci examining the final plaster model appeared in newspapers , along with written descriptions of the designs , since the Treasury at that time took the position that it was illegal for photographs of a United States coin to be printed in a newspaper . Secretary Mellon gave formal approval to the design on December 20 . As it would take the Mint several days to produce working dies , the first strike of the new coins was scheduled for December 29 .
The new design was widely reported in newspapers , and was the source of intense public attention . A Mint press release described the reverse as " a large figure of an eagle perched on a broken sword , and clutching an olive branch bearing the word , ' peace ' " . On December 21 , the New York Herald ran a scathing editorial against the new design ,
If the artist had sheathed the blade or blunted it there could be no objection . Sheathing is symbolic of peace , of course ; the blunted sword implies mercy . But a broken sword carries with it only unpleasant associations .
A sword is broken when its owner has disgraced himself . It is broken when a battle is lost and breaking is the alternative to surrendering . A sword is broken when the man who wears it can no longer render allegiance to his sovereign . But America has not broken its sword . It has not been cashiered or beaten ; it has not lost allegiance to itself . The blade is bright and keen and wholly dependable . It is regrettable that the artist should have made such an error in symbolism . The sword is emblematic of Justice as well as of Strength . Let not the world be deceived by this new dollar . The American effort to limit armament and to prevent war or at least reduce its horror does not mean that our sword is broken .
At the time , according to Burdette , given the traumas of the Great War , Americans were highly sensitive about their national symbols , and unwilling to allow artists any leeway in interpretation . The Mint , the Treasury , and the Fine Arts Commission began to receive large numbers of letters from the public objecting to the design . De Francisci attempted to defend his design , stating , " with the sword there is the olive branch of peace and the combination of the two renders it impossible to conceive of the sword as a symbolization of defeat " . Baker had left Washington to visit the San Francisco Mint , a transcontinental journey of three days . Acting Mint Director Mary Margaret O 'Reilly sent him a telegram on December 23 , urgently seeking his approval to remove the sword from the reverse , as had been recommended by Moore and Fraser at a meeting the previous afternoon . Due to the tight timeline for 1921 strikings of the dollar , it was not possible to await Baker 's response , so on the authority of Treasury Undersecretary Seymour Parker Gilbert , who was approached by O 'Reilly , the Mint proceeded with the redesign . To satisfy Harding 's executive order , the Fine Arts Commission quickly approved the change , and by the time Baker wired his approval on December 24 , without being able to see the revisions , Gilbert had already approved the revised design in Secretary Mellon 's absence . A press release was issued late on December 24 , stating that the broken sword which had appeared on de Francisci 's alternate reverse would not appear on the issued coin . In its December 25 edition , the Herald took full credit for the deletion of the broken sword from the coin 's design .
Farran Zerbe , whose paper to the ANA convention helped launch the dollar proposal , saw de Francisci 's defense and the press release , and suggested that the sculptor had mistakenly thought his alternate design had been approved .
= = Production = =
= = = Initial release = = =
The removal of the sword from the coinage hub , which had already been produced by reduction from the plaster models , was accomplished by painstaking work by Mint Chief Engraver Morgan , using extremely fine engraving tools under magnification . Morgan did the work on December 23 in the presence of de Francisci , who had been summoned to the Philadelphia Mint to ensure the work met with his approval . It was insufficient merely to remove the sword , as the rest of the design had to be adjusted . Morgan had to hide the excision ; he did so by extending the olive branch , previously half @-@ hidden by the sword , but had to remove a small length of stem that showed to the left of the eagle 's talons . Morgan also strengthened the rays , and sharpened the appearance of the eagle 's leg . The chief engraver did his work with such skill that the work on the dollar was not known for over 85 years .
On December 28 , Philadelphia Mint Superintendent Freas Styer wired Baker in San Francisco , reporting the first striking of the Peace dollar . The Mint later reported that 1 @,@ 006 @,@ 473 pieces were struck in 1921 , a rate of output for the four days remaining in the year that Burdette calls " amazing " ; he speculates that minting of 1921 Peace dollars continued into 1922 . The first coin struck was to be sent to President Harding , but what became of it is something of a mystery : O 'Reilly indicated that she had the coin sent to Harding , but the inventory of Harding 's estate , prepared after the President died in office less than two years later , does not mention it , nor is there any mention of the coin in Harding 's papers . Breen , in his earlier book on U.S. coins , stated that the coin was delivered to Harding by messenger on January 3 , 1922 , but does not state the source of his information . A few proofs of the 1921 production were struck early in the run , in both satin and matte finishes , but it is unknown exactly how many with either finish were created ; numismatic historians Leroy Van Allen and A. George Mallis estimate the mintage totals at 24 of the former and five of the latter .
The Peace dollar was released into circulation on January 3 , 1922 . In common with all silver and copper @-@ nickel dollar coins struck from 1840 to 1978 , the Peace dollar had a diameter of 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) , which was larger than the Mint 's subsequently struck modern dollar coins . Its issuance completed the redesign of United States coinage that had begun with issues in 1907 . Long lines formed at the Sub @-@ Treasury Building in New York the following day when that city 's Federal Reserve Bank received a shipment ; the 75 @,@ 000 coins initially sent by the Mint were " practically exhausted " by the end of the day . Rumors that the coins did not stack well were contradicted by bank cashiers , who demonstrated for The New York Times that the coins stacked about as well as the Morgan dollars . De Francisci had paid Morgan for 50 of the new dollars ; on January 3 , Morgan sent him the pieces . According to his wife , de Francisci had bet several people that he would lose the design competition ; he used the pieces to pay off the bets and did not keep any .
According to one Philadelphia newspaper ,
Liberty is getting younger . Take it from the new ' Peace Dollar , ' put in circulation yesterday , the young woman who has been adorning silver currency for many years , never looked better than in the ' cart wheel ' that the Philadelphia Mint has just started to turn out . The young lady , moreover , has lost her Greek profile . Helenic [ sic ] beauty seems to have been superseded by the newer ' flapper ' type .
= = = Modification and production = = =
From the start , the Mint found that excessive pressure had to be applied to fully bring out the design of the coin , and the dies broke rapidly . On January 10 , 1922 , O 'Reilly , still serving as Acting Mint Director in Baker 's absence , ordered production halted . Dies had been sent to the Denver and San Francisco mints in anticipation of beginning coinage there ; they were ordered not to begin work until the difficulties had been resolved . The Commission of Fine Arts was asked to advise what changes might solve the problems . Both Fraser and de Francisci were called to Philadelphia , and after repeated attempts to solve the problem without reducing the relief failed , de Francisci agreed to modify his design to reduce the relief . The plaster models he prepared were reduced to coin size using the Mint 's Janvier reducing lathe . However , even after 15 years of possessing the pantograph @-@ like device , the Mint had no expert in its use on its staff , and , according to Burdette , " [ h ] ad a technician from Tiffany 's or Medallic Art [ Company ] been called in , the 1922 low relief coins might have turned out noticeably better than they did " .
Approximately 32 @,@ 400 coins on which Morgan had tried to keep a higher relief were struck in January 1922 . While all were believed to have been melted , one circulated example has surfaced . Also , high relief 1922 proof dollars occasionally appear on the market and it is believed that about six to 10 of them exist . The new low @-@ relief coins , which Fraser accepted on behalf of the Commission , though under protest , were given limited production runs in Philadelphia in early February . When the results proved satisfactory , San Francisco began striking its first Peace dollars using the low @-@ relief design on February 13 , with Denver initiating production on February 21 , and Philadelphia on February 23 . The three mints together struck over 84 million pieces in 1922 .
The 1926 Peace dollar , from all mints , has on the obverse the word " God " , slightly boldened . The Peace dollar 's lettering tended to strike indistinctly , and Burdette suggests that the new chief engraver , John R. Sinnock ( who succeeded Morgan after his 1925 death ) , may have begun work in the middle of the motto " In God We Trust " , and for reasons unknown , only the one word was boldened . No Mint records discuss the matter , which was not discovered until 1999 .
The Peace dollar circulated mainly in the Western United States , where coins were preferred over paper money , and saw little circulation elsewhere . Aside from this use , the coins were retained in vaults as part of bank reserves . They would commonly be obtained from banks as Christmas presents , with most deposited again in January . With the last of the Pittman Act silver struck into coins in 1928 , the Mint ceased production of Peace dollars .
Production resumed in 1934 , due to another congressional act ; this one requiring the Mint to purchase large quantities of domestic silver , a commodity whose price was at a historic low . This Act assured producers of a ready market for their product , with the Mint gaining a large profit in seigniorage , through monetizing cheaply purchased silver — the Mint in fact paid for some shipments of silver bullion in silver dollars . Pursuant to this authorization , over seven million silver Peace dollars were struck in 1934 and 1935 . Mint officials gave consideration to striking 1936 silver dollars , and in fact prepared working dies , but as there was no commercial demand for them , none were actually struck . With Mint Chief Engraver Sinnock thinking it unlikely that there would be future demand for the denomination , the master dies were ordered destroyed in January 1937 .
= = Striking of 1964 @-@ D dollars = =
On August 3 , 1964 , Congress passed legislation providing for the striking of 45 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 silver dollars . Coins , including the silver dollar , had become scarce due to hoarding as the price of silver rose past the point at which a silver dollar was worth more as bullion than as currency . The new pieces were intended to be used at Nevada casinos and elsewhere in the West where " hard money " was popular . Many in the numismatic press complained that the issue would only satisfy a small special interest , and would do nothing to alleviate the general coin shortage . Much of the pressure for the coins to be struck was being applied by the Senate Majority Leader , Mike Mansfield ( Democrat – Montana ) , who represented a state that heavily used silver dollars . Preparations for the striking proceeded at a reluctant Mint Bureau . Some working dies had survived Sinnock 's 1937 destruction order , but were found to be in poor condition , and Mint Assistant Engraver ( later Chief Engraver ) Frank Gasparro was authorized to produce new ones . Mint officials had also considered using Morgan 's design ; this idea was dropped and Gasparro replicated the Peace dollar dies . The reverse dies all bore Denver mintmarks ; as the coins were slated for circulation in the West , it was deemed logical to strike them nearby .
In early 1965 , Treasury Secretary C. Douglas Dillon wrote to President Lyndon Johnson , opposing the coin issue and pointing out that the pieces would be unlikely to circulate in Montana or anywhere else ; they would simply be hoarded . Nevertheless , Dillon concluded that as Senator Mansfield insisted , the coins would have to be struck . Dillon resigned on April 1 ; his successor , Henry H. Fowler , was immediately questioned by Mansfield about the dollars , and he assured the senator that things would be worked out to his satisfaction . Mint Director Eva Adams hoped to avoid striking the silver dollars , but wanted to keep the $ 600 @,@ 000 appropriated for that expense . Senator Mansfield refused to consider any cancellation or delay and on May 12 , 1965 , the Denver Mint began trial strikes of the 1964 @-@ D Peace dollar — the Mint had obtained congressional authorization to continue striking 1964 @-@ dated coins into 1965 .
The new pieces were publicly announced on May 15 , 1965 , and coin dealers immediately offered $ 7 @.@ 50 each for them , ensuring that they would not circulate . The public announcement prompted a storm of objections . Both the public and many congressmen saw the issue as a poor use of Mint resources at a time of severe coin shortages , which would only benefit coin dealers . On May 24 , one day before a hastily called congressional hearing , Adams announced that the pieces were deemed trial strikes , never intended for circulation . The Mint later stated that 316 @,@ 076 pieces had been struck ; all were reported melted amid heavy security . To ensure that there would be no repetition , Congress inserted a provision in the Coinage Act of 1965 forbidding the coinage of silver dollars for five years . No 1964 @-@ D Peace dollars are known to exist in either public or private hands . Two specimens were discovered in a Treasury vault in 1970 and were destroyed , but rumors and speculation about others in illegal private possession continue to appear . The issue has also been privately restruck using unofficial dies and genuine , earlier @-@ date Peace dollars resulting in an altered date .
Some Peace dollars using a base metal composition were struck as experimental pieces in 1970 in anticipation of the approval of the Eisenhower dollar ; they are all presumed destroyed . This new dollar coin was approved by an act signed by President Richard Nixon on December 31 , 1970 , with the obverse to depict President Dwight D. Eisenhower , who had died in March , 1969 . Circulating Eisenhower dollars contained no precious metal , though some for collectors were struck in 40 % silver .
= = Mintage figures = =
None of the Peace dollar mintages are particularly rare , and A Guide Book of United States Coins ( or Red Book ) lists low @-@ grade circulated specimens for most years for little more than the coin 's bullion value . Two exceptions are the first year of issue 1921 Peace dollar , minted only at the Philadelphia mint and issued in high relief , and the low @-@ mintage 1928 @-@ P Peace dollar . The prices for the 1928 @-@ P dollar are much lower than its mintage of 360 @,@ 649 would suggest , because the U.S. mint announced that limited quantities would be produced and many were saved . In contrast the 1934 @-@ S dollar was not saved in great numbers so that prices for circulated specimens are fairly inexpensive but mid @-@ grade uncirculated specimens can cost thousands of dollars .
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= All the Way ( Eddie Vedder song ) =
" All the Way " ( also known as " ( Someday We 'll Go ) All the Way " and referred to as " Go All the Way " ) is a song written and performed by Evanston , Illinois native and Pearl Jam vocalist Eddie Vedder about the Chicago Cubs . It was first performed in public on August 2 , 2007 , recorded on August 21 , 2008 and August 22 , 2008 , and released as a single on September 18 , 2008 .
The Cubs franchise last won the World Series in 1908 , and Vedder has been a lifelong Cubs fan . The song , which fondly looks forward to the Cubs ' next World Series victory , was written with the encouragement of certain Chicago Cubs , most notably Ernie Banks . The song was first performed in Chicago and was recorded over two nights in 2008 at the end Vedder 's first solo tour .
= = Origin and recording = =
Although Pearl Jam vocalist Eddie Vedder , who was raised in Evanston , Illinois and later San Diego County , California , is closely associated with Seattle grunge music , he has been a lifelong Chicago Cubs fan . He has performed the song " Take Me Out to the Ball Game " during the seventh @-@ inning stretch at several Cubs games and thrown out the ceremonial first pitch at Wrigley Field . His first seventh @-@ inning stretch performance had been on Independence Day ( July 4 ) 1998 .
Vedder has attended the Cubs fantasy camp for several years . While attending the camp one year , former Cubs shortstop and first baseman Ernie Banks requested that Vedder write a song about the Cubs . Vedder wrote " All the Way " the night before the camp started and first performed it at Pearl Jam 's August 2 , 2007 concert at The Vic Theatre in Chicago with Cubs pitcher Kerry Wood and other Cubs players in attendance . On August 3 , 2007 , one day after " All the Way " was premiered live , Vedder performed " Take Me Out to the Ball Game " during the seventh @-@ inning stretch at Wrigley Field for the fourth time and threw out the first pitch for the first time . Vedder 's band , Pearl Jam , was in Chicago that week to perform at Lollapalooza , where the band was the headlining act for the three @-@ day festival that ended on August 5 , 2007 .
The version of " All the Way " heard on the commercial single release is mixed from recordings of the August 21 , 2008 and August 22 , 2008 solo performances of the song by Vedder at the Auditorium Theatre in Chicago . Vedder performed at the Auditorium Theatre on August 21 and August 22 , 2008 on a three @-@ week extension of his solo tour that began in Boston , Massachusetts at the Boston Opera House ( 1980 ) and ended in Chicago . The solo tour had originally begun in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada at The Centre on April 2 , 2008 . This tour was Vedder 's first solo tour .
= = Lyrics = =
The 3 : 39 song is in the folk music genre , and it is perceived as a sing @-@ along sea chantey or drinking song . The lyrics to the song include lines such as " Our heroes wear pinstripes / Pinstripes in blue / Give us a chance to feel like heroes , too . " The song makes references to Ernie Banks , Wrigley Field , and a specific reference to Banks ' catch phrase of " Let 's play two ! " The refrain includes the phrase " Someday we 'll go all the way , Yeah , someday we 'll go all the way , " which anticipates the day the Cubs win the World Series , gives the song its name .
= = Release and reception = =
On September 18 , 2008 , " All the Way " was made available for digital download via Pearl Jam 's official website for US $ 0 @.@ 99 . On approximately September 30 , 2008 , a CD single version was made available for purchase at select stores in the Chicago area . A souvenir 45 single format version is also a possibility . The digital download and CD single have been released with an associated single cover art image that is a modified version of the Wrigley Field outfield wall .
Philip K. Wrigley had employee Bill Veeck , Jr. add ivy to the outfield walls of Wrigley Field in September 1937 . Wrigley Field is the home stadium for the Chicago Cubs , and its wall is well known for being covered in ivy except for a few select places where signs are present as well as doors to locker rooms and such . The brick is visible under the ivy at the stadium in locations where the signs designate the distance from the wall to home plate measured in feet . The cover art image replaces the distance with the words " All the Way " .
By the time of the single release , local Chicago radio stations and sports bars had begun to play the song in anticipation of the 2008 Cubs ' playoff run . The song is considered to be an earnest tribute to the Cubs . According to at least one source , the song is reminiscent of " A Hard Rain 's a @-@ Gonna Fall " by American singer @-@ songwriter Bob Dylan and much less upbeat than the song " Go , Cubs , Go " by American folk music singer @-@ songwriter Steve Goodman . The Huffington Post encourages listeners to compare the song to Goodman 's " Go , Cubs , Go " . Another source compares the song to American country @-@ folk singer @-@ songwriter John Prine 's 1974 song " Dear Abby " in terms of melody and cadence as well as the theme of Goodman 's " A Dying Cubs Fan ’ s Last Request " .
At The Smashing Pumpkins ' November 20 , 2008 concert at the Chicago Theatre , frontman Billy Corgan criticized Vedder and the song . Corgan stated , " If the Cubs did have a chance this last year that just passed , fuckin ’ Eddie Vedder killed that shit dead . Last I checked Eddie ain ’ t living here , okay ? Eddie ain ’ t living here to write a song about my fuckin ’ team . "
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= Dr. Mario =
Dr. Mario ( Japanese : ドクターマリオ , Hepburn : Dokutā Mario , often stylized as D ℞ . Mario ) is a 1990 Mario arcade @-@ style action puzzle video game designed by Gunpei Yokoi and produced by Takahiro Harada . Nintendo developed and published the game for the Nintendo Entertainment System and Game Boy consoles . The game 's soundtrack was composed by Hirokazu Tanaka .
The game focuses on the player character Mario , who assumes the role of a doctor and is tasked with eradicating deadly viruses . In this falling block puzzle game , the player 's objective is to destroy the viruses populating the on @-@ screen playing field by using colored capsules that are dropped into the field . The player manipulates the capsules as they fall so that they are aligned with viruses of matching colors , which removes them from play . The player progresses through the game by eliminating all the viruses on the screen in each level .
Dr. Mario received positive reception , appearing on several " Best Nintendo Games of All Time " lists . The game has been ported , remade , or has had a sequel on every Nintendo home console since the NES as well as most portable consoles , including a re @-@ release in 2004 on the Game Boy Advance as part of the Classic NES Series . Modified versions of Dr. Mario exist as minigames in WarioWare , Inc . : Mega Microgames ! , Brain Age 2 : More Training in Minutes a Day ! , and Brain Age : Concentration Training .
= = Gameplay = =
Dr. Mario is a falling block tile @-@ matching video game , in which Mario assumes the role of a doctor , dropping two @-@ colored medical capsules into a medicine bottle representing the playing field . This area is populated by viruses of three colors : red , yellow , and blue . In a manner and style considered similar to Tetris , the player manipulates each capsule as it falls , moving it left or right and rotating it such that it is positioned alongside the viruses and any existing capsules . When four or more capsule halves or viruses of matching color are aligned in vertical or horizontal configurations , they are removed from play . The main objective is to complete levels , which is accomplished by eliminating all viruses from the playing field . A game over occurs if capsules fill up the playing field in a way that obstructs the bottle 's narrow neck .
Players can select the degree of starting difficulty any time a new game is started . The initial level chosen is a value between zero and twenty that determines the number of viruses to clear , and the three game speed options change how fast the capsules fall in the bottle . The player 's score is based solely on the elimination of viruses , not on the time taken to complete the level or the number of capsules used . If players complete the highest difficulty level , they can continue playing to accumulate a higher score , but the number of viruses to clear remains the same . Additional points are awarded when multiple viruses are eliminated at once , but no additional points are awarded for initiating chain reactions , in which the elimination of one set of objects triggers the elimination of another set . The game speed is also a factor in how the game calculates scoring ; higher speed levels yield more points .
Dr. Mario offers a multiplayer gaming mode in which two players compete against each other in separate playing fields . In this mode , the player 's goal is to clear their own playing field of viruses before the other player does . Eliminating multiple viruses or initiating chain reactions can cause additional capsules to fall onto the opponent 's playing field . A player wins a single game upon eliminating all the viruses or if the other playing field fills up . The first player to win three games wins overall .
= = Development and releases = =
Dr. Mario was designed by Gunpei Yokoi , creator of the Game Boy and Game & Watch handheld systems , and produced by Takahiro Harada , who also acted as producer of the Metroid series . The game 's music , later re @-@ used and arranged in games such as Super Smash Bros. Melee , was composed by Hirokazu Tanaka , who later became president of Creatures Inc . , an affiliate of Nintendo that owns one @-@ third of the copyright regarding the Pokémon franchise .
= = = Re @-@ releases = = =
Dr. Mario spawned a number of remakes and ports that were released on various Nintendo consoles . The original version 's multiplayer portion was ported to two Nintendo arcade systems in 1990 : the Nintendo Vs . System ( under the title Vs . Dr. Mario ) and the PlayChoice @-@ 10 .
An enhanced remake of Dr. Mario was paired with Tetris in the Super Nintendo Entertainment System compilation game Tetris & Dr. Mario , released on 30 December 1994 . This version of Dr. Mario was re @-@ released in Japan on 30 March 1997 , as a downloadable title for the Super Famicom 's Satellaview peripheral , under the name Dr. Mario BS Version ( Dr.マリオBS版 , Dokutā Mario Bī Esu Ban ) . It was re @-@ released again in Japan as a downloadable game for the Super Famicom 's and Game Boy 's Nintendo Power cartridges .
The NES version was ported twice to the Game Boy Advance : first in 2004 as one of thirty games in the Classic NES Series ( known as the Famicom Mini Series in Japan ) , then bundled with a version of the Puzzle League series in 2005 under the title Dr. Mario & Puzzle League , this time with updated graphics and new music to choose from . On 20 May 2003 , Nintendo released the " Nintendo GameCube Preview Disc " for the Nintendo GameCube , which allows players to download the NES version of Dr. Mario to their Game Boy Advance consoles using the Nintendo GameCube – Game Boy Advance link cable .
The original Game Boy version was made available on the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console in 2011 and 2012 . The NES version was released on the Wii U Virtual Console in 2014 .
= = Reception = =
Dr. Mario and its re @-@ releases received generally positive reviews , although some parents were critical of its premise due to its inclusion of medicine in a children 's game . One notably negative review , by ACE , scored the Game Boy version 510 / 1000 . It criticized the game 's uninspiring graphics and repetitive play . The review also said the game " reeks of plagiarism " , stating it is worse than the original games it is modeled after .
Reviewing the NES version , Allgame praised it , stating that on its release , " when puzzle games were flooding the market , Dr. Mario stands out as one of the best , combining a smooth learning curve , playful graphics and memorable tunes " and " fundamental concepts may be simple , but the addictive gameplay becomes progressively more complex as the speed increases and additional viruses are added . "
GamePro gave the Tetris & Dr. Mario compilation a rave review . They praised the Mixed Match mode and the SNES enhanced graphics and sounds , and concluded " Sharp controls and absorbing action are what make these two classics even better as a pair than they were alone . " Next Generation , in contrast , said the compilation was only significant for being the first appearance of Tetris on the SNES , summarizing that " Yeah , it 's great , but chances are you own a copy of one or both of these games already . " They did , however , praise Nintendo for having the " cajones " to package their Tetris @-@ inspired game with Tetris itself .
Dr. Mario was rated the 134th best game released on a Nintendo system in Nintendo Power 's Top 200 Games list , by ScrewAttack as the seventh best Mario game of all time , and by IGN as the 51st best NES game of all time . IGN also rated the game 's soundtrack , composed by Hirokazu Tanaka , as seventh in its list of the top ten greatest 8 @-@ Bit soundtracks . GamesRadar ranked it the 13th best NES game ever made . The staff called it " one of the most celebrated of the [ puzzle ] genre . " Game Informer 's Ben Reeves called it the seventh best Game Boy game .
The Game Boy Advance re @-@ release as part of the Classic NES series holds a rating of 66 % on Metacritic based on 10 reviews . Most reviews pointed out the game 's addictiveness and praise the addition of wireless multiplayer , but some questioned the relevance of the game 's re @-@ release as a standalone title . Eurogamer said the game was " still as playable , addictive and maddening as it was back in 1990 " but criticized Nintendo for re @-@ releasing classic games as standalone titles in the Classic NES Series instead of as a compilation , like Atari 's Atari Anthology or Midway 's Midway Arcade Treasures . Craig Harris , in his review for IGN , sarcastically expressed unease over the game 's use of medicine . He enjoyed the addictive gameplay , but criticized the black @-@ and @-@ white manual which made it difficult to understand the color @-@ based gameplay mechanics . While 1UP.com noted that the game 's " color @-@ matching action is more engrossing than Mario Bros. ' turtle @-@ punching platform hopping " , the reviewer strongly questioned whether this re @-@ release is worth its sale price by itself when a version of Dr. Mario was included in another Game Boy Advance game , WarioWare , Inc . : Mega Microgames ! .
= = = Legacy = = =
Following the commercial success of this game , Nintendo released several follow @-@ up titles in the Dr. Mario series . Dr. Mario 64 , released in 2001 for the Nintendo 64 , features Wario and several Wario Land 3 characters , and offers numerous game modes , including a story @-@ focused single @-@ player mode . The game also supports simultaneous multiplayer for up to four players at once . Dr. Mario 64 was subsequently released in Japan in the compilation game Nintendo Puzzle Collection on the Nintendo GameCube . Dr. Mario Online Rx , released in 2008 on WiiWare , offers online multiplayer via Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection . Dr. Mario Express , released in 2009 for the Nintendo DSi , does not support multiplayer gameplay . Dr. Luigi , released in 2013 , features Luigi as a playable character and has all the modes in Dr. Mario Online Rx , as well as a new mode with L @-@ shaped capsules . The latest installment , Dr. Mario : Miracle Cure , was released 2015 and introduced power @-@ ups to the series .
The character of Dr. Mario appears as an unlockable playable character in the 2001 fighting game Super Smash Bros. Melee , where he attacks by throwing capsules known as " Megavitamins " . There are two ways to unlock Dr. Mario as a playable character , either by completing Classic , Adventure or All @-@ Star mode with Mario ( using no continues ) or by completing 100 melee battles . The game 's sequel , Super Smash Bros. Brawl , does not feature Dr. Mario as a playable character , but it includes the Melee remix of Dr. Mario 's " Fever " background music theme and a version of the " Chill " theme music arranged by Masaaki Iwasaki , who had previously composed for Magical Drop as part of the Data East Sound Team . Dr. Mario characters also appear in the game as collectible stickers . Dr. Mario would later return as an unlockable playable character in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U.
A version of the game called Dr. Wario , which replaces Mario with Wario , is included as an unlockable minigame in WarioWare , Inc . : Mega Microgames ! . A simplified version of Dr. Mario also appears in Brain Age 2 : More Training in Minutes a Day ! as a minigame called " Virus Buster " , which is played by using the system 's touch screen to drag the capsules around the playing field .
The viruses appear as enemies in Mario & Luigi : Superstar Saga and Mario & Luigi : Dream Team . In that game , they change colors every time they are attacked , and they are all defeated when they are all the same color , in a similar fashion to how they are defeated by the same color of the capsules in Dr. Mario .
The characters of Dr. Mario and the viruses appeared in print media numerous times : Valiant published a volume of Nintendo Comics System 's entitled The Doctor Is In ... Over His Head , Dr. Mario also makes a brief appearance in the first volume of Super Mario @-@ Kun , and the viruses also appear at the end of Super Mario Adventures .
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= Weather front =
A weather front is a boundary separating two masses of air of different densities , and is the principal cause of meteorological phenomena . In surface weather analyses , fronts are depicted using various colored triangles and half @-@ circles , depending on the type of front . The air masses separated by a front usually differ in temperature and humidity . Cold fronts may feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather , and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines . Warm fronts are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog . The weather usually clears quickly after a front 's passage . Some fronts produce no precipitation and little cloudiness , although there is invariably a wind shift .
Cold fronts and occluded fronts generally move from west to east , while warm fronts move poleward . Because of the greater density of air in their wake , cold fronts and cold occlusions move faster than warm fronts and warm occlusions . Mountains and warm bodies of water can slow the movement of fronts . When a front becomes stationary , and the density contrast across the frontal boundary vanishes , the front can degenerate into a line which separates regions of differing wind velocity , known as a shearline . This is most common over the open ocean .
= = Bergeron classification of air masses = =
The Bergeron classification is the most widely accepted form of air mass classification . Air mass classification involves three letters . The first letter describes its moisture properties , with c used for continental air masses ( dry ) and m for maritime air masses ( moist ) . The second letter describes the thermal characteristic of its source region : T for tropical , P for polar , A for arctic or Antarctic , M for monsoon , E for equatorial , and S for superior air ( dry air formed by significant upward motion in the atmosphere ) . The third letter is used to designate the stability of the atmosphere . If the air mass is colder than the ground below it , it is labeled k . If the air mass is warmer than the ground below it , it is labeled w . Fronts separate air masses of different types or origins , and are located along troughs of lower pressure .
= = Surface weather analysis = =
A surface weather analysis is a special type of weather map which provides a view of weather elements over a geographical area at a specified time based on information from ground @-@ based weather stations . Weather maps are created by plotting or tracing the values of relevant quantities such as sea @-@ level pressure , temperature , and cloud cover onto a geographical map to help find synoptic scale features such as weather fronts . Surface weather analyses have special symbols which show frontal systems , cloud cover , precipitation , or other important information . For example , an H may represent high pressure , implying fair weather . An L on the other hand may represent low pressure , which frequently accompanies precipitation . Low pressure also creates surface winds deriving from high pressure zones . Various symbols are used not just for frontal zones and other surface boundaries on weather maps , but also to depict the present weather at various locations on the weather map . In addition , areas of precipitation help determine the frontal type and location .
= = Front types = =
There are two different words used within meteorology to describe weather around a frontal zone . The term " anafront " describes boundaries which show instability , meaning air rises rapidly along and over the boundary to cause significant weather changes . A " katafront " is weaker , bringing smaller changes in temperature and moisture , as well as limited rainfall .
= = = Cold front = = =
A cold front is located at the leading edge of the temperature drop off , which in an isotherm analysis shows up as the leading edge of the isotherm gradient , and it normally lies within a sharp surface trough . Cold fronts often bring heavy thunderstorms , rain and hail . Cold front can produce sharper changes in weather and move up to twice as quickly as warm fronts , since cold air is denser than warm air and rapidly replaces the warm air preceding the boundary . On weather maps , the surface position of the cold front is marked with the symbol of a blue line of triangle @-@ shaped pips pointing in the direction of travel , and it is placed at the leading edge of the cooler air mass . Cold fronts come in association with a low @-@ pressure area . The concept of colder , dense air " wedging " under the less dense warmer air is often used to depict how air is lifted along a frontal boundary . The cold air wedging underneath warmer air creates the strongest winds just above the ground surface , a phenomenon often associated with property @-@ damaging wind gusts . This lift would then form a narrow line of showers and thunderstorms if enough moisture were present . However , this concept isn 't an accurate description of the physical processes ; upward motion is not produced because of warm air " ramping up " cold , dense air , rather , frontogenetical circulation is behind the upward forcing .
= = = Warm front = = =
Warm fronts are at the leading edge of a homogeneous warm air mass , which is located on the equatorward edge of the gradient in isotherms , and lie within broader troughs of low pressure than cold fronts . A warm front moves more slowly than the cold front which usually follows because cold air is denser and harder to remove from the Earth 's surface . This also forces temperature differences across warm fronts to be broader in scale . Clouds ahead of the warm front are mostly stratiform , and rainfall gradually increases as the front approaches . Fog can also occur preceding a warm frontal passage . Clearing and warming is usually rapid after frontal passage . If the warm air mass is unstable , thunderstorms may be embedded among the stratiform clouds ahead of the front , and after frontal passage thundershowers may continue . On weather maps , the surface location of a warm front is marked with a red line of semicircles pointing in the direction of travel .
= = = Occluded front = = =
An occluded front is formed when a cold front overtakes a warm front. and usually form around mature low @-@ pressure areas . The cold and warm fronts curve naturally poleward into the point of occlusion , which is also known as the triple point . It lies within a sharp trough , but the air mass behind the boundary can be either warm or cold . In a cold occlusion , the air mass overtaking the warm front is cooler than the cool air ahead of the warm front and plows under both air masses . In a warm occlusion , the air mass overtaking the warm front is warmer than the cold air ahead of the warm front and rides over the colder air mass while lifting the warm air .
A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded front , with thunderstorms possible , but usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass . Within the occlusion of the front , a circulation of air brings warm air upward and sends drafts of cold air downward , or vice @-@ versa depending on the occlusion the front is experiencing . Precipitations and clouds are associated with the trowal , the projection on the Earth 's surface of the tongue of warm air aloft formed during the occlusion process of the depression .
Occluded fronts are indicated on a weather map by a purple line with alternating half @-@ circles and triangles pointing in direction of travel . The trowal is indicated by a series of blue and red junction lines .
= = = Stationary front = = =
A stationary front is a non @-@ moving ( or stalled ) boundary between two air masses , neither of which is strong enough to replace the other . They tend to remain essentially in the same area for extended periods of time , usually moving in waves . There is normally a broad temperature gradient behind the boundary with more widely spaced isotherm packing .
A wide variety of weather can be found along a stationary front , but usually clouds and prolonged precipitation are found there . Stationary fronts either dissipate after several days or devolve into shear lines , but they can transform into a cold or warm front if conditions aloft change . Stationary fronts are marked on weather maps with alternating red half @-@ circles and blue spikes pointing in opposite directions , indicating no significant movement .
When stationary fronts become smaller in scale , degenerating to a narrow zone where wind direction changes significantly over a relatively short distance , they become known as shearlines . A shearline is depicted as a line of red dots and dashes .
= = = Dry line = = =
A similar phenomenon to a weather front is the dry line , which is the boundary between air masses with significant moisture differences . When the westerlies increase on the north side of surface highs , areas of lowered pressure will form downwind of north – south oriented mountain chains , leading to the formation of a lee trough . Near the surface during daylight hours , warm moist air is denser than dry air of greater temperature , and thus the warm moist air wedges under the drier air like a cold front . At higher altitudes , the warm moist air is less dense than the dry air and the boundary slope reverses . In the vicinity of the reversal aloft , severe weather is possible , especially when a triple point is formed with a cold front . A weaker form of the dry line seen more commonly is the lee trough , which displays weaker differences in moisture . When moisture pools along the boundary during the warm season , it can be the focus of diurnal thunderstorms .
The dry line may occur anywhere on earth in regions intermediate between desert areas and warm seas . The southern plains west of the Mississippi River in the United States are a particularly favored location . The dry line normally moves eastward during the day and westward at night . A dry line is depicted on National Weather Service ( NWS ) surface analyses as an orange line with scallops facing into the moist sector . Dry lines are one of the few surface fronts where the pips indicated do not necessarily reflect the direction of motion .
= = = Squall line = = =
Organized areas of thunderstorm activity not only reinforce pre @-@ existing frontal zones , but can outrun cold fronts in a pattern where the upper level jet splits apart into two streams , with the resultant Mesoscale Convective System ( MCS ) forming at the point of the upper level split in the wind pattern running southeast into the warm sector parallel to low @-@ level thickness lines . When the convection is strong and linear or curved , the MCS is called a squall line , with the feature placed at the leading edge of the significant wind shift and pressure rise . Even weaker and less organized areas of thunderstorms lead to locally cooler air and higher pressures , and outflow boundaries exist ahead of this type of activity , which can act as foci for additional thunderstorm activity later in the day .
These features are often depicted in the warm season across the United States on surface analyses and lie within surface troughs . If outflow boundaries or squall lines form over arid regions , a haboob may result . Squall lines are depicted on NWS surface analyses as an alternating pattern of two red dots and a dash labelled SQLN or SQUALL LINE , while outflow boundaries are depicted as troughs with a label of OUTFLOW BOUNDARY .
= = Precipitation produced = =
Fronts are the principal cause of significant weather . Convective precipitation ( showers , thundershowers , and related unstable weather ) is caused by air being lifted and condensing into clouds by the movement of the cold front or cold occlusion under a mass of warmer , moist air . If the temperature differences of the two air masses involved are large and the turbulence is extreme because of wind shear and the presence of a strong jet stream , " roll clouds " and tornadoes may occur .
In the warm season , lee troughs , breezes , outflow boundaries and occlusions can lead to convection if enough moisture is available . Orographic precipitation is precipitation created through the lifting action of air moving over terrain such as mountains and hills , which is most common behind cold fronts that move into mountainous areas . It may sometimes occur in advance of warm fronts moving northward to the east of mountainous terrain . However , precipitation along warm fronts is relatively steady , as in rain or drizzle . Fog , sometimes extensive and dense , often occurs in pre @-@ warm @-@ frontal areas . Although , not all fronts produce precipitation or even clouds because moisture must be present in the air mass which is being lifted .
= = Movement = =
Fronts are generally guided by winds aloft , but do not move as quickly . Cold fronts and occluded fronts in the Northern Hemisphere usually travel from the northwest to southeast , while warm fronts move more poleward with time . In the Northern Hemisphere a warm front moves from southwest to northeast . In the Southern Hemisphere , the reverse is true ; a cold front usually moves from southwest to northeast , and a warm front moves from northwest to southeast . Movement is largely caused by the pressure gradient force ( horizontal differences in atmospheric pressure ) and the Coriolis effect , which is caused by Earth 's spinning about its axis . Frontal zones can be slowed down by geographic features like mountains and large bodies of warm water .
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= Faidherbe Bridge =
Faidherbe Bridge is a road bridge over the Sénégal River which links the island of the city of Saint @-@ Louis in Senegal to the African mainland . The metal bridge is 507 @.@ 35 metres ( 1 @,@ 664 @.@ 5 ft ) long and 10 @.@ 5 metres ( 34 ft ) wide , weighing 1 @,@ 500 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 500 long tons ; 1 @,@ 700 short tons ) . It has eight spans , of which the longest five are 78 @.@ 26 metres ( 256 @.@ 8 ft ) .
Until the 19th century , access to the island was made through boats . After the introduction of a ferry that could transport 150 passengers , Louis Faidherbe quickly saw that the system was clearly overrun and decided to construct the first bridge over the Sénégal River . The governor of Senegal , Henri de Lamothe decided to take a loan worth five million gold francs to construct a new metallic bridge in Saint @-@ Louis . After the construction company was selected , they all decided to construct a new metallic bridge with a section capable of turning 90 degrees to allow the passage of ships . The bridge was opened on July 14 , 1897 . In the 2000s , a US $ 27 million rehabilitation plan has been inaugurated .
= = The first bridge = =
The city of Saint @-@ Louis , the first capital of the French West Africa , is situated on an island near the estuary of the Sénégal River . It is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by a thin 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) strip of sand called the Langue de Barbarie , which starts from Nouadhibou in Mauritania and extends all the way to Saint @-@ Louis . The suburbs of Guet Ndar and Ndar @-@ Tout are situated in this area . Until the 19th century , access to the island was by boat . Troops , horses and the equipment of the French colonial army all had to be transported by small boats .
In 1858 , Louis Faidherbe , the governor of Senegal , inaugurated the Bouteville boat that was capable of transporting 150 passengers , animals and all kinds of goods . The boat made ten crosses every day and the fares differed : five centimes for a person , 50 centimes for a horse , cow or camel , and two francs for a carriage . In less than a year it was obvious that this system was overrun and a second boat was introduced but with no success .
Seeing this , the frigate captain Robin , friend of Louis Faidherbe , asked Prince Jérôme Napoléon , Minister of Algeria and the African Colonies , for approval for construction of a floating bridge . Opened on July 2 , 1865 , the bridge had a total length of 680 metres ( 2 @,@ 230 ft ) ( the floating part of the bridge had a length of 350 metres or 1 @,@ 150 feet ) and a width of 4 metres ( 13 ft ) . The floating part was formed from 40 metal pontoons which supported a wooden deck . Three of these pontoons were specially designed so that it could be created a 20 metres ( 66 ft ) gap so that large vessels could pass . The bridge was named Faidherbe Bridge by a decree of Napoleon III of France .
The opening in 1885 of the Saint @-@ Louis – Dakar railway increased the traffic over the bridge . The railway reached all the way to Sor and all the goods hauled between the coast and the railway station had to cross over the bridge . To prevent the breakdown of the bridge a special decree was given so that the maximum weight for a vehicle that crosses the bridge to be less than one and a half tonnes . With all its difficulties the bridge remained in service 32 years , until 1897 when it was dismantled .
= = Construction of a new bridge = =
In the opening of his speech in the General Council of Senegal , governor Henri de Lamothe proposed that the country should take a loan for infrastructure development . The council agreed on a loan worth five million gold francs , much of the money being for the construction of a metallic bridge between Saint @-@ Louis and Sor . The loan was approved on November 2 , 1892 , by the French president Marie François Sadi Carnot . A French bank , CDG , agreed to give the loan with a low interest of only four percent .
The auction was organised by the Ministry of Colonies , which sent five officers to Senegal for evaluation . After examining each one these offers the Faidherbe Bridge Committee selected two of them , from Nouguier , Kessler et Cie , and from Société de Construction de Levallois @-@ Perret ( owned by Gustave Eiffel ) . The Faidherbe Bridge Committee and the technical committee in Paris agreed that the Société de Construction de Levallois @-@ Perret project was the best for the site . On the other hand , the president of the public works in Senegal and councilman Jean @-@ Jacques Crespin supported the Nouguier , Kessler et Cie project . In the end the contract was awarded to Nouguier , Kessler et Cie at a price of 1 @.@ 88 million gold francs .
= = Link with King Carol I Bridge = =
There are many myths regarding the construction of the Faidherbe Bridge which are present even today and are depicted in some tourist guides . The construction of the bridge is attributed to Gustave Eiffel . In general it says that the metallic parts of the bridge represents a gift from the French government and that the parts were originally designed for the King Carol I Bridge over the Danube River in Romania . Other sources say that the metallic parts were intended for a bridge in Austria – Hungary over the Danube River in Vienna or Budapest . Finally another myth regarding the beams of the bridge says that the parts were intended for an unspecified site but the vessel transporting mysteriously sunk and the authorities in Senegal took advantage of this situation and built a local bridge .
The information available in Romania for the King Carol I Bridge in Cernavodă , as well as the results of scientists in France , say that the myths are pure fiction . First of all the Romanian government never finalised the construction contract with the company of Gustave Eiffel or with another foreign company , making the decision to build the bridge only with local companies . The Cernavodă Bridge was made entirely by Romanians , fulfilling the design of Anghel Saligny , which was also the supervisor of the site . In these conditions , not knowing if the contract will be approved , it is unlikely that a foreign company would build the whole superstructure of the bridge . On the other hand , in Austria – Hungary there was no need to construct a low bridge like the Faidherbe because of the trade routes on the Danube River .
= = Construction of the metallic bridge = =
The new bridge has a metal deck formed with riveted girders . The bridge has in total eight spans of which one span of 42 @.@ 95 metres ( 140 @.@ 9 ft ) , two spans of 36 @.@ 55 metres ( 119 @.@ 9 ft ) and five spans of 78 @.@ 26 metres ( 256 @.@ 8 ft ) . The total length of the bridge is 507 @.@ 35 metres ( 1 @,@ 664 @.@ 5 ft ) and the width is 10 @.@ 5 metres ( 34 ft ) . The total weight of the deck is 1 @,@ 500 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 500 long tons ; 1 @,@ 700 short tons ) . The second span from the city is mobile , being capable of turning 45 degrees to let small ships to cross .
= = Opening = =
A first opening of the bridge took place in the same day with the ceremonies for the national day on July 14 , 1897 , in the presence of governor Chabié . The ribbon for the access zone was cut by the governor 's wife , then the officials walked a short distance to the mobile deck , which was opened to allow the passage of the military ship L 'Ardent . 21 cannon shots were fired at dusk and dawn to commemorate the construction of the bridge and on that day there were organised ceremonies including horse races and donkey races . The second opening was on October 19 , 1897 , in the presence of André Lebon , the prime minister of the French colonies .
= = Modernisation and rehabilitation works = =
After more than 100 years since it was opened the bridge has suffered from corrosion and was in need of urgent repair . The rehabilitation works are co @-@ financed by the French Development Agency ( AFD ) and by the Government of Senegal . The total cost of the works was estimated to be US $ 27 million , of which US $ 17 million is from AFD and US $ 10 million is from the government .
The spans of the bridge were replaced between November 2008 and 23 July 2011 . The total work is expected to finish in mid @-@ August and inaugurated in October 2011 .
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= William Cooley =
William Cooley ( 1783 – 1863 ) was one of the first American settlers , and a regional leader , in what is now known as Broward County , in the US state of Florida . His family was killed by Seminoles in 1836 , during the Second Seminole War . The attack , known as the " New River Massacre " , caused immediate abandonment of the area by whites .
Cooley was born in Maryland , but little else is known about his life prior to 1813 , when he arrived in East Florida as part of a military expedition . He established himself as a farmer in the northern part of the territory before moving south , where he traded with local Indians and continued to farm . He sided with natives in a land dispute against a merchant who had received a large grant from the King of Spain and was evicting the Indians from their lands . Unhappy with the actions of the Spanish , he moved to the New River area in 1826 to get as far as possible from the Spanish influence .
In New River , Cooley sustained himself as a salvager and farmer , cultivating and milling arrowroot . His fortune and influence grew : he became the first lawman and judge in the settlement , besides being a land appraiser . Local Indians held him responsible for what they saw as a misjudgment involving the murder of one of their chiefs and attacked the settlement in revenge on January 4 , 1836 .
Cooley survived the attack and lived for a further twenty @-@ seven years . He held administrative positions in Dade County , moved to Tampa in 1837 , and had a short stint working for the U.S. Army as a guide and courier . He moved to the Homosassa River area in 1840 , where he became the first postmaster and was a Hernando County candidate for the Florida House of Representatives . Returning to Tampa in 1847 , he was one of the first city councilors , serving three terms before he died in 1863 .
= = Early life and arrival in East Florida = =
Cooley was born in Maryland in 1783 ; little else is known about him prior to 1813 . Cooley has been referred to as William Cooley Jr . , William Coolie , William Colee and William Cooly .
Cooley arrived in East Florida in 1813 , during a joint campaign of Tennessee and Georgia forces . Some sources give credit to the hypothesis that Cooley fought with the Tennessee Volunteers under Colonel John Williams ; other sources say he was a lieutenant in the Georgia Militia , fighting under Colonel Samuel Alexander from Georgia . Cooley acquired property in Girt 's Landing on the St. Marys River , close to where the military units crossed East Florida that same year . Later , he went to the west bank of the St. Johns River , settling in an area 30 miles ( 48 km ) south of modern Jacksonville .
Cooley later moved to Alligator Pond ( near present @-@ day Lake City , Florida ) , where he set up a farm and traded with the local Seminole tribe led by Chief Micanopy . The territory of East Florida was formally transferred from Spain to the United States in 1819 , under the Adams @-@ Onis Treaty . In 1820 , Spanish merchant Don Fernando de la Maza Arredondo began settlement of a 280 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 130 km2 ) claim in the Alachua territory , which had been granted to him by King Ferdinand VII of Spain . Cooley negotiated with Don Fernando on behalf of the displaced Indians but was unsuccessful . Cooley moved away in 1823 — possibly to escape the Spanish influence — to the north bank of the New River .
= = New River settlement = =
Like the other New River settlers , Cooley did not buy land ; he simply occupied the land in hope that the United States would eventually survey the area and grant ownership to the present settlers . The settlement was primarily populated by Bahamians , who survived by turtling , fishing , shipbuilding and wrecking .
In 1830 , Frankee Lewis , who in 1788 had been one of the area 's first settlers , sold her business interests to Richard Fitzpatrick . After Fitzpatrick 's arrival , the settlement of approximately 70 people prospered with the introduction of a plantation regimen based on black slavery .
Cooley 's main occupation was gathering , processing and shipping arrowroot , a starch made from the root of the coontie plant . Arrowroot was used to make bread dough , wafers and biscuits ; its resistance to spoilage made it especially favored for use on ships . Pulp remaining after processing was used as a fertilizer or for animal rations . Favorable conditions for arrowroot cultivation contributed to the presence of several hundred Indians in the area — arrowroot being a staple of their diet . The market price for the starch was between 8 ¢ ( US ) and 16 ¢ per pound ( between 17 ¢ and 35 ¢ per kg ) , and the geography of the river and the good performance of his machinery — the output was close to 450 lb ( 200 kg ) per day — brought Cooley great prosperity . His good fortune allowed him to dedicate much of his time to exploration of the area as far north as Lake Okeechobee and brought him increasing political influence . It is likely that he married Nancy Dayton , a former Indian captive , on December 2 , 1830 . Richard Fitzpatrick , by that time the owner of a successful plantation with coconut and lime trees , plantains , and sugarcane , pressed for the appointment of Cooley as Justice of the Peace in 1831 , making Cooley responsible for adjudicating disputes of persons and property , punishment of minor offenders by fines and whippings , and oversight of the activities of wreckers . Serious offenders were jailed in Key West . By that time , Cooley owned a schooner and took trips not only to take prisoners but to trade coontie , sugarcane , and tropical fruit with Cape Florida , Indian Key , Key West and Havana .
While trade and farming activities were prominent , wrecking was the most important economic activity in the settlement . Northern newspapers started a campaign against wrecking in 1832 , claiming that the activity was just a disguise for piracy ; the 33 percent salvager 's fee underscored their claim . Cooley , already in charge of overseeing wrecking , received a territorial appointment as appraiser of the sunk vessels and their cargoes . The strength of hurricane seasons affected the activity , and the especially active 1835 season brought even bigger profits .
By 1835 , Cooley had two sons and one daughter . The boys were named Almonock and Montezuma , after two local Indian chiefs . His ten @-@ year @-@ old daughter and his nine @-@ year @-@ old son were tutored by the couple Mary E. Rigby and Joseph Flinton .
Cooley was appointed as an appraiser of property and slaves for Union Bank of Florida . His ally , Richard Fitzpatrick , purchased his coontie and citrus plantation on the Miami River for $ 2 @,@ 500 . Subsequently , Fitzpatrick was elected as representative for Monroe County to the Territorial Legislative Council . The unanimous vote for Fitzpatrick in New River was questioned by the Key West Inquirer . Cooley 's conduct was implicitly questioned as well , since as Justice of the Peace , Cooley conducted the non @-@ secret balloting . In Key West , Fitzpatrick lost to William Hackley .
The Cooley property in New River had a house that was " twenty feet by fifty feet [ 6 by 15 m ] , one story high , built of cypress logs , sealed and floored with 1 @-@ 1 / 2 inch [ 4 cm ] planks " . At least three black slaves and several Indians cultivated sugar cane , corn , potatoes , pumpkins and other vegetables on the twenty @-@ acre ( eight @-@ hectare ) property , which also had a pen with eighty hogs . The coontie watermill was twenty @-@ seven by fourteen feet ( eight by four meters ) . His Key West holdings included a factory , two storage houses , kitchen and slave quarters ; coconut , lime and orange trees ; and domesticated and wild fowl .
= = New River Massacre = =
= = = Buildup = = =
Cooley maintained friendly relations and trade with the Seminole Indians in the area . In the early nineteenth century , Creek Indians had moved from Alabama and joined the Seminoles . In 1835 , white settlers killed Creek chief Alibama and burned his hut in a dispute . As Justice of the Peace , Cooley jailed the settlers , but they were released due to insufficient evidence after a hearing at the Monroe County Court in Key West . The Creek people blamed Cooley , saying he withheld evidence . The growing uneasiness between the Creeks and the whites led to the Creeks ' emigration to the Okeechobee area .
Major Francis L. Dade , military commandant at Key West , received intelligence that Cuba and Spain were arming the Indians ; investigations did not confirm the rumor . Reports coming from Fort Brooke , near present @-@ day Tampa , noted that Indians in the area were resisting orders from the federal government to emigrate to Mississippi , contradicting the assertions made by the federal authorities that the Indians had agreed to emigrate peacefully . Dade , two companies of soldiers , and all of the available arms were sent to Fort Brooke at Tampa Bay , the port designated for the commencement of the Indians ' emigration . The Indians answered by concentrating all of their forces in the New River region . On December 28 , 1835 , Dade and 107 soldiers were ambushed en route from Tampa Bay to Fort King , near present @-@ day Ocala . Only three soldiers survived ; the attackers lost only three men .
= = = Attack = = =
Six days later , Cooley led a large expedition to free the Gil Blas , a ship that had beached the previous year . The scale of the operation required all of the settlement 's able men . On the next day , January 4 , 1836 , the Indians attacked the settlement .
Between fifteen and twenty Indians invaded the Cooley house , overpowering the tutor and scalping him . Cooley 's wife grabbed their infant son and tried to run to the river , but was shot about 170 yards ( 155 m ) from the house . The shot killed her and the baby . Cooley 's nine @-@ year @-@ old son died from a fractured skull , and his daughter was shot . Two of Cooley 's black slaves disappeared .
The tutor 's son heard the screams by the river and came back to retrieve his mother and two younger sisters . He managed to escape , going south by boat to the Cape Florida Lighthouse . Along the way , he warned the people at Arch Creek and Miami River of the attack , prompting them to flee as well .
= = = Aftermath = = =
After the attack , the Indians torched the house and left without attacking other dwellings . The next day , Cooley came back to bury the dead ; it is unclear who alerted the salvager 's team to the attack . After staying at the settlement for three days , Cooley went to the Cape Florida Lighthouse . One of the missing slaves appeared , reporting that he recognized the assailants as having been acquaintances of the Cooley family . The slave had heard the Indians ascribing the massacre to an act of revenge for Cooley 's having failed to obtain the conviction of Chief Alibama 's murderers .
Cooley took charge of the lighthouse encampment . Richard Fitzpatrick sent sixty slaves from his Miami plantation to the lighthouse . Fearing more attacks and aware of the precarious safety of the lighthouse , the settlers and slaves boarded Cooley 's schooner and smaller boats and escaped to Indian Key , 100 miles ( 161 km ) north of Key West . Judge Marvin , a Key West justice , accused Seminole ( or Calusa , depending on the source ) chief Chakaika of leading the New River Settlement raiding group . This was not proved , but it is known that Chakaika was an important leader who coordinated the devastating attack on Indian Key in 1840 .
When Cooley arrived at Indian Key , he was informed that Indians had attempted to acquire arms and munition but had been repelled by the garrison in the island 's fort . Meanwhile , more than two hundred people from nearby sought refuge in the fort . Cannons were salvaged from the Gil Blas ; the ship was later burned to deny the Indians a chance to recover anything from it . Difficult sea conditions and fear of imminent attacks terrorized the islanders . Cooley asked for construction of forts at New River and Cape Sable , but news soon came from the Miami River reporting the total destruction of all white property , stalling all new initiatives .
Cooley went back to New River and discovered the Indians had returned to loot the settlement and had burned several other houses and plantations . A claim for restitution of his losses was denied in 1840 by the United States House of Representatives . Arriving at Key West on January 16 , 1836 , aboard the steamboat Champion , he was appointed temporary lighthouse keeper , staying until April of that year .
= = After New River = =
Cooley resumed his life as a wrecker . Later that same year , he worked again as justice of the peace and assumed a position as a legislatively @-@ appointed auctioneer .
Constant attacks and rumor @-@ spreading amplified the demands of Floridian community leaders , forcing the Navy to send Lieutenant Levin M. Powell to Key West . Lieutenant Powell built a small force of fifty seamen , ninety @-@ five marines , and eight officers , reinforced by two schooners and the United States Cutter Washington , commanded by Captain Day . Powell called Cooley to be his guide in the enterprise because of his knowledge of Indian leaders and customs . Powell had mixed success , although by December 1836 the situation was under control at the coasts . Cooley went back to his usual duties in Indian Key ( Dade County Seat ) ; not long after , he moved to Tampa but still worked occasionally as a guide .
General Thomas Jesup , headquartered in Fort Dade , made Cooley an express rider in early 1837 to deliver messages between Tampa Bay and Fort Heilman , a corridor of 170 miles ( 270 km ) . That same year , reports circulated that Cooley was spreading rumors about a Seminole chief leading a rebellion involving black slaves and Indians . Afraid that Cooley could be directly involved , the general had him interrogated . Afterwards , a disgusted Cooley resigned his position .
= = Politician = =
Cooley befriended Captain William Bunce , a retailer striving to keep Indians in the area , as they represented a source of cheap labor . He became involved again in local politics , this time against General Jesup , who wanted to remove all Indians from Florida . Judge Steele , a newcomer from Connecticut , was Cooley 's ally in this fight .
By 1840 , he lived in Leon County , Florida , with a single slave . Cooley was living near the Homosassa River , where the Armed Occupation Act of 1842 allowed the distribution of 160 @-@ acre ( 65 ha ) land grants . His leadership enabled him to get not only his own permit but permits for 28 other settlers . A lengthy correspondence with the General Land Office was eventually concluded satisfactorily for him and the other settlers . In 1843 , he was a candidate for a seat in the Florida House of Representatives for the newly created Hernando County , but he lost to James Gibbons . Two years later , he became the first postmaster in Homosassa and County Commissioner of Fisheries . He sold his land grant to Senator David Levy Yulee sequentially between 1846 and 1847 and moved back to Tampa .
From 1848 to 1860 , Cooley acquired several properties in the Tampa region , including one at Worth 's Harbor . By 1850 , he lived with seven slaves and was a Captain of the " Silver Grays " — a militia for the home defense of Tampa in the 1850s . He owned a general store in the city , eventually sold to a member of the Tampa Masonic Lodge . He was nominated Port Warden of Tampa in 1853 . By 1855 , Cooley had become a leader in local politics ; he was the chairman at a meeting of the Democratic Party in Tampa , with sixty @-@ five members enrolled , on August 4 , 1855 . He was brought in as an alternate councilman for two months in the first Tampa council , served a full @-@ year term beginning in February 1857 , and returned in 1861 for another full term . Cooley estimated his personal wealth at $ 10 @,@ 060 in 1860 .
= = Death and legacy = =
Cooley died in 1863 in Hillsborough County , Florida . His will was written in 1862 but recorded only after Cooley 's death , filed by Francis Matthews , who identified himself as his son @-@ in @-@ law . In the document , Cooley is referred to as William Cooly . Cooley left his estate to friends , charities , a woman called Fanny Anne listed as his daughter ( wife of Francis Matthews ) , and three grandsons and four granddaughters , but there is no evidence that they were his blood relatives . Colee Hammock Park in Fort Lauderdale is located near the site of his old home in the New River Settlement .
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= Arthur Sifton =
Arthur Lewis Watkins Sifton , PC ( UK ) , PC ( Can ) , KC ( October 26 , 1858 – January 21 , 1921 ) , was a Canadian politician who served as the second Premier of Alberta from 1910 until 1917 . He became a minister in the Government of Canada thereafter . Born in Ontario , he grew up there and in Winnipeg , where he became a lawyer . He subsequently practised law with his brother Clifford Sifton in Brandon , Manitoba , where he was also active in municipal politics . He moved west to Prince Albert in 1885 and to Calgary in 1889 . There he was elected to the 4th and 5th North @-@ West Legislative Assemblies ; he later served as a minister in the government of Premier Frederick W. A. G. Haultain . In 1903 , the federal government , at the instigation of his brother who was now one of its ministers , made Arthur Sifton the Chief Justice of the Northwest Territories . When Alberta was created out of a portion of the Northwest Territories in 1905 , Sifton became its first chief justice .
In 1910 , the government of Alberta Premier Alexander Cameron Rutherford was embroiled in the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway scandal . The Liberal Lieutenant @-@ Governor of Alberta , George Bulyea , determined that for the sake of the Liberal Party of Alberta , Rutherford had to be pushed aside in favour of a new Premier . When other prominent Liberals declined it , the position was offered to Sifton . As Premier , he smoothed over the divisions in the party that had caused and been exacerbated by the railway scandal . He made attempts to break with the Rutherford railway policy ; when these were rebuffed by the courts , he adopted a course similar to Rutherford 's . He unsuccessfully pursued the transfer of rights over Alberta 's natural resources from the federal government , which had retained them by the terms of Alberta 's provincehood .
While Sifton was Premier , the United Farmers of Alberta rose as a political force . Sifton tried to accommodate many of their demands : his government constructed agricultural colleges , incorporated a farmer @-@ run grain elevator cooperative , and implemented a municipal system of hail insurance . Outside of agriculture , the UFA was instrumental in the Sifton government 's implementation of some direct democracy measures ( which resulted in prohibition ) and the extension of the vote to women .
During the conscription crisis of 1917 , Sifton supported the Conservative Prime Minister , Robert Borden , in his attempt to impose conscription to help win the First World War . He backed the creation of a Union government composed of Conservatives and pro @-@ conscription Liberals . In 1917 he left provincial politics and became a minister in this government . Over the next three and a half years he served briefly in four different ministries and was a delegate to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 . He died in Ottawa in January 1921 after a brief illness .
= = Early life = =
Arthur Sifton was born October 26 , 1858 , in Arva , Ontario , to John Wright Sifton ( 1833 – 1912 ) and Catherine " Kate " Watkins ( 1832 – 1909 ) . He was the older brother of politician Clifford Sifton . He attended public schools across southern Ontario , culminating with a boys ' school in Dundas and high school in London . His father was a devout Methodist and a staunch Reformer and , later , Liberal . These allegiances permeated his home life ; the Sifton household was often visited by clergy , laity , businessmen , lawyers , and politicians . In 1874 or 1875 , John Sifton won contracts for preliminary construction work on the Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) and moved the family to Winnipeg , where Arthur completed high school at Wesley College . Following his graduation , he and Clifford attended Victoria College , then located in Cobourg , Ontario . In 1880 , he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts . While in Cobourg , he was not a devoted student : he skipped many classes , and was judged by his classmates to be " intellectually , morally , physically and erratically preeminent in virtue and otherwise , especially otherwise " .
Upon graduation , Arthur Sifton returned to Winnipeg to article with Albert Monkman until 1881 , when he followed his father to Brandon . John hoped to take advantage of a local real estate boom ; nominally , Arthur was running a Brandon branch of Monkman 's law firm , though he had not yet finished his articling and was accordingly unqualified to practise law . On September 20 , 1882 , he married Mary Deering of Cobourg ; the pair would have two children , Nellie Louise Sifton ( born August 1883 ) and Lewis Raymond St Clair Sifton ( born February 1898 ) . In 1883 , he wrote and passed his bar exam and joined Clifford 's Brandon law firm , now styled Sifton and Sifton .
University of Alberta historian David Hall describes the next phase of Sifton 's life as " shrouded in mystery " . For reasons that are not clear , in 1885 Sifton dissolved his partnership with his brother and moved his family to Prince Albert . ( Hall speculates that the brothers had a falling out , but notes that their later working relationship appears to have been amicable . ) In 1885 , Prince Albert 's prospects did not appear bright , as it had been bypassed by the CPR line . Regardless , Sifton practised law and was in 1885 made a notary public . Three years later , he earned a Master of Arts from Victoria College and a Bachelor of Laws from the University of Toronto . In 1889 , he relocated again , to Calgary ; there is some suggestion that this move was for the sake of his wife 's health . There he opened a law office , worked in the office of the city solicitor , and became a partner in the firm of Sifton , Short , and Stuart . At one point he was a crown prosecutor . In 1892 , he was appointed Queen 's Counsel .
= = = Early political career = = =
Sifton 's first foray into politics was in 1878 , when he campaigned for the introduction of prohibition under the auspices of the Canada Temperance Act in the Manitoba electoral districts of Lisgar and Marquette . His first bid for elected office took place in 1882 , when he was elected to Brandon 's first city council . He was re @-@ elected in 1883 , and did not seek re @-@ election at the conclusion of this second term , though he did briefly consider running for mayor before concluding that he had insufficient support to be elected . He also served on the local school board . When his brother Clifford became Wilfrid Laurier 's Minister of the Interior in November 1896 , Sifton advised him on Liberal Party affairs in western Canada . This advice included suggested patronage appointments , one of which was an unimplemented proposal that Arthur himself be appointed chief justice of the Northwest Territories ( a position that did not at the time exist ) . In 1898 , Sifton re @-@ entered politics — Hall speculates to increase his chances at a judgeship — by challenging Robert Brett , the long @-@ time Member of the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories for Banff , in the 1898 territorial election . Election day returns showed Sifton with a plurality of thirty @-@ six votes , but by the time contested ballots were dealt with this had turned into a majority of two votes for Brett . Sifton successfully challenged this result in court , and in the ensuing by @-@ election he defeated Brett by a comfortable margin . One oft @-@ repeated anecdote from the campaign involved a campaign forum for which Brett was late . After giving his own speech , Sifton offered to give the still @-@ absent Brett 's speech as well , since he had heard it so many times . He did so , and when Brett eventually arrived to give a speech nearly identical to the one Sifton had given on his behalf he was puzzled by the audience 's amusement .
Having defeated Brett , Sifton was immediately one of the area 's most prominent Liberals , and was named president of the District of Alberta Liberals shortly thereafter . In 1901 Clifford Sifton appointed James Hamilton Ross , Northwest Territories Treasurer and Minister of Public Works , Commissioner of Yukon . It fell to Northwest Territories Premier Frederick William Gordon Haultain to fill the ensuing vacancy and , to preserve the delicate non @-@ partisan balance of his administration , he had to pick a successor who was , like Ross , a Liberal . The role fell to Sifton . Soon after his appointment , Clifford offered him his sought @-@ after position of Northwest Territories Chief Justice ; Arthur declined on the basis of his recently assumed ministerial duties , but made it clear that he was still interested in receiving it eventually .
As minister , Sifton had to cope with increasing expenses and with grants from the federal government that did not keep pace . He dealt with this through support for territorial autonomy — the creation of one or more new provinces from the Northwest Territories . Campaigning on this position , he was re @-@ elected in the 1902 territorial election . Months later , however , T. H. Maguire retired as territorial chief justice , and this time Sifton accepted his brother 's offer of the position . He resigned his political offices in January 1903 .
= = = Career as a jurist = = =
Despite the accusations of nepotism that greeted his appointment on January 3 , 1903 , Sifton fast became a well @-@ respected judge . He served as chief justice of the Northwest Territories until September 16 , 1907 , when the Supreme Court of Alberta was established , whereupon he headed this new court , sitting in Calgary as the first Chief Justice of Alberta . He was notoriously difficult for barristers to read : he generally heard arguments expressionlessly smoking a cigar , and it was as a judge that he first acquired his long @-@ time nickname of the Sphinx for his inscrutability . In one trial , he sat apparently vigorously taking notes during both sides ' lengthy closing arguments and , once they concluded , immediately delivered his judgment . The bewildered lawyers wondered what he had been writing down , since he had obviously made up his mind before closing arguments ; once Sifton had left the courtroom , they found their answer in the form of page after page covered with the judge 's signature . He rarely recorded his ratio decidendi but , despite this , few of his decisions were overturned on appeal . It has also been argued that his fellow judges had difficulty ruling on appeals from his decisions specifically because he rarely provided reasons . Much of his work was in criminal law , dealing especially with theft of livestock ( in which cases he generally delivered a sentence of three years hard labour , severe by the standards of the day ) . By the end of his judicial career , he had convicted as many Americans as Canadians . His rulings were generally concerned with practicalities rather than legal theory , based more on social morality than legal precedent , and he did not establish any important precedents .
In 1907 , Sifton was one member of a three @-@ member commission assigned to investigate labour unrest between coal miners and mine operators . His colleagues were mining executive Lewis Stockett and miners ' union executive William Haysom . Miners ' demands included increased wages , a reduction in working hours to eight per day ( from ten ) , the posting of mine inspection reports , the isolated storage of explosives , the use of non @-@ freezing explosives , and semi @-@ monthly rather than monthly pay . The mine operators objected to this last point on the basis that many miners did not report to work the day after payday , and it was thus desirable to keep paydays to a minimum . The commission recommended that children under sixteen should not be allowed to work in mines , that inspectors should post their reports , that mine sites should have bath houses , and that ventilation inspection should be improved . It also recommended that Albertans keep a supply of coal on hand during the summer for winter use . The commission was silent on wages ( except to say that these should not be fixed by legislation ) , the operation of company stores ( a sore point among the miners ) , and the incorporation of mine unions ( which was recommended by mines but opposed by the unions ) . It made no recommendation about working hours , but Premier Alexander Rutherford 's government legislated an eight @-@ hour day anyway .
He resigned from the bench on May 25 , 1910 to become Premier .
= = Premier = =
= = = Ascension and cabinet @-@ building = = =
In 1910 , the Liberal government of Alexander Cameron Rutherford was embroiled in the Alberta and Great Waterways ( A & GW ) Railway scandal . Accusations of favouritism by the government towards the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway had split the Liberal Party , and Rutherford 's ability to remain at its head was in doubt . Lieutenant @-@ Governor George Bulyea , a Liberal who had reluctantly asked Rutherford to form a government in 1905 , saw his doubts about the Premier 's leadership skills validated and quietly began looking for candidates to replace him and save the Liberal Party . Several possibilities — including William Henry Cushing , Peter Talbot , and Frank Oliver — were considered and either rejected or found to be uninterested in the job . As early as March 14 , Bulyea had concluded that Sifton might be " the only permanent solution " , though it was not until May that the Lieutenant @-@ Governor was able to secure Rutherford 's agreement to resign and the agreement of both major factions in the Liberal caucus to accept Sifton as Premier . Even up until the last minute , Members of the Legislative Assembly ( MLAs ) loyal to Charles Wilson Cross — the province 's Attorney @-@ General and a staunch Rutherford ally — threatened to scuttle the arrangement unless Cross was kept on as attorney @-@ general , to which Sifton refused to agree . On May 26 , Rutherford resigned and Arthur Sifton became the second Premier of Alberta .
One of his first challenges was to craft a cabinet satisfactory to all factions ; this he did by excluding the leaders of all sides . He himself took the portfolios of Public Works and Provincial Treasurer . Charles R. Mitchell , who like Sifton had been a judge during the scandal and had accordingly played no part in it , became Minister of Education and Attorney @-@ General . Archibald J. McLean was named Provincial Secretary . His support for the insurgents ( though not as one of their leaders ) was offset by the continuation of Rutherford 's Agriculture Minister Duncan Marshall , who had played no particular role during the scandal but had remained loyal to Rutherford . To the consternation of the opposition Conservatives , Bulyea prorogued the legislation before this new government 's strength could be tested by a vote of confidence . Still , its acceptance by the Liberal caucus can be measured by the fact that only one member , Ezra Riley , resigned in protest . Riley objected to the exclusion from cabinet of insurgency leader W. H. Cushing ; after his resignation he ran as an independent Liberal in the ensuing by @-@ election , but was defeated by Sifton supporter Archibald J. McArthur . As time began to heal old wounds , Sifton expanded his cabinet to include several of the old adversaries : in February 1912 Cross was re @-@ instated as Attorney @-@ General and rebel leader John R. Boyle was made Minister of Education ( Mitchell , who had previously held both of these posts , was transferred to the Public Works portfolio ) . The other new additions to cabinet — Malcolm McKenzie as Provincial Treasurer and Charles Stewart in the new position of Minister of Municipal Affairs — had voted with the Rutherford government during the scandal .
Another early challenge for the new Premier was to win a seat in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta . Although he lived and worked in Calgary , his first cabinet was composed mostly of southern members ( McLean represented Lethbridge District , Marshall represented Olds , and Mitchell would soon be elected in Medicine Hat ) , so Sifton had Archibald Campbell resign his Vermilion seat and sought election there . Sifton made few promises during the campaign , though he did identify as his priorities " the development of [ Alberta 's ] agricultural and mining resources and the transportation facilities " . Despite accusations by the Conservatives that the Liberals bought " the foreign vote " with beer , whiskey , and tobacco , he won a comfortable majority .
= = = Railway policy = = =
Before resigning , Rutherford 's government had called a Royal Commission into the Alberta and Great Waterways affair , and this commission had not reported by the time that Sifton took office . Between that and the proroguing of the legislature , the new Premier enjoyed a calm that lasted until November 10 , when the legislature reconvened . Conservative leader Edward Michener attacked the government 's speech from the throne for failing to commit itself on railway policy and attacked Sifton for failing to call a general election or seek the confidence of the legislature during his first half year in office . In the meantime , Sifton was facing a breach in his own party on the railway question . Many Liberals from the south of the province , including Sifton himself , felt inclined to abandon the construction of " pioneer " railways ( such as the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway ) designed to hasten the settlement of the province 's emptier areas , and concentrate only on those connecting major population centres . Members from the north of the province , who comprised most of the Liberal caucus , disagreed , and were vehement in their insistence that the A & GW be built . Even among this latter group there were divisions : some Liberals agreed with the Conservatives that the railway should be directly built by the government , while others , including Cross , favoured a partnership with a " responsible company " . These divisions were not calmed by the release of the commission 's report , whose majority condemned Rutherford and Cross for poor judgment even as it concluded that there was insufficient evidence to find that they had engaged in improper behaviour .
It was against this backdrop that Sifton announced his government 's policy with respect to the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway Company . Because it had failed to meet its construction obligations , Sifton introduced legislation to confiscate the proceeds of the sale of government @-@ guaranteed bonds sold to finance the railway 's construction . He gave no indication of how the money , which was being held in trust by several banks , would be used . Cross 's faction of ( primarily northern ) Liberals opposed the bill on the grounds that it did not commit the government to using the money to construct the railway , while the Conservatives opposed it as an unjustified confiscation of private property . As Conservative R. B. Bennett said ,
[ The bill is ] an act of confiscation , an act such as never before has been carried out in the British Empire , an act such as has few equals in the pages of history . Similar acts have been carried out , once in Nicaragua and Virginia , and in South Carolina and only in times of war or revolution ... In my opinion the bargain was an improvident one , but that does not justify confiscation ... I did not think the new road would pay . But it is a new doctrine that because a bargain did not pay it should be repudiated and one should become a repudiator of bargains and a confiscator of private rights .
In speaking of A & GW President William Clarke ( an American ) , Bennett went on to say " Clarke I despise but Clarke I am bound to respect , because this province gave him a right by charter and if I know the United States I do not think it will allow this province to take his property without due process of the law . " The Conservatives , however , had not been expected to support the legislation ; the real question was whether Sifton could command enough support among Liberals to pass it . After all , during the Alberta and Great Waterways crisis only nine months earlier , a legislature of very similar makeup had endorsed the Rutherford government 's handling of railway policy by a vote of twenty @-@ three votes to fifteen ; would Sifton 's bill , effectively a repudiation of the Rutherford policy , convince enough Liberals to change sides ? The answer came in December , when the bill passed third reading by a vote of twenty @-@ five votes to fourteen . Nine Liberals had reversed themselves and saved Sifton 's government , though both Cross and Rutherford were among those to vote against it .
Despite calls from Clarke for the federal government to use its power of reservation to stop the legislation , Bulyea granted royal assent December 16 . Sifton , in his capacity as provincial treasurer , immediately tried to access the money ; the Royal , Dominion , and Union banks , where the funds were deposited , refused payment . Attorney @-@ General Mitchell sued the banks ; on November 4 , 1911 , Justice Charles Allen Stuart of the Supreme Court of Alberta found in the government 's favour . The Royal Bank appealed this ruling and unsuccessfully petitioned the federal government to use its powers of disallowance to strike down the provincial act . In the meantime , Sifton announced a new railway policy that would see eight new lines constructed by private companies with the assistance of provincial loan guarantees , including several pioneer lines ; this policy , in its resemblance to the Rutherford policy , met with the approval of the Cross faction , and the Liberals were once more united .
In 1912 , Justice Stuart 's ruling was upheld by the Supreme Court of Alberta en banc . Again the Royal Bank appealed , and on January 31 , 1913 , the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council , which was at the time Canada 's highest judicial authority , found for the Royal Bank , ruling that the provincial government did not have the right to confiscate money raised outside of the province . On September 22 Sifton announced new management of the AG & W agreeable to the bondholders , the government , and the banks . The Conservatives protested that other companies were prepared to construct the railroad for less than the sum agreed on with the A & GW , to which Sifton replied that the Privy Council 's ruling meant that the government could not use the money raised to deal with any other company . The Conservatives filibustered the legislation and moved a series of amendments ( including one calling for the scheme to be put to referendum ) , but the Liberals voted unanimously in its favour . The Alberta and Great Waterways saga had reached its end , and Sifton 's caucus was never more united .
= = = Natural resources = = =
When Alberta and Saskatchewan were made provinces in 1905 , the federal government retained control over their lands and natural resources , which made the new provinces unique in Canada . The Rutherford government acquiesced to this state of affairs ; because the terms of confederation had been drawn up by the Liberal government of Sir Wilfrid Laurier , it was natural for the provincial Liberal Party to cast itself as their defender . In this capacity , Rutherford pointed to the $ 375 @,@ 000 per year that the provincial government received from the federal government as compensation . In 1910 , however , Liberal MLA Alwyn Bramley @-@ Moore ( who was a staunch provincial rights advocate and who many years later would be called " Alberta 's first separatist " by the Edmonton Journal ) moved a resolution calling on the Sifton government to " take such steps as may be deemed necessary to acquire the control of all such natural resources as are of purely local concern " . Sifton responded that it was already the intention of his government to begin negotiations with the federal government to this end . He asserted " I have always believed ... that we should administer our mines and timber . The question is not now whether we would like to control our natural resources , but what is the best way to get them . "
Soon after , Sifton made a trip east and spoke on the subject of provincial resource control to the Canadian Club of Toronto , where his points were well received . In May 1910 , Sifton and Saskatchewan Premier Walter Scott met with Laurier in Ottawa , where he was able to secure the Prime Minister 's agreement that if the Liberals were re @-@ elected in the 1911 federal election they would transfer to Alberta control over its resources . This election was fought primarily on the issue of reciprocity , which was popular in Alberta , and Sifton campaigned actively for Laurier ( distinguishing himself from his brother , who broke with Laurier on reciprocity ) . Despite winning six of Alberta 's seven seats , the Liberals were defeated by Robert Borden 's Conservatives .
Initially , this did not appear to be a problem ; Borden had long called for the transfer of resource control to the prairie provinces , but when Sifton and Scott raised the issue with the new Prime Minister , little action resulted . Borden stalled for some time , and it emerged that he did not wish to buoy the fortunes of the provincial Liberal parties by giving them the political victory that would result from the transfer of resource control . Upon the outbreak of the First World War , the issue fell out of public prominence , and it was not until 1930 that Alberta would achieve this long @-@ time objective .
= = = Agricultural policy = = =
Sifton 's time as Premier corresponded with the rise of the United Farmers of Alberta ( UFA ) as a political force . Formed in 1909 by the merger of the Society of Equity and the Alberta Farmers ' Association , the UFA would later become a political party and govern Alberta from 1921 until 1935 . During Sifton 's tenure , however , its entry into direct politics was still several years away , and it confined itself to advocating for farmers ' interests . In a province in which 50 @,@ 004 people voted in the 1909 provincial election , the UFA claimed an initial membership of 2 @,@ 100 , which climbed to 9 @,@ 400 in 1913 . Moreover , these figures did not include the many farmers who were active in the organization without paying dues ; the UFA was a force to be reckoned with , and Sifton took notice .
The UFA 's first provincial victory took place in 1910 , and involved the construction of agricultural colleges . Premier Alexander Rutherford , always a stalwart ally of the University of Alberta , approved a plan to locate Alberta 's first agricultural college on the university 's campus , in Rutherford 's home town of Strathcona . At the 1910 UFA convention , a resolution proposed putting the college in southern Alberta , though it was supplanted by an Edward Michener motion calling for the UFA 's leadership to consult with the province on a mutually amenable location . After consultation with the UFA , Sifton agreed that , in addition to the college , agricultural schools would be built around the province , and that farmers would be guaranteed representation on the college 's board . In fact , Sifton held off on the establishment of the college all together in favour of the creation of seven demonstration farms in different regions of the province . In 1912 , the government announced the creation of agricultural colleges in connection with three of these farms ( all of them in the ridings of provincial cabinet ministers : Duncan Marshall 's Olds , Claresholm in Archibald McLean 's Lethbridge District , and Sifton 's Vermilion ) .
Another of the UFA 's policies called for a single tax on land to replace most other forms of taxation . The farmers hoped that this tax would help replace tariffs , which made it harder for them to export their produce , and shift the tax burden towards cities , where land values were higher . They also called for a surtax on undeveloped land to curb land speculation and encourage the sale of land to farmers . On this demand too , Sifton acted : in 1911 – 1912 he allowed municipalities to levy property taxes and required that rural municipalities tax only land , and in 1914 he imposed a provincial tax on undeveloped land to discourage land speculation . Other UFA @-@ motivated acts by Sifton 's government included abandonment of a 1912 plan to privatize hail insurance ( it instead enacted a municipal insurance scheme ) and the prohibition of contract clauses that allowed farm machinery companies to avoid responsibility for their products . Perhaps the most important piece of farm legislation passed by Sifton 's government was the incorporation of the Alberta Farmers ' Co @-@ operative Elevator Company ( AFCEC ) . Though the UFA 's first preference was for government ownership and operation of grain elevators , which Sifton refused , it gladly accepted the AFCEC , in which only farmers could hold shares and which was supported by provincial startup loans .
Hall writes that " the Sifton government in effect responded wholly or in part to practically every resolution from the 1913 UFA convention related to provincial powers . " This rate could not sustain itself , however , especially once the First World War began to occupy an increasing share of the province 's attention and resources . During the 1916 legislative session , the government acted on only two of the UFA 's twenty @-@ three demands of that year — one to allow the sale of gopher poison by UFA locals , and one dealing with brand inspection .
= = = Democratic and moral reform = = =
It was not only in agricultural policy that the UFA spread its influence . The organization had a strong progressive bent , and advocated direct democracy , women 's suffrage , and prohibition . In response to the first of these , Sifton in 1913 introduced the Direct Democracy Act . Though it went somewhat less far than the UFA would have liked — for example , it made no provision for recall of elected officials — it did allow for Albertans to call a referendum directly by submitting a petition including the names of eligible voters totalling ten percent of the votes cast in the previous provincial election , including at least eight percent in each of eighty @-@ five percent of the province 's ridings . The Conservatives were on record as supporting direct democracy , and could therefore criticize the bill only in detail .
The large number of signatures required ( beginning with the 1913 election , 9 @,@ 399 signatures were required ) meant that only an issue capable of galvanizing much of the province could lead to a referendum . Prohibition was such an issue . The Conservatives were advocates of such a referendum ( during the 1st Alberta Legislative Assembly , Conservative Cornelius Hiebert had advocated prohibition or , failing that , a government monopoly on alcohol sales ) , but Sifton and his Liberals were less enthusiastic . They knew the boon to government coffers that liquor sales represented , and were not eager to alienate either the UFA 's moral reformers or the province 's hoteliers and saloonkeepers . Once the referendum legislation was in place , however , its advocates wasted no time : in 1914 the legislature accepted a petition bearing 23 @,@ 656 names , and duly called a referendum on the subject . The Alberta prohibition referendum passed resoundingly , and the legislature passed the Prohibition Act in the spring of 1916 . Initially the new Act appeared successful : in 1917 there were 5 @,@ 151 convictions for all crimes across Alberta , as compared to an annual average of 12 @,@ 706 over the preceding four years . By the time the province 's enforcement of the act was exposed as being either deliberately lax or merely futile , depending on the observer , Sifton had left office .
Alberta 's women , especially those of the UFA @-@ affiliated United Farm Women of Alberta , were active in the province 's moral reform movement . They were also active in seeking the vote : in 1913 a delegation of them arrived at the legislature demanding the vote ; Sifton asked them " did you ladies wash up your luncheon dishes before you came down here to ask me for the vote ? If you haven 't you 'd better go home because you 're not going to get any votes from me . " In October 1914 another delegation arrived , bearing the signatures of 40 @,@ 000 people . At that time , the Premier agreed that most traditional objections to extension of the franchise were " played out " , but expressed concern at the increases that would result to the cost of elections and uncertainty at whether most of the province 's women actually wanted suffrage . In February 1915 a larger delegation arrived at the legislature and occupied the MLAs ' seats , demanding that the franchise be extended quickly enough to allow women to vote in the upcoming prohibition referendum ; an angry Sifton refused and suggested to the women that if they wanted the vote , they should contact their MLAs and promise that they would use their votes to re @-@ elect them , " which is after all one of the strongest way in which you can appeal to male human nature , as represented in the legislature . " Even so , he committed to raising the issue in the legislature after the referendum . On September 17 , 1915 , he told UFA President James Speakman that he had given instructions for the preparation of a statute " placing men and women in Alberta on the basis of absolute equality so far as Provincial matters are concerned . " True to his word , he introduced legislation in the spring of 1916 giving women the vote in all provincial and municipal elections . The Conservatives supported it enthusiastically , and only St. Albert MLA Lucien Boudreau voted against it ( though Ribstone Liberal James Gray Turgeon admitted that he was supporting his leader 's legislation against his own convictions ) .
= = = Style and political success = = =
Arthur Sifton 's political style was to remain aloof and detached , and to say no more than necessary ; this cemented his reputation as " the Sphinx " . He was authoritarian and , while he inspired respect , he was not loved ; historian L. G. Thomas credits him with holding the Liberal Party together through his strength , but blames him for failing to heal its underlying divisions . Sifton was originally selected as Premier in the hopes that he would lead the Liberal Party to continued dominance of provincial politics in Alberta . His success in this regard was mixed : although he led the party to victory in the 1913 and 1917 elections , its majorities declined each time . Moreover , his victories were marred by accusations of unethical electoral tactics .
In advance of the 1913 election , government @-@ sponsored redistribution legislation increased the number of ridings from 41 to 56 and left them of unequal size ; only 103 votes were cast in Clearwater in its first election . The Liberals argued that a model of straight representation by population was inappropriate in a province in which some districts were growing far more quickly than others . David Hall has called the bill a " flagrant gerrymander " and the ensuing election the " crookedest election in Alberta history " . There being few policy differences separating the Liberals from the Conservatives , the electoral battle was instead an organizational one , with the two sides accusing one another of bribing ethnic minorities with alcohol and importing elections workers from outside of the province to bribe , intimidate , and mislead rural voters . The Conservatives also accused the Liberals of using government @-@ paid civil servants to campaign for their re @-@ election . Sifton , not confident of victory in his own riding , sought election both there and in Macleod . In the event , he was defeated there but retained his Vermilion riding .
Since the 1917 election was held in the throes of the First World War , it was unlikely to be an election as usual — indeed , the Conservatives favoured prolonging the legislature until the end of the war . Sifton was not willing to go that far , but did introduce legislation to re @-@ elect , by act of the legislature , the twelve MLAs who had enlisted in the armed forces — of these , seven were Liberals and five Conservatives ; one of the Liberals , Joseph Stauffer of Disbury , was killed in action before the legislation took effect . The Conservatives supported this legislation , though they later cast aspersions on it by suggesting that of the Liberals re @-@ elected , two had never left Canada . A second piece of election legislation provided for two special MLAs to be elected by the 38 @,@ 000 Albertans serving overseas ; the Conservatives protested that two MLAs was not sufficient for such a large number of voters , especially since Clearwater by this time had only 116 eligible voters .
After a sedate election that the Liberals won by a slightly reduced majority , Sifton announced his resignation as Premier to enter federal politics . Sifton 's 1917 victory would be the Liberals ' last : his successor , Charles Stewart , would lose the 1921 election to the newly @-@ political UFA . In Thomas 's estimation , Sifton would have faced a similar fate in 1917 if the UFA had run candidates then .
= = Federal politics = =
The Conscription Crisis of 1917 divided the Liberal Party of Canada , and this division extended into the provincial camp . Federal Liberal leader Laurier opposed Prime Minister Borden 's proposal to implement wartime conscription , a stand which many Liberals , especially those outside Quebec , denounced as unpatriotic . Borden reached out to these Liberals to propose a coalition government , to be led by him and to include Conservatives and pro @-@ conscription Liberals . Clifford Sifton was a major broker of the resulting deal and , when the question of a suitable Alberta representative in the cabinet came up , Arthur Sifton was a natural choice . In 1914 , he had announced Alberta 's willingness to sacrifice " its last dollar and its last man " , and was a staunch supporter of conscription . He had agreed by August 1917 to join the Unionist government , and resigned as Premier in October .
Although he was only 58 at the time of joining government , his health was suffering . He was short of energy and required a car to transport him even the several hundred metres from his Ottawa residence to the Canadian House of Commons . Because of this , he was given relatively undemanding portfolios : Minister of Customs and Inland Revenue , Minister of Public Works , and Secretary of State . Hall has called him among the least visible of Borden 's ministers . Because of his health and his short tenure in each position , he made very little impact . Despite this , Sifton was highly regarded by his colleagues . Borden himself later stated " there was no one in whose judgment I placed firmer reliance " . Sifton was appointed to the Imperial Privy Council in the 1920 New Year Honours , entitling him to the style " The Right Honourable " .
Sifton was one of four Canadian delegates to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 , along with Borden , Charles Doherty , and George Eulas Foster . There , he acted as vice chair of the Commission on Ports , Waterways , and Railways , and served on the Commission on Aerial Navigation . In these capacities he argued for Canada to be treated as an independent state at a time when its foreign policy was still managed by the United Kingdom . On June 28 , 1919 , Arthur Sifton was one of two Canadians to sign the Treaty of Versailles .
= = Death and Legacy = =
In January 1921 , Sifton became ill and took leave from his duties for a few days . Although his recovery seemed imminent , his condition suddenly worsened . He died at his home on January 21 at the age of 62 . Borden mourned the loss of " a public servant of the highest ability and of the most conspicuous patriotism " . He was buried in Ottawa 's Beechwood Cemetery , Canada 's historic national cemetery , joined by his wife Mary Horseman Deering Sifton ( whom he had married in 1882 ) in 1939 .
His public papers are in the Canadian archives , with some legal papers in a legal collection in Alberta , and others mixed in with those of his brother Clifford .
= = Electoral record = =
= = = As party leader = = =
= = = As MLA = = =
= = = As MP = = =
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= Soccer kick =
A soccer kick , also known as a soccer ball kick in puroresu and shoot fighting , is a reference to a kick that is similar to kicks used in association football . It is the colloquial term for a kick performed against a prone , kneeling , rising or supine opponent by a fighter who is in a standing or semi @-@ standing position , to any part of a downed opponent . The soccer kick was used in the first match of the Ultimate Fighting Championship at UFC 1 in 1993 . Gerard Gordeau defeated Teila Tuli with a soccer kick , which also knocked out one of Tuli 's teeth . The technique is banned under the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts however other rulesets , including the ones used by Pride Fighting Championships do permit them . Soccer kicks have been regularly discussed as to potential damage . There has been a regular debate on the usage of them within MMA . Some MMA fans and fighters support them while a fight doctor and politicians have opposed them .
= = Description = =
A soccer kick is performed when a fighter is standing to the side or in front of an opponent on the ground and kicks the grounded opponent 's head . This is done in a style similar to an association football player kicking a football . Most practitioners aim to use their shins for the point of impact rather than the foot . While soccer kicks are usually delivered to the head , kicks to other parts of the body in a similar style are also referred to as soccer kicks .
= = In mixed martial arts = =
The soccer kick has been a source of controversy in mixed martial arts since Gerard Gordeau 's usage of one against Teila Tuli in UFC 1 . Dr. Johnny Benjamin stated his belief that soccer kicks could cause serious injury , based on the assumption that an MMA fighter would be able to generate the same amount of force in a soccer kick as a professional association football player . Some MMA fans argue that no @-@ one has ever been seriously injured from a soccer kick and stated that there were already equally dangerous moves allowed in MMA . Dr. Johnny Benjamin argued that soccer kicks could result in broken necks and paralysis if performed with the wrong positioning and high velocity .
In 2000 , the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts were written with the intention of making the sport of MMA appear more acceptable in a wider society . Under those rules , soccer kicks were explicitly banned and classed as a foul defined as " kicking the head of a grounded opponent " . It is noted that while soccer kicks to grounded opponents are fouls , axe kicks , downward strikes with the back of the heel , are not considered fouls if done to any part of a grounded opponent . In the years after the banning of soccer kicks under the Unified Rules , a number of fans and MMA fighters have argued for them to be permitted under the Unified Rules along with face and foot stomps . Their justification is that soccer kicks and foot stomps being disallowed hindered fighters who were used to using them under other MMA rule sets . Mauricio Rua , who mostly used soccer kicks to earn victories in Pride , argued that elbows caused more pain than soccer kicks and claimed that soccer kicks were safer than elbows . Rua also argued that elbows were more dangerous than soccer kicks and yet were allowed under the unified rules . Opponents of soccer kicks argued that they needed to be banned in order for the sport of MMA to move forward . They also argued that in the face of opposition to the sport from politicians such as John McCain , soccer kicks had to be banned in order to ensure that the sport was not viewed as illegal " human cockfighting " and could be sanctioned as legal in the United States by Athletic Commissions .
Although a soccer kick is a foul when delivered to the head in the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts which prevail in North America , the technique was commonly employed in Pride Fighting Championships in Japan . Fighters Wanderlei Silva and Mauricio Rua were notable practitioners of the soccer kick in MMA . Under the Unified Rules , some MMA fighters attempted to use tactics with the " kicking the head of a grounded opponent " rule , which defined a fighter as grounded if they had any part of their body apart from their feet on the ground . This meant that fighters , such as Jon Jones , would often try to provoke illegal soccer kicks by putting their hand on the ground or as a way to avoid strikes such as the soccer kick after a failed takedown . However , in 2013 , referees were encouraged to interpret the rules that if a fighter is deliberately intending to provoke an illegal soccer kick and one was used , then the referee could decide that it was a legal move .
There are still MMA organizations such as Singapore @-@ based ONE Fighting Championship that allow soccer kicks to the head of downed opponent . ONE Fighting Championship previously had an " open attack " rule , which required fighters to get permission from the referee to use soccer kicks . In 2012 , the company changed its rule set to the rules used by Pride Fighting Championship allowing fighters to use soccer kicks without asking for permission from the referee .
= = In professional wrestling = =
In professional wrestling , some wrestlers use the soccer kick is as a finishing move . A number of professional wrestlers prior to the 1980s professional wrestling boom were taught to use wrestling moves and strikes legitimately . This was due to the likelihood of attacks on the wrestlers from fans . This included the soccer kick , which former pro @-@ wrestler , CM Punk stated was the easiest tactic to use when a fan tried to get in the ring to confront a wrestler . High profile users of soccer kicks as a finishing move includes Katsuyori Shibata , and Randy Orton . In Japan within a 1977 puroresu match between Antonio Inoki and Great Antonio , Inoki started to shoot on Great Antonio after Great Antonio refused to sell Inoki 's offence . Inoki used a takedown on Great Antonio and then used soccer kicks to legitimately knock out Great Antonio .
= = In video games = =
In the 2010 video game , EA Sports MMA , soccer kicks were included in the game . In the 2012 video game UFC Undisputed 3 , soccer kicks are included in the game in the Pride mode . This mode was intended to replicate Pride Fighting Championships . This was different compared with the normal UFC mode which does not include soccer kicks due to UFC following the Unified Rules .
The soccer kick has also been used in professional wrestling video games . It was used in the 1999 Nintendo 64 game , WWF WrestleMania 2000 .
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= Viralheat =
Viralheat is a subscription @-@ based software service for social media management that helps clients monitor and analyze consumer @-@ created content . It was first released in beta in May 2009 . Viralheat raised $ 75 @,@ 000 in seed capital in December 2009 and $ 4 @.@ 25 million of venture capital from the Mayfield Fund in 2011 .
= = Features = =
Viralheat is a social media management tool with features for account management , monitoring , analytics and publishing . It tracks the number of mentions an individual or company receives on digital properties and analyzes factors such as influence , sentiment and language . The influence of a Twitter handle is measured based on followers , mentions , and retweets Sentiment is assessed as positive , negative or neutral . Viralheat 's Human Intent tool labels social media participants as leads if it assesses that they are likely to consider purchasing a corresponding product . The software 's analytics and monitoring can be filtered by location . Data from Viralheat can be exported into PDF files , Excel spreadsheets or onto a publicly available dashboard .
The service charges users based on how many accounts , mentions and profiles they use . A free version can manage up to seven social media accounts. and developer accounts are free . In August 2012 , the company claimed to have 6 @,@ 500 users , one @-@ third of which were using a paid version of the service .
Viralheat also publishes free application programming interfaces ( APIs ) and two extensions for the Chrome browser . One extension adds a bar to the top of Twitter.com that displays a sentiment analysis of the mentions displayed on the page . A box is added to each tweet showing its assessed sentiment , which can be changed manually . Another extension called " Flint " adds a share button on the browser that can share content being viewed on the browser from sites like Twitter , Facebook or LinkedIn .
= = History = =
Viralheat was co @-@ founded by Raj Kadam and Vishal Sankhla . The software was released in beta in May 2009 . That October location @-@ based filters were added . Additional updates were made to Viralheat 's user interface for reporting , alerts and importing . In December , the developer raised $ 75 @,@ 000 in seed capital . In March 2010 , Viralheat added features to track Facebook shares , likes and comments . The company raised $ 4 @.@ 25 million in series A funding from the Mayfield Fund in June 2011 .
The Human Intent application was released in beta in July 2011 . Viralheat 's Chrome extension for sentiment on Twitter.com was released that September . On March 27 , 2012 , version 2 @.@ 0 was introduced . Version 2 @.@ 0 added the ability to publish content to social media websites through the Viralheat interface . In August of that year , Pinterest monitoring was added , which was followed by the " Flint " extension in November . In February 2013 , Viralheat released a redesigned analytics dashboard called Smart Steam as well as other user interface improvements and multiple account features . Flint 2 @.@ 0 was released that March with support for Safari and Firefox .
In December 2013 , Viralheat released enterprise pricing and multi @-@ user features . That same month , it appointed a new CEO , Jeff Revoy , as a result of its new focus on the enterprise market .
= = Evaluations = =
In 2009 , Mashable reported that Viralheat has more features than free services , with a lower price than most paid options . A contributor review in PRWeek in 2012 said Viralheat 's strengths were its sentiment analysis , simplicity , price and customer service , but that its filtering tools were " a little rough around the edges . "
In March 2013 , Network World tested eight social media management tools . The reviewer found that Viralheat was the lowest cost , and supported more social media sites than competitors , but lacked the features to support multi @-@ user accounts needed for large ( enterprise ) customers . The reviewer also praised Viralheat for its user interface and easy cross @-@ posting across different social networks , but said its reporting and analytics were limited . For example , only three date @-@ ranges could be selected when generating a report .
= = Reported uses = =
The Viralheat software found there were 7 @,@ 000 tweets mentioning " Obama " on May 25 , 2009 and 32 @,@ 000 tweets for that week . On April 9 , 2010 , it assessed that 70 percent of comments about Tiger Woods were positive following his return to professional golf after a sex scandal in late 2009 . A sampling collected by the Viralheat software in July 2011 found that 79 percent of tweets about President Barack Obama were positive , while 54 percent of those on Speaker John Boehner were .
Near Thanksgiving 2012 , 150 @,@ 000 tweets were analyzed . Viralheat found that turkey stuffing was mentioned 38 @,@ 000 times . During the debut of Bravo 's TV show " Start @-@ ups : Silicon Valley , " the software determined that the character Hermione was mentioned on Twitter 350 times , while Sarah received 264 mentions . A March 2013 report published by Viralheat found that among major airlines American Airlines had the most positive sentiment on social media . It also found that the San Francisco Airport was the most frequently mentioned airport . During March Madness the same year , Viralheat Inc. ran an analysis with the software that found the most talked about team was the one from the University of Miami .
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= Qinghe Special Steel Corporation disaster =
The Qinghe Special Steel Corporation disaster was an industrial disaster that occurred on April 18 , 2007 , in Tieling , Liaoning , China . Thirty @-@ two people were killed and six were injured when a ladle used to transport molten steel separated from an overhead rail in the Qinghe Special Steel Corporation factory .
A subsequent investigation by the Chinese authorities found that the plant had been lacking any major safety features and was severely below regulation benchmarks , with the direct cause of the accident being attributed to inappropriate use of substandard equipment . The investigation also concluded that the various other safety failings at the facility were contributing factors . The report went on to criticize safety standards all throughout the Chinese steel industry .
Sun Huashan , deputy head of the State Administration of Work Safety , said that it was " the most serious accident to hit China 's steel industry since 1949 . "
= = Background = =
The Qinghe Special Steel Corporation ltd , established in 1987 , had originally been a state @-@ owned enterprise , and had been restructured into a private business . According to the State Administration of Work Safety , the plant had about 300 employees at the time of the accident , although Xinhua gave the employment figure as 650 . In 2006 , the factory produced 70 @,@ 000 tonnes of steel and had hoped to increase production to 120 @,@ 000 tonnes in 2007 .
The building where the disaster occurred was used by the Qinghe Special Steel Corporation as a steel processing plant . The ladle which failed carried molten steel from a blast furnace to other processes , and had a diameter of two metres and a capacity of 30 tons ( 25 tonnes ) of liquid steel . It ran on a rail at a height of three metres above the factory floor .
= = Event = =
At 7 : 45 am local time , the ladle in question separated from the overhead iron rail that connected it to the blast furnace while it was being positioned over a worktable in preparation to pour out its contents . All 30 tons of liquid steel , which was at a temperature of approximately 1 @,@ 500 degrees Celsius ( 2 @,@ 730 F ) , was spilt . This liquid steel then burst through the windows and door of an adjoining room five meters away where workers had gathered during a change of shifts , engulfing that room entirely .
When emergency services arrived , they were initially unable to provide assistance as the high temperatures of the molten steel prevented them from entering the area and they had to wait for the steel to cool . When they were eventually able to access the area , they discovered thirty @-@ two workers had been killed by the spill . Six others in the room survived and were rushed to the hospital with severe burns . According to doctors , five workers were initially listed as being in a stable condition , with the others listed as critical . They were said to be of risk of contracting infections through their burns . However , an earlier statement on the website of the State Administration of Work Safety published conflicting information , saying that the thirty @-@ two deceased represented everyone in the room at the time , and that only two people were injured - the operators of the ladle . The official Xinhua press agency also released a report stating that the ladle fell on workers below , but this was unclear as in to whether the workers were in fact crushed or whether this , too , conflicted with the other reports .
After retrieving the six survivors , rescuers then recovered the bodies of the thirty @-@ two deceased .
= = Reactions and survivor accounts = =
Sun Huashan , deputy head of the State Administration of Work Safety , held a press conference shortly after the disaster in which he stated " It is the most serious accident to hit China 's steel industry since 1949 " . There was a public outcry across China as news of the spill became known .
The survivors were interviewed for the media and by investigators about their experience . One gave the following account of the tragedy : " I was bending down to get some tools when I heard screaming . The ladle was falling ... [ The liquid ] fell on to the ground and then spilled onto my body and burnt [ my ] clothes . I just ran . " Another gave this description of being burned by the steel : " When the steel hit , it felt like being beaten by iron bars -- my brain went blank . I would be dead if I had turned my head " .
One survivor , Jiao Zhengyan , 38 and head of the company 's ingot casting section , explained why the steel had been spilled instead of remaining in an upright ladle : " As the ladle was falling , it hit a flatbed and tilted . The molten steel immediately flowed into the nearby conference room . "
= = Investigation = =
The Chinese authorities immediately launched a full investigation into the disaster , which concluded a week later on April 23 . The factory itself was sealed off for the course of the investigation , a common practice in China , but work continued in the site office .
The investigation concluded that the direct cause of the disaster was Qinghe using a standard hoist instead of one specifically designed for dangerous smelting work . Other contributing factors identified were lax safety measures and " chaotic " management . The official report also stated that " Equipment and materials inside the workshop were messy , the work space was narrow , and safety passages did not meet requirements . "
The report goes on to say that the accident highlights poor working conditions and safety measures in the Chinese steel industry , " Some firms cannot adapt to the demands of rapid expansion and ignore safety ... Safety inspection is not in place , leading to multiple accidents . " and concluding " Work safety conditions in the metallurgy sector are extremely grim , " .
= = Aftermath = =
The bodies of the deceased were too badly burned to be recognizable , so DNA testing was used for identification . Within 24 hours of the disaster , officials had arrested the plant 's owner and three employees who were in charge of work safety issues , and had promised the families of the victims a minimum of 200 @,@ 000 yuan ( US $ 26 @,@ 000 ) each in compensation . According to Xinhua , the positions of those arrested were the manager of the mill , an operator , a technician and a workshop supervisor . The same statement from the work safety administration as had issued the conflicting injury count stated that those responsible were " under control " but did not elaborate further .
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= Mulgrew Miller =
Mulgrew Miller ( August 13 , 1955 – May 29 , 2013 ) was an American jazz pianist , composer , and educator . As a child he played in churches and was influenced on piano by Ramsey Lewis and then Oscar Peterson . Aspects of their styles remained in his playing , but he added the greater harmonic freedom of McCoy Tyner and others in developing as a hard bop player and then in creating his own style , which influenced others from the 1980s on .
Miller 's style evolved through playing with a series of major jazz figures . After leaving university he was pianist with the Duke Ellington Orchestra for three years , then accompanied vocalist Betty Carter . Three @-@ year stints with trumpeter Woody Shaw and with drummer Art Blakey 's high profile Jazz Messengers followed , by the end of which Miller had formed his own bands and begun recording under his own name . He was then part of drummer Tony Williams ' quintet from its foundation , while continuing to play and record with numerous other leaders , mostly in small groups . Miller was Director of Jazz Studies at William Paterson University from 2005 , and continued to play and tour internationally with other high profile figures in the music until his death from a stroke at the age of 57 .
= = Early life = =
Mulgrew Miller was born in Greenwood , Mississippi , to parents who had been raised on plantations . He had three brothers and four sisters . His family was not musical , but they had a piano , which no @-@ one in the house could play . Miller , however , played tunes on the piano from the age of six , playing by ear . He had piano lessons from the age of eight . As a child , he played blues and rhythm and blues for dances , and gospel music in a church . His family was Methodist , but he played in churches of various denominations . His principal influence on piano at this stage was Ramsey Lewis .
While at high school , Miller formed a trio that played at cocktail parties . His elder brother recommended that he listen to pianist Oscar Peterson , but there was no way of doing this in Greenwood until Peterson appeared on The Joey Bishop Show on television when Miller was about 14 . After watching Peterson 's performance , Miller decided to become a pianist : " It was a life changing event . I knew right then that I would be a jazz pianist " . Miller later mentioned Art Tatum and Erroll Garner as piano influences during his teenage years . Miller reported years later that he always found that playing fast was easy , so playing slowly and with more control were what he had to work hardest on .
After graduating from Greenwood High School , Miller became a student at Memphis State University in 1973 , attending with a band scholarship . He played euphonium , but , during his two years at the university , Miller met pianists Donald Brown and James Williams , who introduced him to the music of well @-@ known players such as Wynton Kelly , Bud Powell , and McCoy Tyner . Still at Memphis State , Miller attended a jazz workshop , where one of the tutors was his future bandleader , Woody Shaw , who stated that they would meet again in two years . They did meet again two years later , and Shaw remembered the young pianist . After leaving university in 1975 , Miller took lessons privately in Boston with Madame Margaret Chaloff , who had taught many of the pianists that Miller admired . He later commented that , " I should have stayed with her longer , [ ... ] but at that time I was so restless , constantly on the move . " Miller played with saxophonists Ricky Ford and Bill Pierce in Boston . That winter , Miller was invited to Los Angeles by a school friend and decided to go , to escape the northern cold . He stayed on the West Coast for a year , playing locally in clubs and a church .
= = Later life and career = =
= = = 1976 – 86 = = =
Towards the end of 1976 Miller was invited to substitute for the regular pianist in the Duke Ellington Orchestra ( led by the late bandleader 's son , Mercer Ellington ) . Miller had performed the same role for one weekend around a year earlier , and the new work was to be for only three weeks , but he ultimately toured with the orchestra for almost three years . His membership of the orchestra helped him , in the words of a piano magazine , to get " respect as a powerful , two @-@ fisted pianist adept at delivering entrancingly lyrical and gracefully introspective runs as well as dazzling and buoyant passages . " He left in January 1980 , after being recruited by vocalist Betty Carter , with whom he toured for eight months that year . He was then part of Shaw 's band from 1981 to 1983 , thereby , in Miller 's view , fulfilling his destiny from their earlier meetings . In 1981 he made his studio recording debut , on Shaw 's United . During the early 1980s he also accompanied vocalist Carmen Lundy , and played and recorded with saxophonist Johnny Griffin .
Miller was recommended for Art Blakey 's Jazz Messengers by Blakey members Terence Blanchard and Donald Harrison , and he joined the drummer 's band in 1983 . Initially , he struggled to fit in with Blakey dominating the rhythm section , but Miller stated that , over his period with the band , " My playing just generally matured . I don 't think one single characteristic changed , but the experience certainly boosted my confidence " . At times during concert performances he was allotted a solo piano spot , which Miller used to play medleys . His presence in the Jazz Messengers cemented his reputation within jazz . His recording career as a leader began in 1985 , with Keys to the City , the first of Miller 's several recordings for Landmark Records . Jon Pareles ' review of a solo concert in 1986 noted that Miller 's playing showed the influence of Powell on some numbers and Kelly on others , but that , overall , he was developing " his own , authoritative style " .
= = = Later 1986 – 94 = = =
After leaving Blakey in 1986 , Miller was pianist in drummer Tony Williams ' quintet from its foundation that year until it disbanded around 1993 . Miller remained busy between tours with Williams ' band , in part by touring with his own groups . The first of these was formed in 1987 and named Wingspan , as , Miller explained , " sort of a dedication to the legacy of Charlie Parker – Bird , you know . " It became one of Miller 's main bands , enduring through changes of personnel , and featured a lot of his compositions in its performances . Another band was known as Trio Transition , which contained bassist Reggie Workman and drummer Freddie Waits .
Miller also played on Williams bandmate Wallace Roney 's first three recordings ( 1987 – 89 ) , and a large number of albums recorded by other leaders in the late 1980s . These included an album with long @-@ term collaborator Steve Nelson , a recording by trumpeter Donald Byrd , comeback albums from alto saxophonist Frank Morgan , and the first of a series of releases with tenor saxophonist Benny Golson .
Miller and his family moved to Palmer Township , Lehigh Valley , Pennsylvania in 1989 . In that year he joined three other pianists in recording a CD tribute to Memphis pianist Phineas Newborn , Jr . This group , the Contemporary Piano Ensemble , performed intermittently until 1996 , often playing together on four separate pianos . In 1990 Miller traveled to the Soviet Union to appear as pianist in Golson 's band at the first Moscow International Jazz Festival . In 1992 Miller also toured domestically and internationally with the New York Jazz Giants , a septet containing Jon Faddis , Tom Harrell , Lew Tabackin , Bobby Watson , Ray Drummond , and Carl Allen . Miller continued to accompany vocalists , including on recordings with Dianne Reeves and Cassandra Wilson . Starting in 1993 , he also played and recorded with saxophonist Joe Lovano .
The influence of Williams continued into Miller 's own projects , including their compositions and arrangements : The Guardian reviewer of Miller 's 1992 Hand in Hand , his first for Novus Records , commented that " it 's his occasional boss , drummer Tony Williams , who has made the strongest impression on the way he organises the material . The opening " Grew 's Tune " and the bluesier numbers would slot unnoticed into the Williams library . "
= = = 1995 – 2013 = = =
For several years after he had turned 40 , Miller concentrated on composing and playing his own music . He therefore reduced his recording and club appearances , as well as one @-@ day associations . The stimulus for this change had built gradually from Miller 's first studio recording in 1981 : " my recording activity increased and by the time that it got into 1986 – 87 I was on so many records it was unbelievable until eventually it became rather overwhelming and stressful , so I had to cut back . " He did continue to record , often with musicians he had established relationships with : in 1996 he reunited with Williams to appear on what became the drummer 's final recording , Young at Heart ; further albums led by Kenny Garrett , Nelson , Reeves , and others were made in the period 1997 – 99 .
In 1997 Miller went on tour in Japan with 100 Golden Fingers , a troupe of 10 pianists . He joined bassist Niels @-@ Henning Ørsted Pedersen in 1999 to record duets based on 1940s performances by Duke Ellington and Jimmy Blanton . The pair toured Europe the following year , with drummer Alvin Queen added for some concerts .
In 2002 Miller 's discography as leader began to expand again , as Maxjazz started to release recordings . A series of four concert recordings were released over the following years : Live at The Kennedy Center Vol . 1 and Live at The Kennedy Center Vol . 2 ( recorded in 2002 ) , with Derrick Hodge ( bass ) and Rodney Green ( drums ) ; and Live at Yoshi 's Vol . 1 and Live at Yoshi 's Vol . 2 ( recorded in 2003 ) , with Hodge and Karriem Riggins ( drums ) . In 2002 Miller joined bassist Ron Carter 's Golden Striker Trio , with guitarist Russell Malone . The trio occasionally toured internationally for the next decade . In 2003 Miller was commissioned to write a score for the Dayton Contemporary Dance Company ; after writing The Clearing in the Woods and having it choreographed by Ronald K. Brown , Miller and his band played the piece for performances by the company .
In the mid @-@ 2000s Miller joined bassist Dave Holland 's band , changing it from a quintet to a sextet , and adding gospel and soul elements to the group 's sound . Around this time , Miller had two regular bands of his own : a piano trio , and a quintet featuring saxophone and vibraphone . He also became heavily involved in music education : Miller was the Director of Jazz Studies at William Paterson University from 2005 , and was the Artist in Residence at Lafayette College in 2008 , which was two years after it had awarded him an honorary doctorate in Performing Arts .
Miller 's only solo album , a 2000 concert recording entitled Solo , was released in 2010 and was well received by critics for the imagination and harmonic development in Miller 's playing . Also in 2010 , Miller joined guitarist John Scofield 's new band . That year , Miller had a minor stroke . After this , he took medicine , changed his diet and lost weight ; he also reduced his touring and recording . In February 2012 he traveled to Denmark to play with Klüvers Big Band ; selections from one of the five concerts were released under Miller 's co @-@ leadership as Grew 's Tune . In autumn 2012 he performed as a piano duo with Kenny Barron , continuing an association that had begun some years earlier . In the winter of that year he toured Europe as part of a quintet led by reeds players Yusef Lateef and Archie Shepp .
On May 24 , 2013 , Miller was admitted to Lehigh Valley Hospital , near Allentown , Pennsylvania , having suffered another stroke . He died there on May 29 . Miller made more than 15 albums under his own name during his career , and appeared on more than 400 for other leaders . His last working trio consisted of Ivan Taylor on bass and Green on drums . Bassist Christian McBride commented on the loss to jazz on the day of Miller 's death : " I sincerely hope every self @-@ respecting jazz musician takes this day to reflect on all the music Mulgrew left us . "
= = Personal life and personality = =
Miller was survived by his wife , son , daughter , and grandson . Miller married on August 14 , 1982 . He was quiet and gentle , and was " a modest man , with a self @-@ deprecating sense of humour " . Miller described his own attitude towards music in a 2005 interview :
I worked hard to maintain a certain mental and emotional equilibrium . It 's mostly due to my faith in the Creator . I don 't put all my eggs in that basket of being a rich and famous jazz guy . That allows me a certain amount of freedom , because I don 't have to play music for money . I play music because I love it .
= = Style and influence = =
Ben Ratliff , writing for The New York Times , commented that , " As a composer , Mr. Miller is difficult to peg ; like his piano playing , he 's a bit of everything . " Critic Ted Panken observed in 2004 that Miller the pianist " finds ways to conjure beauty from pentatonics and odd intervals , infusing his lines with church and blues strains and propelling them with a joyous , incessant beat . " John Fordham commented that Miller 's " melodic fluency and percussive chordwork [ ... ] recalled Oscar Peterson [ ... but ] with glimpses of the harmonically freer methods of McCoy Tyner " , and that Miller was much more than the hard bop player that he was often stereotyped as being . The obituary writer for Down Beat observed that " Miller could swing hard but maintained grace and precision with a touch and facility that influenced generations of musicians . "
Miller had a strong reputation with fellow musicians . Pianist Geoffrey Keezer was convinced that he wanted to be a pianist after attending a performance by Miller in 1986 . Vibraphonist Warren Wolf stated that Miller helped him early in his career , including by being a link to jazz history : " you 're getting that experience of playing with Art Blakey , that attitude of ' Yes , it 's my band , but you have to give other people a chance to shine . ' " Robert Glasper also cited Miller as an influence , and wrote and recorded " One for ' Grew " as a tribute .
Speaking in 2010 , Miller commented on his approach to playing standards , which was more conservative than that of many others : " I believe in giving due respect to the melody , playing it as true as possible , [ ... ] a solo is a creative process that improves the melody . " He almost never transcribed recordings ( something that jazz musicians are typically taught to do ) ; Miller credited this with slowing his learning process , but also with allowing him to express himself more freely , as he reached his own understanding of the compositions he played .
Miller explained the lack of critical attention he received as follows : " Guys who do what I am doing are viewed as passé . " He also contrasted his own approach with that of performers who produced " interview music " : " something that 's obviously different , and you get the interviews and a certain amount of attention . "
= = Discography = =
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= Skerryvore =
Skerryvore ( from the Gaelic An Sgeir Mhòr meaning " The Great Skerry " ) is a remote reef that lies off the west coast of Scotland , 12 miles ( 19 kilometres ) south @-@ west of the island of Tiree . Skerryvore is best known as the name given to the lighthouse on the skerry , built with some difficulty between 1838 and 1844 by Alan Stevenson .
At a height of 156 feet ( 48 m ) it is the tallest lighthouse in Scotland . The shore station was at Hynish on Tiree ( which now houses the Skerryvore Lighthouse Museum ) ; operations were later transferred to Erraid , west of Mull . The remoteness of the location led to the keepers receiving additional payments in kind . The light shone without a break from 1844 until a fire in 1954 shut down operations for five years . The lighthouse was automated in 1994 .
= = Geology = =
In pre @-@ historic times the rocks that now form Skerryvore were covered by the ice sheets that spread from Scotland out into the Atlantic Ocean beyond the Outer Hebrides . After the last retreat of the ice around 20 @,@ 000 years ago , sea levels were up to 400 feet ( 122 m ) lower than at present . Although the isostatic rise of land makes estimating post @-@ glacial coastlines a complex task , circa 14 @,@ 000 BP it is likely that the reef was at the south western end of a large island consisting of the modern islands of Tiree and Coll and the surrounding land .
Steadily rising sea levels would then have slowly isolated and finally all but submerged the shoals of Skerryvore , a barrier of innumerable metamorphic remnants that stretch for 8 miles ( 13 kilometres ) lying in a south @-@ westerly direction . A detailed survey undertaken in 1834 listed more than 130 main rocks including Am Bonn Sligheach ( Boinshley ) ( Scottish Gaelic : The Deceitful Bottom ) and Am Bogha Ruadh ( Scottish Gaelic : The Red Submerged Rock ) .
The rocks have been worn smooth by the action of the waves and are constantly affected by spray . Alan Stevenson wrote : " The effect of the jet d 'eau was at times extremely beautiful , the water being so broken as to form a snow @-@ white and opaque pillar , surrounded by a fine vapour in which , during sunshine , beautiful rainbows were observed " .
It is an isolated outpost of the Inner Hebrides archipelago composed of Lewisian gneiss , formed in the Precambrian eon , these rocks being amongst the most ancient rocks in Europe . A further hazard to shipping is a magnetic anomaly in the area .
= = Planning and construction of the lighthouse = =
= = = Surveys = = =
Between 1790 and 1844 more than thirty ships were known to have been wrecked in the area . Robert Stevenson , chief engineer of the Northern Lighthouse Board ( NLB ) landed on the reef in 1804 and reported on the need for a beacon of some kind there . In 1814 he returned in the company of Sir Walter Scott and a party of NLB Commissioners . Scott wrote :
Quiet perseverance on the part of Mr S , and great kicking , bouncing and squabbling upon that of the yacht , who seems to like the idea of Skerry Vhor as little as the Commissioners . At length , by dint of exertion , come in sight of this long ridge of rocks ( chiefly under water ) , on which the tide breaks in a most tremendous style . There appear a few low broad rocks at one end of the reef , which is about a mile in length . These are never entirely under water though the surf dashes over them .... It will be a most desolate position for a lighthouse , the Bell Rock and Eddystone a joke to it , for the nearest land is the wild island of Tyree , at 14 miles distance . So much for Skerry Vhor .
Later that year an Act of Parliament was passed enabling construction of a lighthouse , yet despite pleas for a light arriving almost weekly at the NLB , events proceeded only slowly . It was not until 1834 that Robert Stevenson returned in the company of his son Alan . A painstaking survey made it clear that there was little choice for a location . The single largest area was a rock that measured only 280 sq ft ( 26 m2 ) at low tide . Readings for wave pressure indicated that any tower would have to withstand forces of 6 @,@ 000 pounds per square foot ( 29 @,@ 000 kg / m2 ) . There were suggestions that a tower of cast iron or bronze might be sufficient , but Stevenson senior wrote that " no pecuniary consideration could in my opinion have justified the adoption of an iron lighthouse for Skerryvore . " On more than one occasion the surveyors had to warn passing vessels of the danger . A ship from Newcastle , whose charts showed only the main rock some miles away , was boarded near Bo Ruadh . The Master , oblivious to the dangers , was found lying at ease smoking a pipe with his wife beside him knitting stockings .
Still the Commissioners prevaricated , daunted by the potential costs , estimated by Robert Stevenson at £ 63 @,@ 000 . They set up a special Skerryvore Committee , whose members decided to visit the site by steamer to see for themselves . Just off Skerryvore a fire broke out in the boiler room crippling the ship . It was extinguished and no harm was done , but the experience may have been persuasive .
Alan Stevenson was duly appointed as the engineer for the project aged only 30 . He designed a tower 156 feet ( 48 m ) high with a base of 42 feet ( 13 m ) , narrowing to just 16 feet ( 5 m ) at the lantern gallery . The lowest sections would be solid , although at 26 feet ( 8 m ) feet high they were less than half the height of the base of the later light at nearby Dubh Artach . Nonetheless the structure would weigh 4 @,@ 308 long tons ( 4 @,@ 377 t ) and the volume of the base would be more than 4 times larger than the entire structure of the Eddystone light and twice that of the Bell Rock . With 151 steps to the top it would be the tallest and heaviest lighthouse yet built anywhere in the modern world , and today it is still one of the tallest lighthouse in the United Kingdom .
= = = Shore station = = =
Hynish on Tiree was the initial shore station and construction site . Located on the south west corner of Tiree , its proximity to Skerryvore and the resulting abundance of bounty from the wrecks , led to rentals being higher here and on the rest of the west coast than elsewhere on the island . Work on the new facilities began in 1837 ; granite blocks were quarried from Mull and brought to the village to be cut and shaped before being shipped out to the reef . Several cottages for the keepers were built in 1844 from the same stone as well as a massive pier and a tall granite tower to enable signalling to and from Skerryvore itself . Stevenson remarked that the hive of activity there contrasted with the " desolation and misery " he imagined to be the lot of the surrounding population .
= = = Barrack and foundation = = =
In 1838 £ 15 @,@ 000 in wages alone was spent on constructing a 150 @-@ ton steamer in Leith to ferry workers and materials out to the reef . The difficulties should not be underestimated . Although Skerryvore is a dozen miles from Hynish it is 50 miles ( 80 km ) from the mainland . The first work to be undertaken on Skerryvore itself was the construction of a six @-@ legged frame on top of which a wooden barrack to house 40 men was placed . The building was created in Gourock before being dismantled and re @-@ built on site .
Initial work began on the rock on 7 August 1838 . Stevenson and 21 workmen arrived on board the sailing vessel Pharos and began to unload the barrack , whose massive legs were set into holes blasted out of the rock . After only two days the site had to be abandoned as a storm swept in from the Atlantic . It was a further six days before they could resume the punishing schedule of 16 hours a day work between 4 am and 8 pm . Fearing sea sickness , many of the man preferred to attempt to sleep on the damp rocks than on the ever @-@ rolling Pharos .
Work for the season lasted only until 11 September , by which time the barrack legs had been secured although not the main structure . Less than two months later Stevenson received a letter from the storekeeper at Hynish , Mr. Hogben . It began : " Dear Sir , I am extremely sorry to inform you that the barrack erected on Skerryvore Rock has totally disappeared . " The structure had been destroyed during in a gale on 3 November and four months effort had been wasted . Stevenson hired a boat to take him out to inspect the damage the same day he received this news . Firm in his self @-@ belief , he resolved to build a stronger but otherwise identical replacement . Work began in April 1839 and by early September the completed barrack stood 60 feet ( 18 m ) above the rock . Entry was via ladders attached to the legs that led into the lowest level containing a kitchen . The middle level contained two cabins , one for Stevenson , the other for his master of works , whilst the top level provided sleeping quarters for a further 30 to 40 men .
Work on the foundations for the lighthouse continued until 30 September . A total of 296 charges were used to remove 2 @,@ 000 tons of rock and Stevenson believed that the rock was so hard that the effort involved was four times that required for boring Aberdeenshire granite . The work went well but by the end of the second season , no blocks had yet been laid . However , between April 1839 and June 1840 4 @,@ 300 blocks had been fashioned , the stone donated by the Duke of Argyll from quarries on Mull . The roughly hewn rock was taken to Hynish where the blocks were hammered and chiselled into shape . The largest weighed over 2 @.@ 5 tons , the smallest 0 @.@ 75 tons and the precision required meant that a single block could take 320 man hours to complete .
= = = Tower = = =
The new barrack withstood the violence of the storms during the winter of 1839 – 40 . Work re @-@ commenced on the rock on 30 April 1840 , and after the arrival of the new steamer Skerryvore the carefully fashioned blocks began to arrive on site . The first one was laid by John Campbell , 7th Duke of Argyll on 4 July . His son George later wrote :
That sight is as fresh in my memory after an interval of 57 years as if I had seen it yesterday . The natural surfaces of the rock were irregular in the highest degree . Worn , broken , and battered by the unnumbered ages of the most tremendous surf , and by the splitting of the rock along lines of natural fissures , there did not seem to be one square foot of rock which was even tolerably level . Yet in the midst of this torn and fissured surface we suddenly came on a magnificent circular floor , 42 ft in diameter , as level as water , and as smooth as a billiard table .
Soon up to 95 blocks a day were arriving from Hynish , although the weather continued to play its part . During the summer of 1840 the steamer was unable to reach the reef for fourteen consecutive days , and on another occasion no landings were possible for seven weeks and supplies began to run low . When work ceased again in the autumn , 800 tons of granite standing 8 feet 2 ins ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) high stood on Skerryvore , and up to 80 craftsmen continued to labour on the blocks at Hynish all winter . The first three courses of the base are of hard Hynish gneiss , the remainder are granite from the Ross of Mull .
Work continued during 1841 – 42 , a crane being used to hoist the huge blocks as the tower rose . The last one was raised to the parapet in July 1842 . Robert Stevenson , then aged 70 , visited the site on his last annual voyage of inspection . The walls at the base are 9 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 9 m ) thick , and 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) thick at the top . The lightroom and lantern sit above nine apartments 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) in diameter . The total cost of the works undertaken by the Northern Lighthouse Board was £ 86 @,@ 977 , including the cost of establishing the shore station at Hynish , estimated at £ 13 @,@ 000 . It is a credit to Stevenson , his foreman Charles Stewart , and Captain Macurich the landing master , that not a single life was lost during the construction .
= = = Fitting out = = =
The final season of work in 1843 was spent in fitting out the interior . By then Alan had become chief engineer to the NLB and the final work was undertaken under the supervision of his brother Thomas . The light , which had eight lenses revolving around a four wick lamp with pyramidal lenses above and reflecting prisms below each one , was constructed by John Milne of Edinburgh . The machinery was ready by the beginning of 1844 , but it was seven weeks before a landing could be undertaken on the rock . The lamp was finally lit on 1 February and it shone without interruption for the next 110 years .
Skerryvore was Alan Stevenson 's greatest achievements from both an engineering and aesthetic perspective . No philistine , he chose a hyberbolic curve for the outline for stylistic reasons . His nephew Robert Louis described it as " the noblest of all extant deep @-@ sea lights " and according to the Northern Lighthouse Board it is " asserted by some that Skerryvore is the world 's most graceful lighthouse " .
= = Keepers = =
Such are the hazards of the surrounding reefs that the lighthouse is not normally approached by shipping . However , completion of the construction work did not result in an end to the difficulties for those involved in its operations . The easiest landing is at Riston 's Gully , which intersects the rock near the tower . An unaided landing has been described as " like climbing up the side of a bottle " . A system of ropes attached to a derrick was installed to assist these dangerous operations . Statistics compiled for the two decades from 1881 – 1890 showed Skerryvore as having been the stormiest part of Scotland . There were a total of 542 storms lasting 14 @,@ 211 hours during that period . One keeper lost his hearing for several weeks , after a lightning strike had thrown him through the entrance door .
James Tomison , who became a keeper in 1861 , wrote of the bird migrations visible from the tower : " Hundreds of birds are flying about in all directions , crossing and re @-@ crossing one another 's flight , but never coming into collision , all seemingly of the opinion that the only way of escape out of the confusion into which they have got is through the windows of the lantern " . A fog bell had been installed by then , one of only two operating in Scotland at the time .
The adverse conditions faced by the keepers resulted in them receiving additional payments in kind , but the remote location suited some veterans . Archibald McEachern was assistant keeper for 14 years from 1870 – 84 and John Nicol was principal from 1890 – 1903 . The latter was involved in a dramatic rescue when the liner Labrador en route from Halifax , Nova Scotia to Liverpool ran aground on the nearby Mackenzie 's Rock in 1899 . The lifeboats were manned and two made it to Mull , but one with eighteen passengers reached the lighthouse where they were looked after for two and a half days before they could be taken to the mainland . No lives were lost and Nicol and his two assistants were commended by the NLB for their efforts .
John Muir , who served as a keeper with the NLB for 39 years all told , had a posting to Skerryvore from 1902 to 1914 . He helped complete a new " landing grating " , as the slender metal walkway was called , that made landings possible in conditions previously considered " hopeless " . He baked his own bread and scones and made an inlaid table and Iona marble inkstand .
= = Post @-@ construction events = =
Numerous dignitaries visited the light in the ensuing years . William Chambers , the Lord Provost of Edinburgh came in 1866 and wrote :
I was interested in knowing the method of intercourse by signals . Every morning between nine and ten o 'clock , a ball is hoisted at the lighthouse to signify that all is well at the Skerryvore . Should this signal fail to be given a ball is raised at Hynish to enquire if anything is wrong . Should no reply be made by the hoisting of the ball , the schooner , hurried from its wet dock , is put to sea and steers for the lighthouse .... I enquired how high the waves washed up the side of the tower during the most severe storms , and was told that they sometimes rose as high as the first window , or about 60 ft above the level of the rocks ; yet , that even in these frightful tumults of wind and waves the building never shook , and no apprehension of danger was entertained .
The visual similarity between Skerryvore and Dubh Artach 20 miles ( 32 kilometres ) to the south east , led to the NLB painting a distinctive red band round the middle section of the latter in 1890 . The Hynish Shore Station had the advantage of proximity to the site during the construction period . However the small harbour offered little shelter for shipping . The keepers operated from here until 1892 when operations were transferred to Erraid adjacent to the Isle of Mull . Other than the signal tower , the land and buildings on Tiree were sold to George Campbell , 8th Duke of Argyll who had witnessed the laying of the first stone on Skerryvore fifty @-@ two years previously . A paddle steamer , Signal , built by Laird of Greenock in 1883 was based at Erraid for relief operations . The shore station was moved to Oban in the 1950s .
In 1916 mines were laid in the vicinity of the rock by the German submarines SM U @-@ 71 and SM U @-@ 78 . In July 1940 during World War II a stick of bombs was dropped by a passing German plane . The explosion cracked two lantern panes and shattered one of the incandescent mantles .
A disastrous fire started on the seventh floor on the night of 16 March 1954 and spread downwards . The keepers had no time to raise the alarm and were driven out of the lighthouse onto the rocks but rescued the next day when the relief vessel arrived as part of its regular schedule . The heat of the fire caused damage to both the interior and the structure and a lightship and series of temporary lights were installed during reconstruction . Three new generators were placed in the lighthouse to provide an electric light source , the lantern being re @-@ lit on 6 August 1959 .
A helipad was constructed in 1972 to enable relief trips to be undertaken without the need for perilous sea landings . The lighthouse has been fully automated since 31 March 1994 and is monitored via a radio link to Ardnamurchan lighthouse .
The Hynish tower has been converted to house the Skerryvore Lighthouse Museum , run by the Hebridean Trust who have also restored the pier . It is now possible to visit Skerryvore with Tiree @-@ based Skippinish Sea Tours .
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= Harrison County , Indiana =
Harrison County is located in the far southern part of the U.S. state of Indiana along the Ohio River . The county was officially established in 1808 . As of the 2010 census , the county 's population was 39 @,@ 364 , an increase of 6 @.@ 6 % from 2000 . The county seat is Corydon , the former capital of Indiana .
Harrison County is part of the Louisville @-@ Jefferson County , KY @-@ IN Metropolitan Statistical Area .
The county has a diverse economy with no sector employing more than 13 % of the local workforce . Horseshoe Southern Indiana is the largest employer , followed by Tyson Foods and the Harrison County Hospital . Tourism also plays a significant role in the economy and is centered on the county 's many historic sites . County government is divided among several bodies including the boards of the county 's three school districts , three elected commissioners who exercise legislative and executive powers , an elected county council that controls the county budget , a circuit and superior court , and township trustees who oversee government function in the county 's 12 townships . The county has 10 incorporated towns with a total population of over 5 @,@ 000 , as well as many small unincorporated towns . One Interstate highway and one U. S. Route run through the county , as do eight Indiana State Roads and two railroad lines .
Migratory groups of Native Americans inhabited the area for thousands of years , but the first permanent settlements in what would become Harrison County were created by American settlers in the years after the American Revolutionary War . The population grew rapidly during first decade of the 19th century . Corydon was officially platted in 1808 and became the capital of the Indiana Territory in 1813 . Many of the state 's early important historic events occurred in the county , including the writing of Indiana 's first constitution . Corydon was the state capital until 1825 , but in the years afterward remained an important hub for southern Indiana . In 1859 there was a major meteorite strike . In 1863 the Battle of Corydon was fought , the only battle of the American Civil War to occur in Indiana .
= = History = =
Humans first entered what would become Indiana near the end of the last ice age . The region around Harrison County was of particular value to the early humans because of the abundance of flint . There is evidence of flint mining in local caves as early as 2000 BCE ; the stone was used to produce crude tools . Passing migratory tribes frequented the area which was influenced by succeeding groups of peoples including the Hopewells and Mississippians . One flint @-@ working and camping location is known as the Swan 's Landing Archeological Site ; it is among the most important Early Archaic archaeological sites anywhere in eastern North America . Permanent human settlements in the county began with the arrival of American settlers in the last decade of the 18th century .
The area became part of the United States following its conquest during the American Revolutionary War . Veterans of the revolution received land grants in the eastern part of the county as part of Clark 's Grant . Daniel Boone and his brother Squire Boone were early explorers of the county , entering from Kentucky in the 1780s . Harvey Heth , Spier Spencer , and Edward Smith were among the first to settle in the county beginning in the 1790s . Smith built the first home in what later became the county seat of Corydon .
Harrison County was originally part of Knox County and Clark County but was separated in 1808 . It was the first Indiana county formed by the Indiana territorial legislature and not the Governor . The county originally contained land that is now parts of Crawford , Floyd , Washington , Jackson , Clark , Lawrence , Perry , Scott and Orange Counties . The county was named for William Henry Harrison , the first governor of Indiana Territory , and later a General in War of 1812 , hero of Tippecanoe , and the 9th U.S. President . Harrison was the largest land holder in the county at the time and had a small estate at Harrison Spring .
Squire Boone settled permanently in what is now Boone Township in 1806 . He died in 1815 and is buried in a cave near his home , Squire Boone Caverns . James , Isaiah , and Daniel ( son of Squire ) Boone settled in Heth Township during the first decade of the 1800s . The county 's first church was built by Boone east of present @-@ day Laconia . The church , which has been reconstructed , is known as Old Goshen . Jacob Kintner settled near Corydon in about 1810 . He was one of the wealthiest settlers and amassed a 700 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 8 km2 ) tract of land around Corydon , built a large home , and maintained an inn . Paul and Susanna Mitchem became Quakers and immigrated to Harrison County from North Carolina in 1814 , bringing with them 107 slaves they freed after arriving . Although some of the former slaves left , the group became one of the largest communities of free blacks in the state .
The first road was built in Harrison County in 1809 connecting Corydon with Mauckport on the Ohio River . A tow @-@ and @-@ ferry line was operated there by the Mauck family bringing settlers into the county from Kentucky . This road and ferry greatly expanded the county 's economic viability and ease of access to the outside world , leading to a rapid settlement of the area . The county 's population more than doubled in the following decade .
Dennis Pennington , who lived near Lanesville , became one of the county 's early leading citizens and speaker of the territory 's legislature . Corydon began competing with other southern Indiana settlements to become the new capital of the territory after its reorganization in 1809 . Hostilities broke out in 1811 with the Native American tribes on the frontier , and the territorial capital was moved to Corydon on May 1 , 1813 , after Pennington suggested it would be safer than Vincennes . For the next twelve years , Corydon was the political center of the territory and subsequent state . A state constitution was drafted in Corydon during June 1816 and after statehood the town served as the state capital until 1825 .
The first division of the county occurred in 1814 when the northern portion of the county was separated to become Washington County . The county was again divided in 1818 with the western part of the county being separated to become Crawford County . A third division occurred in 1819 when Floyd County was created out of the eastern part of the county . Harrison County 's eastern border has had minor adjustments through land transactions with Floyd County ; the last change occurred in 1968 .
The northern part of the county is known as the barrens , named by the early settlers for the lack timber there . For the first decades of settlement , settlers refused to purchase the land in the barrens because it was considered too far from the timber needed to build homes , fires , fences , and other necessities . The barrens were swept by annual wildfires that prevented the growth of trees . The largest barren ran from the northern edge of Corydon northward to Palmyra , and from the Floyd Knobs in the east , westward to the Blue River . The Central Barren covered most of the upper middle part of the county . As settlement expanded and farming grew in the early 19th century , settlers began to discover that the barrens were among the most fertile farmlands in the state , and they quickly filled up with landholders . As settlement increased , the wildfires were stopped and by the start of the 20th century the uninhabited parts of the barrens had become forested and have remained so until modern times .
A large meteorite fell near Buena Vista on March 28 , 1859 , causing some panic in the area . The site of the impact and a part of the meteorite have been preserved .
In 1860 the first Harrison County fair was held in Corydon . The county fair has been an annual event since then and is the longest continuously running fair in the state . The county fairgrounds were built in the southwest corner of Corydon where the home of Edward Smith formerly stood . The fair 's original grandstand burned in 1960 and the county purchased a new grandstand from the minor league baseball team at Parkway Field in Louisville , Kentucky .
The only Civil War battle fought in Indiana occurred in Harrison County on July 9 , 1863 , between the Harrison County Legion and Brigadier General John Hunt Morgan of the Confederate Army during Morgan 's Raid . Morgan crossed the Ohio River into Harrison County on the morning of July 9 . His crossing was contested by the Legion with artillery on the Indiana shore and an armed river boat . After Morgan opened fire with his own batteries from the opposite shore the legion quickly retreated towards Corydon . The citizens of Mauckport fled the town with most of their valuables . Morgan landed on the east side of Mauckport with two thousand cavalry and marched north burning homes , farms , and mills . The county militia made a stand to block his advance on the county seat and the resulting conflict is known as the Battle of Corydon . The battle was won by the Confederates and the town of Corydon was then sacked and stores were looted and ransomed . The battle left 4 dead , 12 wounded , and 355 captured . After the battle Morgan continued into northern Harrison County where he looted New Salisbury area with the main body of troops . Crandall and Palmyra were robbed and sacked by detachments . His forces left the county on July 10 ; they were eventually defeated and captured by Union Army .
The railroad reached Harrison County in 1869 . A line was completed across the northern half of county in 1874 running from Floyd County connecting Crandall and then continuing west into Crawford County . A southward extension connecting Corydon to Crandall was completed in 1882 . A train wreck killed three in 1902 . The southern extension connecting Corydon was purchased by the Corydon Scenic Railroad Company in 1989 and operated as a tourist attraction until 2003 when it was closed because of financial difficulties , ending passenger service in the county .
The first county courthouse was a small log building . When Corydon became the territory capital in 1813 , county and territorial officials shared the building . By 1816 a stone building had been constructed , and it served as both Harrison County Courthouse and the state capital building until the capital was moved . As more space was needed , other buildings were constructed to supplement the courthouse . In the 1920s , the latest of these office buildings was razed to make way for a new courthouse ; the old building was acquired by the State of Indiana and preserved as the first state capitol building . The new courthouse was built from 1927 to 1928 at a cost of about $ 250 @,@ 000 . The building was designed by Fowler and Karges of Evansville and was constructed by J. Fred Beggs and Company of Scottsburg .
The Harrison @-@ Crawford State Forest was started in 1932 when the State of Indiana purchased land in western Harrison County . The 26 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 110 km2 ) park is the largest state forest in Indiana and surrounds the O 'Bannon Woods State Park and Wyandotte Caves , located in eastern Crawford County .
The Matthew E. Welsh Bridge was completed in 1966 in Mauckport . It connected Harrison County with neighboring Meade County . This is the only bridge over the Ohio River between Tell City and New Albany . In 1969 Dr. Samuel P. Hays donated the 311 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 26 km2 ) Hayswood Nature Reserve to the county . It was developed in 1973 by the Harrison County Park Board by adding public facilities to the western part of the preserve . It is the second largest nature reserve in the county .
Caesars Indiana opened a casino river boat , hotel complex , and golf course in 1998 , boosting the county 's tourism industry . The casino complex was purchased and became Horseshoe Southern Indiana on July 11 , 2008 .
= = Geography = =
Harrison County is located in the far southern part of Indiana , about halfway between the state 's east and west borders . The Ohio River defines the county 's southern border ; across the river lies the state of Kentucky and the city of Louisville . The Blue River runs along the county 's western border . Six counties are adjacent to Harrison County . Three are in Indiana : Washington County to the north , Floyd County to the east , and Crawford County to the west . The other three are in Kentucky : Jefferson County and Hardin County are to the southeast and Meade County is to the south .
According to the 2010 census , the county has a total area of 486 @.@ 52 square miles ( 1 @,@ 260 @.@ 1 km2 ) , of which 484 @.@ 52 square miles ( 1 @,@ 254 @.@ 9 km2 ) ( or 99 @.@ 59 % ) is land and 2 @.@ 00 square miles ( 5 @.@ 2 km2 ) ( or 0 @.@ 41 % ) is water .
Harrison Spring is located west of Corydon ; it is 60 feet ( 18 m ) in diameter and is over 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) deep , making it the largest and deepest spring in Indiana . It rises from a solid rock in a level spot of land , and it outputs enough water to have turned flour mills in the past . Is the largest spring by volume in Indiana producing over 3 million gallons of water daily . The spring derives its name from William Henry Harrison who once owned the land surrounding it .
Harrison County 's surface is covered by many hills and valleys . The Knobstone Escarpment begins in the southeastern part of the county , rising sharply at the Ohio River , and following a course roughly along the eastern edge of the county . The " knobs " are the most significant series of hills in Indiana , with the highest knobs near the Ohio River towering 610 feet ( 190 m ) over the surrounding valley . This is the greatest local relief difference in the state . The Ohio River borders the entire southeastern , southern , and southwestern part of the county . Blue River forms the western border with Indian Creek and Buck Creek as the primary internal drainage systems .
The western part of the county is preserved as the Harrison @-@ Crawford State Forest and the O 'Bannon Woods State Park . The county has extensive cave systems including Squire Boone Caverns , the Binkley Cave System ( Indiana Caverns ) and smaller , highly decorated caves such as Jewel Box and Devil 's Graveyard caves .
= = = Towns and communities = = =
Corydon , with a 2000 population of 2 @,@ 715 , is the largest town in the county , the county seat , and center of economic activity . Palmyra , located on the northern edge of the county , is the second largest town and had a 2000 population of 644 . Lanesville is the third largest town with a 2000 population of 615 . Milltown had a 2000 population of 932 ; the town sits on the western border of the county and a majority of its population lives in Crawford County . The county 's other incorporated towns , Crandall , Elizabeth , Laconia , Mauckport , New Middletown , and New Amsterdam all have populations under 150 .
There are several unincorporated and formerly @-@ incorporated communities . These include Bradford , Byrneville , Central , Depauw , New Salisbury , Ramsey , Rosewood , Sennville and White Cloud .
The county is subdivided into 12 townships : Blue River , Boone , Franklin , Harrison , Heth , Jackson , Morgan , Posey , Spencer , Taylor , Washington , and Webster .
= = Climate and weather = =
Harrison County is in the humid subtropical climate region of the United States along with most of Southern Indiana . Its Köppen climate classification is Dfa , meaning that it is cold , has no dry season , and has a hot summer . However , it is close to the southern edge of this region . In recent years , average temperatures in Corydon have ranged from a low of 21 ° F ( − 6 ° C ) in January to a high of 88 ° F ( 31 ° C ) in July , although a record low of − 31 ° F ( − 35 ° C ) was recorded in January 1977 and a record high of 104 ° F ( 40 ° C ) was recorded in July 1983 . Average monthly precipitation ranged from 3 @.@ 13 inches ( 80 mm ) in October to 5 @.@ 06 inches ( 129 mm ) in May .
= = Government = =
The county government is a constitutional body and is granted specific powers by the Constitution of Indiana and by the Indiana Code . Executive and legislative power is vested in the Board of Commissioners , and fiscal power is vested in the County Council .
The seven member county council is the fiscal branch of the county government and controls all the spending and revenue collection in the county . Four representatives are elected from county districts and three are elected at @-@ large . The council members serve four @-@ year terms . They are responsible for setting salaries , the annual budget , and special spending . The council also has limited authority to impose local taxes in the form of an income tax , property tax , excise taxes , and service taxes . County income and property taxes are subject to state level approval . In 2013 the council members were Phil Smith , District 1 ( R ) ; Gary Davis , District 2 ( R ) ; Gordon Pendleton , District 3 ( D ) ; Ralph Sherman District 4 ( R ) ; Sherry Brown , At @-@ Large ( R ) ; Richard Gerdon , At @-@ Large ( D ) ; Jim Heitkemper , At @-@ Large ( R ) .
The Board of Commissioners consists of three commissioners who are elected county @-@ wide in staggered terms . Each serves a four @-@ year term . One of the commissioners , typically the most senior , serves as president of the board . The commissioners manage the budget set forth by the council , the collection of revenue , enact and repeal ordinances , and managing the day @-@ to @-@ day functions of the county government . The commissioners hold public meetings twice each month to discuss issues affecting the public and receive community input . In 2013 the commissioners were George Ethridge , District 1 ( R ) ; Kenny Saulman , District 2 ( R ) ; James Klinstiver , District 3 ( R ) .
Harrison County has a Circuit Court and a Superior Court . The Superior Court handles all adult criminal cases , small claims cases , traffic tickets , and infractions . The Circuit Court handles the rest of the cases in the county , including most of the divorce cases , juvenile matters , CHINS cases , civil proceedings , probate , estates , adoptions , civil commitments , and other civil cases . Judges in each court serve a six @-@ year term . The Judge of the Circuit Court appoints a referee to handle family law cases .
The county has several other elected offices , including sheriff , coroner , auditor , treasurer , recorder , surveyor and circuit court clerk . Each of these elected officers serves a term of four years and oversees a different part of county government . Members elected to county government positions are required to declare party affiliations and to be residents of the county .
Each of the townships has a trustee who administers rural fire protection and ambulance service , provides poor relief and manages cemetery care , among other duties . The trustee is assisted in these duties by a three @-@ member township board . The trustees and board members are elected to four @-@ year terms .
Most of Harrison County falls within State House District 70 , and is represented in Indiana House of Representatives by Republican Rhonda J. Rhoads . Blue River Township in the northernwesternmost part of the county is part of State House District 73 , and is represented by Republican Steve Davisson . The entire county is part of State Senate District 47 , and is represented in the Indiana State Senate by Democrat Richard Young . The county is part of Indiana 's 9th congressional district and is represented in the United States Congress by Republican Todd Young .
= = Economy = =
Harrison County has a diverse economy . Manufacturing industry is centered in the Corydon Industrial Park where automobile @-@ related manufacturing is most prevalent . There is large scale farming throughout the rural areas of the county ; corn and soybeans are the county 's largest crops . A service and shopping district is centered in Corydon . There are several medical facilities in the county including the Harrison County Hospital , two nursing facilities operated by Kindred Healthcare , and a number of private practices .
The county has a developed tourism industry . The main attractions are the historic sites of Corydon , the county 's golf courses , the Horseshoe Riverboat Casino and Hotel , and the area 's two famous caves : Squire Boone Caverns near Mauckport and Wyandotte Caves in adjoining Crawford County . The casino is the county 's single largest source of tax revenue and produced $ 23 @.@ 5 million in tax revenue during 2007 .
Multiple utility companies serve the county . Electricity is provided by the Harrison Rural Electric Membership Cooperative ( REMC ) and Duke Energy . Natural gas is provided by the Indiana Utilities Corporation in Corydon and several small distributors provide rural service . Land @-@ line telephone service is provided exclusively by Verizon . Cable television is provided by Insight Communications in some parts of the county . Water is pumped from a number of corporations , the largest being South Harrison Water Corporation and Ramsey Water Inc .
As of July 2009 , the county 's largest employer was the Horseshoe Southern Indiana casino with 1 @,@ 600 employees . Other large employers are Tyson Foods with 550 employees , Harrison County Hospital employs 504 , South Harrison Community School Corporation employs 425 , Blue River Services employs 405 , Wal @-@ Mart employs 400 , North Harrison Community School Corporation employs 311 , ICON Metal Forming employs 200 , Darmic Inc. employs 120 , Kindred Healthcare employs 115 , Smith Store Fixtures and Lucas Oil Products each employs 80 , Norstam Veneers employs 50 , and Speed Flex employs 41 . An additional 92 businesses employ 5 to 40 workers . In total , 13 % of the workforce is in retail , 12 % in government , 12 % in manufacturing , 11 % in services , 8 % in accommodations and food services , 8 % in agriculture , 7 % in construction , 7 % working for local utilities , 6 % in finance , insurance , and real estate , and 6 % in other trades . The Louisville , Jefferson County , KY @-@ IN Metropolitan statistical area to which Harrison County belongs has an unemployment rate of 10 @.@ 2 % in December 2009 .
= = Transportation = =
Harrison County is bisected by the major east – west Interstate 64 . The highway has entrances and exits at Corydon and Lanesville . U.S. Route 150 crosses the northern part of the county following the route of the Buffalo Trace .
The north – south State Road 135 and east – west State Road 62 are roughly perpendicular and cross each other at Corydon near the center of the county . State Road 64 is an east – west route through the north central part of the county , crossing State Road 135 in New Salisbury . State Road 111 connects Elizabeth with New Albany in neighboring Floyd County ; the Horseshoe Riverboat Casino is located on the route . State Road 337 crosses the county from the northwest to the southeast , passing through Corydon in the center of the county .
There are two very short Indiana State Roads in the county . State Road 211 runs for about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of Elizabeth in the southeast part of county , connecting State Roads 11 and 111 . State Road 462 connects the Harrison @-@ Crawford State Forest with State Road 62 in the southwest part of the county , running for about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) .
Two railroads operate in the county . Lucas Oil Rail Line is a 7 @-@ mile ( 11 km ) shortline railroad beginning in downtown Corydon , moving northward through the industrial park where Lucas Oil 's bottling facilities are located , and thence northward to where it intersects with an east – west Norfolk Southern Railway line near New Salisbury . The Norfolk Southern line runs across the entire state and passes through the northern part of the county , through the towns of Crandall , Ramsey , and Depauw . It has a small depot in Ramsey .
= = Education = =
The county has 22 schools ; 15 are public schools in 3 school districts , and 7 are private . South Harrison Community Schools is the largest district with 3 @,@ 141 pupils in 2010 . The district covers the southern half of the county and includes Corydon Central High School , Corydon Central Junior High School , South Central Junior & Senior High School , Corydon Intermediate , Corydon Elementary , Heth @-@ Washington Elementary , and New Middletown Elementary . North Harrison Community School Corporation had 2 @,@ 324 pupils in 2010 enrolled in North Harrison High School , North Harrison Middle School , North Harrison Elementary , and Morgan Elementary . Lanesville Community School Corporation is the smallest district serving only Franklin Township . It consists of Lanesville Junior Senior High School and Lanesville Elementary . In 2010 , teachers in the North Harrison district averaged $ 50 @,@ 800 in annual salary ; South Harrison teachers averaged $ 48 @,@ 500 ; Lanesville teachers averaged $ 51 @,@ 500 . North Harrison had a 2010 graduation rate of 81 @.@ 5 % ; South Harrison 84 @.@ 6 % ; Lanesville 91 @.@ 5 % . Lanesville and North Harrison students performed above average on 2010 statewide ISTEP + tests , while South Harrison students performed below average .
The county also has several private schools supported by local churches . St. John 's , a Lutheran school near Lanesville , has 77 pupils . St. Joseph 's , a Catholic school in Corydon , has 87 pupils . County high school students , including those in public , private , and home schools , may attend the vocational school C. A. Prosser school of Technology in neighboring Floyd County as part of their high school curriculum .
= = Notable people = =
James Best was born in 1926 in Kentucky ; at the age of three he went to an orphanage , then was adopted and was raised in Corydon . He joined the Army after World War II . In the 1950s he became an actor , appearing first in a western and then in a variety of film genres . He also appeared many times as a guest star in various television shows including The Andy Griffith Show and The Twilight Zone . He is best known for his role as Sheriff Rosco P. Coltrane on The Dukes of Hazzard .
Arville Funk was born in Harrison County in 1929 and attended school in Corydon . He taught high school history for 10 years starting in 1955 . Like William Zenor , he studied law in New Albany , and returned to Corydon and practiced law ; in 1965 he joined a partnership with Frank O 'Bannon . He was also active with Indiana historical and genealogical societies , and wrote many books about Indiana history . He died in 1990 , and is buried in Corydon .
Frank O 'Bannon was born in 1930 and was raised in Corydon . He attended Indiana University , where he earned degrees in government and law ; he also served for two years in the Air Force . He was a state senator for 18 years and served as the lieutenant governor for 8 years before becoming governor in 1997 . In 2003 , he died in Chicago from complications from a stroke before his term was ended ; he was 73 years old .
= = Demographics = =
As of the 2010 United States Census , there were 39 @,@ 364 people , 15 @,@ 192 households , and 11 @,@ 031 families residing in the county . The population density was 81 @.@ 2 inhabitants per square mile ( 31 @.@ 4 / km2 ) . There were 16 @,@ 534 housing units at an average density of 34 @.@ 1 per square mile ( 13 @.@ 2 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the county was 97 @.@ 4 % white , 0 @.@ 5 % black or African American , 0 @.@ 4 % Asian , 0 @.@ 2 % American Indian , 0 @.@ 5 % from other races , and 1 @.@ 0 % from two or more races . Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 1 @.@ 5 % of the population . In terms of ancestry , 31 @.@ 1 % were German , 16 @.@ 5 % were American , 12 @.@ 8 % were Irish , and 12 @.@ 8 % were English .
Of the 15 @,@ 192 households , 33 @.@ 7 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 58 @.@ 5 % were married couples living together , 9 @.@ 5 % had a female householder with no husband present , 27 @.@ 4 % were non @-@ families , and 22 @.@ 8 % of all households were made up of individuals . The average household size was 2 @.@ 56 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 99 . The median age was 40 @.@ 2 years .
The median income for a household in the county was $ 47 @,@ 697 and the median income for a family was $ 59 @,@ 316 . Males had a median income of $ 40 @,@ 884 versus $ 31 @,@ 808 for females . The per capita income for the county was $ 23 @,@ 539 . About 7 @.@ 8 % of families and 10 @.@ 0 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 15 @.@ 7 % of those under age 18 and 5 @.@ 1 % of those age 65 or over .
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= Homer and Lisa Exchange Cross Words =
" Homer And Lisa Exchange Cross Words " is the sixth episode of The Simpsons ' twentieth season . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on November 16 , 2008 . In the episode , Lisa discovers that she has a talent for solving crossword puzzles , and she enters a crossword tournament . Lisa 's feelings are hurt when she discovers that Homer bet against her in the championship match .
The episode was inspired by Patrick Creadon 's 2006 documentary Wordplay , and was written by Tim Long , and directed by Michael Polcino . Crossword puzzle creators Merl Reagle and Will Shortz guest star as themselves in the episode while Scott Thompson has a cameo as Grady , a character he first voiced in " Three Gays of the Condo " . Reagle created all of the crossword puzzles that appear in the episode and as promotion for the episode , a special Simpsons @-@ related message ( dedicated to this episode ) that appeared in The New York Times Sunday crossword on November 16 , 2008 . The episode received generally positive reviews from critics , and finished fourth in its timeslot during its initial airing on Fox , with a 3 @.@ 9 Nielsen rating .
= = Plot = =
Bart and Lisa start a lemonade stand , but it is quickly closed due to them not having a vending permit . They get in line at the licensing bureau , only to find that the long line is standing still due to the clerk doing a crossword puzzle . Impatient , Lisa completes the puzzle herself , only to find herself addicted to the puzzles . Eventually , she becomes so obsessed with them that Superintendent Chalmers hands her a pamphlet for the Crossword City Tournament . Meanwhile , at Moe 's , Edna Krabappel offers to buy a beer for anyone who breaks up with Principal Skinner for her . Homer ends their relationship , and decides to take a second job in which he helps break up romantic relationships . Grady , one of his old roommates , calls Homer and asks him to break up Grady 's and his boyfriend 's relationship because he found a new and " better " man in Duffman . Homer successfully manages to break up the couple . After making a good deal of money , he dreams that he is pestered by the " ghosts " of the jilted lovers and thus quits the trade .
At the crossword tournament , Homer bets his money from his breakup business on Lisa and wins big . However , upon hearing Lisa saying that she is wary of the final round , he bets on the other finalist , Gil Gunderson . Gil plays Lisa for her sympathy and cons her into losing the round , which in turn lets Homer win his final bet . Upon realizing that Homer has come into some money by betting against her in the tournament , Lisa gets angry at him and refuses to acknowledge herself as Homer 's daughter , even going so far as to take Marge 's maiden name and start calling herself " Lisa Bouvier " . Feeling guilty , Homer commissions Merl Reagle and Will Shortz to create a special puzzle for the New York Times , with his apology to Lisa hidden in the clues and solution . The two of them make up , and Lisa is happy to call herself a Simpson again .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Tim Long , and directed by Michael Polcino . James L. Brooks got the inspiration for the episode from the 2006 documentary Wordplay which chronicles the national crossword puzzle championships , and he thought that Lisa should go to a championship in the episode . Will Shortz and Merl Reagle , who both starred in the documentary , appear in the episode . " We felt both Will and Merl were very compelling , off @-@ the @-@ beaten @-@ track personalities [ in Wordplay ] , who would fit into our universe very well " , Brooks said .
Shortz was the first guest star the producers of The Simpsons approached . Long later asked Reagle to make puzzles for the episode . Reagle recorded his lines in a studio near his home . Reagle told the Arizona Daily Wildcat that " for me , to be such a total nut for animation since I was a kid , I never even dreamed [ of being in a cartoon ] . It 's like a dream I never had coming true . " He added that " you don 't see [ the crosswords ] in the episode for very long , but when crossword fans watch this show , we want them to think that we got it right . " Reagle designed every puzzle that appears in the episode , including one that appears in a hopscotch court in Lisa 's daydream . There were certain lines in the script that had to be incorporated into Reagle 's puzzles , including one where Gil says " I think I 'll throw some Q 's around , " , and he enters a number of Q 's onto the grid . Reagle therefore had to create a puzzle which used words that included the letter Q more frequently than would be usual . Reagle said he saw the early script of the episode , " but they change it right up to the last minute . In a lot of ways , I 'll be seeing it for the first time right along with everyone else . " Scott Thompson has a cameo in the episode as Grady , a character that he first voiced in the season 14 episode " Three Gays of the Condo " .
The episode features three musical montages : the sequence of Homer helping couples to break up features " Farewell to You , Baby " by Carl Martin , Homer 's gambling on Lisa 's puzzle solving is set to " Word Up ! " by Cameo and " Fanfare for the Common Man " plays in the background of the montage of words removed from the dictionary .
= = = Promotion = = =
In order to promote this episode , guest stars Reagle and Shortz collaborated with the episodes ' writer Tim Long to create a hidden Simpsons @-@ related message ( dedicated to this episode ) that appeared in The New York Times Sunday crossword on November 16 , 2008 . The crossword , which was titled " Sounds Like Somebody I Know " , also appears as a plot point in the episode . Harry Shearer recorded a clip of Mr. Burns and Smithers telling the winner of the National Public Radio 's Sundays Puzzle on November 16 , 2008 , what they had won .
= = Reception = =
On the night it aired , the episode was watched in 8 @,@ 520 @,@ 000 homes and had a 3 @.@ 9 Nielsen rating , finishing fourth in its timeslot . The episode did finish first in the 18 @-@ 34 demographic with a 4 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating and a 13 % share of the audience , narrowly beating an episode of 60 Minutes featuring Barack Obama in the demographic . Tim Long was nominated for Writers Guild of America Award in the animation category for writing the episode .
The episode received generally positive reviews from critics . Robert Canning of IGN did not think there was anything " terrible " about the episode , but he did not think there was anything to get excited about , either . Canning thought there were a number of throwaway jokes in the episode that he felt worked well , " but the episode as a whole failed to grab me . As stated , there are a number of episodes that already fit this mold , and most of those are far superior . " Daniel Aughey of TV Guide thought the episode provided a " healthy balance " of humor , story and heart . " Exactly what makes a great Simpsons episode ! " Aughey would have liked to see Homer 's storyline explored as an A story in its own episode rather than cut short as a C story .
Erich Asperschlager of TV Verdict thought the puzzle @-@ solving storyline was " a lot of fun " , both for its references to the " highly entertaining " documentary Wordplay and the jokes it inspired . He thought the one problem with the final part of the storyline was that it took away from what could have been " one of the best Lisa @-@ centric episodes in a long time . Marrying her bookish sensibilities with cruciverbal skills is an inspired idea . They should have done more with it . At the very least , it would have left more screentime for Will Shortz and Merl Reagle . "
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= Sweet Track =
The Sweet Track is an ancient causeway in the Somerset Levels , England . It was built in either 3807 or 3806 BC and was the oldest timber trackway discovered in Northern Europe until the 2009 discovery of a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old trackway in Plumstead , London . It is now known that the Sweet Track was predominantly built over the course of an earlier structure , the Post Track .
The track extended across the now largely drained marsh between what was then an island at Westhay and a ridge of high ground at Shapwick , a distance close to 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . The track is one of a network that once crossed the Somerset Levels . Various artefacts , including a jadeitite ceremonial axe head , have been found along its length .
Construction was of crossed wooden poles , driven into the waterlogged soil to support a walkway that consisted mainly of planks of oak , laid end @-@ to @-@ end . The track was used for a period of only around 10 years and was then abandoned , probably due to rising water levels . Following its discovery in 1970 , most of the track has been left in its original location , with active conservation measures taken , including a water pumping and distribution system to maintain the wood in its damp condition . Some of the track is stored at the British Museum and a reconstruction of a section was built at the Peat Moors Centre near Glastonbury .
= = Location = =
In the early 4th millennium BC the track was built between an island at Westhay , and a ridge of high ground at Shapwick close to the River Brue . A group of mounds at Westhay mark the site of pre @-@ historic lake dwellings , which were likely to have been similar to those found in the iron age Glastonbury Lake Village near Godney , itself built on a morass on an artificial foundation of timber filled with brushwood , bracken , rubble and clay .
The remains of similar tracks have been uncovered nearby , connecting settlements on the peat bog ; they include the Honeygore , Abbotts Way , Bells , Bakers , Westhay , and Nidons trackways . Sites such as the nearby Meare Pool provide evidence that the purpose of these structures was to enable easier travel between the settlements . Investigation of the Meare Pool indicates that it was formed by the encroachment of raised peat bogs around it , particularly during the Subatlantic climatic period ( 1st millennium BC ) , and core sampling demonstrates that it is filled with at least 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) of detritus mud .
The two Meare Lake Villages within Meare Pool appear to originate from a collection of structures erected on the surface of the dried peat , such as tents , windbreaks and animal folds . Clay was later spread over the peat , providing raised stands for occupation , industry and movement , and in some areas thicker clay spreads accommodated hearths built of clay or stone .
= = Discovery and study = =
The track was discovered in 1970 during peat excavations , and is named after its finder , Ray Sweet . The company he worked for , E. J. Godwin , sent part of a plank from the track to John Coles , an assistant lecturer in archaeology at Cambridge University , who had carried out some excavations on nearby trackways . Coles ' interest in the trackways led to the Somerset Levels Project , which ran from 1973 to 1989 , funded by various donors including English Heritage . The project undertook a range of local archaeological activities , and established the economic and geographic significance of various trackways from the 3rd and 1st millennium BC . The work of John Coles , Bryony Coles and the Somerset Levels Project was recognised in 1996 when they won the Imperial Chemical Industries ( ICI ) Award for the best archaeological project offering a major contribution to knowledge , and in 2006 with the European Archaeological Heritage Prize .
Dendrochronology ( tree @-@ ring dating ) of the timbers has enabled precise dating of the track , showing it was built in 3807 or 3806 BC . This dating led to claims that the Sweet Track was the oldest roadway in the world , until the discovery in 2009 of a 6 @,@ 000 year @-@ old trackway in Plumstead , near Belmarsh prison . Analysis of the Sweet Track 's timbers has aided research into Neolithic Era dendrochronology ; comparisons with wood from the River Trent and a submerged forest at Stolford enabled a fuller mapping of the rings , and their relationship with the climate of the period .
The wood used to build the track is now classed as bog @-@ wood , the name given to wood ( of any source ) that for long periods ( sometimes hundreds of thousands of years ) has been buried in peat bogs , and kept from decaying by the acidic and anaerobic bog conditions . Bog @-@ wood is usually stained brown by tannins dissolved in the acidic water , and represents an early stage of fossilisation . The age of the track prompted large @-@ scale excavations in 1973 , funded by the Department of the Environment .
In 1973 a jadeitite axehead was found alongside the track ; it is thought to have been placed there as an offering . One of over 100 similar axe heads found in Britain and Ireland , its good condition and its precious material suggest that it was a symbolic axe , rather than one used to cut wood . Because of the difficulty of working this material , which was derived from the Alpine area of Europe , all the axe heads of this type found in Great Britain are thought to have been non @-@ utilitarian and to have represented some form of currency or be the products of gift exchange . Radiocarbon dating of the peat in which the axe head was discovered suggests that it was deposited in about 3200 BC . Wooden artefacts found at the site include paddles , a dish , arrow shafts , parts of four hazel bows , a throwing axe , yew pins , digging sticks , a mattock , a comb , toggles and a spoon fragment . Finds made from other materials , such as flint flakes , arrowheads and a chipped flint axe ( in mint condition ) have also been made .
A geophysical survey of the area in 2008 showed unclear magnetometer data ; the wood may be influencing the peat 's hydrology , causing the loss or collection of minerals within the pore water and peat matrix .
= = Builders = =
The community that constructed the trackway were Neolithic farmers who had colonised the area around 3900 BC and the evidence suggests that they were , by the time of construction , well organised and settled . Before this human incursion the uplands surrounding the levels were heavily wooded , but local inhabitants began to clear these forests about this time to make way for an economy that was predominately pastoral with small amounts of cultivation . During the winter the flooded areas of the levels would have provided this fishing , hunting , foraging and farming community with abundant fish and wildfowl ; in the summer , the drier areas provided rich , open grassland for grazing cattle and sheep , reeds , wood and timber for construction , and abundant wild animals , birds , fruit and seeds . The need to reach the islands in the bog was sufficiently pressing for them to mount the enormous communal activity required for the task of stockpiling the timber and building the trackway , presumably when the waters were at their lowest after a dry period . The work required for the construction of the track demonstrates that they had advanced woodworking skills and suggests some differentiation of occupation among the workers . They also appear to have been managing the surrounding woodland for at least 120 years .
= = Construction = =
Built in 3807 or 3806 BC , the track was a walkway consisting mainly of planks of oak laid end @-@ to @-@ end , supported by crossed pegs of ash , oak and lime , driven into the underlying peat . The planks , which were up to 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) wide , 3 metres ( 120 in ) long and less than 5 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick , were cut from trees up to 400 years old and 1 metre ( 39 in ) in diameter , felled and split using only stone axes , wooden wedges and mallets . The length , straightness , and lack of forks or branches in the pegs suggest that they were taken from coppiced woodland . Longitudinal log rails up to 6 @.@ 1 metres ( 20 ft ) long and 7 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , made of mostly hazel and alder , were laid down and held in place with the pegs , which were driven at an angle across the rails and into the peat base of the bog . Notches were then cut into the planks to fit the pegs , and the planks were laid along the X shapes to form the walkway . In some places a second rail was placed on top of the first one to bring the plank above it level with the rest of the walkway . Some of the planks were then stabilised with slender , vertical wooden pegs driven through holes cut near the end of the planks and into the peat , and sometimes the clay , beneath . At the southern end of the construction smaller trees were used , and the planks split across the grain to utilise the full diameter of the trunk . Fragments of other tree species including holly , willow , poplar , dogwood , ivy , birch , and apple have also been found .
The wetland setting indicates that the track components must have arrived prefabricated , before being assembled on site , although the presence of wood chips and chopped branches indicates that some trimming was performed locally . The track was constructed from about 200 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 440 @,@ 000 lb ) of timber , but Coles estimates that once the materials were transported to the site , ten men could have assembled it in one day .
The Sweet Track was used only for about ten years ; rising water levels may have engulfed it , and therefore curtailed its use . The variety of objects found alongside the track suggest that it was in daily use as part of the farming life of the community . Since its discovery , it has been determined that parts of the Sweet Track were built along the route of an even earlier track , the Post Track , which was constructed thirty years earlier in 3838 BC .
= = Conservation = =
Most of the track remains in its original location , which is now within the Shapwick Heath biological Site of Special Scientific Interest and National Nature Reserve . Following purchase of land by the National Heritage Memorial Fund , and installation of a water pumping and distribution system along a 500 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) section , several hundred metres of the track 's length are now being actively conserved . This method of preserving wetland archaeological remains ( i.e. maintaining a high water table and saturating the site ) is rare . A 500 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) section , which lies within the land owned by the Nature Conservancy Council , has been surrounded by a clay bank to prevent drainage into surrounding lower peat fields , and water levels are regularly monitored . The viability of this method is demonstrated by comparing it with the nearby Abbot 's Way , which has not had similar treatment , and which in 1996 was found to have become dewatered and desiccated . Evaluation and maintenance of water levels in the Shapwick Heath Nature Reserve involves the Nature Conservancy Council , the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs , and the Somerset Levels Project .
Although the wood recovered from the Levels was visually intact , it was extremely degraded and very soft . Where possible , pieces of wood in good condition , or the worked ends of pegs , were taken away and conserved for later analysis . The conservation process involved keeping the wood in heated tanks in a solution of polyethylene glycol and , by a process of evaporation , gradually replacing the water in the wood with the wax over a period of about nine months . After this treatment the wood was removed from the tank and wiped clean . As the wax cooled and hardened the artifact became firm and could be handled freely .
A section of the track on land owned by Fisons ( who extracted peat from the area ) was donated to the British Museum in London . Although this short section can be assembled for display purposes , it is currently kept in store , off site , and under controlled conditions . A reconstructed section was displayed at the Peat Moors Centre near Glastonbury . The centre was run by the Somerset Historic Environment Service , but was closed in October 2009 as a result of budget cuts imposed by Somerset County Council . The main exhibits are extant , but future public access is uncertain . Other samples of the track are held in the Museum of Somerset .
Sections of the track have been designated as a Scheduled Monument , meaning that it is a " nationally important " historic structure and archaeological site protected against unauthorised change . These sections are also included in English Heritage 's Heritage at Risk Register .
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= Kwakiutl ( statue ) =
Kwakiutl ( or variously KwaKiutl ) is a totem sculpture by Aboriginal Canadian artist Simon Charlie , which has caused controversy for its nudity over multiple decades of display in Chinguacousy Township , and later Brampton , both near Toronto in Ontario , Canada . Charlie , also known as Hwunumetse ' , later received the Order of Canada . The 9 @-@ foot @-@ tall cedar wood sculpture is best known for its exposed male genitals .
= = Creation = =
Named after a native Canadian , Chinguacousy Township was rapidly growing due to the Bramalea development , initiated in the late 1950s and early 1960s . A statue was commissioned for a new township hall , with Simon Charlie as artist . Charlie was a sculptor of the Cowichan Tribes of the Coast Salish peoples . The Indians of Canada pavilion at Expo 67 included a totem pole and " welcome figure " carved by Charlie and two Kwakwaka 'wakw ( Kwakiutl ) artists . For the 1971 centennial of British Columbia , Charlie and thirteen other carvers were commissioned to carve totems presented to each of the other nine provinces , two territories , and the federal government . Internationally collected and displayed , he had already been awarded the Canadian Centennial Medal .
The figure depicted by the statue is that of a nearly @-@ naked Aboriginal man , and the name of the sculpture refers to a Pacific Northwest coast tribe . He wears a wide @-@ brimmed Kwakwaka 'wakw hat , and a cape . The sculpture features outstretched arms and exposed male genitals . The statue is made of cedar wood , and 9 @-@ foot tall .
= = Exhibition and reception = =
The Township of Chinguacousy unveiled the sculpture on July 19 , 1972 , in front of roughly 100 spectators . It was originally intended to be placed at the doors of the Chinguacousy Township municipal offices .
Reverend Edward Robinson of All People 's Church , in attendance , described the sculpture as " disgusting " . The Reverend insisted that the sculpture violated Christian principles , morality , and decency . According to The Globe and Mail :
He left the event relatively promptly . The Globe and Mail ran an editorial commenting they were " striving ( against the wicked odds that only Toronto can provide ) to view the situation with proper seriousness . But Mr. Robinson has not been making it easy for us . " The paper suggested that Robinson 's insights " doubtless would have stopped Michelangelo in his tracks and branded him as nothing more than a dirty chisler . "
Reeve Robert Williams suggested ferns and flowers indigenous to British Columbia would be brought in , and planted around the statue . Williams insisted the flora would not obscure anatomy . Township Council voted to place the statue in a " suitable place " in the yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ opened municipal offices . The sculptor suggested that he was not even sure what a fig leaf looked like , an often suggested addition , and no coverage was requested during the commission .
By late August , the statue had developed a crack in its back . According to a Canadian Press report , " One civic official said it was probably the weight of the moral controversy , rather than the weather , which broke Kwakiutl ′ s back . "
On January 1 , 1974 , the Town of Brampton , some of the Township of Chinguacousy , a portion of Toronto Township , and most of Toronto Gore Township merged into the City of Brampton . Municipal offices for Brampton were moved to the Civic Centre , and the statue moved into the Chinguacousy branch of the Brampton Library , within the same building . Shirley Morriss was the curator of the facility , until 1991 .
Tom Drynan was named Executive Director of the Brampton Public Library system in July 1993 . In August that year , Drynan decided to evict the sculpture , after three years at the entrance of the art gallery at the Brampton Library branch . In a letter to community services commissioner Donald M. Gordon , Drynan wrote : " I am sure that the statue has artistic merit and needs to be preserved . However , it is quite inappropriate in its present location within the newly renovated gallery . Its presence dominates any other exhibits which are placed in the area . I hope we can find a solution without having yet another tempest in a teapot . "
A report was approved by Brampton City Council during a council meeting on August 16 , 1993 . The report suggested that in British Columbia , such sculptures are frequently displayed outdoors . As Chinguacousy Park bears an Aboriginal name , it was deemed appropriate for the sculpture to be used at the entrance of the nearby area . It was to be bolted to a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ metre high ( five @-@ foot high ) tree stump .
At some point before May 2010 , the sculpture was moved into the Chinguacousy Park greenhouse . Former mayor Peter Robertson questioned where the statue was located , during a 2011 meeting about the " Southwest Quadrant Renewal " , an expansion of Brampton 's City Hall .
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= Galápagos tortoise =
The Galápagos tortoise or Galápagos giant tortoise ( Chelonoidis nigra ) is the largest living species of tortoise . Modern Galápagos tortoises can weigh up to 417 kg ( 919 lb ) . Today , giant tortoises exist only on two remote archipelagos : the Galápagos 1000 km due west of Ecuador , and Aldabra in the Indian Ocean , 700 km east of Tanzania .
The tortoise is native to seven of the Galápagos Islands , a volcanic archipelago about 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) west of the Ecuadorian mainland . With lifespans in the wild of over 100 years , it is one of the longest @-@ lived vertebrates . A captive individual lived at least 170 years . Spanish explorers , who discovered the islands in the 16th century , named them after the Spanish galápago , meaning saddle .
Shell size and shape vary between populations . On islands with humid highlands , the tortoises are larger , with domed shells and short necks ; on islands with dry lowlands , the tortoises are smaller , with " saddleback " shells and long necks . Charles Darwin 's observations of these differences on the second voyage of the Beagle in 1835 , contributed to the development of his theory of evolution .
Tortoise numbers declined from over 250 @,@ 000 in the 16th century to a low of around 3 @,@ 000 in the 1970s . This decline was caused by overexploitation of the species for meat and oil , habitat clearance for agriculture , and introduction of non @-@ native animals to the islands , such as rats , goats , and pigs . The extinction of most giant tortoise lineages is thought to have also been caused by predation by humans or human ancestors , as the tortoises themselves have no natural predators . Tortoise populations on at least three islands have become extinct in historical time due to human activities . Specimens of these extinct taxa exist in several museums and also are being subjected to DNA analysis . Ten subspecies of the original 15 survive in the wild ; an 11th subspecies ( C. n. abingdonii ) had only a single known living individual , kept in captivity and nicknamed Lonesome George until his death in June 2012 . Conservation efforts , beginning in the 20th century , have resulted in thousands of captive @-@ bred juveniles being released onto their ancestral home islands , and the total number of the species is estimated to have exceeded 19 @,@ 000 at the start of the 21st century . Despite this rebound , the species as a whole is classified as " vulnerable " by the International Union for Conservation of Nature .
= = Taxonomy = =
= = = Early classification = = =
The Galápagos Islands were discovered in 1535 , but first appeared on the maps , of Gerardus Mercator and Abraham Ortelius , around 1570 . The islands were named " Insulae de los Galopegos " ( Islands of the Tortoises ) in reference to the giant tortoises found there .
Initially , the giant tortoises of the Indian Ocean and those from the Galápagos were considered to be the same species . Naturalists thought that sailors had transported the tortoises there . In 1676 , the pre @-@ Linnaean authority Claude Perrault referred to both species as Tortue des Indes . In 1783 , Johann Gottlob Schneider classified all giant tortoises as Testudo indica ( " Indian tortoise " ) . In 1812 , August Friedrich Schweigger named them Testudo gigantea ( " gigantic tortoise " ) . In 1834 , André Marie Constant Duméril and Gabriel Bibron classified the Galápagos tortoises as a separate species , which they named Testudo nigrita ( " black tortoise " ) .
= = = Recognition of subpopulations = = =
The first systematic survey of giant tortoises was by Albert Günther of the British Museum , in 1875 . Günther identified at least five distinct populations from the Galápagos , and three from the Indian Ocean islands . He expanded the list in 1877 to six from the Galápagos , four from the Seychelles , and four from the Mascarenes . Günther hypothesized that all the giant tortoises descended from a single ancestral population which spread by sunken land bridges . This hypothesis was later disproven by the understanding that the Galápagos , Seychelles , and Mascarene islands are all of recent volcanic origin and have never been linked to a continent by land bridges . Galápagos tortoises are now thought to have descended from a South American ancestor , while the Indian Ocean tortoises derived from ancestral populations on Madagascar .
At the end of the 19th century , Georg Baur and Walter Rothschild recognised five more populations of Galápagos tortoise . In 1905 @-@ 06 , an expedition by the California Academy of Sciences , with Joseph R. Slevin in charge of reptiles , collected specimens which were studied by Academy herpetologist John Van Denburgh . He identified four additional populations , and proposed the existence of 15 species . Van Denburgh 's list still guides the taxonomy of the Galápagos tortoise , though now 10 populations are thought to have existed .
= = = Current species and genus names = = =
The current specific designation of nigra ( " black " – Quoy & Gaimard , 1824b ) was resurrected in 1984 after it was discovered to be the senior synonym ( an older taxonomic synonym taking historical precedence ) for the then commonly used species name of elephantopus ( " elephant @-@ footed " – Harlan , 1827 ) . Quoy and Gaimard 's Latin description explains the use of nigra : " Testudo toto corpore nigro " means " tortoise with completely black body " . Quoy and Gairmard described nigra from a living specimen , but no evidence indicates they knew of its accurate provenance within the Galápagos – the locality was in fact given as California . Garman proposed the linking of nigra with the extinct Floreana subspecies . Later , Pritchard deemed it convenient to accept this designation , despite its tenuousness , for minimal disruption to the already confused nomenclature of the species . The even more senior species synonym of californiana ( " californian " – Quoy & Gaimard , 1824a ) is considered a nomen oblitum ( " forgotten name " ) .
Previously , the Galápagos tortoise was considered to belong to the genus Geochelone , known as ' typical tortoises ' or ' terrestrial turtles ' . In the 1990s , subgenus Chelonoidis was elevated to generic status based on phylogenetic evidence which grouped the South American members of Geochelone into an independent clade ( branch of the tree of life ) . This nomenclature has been adopted by several authorities .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Within the archipelago , up to 15 subspecies of Galapagos tortoises have been identified , although only 11 survive to this day . Six are found on separate islands ; five of them on the volcanoes of Isabela Island . Several of the surviving subspecies are seriously endangered . One of the subspecies , C. n. abingdonii from Pinta Island , is considered extinct . The last known specimen , named Lonesome George , died in captivity on 24 June 2012 ; George had been mated with female tortoises of several other subspecies , but none of the eggs from these pairings hatched . The subspecies inhabiting Floreana Island ( G. elaphantopus ) is thought to have been hunted to extinction by 1850 , only 15 years after Charles Darwin 's landmark visit of 1835 , when he saw shells , but no live tortoises there . The existence of the C. n. phantastica subspecies of Fernandina Island is disputed , as it was described from a single specimen that may have been an artificial introduction to the island . However , recent DNA testing shows that an intermixed , non @-@ native population currently existing on the island of Isabela is of genetic resemblance to the subspecies native to Floreana , suggesting that G. elephantopus has not gone entirely extinct .
Prior to widespread knowledge of the differences between the populations ( sometimes called races ) from different islands and volcanoes , captive collections in zoos were indiscriminately mixed . Fertile offspring resulted from pairings of animals from different races . However , captive crosses between tortoises from different races have lower fertility and higher mortality than those between tortoises of the same race , and captives in mixed herds normally direct courtship only toward members of the same race .
The valid scientific names of each of the individual populations are not universally accepted , and some researchers consider each subspecies to be a full species . The taxonomic status of the various races is not fully resolved .
= = Evolutionary history = =
All subspecies of Galápagos tortoises evolved from common ancestors that arrived from mainland South America by overwater dispersal . Genetic studies have shown that the Chaco tortoise of Argentina and Paraguay is their closest living relative . The minimal founding population was a pregnant female or a breeding pair . Survival on the 1000 @-@ km oceanic journey is accounted for because the tortoises are buoyant , can breathe by extending their necks above the water , and are able to survive months without food or fresh water . As they are poor swimmers , the journey was probably a passive one facilitated by the Humboldt Current , which diverts westwards towards the Galápagos Islands from the mainland . The ancestors of the genus Chelonoidis are believed to have similarly dispersed from Africa to South America during the Oligocene .
The closest living relative ( though not a direct ancestor ) of the Galápagos giant tortoise is the Chaco tortoise ( Chelonoidis chilensis ) , a much smaller species from South America . The divergence between C. chilensis and C. nigra probably occurred 6 – 12 million years ago , an evolutionary event preceding the volcanic formation of the oldest modern Galápagos Islands 5 million years ago . Mitochondrial DNA analysis indicates that the oldest existing islands ( Española and San Cristóbal ) were colonised first , and that these populations seeded the younger islands via dispersal in a " stepping stone " fashion via local currents . Restricted gene flow between isolated islands then resulted in the independent evolution of the populations into the divergent forms observed in the modern subspecies . The evolutionary relationships between the subspecies thus echo the volcanic history of the islands .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Modern DNA methods have revealed new information on the relationships between the subspecies :
Isabela Island
The five populations living on the largest island , Isabela , are the ones that are the subject of the most debate as to whether they are true subspecies or just distinct populations . It is widely accepted that the population living on the northernmost volcano , Volcan Wolf , is genetically independent from the four populations to the south and is therefore a separate subspecies . It is thought to be derived from a different colonization event than the others . A colonization from the island of Santiago apparently gave rise to the Volcan Wolf subspecies ( C. n. becki ) while the four southern populations are believed to be descended from a second colonization from the more southerly island of Santa Cruz . Tortoises from Santa Cruz are thought to have first colonized the Sierra Negra volcano , which was the first of the island 's volcanoes to form . The tortoises then spread north to each newly created volcano , resulting in the populations living on Volcan Alcedo and then Volcan Darwin . Recent genetic evidence shows that these two populations are genetically distinct from each other and from the population living on Sierra Negra ( C. n. guentheri ) and therefore form the subspecies C. n. vandenburghi ( Alcedo ) and C. n. microphyes ( Darwin ) . The fifth population living on the southernmost volcano ( C. n. vicina ) is thought to have split off from the Sierra Negra population more recently and is therefore not as genetically different as the other two . Isabela is the most recently formed island tortoises inhabit , so its populations have had less time to evolve independently than populations on other islands , but according to some researchers , they are all genetically different and should each be considered as separate subspecies .
Floreana Island
Phylogenetic analysis may help to " resurrect " the extinct subspecies of Floreana ( C. n. nigra ) — a subspecies known only from subfossil remains . Some tortoises from Isabela were found to be a partial match for the genetic profile of Floreana specimens from museum collections , possibly indicating the presence of hybrids from a population transported by humans from Floreana to Isabela , resulting either from individuals deliberately transported between the islands , or from individuals thrown overboard from ships to lighten the load . Nine Floreana descendants have been identified in the captive population of the Fausto Llerena Breeding Center on Santa Cruz ; the genetic footprint was identified in the genomes of hybrid offspring . This allows the possibility of re @-@ establishing a reconstructed subspecies from selective breeding of the hybrid animals . Furthermore , individuals from the subspecies possibly are still extant . Genetic analysis from a sample of tortoises from Volcan Wolf found 84 first @-@ generation C. n. nigra hybrids , some less than 15 years old . The genetic diversity of these individuals is estimated to have required 38 C. n. nigra parents , many of which could still be alive on Isabela Island .
Pinta Island
The Pinta Island subspecies ( C. n. abingdonii , now extinct ) has been found to be most closely related to the subspecies on the islands of San Cristóbal ( C. n. chathamensis ) and Española ( C. n. hoodensis ) which lie over 300 km ( 190 mi ) away , rather than that on the neighbouring island of Isabela as previously assumed . This relationship is attributable to dispersal by the strong local current from San Cristóbal towards Pinta . This discovery informed further attempts to preserve the C. n. abingdonii lineage and the search for an appropriate mate for Lonesome George , which had been penned with females from Isabela . Hope was bolstered by the discovery of a C. n. abingdonii hybrid male in the Volcán Wolf population on northern Isabela , raising the possibility that more undiscovered living Pinta descendants exist .
Santa Cruz Island
Mitochondrial DNA studies of tortoises on Santa Cruz show up to three genetically distinct lineages found in nonoverlapping population distributions around the regions of Cerro Monturra , Cerro Fatal , and La Caseta . Although traditionally grouped into a single subspecies ( C. n. porteri ) , the lineages are all more closely related to tortoises on other islands than to each other : Cerro Monturra tortoises are most closely related to G. n. duncanensis from Pinzón , Cerro Fatal to G. n. chathamensis from San Cristóbal , and La Caseta to the four southern races of Isabela as well as Floreana tortoises .
In 2015 , the Cerro Fatal tortoises were described as a distinct taxon , donfaustoi . Prior to the identification of this subspecies through genetic analysis , it was noted that there existed differences in shells between the Cerro Fatal tortoises and other tortoises on Santa Cruz . By classifying the Cerro Fatal tortoises into a new taxon , greater attention can be paid to protecting its habitat , according to Adalgisa Caccone , who is a member of the team making this classification .
Pinzón Island
When it was discovered that the central , small island of Pinzón had only 100 – 200 very old adults and no young tortoises had survived into adulthood for perhaps more than 70 years , the resident scientists initiated what would eventually become the Giant Tortoise Breeding and Rearing Program . Over the next 50 years , this program resulted in major successes in the recovery of giant tortoise populations throughout the archipelago .
In 1965 , the first tortoise eggs collected from natural nests on Pinzón Island were brought to the Charles Darwin Research Station , where they would complete the period of incubation and then hatch , becoming the first young tortoises to be reared in captivity . The introduction of black rats onto Pinzón sometime in the latter half of the 19th century had resulted in the complete eradication of all young tortoises . Black rats had been eating both tortoise eggs and hatchlings , effectively destroying the future of the tortoise population . Only the longevity of giant tortoises allowed them to survive until conservation scientists and managers began to focus on Galapagos and the long path back to ecosystem restoration .
Española
On the southern island of Española , only 14 adult tortoises were found , two males and 12 females . The tortoises apparently were not encountering one another , so no reproduction was occurring . Between 1963 and 1974 , all 14 adult tortoises discovered on the island were brought to the tortoise center on Santa Cruz and a tortoise breeding program was initiated . In 1977 , a third Española male tortoise was returned to Galapagos from the San Diego Zoo and joined the breeding group . After 40 years ' work reintroducing captive animals , a detailed study of the island 's ecosystem has confirmed it has a stable , breeding population . Where once 15 were known , now more than 1 @,@ 000 giant tortoises inhabit the island of Española . One research team has found that more than half the tortoises released since the first reintroductions are still alive , and they are breeding well enough for the population to progress onward , unaided .
Subspecies of doubtful existence
Subspecies were described from three other islands , but their existence is based on scant evidence . The purported Rábida Island subspecies ( C. n. wallacei ) was described from a single specimen collected by the California Academy of Sciences in December 1905 , which has since been lost . This individual was probably an artificial introduction from another island that was originally penned on Rábida next to a good anchorage , as no contemporary whaling or sealing logs mention removing tortoises from this island . The C. n. phantastica subspecies from Fernandina is known from a single specimen — an old male from the voyage of 1905 @-@ 06 . No other tortoises or remains have been found on the island , suggesting the specimen was an artificial introduction from elsewhere . Fernandina has neither human settlements nor feral mammals , so if this subspecies ever did exist , its extinction must have been by natural means , such as volcanic activity . The Santa Fe subspecies has no binomial name , having been described from the limited evidence of bone fragments ( but no shells , the most durable part ) of 14 individuals , old eggs , and old dung found on the island in 1905 @-@ 06 . The island has never been inhabited by man nor had any introduced predators . The remains are considered artificial introductions , possibly from camping at the good anchorage on the island .
= = Description = =
The tortoises have a large bony carapace ( shell ) of a dull brown colour . The plates of the shell are fused with the ribs in a rigid protective structure that is integral to the skeleton . Lichens can grow on the shells of these slow @-@ moving animals . Tortoises keep a characteristic scute ( shell segment ) pattern on their shells throughout life , though the annual growth bands are not useful for determining age because the outer layers are worn off with time . A tortoise can withdraw its head , neck , and fore limbs into its shell for protection . The legs are large and stumpy , with dry , scaly skin and hard scales . The front legs have five claws , the back legs four .
= = = Gigantism = = =
The discoverer of the Galápagos Islands , Fray Tomás de Berlanga , Bishop of Panama , wrote in 1535 of " such big tortoises that each could carry a man on top of himself . " Naturalist Charles Darwin remarked after his trip three centuries later in 1835 , " These animals grow to an immense size ... several so large that it required six or eight men to lift them from the ground " . The largest recorded individuals have reached weights of over 400 kg ( 880 lb ) and lengths of 1 @.@ 87 meters ( 6 @.@ 1 ft ) . Size overlap is extensive with the Aldabra giant tortoise however taken as a species , the Galápagos tortoise seems to average slightly larger , with weights in excess of 185 kg ( 408 lb ) being slightly more commonplace . Weights in the larger bodied subspecies range from 272 to 317 kg ( 600 to 699 lb ) in mature males and from 136 to 181 kg ( 300 to 399 lb ) in adult females . However , the size is variable across the islands and subspecies , those from Pinzón Island are relatively small with a maximum known weight of 76 kg ( 168 lb ) and carapace length of approximately 61 cm ( 24 in ) compared to 75 to 150 cm ( 30 to 59 in ) range in tortoises from Santa Cruz Island . The tortoises ' gigantism was probably a trait useful on continents that was fortuitously helpful for successful colonisation of these remote oceanic islands rather than an example of evolved insular gigantism . Large tortoises would have a greater chance of surviving the journey over water from the mainland as they can hold their heads a greater height above the water level and have a smaller surface area / volume ratio , which reduces osmotic water loss . Their significant water and fat reserves would allow the tortoises to survive long ocean crossings without food or fresh water , and to endure the drought @-@ prone climate of the islands . A larger size allowed them to better tolerate extremes of temperature due to gigantothermy . Fossil giant tortoises from mainland South America have been described that support this hypothesis of gigantism that pre @-@ existed the colonization of islands .
= = = Shell shape = = =
Galapagos tortoises possess two main shell forms that correlate with the biogeographic history of the species group . They exhibit a spectrum of carapace morphology ranging from " saddleback " ( denoting upward arching of the front edge of the shell resembling a saddle ) to " domed " ( denoting a rounded convex surface resembling a dome ) . When a saddleback tortoise withdraws its head and forelimbs into its shell , a large unprotected gap remains over the neck , evidence of the lack of predation during the evolution of this structure . Larger islands with humid highlands over 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) in elevation , such as Santa Cruz , have abundant vegetation near the ground . Tortoises native to these environments tend to have domed shells and are larger , with shorter necks and limbs . Saddleback tortoises originate from small islands less than 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) in elevation with dry habitats ( e.g. Española and Pinzón ) that are more limited in food and other resources . Two lineages of Galapagos tortoises possess the Island of Santa Cruz and when observed it is concluded that despite the shared similarities of growth patterns and morphological changes observed during growth , the two lineages and two sexes can be distinguished on the basis of distinct carapace features . Lineages differ by the shape of the vertebral and pleural scutes . Females have a more elongated and wider carapace shape than males . Carapace shape changes with growth , with vertebral scutes becoming narrower and pleural scutes becoming larger during late ontogeny .
Evolutionary implications
In combination with proportionally longer necks and limbs , the unusual saddleback carapace structure is thought to be an adaptation to increase vertical reach , which enables the tortoise to browse tall vegetation such as the Opuntia ( prickly pear ) cactus that grows in arid environments . Saddlebacks are more territorial and smaller than domed varieties , possibly adaptations to limited resources . Alternatively , larger tortoises may be better @-@ suited to high elevations because they can resist the cooler temperatures that occur with cloud cover or fog .
A competing hypothesis is that , rather than being principally a feeding adaptation , the distinctive saddle shape and longer extremities might have been a secondary sexual characteristic of saddleback males . Male competition over mates is settled by dominance displays on the basis of vertical neck height rather than body size ( see below ) . This correlates with the observation that saddleback males are more aggressive than domed males . The shell distortion and elongation of the limbs and neck in saddlebacks is probably an evolutionary compromise between the need for a small body size in dry conditions and a high vertical reach for dominance displays .
The saddleback carapace probably evolved independently several times in dry habitats , since genetic similarity between populations does not correspond to carapace shape . Saddleback tortoises are , therefore , not necessarily more closely related to each other than to their domed counterparts , as shape is not determined by a similar genetic background , but by a similar ecological one .
Sexual dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism is most pronounced in saddleback populations in which males have more angled and higher front openings , giving a more extreme saddled appearance . Males of all varieties generally have longer tails and shorter , concave undershells with thickened knobs at the back edge to facilitate mating . Males are larger than females — adult males weigh around 272 – 317 kg ( 600 – 699 lb ) while females are 136 – 181 kg ( 300 – 399 lb ) .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Routine = = =
The tortoises are ectothermic ( cold @-@ blooded ) , so bask for 1 – 2 hours after dawn to absorb the sun 's heat through their dark shells before actively foraging for 8 – 9 hours a day . They travel mostly in the early morning or late afternoon between resting and grazing areas . They have been observed to walk at a speed of 0 @.@ 3 km / h ( 0 @.@ 2 mph ) .
On the larger and more humid islands , the tortoises seasonally migrate between low elevations , which become grassy plains in the wet season , and meadowed areas of higher elevation ( up to 2 @,@ 000 ft ( 610 m ) ) in the dry season . The same routes have been used for many generations , creating well @-@ defined paths through the undergrowth known as " tortoise highways " . On these wetter islands , the domed tortoises are gregarious and often found in large herds , in contrast to the more solitary and territorial disposition of the saddleback tortoises .
Tortoises sometimes rest in mud wallows or rain @-@ formed pools , which may be both a thermoregulatory response during cool nights , and a protection from parasites such as mosquitoes and ticks . Parasites are countered by taking dust baths in loose soil . Some tortoises have been noted to shelter at night under overhanging rocks . - others have been observed sleeping in a snug depression in the earth or brush called a " pallet " . Local tortoises using the same pallet sites , such as on Volcán Alcedo , results in the formation of small , sandy pits .
= = = Diet = = =
The tortoises are herbivores that consume a diet of cacti , grasses , leaves , lichens , and berries . They have been documented feeding on Hippomane mancinella ( ' poison apple ' ) , the endemic guava Psidium galapageium , the water fern Azolla microphylla , and the bromeliad Tillandsia insularis . Juvenile tortoises eat an average of 16 @.@ 7 % of their own body weight in dry matter per day , with a digestive efficiency roughly equal to that of hindgut @-@ fermenting herbivorous mammals such as horses and rhinos . The tortoises are herbivores that consume a diet of cacti , grasses , leaves , lichens , berries , melons , oranges , and milkweed .
Tortoises acquire most of their moisture from the dew and sap in vegetation ( particularly the Opuntia cactus ) ; therefore , they can survive longer than 6 months without water . They can endure up to a year when deprived of all food and water , surviving by breaking down their body fat to produce water as a byproduct . Tortoises also have very slow metabolisms . When thirsty , they may drink large quantities of water very quickly , storing it in their bladders and the " root of the neck " ( the pericardium ) , both of which served to make them useful water sources on ships . On arid islands , tortoises lick morning dew from boulders , and the repeated action over many generations has formed half @-@ sphere depressions in the rock .
= = = Senses = = =
Regarding their senses , Charles Darwin observed , " The inhabitants believe that these animals are absolutely deaf ; certainly they do not overhear a person walking near behind them . I was always amused , when overtaking one of these great monsters as it was quietly pacing along , to see how suddenly , the instant I passed , it would draw in its head and legs , and uttering a deep hiss fall to the ground with a heavy sound , as if struck dead . " Although they are not deaf , tortoises depend far more on vision and smell as stimuli than hearing .
= = = Mutualism = = =
Tortoises share a mutualistic relationship with some species of Galápagos finch and mockingbirds . Small groups of finches initiate the process by hopping on the ground in an exaggerated fashion facing the tortoise . The tortoise signals it is ready by rising up and extending its neck and legs , enabling the birds to reach otherwise inaccessible spots on the tortoise 's body such as the neck , rear legs , cloacal opening , and skin between plastron and carapace . The birds benefit from the food source and the tortoises get rid of irritating ectoparasites .
Some tortoises have been observed to insidiously exploit this mutualistic relationship . After rising and extending its limbs , the bird may go beneath the tortoise to investigate , whereupon suddenly the tortoise withdraws its limbs to drop flat and kill the bird . It then steps back to eat the bird , presumably to supplement its diet with protein .
= = = Mating = = =
Mating occurs at any time of the year , although it does have seasonal peaks between February and June in the humid uplands during the rainy season . When mature males meet in the mating season , they face each other in a ritualised dominance display , rise up on their legs , and stretch up their necks with their mouths gaping open . Occasionally , head @-@ biting occurs , but usually the shorter tortoise backs off , conceding mating rights to the victor . The behaviour is most pronounced in saddleback subspecies , which are more aggressive and have longer necks .
The prelude to mating can be very aggressive , as the male forcefully rams the female 's shell with his own and nips her legs . Mounting is an awkward process and the male must stretch and tense to maintain equilibrium in a slanting position . The concave underside of the male 's shell helps him to balance when straddled over the female 's shell , and brings his cloacal vent ( which houses the penis ) closer to the female 's dilated cloaca . During mating , the male vocalises with hoarse bellows and grunts , described as " rhythmic groans " . This is one of the few vocalisations the tortoise makes ; other noises are made during aggressive encounters , when struggling to right themselves , and hissing as they withdraw into their shells due to the forceful expulsion of air .
= = = Egg @-@ laying = = =
Females journey up to several kilometres in July to November to reach nesting areas of dry , sandy coast . Nest digging is a tiring and elaborate task which may take the female several hours a day over many days to complete . It is carried out blindly using only the hind legs to dig a 30 cm ( 12 in ) -deep cylindrical hole , in which the tortoise then lays up to 16 spherical , hard @-@ shelled eggs ranging from 82 to 157 grams ( 2 @.@ 9 to 5 @.@ 5 oz ) in mass , and the size of a billiard ball . Some observations suggest that the average clutch size for domed populations ( 9 @.@ 6 per clutch for C. n. porteri on Santa Cruz ) is larger than that of saddlebacks ( 4 @.@ 6 per clutch for C. n. duncanensis on Pinzón ) . The female makes a muddy plug for the nest hole out of soil mixed with urine , seals the nest by pressing down firmly with her plastron , and leaves them to be incubated by the sun . Females may lay one to four clutches per season . Temperature plays a role in the sex of the hatchlings , with lower @-@ temperature nests producing more males and higher @-@ temperature nests producing more females . This is related closely to incubation time , since clutches laid early incubate during the cool season and have longer incubation periods ( producing more males ) , while eggs laid later incubate for a shorter period in the hot season ( producing more females ) .
= = = Early life and maturation = = =
Young animals emerge from the nest after four to eight months and may weigh only 50 g ( 1 @.@ 8 oz ) and measure 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) . When the young tortoises emerge from their shells , they must dig their way to the surface , which can take several weeks , though their yolk sac can sustain them up to seven months . In particularly dry conditions , the hatchlings may die underground if they are encased by hardened soil , while flooding of the nest area can drown them . Subspecies are initially indistinguishable as they all have domed carapaces . The young stay in warmer lowland areas for their first 10 – 15 years , encountering hazards such as falling into cracks , being crushed by falling rocks , or excessive heat stress . The Galápagos hawk was formerly the sole native predator of the tortoise hatchlings ; Darwin wrote : " The young tortoises , as soon as they are hatched , fall prey in great numbers to the buzzard " . The hawk is now much rarer , but introduced feral pigs , dogs , cats , and black rats have become predators of eggs and young tortoises . The adult tortoises have no natural predators apart from humans ; Darwin noted : " The old ones seem generally to die from accidents , as from falling down precipices . At least several of the inhabitants told me , they had never found one dead without some such apparent cause " .
Sexual maturity is reached at around 20 – 25 years in captivity , possibly 40 years in the wild . Life expectancy in the wild is thought to be over 100 years , making it one of the longest @-@ lived species in the animal kingdom . Harriet , a specimen kept in Australia Zoo , was the oldest known Galápagos tortoise , having reached an estimated age of more than 170 years before her death in 2006 . Chambers notes that Harriet was probably 169 years old in 2004 , although media outlets claimed the greater age of 175 at death based on a less reliable timeline .
= = Darwin 's development of theory of evolution = =
Charles Darwin visited the Galápagos for five weeks on the second voyage of HMS Beagle in 1835 and saw Galápagos tortoises on San Cristobal ( Chatham ) and Santiago ( James ) Islands . They appeared several times in his writings and journals , and played a role in the development of the theory of evolution .
Darwin wrote in his account of the voyage :
" I have not as yet noticed by far the most remarkable feature in the natural history of this archipelago ; it is , that the different islands to a considerable extent are inhabited by a different set of beings . My attention was first called to this fact by the Vice @-@ Governor , Mr. Lawson , declaring that the tortoises differed from the different islands , and that he could with certainty tell from which island any one was brought ... The inhabitants , as I have said , state that they can distinguish the tortoises from the different islands ; and that they differ not only in size , but in other characters . Captain Porter has described * those from Charles and from the nearest island to it , namely , Hood Island , as having their shells in front thick and turned up like a Spanish saddle , while the tortoises from James Island are rounder , blacker , and have a better taste when cooked . "
The significance of the differences in tortoises between islands did not strike him as important until it was too late , as he continued ,
" I did not for some time pay sufficient attention to this statement , and I had already partially mingled together the collections from two of the islands . I never dreamed that islands , about fifty or sixty miles apart , and most of them in sight of each other , formed of precisely the same rocks , placed under a quite similar climate , rising to a nearly equal height , would have been differently tenanted " .
Though the Beagle departed from the Galápagos with over 30 adult tortoises on deck , these were not for scientific study , but a source of fresh meat for the Pacific crossing . Their shells and bones were thrown overboard , leaving no remains with which to test any hypotheses . It has been suggested that this oversight was made because Darwin only reported seeing tortoises on San Cristóbal ( C. n. chathamensis ) and Santiago ( C. n. darwini ) , both of which have an intermediate type of shell shape and are not particularly morphologically distinct from each other . Though he did visit Floreana , the C. n. nigra subspecies found there was already nearly extinct and he was unlikely to have seen any mature animals .
However , Darwin did have four live juvenile specimens to compare from different islands . These were pet tortoises taken by himself ( from San Salvador ) , his captain FitzRoy ( two from Española ) and his servant Syms Covington ( from Floreana ) . Unfortunately , they could not help to determine whether each island had its own variety because the specimens were not mature enough to exhibit morphological differences . Although the British Museum had a few specimens , their provenance within the Galápagos was unknown . However , conversations with the naturalist Gabriel Bibron , who had seen the mature tortoises of the Paris Natural History Museum confirmed to Darwin that distinct varieties occurred .
Darwin later compared the different tortoise forms with those of mockingbirds , in the first tentative statement linking his observations from the Galapagos with the possibility of species transmuting :
" When I recollect the fact that [ from ] the form of the body , shape of scales and general size , the Spaniards can at once pronounce from which island any tortoise may have been brought ; when I see these islands in sight of each other and possessed of but a scanty stock of animals , tenanted by these birds , but slightly differing in structure and filling the same place in nature ; I must suspect they are only varieties ... If there is the slightest foundation for these remarks , the zoology of archipelagos will be well worth examining ; for such facts would undermine the stability of species . "
His views on the mutability of species were restated in his notebooks : " animals on separate islands ought to become different if kept long enough apart with slightly differing circumstances . – Now Galapagos Tortoises , Mocking birds , Falkland Fox , Chiloe fox , – Inglish and Irish Hare . " These observations served as counterexamples to the prevailing contemporary view that species were individually created .
Darwin also found these " antediluvian animals " to be a source of diversion : " I frequently got on their backs , and then giving a few raps on the hinder part of their shells , they would rise up and walk away ; — but I found it very difficult to keep my balance " .
= = Conservation = =
Several waves of human exploitation of the tortoises as a food source caused a decline in the total wild population from around 250 @,@ 000 when first discovered in the 16th century to a low of 3 @,@ 060 individuals in a 1974 census . Modern conservation efforts have subsequently brought tortoise numbers up to 19 @,@ 317 ( estimate for 1995 – 2009 ) .
The subspecies C. n. nigra became extinct by human exploitation in the 19th century . Another subspecies , C. n. abingdonii , became extinct on 24 June 2012 with the death in captivity of the last remaining specimen , a male named Lonesome George , the world 's " rarest living creature " . All the other surviving subspecies are listed by the IUCN as at least " Vulnerable " in conservation status , if not worse .
= = = Historical exploitation = = =
An estimated 200 @,@ 000 animals were taken before the 20th century . The relatively immobile and defenceless tortoises were collected and stored live on board ships , where they could survive for at least a year without food or water ( some anecdotal reports suggest individuals surviving two years ) , providing valuable fresh meat , while their diluted urine and the water stored in their neck bags could be used as drinking water . The 17th @-@ century British pirate , explorer , and naturalist William Dampier wrote , " They are so extraordinarily large and fat , and so sweet , that no pullet eats more pleasantly , " while Captain James Colnett of the British Navy wrote of " the land tortoise which in whatever way it was dressed , was considered by all of us as the most delicious food we had ever tasted . " US Navy captain David Porter declared , " after once tasting the Galapagos tortoises , every other animal food fell off greatly in our estimation ... The meat of this animal is the easiest of digestion , and a quantity of it , exceeding that of any other food , can be eaten without experiencing the slightest of inconvenience . " Darwin was less enthusiastic about the meat , writing " the breast @-@ plate roasted ( as the Gauchos do " carne con cuero " ) , with the flesh on it , is very good ; and the young tortoises make excellent soup ; but otherwise the meat to my taste is indifferent . "
In the 17th century , pirates started to use the Galápagos Islands as a base for resupply , restocking on food and water , and repairing vessels before attacking Spanish colonies on the South American mainland . However , the Galápagos tortoises did not struggle for survival at this point because the islands were distant from busy shipping routes and harboured few valuable natural resources . As such , they remained unclaimed by any nation , uninhabited and uncharted . In comparison , the tortoises of the islands in the Indian Ocean were already facing extinction by the late 17th century . Between the 1790s and the 1860s , whaling ships and fur sealers systematically collected tortoises in far greater numbers than the buccaneers preceding them . Some were used for food and many more were killed for high @-@ grade " turtle oil " from the late 19th century onward for lucrative sale to continental Ecuador . A total of over 13 @,@ 000 tortoises is recorded in the logs of whaling ships between 1831 and 1868 , and an estimated 100 @,@ 000 were taken before 1830 . Since it was easiest to collect tortoises around coastal zones , females were most vulnerable to depletion during the nesting season . The collection by whalers came to a halt eventually through a combination of the scarcity of tortoises that they had created and the competition from crude oil as a cheaper energy source .
Population decline accelerated with the early settlement of the islands in the early 19th century , leading to unregulated hunting for meat , habitat clearance for agriculture , and the introduction of alien mammal species . Feral pigs , dogs , cats , and black rats have become predators of eggs and young tortoises , whilst goats , donkeys , and cattle compete for grazing and trample nest sites . The extinction of the Floreana subspecies in the mid @-@ 19th century has been attributed to the combined pressures of hunting for the penal colony on the relatively small island , the conversion of the grazing highlands into land for farming and fruit plantations , and the introduction of feral mammals .
Scientific collection expeditions took 661 tortoises between 1888 and 1930 , and more than 120 tortoises have been taken by poachers since 1990 . Threats continue today with the rapid expansion of the tourist industry and increasing size of human settlements on the islands . The Tortoises are down from 15 different types of species when Darwin first arrived down to 11 .
Threats
Introduced mammals
Galapagos Hawk prey on eggs and hatchlings
Poachers
Destruction of habitat
Characteristics that make vulnerable
Slow growth rate
Late Sexual maturity
Can only be found on Galapagos Island
Large size and slow moving
Collection
The tortoises of the Galápagos ’ island were not only hunted for the oil that they held for fuel but also once they were becoming more and more extinct people began to pay to have them in their collections , as well as being put into museums .
= = = Modern conservation = = =
The remaining subspecies of tortoise range in IUCN classification from extinct in the wild to vulnerable . Slow growth rate , late sexual maturity , and island endemism make the tortoises particularly prone to extinction without help from conservationists . The Galápagos giant tortoise has become a flagship species for conservation efforts throughout the Galápagos .
Legal protection
The Galápagos giant tortoise is now strictly protected and is listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora . The listing requires that trade in the taxon and its products is subject to strict regulation by ratifying states , and international trade for primarily commercial purposes is prohibited . In 1936 , the Ecuadorian government listed the giant tortoise as a protected species . In 1959 , it declared all uninhabited areas in the Galápagos to be a national park and established the Charles Darwin Foundation . In 1970 , capturing or removing many species from the islands ( including tortoises and their eggs ) was banned . To halt trade in the tortoises altogether , it became illegal to export the tortoises from Ecuador , captive or wild , continental , or insular in provenance . The banning of their exportation resulted in automatic prohibition of importation to the United States under Public Law 91 @-@ 135 ( 1969 ) . A 1971 Ecuadorian decree made it illegal to damage , remove , alter , or disturb any organism , rock , or other natural object in the National Park .
Captive breeding
With the establishment of the Galapagos National Park and the CDF in 1959 , a review of the status of the tortoise populations began . Only 11 of the 14 original populations remained and most of these were endangered if not already on the brink of extinction . The breeding and rearing program for giant tortoises began in response to the condition of the population on Pinzón , where fewer than 200 old adults were found . All of the hatchlings had been killed by introduced black rats , for perhaps more than a century . Without help , this population would eventually disappear . The only thing saving it was the longevity of the tortoise .
Breeding and release programs began in 1965 and have successfully brought seven of the eight endangered subspecies up to less perilous population levels . Young tortoises are raised at several breeding centres across the islands to improve their survival during their vulnerable early development . Eggs are collected from threatened nesting sites , and the hatched young are given a head start by being kept in captivity for four to five years to reach a size with a much better chance of survival to adulthood , before release onto their native ranges .
The most significant population recovery was that of the Española tortoise ( C. n. hoodensis ) , which was saved from near @-@ certain extinction . The population had been depleted to three males and 12 females that had been so widely dispersed that no mating in the wild had occurred . Fruitless attempts to breed one of the tortoises , Lonesome George for example , is speculated to be attributed to a lack of postnatal cues , and confusion over which would be the most appropriate genetic subspecies would be the most appropriate to mate him with on the islands . The 15 remaining tortoises were brought to the Charles Darwin Research Station in 1971 for a captive breeding program and , in the following 33 years , they gave rise to over 1 @,@ 200 progeny which were released onto their home island and have since begun to reproduce naturally .
Island restoration
The Galápagos National Park Service systematically culls feral predators and competitors . Goat eradication on islands , including Pinta , was achieved by the technique of using " Judas " goats with radio location collars to find the herds . Marksmen then shot all the goats except the Judas , and then returned weeks later to find the " Judas " and shoot the herd to which it had relocated . Goats were removed from Pinta Island after a 30 @-@ year eradication campaign , the largest removal of an insular goat population using ground @-@ based methods . Over 41 @,@ 000 goats were removed during the initial hunting effort ( 1971 – 82 ) . This process was repeated until only the " Judas " goat remained , which was then killed . Other measures have included dog eradication from San Cristóbal , and fencing off nests to protect them from feral pigs .
Efforts are now underway to repopulate islands formerly inhabited by tortoises to restore their ecosystems ( island restoration ) to their condition before humans arrived . The tortoises are a keystone species , acting as ecosystem engineers which help in plant seed dispersal and trampling down brush and thinning the understory of vegetation ( allowing light to penetrate and germination to occur ) . Birds such as flycatchers perch on and fly around tortoises to hunt the insects they displace from the brush . In May 2010 , 39 sterilised tortoises of hybrid origin were introduced to Pinta Island , the first tortoises there since the evacuation of Lonesome George 38 years before . Sterile tortoises were released so the problem of interbreeding between subspecies would be avoided if any fertile tortoises were to be released in the future . It is hoped that with the recent identification of a hybrid C. n. abingdonii tortoise , the approximate genetic constitution of the original inhabitants of Pinta may eventually be restored with the identification and relocation of appropriate specimens to this island . This approach may be used to " retortoise " Floreana in the future , since captive individuals have been found to be descended from the extinct original stock .
Escape from extinction
Tortoises did not go extinct due to their mutations and adaptions through Darwin ’ s theory . While having a low number in the islands they were able to maintain and be able to repopulate due to genetics and their low @-@ fecundity stress , which allows inbreeding with little to no affect of inbreeding as humans see .
Farming
Due to the Tortoises being a low @-@ fecundity stress animal and being able to inbreeding without complications this also allowed them to be farmed in small areas . It also revealed their ability to be able to breed in captivity , which is common for most animals to be under heavy stress and have trouble breeding while in captivity . Also this brings them into more a domestic role in society and able to farm for their eggs and become apart of a community and bring food to the people in that area .
Applied science
The Galapagos Tortoise Movement Ecology Programme is a collaborative project coordinated by Dr Stephen Blake of the Max Planck Institute for Ornithology . Its goal is to assist the Galapagos National Park to effectively conserve giant tortoises by conducting cutting @-@ edge applied science , and developing an inspirational tortoise @-@ based outreach and education programme . Since 2009 , the project team have been analysing the movements of giant tortoises by tracking them via satellite tags . As of November 2014 , the team have tagged 83 tortoises from four species on three islands . They have established that giant tortoises conduct migrations up and down volcanoes , primarily in response to seasonal changes in the availability and quality of vegetation . In 2015 they will start to track the movements of hatchling and juvenile tortoises , supported by the UK 's Galapagos Conservation Trust .
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= Texas A & M University =
Texas A & M University ( Texas A & M , TAMU / ˈtæmuː / , or A & M ) is a coeducational public research university located in College Station , Texas , United States . It is the flagship institution of the Texas A & M University System , the fourth @-@ largest university in the United States and the largest university in Texas . The university enjoys a strong athletic program and fan following , known as the twelfth man , and is a member of the Southeastern Conference . It is consistently ranked among the top 20 public universities in the United States ; most notably , its engineering school ranks in the top 10 of public schools . Texas A & M 's designation as a land , sea , and space grant institution reflects a range of research with ongoing projects funded by agencies such as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) , the National Institutes of Health , the National Science Foundation , and the Office of Naval Research . The school ranks in the top 20 American research institutes in funding and has made contributions to such fields as animal cloning and petroleum engineering .
The first public institution of higher education in Texas , the school opened on October 4 , 1876 as the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas under the provisions of the Morrill Land @-@ Grant Acts . Originally , the college taught no classes in agriculture , instead concentrating on classical studies , languages , literature , and applied mathematics . After four years , students could attain degrees in scientific agriculture , civil and mechanical engineering , and language and literature . Under the leadership of President James Earl Rudder in the 1960s , A & M desegregated , became coeducational , and dropped the requirement for participation in the Corps of Cadets . To reflect the institution 's expanded roles and academic offerings , the Texas Legislature renamed the school to Texas A & M University in 1963 . The letters " A & M " , originally short for " Agricultural and Mechanical " , are retained only as a link to the university 's past . The school 's students , alumni , and sports teams are known as Aggies .
The main campus is one of the largest in the United States , spanning 5 @,@ 200 acres ( 21 km2 ) , and includes the George Bush Presidential Library . About one @-@ fifth of the student body lives on campus . Texas A & M has approximately 1 @,@ 000 officially recognized student organizations . Many students also observe the traditions of Texas A & M University , which govern daily life , as well as special occasions , including sports events . On July 1 , 2012 , the school joined the Southeastern Conference . A & M operates two branches : Texas A & M at Qatar and Texas A & M University at Galveston . Working with agencies such as the Texas AgriLife Research and Texas AgriLife Extension Service , Texas A & M has a direct presence in each of the 254 counties in Texas . The university offers degrees in over 150 courses of study through ten colleges and houses 18 research institutes . Texas A & M has awarded over 320 @,@ 000 degrees , including 70 @,@ 000 graduate and professional degrees .
As a Senior Military College , Texas A & M is one of six American public universities with a full @-@ time , volunteer Corps of Cadets who study alongside civilian undergraduate students .
= = History = =
= = = Beginning years = = =
The U.S. Congress laid the groundwork for the establishment of Texas A & M in 1862 with the adoption of the Morrill Act . The act auctioned land grants of public lands to establish endowments for colleges where the " leading object shall be , without excluding other scientific and classical studies and including military tactics , to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and mechanical arts ... to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life " . In 1871 , the Texas Legislature used these funds to establish the state 's first public institution of higher education , the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas , then known as Texas A.M.C. Brazos County donated 2 @,@ 416 acres ( 10 km2 ) near Bryan , Texas , for the school 's campus .
Enrollment began on October 2 , 1876 . Six students enrolled on the first day , and classes officially began on October 4 , 1876 , with six faculty members . During the first semester , enrollment increased to 48 students , and by the end of the spring 1877 semester , 106 students had enrolled . Admission was limited to white males , and all students were required to participate in the Corps of Cadets and receive military training . Although traditional Texas A & M University Corps of Cadets " campusologies " indicate 40 students began classes on October 4 , 1876 , the exact number of students enrolled on that day is unknown . Enrollment climbed to 258 students before declining to 108 students in 1883 , the year the University of Texas opened in Austin , Texas . Though originally envisioned and annotated in the Texas Constitution as a branch of the University of Texas , Texas A.M.C. had a separate Board of Directors from the University of Texas from the first day of classes and was never enveloped into the University of Texas System .
In the late 1880s , many Texas residents saw no need for two colleges in Texas and clamored for an end of Texas A.M.C. In 1891 , Texas A & M was saved from potential closure by its new president Lawrence Sullivan Ross , former governor of Texas , and well @-@ respected Confederate Brigadier General . Ross made many improvements to the school and enrollment doubled to 467 cadets as parents sent their sons to Texas A & M " to learn to be like Ross " . During his tenure , many enduring Aggie traditions were born , including the creation of the first Aggie Ring . After his death in 1898 , a statue was erected in front of what is now Academic Plaza to honor Ross and his achievements in the history of the school .
Under pressure from the legislature , in 1911 the school began allowing women to attend classes during the summer semester . At the same time , A & M began expanding its academic pursuits with the establishment of the School of Veterinary Medicine in 1915 .
= = = World Wars era = = =
Many Texas A & M graduates served during World War I. By 1918 , 49 % of all graduates of the college were in military service , more than any other school . In early September 1918 , the entire senior class enlisted , with plans to send the younger students at staggered dates throughout the next year . Many of the seniors were fighting in France when the war ended two months later . Over 1 @,@ 200 alumni served as commissioned officers . After the war , Texas A & M grew rapidly and became nationally recognized for its programs in agriculture , engineering , and military science . The first graduate school was organized in 1924 and the school awarded its first PhD in 1940 . In 1925 , Mary Evelyn Crawford Locke became the first female to receive a diploma from Texas A & M , although she was not allowed to participate in the graduation ceremony . The following month the Board of Directors officially prohibited all women from enrolling .
Many Aggies again served in the military during World War II , with the college producing 20 @,@ 229 combat troops . Of those , 14 @,@ 123 Aggies served as officers , more than any other school and more than the combined total of the United States Naval Academy and the United States Military Academy . During the war , 29 A & M graduates reached the rank of general .
At the start of World War II , Texas A & M was selected as one of six engineering colleges to participate in the Electronics Training Program , a ten @-@ month activity of 12 @-@ hour study days to train Navy personnel who were urgently needed to maintain the then @-@ new , highly complex electronic equipment such as radar . These colleges provided the Primary School , wherein the key topics of the first two years of a college electrical engineering curriculum were condensed into three months . The instructional effort at College Station was developed and led by Frank Bolton , EE department head and future Texas A & M president . At a given time , some 500 Navy students were on the campus , a significant fraction of the then @-@ years enrollment . Students graduating from the Primary Schools then went to a secondary school , one of which was at Ward Island , Texas ( the future location of Texas A & M University @-@ Corpus Christi ) .
Enrollment soared after the war as many former soldiers used the G.I. Bill to further their education . In 1948 , the state legislature formally recognized Texas A & M as a separate university system from the University of Texas System , codifying the de facto arrangement between the schools .
= = = University era = = =
On March 26 , 1960 , Major General James Earl Rudder , class of 1932 , became the 16th president of the college . Rudder 's tenure ( 1959 – 1970 ) marked a critical turning point in the school 's history . Under his leadership , Texas A & M underwent a dramatic expansion in its physical plant construction , but more importantly , it diversified and expanded its student body by admitting women and minorities . The Corps of Cadets became voluntary . In the face of growing student activism during the 1960s , Rudder worked diligently to ensure that the school continue to fulfill its mission of providing a quality education for all Aggies . By his death in 1970 , Rudder had overseen the growth of the school from 7 @,@ 500 to 14 @,@ 000 students from all 50 states and 75 nations .
In 1963 , the 58th Legislature of Texas approved of Rudder 's changes , and officially renamed the school " Texas A & M University " , specifying that the " A " and the " M " were purely symbolic , reflecting the school 's past , and no longer stood for " Agricultural and Mechanical " . In the following 35 years , Texas A & M more than tripled its enrollment from 14 @,@ 000 students to over 45 @,@ 000 .
Much of the legislative work allowing the expansion of Texas A & M and the admission of women was pushed by State Senator William T. " Bill " Moore , who served from 1949 to 1981 . Known as " the Bull of the Brazos " and " the father of the modern Texas A & M University " , Moore was a Bryan attorney and businessman originally from Wheelock in Robertson County . He also taught economics at TAMU before his entry into World War II .
Texas A & M became one of the first four universities given the designation sea @-@ grant for its achievements in oceanography and marine resources development in 1971 . In 1989 , the university earned the title space @-@ grant by NASA , to recognize its commitment to space research and participation in the Texas Space Grant Consortium .
In 1997 , the school became the home of the George Bush Presidential Library . Operated by the National Archives and Records Administration , it is one of thirteen American presidential libraries . Former President George Bush remains actively involved with the university , frequently visiting the campus and participating in special events .
In 1998 , activists on campus ( including Professor Patrick Slattery ) suggested the statue of Lawrence Sullivan Ross should be removed on the basis that he was a member of the Ku Klux Klan . Instead , Slattery and others wanted to create a " diversity plaza " , with a statue of Matthew Gaines , an African @-@ American politician . The project was abandoned in the wake of the Aggie Bonfire tragedy , in 1999 .
Texas A & M received national media attention on November 18 , 1999 , when Aggie Bonfire , a ninety @-@ year @-@ old student tradition , collapsed during construction . Twelve enrolled students and alumni died and twenty @-@ seven others were injured . The accident was later attributed to improper design and poor construction practices . The victims ' family members filed six lawsuits against Texas A & M officials , the Aggie Bonfire officials and the university . Half of the defendants settled their portion of the case in 2005 , and a federal appeals court dismissed the remaining lawsuits against the university in 2007 .
With strong support from Rice University and the University of Texas at Austin , the Association of American Universities inducted Texas A & M in May 2001 , on the basis of the depth of the university 's research and academic programs .
Texas A & M left the Big 12 Conference for the Southeastern Conference on July 1 , 2012 . This ended Texas A & M 's scheduled NCAA athletic competitions with three former Southwest Conference rivals – UT Austin , Baylor , and Texas Tech – for the foreseeable future .
The university underwent several large expansions in 2013 . On July 12 , 2013 , Texas A & M Health Science Center was formally merged into the university . On August 12 , 2013 the university purchased the Texas Wesleyan University School of Law and renamed it the Texas A & M School of Law . Texas A & M on October 23 , 2013 announced plans to build a new branch campus , Texas A & M University at Nazareth - Peace Campus , in Israel .
= = Academics = =
= = = Student body = = =
In the fall 2013 semester , Texas A & M was the fourth largest American university with an enrollment of 56 @,@ 255 students pursuing degrees in 10 academic colleges . The student body represents all 50 US states and 124 foreign countries . Texas residents account for 85 @.@ 9 % of the student population , and 33 @.@ 3 % are either of international origin or members of ethnic minority groups . The student body consists of 47 @.@ 3 % women and 52 @.@ 7 % men .
Although Texas A & M is a secular institution , its student body has a reputation for being religious and conservative . According to a 2005 student survey published in the Princeton Review , Texas A & M ranked 13th highest in the category " students pray on a regular basis " . Breakaway , a weekly , student @-@ organized , on @-@ campus prayer gathering , has attracted over 10 @,@ 000 students in 2012 , and is one of the largest of its kind in the United States . In 2009 , the Princeton Review ranked Texas A & M the eighth most socially conservative campus in the nation . The Princeton Review also ranked the university in 2012 as the " 10th least friendly " college in the United States for LGBT people , and the least friendly among public schools for LGBT people .
The university consistently ranks among the top ten public universities each year in enrollment of National Merit scholars . According to the College Board , the fall 2008 entering freshman class consisted of 54 % students in the top 10 % of their high school graduating class , 86 % in the top quarter , and 99 % in the top half . Seventy @-@ four percent of these students took the SAT . The middle 50 % of the freshmen had average scores as follows : in critical reading , 520 – 630 , math , 560 – 670 , and in writing 500 – 610 . Twenty @-@ six percent of the incoming freshmen took the ACT , with the middle 50 % scoring between a 23 and 29 . About 80 percent of the student body receives about $ 420 million in financial aid annually . The admission rate for students who applied as undergraduates in 2012 was 67 % . The school is rated as " selective " by US News & World Report .
In the fall 2008 semester , the Dwight Look College of Engineering had the largest enrollment of 20 @.@ 5 % . The College of Liberal Arts and the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences followed , enrolling 15 % and 14 % of the student body , respectively . The College of Education and Human Development enrolls 12 % , and Mays Business School enrolled about 11 % . Colleges with less than 10 % enrollment included the College of Architecture , the College of Science , the George Bush School of Government and Public Service , the College of Geosciences , and the College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences . Approximately 8 % of the student body had not declared a major .
In the fall 2011 semester , enrollment at Texas A & M surpassed 50 @,@ 000 for the first time . A record 50 @,@ 054 students were enrolled on the census day .
= = = Rankings = = =
In a comparison of educational quality , faculty quality , and research output , Shanghai Jiao Tong University ranked Texas A & M 51st nationally and 96th internationally in its 2014 rankings . In its 2014 @-@ 2015 rankings , The Times Higher Education Supplement listed Texas A & M 61st among North America 's universities , and 141st among world universities . The 2012 / 2013 QS World University Rankings ranked the university 165th overall in the world . In its 2013 edition , the Center for World University Rankings ranked Texas A & M as the 80th university globally and 50th university nationally .
In the 2014 edition of the U.S. News and World Report ranking of national universities , the school is 68th . In the U.S. News and World Report ranking , Texas A & M tied with Worcester Polytechnic Institute . According to The Washington Monthly criteria , which weigh research , community service , and social mobility , Texas A & M ranks third nationally in 2015 . The John Templeton Foundation listed Texas A & M as one of the thirty @-@ five American college programs that " communicate [ s ] the values of honesty , trust , respect , responsibility , integrity , and fairness in the classroom " . The 2011 Kiplinger 's Personal Finance ranked the school as the 23rd best @-@ value public university on the basis of in @-@ state tuition , and the 35th best @-@ value public university on the basis of out @-@ of @-@ state tuition . After conducting a survey of leading employment recruiters , The Wall Street Journal ranked Texas A & M 2nd nationally , as " most likely to help students land a job in key careers and professions " . In 2009 the National Science Foundation has recognized Texas A & M as one of the top 20 research institutions .
= = = Endowment = = =
Texas A & M has an endowment valued at more than $ 11 billion ( system @-@ wide ) , which ranks second among U.S. public universities and 7th overall . Apart from revenue received from tuition and research grants , the university , as part of the Texas A & M University System ( TAMUS ) , is partially funded from two endowments . The smaller endowment , totaling $ 1 @.@ 17 billion in assets , is run by the private Texas A & M Foundation . A larger sum is distributed from the Texas Permanent University Fund ( PUF ) . TAMUS holds a minority stake ( one @-@ third ) in this fund ; the remaining two @-@ thirds belongs to the University of Texas System . As of 2006 , the PUF ending net asset value stood at $ 10 @.@ 3 billion ; $ 400 @.@ 7 million was distributed to the two university systems in fiscal year 2007 . Combined , the total endowment for the TAMUS stands at $ 11 @.@ 1 billion , as of 2015 .
= = = Research = = =
The Texas A & M University system , in 2006 , was the first to explicitly state in its policy that technology commercialization was a criterion that could be used for tenure . Passage of this policy was intended to give faculty more academic freedom and strengthen the university 's industry partnerships . Texas A & M works with both state and university agencies on various local and international research projects to forge innovations in science and technology that can have commercial applications . This work is concentrated in two primary locations – Research Valley and Research Park . Research Valley , an alliance of educational and business organizations , consists of 11 @,@ 400 acres ( 50 km2 ) with 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 square feet ( 232 @,@ 000 m2 ) of dedicated research space . An additional 350 acres ( 1 km2 ) , with 500 @,@ 000 square feet ( 46 @,@ 000 m2 ) of research space , is located in Research Park . Among the school 's research entities are the Texas Institute for Genomic Medicine , the Texas Transportation Institute , the Cyclotron Institute , the Institute of Biosciences and Technology , and the Institute for Plant Genomics and Biotechnology . Texas A & M University is a member of the SEC Academic Consortium .
In 2013 with $ 955 million Texas A & M ranked in the top three universities for research expenditures ; third behind only MIT and UC Berkeley . In 2004 , Texas A & M System faculty and research submitted 121 new inventions and established 78 new royalty @-@ bearing licensing agreements ; the innovations resulted in income of $ 8 million . The Texas A & M Technology Licensing Office filed for 88 patents for protection of intellectual property in 2004 .
Spearheaded by the College of Veterinary Medicine , Texas A & M scientists created the first cloned pet , a cat named ' cc ' , on December 22 , 2001 . Texas A & M was also the first academic institution to clone each of six different species : cattle , a Boer goat , pigs , a cat , a deer and a horse .
In 2004 , Texas A & M joined a consortium of universities and countries to build the Giant Magellan Telescope in Chile ; the largest optical telescope ever constructed , the facility has seven mirrors , each with a diameter of 8 @.@ 4 meters ( 9 @.@ 2 yd ) . This gives the telescope the equivalent of a 24 @.@ 5 meters ( 26 @.@ 8 yd ) primary mirror and is ten times more powerful than the Hubble Space Telescope . Ground @-@ breaking for the construction of the telescope began in November 2015 .
As part of a collaboration with the U.S. Department of Energy 's National Nuclear Security Administration , Texas A & M completed the first conversion of a nuclear research reactor from using highly enriched uranium fuel ( 70 % ) to utilizing low @-@ enriched uranium ( 20 % ) . The eighteen @-@ month project ended on October 13 , 2006 , after the first ever refueling of the reactor , thus fulfilling a portion of U.S. President George W. Bush 's Global Nuclear Threat Reduction Initiative .
TAMU researchers have named the largest volcano on Earth , Tamu Massif , after the university .
= = = Worldwide = = =
Texas A & M has participated in over 500 research projects in over 80 countries and leads the Southwestern United States in annual research expenditures . The university conducts research on every continent and has formal research and exchange agreements with 100 institutions in 40 countries . Texas A & M ranks 13th among U.S. research universities in exchange agreements with institutions abroad and student participation in study abroad programs , and has strong research collaborations with the National Natural Science Foundation of China and many leading universities in China .
Texas A & M owns three international facilities , a multipurpose center in Mexico City , Mexico , the Soltis Research and Education Center near the town of San Isidro , Costa Rica , and the Santa Chiara Study Abroad Center in Castiglion Fiorentino , Italy . In 2003 , over 1 @,@ 200 Aggie students , primarily undergraduates , studied abroad . Marine research occurs on the University 's branch campus , Texas A & M University at Galveston . It also has collaborations with international facilities such as the Hacienda Santa Clara in San Miguel de Allende , Guanajuato .
Texas A & M 's Center for International Business Studies is one of 28 supported by the U.S. Department of Education . The university is also one of only two American universities in partnership with CONACyT , Mexico 's equivalent of the National Science Foundation , to support research in areas including biotechnology , telecommunications , energy , and urban development . In addition , the university is the home of " Las Americas Digital Research Network " , an online architecture network for 26 universities in 12 nations , primarily in Central and South America .
Texas A & M has a campus in Education City , Doha , Qatar . The campus is part of Qatar ’ s “ massive venture to import elite higher education from the United States ” . TAMUQ was set up through an agreement between Texas A & M and the Qatar Foundation for Education , Science , and Community Development , a foundation started in 1995 by then @-@ emir Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani and his wife and mother of the current emir , Sheikha Moza bint Nasser . TAMUQ was opened in 2003 , and the current contract extends through 2023 . The campus offers undergraduate degrees in chemical , electrical , mechanical and petroleum engineering and a graduate degree in chemical engineering . TAMUQ has received numerous awards for its research . Texas A & M receives $ 76 @.@ 2 million per year from the Qatar Foundation for the campus . In the agreement with the Qatar Foundation , TAMU agreed that 70 % of its undergraduate population at its Qatar campus would be Qatari citizens . The curriculum aims to “ duplicate as closely as possible ” the curriculum at College Station , but questions constantly arise over whether this is possible due to Qatar ’ s strict stance on some of the freedoms granted to U.S. students . TAMU has also been the subject of criticism over its Qatari campus due to Qatar ’ s support of global terrorism and appalling human rights record . Texas A & M Aggie Conservatives , a campus activism group , has spoken out against the campus and called for its immediate closure on the grounds that it violates a commitment to educating Texans , and diminishes the credibility of engineering degrees earned by students at College Station .
In late 2013 , Texas A & M signed an agreement to open a $ 200 million campus in Nazareth , Israel as a “ peace campus ” for Arabs and Israelis . The agreement led to protests from students at the Qatari campus who claimed that it was “ an insult to [ their ] people ” . The campus was never opened . Instead , Texas A & M opened a $ 6 million marine biology center in Haifa , Israel .
= = Campus = =
Texas A & M 's College Station campus , one of the largest in America , spans 5 @,@ 200 acres ( 21 km2 ) plus 350 acres ( 1 km2 ) for Research Park . The university is part of the Bryan @-@ College Station metropolitan area located within Brazos County in the Brazos Valley ( Southeast Central Texas ) region , an area often referred to as " Aggieland " . According to the U.S. Census Bureau , as of 2008 , the population of Brazos County is estimated at 175 @,@ 122 . Money Magazine , in 2006 , named College Station the most educated city in Texas , and the 11th most educated American city , due largely to the presence of the university and the size and scope of its research . Aggieland is centrally located within 200 miles ( 320 km ) of 3 of the 10 largest cities in the US and 75 % of the Texas and Louisiana populations ( approximately 13 million people ) . The area 's major roadway is State Highway 6 , and several smaller state highways and Farm to Market Roads connect the area to larger highways such as Interstate 45 .
The campus is bisected by a railroad track operated by Union Pacific . The area east of the tracks , known as Main Campus , includes buildings for the colleges of engineering , architecture , geosciences , science , education and liberal arts . Dormitories , as well as the main dining centers and many campus support facilities , are also on Main Campus . Notable buildings on Main Campus include Kyle Field , Sterling C. Evans Library , the Academic Building , Harrington Hall , the Memorial Student Center , the Administration Building , Rudder Tower , Albritton Bell Tower , and the Bonfire Memorial . To the west of the railroad tracks lies West Campus , which includes most of the sports facilities , the business school , agricultural programs , life sciences , the veterinary college , the political science and economics school , the George Bush School of Government and Public Service , the George Bush Presidential Library and two schools within the Texas A & M Health Science Center . Research Park , the area of West Campus along Kimbrough Boulevard , includes many research facilities .
Outside the main campus , the institution formally includes two additional branch campuses : Texas A & M at Qatar located in Education City in Doha , Qatar devoted to engineering disciplines and Texas A & M University at Galveston in Galveston , Texas , devoted to marine research and host to the Texas A & M Maritime Academy . All degrees at the Qatar campus are granted by the university 's Dwight Look College of Engineering . On October 23 , 2013 , plans were announced for a third ( second international ) branch campus , Texas A & M University at Nazareth - Peace Campus , in Israel . The Texas A & M School of Law is located in Fort Worth , Texas .
Texas A & M also maintains Texas A & M Riverside Campus , an extension of the main campus , located 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the northwest .
= = Student life = =
= = = Residential life = = =
During the 2006 fall semester , 20 @.@ 5 percent of the student body lived on campus in one of two distinct housing sections located on opposite ends of campus . Both the Northside and Southside areas contain student dormitories , also known as residence halls . While some halls are single @-@ sex , others are co @-@ educational . Usually students of different genders live on alternate floors , although some halls are segregated by room or suite . Residence hall styles vary . Many halls offer only indoor access to individual rooms , but other halls locate room entrances on an outdoor balcony . Room sizes vary by building . Halls with larger rooms include en @-@ suite or private bathrooms , while halls with smaller rooms have a common bathroom on each floor . Several halls include a " substance @-@ free " floor , where residents pledge to avoid bringing alcohol , drugs , or cigarettes into the hall .
Northside consists of 17 student residence halls , including the 3 university honors dorms . Two of the university honors dorms are freshman only . The halls are located near local entertainment district Northgate , and offer convenient access to campus dining establishments : Sbisa Dining Hall , The Underground and Bernie 's Cafe . The demolition of Moore Hall , Crocker Hall , and McInnis Hall is scheduled for August 2011 . A $ 58 million 600 @-@ bed residence hall will replace the demolished halls that have accommodated roughly the same number . Some halls ( particularly Walton ) have unofficially claimed tables within the Sbisa Dining Hall and many halls congregate for dinner at a specific time each weekday .
Several of the residence halls located on Southside are reserved for members of the Corps of Cadets . Non @-@ corps halls in this area center around the Commons , a hub for activities and dining . Southside has two Learning Living Communities , which allow freshmen to live in a cluster with other students who share common interests .
Facilities for the Corps of Cadets are located in the Quadrangle , or " The Quad " , an area consisting of dormitories , Duncan Dining Hall , and the Corps training fields . The Corps Arches , a series of 12 arches that " [ symbolize ] the spirit of the 12th Man of Texas A & M " , mark the entrance to the Quadrangle . All cadets , except those who are married or who have had previous military service , must live in the Quad with assigned roommates from the same unit and graduating class . Reveille , the Aggie mascot , lives with her handlers in the Quadrangle .
= = = Greek life = = =
At Texas A & M , about 10 % of the undergraduate population is affiliated with a Greek fraternity or sorority . Texas A & M is home to 58 nationally or internationally recognized Greek letter organizations . There are 19 IFC fraternities , including Sigma Alpha Epsilon , Phi Gamma Delta , Phi Delta Theta , Alpha Tau Omega , Beta Theta Pi , Delta Tau Delta , Sigma Phi Epsilon , Sigma Chi , Kappa Alpha Order , Kappa Sigma , and Sigma Nu . There are 13 Panhellenic Council Sororities , including Alpha Kappa Alpha , Delta Sigma Theta , Alpha Chi Omega , Chi Omega , Delta Delta Delta , Kappa Kappa Gamma , Zeta Tau Alpha , Pi Beta Phi , Gamma Phi Beta , and Delta Gamma . Major philanthropic events include Sigma Alpha Epsilon 's Paddy Murphy week @-@ long fundraiser , Zeta Tau Alpha 's Big Man on Campus competition , and Sigma Chi 's annual Fight Night .
= = = Corps of Cadets = = =
Texas A & M is one of six United States Senior Military Colleges . The schools ' Corps of Cadets ( or the Corps ) is one of the largest uniformed student bodies outside the service academies . Many members participate in ROTC programs and earn commissions in the United States Armed Forces upon graduation . Members of the Corps have served in every armed conflict fought by the United States since 1876 . There were 20 @,@ 229 Aggies who served in World War II , of these , 14 @,@ 123 served as officers , more than any other school , including the combined totals of the United States Military Academy and the United States Naval Academy . Since 1876 , 225 Aggies have served as generals or Flag Officers .
Until 1965 , Corps membership was mandatory . The Corps welcomed female members in the fall of 1974 , and as of spring 2012 , the co @-@ ed Corps boasts an enrollment of more than 2000 cadets .
The Corps is composed of three Air Force Wings , three Army Brigades , two Navy and Marine Regiments , as well as the Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band , whose members may be affiliated with any military branch . Parson 's Mounted Cavalry is the only mounted ROTC unit in the United States . The Ross Volunteer Company , the oldest student @-@ run organization in the state , is the official honor guard for the Governor of Texas . The Fish Drill Team , a precision , close @-@ order rifle drill team composed entirely of Corps freshmen , represents the school in local and national competitions . They have won the national championship almost every year since their creation in 1946 , and have appeared in several Hollywood productions , with prominent roles in the movies A Few Good Men and Courage Under Fire .
The Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band , the world 's largest precision military marching band , provides music for University functions and presents intricate halftime performances at football games . Some band drills are so complicated that they require band members to step between each other 's feet to complete the maneuvers . These drills must be drawn by hand as computer marching programs have returned errors ; their calculations require two people to be in the same spot at the same time .
= = = Activities = = =
Texas A & M has over 1 @,@ 000 student organizations , including academic , service , religious , Greek and common interest organizations . Orientation programs encourage students to become involved in campus activities and organizations from the beginning . An April 2005 campus survey found that 74 % of the students were involved with at least one organization and that 88 % participated in a campus organization in the past .
One of the oldest student organizations is the Singing Cadets , founded in 1893 . Known as the " Voice of Aggieland " , the Singing Cadets are an all @-@ male choral group with about 70 members not affiliated with the Corps of Cadets . The group travels nationally and has completed several international tours ; most recently , China in 2013 .
Texas A & M Hillel , the oldest Hillel organization in the United States , was founded in 1920 at the original college . The organization occurred three years before the national Hillel Foundation was organized at the University of Illinois .
GLBT Aggies is the descendant organization of Gay Student Services ( GSS ) , the only student organization to ever successfully sue the institution for official recognition . In the decision Gay Student Services v. Texas A & M University , the Fifth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals held that the First Amendment required public universities to recognize student organizations aimed at gay students .
The Graduate Student Council , founded in 1995 , serves as the student government for Texas A & M University 's graduate and professional students . It is a council representing all TAMU graduate students with a purpose to improve graduate students ' academic , living and social experiences . The GSC represents students ' concerns and is their liaison with the University Administration .
Students exercise at the Student Rec Center , a three @-@ story facility encompassing 373 @,@ 000 square feet ( 34 @,@ 650 m2 ) , which includes exercise equipment , athletic courts , an indoor running track , a rock @-@ climbing tower , and one of the top competitive pools and diving wells in the country . The Rec Center also organizes intramural sports throughout the year .
Some national service organizations originated at A & M. Aggie students founded the largest one @-@ day student @-@ run service project in America known as The Big Event . The annual service project allows students to give back to their community by assisting local residents . The organization CARPOOL , a student @-@ run , safe ride program has provided over 250 @,@ 000 free rides ( as of February 2016 ) to Aggies unable to transport themselves home . Its organizers also assist other universities in establishing similar programs . In addition , the Corporation for National and Community Service listed A & M among the 500 academic institutions in the 2005 – 06 President 's Higher Education Community Service Honor Roll .
The Student Government Association ( SGA ) , one of A & M 's largest organizations , consists of over 1 @,@ 300 student members in 3 branches , 15 committees , and 4 commissions . SGA has changed little since 1972 , except its relative position within the official framework of the university .
= = = Media = = =
The Princeton Review ranked The Battalion , founded in 1893 , as the 5th best college newspaper in America in 2010 . Students also publish a secondary school newspaper , the Maroon Weekly . The Aggieland , formerly known as The Olio and The Longhorn , is one of America 's largest college yearbooks in number of pages and copies sold . The university houses the public broadcasting stations : KAMU @-@ TV , a PBS member station since 1970 , KAMU @-@ FM an NPR affiliate since 1977 , and the student @-@ run KANM , " the college station of College Station " . W5AC broadcast the first live , play @-@ by @-@ play broadcast of a college football game , at Kyle Field , in November 1921 . The game , played in Dallas between the Aggies and the University of Texas , ended in a scoreless tie .
= = Traditions = =
The Texas A & M culture is a product of the university 's founding as a rural military and agricultural school . Although the school and surrounding community have grown , and military training is no longer required , the school 's history has instilled in students " the idealized elements of a small @-@ town life : community , tradition , loyalty , optimism , and unabashed sentimentality . " Texas Monthly posits that Texas A & M students ' respect for school traditions and values is the university 's greatest strength . Some of the school traditions date to the 1890s , while others have been introduced more recently . These traditions enable enrolled students and alumni to cultivate the Aggie Spirit , a sense of loyalty and respect for the school . They dictate many aspects of student life , including how to greet others ( using the official school greeting " Howdy ! " ) , how to act at an A & M sporting event , and often , what words a student may use in conversation .
A visible designation tradition among senior undergraduates and alumni is the wearing of the Aggie Ring , whose design has been relatively unchanged since its introduction in 1894 . Students may order a ring after completing 90 credit hours of coursework , including at least 45 hours at A & M , or after graduation . Graduate students may receive a ring after 75 % of their graduate coursework is completed or after the acceptance of their dissertation or thesis . Though unsanctioned by the University , many students " dunk " their newly acquired Aggie Rings into a pitcher of beer and quickly chug the entire pitcher to " earn " the ring . Some students dunk their rings in alternative substances , including ice cream or nonalcoholic beverages .
In keeping with the idea that all enrolled students and " former students " comprise a family ( the term alumni is not generally used , as " former students " include those who could not complete their education , such as those who entered military service ) , Aggies have created two traditions to honor members of the Aggie family who have died . Aggie Muster is held annually on the anniversary of the Battle of San Jacinto , April 21 , to honor the death during the previous year of any enrolled student or alumni . Over 300 Musters are held around the world , with the largest taking place at Reed Arena on the Texas A & M University campus . All Muster ceremonies feature the Roll Call for the Absent . As the names of the deceased Aggies are called , a family member or friend answers " Here " and lights a candle , to symbolize that although their loved one is not present in body , his or her spirit will shine forever . The event received worldwide attention during World War II , when 25 Aggies " mustered " during the battle for the island of Corregidor .
Students who die while enrolled at Texas A & M are also honored at Silver Taps , a ceremony held , when necessary , on the first Tuesday of the month . This tradition began as a memorial for former Texas A & M president Lawrence Sullivan Ross . On the day of the ceremony , flags fly half @-@ staff and notices are posted throughout campus . At 10 : 15 pm the lights around campus are extinguished and hymns chime from Albritton Tower while students and faculty collect in the Academic Plaza . Following a 21 @-@ gun salute by the Ross Volunteer Firing Squad , six buglers play an A & M version of the song Taps , Silver Taps , three times from the dome of the school 's Academic Building : once to the north , the south and to the west . The song is not played to the east symbolizing that the sun will never rise on that Aggie again .
= = = Sports = = =
= = = = 12th Man = = = =
Aggie football fans are called the 12th Man , meaning that they support the 11 players on the field and would be willing , if it were possible , to enter the game if necessary . To further symbolize their " readiness , desire , and enthusiasm , " it is traditional for students in attendance to stand throughout the game . The tradition began on January 2 , 1922 , at the Dixie Classic where A & M played Centre College . A & M had so many injuries in the first half of the game that Coach Dana X. Bible feared he would not have enough men to finish the game . He called into the stands for E. King Gill , a reserve who had left football after the regular season to play basketball . Although he did not actually play , his readiness symbolized the willingness of all Aggies to support their team to the point of actually entering the game . A & M won 22 – 14 , but E. King Gill was the only man left standing on the sidelines for the Aggies . In recent decades , the 12th Man is represented on the field by a walk @-@ on player who wears the No. 12 jersey and participates in kick @-@ offs .
The 12th Man uses a variety of school yells , rather than cheers , to support Aggie teams . Each year the student body elects five students to serve as the Yell Leaders . At midnight before each home football game at Kyle Field or at a predesignated location at away games , the fans gather together to practice the yells for the next day 's game . Led by the Yell Leaders , and the Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band , the Twelfth Man files into the stadium to participate in Midnight Yell Practice to practice yells , sing the War Hymn , and joke about their opponents . At the conclusion of the yell practice , the stadium lights are extinguished and fans kiss their dates . This is also done as practice , because Aggies are expected to " mug down " , or kiss their dates , every time the football team scores on the field . Sports Illustrated named Midnight Yell as one of the " 100 Things You Gotta Do Before You Graduate . "
On November 12 , 2015 , Texas A & M sued the Indianapolis Colts for infringing on its trademark of the 12th Man .
= = = = Bonfire = = = =
Almost every year since 1909 , A & M students have built a large bonfire to celebrate their " burning desire to beat the hell outta " the University of Texas . Aggie Bonfire was traditionally lit around Thanksgiving in conjunction with the festivities surrounding the annual college football game between the schools . Though it began as a trash pile , Aggie Bonfire evolved into a massive six @-@ tiered structure , the world record being held at 109 feet ( 30 m ) . The collapse of the 1999 structure , causing the deaths of 12 students and an alumnus , prompted the university to suspend the official sanction of the bonfire , and the tradition continues off @-@ campus .
= = Athletics = =
The Aggies are a member of the Southeastern Conference in all sports as of July 1 , 2012 . Previously a charter member of the Southwest Conference until its dissolution in 1996 , A & M competed in the Big 12 Conference until June 30 , 2012 . The school 's 20 sports teams are known as the Aggies , and the school 's colors are maroon and white . As of April 2011 , Aggies have earned 138 Southwest and Big 12 conference regular @-@ season and tournament titles and 11 team national championships . The women 's soccer team , formed in 1993 , earned 15 consecutive NCAA Tournament appearances from 1995 to 2009 , advancing at least as far as the round of 16 in seven of the last eight appearances . The women 's volleyball team earned 12 consecutive NCAA Tournament appearances from 1993 to 2004 , advancing past the first round each time . In 2004 Sports Illustrated on Campus ranked Olsen Field " the best college baseball venue " . Sports Illustrated ranked the university 46th , in a 2002 analysis of " America 's Best Sports College [ s ] " and College Station the 9th best college sports town .
A & M 's archrival was the University of Texas until joining the SEC . In 2004 , sporting events between the Aggies and Longhorns became known as the Lone Star Showdown . The most @-@ watched event in the rivalry was the annual football game held the day of Thanksgiving . Other rivalries have included Texas Tech , Baylor University , and the recently renewed rivalries with the University of Arkansas and Louisiana State University .
= = = Football = = =
Founded in 1894 , the football team has won 18 Southwest Conference championships , 3 Big 12 South Division championships , 1 Big 12 championship , and 3 national championships . The team has appeared in 30 bowl games , winning 13 , and has produced 41 first Team All @-@ Americans , 5 Academic All @-@ Americans , and 2 Heisman Trophy winners , John David Crow in 1957 and Johnny Manziel in 2012 . Twenty @-@ one Aggies play in the NFL , including reigning Super Bowl MVP Von Miller of the Denver Broncos . Current Broncos head coach Gary Kubiak also played college football at Texas A & M.
Since 1904 , home football games have been played at Kyle Field , a stadium with a current capacity of 106 @,@ 500 . In 2004 , CBS SportsLine.com ranked Kyle Field the top football stadium while Sporting News ranked it fourth . The same year Sports Illustrated on Campus ranked an A & M football weekend the third best college football experience .
= = = Basketball = = =
Founded in 1912 , the men 's basketball team won 11 Southwest Conference championships and 2 Southwest Conference Tournament championships . The team has appeared in the National Invitation Tournament 6 times and in the NCAA Tournament 11 times , of which 3 resulted in Sweet Sixteen appearances , the highest round to which the Aggies have advanced . The women 's basketball team has 1 Southwest Conference Tournament championship , 1 regular season Big 12 Conference championship and 2 Big 12 Tournament championships , most recently in 2011 . The women have advanced to 8 NCAA Tournament appearances , winning the National Championship in 2011 . They have also competed in the WNIT twice , winning that tournament in 1995 .
The men 's basketball team was coached by head coach Mark Turgeon for four years until he left for the head coaching position at the University of Maryland . The current head basketball coach is Billy Kennedy ; he is entering his third season and leading the Aggies into the Southeastern Conference . The women 's team has been coached by Gary Blair since 2003 . Home games are played at the 12 @,@ 989 @-@ seat Reed Arena . G. Rollie White Coliseum , formerly the home of the volleyball and basketball teams , hosted basketball games before Reed Arena opened in 1998 .
= = Notable alumni = =
With over 280 @,@ 000 alumni , A & M has one of the largest and most active alumni groups in America . Many Aggies have attained local , national , and international prominence . Jorge Quiroga and Martin Torrijos have served as heads of state for Bolivia and Panama , respectively , and Rick Perry is the former Governor of Texas and 2012 US Presidential candidate . Robert Gates , United States Secretary of Defense in the George W. Bush and Obama administrations , is a past president of the university . Congressmen Joe Barton , Bill Flores , Jeb Hensarling , and Louie Gohmert , and former Austin , Texas , mayor Will Wynn are all graduates . William A. Pailes , Michael E. Fossum , and Steven Swanson became NASA astronauts .
Aggies made their mark on the gridiron with former All Pro Green Bay Packer Lee Roy Caffey , 1 Pro @-@ Bowl , 4 World Championships , including 3 Super Bowls , title @-@ winning coach Gene Stallings , Oakland Raiders head coach Dennis Allen , Houston Oilers defensive tackle Ray Childress , Heisman Trophy winners John David Crow and Johnny Manziel , Heisman runner @-@ up , legislator , and actor John Kimbrough , punt returner Dante Hall , offensive tackle Richmond Webb , Detroit Lions defensive end and punter Yale Lary , former Dallas Cowboys assistant coach and former player Dat Nguyen , punter Shane Lechler , Denver Broncos linebacker Von Miller , and defensive end Ty Warren . Paul " Bear " Bryant coached at A & M where " survivors " of his grueling football practice camp at Junction , Texas were nicknamed named The Junction Boys . Other famous Aggie athletes include Randy Barnes , indoor / outdoor shotput world record holder , World Series champion player and manager Davey Johnson , baseball standouts Chuck Knoblauch and Wally Moon ; along with Stacy Sykora , Libero for the USA national volleyball team .
Aggies have also made a mark on pop culture . Robert Earl Keen and Lyle Lovett , who often strummed their guitars on the porch of their Northgate home , have become popular country singers . Rip Torn is a veteran of the silver screen and Neal Boortz is a nationally syndicated talk show host with the sixth largest listening audience in the United States . Wen Ho Lee , a doctoral graduate of A & M , became the subject of a 1999 espionage investigation ; though arrested , charges were dropped in 2000 .
Aggies in business , particularly in the fields of energy , construction , communications , and chemistry , include Lowry Mays , chairman and CEO of Clear Channel Communications ; Jeffrey DeBruin , principal , Trammell Crow Company ; George P. Mitchell , chairman and CEO , Mitchell Energy and Development Corp. ; Khalid A. Al @-@ Falih , President and CEO of Saudi Aramco ; Eduardo Castro @-@ Wright , CEO of Wal @-@ Mart Stores USA . Alum Charles E. Toberman was known as the " Father of Hollywood " for his role in developing many of the city 's most recognizable landmarks , including the Hollywood Bowl , Grauman 's Chinese Theater , El Capitan Theatre , the Roosevelt Hotel , the Grauman 's Egyptian Theatre and the Hollywood Masonic Temple . Architect Greg Pappas , now @-@ deceased member and Vice President of the Pappas Restaurants family , is known for his design of the many different Pappas Family restaurants . J. William Harbour M.D. , is an ocular oncologist , cancer researcher and vice chairman at the Bascom Palmer Eye Institute in Miami .
Because of A & M 's military roots , many Aggies have become leaders in the armed forces , and were featured in the 1943 propaganda film We 've Never Been Licked . George H. Gay , Jr . , was the sole survivor of Torpedo Squadron 8 in the Battle of Midway . Lieutenant General Jay T. Robbins became a fighter ace in World War II with 22 aerial victories . Major General Robert B. Williams led World War II raid on the Schweinfurt ball bearing factories . General Bernard Adolph Schriever , known as " the architect of the Air Force 's ballistic missile and military space program " , became the namesake of Schriever Air Force Base , Colorado . General Michael Moseley is a former Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force .
Seven Aggies received the Medal of Honor in World War II .
Horace S. Carswell , Jr . , class of 1938
Thomas W. Fowler , class of 1943
William G. Harrell , class of 1943
Lloyd H. Hughes , class of 1943
George D. Keathley , class of 1937
Turney W. Leonard , class of 1942
Eli L. Whiteley , class of 1941
One Aggie received the Medal of Honor in the Vietnam War .
Clarence E. Sasser , class of 1973
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= Don Chafin =
Don Chafin ( June 26 , 1887 – August 9 , 1954 ) was the sheriff of Logan County , West Virginia and a commander in the Battle of Blair Mountain . As sheriff of Logan County , Chafin was a fierce opponent of unionization and received hundreds of thousands of dollars from coal mine operators in return for his violent suppression of the United Mine Workers union .
Chafin 's most notable anti @-@ union measures came during the 1921 Battle of Blair Mountain , when he organized an effort to prevent armed miners from crossing through Logan County . He assembled a force of thousands of local townspeople , sheriff 's deputies , and national guardsmen . His forces successfully prevented the advance of the miners until federal troops intervened and forced the latter to disperse . As a result of his actions , Chafin became a hero of the mine operators and an enemy of the miners .
In 1924 , Chafin was arrested in connection with moonshining and sentenced to two years in prison . After his release , he became an important figure in the Democratic Party of West Virginia , and a lobbyist for the coal industry . In 1936 , he moved to Huntington , West Virginia , where he was a wealthy and well @-@ known figure until his death in 1954 .
= = Early life = =
Chafin was born on June 26 , 1887 , near the town of Kermit in present @-@ day Mingo County , West Virginia , the sixth of eleven children . His father , Francis Marion Chafin , was the sheriff of Logan County , and Chafin grew up in the town of Logan . ( He was related to the Hatfield family of West Virginia — his great aunt Levisa " Levicy " Chafin was the wife of Anderson Hatfield ) . For two years he studied in the preparatory department of Marshall College – without taking college courses – but did not graduate . He also attended the Mountain State Business College , before teaching at the Dingress School in Mingo County .
In 1905 , Chafin married Mary Mounts , with whom he eventually had 10 children , eight of whom survived to adulthood . Three years later , in 1908 , Chafin was appointed the tax assessor of Logan County . In 1912 , Chafin was elected sheriff of Logan County for the first time , and in 1920 he was elected county clerk as well .
= = As sheriff = =
After becoming sheriff of Logan County , Chafin became known as " the boss " of Logan County or " the czar " , and its " best known citizen " . His authority extended so far into every aspect of public life that he reportedly controlled every judge and jury in the county . According to Howard B. Lee , the former Attorney General of West Virginia , Chafin was so powerful that " no schoolteacher was employed without his approval . "
Chafin 's vast power attracted the attention of mine operators , who paid him to keep the unions out of Logan County . The operators bribed Chafin with large payments , and paid many of the expenses of the sheriff 's department . While the exact payments to Chafin are unknown , a special commission ordered by Governor John Cornwell found that he received a payment of at least $ 32 @,@ 700 per year in return for keeping the union out of Logan County . Other estimates of the bribes paid to Chafin range as high as $ 61 @,@ 571 in 1921 , and other evidence suggests the possibility of even higher figures . The historian Robert Shogan reports that although Chafin 's annual salary was only $ 3 @,@ 500 per year , his net worth by 1921 was in excess of $ 350 @,@ 000 , suggesting that he received bribes of at least $ 50 @,@ 000 annually .
The operators also directly paid the salary of at least forty of Chafin 's deputies , ensuring control over the department and favorable treatment . The bribes from the mine owners did indeed result in favors from Chafin ; Chafin stationed one of his deputies at every railway station in Logan County to " guard against union organizers " . Upon suspicion that someone entering the county was a union organizer , Chafin 's deputies would either force him to leave , arrest him , or beat him . In one case , Chafin mistook J. L. Heiser , the Chief Clerk of the West Virginia Department of Mines , for a union organizer , then threatened him with a gun , hit him over the head with a blackjack , and forced him to leave the county . After the incident , realizing his mistake , Chafin paid Heiser $ 1 @,@ 000 in compensation , but never faced any other consequences for his actions .
= = = Shooting = = =
Chafin 's anti @-@ union activities did successfully keep the United Mine Workers out of Logan County , but they also aroused the anger of UMW officials . Chafin also established a record of violent and unpleasant confrontations with union officials outside of Logan County . In one such incident in September 1919 , Chafin entered the office of the UMW in Charleston , West Virginia while he was " drunk armed and very belligerent . " William Petry , the vice @-@ president of the local union , asked Chafin to leave , but Chafin responded by brandishing a revolver . Petry then shot Chafin in the chest with a 22 @-@ caliber pistol . Petry was later cleared of criminal wrongdoing on the grounds that his action was self @-@ defense , but he expressed no remorse about the shooting and later remarked " That 's what happens when a man carries a toy pistol . That goddamned son of a bitch is liable to get well . I should have had my old ' forty @-@ four . ' " In a second shooting incident , a miner walked into Chafin 's sheriff office in Logan and , without a word , shot him in the chest . Chafin walked the two blocks to Logan General Hospital with a bullet lodged in his chest two inches from his heart . In a third incident , a disgruntled constituent walked into his office , with a gun drawn and reportedly said " Don Chafin , I 'm gonna ' shoot you dead . " Chafin reached into his desk drawer and pulled out a pistol of his own , and said , " Go ahead . We 'll hop into Hell together . " The man left without firing a shot .
= = Battle of Blair Mountain = =
Chafin 's conflict with the unions became most pronounced during the Battle of Blair Mountain in August and September 1921 . A strike , with its beginning in 1920 , had led to increasing violence throughout southern West Virginia , including the Battle of Matewan . The growing violence led to a declaration of martial law in 1921 , and a Congressional investigation into the circumstances in the area began , but it accomplished little . Then Sid Hatfield , the miners ' hero from the Battle of Matewan , was killed on August 1 by Baldwin @-@ Felts agents on the steps of the McDowell County Courthouse in Welch . After his murder and funeral , tensions erupted in southern West Virginia .
= = = The miners assemble = = =
Shortly after Hatfield 's death , a large group of miners began to assemble south of Charleston along Lens Creek , and prepared to march south to Mingo County , and free their fellow miners who had been imprisoned under the martial law decree for violent acts . The path of the march would take the miners directly across Logan County , causing fear for Chafin and his backers . Chafin declared " No armed mob will cross Logan County " , and prepared to stop the miners as they crossed Blair Mountain . Chafin 's pronouncements and preparations were regarded with contempt by the miners , who took up the cry , " We 'll hang Don Chafin to a sour apple tree . " One of the leaders of the miners , Ed Reynolds , later testified that a central aim of the march was " to kill Sheriff Don Chafin " .
Faced with the oncoming miner army , Chafin put into place plans he had been forming since early summer . Chafin had formed a small army of several hundred volunteers , composed of his deputies , mine guards , and members of the Logan County middle class , and had begun to train them in June . He established large weapons caches , including a stockpile of machine guns , and erected breastworks on the slopes of Blair Mountain . At around 2 a.m. on August 25 , Chafin turned on the fire siren in the town of Logan , calling together his army . By morning , 700 members of his volunteer army were assembled on the slopes of Blair Mountain . In addition to his land forces , Chafin established a small air force , composed of three biplanes that he rented from private owners for use in reconnaissance .
After initial skirmishes on August 25 and August 26 between Chafin 's forces and the miners , UMW officials managed to defuse the tensions in the area , and convinced the miners to go home . Chafin recalled his troops and told them " You have been in defense of our rights . Logan County will never forget it . " Before the miners dispersed , however , the West Virginia State Police attempted to arrest a group of their leaders , and the attempt escalated into a shootout in which several miners died . Suddenly the rebellion reignited , and it became clear that a major battle was coming .
= = = The battle = = =
Chafin reorganized and enlarged his forces , and volunteers from around the state arrived to join his army . The Governor of West Virginia , Ephraim Morgan , also helped Chafin recruit men to join his forces , and sent an unofficial national guard unit to join him . Governor Morgan then named William Eubanks as a colonel of the National Guard , and ordered him to take command of the forces from Chafin . Chafin officially passed command to Eubanks , but " the army remained Chafin 's in popular perception . "
As it became clear that battle was imminent , and Chafin printed leaflets for his biplanes to drop on the miners , ordering them one last time to disperse . The effort produced no results , and both sides prepared for the conflict . Not long after the leaflets were dropped , the battle " erupted in hot warfare . " Chafin served as Eubanks 's second in command , and helped organize forces . The next day , September 1 , as the fighting intensified , Chafin left the front lines to establish a second line of defense around the town of Logan in case the miners broke through the first line . That same day , Chafin also equipped his biplanes with pipe bombs and tear gas , which they dropped on the miners , though they inflicted no serious casualties .
= = = Aftermath = = =
The next day , September 2 , the battle ended when federal troops under General Harry Hill Bandholtz arrived . Chafin and his army went home , and Chafin became " a hero in the eyes of the coal operators " for his role in stopping the march . While the operators regarded Chafin as a hero , the miners placed the blame for the bloodshed on Chafin .
Regardless of his role in the events , Chafin remained sheriff after the battle and began to round up and arrest a number of the leaders of the miners . While some of the top leaders arranged to be arrested in other jurisdictions to stay out of Chafin 's hand , others including Frank Keeney , a top UMW official , and Bill Blizzard , the so @-@ called general of the miners , surrendered to Chafin and were put in jail in Logan County . The trials eventually were transferred to other jurisdictions , and the prisoners passed out of Chafin 's hands without incident .
= = Politics and arrest = =
After the battle , Chafin went back to his normal work as sheriff of Logan County and " became more arrogant " , believing his position to be unassailable . He became involved in a number of illegal ventures , including a moonshining operation . He also became increasingly important within the West Virginia Democratic party , due to his celebrity status after the battle . He was frequently present in the state capitol , and attended the 1924 Democratic National Convention as a member of the West Virginia delegation .
A few months later , Chafin 's illegal activities led to his arrest . One of his deputies , Tennis Hatfield , was arrested for violation of the Volstead Act , and he implicated Chafin at his trial . Chafin was tried and convicted of violation of the Volstead Act at the federal courthouse in Huntington , West Virginia on October 14 , 1924 . He was given the maximum sentence of two years in prison , and ordered to pay a fine of $ 10 @,@ 000 . The judge in the case also took special precautions to protect the witnesses against Chafin , due to his potentially violent nature . Chafin appealed the verdict , but it was upheld in April 1925 , and he was sent to the federal penitentiary in Atlanta . He served part of his term before being paroled back to Logan County . While Chafin was in prison , he lost much of his influence in Logan County , and his political opponents took power . After his release from prison , Chafin moved to Charleston and retained some of his influence in the Democratic Party of West Virginia while lobbying for the coal industry .
= = Later life = =
In 1936 , Chafin moved to Huntington , where he purchased a number of properties including the Guaranty Bank , on top of which he built a penthouse as his home . He lived in semi @-@ retirement there for the rest of his life .
In his later days , Chafin trained coon dogs , and was known as " one of Huntington 's wealthiest men " and a " familiar figure " in the city . He suffered several heart attacks in his later life , and eventually died on August 9 , 1954 in a Huntington hospital after a surgical procedure .
= = Legacy = =
His house at Logan , known as the Chafin House , served as the Logan Public Library for many years and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1994 .
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= Coprinopsis atramentaria =
Coprinopsis atramentaria , commonly known as the common ink cap or inky cap , is an edible ( but sometimes poisonous , see below ) mushroom found in Europe and North America . Previously known as Coprinus atramentarius , it is the second best known ink cap and previous member of the genus Coprinus after C. comatus . It is a widespread and common fungus found throughout the northern hemisphere . Clumps of mushrooms arise after rain from spring to autumn , commonly in urban and disturbed habitats such as vacant lots and lawns , as well as grassy areas . The grey @-@ brown cap is initially bell @-@ shaped before opening , after which , it flattens and disintegrates . The flesh is thin and the taste mild . It can be eaten but is poisonous when consumed with alcohol – hence another common name , tippler 's bane .
= = Taxonomy = =
The common ink cap was first described by French naturalist Pierre Bulliard in 1786 as Agaricus atramentarius before being placed in the large genus Coprinus in 1838 by Elias Magnus Fries . The specific epithet is derived from the Latin word atramentum " ink " .
The genus was formerly considered to be a large one with well over 100 species . However , molecular analysis of DNA sequences showed that the most species belonged in the family Psathyrellaceae , distinct from the type species that belonged to the Agaricaceae . It was given its current binomial name in 2001 as a result , as this and other species were moved to the new genus Coprinopsis .
The term " tippler 's bane " is derived from its ability to create acute sensitivity to alcohol , similar to disulfiram ( Antabuse ) . Other common names include common ink cap and inky cap . The black liquid that this mushroom releases after being picked was once used as ink .
= = Description = =
Measuring 3 – 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter , the greyish or brownish @-@ grey cap is initially bell @-@ shaped , is furrowed , and later splits . The colour is more brownish in the centre of the cap , which later flattens before melting . The very crowded gills are free ; they are whitish at first but rapidly turn black and easily deliquesce . The short stipe measures 7 – 17 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 6 @.@ 8 in ) high by 1 @.@ 5 cm in diameter , is grey in colour , and lacks a ring . The spore print is dark brown , and the almond @-@ shaped spores measure 8 – 11 by 5 – 6 μm . The flesh is thin and pale grey in colour .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Coprinopsis atramentaria occurs across the Northern Hemisphere , including Europe , North America , and Asia , but has also been found in Australia , where it has been recorded from such urban locations as the Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney and around Lake Torrens , and also in South Africa .
Like many ink caps , it grows in tufts . It is commonly associated with buried wood and is found in grassland , meadows , disturbed ground , and open terrain from late spring to autumn . Fruiting bodies have been known to push their way up through asphalt and even tennis courts . It is also common in urban areas and appears in vacant lots , and tufts of fungi can be quite large and fruit several times a year . If dug up , the mycelium can often be found originating on buried dead wood .
= = Toxicity = =
Consuming Coprinopsis atramentaria within a few hours of alcohol results in a " disulfiram syndrome " . This interaction has only been known since the early part of the twentieth century . Symptoms include facial reddening , nausea , vomiting , malaise , agitation , palpitations and tingling in limbs , and arise five to ten minutes after consumption of alcohol . If no more alcohol is consumed , they will generally subside over two or three hours . Symptom severity is proportional to the amount of alcohol consumed , becoming evident when blood alcohol concentration reaches 5 mg / dL , and prominent at concentrations of 50 – 100 mg / dL . Disulfiram has , however , been known to cause myocardial infarction ( heart attack ) . The symptoms can occur if even a small amount of alcohol is consumed up to three days after eating the mushrooms , although they are milder as more time passes . Rarely , a cardiac arrhythmia , such as atrial fibrillation on top of supraventricular tachycardia , may develop .
The fungus contains a cyclopropylglutamine compound called coprine . Its active metabolite , 1 @-@ aminocyclopropanol , blocks the action of an enzyme , acetaldehyde dehydrogenase , which breaks down acetaldehyde in the body . Acetaldehyde is an intermediate metabolite of ethanol and is responsible for most symptoms of a hangover ; its effect on autonomic β receptors is responsible for the vasomotor symptoms .
Treatment involves reassuring the patient that the often frightening symptoms will pass , rehydration ( fluid replacement ) for fluid loss from vomiting , and monitoring for cardiac arrhythmias .
Large and prolonged doses of coprine were found to have gonadotoxic effects on rats and dogs in testing .
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= Corps of Colonial Marines =
The Corps of Colonial Marines were two Marine units raised from former slaves for service in the Americas by the British at the behest of Alexander Cochrane . The units were created at two different times , and were later disbanded once the military threat had disappeared .
The first Corps was a small unit that served in the Caribbean from 1808 to 12 October 1810 , recruited from former slaves to address the shortage of military manpower in the Caribbean . The locally @-@ recruited men were less susceptible to tropical illnesses than were troops sent from Britain . The Corps followed the practice of the British Army 's West India Regiments in recruiting slaves as soldiers .
The second , more substantial , Corps served from 18 May 1814 until 20 August 1816 . The greater part of the Corps was stationed on the Atlantic coast , with a smaller body occupying a fort on the Gulf coast in Florida . Recruits were accepted from among escaped slaves who had already gained their freedom on coming into British hands and who were unwilling to join West India Regiments . The establishment of the force sparked controversy at the time , the arming of former slaves representing a psychological threat to the slave @-@ owning society of the Americas ) . As a consequence , the two senior officers of the Corps in Florida ( George Woodbine and Edward Nicolls ) were demonised in Niles ' Register for their association with the Corps and inducing slave revolt .
At the end of the War of 1812 , as the British post in Florida was evacuated the Corps ' Florida detachment was paid off and disbanded . Although several men accompanied the British to Bermuda , the majority continued to live in settlements around the wooden stockade the Corps had garrisoned ( which had become a symbol of slave insurrection ) . This legacy of a community of armed fugitive slaves with a substantial arsenal would lead to tensions with the United States of America . Those remaining later took part in the Battle of Negro Fort in July 1816 , after which they joined the southward migration of Seminoles and African Americans escaping the American advance . Members of the Colonial Marine battalion who were deployed on the Atlantic coast withdrew from American territory . They would continue in British service as garrison @-@ in @-@ residence at Bermuda until 1816 , when the unit was disbanded and the ex @-@ Marines resettled on Trinidad .
= = First Corps = =
Rear Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane raised the first Corps of Colonial Marines in 1808 while commander @-@ in @-@ chief of British naval forces on the Leeward Islands station during the Napoleonic Wars . The British had captured the island of Marie Galante earlier that year , but the French governor of Guadeloupe attacked the island on hearing that illness had weakened its British garrison . Marie Galante slaves assisted the British when promised that they would not be returned to their proprietors ; by this means , the island was preserved under British control until the arrival of three companies of the 1st West India Regiment .
Cochrane named the ex @-@ slaves the Corps of Colonial Marines , which was enlarged with fugitive slaves from Guadeloupe . The Corps was paid from Marie Galante revenues , clothed from Royal Navy stores and commanded by Royal Marine officers . After the repossession of Guadeloupe Cochrane maintained the Corps , and on 12 October 1810 redistributed the men : 70 among the ships of the squadron , 20 to 30 to the battery at the Saintes ( a group of small islands south of Guadeloupe ) and 50 remaining in the Marie Galante garrison . They saw no further action as a distinct body , but were listed in ships ' musters among supernumeraries for wages and victuals under the description " Colonial Marine " until mid @-@ 1815 .
= = Second Corps = =
Cochrane , by now a Vice Admiral , assumed his position as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of British forces on the North Atlantic station in April 1814 and ordered the recruitment of a body of Colonial Marines as he had done six years earlier on Marie Galante . Rear Admiral George Cockburn , Cochrane 's second @-@ in @-@ command on the Atlantic coast , implemented Cochrane 's order recruiting the second Corps of Colonial Marines . It served as part of the British forces on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States during the War of 1812 .
On 2 April 1814 , Cochrane issued a proclamation to all persons wishing to emigrate . Any persons would be received by the British , either at a military outpost or aboard British ships ; those seeking sanctuary could enter His Majesty 's forces , or go " as free settlers to the British possessions in North America or the West Indies " . ( An historical precedent was Dunmore 's Proclamation of 7 November 1775 , although this offered freedom only to those who bore arms with British forces . )
= = = Recruitment and Atlantic coast service = = =
By 10 May , Tangier Island off the Virginia coast had been occupied by the British and offered an accessible location for those seeking refuge . Male refugees were given the option " to become blue Jackets , take up arms or [ to ] join the working party " constructing Fort Albion and its infrastructure . The Corps was embodied on 18 May 1814 and made its combat debut in the raid on Pungoteague Creek on 30 May 1814 where , in a skirmish known as the Battle of Rumley 's Gut , it helped capture an American artillery battery . James Ross , captain of HMS Albion , later described their involvement as " a most excellent specimen of what they are likely to be . Their conduct was marked by great spirit and vivacity , and perfect obedience " . One , a soldier named Michael Harding , was killed early in the battle but " it did not daunt or check the others , but on the contrary animated them to seek revenge " . Cockburn 's initial impressions were positive ; he observed that the new recruits were " getting on astonishingly " and were " really fine fellows " . After this , the Corps participated in the Chesapeake campaign ; in subsequent correspondence , Cockburn wrote that the recruits had behaved " unexpectedly well " in several engagements and had not committed any " improper outrages " .
Members of the Corps served alongside their shipborne Royal Marine counterparts from the Cockburn Chesapeake squadron ( HM Ships Albion , Dragon , Loire , Jasseur and the schooner HMS St Lawrence ) , participating in a series of raids . After the British failed to destroy the American Chesapeake Bay Flotilla at the Battle of St. Jerome Creek , they conducted coastal raids on the towns of Calverton , Huntingtown , Prince Frederick , Benedict and Lower Marlborough . On 15 June 1814 , a force of 30 Colonial Marines accompanied 180 Royal Marines in 12 boats in a raid on Benedict . Nine days later , on 24 June , a force of 50 Colonial and 180 Royal Marines attacked an artillery battery at Chesconessex Creek ( although this failed to prevent the escape of the Chesapeake Bay Flotilla , which left St. Leonard 's Creek two days later ) .
The arrival on 19 July of a battalion of Royal Marines , which had left Bermuda on 30 June , enabled the squadron to mount further expeditions ashore . After a series of diversionary raids , the Marines were again landed at Benedict on 19 August accompanied by recently @-@ arrived Peninsular War army veterans . The battalion was to accompany the Colonial Marines in attacks on Bladensburg and Washington in August 1814 . A company fought at the Battle of Bladensburg , and the other two companies took part in the burning of Washington . One of the firing parties was led by Second Lieutenant Lewis Agassiz ( 1793 – 1866 ) ; for his part in the battle , his family was later granted a coat of arms depicting a torch . Casualties suffered by the Colonial Marines during this action were one man killed and three wounded .
On 3 September 1814 , three companies of the Colonial Marines joined with three remaining companies of Royal Marines to form the 3rd Battalion , Royal and Colonial Marines . Later that month , all three companies fought at the Battle of North Point in Maryland . A fourth company was created in December 1814 , and further recruitment was begun along the Georgia coast during the first quarter of 1815 . The number of enlistments allowed two more companies to be raised , with sergeants taken from companies recruited in the Chesapeake .
Although the Corps suffered some combat losses during its Chesapeake campaign actions in 1814 , its greatest losses arose from disease due to poor conditions on Tangier Island . An outbreak of dysentery in the winter of 1814 killed the surgeon and 69 men from the battalion . The Corps ' last tour during the War of 1812 was in Georgia from December to March 1815 . Admiral George Cockburn seized the southern U.S coast to disrupt trade , communication , and transportation of troops to the Gulf of Mexico , where Admiral Cochrane 's forces planned to take the southwestern territories of the U.S. Part of the Corps joined the successful British attack on Fort Point Peter . The corps occupied Camden County and Cumberland Island , aiding the emigration of an estimated 1 @,@ 485 slaves from southeast Georgia .
= = = Recruitment and Gulf coast service = = =
In addition to British outposts on the Atlantic coast at Tangier and the Cumberland Islands , there was a similar outpost on the Gulf coast at Prospect Bluff on the Apalachicola River in Spanish East Florida which attracted Redstick Creek Indians and Black Seminoles . George Woodbine and a detachment of Royal Marines were landed from HMS Orpheus in May 1814 with gifts , two thousand muskets and blankets for the Indians . A fort was constructed , and Cochrane sent Edward Nicolls to oversee the operations at Prospect Bluff .
Nicolls left Bermuda with 112 Royal Marines , 3 field pieces , 300 uniforms and 1 @,@ 000 muskets for recruits to his corps . On 26 August 1814 Nicolls issued his first " order of the day " for his " battalion " . It remains uncertain how many men Nicolls had under his command at that time , since muster and pay records have not been found . More escaped slaves were recruited in Pensacola ( to the chagrin of the Spanish ) , but they were forced to return to Prospect Bluff in November after the American capture of Pensacola .
= = Post @-@ war developments = =
The war ended in February 1815 , and the three European companies of the 3rd Battalion , Royal and Colonial Marines were sent back to Britain . With their departure , the battalion was reformed as the 3rd Battalion , Colonial Marines , consisting of six infantry companies of Colonial Marines and a staff company of Royal Marines brought from Canada . It performed garrison duty at the Royal Naval Dockyard at Ireland Island , Bermuda and was disbanded in Trinidad on 20 August 1816 . Near what is now known as Princes Town , the former Colonial Marines formed a free farming community , known as the Merikens ( sometimes spelled Merikins ) under the supervision of their former non @-@ commissioned officers , the men formed 16 @-@ acre ( 6 @.@ 5 ha ) households . These settlements were successful , and in 1847 their ownership of the land was formally recognised . The community of descendants retains its identity and commemorates its roots in an annual celebration .
The detachment in Florida , which had grown to about 400 men , was paid off and disbanded when the British post was evacuated at the end of the war . A small number of men went to Bermuda with the British as part of a refugee group , rejoining the main body of Colonial Marines . Others from the Florida unit remained in settlements around the wooden stockade , which had become a symbol of slave insurrection . Andrew Jackson opposed the presence of a group of armed fugitive slaves ( although they were in a sparsely @-@ populated area of Spanish Florida ) ; this led to the Battle of Negro Fort in July 1816 and the beginning of the First Seminole War . For their involvement in the conflict , two former auxiliary officers of the corps were executed in 1818 in what became known as the Arbuthnot and Ambrister incident . It is believed that former Colonial Marine refugees were among a group that escaped to the Bahamas in 1822 and founded , on the west coast of the island of Andros , a community that retains its identity to the present day .
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= Tapeworm ( band ) =
Tapeworm is a defunct side project of Nine Inch Nails which existed in various forms from 1995 to roughly 2004 . Tapeworm never released any recordings , but was frequently referenced in interviews . The band started as a side @-@ project between Nine Inch Nails frontman Trent Reznor and live @-@ band members Danny Lohner and Charlie Clouser . Through the years the group expanded and evolved numerous times to include artists such as Maynard James Keenan , Atticus Ross , and Alan Moulder , effectively turning the project into a supergroup . After many years of rumors and expected release dates , Reznor announced the end of the project in 2004 .
= = History = =
Tapeworm 's genesis occurred during Nine Inch Nails recording sessions following The Downward Spiral tours circa 1996 . While working on Nine Inch Nails material , Danny Lohner and Charlie Clouser , both Nine Inch Nails live band members , would often come up with ideas that Reznor felt did not fit in with his vision for the band . Tapeworm developed as an outlet for this material — a democratic group in which Lohner and Clouser could act as equals with Reznor , as opposed to Nine Inch Nails , in which Reznor maintained sole artistic control .
As time went on , Tapeworm evolved into a supergroup , with guest musicians such as Maynard James Keenan , Page Hamilton , and Phil Anselmo recording material ostensibly to be used by the group . In 1999 Lohner reported that three tracks had been completed , and described the various materials featuring Anselmo as " heavy NIN @-@ meets @-@ Pantera " and " mellow Pink Floyd The Wall @-@ type songs " , and the material featuring Keenan as " psychedelic , groove @-@ oriented verses and anthemic choruses . " Tommy Victor recorded material with the band as well , and later told Rolling Stone that the continued delays on Tapeworm contributed to his decision to take a hiatus from music , as well as accusing Reznor of giving his Tapeworm guitar contribution to Marilyn Manson .
In a statement issued to MTV News , Reznor reflected on his collaborations with Keenan :
It has been an interesting experiment for Maynard and I to peek around in each other 's heads , shining flashlights in some shadowy corners ... We 've realized we 're each in somewhat similar places in our respective lives and outlook , so it 's been great to collaborate on that level .
By 2001 , long @-@ time Nine Inch Nails collaborator Alan Moulder had tracked " more than an album 's worth " of demos . Moulder further described the rough tracks as " very unlike The Fragile " and were a deviation from most Nine Inch Nails material . By 2002 , Clouser had left Nine Inch Nails and was no longer associated with Tapeworm . The group , which now consisted of Reznor , Lohner , Keenan , and Atticus Ross , booked time in a recording studio in hopes of producing an album . An official website , tapeworm.net ( now offline ) , was created to showcase pictures from various recording sessions , including images of Josh Freese behind a drum kit .
In September 2003 , Lohner told Kerrang ! magazine that the album was " ready to mix " but had been held up by legal issues stemming from conflicts between Reznor and Keenan 's record labels . The Tapeworm material was reported numerous times as completion neared , most notably by MTV News and Kerrang ! , and was slated to be released on Reznor 's Nothing Records label . Initial recording sessions for the band were staged in the Nothing Studios in New Orleans , though were later reported as being moved to Southern Tracks Studios in Atlanta , Georgia .
In 2004 , Reznor announced that Tapeworm was " dead for the foreseeable future " , citing label issues , Keenan 's A Perfect Circle obligations , and Reznor 's own waning enthusiasm for the project . Reznor summarized the project 's demise by saying " the bottom line is this : if the music had been great , all of this probably could have been worked out . " During an interview with digg founder Kevin Rose in 2009 , Reznor further commented that he thought the material was not as good as could have been given his and Keenan 's respective backgrounds and it was unlikely that the material would ever surface , but went on to say that he would like for the two of them to work together again at some point in the future .
= = Contributors = =
Musicians who have been cited as recording material for Tapeworm , in alphabetical order :
= = Known songs = =
There are only two songs known to be attributed to Tapeworm . The actual Tapeworm versions of the song have not been heard , but cover versions by Maynard James Keenan 's other projects have surfaced .
" Vacant " is one of two songs to be attributed to the Tapeworm project . It was initially written by Lohner and re @-@ arranged by Clouser , with lyrics and melody by Keenan and chorus and backing vocals by Reznor . The song was first performed live by A Perfect Circle throughout their 2001 tour . Reznor was apparently not happy that Keenan performed the song : " I have to admit I find it mildly irritating for " Vacant " to debut in this fashion before feeling it has been properly realized , " Reznor said in a post on the Nine Inch Nails official website . Nonetheless , a remake of the track appeared in a revised form on A Perfect Circle 's 2004 cover album eMOTIVe under the title " Passive " .
Another side @-@ project of Maynard James Keenan , Puscifer , released an album titled " C " Is for ( Please Insert Sophomoric Genitalia Reference HERE ) with a song , " Potions ( Deliverance Mix ) , " which had writing credits given to Trent Reznor .
In response to rumors that Keenan released the song without any changes made , a blog was posted on the home page of the main Puscifer website on November 18 , 2009 saying that :
Ok . Let 's use an APC album as an example. eMOTIVe . APC did a song called " Imagine . " If you view the credits for the song you 'll find various bits of info . Generally speaking the writers name appears in parenthesis next to the track . The performer info may or may not be listed in the album credits . If you see performer info it may be broken down to instruments . For example ... " Billy Howerdel - Guitars and Back @-@ up Vocals . Josh Freese - Drums and percussion , etc ... Or it may be a given that the people who performed on this project / album / track are the band in question . So it will just say " B Howerdel - guitars , Josh Freese - drums , M J Keenan - vocals , etc . ... But Writing credits are different . Next to " Imagine " you 'll see the name John Lennon . Because he wrote the song . You may want to sit down for the next bit . Ready ? John Lennon didn 't perform or sing or play on the APC version of " Imagine . " He didn 't produce it , direct it , co @-@ produce it , or grab us Latte 's during the recording of it . Why ? Because he 's dead. he just wrote it . And we performed a version of it . If you visit the Project Credits of this site now , you 'll start to see what we mean . Hope that helps .
Later Keenan delved further into the issue on his Twitter account only nine hours after the initial blog had been posted . Keenan essentially confirmed the song 's origins in the Tapeworm project while also confirming that the song was covered and released by Puscifer in the same fashion as A Perfect Circle did with " Passive , " saying the following :
[ To ] conclude if [ I ] may . If [ you ] HATE Potions , hate US not Trent . We wrote it together , but PUSCIFER produced it . It was my wedding present [ to ] him .
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= Roosters ( Millennium ) =
" Roosters " is the sixteenth episode of the second season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It originally aired on the Fox network on March 13 , 1998 . The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by Thomas J. Wright .
Millennium Group offender profilers Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) and Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) become embroiled in a growing schism within the Group , prompted by the discovery of the True Cross . " Roosters " is the second half of a two @-@ part episode , continuing the story which began in " Owls " .
" Roosters " develops plot elements introduced both in " Owls " and in the earlier instalment " The Hand of St. Sebastian " , and would later be followed up by the season 's two @-@ part finale . The episode also features the use of operatic music , a decision praised by the show 's composer Mark Snow . The episode featured guest appearances by Kristen Cloke , Philip Baker Hall and R. G. Armstrong . " Roosters " received a mixed critical reaction , and attracted 5 @.@ 4 percent of the available audience during its initial broadcast .
= = Plot = =
Continuing from " Owls " , Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) approaches the car that has been surveilling his home . The occupants claim to be fellow members of the Millennium Group , but soon begin shooting ; Black takes cover and returns fire , shooting one of the men before the car escapes . The car is later found abandoned .
Meanwhile , Lara Means ( Kristen Cloke ) is examining evidence relating to Johnston 's murder ; she discovers that Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) had suppressed infrared post @-@ mortem photographs . Learning of this , the Elder ( Philip Baker Hall ) — a high @-@ ranking Group official — demands an explanation ; Watts divulges that the murdered man had been conspiring to pit conflicting faction within the Group against each other . Watts had found evidence in one of the photographs which may have influenced such a schism and wished to keep it hidden until its significance could be known . The Elder agrees , and similarly decides to hold off on testing which would reveal if an artefact in Johnston 's possession was an authentic piece of the True Cross .
Black 's wife Catherine ( Megan Gallagher ) is approached at her new job by a colleague , who reveals that the company is part of the Odessa network . Meanwhile , Black visits Catherine 's boss Clear Knight ( Kimberly Patton ) , experiencing visions of Nazi Germany after seeing a watercolour painting in her office . Later that night Black is visited by Means and the Old Man ( R. G. Armstrong ) , another high @-@ ranking Group member . They explain to Black that the Group has , throughout history , been privy to scientific discoveries of which the public has no knowledge . Johnstone had theorised the existence of a tear in the universe which would reach Earth in several decades ; his death may be connected to this theory . The Old Man also explains that the Group has been infiltrated in the hopes of splintering it , by members of the Odessa network — a faction founded by fugitive Nazis which had previously been known for its anti @-@ communist work and has now turned its focus to the Millennium Group .
When Catherine finds her colleague dead , she flees from the company premises and finds her husband , who has deduced that her job offer was simply a way for Odessa to reach him . Elsewhere , an Odessa agent murders the Old Man in Frank 's home ; the loss serves to reunite Watts , Means and Black , who contrive a plan to strike back at Odessa . As the Elder conducts a funeral for the Old Man , a carbomb kills his assassin , while Odessa 's Paraguayan headquarters is destroyed and Knight 's company is raided and closed . The Elder finishes his rites and returns home , opening a package delivered from the Middle East ; inside is the fragment of the True Cross .
= = Production = =
" Roosters " was written by frequent collaborators Glen Morgan and James Wong , who also served as co @-@ executive producers for the second season . It was the thirteenth episode to have been written by the pair , who had penned several across the first and second seasons of the series . " Roosters " was directed by Thomas J. Wright ; Wright had directed twelve episodes previously and would helm a further thirteen over the series ' run . Wright would also go on to direct " Millennium " , the series ' crossover episode with its sister show The X @-@ Files .
Morgan has noted that the plot for " Roosters " , and the previous instalment " Owls " , grew out of the internecine conflict seen within the Millennium Group in " The Hand of St. Sebastian " , an earlier second season episode he had penned with Wong . Morgan had wanted to introduce secular elements to the series ' focus on eschatology , after the theological focus of the earlier episode ; he began focussing on ideas such as biological warfare as a possible way of depicting the end of the world — an idea which would later play out in the two @-@ part episodes concluding the second season , " The Time Is Now " and " The Fourth Horseman " . Millennium 's composer Mark Snow spoke positively about the series ' producers for their decision to use operatic music in this episode , rather than relying on " hip @-@ hop or rock and roll " as prior episodes had done .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Roosters " was first broadcast on the Fox network on March 13 , 1998 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5 @.@ 4 during its original broadcast , meaning that 5 @.@ 4 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 5 @.@ 29 million households .
The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen gave the episode an " A − " , finding that it " lacks the wild momentum of " Owls " " . However , Handlen felt that , mostly as a result of its characters and the performances given , the episode served as a satisfying conclusion to the story arc . Handlen particularly highlighted O 'Quinn 's performance , reflecting positively on his increased importance in the series and noting that " portrayal of an acolyte struggling with the demands and doubts of his faith does as much for Millennium as Henriksen 's work " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated " Roosters " 5 out of 5 , calling both it and " Owls " a " dense , deceptive set of shows " which focus on the personal and ideological conflicts between their characters . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , calling it " dull and flabby " . Shearman felt that the plot failed to capitalise on what had been set up by " Owls " , offering more exposition than resolution . However , he highlighted the work of Thomas J. Wright , finding that those scenes which allowed for more action were directed well .
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= Iowa Highway 56 =
Iowa Highway 56 ( Iowa 56 ) is a state highway that runs from west to east in northeastern Iowa . It begins at Iowa Highway 150 in West Union and ends at Iowa Highway 13 south of Elkader . As a largely rural route , Iowa 56 passes through the farmland of Fayette and Clayton counties . Through Elkader and to its eastern end , the highway runs parallel to the Turkey River .
The 24 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 39 km ) highway is an original route from 1920 . It originally extended from West Union to Guttenberg , but it was shortened to Elkader by 1925 . Since then , both the western and eastern endpoints have shifted slightly , but the route otherwise remains the same .
= = Route description = =
Iowa Highway 56 begins at an intersection with Iowa 150 in the southern part of West Union . The route starts out heading to the east , but turns to the south as it leaves the city limits . Approximately one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of town , it curves to the south @-@ southeast . Southeast of West Union , Iowa 56 splits the distance between the Volga River and Echo Valley state parks , each approximately two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from the highway . Being a largely rural route , it passes through the rolling farmland of Fayette and Clayton counties .
It continues to the south @-@ southeast until it nears Elkader . There , it briefly turns to the northeast before turning southeast again along Second Street parallel to the Turkey River . The street plan of Elkader was influenced by the river , which flows from the northwest to southeast through town . Iowa 56 follows Bridge Street for one block ; it heads to the southeast again along First Street . The highway meanders to the south , following the river , to an intersection with Iowa 13 near where that highway crosses the Turkey River . Clayton County 's Turkey River Park is located at the intersection of Iowa 13 and Iowa 56 .
= = History = =
When the Iowa primary highway system was created in 1920 , Primary Road No. 56 extended from West Union eastward to Guttenberg . It began in a different location in West Union than it does today , beginning at Primary Road No. 19 in the northeastern part of town . The route then headed south along Pine Street . In Elkader , Primary Road No. 56 joined Primary Roads No. 10 and No. 13 and crossed the Turkey River on the Keystone Bridge . Shortly after leaving Elkader , Primary Road No. 56 split away from the other two routes and headed east . It turned south at Primary Road No. 20 and the two routes headed to Guttenberg . The Primary Road No. 56 designation ended in Guttenberg .
Primary Road No. 56 's length past Elkader did not last long . By 1925 , the two overlaps were removed and the standalone stretch between them was renumbered Primary Road . No. 128 . By the 1950s , the western end of the route shifted to its current position in West Union . In the early 1980s , a new bypass and Turkey River bridge were built around Elkader . Iowa 13 was shifted onto the bypass and Iowa 56 was extended southward along the former Iowa 13 to the new highway . In 2004 , the two intersections of Iowa 56 along Bridge Street were rebuilt to allow large trucks to take the sharp turns . Roadwork began on June 1 and the street reopened on August 4 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Per Manum =
" Per Manum " is the thirteenth episode of the eighth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on February 18 , 2001 . Written by Frank Spotnitz and series creator Chris Carter , and directed by Kim Manners , the episode helps to explore the series ' overarching mythology . " Per Manum " received a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 4 and was watched by 9 @.@ 61 million households . Overall , the episode received mostly positive reviews from critics .
The series centers on FBI special agents Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and her new partner John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) — following the alien abduction of her former partner , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Scully and Doggett investigate several women who had no way of naturally conceiving but who claim to have been abducted and impregnated with alien babies . Soon , Scully begins to worry about the future of her pregnancy .
" Per Manum " featured a substantial appearance by Duchovny who had elected not to return to the show as a full @-@ time main character following the ending of season seven . In addition , the episode marks the first appearance of Knowle Rohrer , played by Adam Baldwin .
= = Plot = =
Pregnant Kathy McCready is undergoing an emergency caesarian . As her husband prepares , the ward is locked down , and the child delivered is seen to be an alien .
FBI special agents John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) meet Duffy Haskell ( Jay Acovone ) , who tells them about his wife — a multiple @-@ abductee who he believes was killed by her doctors upon giving birth to an alien child . He also describes how his wife 's cancer was both caused and cured by her abductors . Duffy refers the agents to Zeus Genetics in Maryland , and shows them an ultrasound scan that seems to vindicate his story . As the agents leave , Doggett notes similarities between the case and Scully 's history , although he does not yet know that Scully is pregnant . In a flashback , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) tells Scully that her abduction ( in the second season episodes " Ascension and " One Breath " ) has rendered her infertile , as her ova were harvested for genetic experiments . Mulder later found them in a secret facility ( in fourth season 's " Memento Mori " ) , but they were not viable .
Scully investigates a Zeus Genetics clinic , overhearing a pregnant woman , Mary Hendershot ( Saxon Trainor ) , telling her doctor that she does not want to be under his care any more . Scully hides in a storeroom , finding it full of preserved fetuses that resemble the alien child seen earlier . In another flashback Scully seeks a second opinion about her ova from her doctor , Dr. Parenti , and is told that her ova might be viable with a sperm donor .
In the present , Scully phones Parenti , who is dissecting an alien fetus . She asks him to compare her ultrasound scan with the one given to her earlier . When she visits later , she is assured her scans are in order , but she sees Parenti speaking with Dr. Lev , the doctor she overheard at Zeus Genetics . Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) and Doggett confront Duffy about threatening letters he has been sending to both Mulder and Dr. Lev . However , when the agents leave , Duffy makes a phone call to Lev , warning him that they are being investigated . Back in the past , Scully asks Mulder to be the donor and he accepts .
Scully is warned by Hendershot , the woman from Zeus Genetics , that their unborn children are in danger . Scully meets Doggett and Skinner , having requested a leave of absence from the FBI . After Doggett leaves , Skinner tries to convince Scully to reveal her pregnancy to Doggett . Scully and Hendershot visit an army research hospital to have Hendershot 's labor induced . Whilst Hendershot is being prepped for the operation , Scully asks to have an ultrasound performed on herself . The scan appears normal , but Scully realises the monitor they are watching is simply a video of another woman 's scan . Realising they have been tricked , Scully finds Hendershot and the two sneak out of the exam room .
Doggett has Duffy 's fingerprints examined , and finds that they belong to a man who died thirty years previously . Doggett contacts an old military partner , Knowle Rohrer ( Adam Baldwin ) to find Duffy 's real identity . Although Rohrer assures Doggett he will investigate , the agent is not convinced , believing that Duffy is a CIA agent . He confides this to Skinner , who tells him to aid Scully at the military hospital . As Scully and Hendershot sneak out of the building , they are found by Rohrer and several marines , claiming Doggett has sent them to rescue her . Scully and Hendershot are driven away , but Hendershot enters labour . The women are separated , and Scully is drugged . When she wakens , Doggett informs her that Hendershot 's baby was delivered and is normal . However , Scully is convinced something is amiss , but nothing more can be done about it . In another flashback , Scully tells Mulder that her attempt at in vitro fertilization has failed , but he tells her to " never give up on a miracle " .
= = Production = =
" Per Manum " featured the appearance of David Duchovny as Fox Mulder in various flashbacks . After settling his contract dispute with Fox , Duchovny quit full @-@ time participation in the show after the seventh season . In order to explain Mulder 's absence , Duchovny 's character was abducted by aliens in the seventh season finale , " Requiem " . After several rounds of contractual discussions , Duchovny agreed to return for a total of 11 season eight episodes . " Per Manum " marked the fourth appearance of Duchovny in the eighth season ; he had previously appeared in opening episodes of the season , " Within " and " Without " as well as the eleventh episode " The Gift " . Series creator Chris Carter later argued that Mulder 's absences from the series did not affect the characterization , noting that " there are characters who can be powerful as absent centers , as Mulder was through the eighth and ninth seasons . "
A deleted scene from early on within the episode , in which Scully questions her doctor about her ultrasound scans , was cut from the final broadcast as writer Frank Spotnitz felt it was too " confusing " for the viewers to place doubt on the actions of the doctor so early . Fellow series writer John Shiban said that the scene was not " subtle " enough to convey the right level of suspicion . Spotnitz has described " Per Manum " as being " a real paranoia episode " , concerning " the way you perceive connections between people , what are they saying , and is it suspicious or not " .
Adam Baldwin , who makes his first appearance as recurring character Knowle Rohrer , originally auditioned for the part of John Doggett , losing out to Robert Patrick . However , the crew remembered Baldwin 's audition later when casting " Per Manum " , and asked him to play the role . Jay Acovone , who portrays Duffy Haskel in this episode , returned in the same role in the season 's penultimate episode " Essence " ; and had also previously appeared in the fourth season episode " Demons " . " Per Manum " also featured a guest appearance by Mark Snow as an unnamed doctor . Snow had been the series ' composer since the first season .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Per Manum " premiered on the Fox network on February 18 , 2001 and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on June 9 , 2002 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 4 , meaning that it was seen by 9 @.@ 4 % of the nation 's estimated households . It was viewed by 9 @.@ 61 million households and 16 million viewers , making it , at the time , the highest @-@ rated episode of The X @-@ Files to air during the season . " Per Manum " ranked as the 30th most @-@ watched episode for the week ending February 18 . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " How did Scully get pregnant ? " The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 4 – Super Soldiers , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien super soldiers arc .
" Per Manum " received mostly positive reviews from critics . Todd VanDerWerff of The A. V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " and called it " good " . He appreciated the fact that the show revealed that Mulder was possibly the father of Scully 's child , saying that it " ups the stakes in a lot of ways and redefines [ Scully 's ] mission " to find Mulder . Despite this , VanDerWerff noted that the episode " has some issues " , largely due to the convoluted nature of the mythology at this point in the show 's run , as well as the fact that Duchovny looked " a little bored " at times . However , he wrote that the episode , along with the subsequent episode " This is Not Happening " was a showcase for Anderson 's acting ability , and her performance " knits all of this together " . Writing for Television Without Pity , Jessica Morgan rated the episode a " B + " , deriding some of the episode 's plot points , such as the hospital 's locking doors , and questioning the villainy of the antagonistic doctors .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode five stars out of five , calling it a " return to form " for the series . Shearman and Pearson also felt that the episode gave the character of John Doggett a chance to be accepted by the series ' other characters ; and praised the " subtle " writing of the episode 's emotional dialogue . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 @-@ 9 of ' The X @-@ Files ' , noted that the episode typifies the basic themes of the series — " dark , foreboding terror , overriding sense of paranoia " and " the fear of the unknown " among others .
Writing for The Vindicator , Eric Mink felt that the episode was " intense , unsettling , sometimes gross , and suspenseful to the point of nerve @-@ racking [ sic ] " , feeling that its plot would " resonate instantly and ominously with viewers " . Meghan Deans of Tor.com felt that , while the episode did unfortunately reduce Scully down to a traditional idea of feminine identity for part of its run , it was " one of the most emotional Scully @-@ centric episodes the show has ever given us . " Furthermore , Deans reasoned that the episode was an example of " what The X @-@ Files would have been , had Scully been the believer : a woman being told that she is hysterical , a woman being told that she imagined it all [ and ] a woman being told that the evidence of her own body is invalid " , a direction that would have been " startling " .
Not all reviews were positive . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a scathing review and awarded it no stars out of four . She heavily derided the plot , noting that Haskell 's role as an " undercover operative " was not convincing . Furthermore , she reasoned that because the plot twists were so expected , Scully came off as " a moron " . Vitaris also criticized the use of flashbacks , noting that they were " the only way The X @-@ Files writers could figure out to use David Duchovny " .
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= Powers , Principalities , Thrones and Dominions =
" Powers , Principalities , Thrones and Dominions ' " is the nineteenth episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on April 25 , 1997 . The episode was written by Ted Mann and Harold Rosenthal and directed by Thomas J. Wright . " Powers , Principalities , Thrones and Dominions " featured guest appearances by Sarah @-@ Jane Redmond and Richard Cox .
Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) is convinced to return to work after the death of a close friend . However , it soon becomes apparent that his first case back on the job is much deeper than he had expected .
" Powers , Principalities , Thrones and Dominions " features the final appearances in the series by both Bill Smitrovich and Robin Gammell . The episode has received mixed to positive reviews from critics , and was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 5 million households in its initial broadcast .
= = Plot = =
Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) runs out to a supermarket parking lot where he witnesses a lawyer , Alistair Pepper ( Richard Cox ) , being confronted by a man named Sammael ( Rodney Eastman ) . Sammael raises his hand , and a bolt of lightning arcs from his fingers to strike Pepper dead ; however , when Black reaches Sammael , he finds a pistol at the killer 's feet .
A few days before fellow Group member Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) investigates a murder in a suburban home , in which occult paraphernalia has been laid out in a disorganized manner . Watts contacts Black for help with the case . However , Black is still recovering from the murder of his friend Bob Bletcher ( Bill Smitrovich ) , who was murdered in Black 's home . Watts hangs up when he sees Sammael looking through the house 's window , but by the time he can investigate , Sammael is gone .
Watts later shows Black a picture taken at the murder scene , with Sammael recognizable among a crowd of people . Elsewhere , a man named Martin ( Guy Fauchon ) is arrested after slitting a babysitter 's throat at a public park ; despite the seemingly random nature of the crime , Black believes that the man may be connected to Bletcher 's murder . However , he soon starts to suspect that Martin may be innocent of the crime he has been arrested for . Black also has a dream in which a mutilated Bletcher tries and fails to speak to him , which leads Black to believe he has lost his ability to see into the minds of others .
The case against Martin falters as evidence disappears and witnesses fail to identify him in a line @-@ up . Black is approached by Pepper , Martin 's self @-@ appointed lawyer , who extends Black an invitation to join his legal practice . Martin later claims in court to have killed Bletcher . Elsewhere , another Millennium Group member , Mike Atkins ( Robin Gammell ) , receives a telephone call from someone pretending to be Black . Meanwhile , Black suspects that the occult @-@ oriented murder may have been committed to draw the Group , and Black , into the open again .
In his jail cell , Martin cuts his own throat with a concealed razor blade ; however , a coroner later finds that his death was caused by an aneurysm . Black believes that Pepper is somehow involved . Watts and Black find Atkins murdered in a hotel room , and chase a suspect down a fire escape and into a supermarket . Inside , Black finds Pepper , but as Pepper moves in and out of view , his appearance seems to change to that of Martin , and then of Lucy Butler ( Sarah @-@ Jane Redmond ) , the woman Black suspects to have killed Bletcher . Pepper leaves the supermarket and approaches his car , where he is confronted and killed by Sammael . As Black apprehends Sammael , he is told that Pepper was killed as a " consequence of his own error " ; Black takes it to mean that there is a larger mystery to which his own involvement is only tangential .
= = Production = =
" Powers , Principalities , Thrones and Dominions " is the third of four episodes of Millennium to have been written by Ted Mann , who had previously written " The Judge " and " Loin Like a Hunting Flame " , and would go on to write the first season finale " Paper Dove " . Director Thomas J. Wright would go on to direct twenty @-@ six episodes across all three seasons . Wright would also direct " Millennium " , the series ' crossover episode with its sister show The X @-@ Files . " Powers , Principalities , Thrones and Dominions " is co @-@ writer Harold Rosenthal 's only credit throughout the series .
Both the title of the episode and the invocation spoken by the character of Sammael refer to four of the nine choirs of angels in Christian mythology . Christian angelology holds that there are three groupings of three choirs each . The Thrones are the third @-@ highest ranking choir , belonging to the group charged with attending to God , and are described as stern incarnations of holy justice . Dominions , the fourth @-@ highest choir , belong to the group appointed to deal with God 's creations . Dominions lead the lower orders and impart wisdom to humanity . Powers belong to the same tier as Dominions , and are tasked with countering the threat of temptation by the devil and demons . Principalities are the seventh @-@ highest ranking choir and belong to the lowest grouping of angels , those most likely to appear to mankind . Principalities oversee those humans who rule over others , teaching kings and heads of families the skills needed to lead .
" Powers , Principalities , Thrones and Dominions " features the final appearance of the character Bob Bletcher . Smitrovich had first portrayed Bletcher in " Pilot " , appearing intermittently throughout the first season . Bletcher was murdered in the previous episode , " Lamentation " . The episode also features the death of Millennium Group member Mike Atkins , played by Robin Gammell , who had also portrayed the character in the earlier episode " Gehenna " . Sarah @-@ Jane Redmond , who had first portrayed Lucy Butler in " Lamentation " , would return in the second season episode " A Room with No View " , and the third season episodes " Antipas " and " Saturn Dreaming of Mercury " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Powers , Principalities , Thrones and Dominions " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on April 25 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 7 during its original broadcast , meaning that 6 @.@ 7 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented 6 @.@ 5 million households , and left the episode the sixty @-@ fifth most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
" Powers , Principalities , Thrones and Dominions " received mostly positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen rated the episode an A , describing it as " gleefully grim " . Handlen felt that the episode represented the series coming into its own , noting that " Millennium , after weeks of hinting at possibilities without delivering much of anything , has finally started to give a real sense that yes , there is a lot of bad news happening , and it really does make a twisted kind of sense " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 , noting that it shared similar themes with the direction the series would take in its second season . Gibron described the episode as " spooky and somewhat surreal " , adding that " the entire installment [ sic ] crackles with possibilities " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Powers , Principalities , Thrones and Dominions " four stars out of five , describing it as being " surprising , intriguing , moody and pretentious " . Shearman compared the episode thematically to Mann 's earlier script for " The Judge " , and noted that while the story " doesn 't make for an especially comprehensible yarn , it does produce an episode that is genuinely uneasy viewing " .
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= An Assisted Elopement =
An Assisted Elopement is a 1910 American silent short comedy produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on Gladys and Charlie who meet each other on the train home and they become romantically interested in each other . It turns out their parents are friends and wish for them to get married , souring the relationship between them . In a ploy to get their children to elope , the fathers become bitter enemies in public and the couple elopes much to their enjoyment and intention . A surviving film still shows several of members of the cast , including Frank H. Crane , Violet Heming , and Alphonse Ethier . The film was released on August 30 , 1910 and saw a wide national release . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
The film is presumed lost as no known surviving copies of the film exist . A synopsis of the film was published in The Moving Picture World . It states : " Glade and Sears are next door neighbors and old friends . Glade has a daughter , while Sears has a son . The young people have never met , being away at school while the old folks have been cementing their friendship . As the two men own adjoining places , they believe that the best thing for the younger people to do is to get married . So they try to bring this about . Gladys Glade and Charlie Sears meet on the train while they are returning home and start a flirtation . Perhaps they would have married in the end , if the old folks hadn 't ' butted in . ' As it is , they lose all interest in each other . Then the fathers try another tack . They decide to be bitter enemies in public , hoping the opposition will bring the children together . The new plan works like a charm , and Gladys and Charlie , realizing their parents ' shortcomings , decide to elope . They do so , much to the satisfaction of Glade and Sears . "
= = Cast = =
Frank H. Crane
Violet Heming
Alphonse Ethier
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . Identification of three members of the cast come from a surviving film still in a Thanhouser advertisement . Other credits may have included Anna Rosemond , one of two leading ladies of the Thanhouser company in this era . One of the actors in the film was Frank H. Crane , a leading male actor of the company and also involved since the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company . Bowers states that most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions .
= = Release and reception = =
The one reel comedy , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on August 30 , 1910 . The film saw a wide national release , with advertisements in Kansas , Wisconsin , Pennsylvania , North Carolina , Nebraska , Arizona , and Oklahoma . The film was also shown by the Province Theatre in Vancouver , Canada . Though it had been released years prior to its examination by the Pennsylvania State Board of Censors of Moving Pictures , the film was approved without need any modifications or censoring .
The New York Dramatic Mirror review was positive despite the plot having been produced previously . The reviewer wrote , " This film story has been done before and by an Independent producer , which prompts the wonder if the Independents would not do well to avoid borrowing - at least from each other . The Thanhouser producers have the excuse , however , in this particular case that the former telling of the story was a sad failure , while this one has pleasing qualities . Two fathers are determined that their children shall wed each other , but the young folks object to such cut and dried procedure , whereat the fathers pretend to quarrel and forbid the children to love , and the perverse youngsters at once elope , assisted secretly by the parents . The trick of having the boy join the girl in her apparent banishment by hiding in her trunk is the one discordant note in an otherwise plausible and human comedy . " The Moving Picture World was more brief , acknowledging the plausibility of the scenario and that the acting was convincing . The Moving Picture News review was also brief , stating , " The film calls for shrieks of laughter ; it deserved it , for it is built upon human nature . A story anyone can see and enjoy . " In 1912 , the American Film Manufacturing Company released the similarly titled An Assisted Elopement and the Selig Polyscope Company released its own An Assisted Elopement .
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= The Simpsons Movie =
The Simpsons Movie is a 2007 American animated comedy film based on the Fox television series The Simpsons . The film was directed by David Silverman , and stars the regular television cast of Dan Castellaneta , Julie Kavner , Nancy Cartwright , Yeardley Smith , Hank Azaria , Harry Shearer , Tress MacNeille , Pamela Hayden , Marcia Wallace , and Russi Taylor with guest appearances by Tom Hanks , Green Day , and Albert Brooks . The plot follows Homer Simpson , whose irresponsibility gets the better of him when he pollutes the lake in Springfield after the town cleans it up when they had received a warning from the EPA . As the townspeople exile him and eventually his family abandons him , Homer works to redeem his folly by stopping Russ Cargill , the head of the EPA , when he intends to destroy Springfield .
Previous attempts to create a film version of The Simpsons failed due to the lack of a script of appropriate length and production crew members . Eventually , producers James L. Brooks , Matt Groening , Al Jean , Mike Scully , and Richard Sakai began development of the film in 2001 . A writing team consisting of Scully , Jean , Brooks , Groening , George Meyer , David Mirkin , Mike Reiss , John Swartzwelder , Jon Vitti , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , and Matt Selman was assembled . They conceived numerous plot ideas , with Groening 's being the one developed into a film . The script was re @-@ written over a hundred times , and this creativity continued after the animation had begun in 2006 . This meant hours of finished material was cut , which included cameo roles from Erin Brockovich , Minnie Driver , Isla Fisher , Kelsey Grammer , and Edward Norton . Hanks and Green Day appeared in the final cut as themselves .
Tie @-@ in promotions were made with several companies , including Burger King and 7 @-@ Eleven , which transformed selected stores into Kwik @-@ E @-@ Marts . The film premiered in Springfield , Vermont , which had won the right to hold it through a competition organized by Fox . The film was a critical and commercial success , grossing over $ 527 million worldwide .
= = Plot = =
While performing on Lake Springfield , rock band Green Day is killed when the lake 's pollution dissolves their barge , following an audience revolt after frontman Billie Joe Armstrong proposes an environmental discussion . At the memorial service , Grampa Simpson ( Castellaneta ) foresees the destruction of the town , but only Marge takes this seriously . Later that day , Homer dares his son Bart to skate naked to the Krusty Burger restaurant and Bart is arrested by Chief Wiggum ( Hank Azaria ) . Bart considers their neighbor Ned Flanders ( Harry Shearer ) a better father figure after Homer refuses to take responsibility for the incident . Lisa and a new Irish friend named Colin ( Tress MacNeille ) convince the town to clean the lake .
Meanwhile , Homer adopts a pig from Krusty Burger and names it " Spider Pig " ( later " Harry Plopper " , and simply " Plopper " ) , and stores the pig 's feces ( and some of his own ) in a silo , until Marge tells him to safely dispose of the waste . Homer intends to take his silo to the waste management plant , but after Lenny ( Shearer ) calls to tell him that Lard Lad Donuts has been shut down and is giving away free donuts , Homer impatiently dumps the silo straight into the lake , polluting it again . Moments later , a squirrel jumps into the lake and becomes severely mutated ; Flanders and Bart ( who bond after Homer humiliates Bart ) discover the creature before the EPA captures it . Russ Cargill ( Albert Brooks ) , head of the EPA , presents five " unthinkable " options to U.S. President Arnold Schwarzenegger ( Harry Shearer ) to keep the town 's pollution contained ; he steers the slow @-@ witted president into enclosing Springfield in a large glass dome . When the police discover Homer 's silo in the lake , and his responsibility for sealing Springfield in the dome , an angry mob advances on the Simpsons ' home to kill Homer , but the family escapes the town through a sinkhole , which then destroys their house . With the EPA on their trail , the Simpsons flee to Alaska . On the way , Homer tries to make some money at a carnival by riding a motorcycle around the inside of a metal cage .
After weeks of futile escape attempts , Springfield 's residents finally make a dent in the dome ; pointing out the damage , Cargill manipulates Schwarzenegger into ordering the town 's destruction . In Alaska , the Simpsons see an advertisement starring Tom Hanks for a new Grand Canyon on the site of Springfield ; realizing the town is endangered , Marge and the children want to go back to save it , but Homer refuses . The family eventually leave him for good . Alone , Homer is adrift on an iceberg , while Marge and the children are captured by the EPA after they are discovered by the NSA and Marge didn 't stay silent and blowing her and her family 's cover . After a mysterious Inuit shaman ( MacNeille ) saves him from a polar bear , Homer has an epiphany and decides to return to Springfield to save the town from danger .
As Homer arrives , a helicopter lowers a small but powerful bomb down a rope through a hole in the dome , set to go off after 15 minutes . Homer goes down the rope , knocking the escaping townspeople and bomb off of it which gets him booed away . After reconciling with Bart , Homer drives a motorcycle along the dome , inspired by the earlier carnival attraction . As a passenger of the motorcycle , Bart throws the bomb through the hole ; seconds later it detonates , shattering the dome and freeing the town . Cargill prepares to shoot Homer and Bart , but Maggie knocks him out with a boulder . The town praises Homer , who rides into the sunset with Marge and Maggie , whereupon the townspeople restore Springfield to normal . As a symbol of their gratitude , the Simpsons and their friends begin to rebuild the family 's house .
= = Cast = =
Dan Castellaneta as Homer Simpson , Abe Simpson , Groundskeeper Willie , Krusty the Clown , Mr. Teeny , Sideshow Mel , Mayor Quimby , EPA Officer , Itchy , Barney Gumble , Hans Moleman , Plopper , Burns 's Lawyer , Rich Texan
Julie Kavner as Marge Simpson , Patty and Selma
Nancy Cartwright as Bart Simpson , Maggie Simpson , Nelson Muntz , Ralph Wiggum , Todd Flanders , TV daughter
Yeardley Smith as Lisa Simpson
Pam Hayden as Milhouse Van Houten , Rod Flanders
Hank Azaria as Moe Szyslak , Apu Nahasapeemapetilon , Comic Book Guy , Cletus Spuckler , Carl , Bumblebee Man , Dr. Nick , Chief Wiggum , Gabbo , Officer Lou
Harry Shearer as Mr. Burns , Smithers , Ned Flanders , Rainer Wolfcastle , Reverend Lovejoy , Lenny , Dr. Hibbert , Kent Brockman , Scratchy , Seymour Skinner , Otto Mann
Tress MacNeille as Medicine Woman , Colin , Cookie Kwan , Lindsey Neagle , Agnes Skinner , TV son , Mrs. Muntz , Elly
Marcia Wallace as Edna Krabappel
Russi Taylor as Martin Prince
Maggie Roswell as Helen Lovejoy , Miss Hoover
A. Brooks as Russ Cargill
Karl Wiedergott as Man , EPA Officer
Phil Rosenthal as TV Dad
Joe Mantegna as Fat Tony
Green Day as Themselves
Tom Hanks as Himself
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The production staff had considered a film adaptation of The Simpsons since early in the series . The show 's creator , Matt Groening , felt a feature @-@ length film would allow them to increase the show 's scale and animate sequences too complex for a TV series . He intended the film to be made after the show ended , " but that [ ... ] was undone by good ratings " . There were attempts to adapt the fourth season episode " Kamp Krusty " into a film , but difficulties were encountered in expanding the episode to feature @-@ length . For a long time the project was held up . There was difficulty finding a story that was sufficient for a film , and the crew did not have enough time to complete such a project , as they already worked full @-@ time on the show . Groening also expressed a wish to make Simpstasia , a parody of Fantasia ; it was never produced , partly because it would have been too difficult to write a feature @-@ length script . Before his death , Phil Hartman had said he had wished to make a live action Troy McClure film , and several of the show 's staff had expressed a desire to help create it .
The voice cast was signed on to do the film in 2001 , and work then began on the script . The producers were initially worried that creating a film would have a negative effect on the series , as they did not have enough crew to focus their attention on both projects . As the series progressed , additional writers and animators were hired so that both the show and the film could be produced at the same time . Groening and James L. Brooks invited back Mike Scully and Al Jean ( who continued to work as showrunner on the television series ) to produce the film with them . They then signed David Silverman ( who , in anticipation of the project , had quit his job at Pixar ) to direct the film . The " strongest possible " writing team was assembled , with many of the writers from the show 's early seasons being chosen . David Mirkin , Mike Reiss , George Meyer , John Swartzwelder , and Jon Vitti were selected . Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham and Matt Selman joined later , and Brooks , Groening , Scully , and Jean also wrote parts of the script . Sam Simon did not return having left the show over creative differences in 1993 . Former writer Conan O 'Brien wanted to work with the Simpsons staff again , joking that " I worry that the Simpsons @-@ writing portion of my brain has been destroyed after 14 years of talking to Lindsay Lohan and that guy from One Tree Hill , so maybe it 's all for the best . " The same went for director Brad Bird who said he had " entertained fantasies of asking if [ he ] could work on the movie " , but did not have enough time due to work on Ratatouille . The producers arranged a deal with Fox that would allow them to abandon production of the film at any point if they felt the script was unsatisfactory .
Work continued on the screenplay from 2003 onwards , taking place in the small bungalow where Groening first pitched The Simpsons in 1987 . The writers spent six months discussing a plot , and each of them offered sketchy ideas . Jean suggested the family rescue manatees , which became the 2005 episode " The Bonfire of the Manatees " , and there was also a notion similar to that of The Truman Show where the characters discovered their lives were a TV show . Groening rejected this , as he felt that the Simpsons should " never become aware of themselves as celebrities " . Groening read about a town that had to get rid of pig feces in their water supply , which inspired the plot of the film . The decision for Flanders to have an important role also came early on , as Jean wished to see Bart wonder what his life would be like if Flanders were his father . Having eventually decided on the basic outline of the plot for the film , the writers then separated it into seven sections . Jean , Scully , Reiss , Swartzwelder , Vitti , Mirkin , and Meyer wrote 25 pages each , and the group met one month later to merge the seven sections into one " very rough draft " . The film 's script was written in the same way as the television series : the writers sitting around a table , pitching ideas , and trying to make each other laugh . The script went through over 100 revisions , and at one point the film was a musical . However , the songs were continually being shortened and the idea was dropped . Groening described his desire to also make the film dramatically stronger than a TV episode , saying that he wanted to " give you something that you haven 't seen before " .
= = = Animation = = =
Animation for the film began in January 2006 , with the Itchy & Scratchy short being the first scene to be storyboarded . Groening rejected making either a live @-@ action or a CGI film , calling the film 's animation " deliberately imperfect " and " a tribute to the art of hand @-@ drawn animation " . The film was produced in a widescreen 2 @.@ 35 : 1 aspect ratio , to distinguish it from the look of the television series , and colored with the largest palette the animators had ever had available to them . A lot of the animation was produced using Wacom Cintiq tablets , which allowed images to be drawn directly onto a computer monitor to facilitate production . Animation production work was divided among four studios around the world : Film Roman in Burbank , California , Rough Draft Studios in Glendale , California , and AKOM and Rough Draft 's division in Seoul , South Korea . As with the television series , the storyboarding , characters , background layout , and animatic parts of production , were done in America . The overseas studios completed the inbetweening , digital ink and paint , and rendered the animation to tape before being shipped back to the United States .
Director David Silverman said that unlike the TV series where " you [ have ] to pick and choose " , the film gave them the opportunity to " lavish that attention [ on ] every single scene " . The characters have shadows , unlike in the show . Silverman and the animators looked to films such as The Incredibles , The Triplets of Belleville , and Bad Day at Black Rock for inspiration , as they were " a great education in staging because of how the characters are placed " . They also looked for ideas for a dream sequence , in Disney films such as Dumbo and the Pluto cartoon Pluto 's Judgment Day , and for crowd scenes in It 's a Mad , Mad , Mad , Mad World . Silverman looked at some of the Simpsons episodes he had directed , primarily his two favorites , " Homie the Clown " and " Three Men and a Comic Book " . Mike B. Anderson , Lauren MacMullan , Rich Moore , and Steven Dean Moore each directed the animation for around a quarter of the film under Silverman 's supervision , with numerous other animators working on scenes .
= = = Casting = = =
For inspiration for the crowd scenes in the film , the production staff referenced a poster featuring more than 320 Simpsons characters . Groening said they tried to include every single character in the film , with 98 having speaking parts , and most members of the crowds being previously established characters instead of generic people . The series ' regular voice actors : Dan Castellaneta , Julie Kavner , Nancy Cartwright , Yeardley Smith , Hank Azaria , and Harry Shearer , as well as semi @-@ regular performers Tress MacNeille , Pamela Hayden , Marcia Wallace , Maggie Roswell , Russi Taylor , and Karl Wiedergott , reprised their roles . Joe Mantegna returned as Fat Tony , while Albert Brooks , who supplied many guest voices in episodes , was hired as Russ Cargill , after he told the staff that he wanted to be part of the film . For " about a week " , he was to reprise the role of Hank Scorpio from the episode " You Only Move Twice " , but the staff felt that creating a new character was a better idea .
The cast did the first of three table readings in May 2005 , and began recording every week from June 2006 until the end of production . James L. Brooks directed them for the first time since the television show 's early seasons . Castellaneta found the recording sessions " more intense " than recording the television series , and " more emotionally dramatic " . Some scenes , such as Marge 's video message to Homer , were recorded over one hundred times , leaving the voice cast exhausted .
The writers had written the opening concert scene without a specific band in mind . Green Day were cast in that role having requested to guest star in the show . Tom Hanks also appears as himself in the film and accepted the offer after just one phone call . Everybody Loves Raymond creator Philip Rosenthal provides the voice of the father in the " new Grand Canyon " commercial with Hanks . Due to time restraints , several guests who had recorded parts were cut from the film . Minnie Driver recorded the part of a patronizing grievance counselor in a scene that ended up being cut . Edward Norton recorded the part of the man who gets crushed as the dome is implemented , performing a Woody Allen impression . The staff felt the voice was too distracting , so Castellaneta re @-@ recorded Norton 's dialogue with a different voice . Isla Fisher and Erin Brockovich also recorded cameos , but their scenes were cut . Kelsey Grammer recorded lines for Sideshow Bob , who was to appear at several different points , but these scenes were also cut . Johnny Knoxville was also touted as a possible guest star .
Although he does not provide the voice , Arnold Schwarzenegger is President of the United States rather than then @-@ President George W. Bush because , according to Groening , " in two years ... the film [ would be ] out of date " . Brooks was nervous about the idea , noting that " [ Schwarzenegger 's ] opinion polls were way down " , and has said that they " were [ hoping ] he 'd make a political comeback " . The animators began by drawing an accurate caricature of Schwarzenegger , but one of the staff instead suggested an altered version of recurring character Rainier Wolfcastle as President . This idea was developed , with the design of Wolfcastle , himself also a caricature of Schwarzenegger , being given more wrinkles under his eyes and a different hairstyle .
= = = Editing = = =
Every aspect of the film was constantly analyzed , with storylines , jokes , and characters regularly being rewritten . Although most animated films do not make extensive changes to the film during active production due to budget restrictions , The Simpsons Movie crew continued to edit their film into 2007 , with some edits taking place as late as May , two months before the film was released . James L. Brooks noted , " 70 percent of the things in [ one of the trailers ] — based on where we were eight weeks ago — are no longer in the movie . " Groening said that enough material for two more movies was cut . Various new characters were created , and then cut because they did not contribute enough . Originally Marge was the character who had the prophetic vision in church . The writers however considered this to be too dark and it was changed to Grampa . The role of Lisa 's love interest Colin was frequently revised . He was previously named Dexter and Adrien , and his appearance was completely altered . One idea was to have Milhouse act as Lisa 's love interest , but the writers realized " the audience was not as familiar with [ his ] long @-@ standing crush on [ Lisa ] as [ they had ] thought " . A car chase in which Homer throws flaming mummies out of a truck at the EPA was replaced with " more emotional and realistic " scenes at the motel and carnival that allowed for a change of pace .
Further changes were made after the March 2007 preview screenings of the film in Portland , Oregon and Phoenix , Arizona . This included the deletion of Kang and Kodos heavily criticizing the film during the end credits . A lot of people at the screenings found the original film too coarse , and some of Homer 's behavior too unkind , so several scenes were toned down to make him appear nicer . Russ Cargill was redesigned several times , originally appearing as an older man whose speech patterns Albert Brooks based on Donald Rumsfeld . The older model was the one used by Burger King for the action figure . Cargill 's scene with Bart and Homer at the film 's conclusion was added in to fully resolve his story , and the " Spider @-@ Pig " gag was also a late addition . One excised scene , before the dome is put over Springfield , had Mr. Burns reminding viewers that it was the last point in the film that they could get a refund . Other deletions included Homer 's encounter with a sausage truck driver , which was featured on the DVD , a scene with Plopper the pig at the end , and a news report , showing the dome 's effect on daily life in Springfield in areas such as farming and sport , was cut because it did not fit the overall context of the film . Several musical numbers , at various intervals throughout the film , were cut . These included a song about Alaska , featuring music by Dave Stewart of Eurythmics . Jean said it " got pretty far along in the animation , and then we got scared that the movie began to drag in that section . "
= = = Music = = =
James L. Brooks chose Hans Zimmer to compose the film 's score , as they were good friends and regular collaborators . Zimmer felt that the score was a " unique challenge " , and he had to " try and express the style of The Simpsons without wearing the audience out " . He used Danny Elfman 's original opening theme , but did not wish to overuse it . He created themes for each member of the family . Homer 's leitmotif was a major focus , and Zimmer also composed smaller themes for Bart and Marge . Regular television series composer Alf Clausen was not asked to score the film , noting : " sometimes you 're the windshield , sometimes you 're the bug " .
In addition to their appearance in the film , Green Day recorded its own version of the Simpsons theme , and released it as a single . Zimmer turned the Spider @-@ Pig song into a choral piece , which was a joke he never intended to be put into the film . Zimmer also had to write foreign @-@ language lyrics for the 32 dubbed versions of the song when the film was released internationally . He found translating the song into Spanish the hardest to write . The same choir learned to sing the piece for each of the foreign @-@ language dubs .
= = = Themes = = =
Al Jean described the film 's message as being " a man should listen to his wife " . In addition , the film parodies two major contemporary issues , religion and environmentalism . The theme of environmentalism is present throughout the film : in Homer 's polluting of Lake Springfield , Green Day 's cameo , Lisa 's activism and her romance with Colin . The villainous Russ Cargill is head of the Environmental Protection Agency . Reviewer Ed Gonzalez argued the plot was a satire of the government 's reaction to the effects of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans . Ian Nathan of Empire magazine criticized this focus , believing it gave the film an " overt political agenda [ which ] border [ s ] on polemic " . James D. Bloom of Muhlenberg College commented on the " explicitness " of the film 's " intellectual agenda " , on this issue , shown particularly through Lisa . He wrote that the film 's first post @-@ opening credits scene , which sees Green Day fail in an attempt to engage their audience on the issue of the environment , " sets in motion a plot expressly built around cultural agenda @-@ setting " and " reflection on timely ' issues ' . "
Religion is focused on in Grampa 's momentary possession , and Marge believing what he said to be a message from God . Groening joked the film " posit [ s ] the existence of a very active God " , when asked if he believed it was likely to offend . Mark I. Pinsky , author of The Gospel According to The Simpsons , said the film " treats genuine faith with respect , while keeping a sharp eye out for religious pretension and hypocrisy of all kinds " . Regarding the scene where the tenants of Moe 's Tavern and the Church switch locations , he believed it took the " chance to unmask everyone 's human fallibility . " In analyzing the role of Ned Flanders , he wrote , " It is [ the ] willingness of The Simpsons to depict all the different sides of us [ ... ] that makes it so rich and funny on our complicated relationship with religion . " Trees are a motif in the film , and they were implemented in every important or emotional scene throughout the film . The animators inserted an apple tree behind Lisa and Colin during their initial meeting , a reference to the biblical figures of Adam and Eve and the Garden of Eden .
= = Cultural references = =
Many cultural references and allusions are made throughout the film . Green Day play " Nearer , My God , to Thee " on violins as their barge sinks , in a sequence parodying the film Titanic . When Bart is riding his skateboard naked , different passing objects are constantly covering his genitalia , a nod to similar techniques used in Austin Powers : International Man of Mystery . Homer and Marge 's love scene parodies many Disney films , including Cinderella , with Disney @-@ style animals helping them undress . Originally , the music from The Wizard of Oz was used in that scene , and the fawn had white spots ; these were removed because the animators felt it resembled Bambi too clearly . Bart impersonates Mickey Mouse on the train , calling himself " the mascot of an evil corporation " . Homer plays Grand Theft Walrus , an allusion to the video game series Grand Theft Auto . In the game , his character shoots a tap @-@ dancing penguin in reference to the film Happy Feet . The " Spider @-@ Pig " song is a parody of the theme song of the 1967 Spider @-@ Man TV series , and the name of Lisa 's lecture is An Irritating Truth , a play on Al Gore 's film An Inconvenient Truth . The bomb disposal robot was based on Vincent D 'Onofrio 's character Leonard " Pyle " Lawrence from the film Full Metal Jacket , who commits suicide in a similar way . At the end of the film , the crowd 's celebration is similar to the conclusion of Return of the Jedi , with Carl performing exactly the same hand gestures as Lando Calrissian .
The $ 1 @,@ 000 Homer received when entering Alaska is a reference to the Alaska Permanent Fund Dividend . As Homer leaves Eski @-@ Moe 's he grabs on to a passing truck and uses it to propel himself back to the house , a tribute to actor Buster Keaton , while the epiphany scene features homages to the film Brazil and the works of Salvador Dalí . Hillary Clinton appears as Itchy 's vice president , while an Orc from The Lord of the Rings appears in the mob scene . A scene that was cut had Marge and the kids appear on the TV talk show The View to spread the news of Springfield 's impending doom . Parts were written for the show 's entire panel and the scene was planned to feature Russ Cargill having a gunfight with Joy Behar . Another dropped scene featured Moe describing Springfield 's varying physical states inside the dome , one of which was the Disneyland ride Autopia . There are several references to events in previous TV episodes of The Simpsons . These include the wreckage of the ambulance from the episode " Bart the Daredevil " crashed into a tree next to Springfield Gorge . The Carpenters ' song " ( They Long to Be ) Close to You " was used in Homer and Marge 's wedding video and had also been used in several emotional moments between them in the TV series .
= = Release = =
20th Century Fox announced on April 1 , 2006 that the film would be released worldwide on July 27 , 2007 . The film was released a day earlier in Australia and the United Kingdom . Little information about the plot was released in the weeks building up to the film 's release . Groening did not feel that " people look in the TV section of the newspaper and think , ' I 'll watch this week 's Simpsons because I like the plot . ' You just tune in and see what happens . "
Fox held a competition among 16 Springfields across the United States to host the American premiere . Each Springfield produced a film , explaining why their town should host the premiere , with the results being decided via a vote on the USA Today website . Springfield , Minnesota dropped out on May 31 , 2007 . The winner was announced on July 10 to be Springfield , Vermont . The town beat Springfield , Illinois by 15 @,@ 367 votes to 14 @,@ 634 . Each of the other 14 entrants held their own smaller screenings of the film on July 26 . Springfield , Vermont hosted the world premiere of the film on July 21 with a yellow carpet instead of the traditional red .
The film was rated PG @-@ 13 by the Motion Picture Association of America for " irreverent humor throughout " . The production staff had expected this rating . However , the British Board of Film Classification passed the film as a PG with no cuts made . A BBFC spokeswoman said regarding Bart 's brief nude scene , " natural nudity with no sexual content is acceptable in PG films " .
= = = Marketing = = =
The convenience store chain 7 @-@ Eleven transformed 11 of its stores in the U.S. and one in Canada into Kwik @-@ E @-@ Marts , at the cost of approximately $ 10 million . 7 @-@ Eleven also sold Simpsons @-@ themed merchandise in many of its stores . This included " Squishees " , " Buzz Cola " , " Krusty @-@ O 's " Cereal , and " Pink Movie Donuts " . This promotion resulted in a 30 % increase in profits for the altered 7 @-@ Eleven stores . Homer performed a special animated opening monologue for the July 24 , 2007 edition of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , as part of another promotion .
Promotions also occurred around the world . 20th Century Fox erected a " giant pink donut " in the town of Springfield in Canterbury , New Zealand to celebrate being named Springfield , while in London a double decker @-@ sized floating inflatable Spider Pig was set up by the Battersea Power Station . In Dorset , England , an image of Homer was painted next to the hill figure , the Cerne Abbas Giant . This caused outrage amongst local neopagans who performed " rain magic " to try to get it washed away .
McFarlane Toys released a line of action figures based on the film , EA Games released The Simpsons Game , to coincide with the film 's DVD release , although the plot of the game was not based on the film . Samsung released The Simpsons Movie phone , and Microsoft produced a limited edition The Simpsons Movie Xbox 360 . Ben & Jerry 's created a Simpsons @-@ themed beer and donut @-@ flavored ice cream , entitled " Duff & D 'oh ! Nuts " . Windows Live Messenger presented their users with the opportunity to download a free animated and static content for use within their conversations . Burger King produced a line of Simpsons toy figures that were given away with children 's meals , and ran a series of Simpsons @-@ themed television adverts to promote this . JetBlue Airways held a series of online sweepstakes to win a trip to the film 's Los Angeles , California premiere . They also included a channel dedicated to The Simpsons on their planes ' in @-@ flight entertainment system .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc worldwide on December 3 , 2007 and on December 18 , 2007 in the U.S. It contains commentary tracks from both the producers and animators , six short deleted scenes , and a selection of material used to promote the film release . An unfinished deleted scene of the townspeople singing the Springfield Anthem was also included on The Simpsons The Complete Tenth Season DVD boxset .
Promotions for the DVD release occurred across the United States . The Empire State Building was illuminated yellow , the first time the building had ever been used as part of a film promotion . In the United Kingdom , Fox launched a £ 5 million advertising campaign . They also signed a £ 1 @.@ 6 million deal with the yogurt company Yoplait , to produce a The Simpsons Movie design for their brand Frubes . In its first week it topped the U.S. DVD chart , and generated $ 11 @.@ 8 million in rental revenue .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The Simpsons Movie received critical acclaim . The film currently holds an 88 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes , based on 219 reviews , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 5 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " The Simpsons Movie contains the hearty laughs , biting satire , and honest portrayal of an American family that makes the show so popular . And it boasts slicker animation and polished writing that hearkens back to the show 's glory days . " On Metacritic , it received a score of 80 out of 100 , based on 36 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
British newspapers The Guardian and The Times both gave the film four out of five stars . The Times ' James Bone said that it " boasts the same sly cultural references and flashes of brilliance that have earned the television series a following that ranges from tots to comparative literature PhDs " . The Guardian 's Peter Bradshaw stated that it " gives you everything you could possibly want " and that he thought , " Eighty @-@ five minutes [ was ] not long enough to do justice to 17 years of comedy genius " . Ed Gonzalez praised the film for its political message , likening the Itchy & Scratchy cartoon at the beginning to President Schwarzenegger 's situation later on , as well as the film 's visual gags . Randy Shulman praised the cast , and described them as having " elevated their vocal work to a craft that goes way beyond simple line readings " , and particularly praised Kavner who he said " gave what must be the most heartfelt performance ever " . Roger Ebert gave a positive review , but admitted he was " generally [ not ] a fan of movies spun off from TV animation " . He called it " radical and simple at the same time , subversive and good @-@ hearted , offensive without really meaning to be " . Richard Corliss of Time said that the film " doesn 't try to be ruder or kinkier , just bigger and better " .
USA Today film critic Claudia Puig said that the story did " warrant a full @-@ length feature , thanks to a clever plot and non @-@ stop irreverent humor " . Patrick Kolan believed that the film was " easily the best stuff to come [ from the Simpsons ] since season 12 or 13 " and praised the animation , but also said that the appearances of characters such as Comic Book Guy and Seymour Skinner were " small and unfunny " . Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter praised the film 's good nature , stating that the laughs " come in all sizes " , but also noted that , " little has been gained bringing the Simpsons to the screen . "
Variety 's Brian Lowry called it " clever , irreverent , satirical and outfitted " but that it was " just barely " capable of sustaining a running time longer than a television episode . Lisa Schwarzbaum praised the voice cast but stated that the " ' action ' sequences sometimes falter " . When comparing the film to the early episodes of the show , Stephen Rowley concluded that the film " has more going for it than the show in its later years , but is still a long way short of what made it so invigorating " . The Monthly critic Luke Davies echoed Lowry 's concerns about the length : " everything moves with the whip @-@ crack speed of a half @-@ hour episode . And that 's the paradox : it makes the film feel like three episodes strung together . We 're in a cinema , and we expect something epic . " He opined that " in the great arc that is the history of The Simpsons , this film will come to be seen as oddity rather than apotheosis . "
More negative reception came from the magazine Empire , where reviewer Ian Nathan compared the film to New Coke , saying that " it utterly failed " . Phil Villarreal believed that there were " too few laugh @-@ worthy moments " and that " instead of stretching to new frontiers , the film rests on the familiar " . Sheila Johnston criticized the pacing of the film and its joke level saying that " the overall momentum flags at times " and that it was " a salvo of comic squibs , some very funny , others limp " . David Edwards agreed with this , writing that although " there 's a great half @-@ hour show rattling around ... the rest is padding at its very dullest " , concluding that it " isn 't a terrible film , just a terribly disappointing one . " Cosmo Landesman believed , " the humour seem [ ed ] to have lost its satirical bite and wit " and that " much of the comedy is structured around the idiocy of Homer " . This assessment was shared by Carina Chocano of the Los Angeles Times , who felt that " once the movie wanders into its contemplation of mortality and meaning , the trenchancy kind of creaks and falls off . " She negatively compared it to South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut ( 1999 ) , a film similarly adapted from an animated television series , saying that , in terms of satire , it offers " nothing we don 't hear every night on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart . " Bruce Newman criticized the fleeting appearances of many of the show 's secondary characters , and found the film to be " a disappointment " .
= = = Box office = = =
The film earned $ 30 @,@ 758 @,@ 269 on its opening day in the U.S. making it the 25th @-@ highest , and fifth @-@ highest non @-@ sequel opening day revenue of all time . It grossed a combined total of $ 74 @,@ 036 @,@ 787 in its opening weekend on 5 @,@ 500 screens at 3 @,@ 922 theaters , reaching the top of the box office for that weekend . This made it the tenth @-@ highest revenue of all time , for an opening weekend in July , and highest among non @-@ sequels , and the highest animated TV adaptation of all time . This outperformed the expectations of $ 40 million that Fox had for the release .
It set several American box office records , including highest grossing opening weekend for a non @-@ CG animated film and for a film based on a television series , surpassing Mission : Impossible II . It was also the third @-@ highest grossing opening weekend for an animated film . It opened at the top of the international box office taking $ 96 million from 71 overseas territories , including $ 27 @.@ 8 million in the United Kingdom , the second @-@ highest UK opening ever for a 20th Century Fox film . It contributed to over half of the record 5 @.@ 5 million people attending British cinemas that weekend . In Australia , it grossed $ 13 @.@ 2 million , the third @-@ highest opening weekend in the country , and the highest for an animated film . The United Kingdom is the highest @-@ grossing country for the film outside the US with a $ 78 @,@ 426 @,@ 654 gross overall , with Germany in second place with a $ 36 @,@ 289 @,@ 250 gross overall . The film closed on December 20 , 2007 with a gross of $ 183 @,@ 135 @,@ 014 in the United States and Canada and a worldwide gross of $ 527 @,@ 068 @,@ 706 . It was the eighth @-@ highest grossing film worldwide and the twelfth @-@ highest grossing in the United States and Canada of 2007 .
= = = Accolades = = =
The Simpsons Movie won the award for Best Comedy Film at the British Comedy Awards , Best Animation at the inaugural ITV National Movie Awards , and Best Movie at the UK Nickelodeon Kids Choice Awards , beating Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix , Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End , and Shrek the Third . The film 's trailer won a Golden Trailer Award in the category Best Animated / Family Film Trailer at the 8th Annual Golden Trailer Awards . Forbes named the film the third best of the year , based on its box office takings and Metacritic critical response score . The film 's website received a Webby Award at the 12th Annual Webby Awards in the category " Best Movie and Film Website " .
At the 35th Annie Awards the film was nominated in four categories : Best Animated Feature , Directing in an Animated Feature Production , Writing in an Animated Feature Production , and Voice Acting in an Animated Feature Production for Julie Kavner . All four awards were won by Ratatouille . It was nominated for Best Animated Feature Film at the 65th Golden Globe Awards , the BAFTA for Best Animated Film , and the Producers Guild Award for Animated Theatrical Motion Picture . It also received nominations for the Satellite Award for Best Animated or Mixed Media Feature , the Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Animated Feature , and the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Animated Feature .
Before its release , the film received a nomination at the 2007 MTV Movie Awards for " Best Summer Movie You Haven 't Seen Yet " , with the award ultimately won by Transformers , and lost the Teen Choice Award for " Choice Summer Movie – Comedy / Musical " , which was won by Hairspray . It was also nominated for Favorite Movie Comedy at the People 's Choice Awards , losing to Knocked Up .
= = Possible sequel = =
In 2014 , James L. Brooks stated that he had been approached by Fox and that they had requested a second film . He added that there were no immediate plans , stating : " We 've been asked to [ develop it ] , but we haven 't . We 're doing a lot of other stuff . "
In January 2015 , just prior to the broadcast of the episode " The Man Who Came to Be Dinner " , Al Jean and David Mirkin took to Twitter to reveal that the episode ( which had been produced in 2012 and was originally set to air on May 19 , 2013 ) had been held back because it was being " seriously considered " for adaptation into a sequel film as the episode was " very cinematic " ; they cited a similar sequence of events that occurred earlier in the show 's run with the episode " Kamp Krusty " . Jean also stated that he was sure reasons the episode both could and wouldn 't work as a film would occur to those that viewed the episode and later expanded that there was the fear of the potential film being considered " not canonical " with the TV series and the potential backlash of overcoming it by using a " memory wipe " .
At the Simpsons panel during San Diego Comic @-@ Con 2016 , Nancy Cartwright teased the possibility of a Simpsons movie sequel , when she replied : " Do you guys want another one ? " to a fan who asked about a second Simpson movie . The Official Simpsons twitter account , also tweeted her quote .
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= Military history of Australia during World War I =
In Australia , the outbreak of World War I was greeted with considerable enthusiasm . Even before Britain declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914 , the nation pledged its support alongside other states of the British Empire and almost immediately began preparations to send forces overseas to participate in the conflict . The first campaign that Australians were involved in was in German New Guinea after a hastily raised force known as the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force was dispatched from Australia to seize German possessions in the Pacific in September 1914 . At the same time another expeditionary force , initially consisting of 20 @,@ 000 men and known as the First Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) , was raised for service overseas .
The AIF departed Australia in November 1914 and , after several delays due to the presence of German naval vessels in the Indian Ocean , arrived in Egypt , where they were initially used to defend the Suez Canal . In early 1915 , however , it was decided to carry out an amphibious landing on the Gallipoli peninsula with the goal of opening up a second front and securing the passage of the Dardanelles . The Australians and New Zealanders , grouped together as the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) , went ashore on 25 April 1915 and for the next eight months the Anzacs , alongside their British , French and other allies , fought a costly and ultimately unsuccessful campaign against the Turks .
The force was evacuated from the peninsula in December 1915 and returned to Egypt , where the AIF was expanded . In early 1916 it was decided that the infantry divisions would be sent to France , where they took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front . Most of the light horse units remained in the Middle East until the end of the war , carrying out further operations against the Turks in Egypt and Palestine . Small numbers of Australians served in other theatres of war . While the main focus of the Australian military 's effort was the ground war , air and naval forces were also committed . Squadrons of the Australian Flying Corps served in the Middle East and on the Western Front , while elements of the Royal Australian Navy carried out operations in the Atlantic , North Sea , Adriatic and Black Sea , as well as the Pacific and Indian Oceans .
By the end of the war , Australians were far more circumspect . The nation 's involvement cost more than 60 @,@ 000 Australian lives and many more were left unable to work as a result of their injuries . The impact of the war was felt in many other areas as well . Financially it was very costly , while the effect on the social and political landscape was considerable and threatened to cause serious divides in the nation 's social fabric . Conscription was possibly the most contentious issue and ultimately , despite having conscription for home service , Australia was one of only two combatants not to use conscripts in the fighting . Nevertheless , for many Australians the nation 's involvement in World War I and the Gallipoli campaign was seen as a symbol of its emergence as an international actor , while many of the notions of the Australian character and nationhood that exist today have their origins in the war and Anzac Day is commemorated as a national holiday .
= = Outbreak of the war = =
Following Britain 's declaration of war on Germany on 4 August 1914 , Australia and the other members of the British Empire became automatically involved , with Prime Minister Joseph Cook stating on 5 August 1914 that " ... when the Empire is at war , so also is Australia . " Given the predominantly British heritage of most Australians at the time , there was considerable support from all corners of the country and large numbers of young Australian men reported to recruiting centres around the country to enlist in the following months . When Prime Minister Andrew Fisher 's Labor Party came to power in September 1914 , he reiterated Cook 's statement saying , " Should the worst happen ... " , Australia would " ... rally to the Mother Country ... to help and defend her to our last man and our last shilling . "
Within days , plans for an Australian expeditionary force were completed by Brigadier General William Throsby Bridges and his staff officer , Major Cyril Brudenell Bingham White . White proposed a force of 18 @,@ 000 men ( 12 @,@ 000 Australians and 6 @,@ 000 New Zealanders ) . This proposal was approved by Prime Minister Cook but he increased the offer to the British to 20 @,@ 000 men to serve in any destination desired by the Home Government . On 6 August 1914 , London cabled its acceptance of the force and asked that it be sent as soon as possible . Recruiting offices opened on 10 August 1914 and by the end of 1914 , 52 @,@ 561 volunteers had been accepted , although strict physical fitness guidelines were put in place .
= = German New Guinea = =
In 1884 , Germany had colonised the north eastern part of New Guinea and several nearby island groups . By the outbreak of the war , the Germans had been using the colony as a wireless radio base , and supporting the German East Asia Squadron which threatened merchant shipping in the region . As a consequence , Britain required the wireless installations to be destroyed . Shortly after the outbreak of war — following a request by the British government on 6 August 1914 — the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force ( AN & MEF ) began forming . The objectives of the force were the German stations at Yap in the Caroline Islands , Nauru and at Rabaul , New Britain . The AN & MEF comprised one battalion of infantry ( 1 @,@ 023 men ) enlisted in Sydney , 500 naval reservists and ex @-@ sailors organised into six companies who would serve as infantry and a further 500 men from the Kennedy Regiment , a Queensland militia battalion that had volunteered for overseas service and had been sent to garrison Thursday Island . Together , these forces were placed under the command of Colonel William Holmes , an officer in the militia who was at the time commander of the 6th Brigade and secretary of the Sydney Water and Sewerage Board .
The task force sailed from Sydney on 19 August 1914 , and hove to off Port Moresby where they waited for their escorts to arrive . While they were at Port Moresby , Holmes decided to disembark the Queensland militia soldiers due to concerns about their preparedness for action . Escorted by the cruiser Sydney and the battlecruiser Australia , the task force reached Rabaul on 11 September 1914 and found that the port was free of German forces . Sydney and the destroyer HMAS Warrego landed small parties of naval reservists at the settlements of Kabakaul and the German gubernatorial capital Herbertshöhe on Neu @-@ Pommern , south @-@ east of Rabaul . These parties were reinforced first by sailors from HMAS Warrego and HMAS Yarra and later by infantry from the transport HMAS Berrima .
A small 25 @-@ man force of naval reservists was subsequently landed at Kabakaul Bay and continued inland to capture the radio station believed to be in operation at Bita Paka , 4 miles ( 7 km ) to the south . The Australians were resisted by a mixed force of German reservists and Melanesian native police , who forced them to fight their way to the radio station . By nightfall , the radio station was reached and it was found to have been abandoned , the mast dropped but its instruments and machinery intact . During the Battle of Bita Paka six Australians were killed and five wounded , while the defenders lost one German non @-@ commissioned officer ( NCO ) and about 30 Melanesians killed , and one German and ten Melanesians wounded . Later it was alleged that the heavy losses among the Melanesian troops was the result of the Australians bayoneting all those they had captured during the fighting . As a result of this engagement , Able Seaman W.G.V. Williams became the first Australian fatality of the war . The first Army fatality was a medical officer , Captain B. C. A. Pockley , who died the same day .
At nightfall on 12 September , the Berrima landed the AN & MEF infantry battalion at Rabaul . The following afternoon , although the governor had not yet surrendered the territory , a ceremony was carried out to signal the British occupation of New Britain . The German administration had withdrawn inland to Toma and at dawn on 14 September , and HMAS Encounter subsequently bombarded a ridge near the town , while half a battalion advanced towards the town supported by a field gun . The show of firepower was sufficient to start negotiations , ending the Siege of Toma following the surrender of the remaining garrison of 40 Germans and 110 native police . The German territory surrendered on 17 September 1914 .
Although successful the operation was arguably not well managed , and the Australians had been effectively delayed by a half @-@ trained native force . Regardless the Australians had prevailed not least of all because of their unexpected ability to fight in close terrain , while the outflanking of the German positions had unnerved their opponents . The losses of the AN & MEF were light in the context of later operations but were sufficiently heavy given the relatively modest gain . These losses were further compounded by the unexplained disappearance of the Australian submarine HMAS AE1 during a patrol off Rabaul on 14 September , with 35 men aboard .
Following the capture of German possessions in the region , the AN & MEF provided occupation forces for the duration of the war . On 9 January 1915 , Holmes handed over command of the AN & MEF to Brigadier General Sir Samuel Pethebridge , the former Secretary of the Department of Defence . Holmes returned to Australia and re @-@ enlisted in the AIF , as did most of his men . They were replaced by the 3rd Battalion , known as the " Tropical Force " because it had been specially enlisted for service in the tropics . Pethebridge established the administrative structures that remained through the period of military occupation . Although required by international law to follow the German forms of government , the territory gradually acquired the appearance of a British colony .
= = First Australian Imperial Force = =
At the start of the war , Australia 's military forces were focused upon the militia and what Regular forces existed were mostly serving in the artillery or engineers and were assigned in most part to the task of coastal defence . Due to the provisions of the Defence Act 1903 , which precluded sending conscripts overseas , upon the outbreak of war it was realised that a totally separate , all volunteer force would need to be raised . This force was known as the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) .
The AIF began forming shortly after the outbreak of war and was the brain child of Bridges and White . Upon formation , the AIF consisted of only one infantry division , the 1st Division , and the 1st Light Horse Brigade . The 1st Division was made up of the 1st Infantry Brigade under Colonel Henry MacLaurin ; the 2nd , under Colonel James Whiteside McCay , an Australian politician and former Minister for Defence ; and the 3rd , under Colonel Ewen Sinclair @-@ Maclagan , a British regular officer seconded to the Australian Army before the war . The 1st Light Horse Brigade was commanded by Colonel Harry Chauvel , an Australian regular , while the divisional artillery was commanded by Colonel Talbot Hobbs .
In the early stages of mobilisation the men of the AIF were selected under some of the toughest criterion of any army in World War I and it is believed that roughly 30 per cent of men that applied were rejected on medical grounds . In order to enlist , men had to be aged between 18 and 35 years of age ( although it is believed that men as old as 70 and as young as 14 managed to enlist ) , and they had to be at least five foot six inches tall ( 168 centimetres ) , with a chest measurement of at least 34 inches ( 86 centimetres ) . Many of these strict requirements were lifted later in the war , however , as the need for replacements grew . Indeed , casualties among the initial volunteers were so high , that of the 32 @,@ 000 original soldiers of the AIF only 7 @,@ 000 would survive to the end of the war .
The initial response was so good that in September 1914 the decision was made to raise the 4th Infantry Brigade and 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades . The 4th Infantry Brigade was commanded by Colonel John Monash , a prominent Melbourne civil engineer and businessman . The AIF continued to grow through the war , eventually numbering five infantry divisions , two mounted divisions and a mixture of other units . A sixth infantry division , the 6th Division , was partially formed in the United Kingdom February 1917 . Casualties from the First Battle of Bullecourt and the Battle of Messines caused the disbandment of the partially formed unit to allow the other five divisions to be brought back up to strength .
= = Gallipoli = =
= = = Background = = =
The 1st Division departed Australia from Albany , Western Australia on 1 November 1914 in convoy of 10 transports escorted by several British , Australian and Japanese warships . Initially bound for British @-@ controlled Egypt , with a stopover in Ceylon , the convoy had been delayed several times due to fears of interception by German warships in the area . These fears later proved valid when the German cruiser Emden was sighted off Cocos Island . As the convoy steered to avoid the threat , the Australian cruiser HMAS Sydney , engaged the Emden with her heavier guns and after an engagement that lasted only twenty @-@ five minutes , the Sydney emerged victorious .
The threat of the German Squadron neutralised , the convoy was able to continue its voyage unmolested . Upon their arrival in Egypt in November , the 1st Division moved to Camp Mena , near Cairo , where they were used to defend the Suez Canal against Turkey who had declared war on 29 October . During this time , the Australians commenced a period of training to prepare them for combat on the Western Front as it was still expected that they would be sent to England for deployment in the European theatre . As they waited , however , the Australian and New Zealand forces in Egypt at the time were formed into the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) under the command of Lieutenant General William Birdwood , and consisting of the Australian 1st Division and the composite New Zealand and Australian Division ( NZ & A ) .
Overcrowding and shortages of equipment in England meant that it was decided to keep the Anzacs in Egypt during the European winter , during which time they would undertake further training in order to prepare them for their eventual use in the trenches in France . Despite this , however , the training that the Australians and New Zealanders received in this time could only be considered very rudimentary in nature , and despite popular opinion at the time , it did little to prepare them for what was to come .
In the background , though , moves were being made to commit the Australians and New Zealanders elsewhere . Later in November , Winston Churchill , in his capacity as First Lord of the Admiralty , put forward his first plans for a naval attack on the Dardanelles . A plan for an attack and invasion of the Gallipoli peninsula was eventually approved by the British cabinet in January 1915 . It was decided that the Australian and New Zealand troops would take part in the operation , although they were outnumbered by the British , Indian and French contingents , a fact which is often overlooked today by many Australians and New Zealanders . The objective of the invasion was to open up another front against the Central Powers and to open the Black Sea 's only entrance to the Mediterranean , via the Dardanelles and Bosphorus , to allow shipping to Russia all year round .
After the failure of naval attacks , it was decided that ground forces were necessary to eliminate the Turkish mobile artillery and allow minesweepers to clear the waters for larger vessels . The British Secretary of State for War , Field Marshal Lord Kitchener , appointed General Sir Ian Hamilton to command the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force ( MEF ) that was to carry out the mission . The MEF consisted of Birdwood 's ANZAC , British 29th Division , British Royal Naval Division and the French Corps expéditionnaire d 'Orient . Some 40 @,@ 000 Russian troops would participate in the capture or occupation of Constantinople .
= = = Landing at Anzac Cove = = =
The invasion plan was for the 29th Division to land at Cape Helles on the tip of the peninsula and then advance upon the forts at Kilitbahir . The Anzacs were to land north of Gaba Tepe on the Aegean coast from where they could advance across the peninsula and prevent retreat from or reinforcement of Kilitbahir . The Anzac assault force , the 3rd Brigade of the Australian 1st Division , began to go ashore shortly before dawn at 4 : 30 am on 25 April 1915 . The intended landing zone was a broad front centred about a mile north of Gaba Tepe , however , possibly due to navigational error or an unexpected current , the landing went awry and the boats concentrated about a mile and a half further north than intended in a shallow , nameless cove between Ari Burnu to the north and Hell Spit to the south . Since 1985 , the cove has been officially known as Anzac Koyu ( Anzac Cove ) .
The Anzacs were confronted by a treacherous , confusing tangle of ravines and spurs that descended from the heights of the Sarı Baır range to the sea . The landing was only lightly opposed by scattered Turkish units until Mustafa Kemal , commanding the 19th Division and perceiving the threat posed by the landings , rushed reinforcements to the area in what became a race for the high ground . The contest for the heights was decided on the second ridge line where the Anzacs and Turks fought over a knoll called Baby 700 . The position changed hands a number of times on the first day before the Turks , having the advantage of the higher ground on Battleship Hill , took final possession of it . Once the Anzac advance was checked , the Turks counter @-@ attacked , trying to force the invaders back to the shore , but failed to dislodge them from the foothold they had gained . A trench perimeter quickly developed and a bloody stalemate ensued until August .
= = = Krithia = = =
In May 1915 , Hamilton decided to concentrate his resources in the Helles sector . Birdwood withdrew Colonel McCay 's 2nd Infantry Brigade and the New Zealand Infantry Brigade and they moved by sea to Cape Helles on 6 May . During the subsequent Second Battle of Krithia the two brigades suffered 1 @,@ 827 casualties , including McCay , in an ill @-@ advised daylight advance over open ground that could have been occupied after dark without loss . During May Turkish snipers were particularly active in Monash Valley . On 15 May , one shot and fatally wounded Major General Bridges . His body was returned to Australia and buried on the hill overlooking Royal Military College , Duntroon in Canberra . The Australian government sent Major General James Gordon Legge from Australia to replace him .
= = = Turkish counter @-@ attack = = =
On 19 May 1915 , the Turkish launched an assault against the Anzac perimeter . Forewarned by naval reconnaissance aircraft , the troops were on alert and the position was reinforced by the return of the 2nd and New Zealand Infantry Brigades from Cape Helles and the arrival of the 1st Light Horse Brigade and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade from Egypt . Along most of the line , the attack met with immediate disaster , with the Turkish attackers swept away by the rifle and machine gun fire of the Anzac defenders . At Courtney 's Post , one of the most exposed parts of the perimeter , the Turks managed to enter the trenches but there they encountered Lance Corporal Albert Jacka and others , who drove them out again . For his action , Jacka became the first Australian to win the Victoria Cross in the war .
= = = August offensive = = =
The repeated failure of the Allies to capture Krithia or make any progress on the Helles front led Hamilton to pursue an imaginative new plan for the campaign . On the night of 6 August a fresh landing of two infantry divisions was to be made at Suvla , 5 miles ( 8 km ) north of Anzac . Meanwhile , at Anzac a strong assault would be made on the Sari Bair range by breaking out through thinly defended sector at the north of the Anzac perimeter . The offensive was preceded on the evening of 6 August by diversionary assaults at Helles and Anzac . At Helles , the diversion at Krithia Vineyard became another futile battle with no gains and heavy casualties for both sides . At Anzac , an attack on the Turkish trenches at Lone Pine by the infantry brigades of the Australian 1st Division was a rare victory for the ANZACs . At a cost of over 2 @,@ 000 men , the Australians inflicted 7 @,@ 000 casualties on the Turks . Because it was an effective attack on a vital position , it was the most effective diversionary attack carried out by the Australians of the war , drawing in the Turkish reserves .
However , the main assault aimed at the peaks of Chunuk Bair and Hill 971 was less successful . The force striking for the nearer peak of Chunuk Bair comprised the New Zealand Infantry Brigade . It came within 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) of the peak by dawn on 7 August but was not able to seize the summit until the following morning . This delay had fatal consequences for another supporting attack on the morning of 7 August , that of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at the Nek which was to coincide with the New Zealanders attacking back down from Chunuk Bair against the rear of the Turkish defences . The New Zealanders held out on Chunuk Bair for two days before relief was provided by two New Army battalions from the Wiltshire and Loyal North Lancashire Regiments . A massive Turkish counter @-@ attack , led in person by Mustafa Kemal , swept these two battalions from the heights . Meanwhile , the landing at Suvla Bay was only lightly opposed but the British commander , Lieutenant General Sir Frederick Stopford , had so diluted his early objectives that little more than the beach was seized . Again the Turks were able to win the race for the high ground of the Anafarta Hills thereby rendering the Suvla front another case of static trench warfare .
The Suvla landing was reinforced by the arrival of the British 53rd and 54th Divisions along with the British 10th Division from Kitchener 's New Army divisions plus the dismounted yeomanry of the 2nd Mounted Division . The unfortunate 29th Division was also shifted from Helles to Suvla for one more push . The final British attempt to resuscitate the offensive came on 21 August with attacks at Scimitar Hill and Hill 60 . Control of these hills would have united the Anzac and Suvla fronts , but neither battle achieved success . When fighting at Hill 60 ceased on 29 August , the battle for the Sari Bair heights , and indeed the battle for the peninsula , was effectively over .
= = = Evacuation = = =
After eight months of bloody fighting it was decided to evacuate the entire force on the Gallipoli peninsula . Troop numbers were progressively reduced from 7 December and cunning ruses were performed to fool the Turks and to prevent them from discovering the Allies that were departing . At Anzac , the troops would maintain utter silence for an hour or more until the curious Turks would venture out to inspect the trenches , whereupon the Anzacs would open fire . As the numbers in the trenches were thinned , rifles were rigged to fire by water dripped into a pan attached to the trigger . In what was ironically the best planned operation of the campaign , the evacuation was completed by dawn on 20 December 1915 , without a single casualty .
Ultimately the Gallipoli campaign was a disastrous failure . It did not achieve any of the objectives that had been given as a justification for it , and due to the inexperience of high commanders and mismanagement there were an unacceptably high number of casualties amongst the participating troops , not only from as a result of combat , but also due to widespread disease that resulted from poor sanitation and hygiene in the front lines and a breakdown in the casualty clearance and resupply and logistics systems . It has been estimated that over the course of the campaign there were 26 @,@ 111 Australian casualties with 8 @,@ 141 killed . Other Allied casualties — killed and wounded — included : 7 @,@ 571 New Zealanders , 120 @,@ 000 British and 27 @,@ 000 French .
After the war , the bad conditions and high casualties amongst the Anzac troops resulted in a reasonably prevalent view in Australia that these had been due to the incompetence of British officers commanding the Australian troops and their disregard for the casualties that resulted from poorly planned or ill @-@ conceived attacks . Whether these claims are valid or not , there can be little doubt that the entire campaign was poorly conducted , and as a result there were many military lessons learnt that were to be applied in later campaigns . Despite this , for Australians and New Zealanders the Gallipoli campaign has come to symbolise an important milestone in the emergence of both nations as independent actors on the world stage and the development of a sense of national identity . Today , the date of the initial landings , 25 April , is a public holiday known as Anzac Day in Australia and New Zealand and every year thousands of people gather at memorials in both nations , and indeed in Turkey , to honour the bravery and sacrifice of the original Anzacs , and of all those who have subsequently lost their lives in war .
= = Egypt and Palestine = =
= = = Reorganisation in Egypt = = =
After the Gallipoli Campaign , Australian troops returned to Egypt and the AIF underwent a major expansion , which involved the raising of another three infantry divisions — the 3rd , 4th and 5th — and the establishment of the Anzac Mounted Division . In March 1916 , the infantry began to move to France while the cavalry units stayed in the area and fought Turkish troops and the Senussi Arab tribes that were threatening British control of Egypt . Mounted troops were particularly important in the defence of Egypt and Australian troops of the Anzac Mounted Division saw action in all the major battles of the campaign , first seeing combat in the Battle of Romani . Apart from the horsemen , the mounted troops included the 1st Imperial Camel Corps Brigade . This was organised as a mounted infantry brigade . Of its four battalions , the 1st and 3rd were composed of Australians , the 2nd was British , and the 4th was half Australian and half New Zealand . The cameliers participated in most of the fighting in Egypt and Palestine until the brigade was disbanded in July 1918 . The Australian and New Zealand components then traded their camels for horses and became the 5th Light Horse Brigade .
= = = Fighting the Senussi Arabs = = =
In response to the growing threat from a pro @-@ Turkish Islamic Arab sect known as the Senussi , a composite British force — the " Western Frontier Force " — under the command of the British Indian Army officer Major General Alexander Wallace , was sent into the Libyan Desert to Mersa Matruh in late @-@ November 1915 . This force included a composite regiment of Australian light horse and the horse transport of the 1st Division . A series of sharp battles against the Arabs ensued at Um Rakhum , Gebel Medwa and Halazin during December and January . British casualties were comparatively light , although many were killed or wounded , including Australians . Arab losses were much higher however , with hundreds killed during the fighting . Meanwhile , a number of the Australian Light Horse units returning from Gallipoli were sent further south to guard the edge of the Nile Valley against the Senussi . The 1st Armoured Car Section was also involved in guarding the Western Desert until it was sent to Palestine as the 1st Light Car Patrol at the end of 1916 .
= = = Battle of Romani = = =
The Battle of Romani took place near the Egyptian town of Romani , 23 miles ( 37 km ) east of the Suez Canal , on 3 – 5 August 1916 . The goal of the Turkish and German army was to control or destroy the Suez Canal , thereby denying the use of the waterway to the Allies and in doing so aiding the Central Powers . Both the Anzac Mounted Division , under Major General Harry Chauvel , and the 52nd ( Lowland ) Infantry Division saw action against the German and Turkish force .
Since first making contact with the advancing German and Turkish force on 20 July they had been harassed alternately by the Australian 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades . During the night of 3 – 4 August , the day before the battle commenced , both brigades were involved in fighting . By about midday on 4 August , the Turkish and German force had pushed the two Australian brigades back to a point where the 52nd ( Lowland ) Infantry Division , in their trenches , were able to attack the Turkish right flank , and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and British 5th Mounted Brigade arrived from their deployment protecting the Suez Canal , to extend the Australians ' line on the left flank . The Turkish and German advance was stopped by the fire brought to bear on them by the combined British infantry and Australian , British and New Zealand mounted forces and the deep sand , the midday summer heat , and thirst .
In these extremely tough conditions , the British infantry were unable to move effectively against the retreating German and Turkish force in the following days . Alone , the Anzac Mounted Division was unable to stop the retreating force withdrawing to Katia and eventually back to their base at Bir el Abd . This base was abandoned the day after it was attacked by the Anzac Mounted Division , on 12 August 1916 , ending any threat to the Suez Canal for the remainder of the war . The battle cost the Allies 1 @,@ 202 casualties of which 222 were killed , 71 died of wounds and 909 were wounded ; half of these were Australians .
= = = Battle of Magdhaba = = =
Following the victory at Romani the Anzac Mounted Division pushed the German and Turkish Army back across the Sinai Peninsula . The German and Turkish forces had been put on the defensive and retreated from Bir el Abd on 12 August 1916 towards the Egyptian – Turkish frontier , the day after being attacked by the Anzac Mounted Division . A Turkish rearguard action was fought at Bir el Mazar before the German and Turkish force retired to El Arish in September . In the Maghara Hills in October 1916 a strongly defended position was attacked by an Allied force based on the Suez Canal . Both Bir el Mazar and Maghara Hills positions were subsequently abandoned . During November , an aerial bombing raid by 5 B.E.s and a Martinsyde , the largest air attack yet organised in the East was carried out on Beersheba . By the beginning of December the railway had reached Bir el Mazar and with the development of lines of communications , garrisons , support and services , it became possible to plan for an advance to El Arish .
On 21 December , after a night march of 30 miles ( 48 km ) the Anzac Mounted Division , commanded by Chauvel , entered El Arish , which had been abandoned by the German and Turkish force who had retreated to Madghaba where the mounted force won a fierce daylong engagement against strong well constructed defences manned by determined defenders . Situated on the British right flank , the Egyptian outpost of Magdhaba was some 23 miles ( 37 km ) to the south @-@ south @-@ east into the Sinai desert , from El Arish on the Mediterranean coast . With Turkish forces on the defensive , Madghaba , along with another position at Rafa , were the last main obstacles standing in the way of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force 's advance into Palestine . Chauvel , with the agreement of Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode commanding the Desert Column who had arrived earlier that day , set out to attack the Turkish forces at Magdhaba with the Anzac Mounted Division . Leaving at about midnight on 22 December , the Anzac Mounted Division was in a position by 03 @.@ 50 am on 23 December to see enemy fires still some miles away at Magdhaba .
With the 1st Light Horse Brigade in reserve , Chauvel sent the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade to move on Magdhaba by the north and north @-@ east to cut off the possibility of retreat while the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade followed the telegraph line straight to Magdhaba . The 1st Light Horse Brigade advanced mounted to the attack but fierce shrapnel fire forced them to advance up the wadi bed . By midday all three brigades and the Camel Brigade , despite support from machine @-@ guns and artillery , were hotly engaged . Aerial reconnaissance from Australian and British aircraft , which scouted out the Turkish positions , greatly assisted the attack , although the Turkish positions were obscured by the effect of a mirage and dust clouds .
When the fighting began the going was tough and by 1 @.@ 00 pm , after hearing that the Turkish defenders still had possession of most of the water in the area , Chauvel decided to call off the attack . However , the message reached the commander of the 1st Light Horse Brigade just as the Australians were preparing to assault the main redoubt , and the message was deliberately misplaced until the attacked had commenced . Both the 1st Light Horse and the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigades made progress capturing about 100 prisoners and by 3 @.@ 30 pm the Turkish defenders began to surrender . By 4 @.@ 30 pm , the entire Turkish garrison had surrendered , having suffered heavy casualties , and the town was captured . The victory cost the Australians 22 dead and 121 wounded .
= = = Battle of Rafa = = =
Two and a half weeks later , on the evening of 8 January 1917 the mounted units of the Desert Column commanded by Chetwode rode out of El Arish towards Rafa where a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Turkish garrison was based . The attacking force comprised the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade , 3rd Light Horse Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade of the Anzac Mounted Division under the command of Chauvel , the 5th Mounted Brigade and three battalions of the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade . After a long night march , the Egyptian Expeditionary Force attacked the strongly entrenched position at El Magruntein . A fierce day @-@ long battle resulted in the mounted troops ( fighting dismounted ) capturing the town around nightfall with the loss of 71 killed and 415 wounded . The Turkish garrison suffered heavily , with 200 killed and another 1 @,@ 600 taken prisoner .
= = = Fighting around Gaza , 1917 = = =
In early 1917 , the Imperial Mounted Division was formed from the 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades and two British mounted brigades . The division first saw service during the First Battle of Gaza , which occurred in southern Gaza on 26 March 1917 . At around noon two mounted brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division attacked Gaza from the north and east . At 6 @.@ 00 pm the Turkish position had become perilous with the ring closing tightly around Gaza . However , in a decision that dismayed most of their soldiers the British commanders decided to call off the attack and retreat , delivering victory to the Turks . A second attempt was made to capture Gaza on 19 April by which time the Turkish defences were even more formidable and the task confronting the British even more difficult . This battle became known as the Second Battle of Gaza . The Anzac Mounted Division played only a minor role in this battle suffering only 105 casualties out of the 5 @,@ 917 suffered . The second battle of Gaza was a disastrous defeat for the Allied forces .
In June 1917 , the Imperial Mounted Division was renamed as the Australian Mounted Division . In August 1917 Chauvel was placed in command of the Desert Mounted Corps , which included the two Australian mounted divisions , as well as the British Yeomanry Division and the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade . Chauvel became the first Australian to command a corps , as well as the first to achieve the rank of lieutenant general .
With the failure of the Second Battle of Gaza a third assault was launched on Gaza between 31 October and 7 November 1917 . Units from the Anzac Mounted Division and the Australian Mounted Division took part in the battle . The battle was a complete success for the Allies . The Gaza – Beersheba line was completely overrun and 12 @,@ 000 Turkish soldiers were captured or surrendered . The critical moment of the battle was the capture of the town of Beersheba on the first day by Australian light horsemen . The Australian 4th Light Horse Brigade , under Brigadier General William Grant , charged more than 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) at the Turkish trenches , overran them and captured the wells at Beersheba . In the capture of Beersheba , the Australians lost 31 men killed . A further 32 were wounded , while 80 horses were lost . On the Turkish side , more than 500 men were killed and 1 @,@ 500 captured as well as nine artillery pieces and a number of machine guns and other pieces of equipment .
= = = Fighting advance = = =
From 1 to 7 November , strong Turkish rearguards at Tel el Khuweilfe in the southern Judean Hills , at Hareira and Sheria on the maritime plain and at Sausage Ridge and Gaza close to the Mediterranean coast , held the Egyptian Expeditionary Force in heavy fighting . During this time the Turkish Army was able to withdraw in good order . The rearguard garrisons themselves were also able to retire under cover of darkness , during the night of 6 / 7 or 7 / 8 November . On 7 and 8 November , the surviving units of the 7th and 8th Turkish armies further delayed the advance of Desert Mounted Corps commanded by Chauvel and the XXI Corps 's 52nd ( Lowland ) Division and the 75th Yeomanry Division .
All other units of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force had come to the end of their lines of communication . These units were the XXI Corps ' 54th ( East Anglian ) Division resting at Gaza and the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade at Beit Hanun . Also in the rear was the whole of Chetwode 's XX Corps which had transferred its transport to XXI Corps . Its 53rd ( Welsh ) Division and corps cavalry , together with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , were deployed in the front line near Tel el Khuweilfe , in the Judean Hills north of Beersheba . While its 60th ( London ) Infantry Division was resting at Huj , its 10th ( Irish ) Division and 74th Infantry Division were both resting back at Karm .
The Desert Mounted Corps and the two infantry divisions of XX Corps became involved in a series of engagements during the days leading up to the battle and on the day after . These began on 10 November when one brigade of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division and two brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division commanded by Major General Edward Chaytor successfully pushed across the Nahr Sukereir to establish a bridgehead on the Turkish right flank . Three brigades of the Australian Mounted Division under the command of Major General Henry West Hodgson ran into the Turkish rearguard 's left flank around the village of Summeil . The mounted troops occupied the village on 11 November but were unable to advance further due to intense Turkish artillery fire which continued throughout the day .
On 12 November Allenby made preparations for battle the following day . He ordered an attack by the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division to extend their position across the Nahr Sukereir on the Turkish Army 's right flank . Reinforced with two additional brigades , he ordered the Australian Mounted Division to advance towards Tel es Safi where they encountered a determined and substantial Turkish counterattack . This counterattack forced the mounted division to concede the territory gained during the day , before fighting the Turkish Army to a standstill in front of Summeil . On the morning after the battle at Mughar Ridge , Junction Station was occupied and during the following days other villages in the area were found to have been abandoned . Later in the morning of 14 November New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade ran into a determined and well entrenched Turkish rearguard near Ayun Kara , which they attacked . Fierce close quarter fighting against the Turkish 3rd Infantry Division continued during the afternoon . Although severely threatened , the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade eventually prevailed and went on to occupy Jaffa two days later .
The Battle of Mughar Ridge was fought on 13 November by the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division and the 75th Division in the centre , with the Australian Mounted Division on their right flank and the Anzac Mounted Division and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions on the infantry 's left flank . The battle was divided into two stages with a pause for artillery to be brought forward . Following the Yeomanry 's successful charge up onto El Mughar ridge , two crucial fortified villages were captured by elements of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division . This victory resulted in the subsequent occupation of Junction Station , a vital railway station on the Turk 's lines of communication between Jaffa and Jerusalem .
= = = Jerusalem = = =
The Australian mounted troops took part the Capture of Jerusalem in late 1917 . These operations included two battles fought in the Judean Hills ; the Battle of Nebi Samwil from 17 to 24 November and the Defence of Jerusalem from 26 to 30 December and another fought on the maritime plain ; the subsidiary Battle of Jaffa on 21 – 22 December 1917 . This series of battles involved the British Empire 's XX Corps , XXI Corps and the Desert Mounted Corps fighting the Turkish 7th Army in the Judean Hills and the 8th Army north of Jaffa on the Mediterranean coast .
After the failure of widespread and determined Turkish counterattacks fought from 27 November to 1 December by the 7th Turkish Army they evacuated Jerusalem . Troops from the Australian Mounted Division were the first mounted troops to enter Jerusalem in December 1917 . Towards the end of December the British Empire forces at the Battle of Jaffa and the Defence of Jerusalem succeeded in pushing the Turkish armies north . A strong British defensive line was established which remained in place until mid September 1918 . The line stretched across from well north of the Nahr el Auja on the Mediterranean coast in the west to north and east of Jerusalem . It was extended during the middle of February 1918 when Jericho in the Jordan Valley was captured and the eastern end of the line was secured on the Dead Sea .
= = = Transjordan operations = = =
In March and April 1918 , Australian and New Zealand mounted troops and British infantry took part in two raids east across the Jordan River to Amman and Es Salt , a village in Palestine 23 kilometres ( 14 mi ) west of Amman . Although these raids were unsuccessful , they encouraged Turkish commanders to believe that the main British effort would be launched across the Jordan when it would be launched along the coastal plain . Before these operations could commence it was necessary to capture the country east of Jerusalem and into the Jordan Valley to Jericho . The attack on the Turkish 26th and 53rd Infantry Divisions was made by the 60th ( London ) and the Anzac Mounted Divisions on 19 February . Talat ed Dumm , on the road from Jerusalem , was captured the next day and in the evening the Wady Fara and Nebi Musa were also captured . On 21 February Jericho was occupied by the two divisions of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force .
= = = Final offensive = = =
During the final offensive in September 1918 , the two divisions of Australian mounted troops , as well as the 1st Light Car Patrol and No. 1 Squadron AFC , took part in Battle of Megiddo on 28 September 1918 , a decisive British victory in which 70 @,@ 000 Turkish soldiers were taken prisoner . The Desert Mounted Corps attacked across the Golan Heights , cutting off the north and north @-@ west exits to Damascus on 29 September . On 30 September , the head of a column of 20 @,@ 000 Turkish and German troops was annihilated by the Australian light horsemen as it attempted to withdraw west through the Barada Gorge . Australian troops were the first to enter Damascus , which fell on 1 October . Following an advance of 300 kilometres ( 190 mi ) , Aleppo was captured on 25 October . The Turkish government signed an armistice on 28 October 1918 and surrendered outright two days later .
Following the armistice , the Australian Mounted Division went into camp at Tripoli while the Anzac Mounted Division , having borne the brunt of the entire campaign , suffered heavily from malaria and influenza in the Jordan Valley . Australia 's role in the Sinai and Palestine campaign was later acknowledged by Field Marshal Edmund Allenby , who had been commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Allied forces in the Middle East , as having been considerable . Total Australian battle casualties in the campaign were 4 @,@ 851 , including 1 @,@ 374 dead .
= = Western Front = =
= = = Transfer to Europe = = =
In March 1916 , the infantry units of the AIF were transferred from Egypt to Europe for service on the Western Front . Initially they were organised into I Anzac Corps and II Anzac Corps alongside the New Zealand Division . The 2nd Division was the first to arrive in France , followed by the 1st Division , while the 4th and 5th left Egypt later in June 1916 . The 3rd Division was the last to arrive , having been formed in Australia in March 1916 , and moving to England for training in July 1916 , before being sent to France in December 1916 . For the next two and a half years the constant rotations in and out of the line were punctuated by a number of major battles , during which the Australians earned for themselves a formidable reputation . On 1 November 1917 the Australian divisions were re @-@ grouped together to form the Australian Corps .
When the 1st Division arrived , it was reunited with its mechanical transport . In September 1914 , the Army had decided to supply mechanical transport for the 1st Division and formed a company in New South Wales and one in Victoria . These were the first ever mechanical transport units in the Australian Army . Nearly 200 vehicles were purchased and the two units departed Melbourne for Egypt on 22 December 1914 . Unfortunately , vehicles over 5 long tons ( 5 @.@ 1 t ) were prohibited in Cairo as most bridges could not hold their weight , whereas they possessed vehicles weighing up to 7 long tons ( 7 @.@ 1 t ) . It was therefore arranged for them to continue to England where they arrived on 15 February 1915 . There they lived in tents on Salisbury Plain and hauled gravel for roads before being sent to France in July 1915 .
They were not the first Australians to serve on the Western Front . An Australian Voluntary Hospital had been formed in England in August 1914 from Australian expatriates . All medical practitioners in the unit were Australians and although women were not allowed to serve as doctors , Australian nurses were accepted . The unit left for France in August 1914 and from October was based at Wimereux , where the 2nd General Hospital joined it in June 1916 . In July 1916 , the Australian Voluntary Hospital was absorbed into the British Army . Another group of Australians had also arrived in France before I Anzac Corps . In June 1915 , the 1st Siege Artillery Brigade was formed under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Walter Adams Coxen , the Australian Army 's Director of Artillery , for service on the Western Front . About half the men in the unit were permanent gunners of the Garrison Artillery . The brigade departed Melbourne for England on 17 July 1915 and landed in France on 27 February 1916 . Its 54th Siege Battery was equipped with 8 inch howitzers and its 55th Siege Battery with 9 @.@ 2 inch howitzers .
With the move of the majority of the AIF to France , the base organisation was transferred to the United Kingdom . Most of the training units moved to the Salisbury Plain , establishing depots at Perham Down , Rollestone , Larkhill and Tidworth . When it arrived , the 3rd Division also moved into camps in this area . Command Depots , where men returning from hospitals were sent before being returned to their units , were established at Perham Down , Weymouth , Wool , Dorset and Worgret . Depots for men moving from the United Kingdom to France were established at Étaples . In June 1917 , these were swapped with the Canadians for depots around Le Havre , thereby reducing travelling time from the Salisbury Plain . AIF Headquarters was established at Horseferry Road in London and Colonel R. M. McC . Anderson , a businessman , was appointed as its commandant . Anderson negotiated a new method of payment for services provided by the British Army as a per capita per diem payment .
= = = Battle of the Somme , 1916 = = =
On 7 April 1916 , I Anzac Corps took up positions in a quiet sector south of Armentières , known as the " Nursery " . The Australians were spared from participating in the disastrous first day on the Somme , nevertheless within three weeks of the beginning of the Allied offensive , four divisions of the AIF had been committed to the battle . Only the 3rd Division did not take part , having only just recently arrived in England from Australia . The 5th Division , positioned on the left flank of the salient , was the first to see action during the Battle of Fromelles on 19 July 1916 , suffering a staggering 5 @,@ 533 casualties in a single day .
The 1st Division entered the line on 23 July 1916 , taking part in the assault on Pozières . Initially they succeeded in carrying the German positions with relatively small losses , however , once the Germans had recovered they directed an intense artillery barrage upon the town which resulted in heavy losses . By the time that they were relieved by the 2nd Division on 27 July , they had suffered 5 @,@ 286 casualties . Two days after taking over the line , the 2nd Division was thrown into a hastily planned attack that resulted in further casualties when the Germans spotted the Australians forming up and once again subjected them to the weight of their artillery and machine guns . Another attack was launched on 4 August which , although it met with success , resulted again in such heavy casualties — almost 7 @,@ 000 — that the division was relieved the next day .
Following the attack on Pozières the Australians were called upon to attack Mouquet Farm in August . All three divisions of I Anzac Corps were committed in an effort to force a breach in the German lines behind Thiepval , to the north of Pozières . The task of the initial advance fell to the 4th Division on 10 August , which had already suffered 1 @,@ 000 casualties resisting the final German counter @-@ attack , but in the ensuing battle it would lose a further three times that number as the Australians once again suffered at the hands of the German artillery , finding themselves squeezed into a frontage of less than 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) against which the Germans were able to concentrate the weight of their defence . Three more attacks were made over the course of the next three weeks as the Australians fought their way across the shell @-@ pocked countryside to the farm , only to be forced out again shortly after by the concentration of German artillery . The other two divisions of I Anzac fared only slightly better in these attacks and at the end of the engagement , Australian casualties at Mouquet Farm totalled 6 @,@ 300 men .
As that battle on the Somme dragged on , the Canadian Corps was brought up and the AIF was withdrawn from the line to re @-@ organise and reform , having suffered almost 23 @,@ 000 casualties over the course of the 45 days that they had been involved . The 5th Division had been so badly mauled , having been incapacitated by the losses they had suffered at Fromelles , that it was not until October that the 5th Division finally returned to the line and joined the 1st , 2nd and 4th Divisions on the Somme near Flers .
= = = Battle of Bullecourt = = =
In March 1917 two ' flying columns ' from the 2nd and 5th Divisions pursued the German back to the Hindenburg Line , capturing the town of Bapaume . On 11 April , the 4th Division , consisting of the 4th and 12th Brigades , assaulted the Hindenburg Line in the First Battle of Bullecourt . The battle was a disaster , with over 3 @,@ 000 casualties and 1 @,@ 170 taken prisoner by the Germans . On 15 April the 1st and 2nd Divisions were struck by a German counterattack at dawn near the town of Lagnicourt , by a force of up to 23 battalions as the Germans attempted to take advantage of the weakness that had developed in the Allied line following the British offensive at Arras . The Australians were initially forced to abandon the town to the Germans and in the process several artillery batteries were lost , however , at 7 : 00 am a successful counterattack was launched by four Australian battalions , resulting in the town being recaptured and the guns reclaimed . Later , on 3 May two brigades of the 2nd Division — the 5th and the 6th — took part in the Second Battle of Bullecourt , where they succeeded in taking sections of the Hindenburg Line and eventually managed to hold most these gains until they were relieved by the 1st Division . On 7 May the 5th Division was committed to relieve the 1st , remaining in the line until the battle ended in mid May . While the battle resulted in a victory for the Allies , the effort cost the AIF some 7 @,@ 482 casualties and ultimately ended plans to expand the AIF to a sixth division .
= = = Battle of Messines = = =
On 7 June 1917 , along with two British corps , the II Anzac Corps , consisting of the Australian 3rd Division , the British 25th Division and the New Zealand Division , with the Australian 4th Division attached , launched an operation in the Flanders region of southern Belgium , near Messines The objective was to eliminate a salient that had developed in the line south of Ypres , enclosing the Wytschaete – Messines ridge and thus providing the Germans with good observation and fields of fire that could threaten the major offensive that the British planned to launch around Ypres later in the year . The attack commenced with the detonation of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 @,@ 000 kg ) of explosives that had been placed underneath the Messines ridge in 19 separate tunnels , completely destroying the German trenches .
Following the explosions , the Allied advance was virtually unopposed as the Germans were too stunned and demoralised to put up much resistance . However , not everything went the Australians ' way . The 3rd Division , under Major General John Monash , suffered heavy casualties when they were shelled by phosgene gas and shrapnel shells while moving towards the line of departure , nevertheless the division still managed to get into position for the start of the attack . Strong German counterattacks were launched the next day , once again supported by concentrated artillery fire ; however , the advance was able to continue on through the mess of concrete blockhouses the Germans had erected and continued on until all the objectives had been taken . Australian casualties amounted to nearly 6 @,@ 800 men . On 2 July 1917 , Major General Holmes was mortally wounded by a German shellburst while surveying the Messines battlefield with the Premier of New South Wales , William Holman .
= = = Third Battle of Ypres = = =
Between September and November 1917 , I Anzac Corps took part in a number of actions around Ypres in Belgium as the Allies launched a campaign in order to capture the Gheluvelt Plateau in Belgium . Collectively these actions have come to be known as the Third Battle of Ypres , of which they were a part , although to Australians they are more commonly known by the names of the places where the individual actions took place — Menin Road , Polygon Wood , Broodseinde , Poelcappelle and Passchendaele .
I Anzac Corps was committed six weeks after the start of the battle and on 16 September , having marched through Ypres the night before , the 1st and 2nd Divisions took up a position in the trenches on the main ridge at Glencorse Wood . The first attack came on 20 September at Menin Road , where the Australians experienced success making considerable gains against the enemy for the loss of about 5 @,@ 000 casualties . On 26 September , the 4th and 5th Divisions attacked and captured Polygon Wood , while later on 4 October , another successful attack was made on the main ridge at Broodseinde , where the four Australian divisions involved fought side by side , as they clashed head on with a German counterattack that had been launched at the same time the Australians had risen to carry out their assault . The result was a rout by the Australians , as the German line broke and following further attacks against German pillboxes , the ridge was captured .
The first two attacks had been successful and as Allied commanders began to believe that a breakthrough was possible further attacks were made at Poelcappelle on 9 October and at Passchendaele on 12 October despite heavy rain that turned the ground into a muddy quagmire . Both attacks were ultimately doomed to failure , with heavy casualties , as the attacks foundered in the mud and as the battle petered out , it was decided that it was time for the Australians to be withdrawn from the line . This was completed by 14 November 1917 . Over the course of the eight weeks they had been involved in the fighting around Ypres , they had suffered 38 @,@ 000 casualties .
= = = German Spring Offensive , 1918 = = =
On 21 March 1918 , having been buoyed by the capitulation of Tsarist Russia , the German Army launched their Spring Offensive against the Allies with a staggering 63 divisions over a front of 70 miles ( 110 km ) . As the Allies began to fall back against the tremendous weight of this offensive , on 25 March the Australian 3rd and 4th Divisions were rushed south to Amiens from where they had been holding the line at Messines . The German offensive lasted with varying intensity for the next five months and during this time , all five divisions of the AIF in France were involved in the fighting as they attempted to stem the tide of the German advance , which achieved large territorial gains and at one stage looked like it might ultimately secure a remarkable victory for the Germans as they pushed to within 50 miles ( 80 km ) from Paris late in May . During this time , the Australians were involved in a number of actions at Dernacourt , Morlancourt , Villers @-@ Bretonneux , Hangard Wood , Hazebrouck , and Hamel .
Of these actions , the last one , at Hamel on 4 July 1918 , is perhaps the most notable . Even though the action was relatively minor in terms of the scale of previous operations mounted on the Western Front , it is notable because it was the first ' set @-@ piece ' operation planned and carried out by the newly appointed commander of the Australian Corps , Lieutenant General John Monash and it has since been used as the model of how to successfully carry out a combined arms attack . Using aircraft , artillery and armour in effective combination with infantry , the attack was over in the space of 93 minutes ; although Monash had planned for a 90 @-@ minute operation . It achieved its objectives of straightening the Allied line and taking the town of Hamel . The Australians had advanced the line almost 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) across a front of 6 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) and in the process taken roughly 1 @,@ 600 German prisoners as well as over 200 machine guns , trench mortars and anti @-@ tank weapons . Against this the Australians suffered 1 @,@ 062 casualties .
= = = Hundred Days Offensive = = =
The last @-@ ditched effort by the Germans to win the war came to a grinding halt in mid @-@ July and after that there followed a brief period of lull , during which time the Australians undertook a series of small unit actions aimed at capturing parts of the German line with limited support . These actions became known as Peaceful Penetrations and were essentially a cross between trench raids and patrolling . Their success relied heavily upon the leadership and initiative of junior commanders and the ability of soldiers to employ principles of fire and manouevre . This lull did not last long , however , as the Allies were soon ready to launch their own offensive , known as the Hundred Days Offensive , which would ultimately bring about an end to the war .
The offensive began on 8 August 1918 when 20 Allied divisions , including four Australian , struck at Amiens on the Somme . Using the combined arms techniques developed earlier at Hamel , the Allies achieved territorial gains that had been unheard of since the start of the war . In the Australian sector , the 4th and 5th Divisions had initially spearheaded the advance , before the 2nd and 3rd Divisions had advanced another three kilometres to secure the secondary objectives . The attack had been so successful that it was later described by German General Erich Ludendorff as a " black day " for the German Army .
Following that the Allied offensive continued for the next four months , right up until the end of the war . During the Second Battle of the Somme the Australian Corps fought actions at Lihons , Etinehem , Proyart , Chuignes , and Mont St Quentin , before taking part in their final engagement of the war on 5 October 1918 at Montbrehain . Australian casualties during these battles were very high and coupled with the drying up of reinforcements from Australia , the rejection of the proposal to introduce conscription and the granting of home leave to men who been serving since 1914 meant that by the end of the war the AIF was severely stretched to the limit . Consequently , during the height of the offensive it was decided to disband three battalions — the 36th , 47th and 52nd — in order to reinforce other units .
The engagement at Montbrehain was the Australian Corps ' last contribution to the war and they were out of the line training when the Armistice was declared on 11 November 1918 . Total Australian casualties on the Western Front numbered 181 @,@ 000 , including 46 @,@ 000 of whom died . Another 114 @,@ 000 men were wounded , 16 @,@ 000 gassed , and approximately 3 @,@ 850 were taken prisoners of war .
= = Other theatres = =
When the war ended , there were 92 @,@ 000 Australian soldiers in France , 60 @,@ 000 in England and 17 @,@ 000 in Egypt , Palestine and Syria . Small numbers were serving in other theatres . Australian troops from the 1st Australian Wireless Signal Squadron provided communications for British forces during the Mesopotamian Campaign . They participated in a number of battles , including the Battle of Baghdad in March 1917 and the Battle of Ramadi in September that year . Meanwhile , following the Russian Revolution in 1917 , the Caucasus Front collapsed , leaving Central Asia open to the Turkish Army . A special force , known as Dunsterforce after its commander , Major General Lionel Dunsterville , was formed from hand @-@ picked British officers and NCOs to organise any remaining Russian forces or civilians who were ready to fight the Turkish forces . Some 20 Australian officers served with Dunsterforce in the Caucasus Campaign and one party under Captain Stanley Savige was instrumental in protecting thousands of Assyrian refugees . Australian nurses also staffed four British hospitals in Salonika , and another 10 in India .
= = Australian Flying Corps = =
= = = Formation = = =
The Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) was formed in March 1914 and it was soon deployed to German New Guinea , with one BE2c aircraft and crew dispatched with the AN & MEF , although the colonies surrendered before the plane was even unpacked . The first operational flights did not occur until 27 May 1915 , when the Mesopotamian Half Flight was called upon to assist the Indian Army in protecting British oil interests in what is now Iraq . The Corps later saw action in Egypt , Palestine and on the Western Front throughout the remainder of the war . Organised into four operational squadrons in France and the Middle East and another four training squadrons in England , the AFC remained part of the AIF .
= = = Mesopotamian Half Flight = = =
The Mesopotamian Half @-@ Flight — also known as the Australian Half @-@ Flight — was the first AFC unit to see active service . On 8 February 1915 , the Australian Government had received a request for air assistance from the Viceroy of India for assistance fighting the Turks . The AFC was still forming and could provide enough aircrew and ground staff for only half a flight : the unit therefore became known as the Mesopotamian Half @-@ Flight and Captain Henry Petre was appointed commander . The AFC contingent sailed for Bombay , and on 20 April 1915 it left for Basra , arriving at the end of May . Flying underpowered and unreliable aircraft such as the Caudron , Maurice Farman Longhorn and Martinsyde , the Half @-@ Flight suffered a high attrition rate , losing two killed and six captured out of its strength of just nine pilots . The arrival of reinforcements allowed the formation of a squadron , ( No. 30 Squadron RFC ) , however by November 1915 only one of the original pilots remained . The squadron was mainly involved in unarmed reconnaissance , although later small 9 pounds ( 4 @.@ 1 kg ) bombs were added to the aircraft . In October , three Australian aircraft bombed an Arab tribe known to be hostile in an unsuccessful attempt to bring them to surrender . During the Siege of Kut the last Australian pilot in Mesopotamia , Captain Petre , dropped supplies to the garrison . When Kut surrendered , the AFC ground crewmen located in the city were captured , seven of them later dying in captivity . Petre flew the only remaining Shorthorn to Egypt on 7 December 1915 , where he rendezvoused with No.1 Squadron AFC , effectively marking the end of the Half @-@ Flight 's service .
= = = Operations in the Middle East = = =
By late 1915 the AFC began forming complete squadrons . At British request No. 1 Squadron was dispatched to Egypt with 28 officers and 195 other ranks , where they were equipped with British aircraft including BE2c and Martinsyde G100 . The squadron operated from Heliopolis , Palestine and Syria over the next two years , supporting ground forces in all the major battles of the Palestine campaign against the Turks . Missions included aerial reconnaissance , bombing enemy positions , communications and artillery spotting . They were also involved in many air @-@ to @-@ air battles with German aircraft , while it was in this theatre that the Australians first encountered anti @-@ aircraft fire . The squadron was re @-@ equipped in 1917 with BE2a , RE8 and Martinsyde G102 aircraft , while by 1918 these types were replaced with Bristol F.2 Fighters . Notably during this time Lieutenant Frank McNamara was awarded the Victoria Cross for rescuing another Australian pilot who had been shot down by ground fire and forced to land close to Turkish positions on 20 March 1917 . No. 1 Squadron also took part in the actions at Wadi Fara on 21 September 1918 as part of the Battle of Megiddo , which witnessed the destruction of the bulk of the Turkish Seventh Army by British airpower .
= = = Fighting on the Western Front = = =
Additional AFC squadrons began forming in Australia for service on the Western Front , with No. 2 , 3 and 4 Squadrons arriving in France between August and December 1917 . No. 2 Squadron , equipped with DH5s , was subsequently involved in the Battle of Cambrai on 20 November 1917 , conducting patrol duties , ground strafing and bombing enemy troops and positions . Casualties were high with 7 of the squadrons 18 aircraft shot down , and 2 pilots lost . No. 3 Squadron , equipped with RE8s , was supporting the final phase of the Battle of Passchendaele in Flanders , conducting mainly artillery spotting duties . No. 4 Squadron , equipped with Sopwith Camels , was the last to arrive in France , and was assigned to the First Army around Lens . Notably during March 1918 the squadron was engaged in aerial combat with aircraft commanded by Manfred von Richthofen — known as the ' Red Baron ' — shooting down two German aircraft for the loss of one of their own . The Lens sector had been relatively quiet until 21 March 1918 when the Germans launched a major offensive , with No. 4 Squadron heavily engaged in low @-@ level bombing to support the 4th Australian Division .
The Australian squadrons played a limited role in the allied advance from Amiens on 8 August 1918 , with No. 3 Squadron engaged in reconnaissance and contact patrols to help identify the locations of forward troops . They also undertook extensive aerial photography to aid in remapping and the locating of German artillery positions . During this period Nos. 2 and 4 Squadrons were in the Ypres – Arras area and were involved in patrols and raids on the railways in the vicinity of Lille . With the Germans in retreat during September 1918 , the squadrons felt considerable pressure just keeping up . Regardless , No. 4 Squadron took part in , perhaps its most spectacular action , in the very last weeks of the war . On 29 October , 15 Australian Sopwith Snipes encountered more than 60 German Fokkers , in an action which became one of the largest air battles of the war . The Australians gained the upper hand and 10 Fokkers were shot down for the loss of one Snipe , and the damage of several others .
During their time on the Western Front , No. 2 and No 4 . Squadrons had been used mainly in the fighter role , while No. 3 Squadron was primarily used for reconnaissance . No. 4 Squadron became the most successful fighter squadron in France , accounting for 199 enemy aircraft , while No. 2 Squadron was credited with the destruction of 185 . The total AFC casualties on the Western Front included 78 killed , 68 wounded and 33 taken prisoner . Following the end of the war on 11 November 1918 , No. 4 Squadron was the only Australian unit assigned to the British Army of Occupation , arriving in Germany in December and being based in Cologne . The three AFC squadrons subsequently handed over their equipment to the RAF in February 1919 and returned to Australia where they disbanded .
= = = Legacy = = =
Despite Australian military aviation being in its infancy , the AFC 's identity as a separate national force was considered important , not to mention unusual . Thousands of aircrew from the other Dominions — such as New Zealand and Canada — flew with the Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service , and their unified successor force after 1 April 1918 , the Royal Air Force during the war , without gaining the benefits of command and the administrative experience which came with an independent air service . By the end of the war , four squadrons had seen active service , 460 officers and 2 @,@ 234 other ranks had served in the AFC , and another 200 men had served as aircrew in the British flying services . Casualties included 175 dead , 111 wounded , 6 gassed and 40 captured . The AFC was subsequently disbanded after the war in 1919 being replaced by the Australian Air Corps , which became the Royal Australian Air Force in 1921 .
= = Royal Australian Navy operations = =
At the outbreak of war the Royal Australian Navy consisted of the battlecruiser HMAS Australia , the light cruisers Sydney , Melbourne and Brisbane ( under construction ) , the destroyers Parramatta , Yarra and Warrego , and the submarines AE1 and AE2 . Three more destroyers were also under construction . The Squadron was under the command of Rear Admiral Sir George E. Patey , a British admiral who was knighted on the deck of the Australia before it departed England in 1913 .
The first naval operation of the war was in support of the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force during the occupation of German New Guinea . The naval portion of the force included the Australia , Melbourne , Sydney , Warrego , Encounter , and submarine AE1 . The only loss during the New Guinea Campaign occurred when the AE1 disappeared on 14 September 1914 , taking three officers and 32 men with it .
The first major RAN victory of the war occurred when the cruiser , HMAS Sydney sank the German light cruiser , SMS Emden off the Cocos Islands in the Indian Ocean on 9 November 1914 . Four Australians were killed in the engagement and another 12 were wounded . Ships of the RAN helped provide naval cover for the ambitious landings at Gallipoli , and the submarine AE2 broke the blockade of the Dardanelles to harass Turkish shipping but was later sunk and her crew captured in the Sea of Marmara .
In 1915 the light cruisers Melbourne and Sydney were deployed to the Atlantic where they worked alongside the Royal Navy 's North American and West Indies Squadrons , which were engaged in surveillance operations on the large number of German ships that had taken refuge in neutral American ports when the war had broken out . This continued until September 1916 when both cruisers were moved to the North Sea where they joined Australia , which had been assisting the Royal Navy in its blockade of the German High Seas Fleet .
During this time the RAN also continued to carry out operations in the Pacific and Indian Oceans . By 1915 there were up to 74 German ships which had taken refuge in ports in the Netherlands East Indies . The presence of these ships close to Australia and the sea lanes that connected the nation to the United Kingdom and the Middle East was a cause of concern to the Navy and so in the middle of 1915 the cruiser HMAS Psyche and the sloop Fantome were sent to the Bay of Bengal to conduct patrol operations . Later in the year , in October , a force of three destroyers , a yacht and the cruiser Encounter were sent into the Macassar Strait to search for a German munitions base that had been reported in the area . Nothing was found , although the patrol served to interrupt German efforts to carry out subversive activities in a number of British possessions .
In May 1917 the British government requested assistance from the Australian government in dealing with the increasing threat posed by German U @-@ boats . Six destroyers — the Warrego , Parramatta , Yarra , Swan , Torrens and Huon — were sent in response to this request , and undertook anti @-@ submarine operations in the Adriatic , working out of Brindisi , Italy as part of the Otranto Barrage .
The most decorated RAN unit of the war was the Bridging Train . A reserve unit commanded by Lieutenant Commander Leighton Bracegirdle , it supported the British at Suvla Bay during the Gallipoli Campaign by constructing piers and harbours in the bay . Afterwards it served in Egypt and Palestine , taking part in an amphibious assault in El Arish and the First Battle of Gaza before it was disbanded in 1917 . A number of members later went on to serve with the AIF and RAN . During the war the RAN lost 171 men killed , including 15 officers and 156 sailors , of which six officers and 57 sailors had been on loan from the Royal Navy .
= = Home front = =
= = = Australian Military Forces on home service = = =
Although the main focus of Australia 's military during World War I was overseas in Europe and the Middle East , there was still a necessity to maintain troops in Australia on home service to carry out a number of essential tasks . As the AIF was otherwise engaged these duties out of necessity fell to the soldiers of the militia and a small number of regular soldiers .
In the early stages of mobilisation a number of militia infantry battalions were called out to carry out guard duties upon infrastructure that was considered important to the war effort , such as munitions factories , communications facilities , ammunition dumps and transportation centres . 500 men from the Kennedy Regiment were sent to Thursday Island from Townsville to garrison the island in response to a possible threat from German forces in the Pacific . Additionally , militia troops were used to establish and guard internment camps and garrison artillery and engineer units from the militia were also mobilised to assist the regular units that were manning coastal defences .
By the end of 1914 the naval situation in the Pacific had eased to a large extent due to the sinking of the Emden , and it was decided that there was no longer a need to maintain guards on many of the less important facilities , and instead it was decided to concentrate the home defence network upon maintaining the coastal defences and on guarding ships while they were in port . Nevertheless , in the larger seaports these precautions required the commitment of considerable resources , requiring several hundred men to provide security . The requirement for the militia to undertake these duties was eased , however , when a special corps was raised from men that had been rejected for service with the AIF , to which a corps of garrison military police that had served in the AIF was added later .
The militia garrison artillery and engineers were required throughout the war , however , to man the coastal defences . Despite the fact that after 1915 it was decided that only small garrisons were required on active service , the militia was ordered to maintain their readiness in case they were required to be called out and such was the importance placed upon their role that to a large extent they were barred from joining the AIF for overseas service . In February 1916 a large @-@ scale effort by militia artillerymen to enlist in the artillery units that were being raised for the 3rd Division was prevented when they were called out to man the coastal defences due to the threat posed by a German commerce raider that was believed to be in the Pacific . This mobilisation lasted until April 1916 , when the garrisons were again reduced and the ban on men serving in militia artillery and engineer units volunteering for overseas service was lifted .
In April 1918 the militia artillery was again mobilised , although this time only for a month , when news that the German commerce raiders Wolf and Seeadler had entered Australian waters the previous year . In June 1918 the number of troops actively employed on home service was 9 @,@ 215 , of which 2 @,@ 476 were regulars . At this time the Navy took over the task of providing guards for ships in harbour and communications facilities , thus allowing for many of the militia troops to be released for further training , and as such it was decided to increase the period of camp training for the militia from eight days to 24 .
= = = Conscription = = =
Throughout World War I the Australian forces deployed overseas were all volunteers , however , on the home front there was considerable debate about the issue of conscription . Conscription had been a contentious issue ever since Federation and when the AIF was initially raised in 1914 it had been decided that it would be an all @-@ volunteer force due to the provisions of the Defence Act that precluded sending conscripts overseas . Nevertheless , as the war progressed , casualties amongst the deployed forces began to reach alarming rates and as the flow of reinforcements and recruits for the AIF began to drop in 1916 , the issue of conscription rose once more .
In Australia , however , public opinion about the matter was divided with many Australians opposed to the issue on moral grounds , feeling that the situation was not desperate enough to require such a drastic measure , while others felt it necessary in order to achieve final victory . The Hughes Labor government decided to hold a plebiscite on the matter and on 28 October 1916 the matter was decided by a narrow margin of 51 per cent to 49 per cent , with the no vote prevailing . Despite the result , the issue split the Labor Party and the pro @-@ conscription prime minister , Billy Hughes , ultimately left the party and joined with members of the opposition that supported conscription to form a new party , known as the Nationalist Party .
As manpower shortages on the Western Front began to become acute , a second plebiscite was held on 20 December 1917 . This time it was defeated by an even greater margin of 94 @,@ 152 votes . This effectively put an end to plans to expand the AIF in France and ultimately led to severe manpower shortages that the AIF in France experienced in 1917 and 1918 . As a result , plans to expand the force to a 6th Division were shelved and its manpower distributed amongst the other five divisions , while the five divisions were amalgamated together under the banner of the Australian Corps , thus effectively allowing the 4th Division , which was struggling to maintain its numbers to act as a depot formation within the Corps with the other three divisions providing most of the combat power .
As the war continued , the manpower shortages continued . Wounded men were being pressed back into service , and there were cases of " combat refusal " by the 1st and 59th Battalions . On 23 September 1918 , Monash ordered the breakup of some under @-@ strength battalions to reinforce others . In the AIF the battalion was the source of pride and identification for the men , rather than the regiment as in the British Army , so in some cases this order was defied – some men , who were not eligible to draw rations as their unit no longer officially existed , lived by stealing food or sharing with other units . Monash rescinded the order for a while but eventually " the Heads " ( as Australians called their senior officers ) enforced the change by marching off companies by night into different battalions . The change ultimately proved unnecessary as the war ended shortly after .
= = = Internment , censorship and other special measures = = =
The global nature of the war meant that many functions that were previously vested in the individual Australian state governments had to be placed under the control of the Commonwealth government . Additionally , the exigencies of the war meant that the government required the power to enact certain laws that under the Constitution it would not normally be able to do . In order to enable this to occur , the War Precautions Act 1914 was introduced in October 1914 , providing the Commonwealth government with wide ranging powers for a period of up to six months after the duration of the war .
The main provisions of the Act were focused upon allowing the Commonwealth to enact legislation that was required for the smooth prosecution of the war . The main areas in which legislation was enacted under the War Precautions Act were : the prevention of trade with hostile nations , the creation of loans to raise money for the war effort , the introduction of a national taxation scheme , the fixing of the prices of certain goods , the internment of people considered a danger to the war effort , the compulsory purchase of strategic goods , and the censorship of the media .
At the outbreak of the war there were about 35 @,@ 000 people who had been born in either Germany or Austria @-@ Hungary living in Australia . Due to large @-@ scale German migration in the late 19th century , there were also an inestimable number of people of German origin , many of whom maintained an affinity for their ancestral roots . Many of these were naturalised Australians , and indeed it is believed that many men of German origin enlisted in the AIF . However , due to concerns about the loyalties of some members of the German and Austrian communities , internment camps were set up where those suspected of unpatriotic acts were sent . In total it is believed that 4 @,@ 500 people were interned under the provisions of the War Precautions Act , of which 700 were naturalised Australians and 70 Australian @-@ born . Following the end of the war , 6 @,@ 150 were deported .
There was a considerable public backlash to the way in which some of the provisions of the War Precautions Act were applied , particularly in relation to certain sections of the community such as trade unions and other sections of the community that were for various reasons not as sympathetic to the British cause as the wider community . Indeed , in 1917 , following the suppression of a prominent trade union and the jailing of 12 of its members on charges of sedition and sabotage , it seemed as if Australia 's war effort might have been in danger of breaking down .
After the war , the continued operation of the War Precautions Act led to considerable social and political unrest in late 1918 and into 1919 and a number of violent incidents broke out . The most notable of these was the so @-@ called Red Flag Riots in Brisbane , in 1919 .
= = = Economy = = =
At the outset of the war , Australia 's economy had been quite small and dependent largely upon agriculture and the resources industries for export earnings , while most manufactured products were imported from overseas . Almost immediately uncertainty over the continuation of foreign trade led to a rise in unemployment , indeed it was estimated that after only a couple of days of Britain having declared war , that up to 15 @,@ 000 men had been retrenched in New South Wales alone due to concerns about the continued availability of foreign markets for Australian produce .
These initial concerns , however , were short lived , at least in the beginning as the British government provided assurances that it would underwrite a large amount of the war risk insurance for shipping in order to allow trade amongst the Commonwealth to continue . Shortly thereafter the wartime direction of trade began when the British asked the Australian government to place certain restrictions upon overseas trade in order to secure resources vital to the war effort and to limit the ability of the Central Powers from obtaining these goods from Commonwealth nations via neutral third parties . To an extent these restrictions served to reduce the ability of Australian producers to find buyers for their products , at least initially , however , in many cases the British stepped in to buy these goods , thus alleviating Australian concerns about a significant reduction in the standard of living . This understanding proved particularly beneficial for the wool and wheat industries , where the British government undertook to buy Australian products even though the shortage of shipping meant that there was no chance that they would ever receive them .
On the whole Australian commerce was expanded due to the war , although the cost of the war was quite considerable and the Australian government had to borrow considerably from overseas to fund the war effort . In terms of value , Australian exports rose almost 45 per cent , while the number of Australians employed in the manufacturing industry increased over 11 per cent . This was due in the most part to the reduced ability of traditional sources to continue supplying Australia with manufactured products , which out of necessity stimulated the development of the Australian manufacturing industry .
In terms of goods produced indigenously , it was estimated that due to the inability of traditional suppliers to deliver manufactured goods because of trade embargoes and shipping shortages up to 400 new articles were produced in Australian factories as a result of the war . This was not an insignificant number , although the transformation of the Australian economy as a result of World War I was by no means as significant as that which occurred during World War II . The expansion of the steel industry that occurred during this time laid the foundation for future industrialisation .
Despite this increase in the domestic manufacturing industry there was still a significant shortfall in many items . In part this was due to the priority that military consumption and production necessarily had over civilian , however , there was also a considerable scarcity of raw materials and other components required for manufacturing . This was due both to the lack of shipping available from the United Kingdom , as well as the limitations placed upon the flow of such goods from Britain due to their own increased requirements . The result of this was inflationary . Domestic prices went up , while the cost of exports was deliberately kept lower than market value in an effort to prevent further inflationary pressures worldwide . As a result , the cost of living for many average Australians was increased considerably .
An increase in the trade union movement was an inevitable corollary of this and during the war years there was a considerable increase in the membership of the various unions . Despite the considerable rises in the costs of many basic items , the government sought to maintain wages largely as they were . Although the average weekly wage during the war was increased by between 8 – 12 per cent , it was not enough to keep up with inflation and as a result there was considerable discontent amongst workers , to the extent that industrial action followed . Not all of these disputes were due to economic factors , and indeed in some part they were the result of violent opposition to the issue of conscription , which many trade unionists were opposed to . Nevertheless , the result was very disruptive and it has been estimated that between 1914 and 1918 there were 1 @,@ 945 industrial disputes , resulting in 8 @,@ 533 @,@ 061 working days lost and £ 4 @,@ 785 @,@ 607 in lost wages .
Overall , the war had a significantly negative impact on the Australia economy . Real aggregate Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) declined by 9 @.@ 5 per cent over the period 1914 to 1920 , while the mobilization of personnel resulted in a 6 per cent decline in civilian employment . Meanwhile , although population growth continued during the war years , it was only half that of the prewar rate . Per capita incomes also declined sharply , falling by 16 per cent .
= = After the war = =
= = = Repatriation and demobilisation = = =
Following the end of hostilities in Europe the Australian government decided against contributing Australian forces to the occupation forces that were sent to Germany as part of the post war settlement so that it could begin the repatriation of the AIF early . Lieutenant General Sir John Monash was appointed Director @-@ General of Repatriation and Demobilisation and oversaw the process in Britain , while Lieutenant General Henry Chauvel took charge of the efforts in the Middle East .
Rather than employing a system that returned men by units , or by employment categories , it was decided to utilise an egalitarian system that saw men who had been away for the longest period of time being returned first . Due to the size of the forces deployed overseas — roughly 167 , 000 personnel in France , Britain and Egypt — and the logistical requirements of bringing them home the process was nevertheless a lengthy one and as such it became important to occupy the troops while they waited . In order to achieve this and to prepare the men for a return to civilian employment , a vocational education scheme was set up by George Long and troops in Britain were offered educational courses and civilian work placement opportunities and although these programs were not as successful as hoped , several thousand soldiers took advantage of them .
Some Australians decided to delay their departure and instead joined the British Army and went on to serve in Northern Russia during the Russian Civil War , although officially the Australian government refused to contribute forces to the campaign . HMAS Yarra , Torrens , Swan and Parramatta served in the Black Sea during the same conflict . Elsewhere , in Egypt in early 1919 , a number of Australian light horse units were used to quell a nationalist uprising while they were waiting for passage back to Australia . Despite shortages in shipping , the process of returning the soldiers to Australia was completed faster than expected and by September 1919 there were 10 @,@ 000 men still left in Britain waiting for repatriation . The last of the main transports conveying Australian troops left England on 23 December 1919 , arriving in Australia in early 1920 . A year later , on 1 April 1921 , the AIF was officially disbanded .
The process of repatriation did not end there , though . Upon their return to Australia the effort shifted towards placing the returned soldiers into employment , or education and taking care of those that were too badly injured to work . In order to meet these needs the Commonwealth established the Repatriation Department , tasked with managing the placement of returned soldiers into employment , training , education , housing . Eventually this also included the colossal task of managing the provision of war pensions , managing repatriation hospitals and convalescent homes and administering the Soldier Settlement Scheme . The total cost of these provisions was considerable , and in June 1935 it was estimated to have cost approximately £ 238 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 which was more than the total amount spent on defence during the war .
In order to advocate for the many thousands of returned servicemen and women many ex @-@ services organisations sprang up . The most prominent of these was probably the Returned Sailors and Soldiers Imperial League of Australia which had been established in 1916 by representatives from many state @-@ based organisations already in existence . Following the war this organisation grew in its political influence as its numbers grew and was very active in the repatriation process , advocating for financial entitlements for veterans and securing concessions for soldiers returning to civilian employment . By 1919 it was estimated to have 150 @,@ 000 members although this fell dramatically in the mid @-@ 1920s .
= = = Legacy = = =
The war affected Australia in many ways , although arguably not as greatly as it did the many European nations that were more directly involved . Economically the war had a number of significant impacts , although the Great Depression would later prove far more significant and Australian industry was not as greatly transformed as it would be following World War II . The political landscape was also transformed due to the rifts that resulted from the issue of conscription , while to a smaller extent the role of women in society also evolved as more women entered the workforce . Indeed , between 1914 and 1918 there had been a 13 per cent increase in the employment of women ; however , this was mainly in areas were women were traditionally employed . Equally , although around 2 @,@ 000 women were employed as nurses in the AIF , there was no great involvement of women in the military during the war .
Another legacy was the manner in which it led to the emergence — albeit only fleetingly — of an independence in Australian foreign affairs . Although previously Australian foreign interests had been largely handled by Britain , as a combatant Australia sent its own delegation to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 , while it also began to take a more assertive role in regional affairs in the Pacific . At the peace conference Prime Minister Hughes pushed aggressively for reparations and an Australian mandate over German New Guinea ; a stance which conflicted with the liberal internationalist inspired Fourteen Points put forward by American President Woodrow Wilson . Regardless , following the war there was little real change in Imperial relations and Dominion affairs , and as a result the war arguably did not lead to any significant change in Australia 's perception of its role in the world . Indeed , profound change would only occur following the Japanese crisis of 1942 , which ultimately saw Australia pursue a foreign policy more independent of Britain , and an alliance with the United States .
Perhaps the greatest effect of the war was a psychological one . The heavy losses deeply affected many directly , and war memorials were built all over the country as people sought to remember those that had been killed . However , despite the size of Australia 's contribution to the fighting , there were many Australians who had had no actual experience of it . Realising this , and having witnessed the impact of the war first hand , Charles Bean , who was instrumental in editing and writing the official history of Australia 's involvement in the war , advocated the need for a national memorial and was one of the main architects in establishing the Australian War Memorial in Canberra . The experience of the war also perpetuated many notions about the Australian character and national identity that endure to this day . For many Australians the performance of their soldiers — particularly during the failed Gallipoli campaign — served to highlight the nation 's emergence as a member of the international community , while bringing to the fore a belief in Australians ' natural ability as soldiers . The attitudes of many Australians towards war itself were also greatly affected . There was a widespread revulsion at the large @-@ scale destruction and loss of life that had occurred and a desire that it should never occur again . In many regards this led to a general complacency towards defence and military matters after the war and arguably led to the nation 's lack of preparedness for the next major conflict , while it may still be evident in Australian strategic behaviour to this day .
= = Statistics = =
During World War I over 421 @,@ 809 Australians served in the military with 331 @,@ 781 serving overseas . Over 60 @,@ 000 Australians lost their lives and 137 @,@ 000 were wounded . As a percentage of forces committed , this equalled a casualty rate of almost 65 per cent , one of the highest casualty rates amongst the British Empire forces . The financial cost of the war to the Australian government was £ 188 @,@ 480 @,@ 000 .
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= Halo : Combat Evolved Anniversary =
Halo : Combat Evolved Anniversary is a first @-@ person shooter video game set in the Halo universe and is an enhanced remake of Halo : Combat Evolved . Microsoft announced the game alongside Halo 4 at the 2011 Electronic Entertainment Expo . The game was released on November 15 , 2011 — the 10th anniversary of the original title 's launch — for the Xbox 360 game console , and rereleased as part of Halo : The Master Chief Collection for the Xbox One on November 11 , 2014 .
Halo : Combat Evolved Anniversary was developed as a partnership between development studios 343 Industries , Saber Interactive , and Certain Affinity . 343 Industries , the Halo series ' franchise overseers , approached Saber Interactive to develop a remake of the original Halo in time for its tenth anniversary . After considering whether to remake the game entirely or to adapt and add features to the existing PC version , Saber decided to use its game engine for reproducing the original 's appearance and the original Halo 's engine for gameplay . A development tool for toggling between the old and new visuals became a game feature . Anniversary 's enhancements include a complete high @-@ definition visual overhaul , support for cooperative and multiplayer gameplay via the Xbox Live online service , new and remastered sound effects and music , and extras such as achievements and hidden in @-@ game collectibles . The game is the first in the series to include Kinect support .
Critical reception to Anniversary was generally positive . The updated graphics , sounds , and ability to toggle between the remastered and original visuals were praised . Complaints included technical glitches , faults with the original game 's level design , and the multiplayer mode 's implementation .
= = Gameplay = =
Halo : Combat Evolved Anniversary and the original , Halo : Combat Evolved , are identical in gameplay and plot . The game is a first @-@ person shooter with portions of vehicular combat taking place from a third @-@ person perspective . The plot follows the player character and protagonist Master Chief , a supersoldier , as he fights the alien Covenant on the mysterious ancient ringworld Halo . Players are equipped with a recharging energy shield that absorbs damage ; players also have health that can only be replenished by health packs scattered across the game 's levels . A variety of human and alien weapons and vehicles can be used .
Players can switch between the " classic " graphics of the original game and new graphics developed for the remake by pressing the Back button on the controller . The classic and new graphics are presented in high @-@ definition , 16 : 9 widescreen compared to the original game 's 480i resolution and 4 : 3 aspect ratio . The remastered graphics are also available in stereoscopic 3D for compatible televisions .
Additions to the gameplay include Xbox Live achievements , online cooperative gameplay , and hidden content : video terminals that provide additional plot information , and collectible skulls that modify gameplay when activated . Support for Xbox Kinect includes voice commands for video navigation , in @-@ combat directives , and environment @-@ scanning , which adds on @-@ screen items to an encyclopedia called the Library .
The original Combat Evolved did not support online multiplayer , but players could play multiplayer locally via split @-@ screen or System Link LAN . Anniversary adds revamped multiplayer and two @-@ player co @-@ op campaign support available both online via Xbox Live and offline locally . The game 's multiplayer mode uses Halo : Reach 's engine and features seven remakes of Combat Evolved and Halo 2 maps . Anniversary also includes a new map based on Halo 's eponymous campaign level for Firefight , a wave @-@ based survival multiplayer game type in which players and their allies fight enemy groups of scaling difficulty . Anniversary introduced artificially intelligent Firefight allies to the series .
= = Plot = =
After fleeing the Covenant 's destruction of the human world Reach , the human ship Pillar of Autumn makes a random slipspace jump to avoid leading the Covenant to Earth . Arriving in uncharted space , the crew of the Autumn discover a massive ringworld orbiting a gas giant . When the Covenant attack , Autumn 's captain , Jacob Keyes , entrusts the ship 's AI , Cortana — and her knowledge of defense deployments and the location of Earth — to the supersoldier Master Chief for safekeeping . Master Chief fights off Covenant boarding parties and leaves the Autumn via a lifeboat to the surface of the ringworld while Keyes lands the Autumn on the ring .
On the ringworld , the Chief rallies human survivors and leads a boarding party to rescue Keyes from the Covenant 's clutches . Keyes reveals that the Covenant call the ring " Halo " , and they believe it is some sort of weapon . The Chief is tasked with finding Halo 's control room before the Covenant does . Once Cortana is inserted into the control room , she becomes alarmed and stays behind while she sends Master Chief to find Keyes . While searching for the captain , Master Chief encounters the Flood , a parasitic organism that infects sentient life . The release prompts Halo 's caretaker , the AI 343 Guilty Spark , to enlist the Chief 's help in activating Halo 's defenses . The Chief 's activation of the ring from the Control Room is stopped by Cortana , who reveals that Halo 's defenses do not kill Flood , but rather their food in an effort to starve them — meaning that activating the ring would wipe out all sentient life in the galaxy . To stop the Flood from spreading and Spark from activating the ring , Cortana devises a plan to detonate the crashed Autumn 's engines and destroy Halo . Fighting through Flood , Covenant , and Guilty Spark 's robotic Sentinels , the Chief manually destabilizes the Autumn 's reactors and he and Cortana narrowly escape the destruction of the ring via a fighter .
= = Development = =
= = = Overview = = =
After Microsoft acquired Bungie in 2000 , Bungie developed the original Halo : Combat Evolved as a 2001 launch title for the Xbox . Bungie and Microsoft split in 2007 , but the rights to Halo remained with the latter , which formed an internal division to oversee Halo franchise development . 343 Industries , the internal division , approached Saber Interactive with a proposal to remake Combat Evolved for the game 's tenth anniversary . Saber 's Chief Operating Officer Andrey Iones recalled that the offer was " an opportunity we [ could not ] miss " , as Saber had never before worked on a major game franchise and many team members were fans of Halo . Saber developed concept art to form visual ideas for the remake and then flew to Seattle , Washington , to meet with 343 Industries .
343 Industries wanted a complete remake of the original game by the tenth anniversary of Halo 's release , giving Saber just over a year to complete the project . The gameplay was to remain unchanged ; while the original game had imbalanced elements , 343 Industries decided to preserve the game experience players remembered while introducing young fans to the game for perhaps the first time . The visuals , meanwhile , would be updated along with added features like campaign skulls . Iones recalled that experimentation with the game was limited — redoing keyframed character animations was off @-@ limits because redoing them could introduce gameplay bugs , and design choices like game balance had already been determined . Likewise , porting the PC version of the game back to the Xbox to add features would have constrained the amount of visual improvements Saber could make , as well as require significant time training artists to use the same production pipelines that were used for Combat Evolved . Saber decided to use the original engine for the gameplay and its own for the visuals , despite the compatibility problems this solution presented . Development began under the codename Spark . The game was completed and released to manufacturing ( " going gold " ) on October 15 , 2011 .
= = = Design = = =
To solve the issues of transferring information from the original game 's engine to the Saber engine , the developers looked at how they used the third @-@ party Havok physics engine to handle object positioning , velocities , and collisions . Saber created a proxy of every object in the Halo engine to transfer into the Saber engine , meaning that the game 's original programming remained unchanged . The game 's ability to alternate between the legacy and remastered graphics engines in the campaign was made possible by the rendering engine developed by Saber Interactive . The technology allowed the developers to update Halo : Combat Evolved 's visuals and preserve the original gameplay . Originally , players would have chosen which graphical presentation to play from the main menu . The in @-@ game toggle feature quickly became a talking point among the developers , who pushed for it to be available to other players . Since the ability to switch between classic version and remastered version was provided to players , both engines work simultaneously to retain the spontaneity of game . This approach caused several problems , including collision issues — because objects and environments in the original game were of a lower resolution with fewer polygons , higher @-@ resolution visuals in the Saber engine could deviate from the original significantly . As the original game 's geometry was used as the basis for collisions , in some cases characters could appear to walk through or above terrain , weapons could drop through the ground , and bullets would appear to be deflected by nothing . The sheer number of these issues , combined with the desire to keep the original gameplay intact , forced Saber to use a variety of approaches to fix the problems , including making tools for artists to visualize height differences and creating intermediate geometry . In some cases , the artists developed other ways of keeping to the same collision data while updating the visuals by changing the actual object — turning a blocky , low @-@ polygon rock into an angular Forerunner structure avoided the collision issues .
Where possible , the developers drew on or adapted assets from Halo 3 and Reach . For elements that had no analogues , Microsoft sent art director Ben Cammarano to Saber 's offices in St. Petersburg to oversee the redesign of the game 's visuals . Cammarano established four tenets of Halo — what Iones termed " heroic vistas , iconic imagery and characters , clean and vibrant aesthetics , and visceral action " — to guide Saber 's artists . Since the original assets already existed , concept artists took screenshots from the original game and painted over new looks to show how environmental effects , improved lighting , and new textures could change the look of the levels . Some of Saber 's visual designs were considered too much of a departure from the original game — while the artists had changed the position of the Halo ringworld and nearby planets to make a more pleasing skybox , Microsoft insisted maintaining continuity with the universe was more important and vetoed the changes . Vocal fans pointed out other inconsistencies with the game 's visuals in prerelease trailers and pictures that Saber ultimately changed . Iones pointed to the floor designs of the Forerunner structures , the assault rifle , and the look of the Chief as places fans had an impact . The Chief 's armor was redesigned from scratch instead of porting existing assets .
Saber doubted that it would be able to convert Combat Evolved 's split @-@ screen cooperative play to facilitate online play . Greg Hermann , a 343 Industries technical lead who had experience with Bungie technology , assisted Saber in development of a networking solution that would allow online co @-@ op . Since the original game would behave identically when given the same scenario and inputs , only the player inputs needed to be synchronized between players ' Xbox consoles .
Because of its previous contributions to the series — Halo 2 's Blastacular and Halo : Reach 's Defiant map pack — Certain Affinity was approached by 343 Industries to streamline the multiplayer maps to take Halo : Reach 's gameplay options into account . The multiplayer is powered by the Halo : Reach engine . 343 Industries director Frank O 'Connor said that the decision to use Reach for the multiplayer was controversial , even within the studio . " In Halo 's day , there was never a proper networking mode , " O 'Connor explained . " We couldn 't roll back the technology ; [ recreating Halo 's local area network multiplayer ] just wouldn 't have worked with things like latency and all other modern Xbox Live @-@ related problems . So we would have had to build it from scratch , and it still wouldn 't have been the experience [ players ] remember . " An additional consideration O 'Connor mentioned was that producing a full replication of Combat Evolved 's multiplayer would have divided the Halo player base and interrupted Reach 's lifespan . In choosing which seven Halo maps to remake , 343 Industries set a number of rules — the map could not have been previously remade for a 360 @-@ era Halo title , it had to work with Reach 's gameplay sandbox , and it had to be a fan favorite . The company retained the same art director between the campaign and multiplayer elements of Anniversary to make sure the two halves of the game looked visually cohesive .
Since 343 Industries developed Halo 4 concurrently with the anniversary edition , it decided to use Halo : Combat Evolved Anniversary to link the original trilogy with the upcoming Reclaimer trilogy by means of in @-@ game collectibles similar to Halo 3 's terminals , Halo 3 : ODST 's audio logs , and Halo : Reach 's data pads . While the other games ' collectibles were aimed at and enjoyed by serious Halo fiction fans , 343 Industries wanted to make Anniversary 's terminals higher @-@ budget , more impressive , and accessible to all players .
Though Iones described Anniversary 's one @-@ year development cycle as a " very smooth ride " , some production issues that were not discovered until late in development contributed to bugs and other problems . Saber relied on a partially automated tool to render the game 's cinematics , but did not do a thorough vetting of the results until after the game had reached the alpha stage of its release cycle . As a result , the developers realized that their addition of motion capture animation and lip @-@ syncing had caused serious audio syncing issues and animation bugs .
= = = Audio = = =
The developers refreshed Combat Evolved 's music and sound effects along with its visuals . While players can toggle the original music from Halo : Combat Evolved , the soundtrack was also rerecorded in partnership with Pyramind Studios , using the 75 @-@ piece Skywalker Symphony Orchestra and the Chanticleer vocal ensemble . Because there were no MIDI recordings of the original game 's music , Paul Lipson , Lennie Moore , Tom Salta , and Brian Trifon transcribed each piece of music .
The soundtrack was released digitally and in two physical formats : a two @-@ disc CD edition and a vinyl record edition , the latter of which was limited to 2000 units . The vinyl edition contains 16 tracks on two sides and comes with a code to download the rest of the Anniversary soundtrack digitally . The compact disc edition contains thirty @-@ nine tracks and was released on November 15 , 2011 .
= = Release = =
Halo : Combat Evolved Anniversary was announced to the public with a trailer on June 6 , 2011 , at Microsoft 's annual E3 global media briefing , which closed with the teaser trailer for Halo 4 . Bonuses for preordering the game included a Master Chief Xbox 360 avatar costume and an exclusive Grunt Funeral skull , which toggles whether enemy Grunts explode upon death . During the Halo Universe panel at the 2011 San Diego Comic @-@ Con , a short trailer showcasing the animation used in the terminals with a narration by 343 Guilty Spark was shown to the fans . Microsoft launched the Halo Living Monument , consisting of a live @-@ action short and a website , to celebrate the launch of Combat Evolved Anniversary .
Thirteen retail Microsoft Stores hosted launch events for Anniversary 's November 15 , 2011 , midnight release ; festivities included sixteen @-@ player multiplayer matches , limited @-@ edition giveaways , and appearances by the game developers . In the United Kingdom , Microsoft and the British video game retailer GAME held two prerelease events with the full version of the game and prizes . In another British promotion , those who purchased a special Halo @-@ themed Pizza Hut pizza during a two @-@ week promotional period surrounding the release date received two days of Xbox Live premium membership . VideoGamer.com 's staff found the pizza to be delicious , but its connection to the Halo franchise tenuous . Microsoft and Pizza Hut would run a similar promotion the next year for Halo 4 's release .
As stated by tracking firm Chart @-@ Track , Anniversary was the sixth best @-@ selling game of the week across all platforms in the UK ; it attained the fifteenth spot in Japan according to Media Create , while according to Amazon orders , it was the second best @-@ selling game for the 360 platform in the same period . It was the third best @-@ selling Xbox 360 game in North America during its first week .
The game was rereleased on the Xbox One as part of Halo : The Master Chief Collection on November 11 , 2014 .
= = Reception = =
Halo : Combat Evolved Anniversary received generally positive reviews . On aggregate review website Metacritic , the game has a weighted score of 82 out of 100 , based on 73 reviews from critics . On GameRankings , the game has an overall score of 81 @.@ 92 % based on reviews from 53 critics . The staff of Official Xbox Magazine praised the developers for preserving the original gameplay , avoiding " revisionist horrors " and Star Wars rerelease moments . Brandon Justice of Electronic Gaming Monthly wrote for fans of the series , " [ Anniversary ] is one of the best pieces of fan service our industry has ever produced , and you need to go buy it . "
Reviewers disagreed on how the core gameplay of Combat Evolved , unaltered in Anniversary , had aged over ten years . Writing for GameSpot , editor Chris Watters opined that " the fundamental mechanics of the game have ... endured well " , with responsive controls and challenging enemies . PALGN writer Adam Guetti agreed , praising " rock solid " controls and tight gameplay , while Mike Wilcox of The Sydney Morning Herald argued the anniversary edition " [ proves ] a game with a winning formula doesn 't wither with age " . IGN 's Steven Hopper felt that the level design was dated , the repetitious environments making it easy for players to lose their bearings , and that vehicles handled poorly . Giant Bomb 's Brad Shoemaker wrote that while the best aspects of the game remained , other aspects — such as the level design and fighting the Flood — were no less frustrating after ten years ; Digital Spy 's Matthew Reynolds echoed the sentiment , praising the game for presenting situations unsurpassed in later titles while faulting irregular checkpoints with increasing frustration .
The remastered visuals were positively received ; reviewers such as The Inquirer 's Chris Martin and The Escapist 's Russ Pitts singled out the graphics @-@ switch button for praise . The Guardian 's Steve Boxer called the feature " utterly fascinating — a bit like ... archaeology on your console " , and said that the visual overhaul improved areas where the original game engine was weak , such as rendering outdoor environments . While praising most of the game 's refinements , Watters singled out the Flood as enemies he thought the original game envisioned better , saying " the simplicity of the classic look feels more sinister and alien " . Hamza Aziz of Destructoid appreciated the visual updates , but not some of the resulting audio – animation syncing issues .
Critics had split opinions on Anniversary 's additional features . The stereoscopic 3D effect was alternatively praised and dismissed : Matt Miller of Game Informer wrote that the feature " doesn 't add anything to the experience " , while Aziz described the feature as " fantastic " , considering its use in Anniversary to be more subtle and pleasing than in other games . Aziz also applauded the narrative terminals , although he condemned the Kinect voice command support for being slower in combat than pressing buttons . Ben Kuchera of Ars Technica enjoyed the improvements of the Halo maps in Anniversary 's multiplayer mode , but criticized the inability to play said mode via four @-@ person local split screen as in the original game . Reynolds agreed with 343 Industries 's choice to use Reach for Anniversary 's multiplayer mode , writing that the map pack offered " a smart way of reintroducing players back into the game " , as well as commending Halo 's combat for offering an alternative to contemporary military shooters .
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= Bart the Daredevil =
" Bart the Daredevil " is the eighth episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 6 , 1990 . It was written by Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky and directed by Wes Archer . In the episode , the Simpsons go to a Monster truck rally that features famous daredevil Lance Murdock . Bart immediately becomes enamored and decides that he wants to become a daredevil as well . Bart 's first stunt ends in injury , and despite the family and Dr. Hibbert 's best efforts , he continues to attempt stunts .
Bart decides to jump the Springfield gorge , but Homer learns about Bart 's plan and makes him promise not to jump it . However , Bart breaks his promise and goes to jump the gorge . Before the act , though , Homer stops him just in time and gets Bart to swear that he will stop being a daredevil .
Series creator Matt Groening said that the episode is his favorite of the series , and it is also considered among the series ' best by television critics .
= = Plot = =
The Simpsons family attends a monster truck rally featuring Truck @-@ o @-@ Saurus , a giant robotic dinosaur which ultimately crushes the Simpson family car . The rally 's grand finale features a death @-@ defying stunt by " the world 's greatest daredevil " , Lance Murdock . Despite the fact that the act leaves Murdock badly hurt and hospital @-@ bound , Bart is enamored by his performance and dreams of becoming a daredevil . Bart quickly injures himself during his first skateboard stunt by trying to jump over the family car . At the hospital , Dr. Hibbert shows Bart a ward full of children who have been hurt from attempting stunts . Nonetheless , Bart is persistent and continues to pursue his daredevil interest by jumping over a swimming pool and Homer on his hammock . On a class trip to Springfield Gorge , Bart announces that on Saturday , he will jump the gorge on his skateboard . Lisa talks Bart into visiting the hospital to see Murdock , hoping that the daredevil will talk him out of the dangerous stunt . Unexpectedly , however , Murdock encourages Bart to continue on his legacy . Bart plans to do it against the wishes of Homer , who insists that it is too dangerous .
Even after a punishment , several orders , and a " heart @-@ to @-@ heart talk " with Homer , Bart still goes to the gorge and tries to jump it . He is stopped at the last second by Homer , who decides to jump the gorge himself to show Bart what it is like to see a family member needlessly risk their life for no good reason . Bart , not wanting to see his father injured on his account , promises to never jump the gorge and never try to be a daredevil again . However , when Homer goes to hug Bart to make up their misunderstanding , the board rolls down a hill and flies over the gorge , with Homer on board . Although it briefly appears as though Homer will make it safely across , he loses momentum near the middle and plummets to the bottom , progressively becoming severely injured with each fall towards the jagged rocks , and receiving multiple fractures and wounds . A helicopter winches Homer out , slamming his head against the side of the gorge several times in the process before he is loaded into a waiting ambulance , which immediately crashes into a tree as it starts to leave for the hospital . The gurney carrying Homer rolls out of the back , and Homer once again falls to the floor of the canyon . Having arrived at the hospital he is put in the same ward next to Lance Murdock , where he tells him , " You think you 've got guts ? Try raising my kids ! "
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky and directed by Wes Archer . The character Lance Murdoch was based on Evel Knievel , an American motorcycle daredevil and entertainer famous in the United States and elsewhere between the late 1960s and early 1980s . Kogen , Wolodarsky , and many other members of the Simpsons ' staff were fans of Knievel 's stunts , and Wolodarsky named " Bart the Daredevil " as his favorite episode among the episodes that he wrote for The Simpsons , because it is " near and dear to [ his ] heart " .
Dr. Hibbert makes his first appearance on the series in the episode . In Kogen and Wolodarsky 's original script for " Bart the Daredevil " , Hibbert was a woman named Julia Hibbert , who they named after comedic actress Julia Sweeney ( Hibbert was her last name , through marriage , at the time ) . When the Fox network moved The Simpsons to prime time on Thursdays to compete against the National Broadcasting Company 's ( NBC ) top @-@ rated The Cosby Show , the writing staff instead decided to make Hibbert a parody of Bill Cosby 's character Dr. Cliff Huxtable .
The episode has been referenced in numerous clip shows and flashback episodes throughout the series . In particular , the scene of Homer plummeting down Springfield Gorge has become one of the most used The Simpsons clips . In the scene , Homer falls down the cliff on the skateboard , bouncing off the cliff walls and finally landing at the bottom , where the skateboard lands on his head . After being loaded into an ambulance at the top of the cliff , the ambulance crashes into a tree , and the gurney rolls out , causing Homer to fall down the cliff again .
In the season thirteen episode " The Blunder Years " , when the family is trying to find out why Homer cannot stop screaming after he is hypnotized , Homer flashes back to his greatest moment : jumping the Springfield Gorge , only to be interrupted by Lisa saying " Everyone 's sick of that memory , " referring to the fact that the scene has been referenced so many times .
The scene was first featured outside of " Bart the Daredevil " in the season four episode " So It 's Come to This : A Simpsons Clip Show " . When the clip is shown in that episode , additional footage is seen of Homer bouncing down the cliff the second time , and after he lands at the bottom , the gurney lands on his head . Contrary to popular belief , the second fall down the gorge ( ending with Homer getting hit by the gurney ) was not a deleted scene from " Bart the Daredevil " , but rather a scene animated exclusively for " So It 's Come to This : A Simpsons Clip Show " .
The scene is also referenced in the season fourteen episode " Treehouse of Horror XIII " , in which a large number of Homer 's clones created in the episode fall down the gorge . " Bart the Daredevil " was once again referenced in The Simpsons Movie when Bart and Homer jump over Springfield Gorge on a motorcycle , and when they land on the other side , the ambulance from this episode can be seen in the background ( still smashed against the tree ) .
= = Cultural references = =
At the beginning of the episode , Lisa , Bart and Bart 's friends watch professional wrestling . The Russian wrestler in the ring , Rasputin , is named after mystic Grigori Rasputin . The monster truck at the rally , Truck @-@ o @-@ saurus , is a parody of the Robosaurus monster truck . In the hospital , Dr. Hibbert shows Bart a patient that tried to fly like Superman , and he also mentions the " three stooges " ward . Lance Murdoch is a parody of famous daredevils such as Evel Knievel and Matt Murdock , the alter ego of the Marvel Comics superhero Daredevil . Bart 's attempt to jump over Springfield Gorge is a reference to Knievel 's 1974 attempt to jump Snake River Canyon at Twin Falls , Idaho , with a Skycycle X @-@ 2 . Bart appearing at Springfield Gorge in the distance is based on Omar Sharif 's entrance in Lawrence of Arabia .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Bart the Daredevil " finished 20th in Nielsen ratings for the week of December 3 – 9 , 1990 , making The Simpsons the highest @-@ rated television series on the Fox television network that week . To promote The Simpsons Sing the Blues , the music video for the album 's lead single , " Do the Bartman " , premiered shortly after this episode 's first broadcast . In an interview conducted by Entertainment Weekly in 2000 celebrating the show 's tenth anniversary , Groening named " Bart the Daredevil " his favorite episode of the series , and chose the scene in which Homer is loaded into an ambulance and then falls out of it as the funniest moment in the series .
Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from critics . Michael Moran of The Times ranked it as the third best in the show 's history . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson enjoyed the episode , and referred to its opening by claiming that " any episode that starts with the brilliance that is Truckasaurus has to be good . " He liked the decent morals explored in the episode , and called the conclusion a " great one " , making it a " consistently fine episode " . Jeremy Kleinman of DVD Talk considered " Bart the Daredevil " one of his favorite episodes of the season . He found the daredevil scenes to be funny , but also appreciated the episode 's scenes with " true heart " . Kleinman concluded by noting that the episode helps The Simpsons stand apart from other animated and live action sitcoms by focusing more on the relationships between the characters than " just a humorous weekly plotline " . Writing for the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky noted that " Bart the Daredevil " ' s sequence in which Homer falls down the gorge is the one that " everyone remembers " , noting that " he 's getting much stupider by this point . " In his book Doug Pratt 's DVD , DVD reviewer and Rolling Stone contributor Doug Pratt chooses the episode as one of the funniest of the series .
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= 1997 European Grand Prix =
The 1997 European Grand Prix ( formally the XLII European Grand Prix ) was a Formula One motor race held on 26 October 1997 at the Circuito Permanente de Jerez , Spain . Originally scheduled as the Grand Prix of Portugal at the Estoril circuit , it was moved when Estoril 's management had financial difficulties . It was the 17th and final race of the 1997 Formula One season . The 69 @-@ lap race was won by Mika Häkkinen in a McLaren , his first Formula One race victory . His team @-@ mate David Coulthard finished second and Williams driver Jacques Villeneuve took third , which was sufficient for him to win the World Championship . As of 2015 , these are Williams 's last Drivers ' and Constructors ' World Championships .
Michael Schumacher , driving for Ferrari , had led the championship by a single point ahead of Villeneuve going into the race . During the race Villeneuve and Schumacher collided while battling for the lead and the resulting damage to Schumacher 's car forced him to retire . The blame for the incident was later attributed to Schumacher by the sport 's governing body , the FIA , and he was stripped of his second @-@ place finish in the championship . Schumacher 's tactics were widely criticised by the media , including publications based in his home country of Germany , and in Ferrari 's home country of Italy .
Following the race Williams and McLaren were accused of colluding to decide the finishing order . Villeneuve stated that " it was better to let them through and win the World Championship " . The FIA determined there was no evidence to support the claims , and dismissed the accusations .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Originally scheduled as the Grand Prix of Portugal at the Estoril circuit , the race was moved to the Jerez circuit when Estoril 's management had financial difficulties . Jerez was chosen as the venue due to engine suppliers Renault stating their wish that the following Japanese Grand Prix would not be their last race .
Heading into the final race of the season , two drivers were still in contention for the World Drivers ' Championship . Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher was leading with 78 points ; Williams driver Jacques Villeneuve was second with 77 points , one point behind Schumacher . Behind Schumacher and Villeneuve in the Drivers ' Championship , Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen was third on 41 points in the other Williams , with Jean Alesi and David Coulthard on 36 and 30 points respectively . Villeneuve had won two more races than Schumacher during the season , meaning that in the event of a tie on points , the rules stated Villeneuve would be world champion .
Villeneuve had to finish the race in a points @-@ scoring position ( points were awarded for drivers finishing in sixth place or higher ) and ahead of Schumacher to become World Drivers ' Champion . Schumacher would be world champion if he finished ahead of Villeneuve , or if Villeneuve failed to score any points by finishing lower than sixth or not completing the race .
In the World Constructors ' Championship , Williams led with 118 points and Ferrari were second on 102 . Ferrari had only won five races during the season compared with Williams 's eight . Williams had therefore clinched the constructors ' title before the race , as even if Ferrari finished first and second in the race , thereby taking 16 points , and both Williams cars failed to score a point , they could not beat Williams .
Following the Japanese Grand Prix on 12 October , the teams conducted testing sessions at various locations around the world . Williams , Benetton , Sauber , Jordan and McLaren conducted at a test session at the Silverstone Circuit . Williams , Sauber and Jordan tested using 1998 @-@ spec cars , in preparation for the 1998 season . Arrows conducted testing at the Circuit de Nevers Magny @-@ Cours circuit , performing wet weather tyre development with tyre suppliers Bridgestone with the circuit flooded to simulate wet weather conditions . Prost conducted testing at Circuit de Catalunya and performed tyre testing for Bridgestone , as well as testing their 1998 @-@ spec car . Ferrari remained at the Suzuka circuit testing an electronic differental used by their driver Eddie Irvine at the previous race .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Four practice sessions was held before the Sunday race — two on Friday from 11 : 00 to 12 : 00 and 13 : 00 to 14 : 00 CEST ( UTC + 2 ) , and two on Saturday morning held from 09 @.@ 00 to 09 @.@ 45 and from 10 @.@ 15 to 11 @.@ 00 CEST . In the first two practice sessions , Prost driver Olivier Panis set the fastest time with a lap of 1 minute and 22 @.@ 735 seconds , one @-@ tenths of a second faster than Arrows driver Damon Hill . Villeneuve and Rubens Barrichello were third and fourth . Mika Häkkinen and Coulthard , set the fifth and eighth @-@ fastest times respectively for McLaren ; they were separated by Frentzen and Alesi . Michael Schumacher and Ralf Schumacher completed the top ten .
In the final two practice sessions , Coulthard set the fastest lap with a time of 1 : 20 @.@ 738 ; Häkkinen finished with the second @-@ fastest time . The Williams drivers were quicker — Villeneuve in third and Frentzen in sixth . Panis slipped to fourth ahead of Gerhard Berger , their best times one @-@ tenth of a second apart . They were ahead of Stewart driver Jan Magnussen , Shinji Nakano for Prost , Hill and Alesi .
The qualifying session was held on Saturday afternoon and lasted one @-@ hour between 13 : 00 to 14 : 00 CEST , each driver was allowed up to twelve timed laps , with their fastest lap used to determine their grid position . Cars were timed using a TAG Heuer timing system , which measured to an accuracy of one @-@ thousandth of a second . At the end of the session , the three fastest drivers had all set the same laptime , the first time this had happened in the history of the World Championship . Jacques Villeneuve was first to set a time of 1 : 21 @.@ 072 , fourteen minutes into the one hour session . A further fourteen minutes later , Michael Schumacher posted an identical time . With nine minutes of the session remaining , Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen crossed the line , again with a time of 1 : 21 @.@ 072 . Under the regulations , in the event of drivers setting equal times in qualifying , the order in which the times were set is considered , with the first driver to set the time given precedence . Villeneuve was awarded pole position on the starting grid for the race , with Schumacher second and Frentzen third . Fourth place on the grid went to the reigning World Champion , Damon Hill , in his Arrows , with a time of 1 : 21 @.@ 130 , 0 @.@ 058 seconds behind the time of the leading three . Hill had been on course to get pole position but had to slow towards the end of the lap because of yellow flags due to an incident involving Ukyo Katayama 's Minardi .
= = = Race = = =
The race took place in the afternoon from 14 : 00 CET ( UTC + 1 ) , in dry and sunny weather . Villeneuve started the race in pole position , with Schumacher in second . Just a few moments before the start of the race , a blue liquid came out of Villeneuve 's Williams . However , this did not influence his car during the race . Schumacher 's getaway at the start was better than Villeneuve 's and he had taken the lead by the time they reached the first corner . Schumacher would lead 40 of the first 47 laps of the race Frentzen also got a better start than Villeneuve and overtook him . Under the orders of the Williams team , on lap eight Frentzen let teammate Villeneuve past . Schumacher made his first pit @-@ stop on lap 22 and Villeneuve made his first stop the following lap . Both retained their positions . During the first round of pitstops the McLarens swapped places with David Coulthard leading Mika Häkkinen and Frentzen dropped to fifth position behind both of them . The order of the leaders after the second round of pitstops on lap 43 and lap 44 remained the same but with Villeneuve closer to Schumacher .
Villeneuve went into lap 48 less than a second behind Schumacher . Partway through the lap he attempted to overtake Schumacher at the Dry Sack corner . Braking later than Schumacher , Villeneuve held the inside line and was ahead on the track when Schumacher turned in on him resulting in a collision . ITV 's then pit lane reporter James Allen has noted that onboard footage shows Schumacher twitching his steering wheel left before turning right into Villeneuve . Martin Brundle , in the commentary box alongside Murray Walker , immediately saw that Schumacher 's move had been deliberate , saying , " That didn 't work Michael . You hit the wrong part of him , my friend " . The right @-@ front wheel of Schumacher 's Ferrari hit the left radiator pod of Villeneuve 's Williams — unlike the 1994 collision with Hill where Schumacher inflicted damage on Hill 's suspension — and caused Schumacher to retire . Villeneuve described the incident after the race " The car felt very strange . The hit was very hard . It was not a small thing . " He continued but the damage to his car meant he was slower than the cars behind him .
At the time of the incident there were 22 laps of the race remaining . The slower pace of Villeneuve 's car meant that on the last lap , he had been caught by both McLarens , Häkkinen having regained second place from Coulthard under team orders . After the race Villeneuve stated " I did not fight then . It was better to let them through and win the World Championship . It is a good exchange . " Gerhard Berger in fourth place ( in what turned out to be his final Grand Prix ) was also catching Villeneuve but he did not pass before crossing the finish line . The final margin between Villeneuve and Berger was 0 @.@ 116 seconds . Third place meant Villeneuve finished ahead of Schumacher in the drivers championship by 3 points , and was World Champion . Häkkinen 's victory was the first of his career .
= = Post @-@ race = =
= = = Schumacher / Villeneuve collision = = =
Before the race at Jerez , the president of the FIA , Max Mosley , had promised to issue penalties to anyone who tried to influence the outcome of the championship . Race officials issued a statement following the race stating that they had " unanimously concluded it was a racing accident and no further action is necessary " . However Schumacher was subsequently summoned to a disciplinary hearing by the FIA and on November 11 , 1997 it was announced that Schumacher would be disqualified from the 1997 World Championship . This meant he lost his second place in the overall standings to Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen but he would retain his race victories and other results and would not be fined or face any further punishment in the following season . Max Mosley stated that the panel " concluded that although the actions were deliberate they were not premeditated " . Schumacher was also ordered to take part in a road @-@ safety campaign during the 1998 season .
Ferrari also escaped unpunished despite Article 123 of the FIA International Sporting Code stating : " The entrant shall be responsible for all acts or omissions on the part of the driver . " Under this rule , which has never been invoked for a driving incident , Ferrari could have been punished for failing to control its driver . When questioned on the subject Max Mosley said that the World Council had decided not to invoke Article 123 . Another question which the World Council failed to address was whether or not there would be any public sanction against the stewards at Jerez , who had dismissed the Schumacher @-@ Villeneuve incident , which , has been claimed , was a dereliction of their duty .
= = = Media reaction = = =
The German newspapers were among the many from across Europe that attacked Schumacher . Bild said " Schumacher was to blame for the crash " . " He played for high stakes and lost everything – the World Championship and his reputation for fair play . There is no doubt that he wanted to take out Villeneuve . " The Frankfurter Allgemeine called him " a kamikaze without honour " and commented that the " monument is starting to crack because the foundations are faulty " . A German TV station asked fans for their views and received the views of 63 @,@ 081 votes . 28 % said they could not support Schumacher any longer .
In Italy there was widespread condemnation of Schumacher . The daily newspaper l 'Unità called for him to be fired by Ferrari . " Schumacher ought to face charges in a Spanish court for the grave deed he committed " it reported . " The driver covered himself , Ferrari and Italian sport as a whole with shame . We are waiting for Ferrari to announce that it is throwing out Michael Schumacher and hiring a new driver who is more intelligent , has more wisdom and a real sense of morality . "
La Repubblica reported that " seeing a world title vanish after waiting 18 years is sad enough . But to see it go up in smoke with the move from Michael Schumacher is unfortunately much worse . It 's shameful . " Gazzetta dello Sport said that if Ferrari had won the title it would have been " a title to hide " and said that it preferred to go on waiting for the day when " our passion for Ferrari has a happy ending . " Even La Stampa , the newspaper owned by the Agnelli family , which also controls Ferrari , said " His image as a champion was shattered , like a glass hit by a stone . "
In the British newspapers , Schumacher 's manoeuvre against Damon Hill at the 1994 Australian Grand Prix was used as a comparison in many of the reports . The Daily Mail reported that Schumacher had now " lost the last vestige of his reputation of being a sportsman " and The Times wrote that Schumacher had " sacrificed his reputation by an act of such cynicism that it lost him the right to any sympathy " .
Ferrari hosted a press conference on the Tuesday after Jerez during which Schumacher admitted that he had made a mistake but said it was a misjudgement rather than a deliberate attempt to take out Villeneuve . " I am human like everyone else and unfortunately I made a mistake , " he said . " I don 't make many but I did this time . " In their respective books on Schumacher , James Allen and Swiss motorsports author Luc Domenjoz have both since expressed the view that Villeneuve went into the corner too fast , and without Schumacher turning into him would have overshot the turn .
= = = Jerez circuit = = =
On December 12 , 1997 , the World Motorsport Council ruled that the mayor of Jerez , Pedro Pacheco , disrupted the podium ceremony . Originally , the verdict was that no further Formula One races would occur at the track . However , when Mr Pacheco appeared before the WMSC , this ruling was rescinded .
The people chosen to present the trophies were dependent on the race order , with Daimler @-@ Benz chairman Jürgen Schrempp only willing to make a presentation to a McLaren @-@ Mercedes driver . As the McLarens of Häkkinen and Coulthard passed Villeneuve 's Williams on the last lap , this would have meant he could present either the trophy for first or second position or the winning constructor trophy . There was some confusion due to the late changes in position and whilst the Mayor and the president of the region presented trophies , Schrempp did nothing . FIA president Max Mosley later announced " The disruption caused embarrassment and inconvenience to those presenting the trophies and therefore , no further rounds of the FIA Formula 1 World Championship will be held at the Jerez circuit . " As of 2016 , this race was the last time that Jerez hosted a Formula One Grand Prix , although it held many pre @-@ season test days .
= = = Collusion allegations = = =
On November 8 , The Times newspaper published an article accusing Williams and McLaren of colluding to decide the finishing order at the end of the Grand Prix . The article 's claims were based on recordings of the radio transmissions made by the two teams . The FIA World Council rejected the claims when the matter was brought before them . FIA president Max Mosley stated " It is quite clear that the result of the race was not fixed . There was no arrangement between McLaren and Williams that Mika Häkkinen was going to win . They were able to demonstrate very clearly that was not the case . "
In 2006 , Norberto Fontana claimed in an interview with the Argentinian newspaper Olé that a few hours before the Grand Prix the Ferrari team director Jean Todt visited the Sauber motorhome and told the Swiss team , which used Ferrari engines at the time , that the Saubers must block Jacques Villeneuve if they were in a position to do so in order to help Michael Schumacher win the World Championship .
The Sauber team owner and manager at the time , Peter Sauber has however denied these allegations and said " Ferrari never expressed the desire that we should obstruct an opponent of Schumacher on the track " .
In 2014 David Coulthard gave an interview to Charles Bradley in Autosport where he claimed that indeed an agreement between McLaren and Williams was in place . " Ron [ Dennis ] had made that deal with Frank [ Williams ] , which none of us knew anything about , that if we helped Williams in their quest to beat Ferrari they wouldn 't get in the way of helping McLaren . Ron would probably still deny it today . That 's what happened " .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings . Drivers ' Championship standings accurate as at final declaration of race results . Michael Schumacher was subsequently disqualified from the championship .
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= Washington State Route 308 =
State Route 308 ( SR 308 ) is a 3 @.@ 42 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 5 @.@ 50 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington , serving the community of Keyport in Kitsap County . The highway travels generally east from an interchange with SR 3 east of Naval Base Kitsap at Bangor to the main entrance of the Naval Undersea Warfare Center in Keyport . SR 308 was codified as the Keyport branch of State Road 21 in 1929 and continued as the Keyport branch of Primary State Highway 21 ( PSH 21 ) in 1937 . During the 1964 highway renumbering , the branch became a section of SR 303 , which ran from Bremerton to Bangor and had a spur route serving Keyport . SR 308 was established in 1971 along the old route of SR 303 Spur and was extended in 1991 to the SR 3 freeway after SR 303 was re @-@ routed onto a new freeway in Silverdale .
= = Route description = =
SR 308 begins as Luoto Road at a diamond interchange with SR 3 east of Naval Base Kitsap at Bangor . The highway travels east through wooded land , intersecting several minor roads until the roadway turns northeast and crosses over Liberty Bay into the unincorporated community of Keyport . Within Keyport , SR 308 passes the Naval Undersea Museum and serves as the main thoroughfare through the community before it ends at the main entrance to the Naval Undersea Warfare Center , continuing east as Strom Avenue into the base .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of the highway was between SR 3 and Liberty Bay , serving 11 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busy section was the bridge over Liberty Bay , serving 6 @,@ 300 vehicles .
= = History = =
The current route of SR 308 was first added to the state highway system in 1929 as the Keyport branch of State Road 21 and was carried over to the primary and secondary state highway system in 1937 as a branch of PSH 21 . The branch traveled 2 @.@ 34 miles ( 3 @.@ 77 km ) east from PSH 21 near Naval Submarine Base Bangor to the Naval Undersea Warfare Center in Keyport , intersecting Secondary State Highway 21B ( SSH 21B ) before crossing Liberty Bay . The Keyport branch was incorporated into SR 303 , which replaced SSH 21B , with a short spur route serving Keyport . SR 308 was established in 1971 to replace the Keyport spur of SR 303 and extended over SR 303 in 1991 to SR 3 after SR 303 was moved south to end in Silverdale .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Kitsap County .
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= Amanita phalloides =
Amanita phalloides / æməˈnaɪtə fəˈlɔɪdiːz / , commonly known as the death cap , is a deadly poisonous basidiomycete fungus , one of many in the genus Amanita . Widely distributed across Europe , A. phalloides forms ectomycorrhizas with various broadleaved trees . In some cases , the death cap has been introduced to new regions with the cultivation of non @-@ native species of oak , chestnut , and pine . The large fruiting bodies ( mushrooms ) appear in summer and autumn ; the caps are generally greenish in colour , with a white stipe and gills .
These toxic mushrooms resemble several edible species ( most notably caesar 's mushroom and the straw mushroom ) commonly consumed by humans , increasing the risk of accidental poisoning . Amatoxins , the class of toxins found in these mushrooms , are thermostable : they resist changes due to heat and so , unlike many ingested poisons , their toxic effects are not reduced by cooking . Some amatoxins will cause irritation and severe pain and even damage to the eyes and skin on contact . They can be absorbed through the skin leading to the same potentially lethal effects as ingestion or inhalation .
A. phalloides is one of the most poisonous of all known toadstools . It is estimated that as little as half a mushroom contains enough toxin to kill an adult human . It has been involved in the majority of human deaths from mushroom poisoning , possibly including the deaths of Roman Emperor Claudius in AD 54 and Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI in 1740 . It has been the subject of much research , and many of its biologically active agents have been isolated . The principal toxic constituent is α @-@ amanitin , which damages the liver and kidneys , causing hepatic and renal failure which can be fatal .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The death cap was first described by French botanist Sébastien Vaillant in 1727 , who gave a succinct phrase name " Fungus phalloides , annulatus , sordide virescens , et patulus " , which is still recognizable as the fungus today . Though the scientific name phalloides means " phallus @-@ shaped " , it is unclear whether it is named for its resemblance to a literal phallus or the stinkhorn mushrooms Phallus . In 1821 , Elias Magnus Fries described it as Agaricus phalloides , but included all white amanitas within its description . Finally in 1833 , Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link settled on the name Amanita phalloides , after Persoon had named it Amanita viridis 30 years earlier . Although Louis Secretan 's use of the name Amanita phalloides predates Link 's , it has been rejected for nomenclatural purposes because Secretan 's works did not use binomial nomenclature consistently ; some taxonomists have , however , disagreed with this opinion .
Amanita phalloides is the type species of Amanita section Phalloideae , a group that contains all of the deadly poisonous Amanita species thus far identified . Most notable of these are the species known as destroying angels , namely Amanita virosa and Amanita bisporigera , as well as the fool 's mushroom ( A. verna ) . The term " destroying angel " has been applied to A. phalloides at times , but " death cap " is by far the most common vernacular name used in English . Other common names also listed include " stinking amanita " and " deadly amanita " .
A rarely appearing , all @-@ white form was initially described A. phalloides f. alba by Max Britzelmayr , though its status has been unclear . It is often found growing amid normally colored death caps . It has been described , in 2004 , as a distinct variety and includes what was termed A. verna var. tarda . The true Amanita verna fruits in spring and turns yellow with KOH solution , whereas A. phalloides never does .
= = Description = =
The death cap has a large and imposing epigeous ( aboveground ) fruiting body ( basidiocarp ) , usually with a pileus ( cap ) from 5 to 15 cm ( 2 to 6 in ) across , initially rounded and hemispherical , but flattening with age . The color of the cap can be pale- , yellowish- , or olive @-@ green , often paler toward the margins and often paler after rain . The cap surface is sticky when wet and easily peeled , a troublesome feature , as that is allegedly a feature of edible fungi . The remains of the partial veil are seen as a skirtlike , floppy annulus usually about 1 @.@ 0 to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 to 0 @.@ 59 in ) below the cap . The crowded white lamellae ( gills ) are free . The stipe is white with a scattering of grayish @-@ olive scales and is 8 to 15 cm ( 3 to 6 in ) long and 1 to 2 centimetres ( 3 ⁄ 8 to 3 ⁄ 4 in ) thick , with a swollen , ragged , sac @-@ like white volva ( base ) . As the volva , which may be hidden by leaf litter , is a distinctive and diagnostic feature , it is important to remove some debris to check for it .
The smell has been described as initially faint and honey @-@ sweet , but strengthening over time to become overpowering , sickly @-@ sweet and objectionable . Young specimens first emerge from the ground resembling a white egg covered by a universal veil , which then breaks , leaving the volva as a remnant . The spore print is white , a common feature of Amanita . The transparent spores are globular to egg @-@ shaped , measure 8 – 10 μm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 4 mil ) long , and stain blue with iodine . The gills , in contrast , stain pallid lilac or pink with concentrated sulfuric acid .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The death cap is native to Europe , where it is widespread . It is found from the southern coastal regions of Scandinavia in the north , to Ireland in the west , east to Poland and western Russia , and south throughout the Balkans , in Italy , Spain and Portugal , and in Morocco and Algeria in north Africa . In west Asia it has been reported from forests of northern Iran . There are records from further east in Asia but these have yet to be confirmed as A. phalloides .
It is ectomycorrhizally associated with several tree species and is symbiotic with them . In Europe , these include hardwood and , less frequently , conifer species . It appears most commonly under oaks , but also under beeches , chestnuts , horse @-@ chestnuts , birches , filberts , hornbeams , pines , and spruces . In other areas , A. phalloides may also be associated with these trees or with only some species and not others . In coastal California , for example , A. phalloides is associated with coast live oak , but not with the various coastal pine species , such as Monterey pine . In countries where it has been introduced , it has been restricted to those exotic trees with which it would associate in its natural range . There is , however , evidence of A. phalloides associating with hemlock and with genera of the Myrtaceae : Eucalyptus in Tanzania and Algeria , and Leptospermum and Kunzea in New Zealand . This suggests the species may have invasive potential .
By the end of the 19th century , Charles Horton Peck had reported A. phalloides in North America . In 1918 , samples from the eastern United States were identified as being a distinct though similar species , A. brunnescens , by G. F. Atkinson of Cornell University . By the 1970s , it had become clear that A. phalloides does occur in the United States , apparently having been introduced from Europe alongside chestnuts , with populations on the West and East Coasts . Although a 2006 historical review concluded the East Coast populations were introduced , the origins of the West Coast populations remained unclear , due to scant historical records . A 2009 genetic study provided strong evidence for the introduced status of the fungus on the west coast of North America .
Amanita phalloides has been conveyed to new countries across the Southern Hemisphere with the importation of hardwoods and conifers . Introduced oaks appear to have been the vector to Australia and South America ; populations under oaks have been recorded from Melbourne and Canberra ( where two people died in January 2012 , of four who were poisoned ) and Adelaide , as well as Uruguay . It has been recorded under other introduced trees in Argentina and Chile . Pine plantations are associated with the fungus in Tanzania and South Africa , where it is also found under oaks and poplars .
= = Toxicity = =
As the common name suggests , the fungus is highly toxic , and is responsible for the majority of fatal mushroom poisonings worldwide . Its biochemistry has been researched intensively for decades , and 30 grams ( 1 @.@ 1 ounces ) , or half a cap , of this mushroom is estimated to be enough to kill a human . In 2006 , a family of three in Poland was poisoned , resulting in one death and the two survivors requiring liver transplants . Some authorities strongly advise against putting suspected death caps in the same basket with fungi collected for the table and to avoid even touching them . Furthermore , the toxicity is not reduced by cooking , freezing , or drying .
= = = Similarity to edible species = = =
In general , poisoning incidents are unintentional and result from errors in identification . Recent cases highlight the issue of the similarity of A. phalloides to the edible paddy straw mushroom , Volvariella volvacea , with East- and Southeast @-@ Asian immigrants in Australia and the west coast of the United States falling victim . In an episode in Oregon , four members of a Korean family required liver transplants . Of the 9 people poisoned in the Canberra region between 1988 and 2011 , three were from Laos and two were from China . This misidentification is a leading cause of mushroom poisoning in the United States .
Novices may mistake juvenile death caps for edible puffballs or mature specimens for other edible Amanita species , such as A. lanei , so some authorities recommend avoiding the collecting of Amanita species for the table altogether . The white form of A. phalloides may be mistaken for edible species of Agaricus , especially the young fruitbodies whose unexpanded caps conceal the telltale white gills ; all mature species of Agaricus have dark @-@ colored gills .
In Europe , other similarly green @-@ capped species collected by mushroom hunters include various green @-@ hued brittlegills of the genus Russula and the formerly popular Tricholoma equestre , now regarded as hazardous owing to a series of restaurant poisonings in France . Brittlegills , such as Russula heterophylla , R. aeruginea , and R. virescens , can be distinguished by their brittle flesh and the lack of both volva and ring . Other similar species include A. subjunquillea in eastern Asia and A. arocheae , which ranges from Andean Colombia north at least as far as central Mexico , both of which are also poisonous .
In January 2012 , four people were accidentally poisoned when death caps ( reportedly misidentified as straw fungi , which are popular in Chinese and other Asian dishes ) were served at a New Year 's Eve dinner party in Canberra , Australia . All the victims required hospital treatment and two of them died , with a third requiring a liver transplant .
= = = Biochemistry = = =
The species is now known to contain two main groups of toxins , both multicyclic ( ring @-@ shaped ) peptides , spread throughout the mushroom tissue : the amatoxins and the phallotoxins . Another toxin is phallolysin , which has shown some hemolytic ( red blood cell – destroying ) activity in vitro . An unrelated compound , antamanide , has also been isolated .
Amatoxins consist of at least eight compounds with a similar structure , that of eight amino @-@ acid rings ; they were isolated in 1941 by Heinrich O. Wieland and Rudolf Hallermayer of the University of Munich . Of the amatoxins , α @-@ amanitin is the chief component and along with β @-@ amanitin is likely responsible for the toxic effects . Their major toxic mechanism is the inhibition of RNA polymerase II , a vital enzyme in the synthesis of messenger RNA ( mRNA ) , microRNA , and small nuclear RNA ( snRNA ) . Without mRNA , essential protein synthesis and hence cell metabolism grind to a halt and the cell dies . The liver is the principal organ affected , as it is the organ which is first encountered after absorption in the gastrointestinal tract , though other organs , especially the kidneys , are susceptible . The RNA polymerase of Amanita phalloides is insensitive to the effects of amatoxins , so the mushroom does not poison itself .
The phallotoxins consist of at least seven compounds , all of which have seven similar peptide rings . Phalloidin was isolated in 1937 by Feodor Lynen , Heinrich Wieland 's student and son @-@ in @-@ law , and Ulrich Wieland of the University of Munich . Though phallotoxins are highly toxic to liver cells , they have since been found to add little to the death cap 's toxicity , as they are not absorbed through the gut . Furthermore , phalloidin is also found in the edible ( and sought @-@ after ) Blusher ( Amanita rubescens ) . Another group of minor active peptides are the virotoxins , which consist of six similar monocyclic heptapeptides . Like the phallotoxins , they do not induce any acute toxicity after ingestion in humans .
= = = Signs and symptoms = = =
Death caps have been reported to taste pleasant . This , coupled with the delay in the appearance of symptoms — during which time internal organs are being severely , sometimes irreparably , damaged — makes it particularly dangerous . Initially , symptoms are gastrointestinal in nature and include colicky abdominal pain , with watery diarrhea , nausea , and vomiting , which may lead to dehydration if left untreated , and , in severe cases , hypotension , tachycardia , hypoglycemia , and acid – base disturbances . These first symptoms resolve two to three days after the ingestion . A more serious deterioration signifying liver involvement may then occur — jaundice , diarrhea , delirium , seizures , and coma due to fulminant liver failure and attendant hepatic encephalopathy caused by the accumulation of normally liver @-@ removed substance in the blood . Kidney failure ( either secondary to severe hepatitis or caused by direct toxic kidney damage ) and coagulopathy may appear during this stage . Life @-@ threatening complications include increased intracranial pressure , intracranial bleeding , pancreatic inflammation , acute kidney failure , and cardiac arrest . Death generally occurs six to sixteen days after the poisoning .
Mushroom poisoning is more common in Europe than in America . Up to the mid @-@ 20th century , the mortality rate was around 60 – 70 % , but this has been greatly reduced with advances in medical care . A review of death cap poisoning throughout Europe from 1971 to 1980 found the overall mortality rate to be 22 @.@ 4 % ( 51 @.@ 3 % in children under ten and 16 @.@ 5 % in those older than ten ) . This has fallen further in more recent surveys to around 10 – 15 % .
= = = Treatment = = =
Consumption of the death cap is a medical emergency requiring hospitalization . The four main categories of therapy for poisoning are preliminary medical care , supportive measures , specific treatments , and liver transplantation .
Preliminary care consists of gastric decontamination with either activated carbon or gastric lavage ; due to the delay between ingestion and the first symptoms of poisoning , it is common for patients to arrive for treatment many hours after ingestion , potentially reducing the efficacy of these interventions . Supportive measures are directed towards treating the dehydration which results from fluid loss during the gastrointestinal phase of intoxication and correction of metabolic acidosis , hypoglycemia , electrolyte imbalances , and impaired coagulation .
No definitive antidote is available , but some specific treatments have been shown to improve survivability . High @-@ dose continuous intravenous penicillin G has been reported to be of benefit , though the exact mechanism is unknown , and trials with cephalosporins show promise . Some evidence indicates intravenous silibinin , an extract from the blessed milk thistle ( Silybum marianum ) , may be beneficial in reducing the effects of death cap poisoning . A long @-@ term clinical trial of intravenous silibinin began in the US in 2010 . Silibinin prevents the uptake of amatoxins by liver cells , thereby protecting undamaged liver tissue ; it also stimulates DNA @-@ dependent RNA polymerases , leading to an increase in RNA synthesis . According to one report based on a treatment of 60 patients with silibinin , the patients who have started the drug within 96 hours of ingesting the mushroom and who have still had kidney function intact have all survived . As of February 2014 supporting research hasn ’ t yet been published .
SLCO1B3 has been identified as the human hepatic uptake transporter for amatoxins ; moreover , substrates and inhibitors of that protein — among others rifampicin , penicillin , silibinin , antamanide , paclitaxel , ciclosporin and prednisolone — may be useful for the treatment of human amatoxin poisoning .
N @-@ Acetylcysteine has shown promise in combination with other therapies . Animal studies indicate the amatoxins deplete hepatic glutathione ; N @-@ acetylcysteine serves as a glutathione precursor and may therefore prevent reduced glutathione levels and subsequent liver damage . None of the antidotes used have undergone prospective , randomized clinical trials , and only anecdotal support is available . Silibinin and N @-@ acetylcysteine appear to be the therapies with the most potential benefit . Repeated doses of activated carbon may be helpful by absorbing any toxins returned to the gastrointestinal tract following enterohepatic circulation . Other methods of enhancing the elimination of the toxins have been trialed ; techniques such as hemodialysis , hemoperfusion , plasmapheresis , and peritoneal dialysis have occasionally yielded success , but overall do not appear to improve outcome .
In patients developing liver failure , a liver transplant is often the only option to prevent death . Liver transplants have become a well @-@ established option in amatoxin poisoning . This is a complicated issue , however , as transplants themselves may have significant complications and mortality ; patients require long @-@ term immunosuppression to maintain the transplant . That being the case , the criteria have been reassessed , such as onset of symptoms , prothrombin time ( PTT ) , serum bilirubin , and presence of encephalopathy , for determining at what point a transplant becomes necessary for survival . Evidence suggests , although survival rates have improved with modern medical treatment , in patients with moderate to severe poisoning , up to half of those who did recover suffered permanent liver damage . A follow @-@ up study has shown most survivors recover completely without any sequelae if treated within 36 hours of mushroom ingestion .
= = Notable victims = =
Several historical figures may have died from A. phalloides poisoning ( or other similar , toxic Amanita species ) . These were either accidental poisonings or assassination plots . Alleged victims of this kind of poisoning include Roman Emperor Claudius , Pope Clement VII , the Russian tsaritsa Natalia Naryshkina , and Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI .
R. Gordon Wasson recounted the details of these deaths , noting the likelihood of Amanita poisoning . In the case of Clement VII , the illness that led to his death lasted five months , making the case inconsistent with amatoxin poisoning ( p . 110 ) . Natalia Naryshkina is said to have consumed a large quantity of pickled mushrooms prior to her death . It is unclear whether the mushrooms themselves were poisonous or if she succumbed to food poisoning .
Charles VI experienced indigestion after eating a dish of sautéed mushrooms . This led to an illness from which he died 10 days later — symptomatology consistent with amatoxin poisoning . His death led to the War of the Austrian Succession . Noted Voltaire , " this dish of mushrooms changed the destiny of Europe . "
The case of Claudius ' poisoning is more complex . Claudius was known to have been very fond of eating Caesar 's mushroom . Following his death , many sources have attributed it to his being fed a meal of death caps instead of Caesar 's mushrooms . Ancient authors , such as Tacitus and Suetonius , are unanimous about poison having been added to the mushroom dish , rather than the dish having been prepared from poisonous mushrooms . Wasson speculated the poison used to kill Claudius was derived from death caps , with a fatal dose of an unknown poison ( possibly a variety of nightshade ) being administered later during his illness .
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= Islamic geometric patterns =
Islamic decoration , which tends to avoid using figurative images , makes frequent use of geometric patterns which have developed over the centuries .
The geometric designs in Islamic art are often built on combinations of repeated squares and circles , which may be overlapped and interlaced , as can arabesques ( with which they are often combined ) , to form intricate and complex patterns , including a wide variety of tessellations . These may constitute the entire decoration , may form a framework for floral or calligraphic embellishments , or may retreat into the background around other motifs . The complexity and variety of patterns used evolved from simple stars and lozenges in the ninth century , through a variety of 6- to 13 @-@ point patterns by the 13th century , and finally to include also 14- and 16 @-@ point stars in the sixteenth century .
Geometric patterns occur in a variety of forms in Islamic art and architecture including kilim carpets , Persian girih and Moroccan zellige tilework , muqarnas decorative vaulting , jali pierced stone screens , ceramics , leather , stained glass , woodwork , and metalwork .
Interest in Islamic geometric patterns is increasing in the West , both among craftsmen and artists including M. C. Escher in the twentieth century , and among mathematicians and physicists including Peter J. Lu and Paul Steinhardt who controversially claimed in 2007 that tilings at the Darb @-@ e Imam shrine in Isfahan could generate quasi @-@ periodic patterns like Penrose tilings .
= = Background = =
= = = Islamic decoration = = =
Islamic art mostly avoids figurative images to avoid becoming objects of worship . Islamic geometric patterns derived from simpler designs used in earlier cultures : Greek , Roman , and Sasanian . They are one of three forms of Islamic decoration , the others being the arabesque based on curving and branching plant forms , and Islamic calligraphy ; all three are frequently used together . Geometric designs and arabesques are forms of Islamic interlace patterns .
= = = Purpose = = =
Authors such as Keith Critchlow argue that Islamic patterns are created to lead the viewer to an understanding of the underlying reality , rather than being mere decoration , as writers interested only in pattern sometimes imply . David Wade states that " Much of the art of Islam , whether in architecture , ceramics , textiles or books , is the art of decoration – which is to say , of transformation . " Wade argues that the aim is to transfigure , turning mosques " into lightness and pattern " , while " the decorated pages of a Qur ’ an can become windows onto the infinite . " Against this , Doris Behrens @-@ Abouseif states in her book Beauty in Arabic Culture that a " major difference " between the philosophical thinking of Medieval Europe and the Islamic world is exactly that the concepts of the good and the beautiful are separated in Arabic culture . She argues that beauty , whether in poetry or in the visual arts , was enjoyed " for its own sake , without commitment to religious or moral criteria " .
= = Pattern formation = =
Many Islamic designs are built on squares and circles , typically repeated , overlapped and interlaced to form intricate and complex patterns . A recurring motif is the 8 @-@ pointed star , often seen in Islamic tilework ; it is made of two squares , one rotated 45 degrees with respect to the other . The fourth basic shape is the polygon , including pentagons and octagons . All of these can be combined and reworked to form complicated patterns with a variety of symmetries including reflections and rotations . Such patterns can be seen as mathematical tessellations , which can extend indefinitely and thus suggest infinity . They are constructed on grids that require only ruler and compasses to draw . Artist and educator Roman Verostko argues that such constructions are in effect algorithms , making Islamic geometric patterns forerunners of modern algorithmic art .
The circle symbolizes unity and diversity in nature , and many Islamic patterns are drawn starting with a circle . For example , the decoration of the 15th century mosque in Yazd , Iran is based on a circle , divided into six by six circles drawn around it , all touching at its centre and each touching its two neighbours ' centres to form a regular hexagon . On this basis is constructed a six @-@ pointed star surrounded by six smaller irregular hexagons to form a tessellating star pattern . This forms the basic design which is outlined in white on the wall of the mosque . That design , however , is overlaid with an intersecting tracery in blue around tiles of other colours , forming an elaborate pattern that partially conceals the original and underlying design . A similar design forms the logo of the Mohammed Ali Research Center .
One of the early Western students of Islamic patterns , Ernest Hanbury Hankin , defined a " geometrical arabesque " as a pattern formed " with the help of construction lines consisting of polygons in contact . " He observed that many different combinations of polygons can be used as long as the residual spaces between the polygons are reasonably symmetrical . For example , a grid of octagons in contact has squares ( of the same side as the octagons ) as the residual spaces . Every octagon is the basis for an 8 @-@ point star , as seen at Akbar 's tomb , Sikandra ( 1605 – 1613 ) . Hankin considered the " skill of the Arabian artists in discovering suitable combinations of polygons .. almost astounding . " He further records that if a star occurs in a corner , exactly one quarter of it should be shown ; if along an edge , exactly one half of it .
The Topkapı Scroll , made in Timurid dynasty Iran in the late 15th century or beginning of the 16th century , contains 114 patterns including coloured designs for girih tilings and muqarnas quarter or semidomes .
The mathematical properties of the decorative tile and stucco patterns of the Alhambra palace in Granada , Spain have been extensively studied . Some authors have claimed on dubious grounds to have found most or all of the 17 wallpaper groups there . Moroccan geometric woodwork from the 14th to 19th centuries makes use of only 5 wallpaper groups , mainly p4mm and c2mm , with p6mm and p2mm occasionally and p4gm rarely ; it is claimed that the " Hasba " method of construction can however generate all 17 groups .
= = Evolution = =
= = = Early stage = = =
The earliest geometrical forms in Islamic art were occasional isolated geometric shapes such as 8 @-@ pointed stars and lozenges containing squares . These date from 836 in the Great Mosque of Kairouan , Tunisia , and since then have spread all across the Islamic world .
= = = Middle stage = = =
The next development , marking the middle stage of Islamic geometric pattern usage , was of 6- and 8 @-@ point stars , which appear in 879 at the Ibn Tulun Mosque , Cairo , and then became widespread .
A wider variety of patterns were used from the 11th century . Abstract 6- and 8 @-@ point shapes appear in the Tower of Kharaqan at Qazvin , Persia in 1067 , and the Al @-@ Juyushi Mosque , Egypt in 1085 , again becoming widespread from there , though 6 @-@ point patterns are rare in Turkey .
In 1086 , 7- and 10 @-@ point girih patterns ( with heptagons , 5- and 6 @-@ pointed stars , triangles and irregular hexagons ) appear in the Friday Mosque at Isfahan . 10 @-@ point girih became widespread in the Islamic world , except in the Spanish Al @-@ Andalus . Soon afterwards , sweeping 9- , 11- , and 13 @-@ point girih patterns were used in the Barsian Mosque , also in Persia , in 1098 ; these , like 7 @-@ point geometrical patterns , are rarely used outside Persia and central Asia .
Finally , marking the end of the middle stage , 8- and 12 @-@ point girih rosette patterns appear in the Alaeddin Mosque at Konya , Turkey in 1220 , and in the Abbasid palace in Baghdad in 1230 , going on to become widespread across the Islamic world .
= = = Late stage = = =
The beginning of the late stage is marked by the use of simple 16 @-@ point patterns at the Hasan Sadaqah mausoleum in Cairo in 1321 , and in the Alhambra in Spain in 1338 – 1390 . These patterns are rarely found outside these two regions . More elaborate combined 16 @-@ point geometrical patterns are found in the Sultan Hasan complex in Cairo in 1363 , but rarely elsewhere . Finally , 14 @-@ point patterns appear in the Jama Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri in India in 1571 – 1596 , but in few other places .
= = Artforms = =
Several artforms in different parts of the Islamic world make use of geometric patterns . These include ceramics , girih strapwork , jali pierced stone screens , kilim rugs , leather , metalwork , muqarnas vaulting , shakaba stained glass , woodwork , and zellige tiling .
= = = Ceramics = = =
Ceramics lend themselves to circular motifs , whether radial or tangential . Bowls or plates can be decorated inside or out with radial stripes ; these may be partly figurative , representing stylised leaves or flower petals , while circular bands can run around a bowl or jug . Patterns of these types were employed on Islamic ceramics from the Ayyubid period , 13th century AD . Radially symmetric flowers with , say , 6 petals lend themselves to increasingly stylised geometric designs which can combine geometric simplicity with recognisably naturalistic motifs , brightly coloured glazes , and a radial composition that ideally suits circular crockery . Potters often chose patterns suited to the shape of the vessel they were making . Thus an unglazed earthenware water flask from Aleppo in the shape of a vertical circle ( with handles and neck above ) is decorated with a ring of moulded braiding around an Arabic inscription with a small 8 @-@ petalled flower at the centre .
= = = Girih tilings and woodwork = = =
Girih are elaborate interlacing patterns formed of five standardized shapes . The style is used in Persian Islamic architecture and also in decorative woodwork . Girih designs are traditionally made in different media including cut brickwork , stucco , and mosaic faience tilework . In woodwork , especially in the Safavid period , it could be applied either as lattice frames , left plain or inset with panels such as of coloured glass ; or as mosaic panels used to decorate walls and ceilings , whether sacred or secular . In architecture , girih forms decorative interlaced strapwork surfaces from the 15th century to the 20th century . Most designs are based on a partially hidden geometric grid which provides a regular array of points ; this is made into a pattern using 2- , 3- , 4- , and 6 @-@ fold rotational symmetries which can fill the plane . The visible pattern superimposed on the grid is also geometric , with 6- , 8- , 10- and 12 @-@ pointed stars and a variety of convex polygons , joined by straps which typically seem to weave over and under each other . The visible pattern does not coincide with the underlying tiling .
= = = Jali = = =
Jali are pierced stone screens with regularly repeating patterns . They are characteristic of Indo @-@ Islamic architecture , for example in the Mughal dynasty buildings at Fatehpur Sikri and the Taj Mahal . The geometric designs combine polygons such as octagons and pentagons with other shapes such as 5- and 8 @-@ pointed stars . The patterns emphasized symmetries and suggested infinity by repetition . Jali functioned as windows or room dividers , providing privacy but allowing in air and light . Jali forms a prominent element of the architecture of India . The use of perforated walls has declined with modern building standards and the need for security . Modern , simplified jali walls , for example made with pre @-@ moulded clay or cement blocks , have been popularised by the architect Laurie Baker . Pierced windows in girih style are sometimes found elsewhere in the Islamic world , such as in windows of the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo .
= = = Kilim = = =
A kilim is an Islamic flatwoven carpet ( without a pile ) , whether for household use or a prayer mat . The pattern is made by winding the weft threads back over the warp threads when a colour boundary is reached . This technique leaves a gap or vertical slit , so kilims are sometimes called slit @-@ woven textiles . Kilims are often decorated with geometric patterns with 2- or 4 @-@ fold mirror or rotational symmetries . Because weaving uses vertical and horizontal threads , curves are difficult to generate , and patterns are accordingly formed mainly with straight edges . Kilim patterns are often characteristic of specific regions . Kilim motifs are often symbolic as well as decorative . For example , the wolf 's mouth or wolf 's foot motif ( Turkish : Kurt Aǧzi , Kurt İzi ) expresses the tribal weavers ' desires for protection of their families ' flocks from wolves .
= = = Leather = = =
Islamic leather is often embossed with patterns similar to those already described . Leather book covers , starting with the Quran where figurative artwork was excluded , were decorated with a combination of kufic script , medallions and geometric patterns , typically bordered by geometric braiding .
= = = Metalwork = = =
Metal artefacts share the same geometric designs that are used in other forms of Islamic art . However , in the view of Hamilton Gibb , the emphasis differs : geometric patterns tend to be used for borders , and if they are in the main decorative area they are most often used in combination with other motifs such as floral designs , arabesques , animal motifs , or calligraphic script . Geometric designs in Islamic metalwork can form a grid decorated with these other motifs , or they can form the background pattern .
Even where metal objects such as bowls and dishes do not seem to have geometric decoration , still the designs , such as arabesques , are often set in octagonal compartments or arranged in concentric bands around the object . Both closed designs ( which do not repeat ) and open or repetitive patterns are used . Patterns such as interlaced six @-@ pointed stars were especially popular from the twelfth century . Eva Baer notes that while this design was essentially simple , it was elaborated by metalworkers into intricate patterns interlaced with arabesques , sometimes organised around further basic Islamic patterns , such as the hexagonal pattern of six overlapping circles .
= = = Muqarnas = = =
Muqarnas are elaborately carved ceilings to semidomes , often used in mosques . They are typically made of stucco ( and thus do not have a structural function ) , but can also be of wood , brick , and stone . They are characteristic of Islamic architecture of the Middle Ages from Spain and Morocco in the west to Persia in the east . Architecturally they form multiple tiers of squinches , diminishing in size as they rise . They are often elaborately decorated .
= = = Stained glass = = =
Geometrically patterned stained glass is used in a variety of settings in Islamic architecture . It is found in the surviving summer residence of the Palace of Shaki Khans , Azerbaijan , constructed in 1797 . Patterns in the " shabaka " windows include 6- , 8- , and 12 @-@ point stars . These wood @-@ framed decorative windows are distinctive features of the palace 's architecture . Shabaka are still constructed the traditional way in Sheki in the 21st century . Traditions of stained glass set in wooden frames ( not lead as in Europe ) survive in workshops in Iran as well as Azerbaijan . Glazed windows set in stucco arranged in girih @-@ like patterns are found both in Turkey and the Arab lands ; a late example , without the traditional balance of design elements , was made in Tunisia for the International Colonial Exhibition in Amsterdam in 1883 . The old city of Sana 'a in Yemen has stained glass windows in its tall buildings .
= = = Zellige = = =
Zellige are glazed terracotta tiles set into plaster , forming colourful mosaic patterns including regular and semiregular tessellations . The tradition is characteristic of Morocco , but is also found in Moorish Spain . Zellige is used to decorate mosques , public buildings and wealthy private houses .
= = = Illustrations = = =
= = In Western culture = =
It is sometimes supposed in Western society that mistakes in repetitive Islamic patterns such as those on carpets were intentionally introduced as a show of humility by artists who believed only Allah can produce perfection , but this theory is denied .
Major Western collections hold many objects of widely varying materials with Islamic geometric patterns . The Victoria and Albert Museum in London holds at least 283 such objects , of materials including wallpaper , carved wood , inlaid wood , tin- or lead @-@ glazed earthenware , brass , stucco , glass , woven silk , ivory , and pen or pencil drawings . The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York has among other relevant holdings 124 mediaeval ( 1000 – 1400 A.D. ) objects bearing Islamic geometric patterns , including a pair of Egyptian minbar ( pulpit ) doors almost 2 m. high in rosewood and mulberry inlaid with ivory and ebony ; and an entire mihrab ( prayer niche ) from Isfahan , decorated with polychrome mosaic , and weighing over 2 @,@ 000 kg .
The Dutch artist M. C. Escher was inspired by the Alhambra 's intricate decorative designs to study the mathematics of tessellation , transforming his style and influencing the rest of his artistic career . In his own words it was " the richest source of inspiration I have ever tapped . "
Cultural organisations such as the Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and the Institute for Advanced Study run events on geometric patterns and related aspects of Islamic art . In 2013 the Istanbul Center of Design and the Ensar Foundation ran what they claimed was the first ever symposium of Islamic Arts and Geometric Patterns , in Istanbul . The panel included the experts on Islamic geometric pattern Carol Bier , Jay Bonner , Eric Broug , Hacali Necefoğlu and Reza Sarhangi . In Britain , The Prince 's School of Traditional Arts runs a range of courses in Islamic art including geometry , calligraphy , and arabesque ( vegetal forms ) , tile @-@ making , and plaster carving .
Computer graphics and computer @-@ aided manufacturing make it possible to design and produce Islamic geometric patterns effectively and economically . Craig S. Kaplan explains and illustrates in his Ph.D. thesis how Islamic star patterns can be generated algorithmically .
Two physicists , Peter J. Lu and Paul Steinhardt , attracted controversy in 2007 by claiming that girih designs such as that used on the Darb @-@ e Imam shrine in Isfahan were able to create quasi @-@ periodic tilings resembling those discovered by Roger Penrose in 1973 . They showed that rather than the traditional ruler and compass construction , it was possible to create girih designs using a set of five " girih tiles " , all equilateral polygons , secondarily decorated with lines ( for the strapwork ) .
In 2016 , Ahmad Rafsanjani described the use of Islamic geometric patterns from tomb towers in Iran to create auxetic materials from perforated rubber sheets . These are stable in either a contracted or an expanded state , and can switch between the two , which might be useful for surgical stents or for spacecraft components . When a conventional material is stretched along one axis , it contracts along other axes ( at right angles to the stretch ) . But auxetic materials expand at right angles to the pull . The internal structure that enables this unusual behaviour is inspired by two of the 70 Islamic patterns that Rafsanjani noted on the tomb towers .
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= Jonathan Alder =
Jonathan Alder ( September 17 , 1773 – January 30 , 1849 ) was an American pioneer , and the first white settler in Madison County , Ohio . As a young child living in Virginia , Alder was kidnapped by Shawnee Indians , and later adopted by a Mingo chief in the Ohio Country . He lived with the Native Americans for many years before returning to the white community .
Alder settled near present @-@ day Plain City , Ohio , where he became a farmer . He was reunited with his birth family , which moved to Ohio with him , and also had a short career as a military officer during the War of 1812 . A middle school , high school , and school district in Plain City all bear his name .
= = Early life = =
Alder was born September 17 , 1773 , in Gloucester , New Jersey , to Bartholomew Alder and Hannah Worthington . The family moved in 1775 to Wythe County , Virginia , where Alder 's father died about a year later . In May 1782 , Jonathan , at eight years old , was sent out with his brother David to search for a couple horses that ran away . They were attacked by a small group of Shawnee Indians from Ohio . David saw the Indians first and tried to escape , but he was chased down , killed , and later scalped . The Indian group also captured Alder 's neighbor , Mrs. Martin , and her young child .
The group traveled north , passing present @-@ day Chillicothe , Ohio , on the way to a Mingo village on the north side of the Mad River , somewhere near present @-@ day Logan County , Ohio . During the trip the Indians killed and scalped Martin 's child , which they found burdensome . Martin responded by screaming in grief ; when the Indians ' threats to scalp her did not quiet her screams , they whipped her until she was silent . Alder 's life was spared due to his appearance . His captors thought his black hair would allow him to pass as an Indian .
When the group reached the village , Alder learned why his life had been spared . One of the Mingo chiefs , Succohanos , and his wife , Whinecheoh , were an aging couple who had lost their son , and planned to adopt Alder as a replacement . Alder was forced to run the gauntlet , as a rite of passage , and after he exhibited bravery during the trial , he was adopted and cared for by Whinecheoh . The Indian 's other prisoner , Mrs. Martin , had been promised to a man in another village , and was taken away during Alder 's adoption ceremony .
= = Indian life = =
The first few years that Alder lived with the Indians he was very ill , a condition Alder attributed to the Indians ' diet . The other children in the village were friendly towards Alder , and worked together to teach him their language , customs , and traditions . In time , Alder fully adopted the Mingo way of life ; he lived , hunted , and fought as an Indian . When he was old enough he was given an English musket , which he used to hunt mud turtles , wild turkeys , and raccoons . He was praised in the village for his hunting skills . He grew attached to his new life and when , in 1783 , a trader from Kentucky offered to exchange him for a Shawnee prisoner , Alder refused . Alder was living in the Indian village of Mack @-@ a @-@ chack when it was destroyed by Benjamin Logan during his raid into Ohio Country in 1786 , and he accompanied the Indians on raids into Kentucky to steal horses from white settlers .
In 1790 , Whinecheoh died at the age of eighty , and Succohanes died in 1792 at the age of ninety . After their deaths , Alder wandered from village to village , and began courting an Indian woman from Upper Sandusky named Barshaw . In the fall of 1793 , during the peak of the Northwest Indian War , he joined Shawnee chief Blue Jacket to defend against Anthony Wayne 's attacks in the Ohio Country , and also took part in the attack on Fort Recovery on June 30 , 1794 . Alder was asked for advice on the 1795 Treaty of Greenville on land reservations , and urged by the Indians to attend its signing . Alder , not realizing the treaty 's importance , chose not to attend .
= = Life as settler = =
In the summer after the signing of the Treaty of Greenville , which restored peace between Indians and settlers , Alder decided to return to the white community . He married Barshaw , and settled in Pleasant Valley , in the area of Jerome Township , about 5 miles ( 8 km ) north of present @-@ day Plain City , Ohio . He built a cabin , took up the lifestyle of a farmer , and raised hogs , cows and horses . He sold milk and butter he made to the Indians , and pork and horses to the whites . Alder began adopting the white community 's habits , and learned English from the other white settlers . While living in Pleasant Valley , Barshaw struggled to integrate with settler life . She gave birth to two of Alder 's children , but both died in infancy . The couple decided the Great Spirit was opposed to their marriage , and separated . Alder gave Barshaw most of the couple 's property , including the cabin , all of the cows , seven horses , and about $ 200 in silver . Alder kept only two horses and the hogs .
After some time Alder developed interest in his original family in Virginia . A companion , John Moore , learned that Alder had been taken prisoner near Greenbrier , and traveled to Wythe County to search for Alder 's family . Initial inquiries were unsuccessful , but one of a series of advertisements Moore placed in the district was seen by Alder 's surviving brother Paul . Paul then wrote Jonathan to inform him that the family was still alive .
Alder left for Paul 's house , with Moore , in November 1805 . He and Moore arrived in Virginia the Sunday after New Year , and Alder was reunited with his biological mother and siblings . Alder stayed with his family in Virginia for over a year , and while visiting his family he met and fell in love with Mary Ann Blont , a woman from Virginia . The couple were married on January 6 , 1806 , and in August 1806 , Alder , Blont , and the rest of Alder 's family returned to Pleasant Valley . Alder built another log cabin along the Big Darby Creek in 1806 , and he and Mary had 12 children between 1808 and 1830 .
= = Military career = =
During the War of 1812 , during the summer of 1812 or 1813 , Alder was elected captain of a company of 70 men formed in Plain City . With Frederick Loyd as his lieutenant , Alder 's company was ordered by the Governor to march about twenty miles north and build a blockhouse at Mill Creek , about three miles north of Marysville , Ohio , to protect the Darby settlements . The company built and garrisoned the blockhouse for a few weeks , but when a false alarm was sounded regarding Indians attacking the settlements , the men returned to their homes . This was the only fort ever constructed in Union County , and some of the foundation is still visible today .
After the war ended , Alder returned to the life of a farmer . He continued to visit the other former captives with whom he had become friends . In the fall of 1818 , Alder received a visit from Simon Kenton , to share and compare stories . The two discovered that they had much in common , and had been at many of the same battles , even if they had been on opposite sides . They met several times up until 1828 .
= = Legacy = =
Living out the rest of his days as a farmer , Jonathan Alder died on January 30 , 1849 , in Canaan Township , Madison County , Ohio , at the age of 75 . He had become a well @-@ known figure in the region , and is still remembered today with a school district , high school , and middle school named after him . A historical marker was erected by Ohio in front of Foster Chapel Cemetery at 39 ° 59 ′ 42 @.@ 31 ″ N 83 ° 15 ′ 48 @.@ 11 ″ W , near West Jefferson , where he is buried . The cabin Alder built in 1806 is now located at the Madison County Historical Society Museum in London .
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= Ted Kaczynski =
Theodore John " Ted " Kaczynski ( / kəˈzɪnski / ; born May 22 , 1942 ) , also known as the " Unabomber " , is an American domestic terrorist , anarchist , and mathematical prodigy . Between 1978 and 1995 , Kaczynski engaged in a nationwide bombing campaign against people involved with modern technology , planting or mailing numerous homemade bombs , ultimately killing a total of three people and injuring 23 others . He is also known for his wide @-@ ranging social critiques , which opposed industrialization and modern technology while advancing a nature @-@ centered form of anarchism .
Kaczynski was born and raised in Evergreen Park , Illinois . While growing up in Evergreen Park he was a child prodigy , excelling academically from an early age . Kaczynski was accepted into Harvard University at the age of 16 , where he earned an undergraduate degree . He subsequently earned a PhD in mathematics from the University of Michigan . He became an assistant professor at the University of California , Berkeley in 1967 at age 25 . He resigned two years later .
As a Harvard undergraduate , Kaczynski was among twenty @-@ two students who were research subjects in ethically questionable experiments conducted by psychology professor Henry Murray from late 1959 to early 1962 .
In 1971 , he moved to a remote cabin without electricity or running water , in Lincoln , Montana , where he lived as a recluse while learning survival skills in an attempt to become self @-@ sufficient . Seventeen years after beginning his mail bomb campaign , Kaczynski sent a letter to The New York Times on April 24 , 1995 and promised " to desist from terrorism " if the Times or the Washington Post published his manifesto , Industrial Society and Its Future ( the " Unabomber Manifesto " ) , in which he argued that his bombings were extreme but necessary to attract attention to the erosion of human freedom necessitated by modern technologies requiring large @-@ scale organization .
The Unabomber was the target of one of the Federal Bureau of Investigation 's costliest investigations . Before Kaczynski 's identity was known , the FBI used the title " UNABOM " ( UNiversity & Airline BOMber ) to refer to his case , which resulted in the media calling him the Unabomber . The FBI ( as well as Attorney General Janet Reno ) pushed for the publication of Kaczynski 's " Manifesto " , which led to his sister @-@ in @-@ law , and then his brother , recognizing Kaczynski 's style of writing and beliefs from the manifesto , and tipping off the FBI . Kaczynski tried unsuccessfully to dismiss his court @-@ appointed lawyers because they wanted to plead insanity in order to avoid the death penalty , as Kaczynski did not believe he was insane . When it became clear that his pending trial would entail national television exposure for Kaczynski , the court entered a plea agreement , under which he pleaded guilty and was sentenced to life in prison with no possibility of parole . He has been designated a " domestic terrorist " by the FBI . Some anarcho @-@ primitivist authors , such as John Zerzan and John Moore , have come to his defense , while also holding some reservations about his actions and ideas .
= = Early life = =
Kaczynski was born on May 22 , 1942 , in Evergreen Park , Illinois , to second @-@ generation Polish Americans Wanda ( née Dombek ) and Theodore Richard Kaczynski . At six months of age , Kaczynski 's body developed a severe case of hives . He was placed in isolation in a hospital where visitors were not allowed , as physicians were unsure of the cause of the hives . He was treated several times at the hospital over an eight @-@ month period . His mother wrote in March 1943 , " Baby home from hospital and is healthy but quite unresponsive after his experience . "
Kaczynski attended grades one through eight in Evergreen Park District 124 Schools . As a result of testing conducted in the fifth grade , which determined he had an IQ of 167 , he was allowed to skip the sixth grade and enroll in the seventh grade . Kaczynski described this as a pivotal event in his life . He recalled not fitting in with the older children and being subjected to their bullying . As a child , Kaczynski had a fear of people and buildings , and played beside other children rather than interacting with them . His mother was so worried by his poor social development that she considered entering him in a study for autistic children led by Bruno Bettelheim .
He attended high school at Evergreen Park Community High School . Kaczynski excelled academically , but found the mathematics too simple during his second year . Sometimes he would cut classes and write in his journal in his room . During this period of his life , Kaczynski became obsessed with mathematics , spending prolonged hours locked in his room practicing differential equations . Throughout secondary schooling , Kaczynski had far surpassed his classmates , able to solve advanced Laplace transforms before his senior year . He was subsequently placed in a more advanced mathematics class , yet still felt intellectually restricted . Kaczynski soon mastered the material and skipped the eleventh grade . With the help of a summer school course for English , he completed his high school education when he was 15 years old . He was encouraged to apply to Harvard University , and was subsequently accepted as a student beginning in 1958 at the age of 16 . While at Harvard , Kaczynski was taught by famed logician Willard Van Orman Quine , scoring at the top of Quine 's class with a 98 @.@ 9 % final grade .
In his sophomore year at Harvard , Kaczynski participated in a personality assessment study conducted by Henry Murray , an expert on stress interviews . Students in Murray 's study were told they would be debating personal philosophy with a fellow student . Instead , they were subjected to a " purposely brutalizing psychological experiment " . During the test , students were taken into a room and connected to electrodes that monitored their physiological reactions , while facing bright lights and a one @-@ way mirror . Each student had previously written an essay detailing their personal beliefs and aspirations : the essays were turned over to an anonymous attorney , who would enter the room and individually belittle each student based in part on the disclosures they had made . This was filmed , and students ' expressions of impotent rage were played back to them several times later in the study . According to author Alston Chase , Kaczynski 's records from that period suggest he was emotionally stable when the study began . Kaczynski 's lawyers attributed some of his emotional instability and dislike of mind control techniques to his participation in this study . Indeed , some have suggested that this experience may have been instrumental in Kaczynski 's future actions .
= = Career = =
Kaczynski graduated from Harvard University in 1962 , at age 20 , and subsequently enrolled at the University of Michigan , where he earned a PhD in mathematics . Kaczynski 's specialty was a branch of complex analysis known as geometric function theory . His professors at Michigan were impressed with his intellect and drive . " He was an unusual person . He was not like the other graduate students , " said Peter Duren , one of Kaczynski 's math professors at Michigan . " He was much more focused about his work . He had a drive to discover mathematical truth . " " It is not enough to say he was smart , " said George Piranian , another of his Michigan math professors . Kaczynski earned his PhD with his thesis entitled " Boundary Functions " by solving a problem so difficult that even Piranian could not solve it . Maxwell Reade , a retired math professor who served on Kaczynski 's dissertation committee , also commented on his thesis by noting , " I would guess that maybe 10 or 12 men in the country understood or appreciated it . " In 1967 , Kaczynski won the University of Michigan 's Sumner B. Myers Prize , which recognized his dissertation as the school 's best in mathematics that year . While a graduate student at Michigan , he held a National Science Foundation fellowship and taught undergraduates for three years . He also published two articles related to his dissertation in mathematical journals , and four more after leaving Michigan .
In late 1967 , Kaczynski became an assistant professor of mathematics at the University of California , Berkeley , where he taught undergraduate courses in geometry and calculus . He was also noted as the youngest professor ever hired by the university , but this position proved short @-@ lived . Kaczynski received numerous complaints and low ratings from the undergraduates he taught . Many students noted that he seemed quite uncomfortable in a teaching environment , often stuttering and mumbling during lectures , becoming excessively nervous in front of a class , and ignoring students during designated office hours . Without explanation , he resigned from his position in 1969 , at age 26 . At the time , the chairman of the mathematics department , J. W. Addison , called this a " sudden and unexpected " resignation . In 1996 , vice chairman Calvin Moore said that , given Kaczynski 's " impressive " thesis and record of publications , " He could have advanced up the ranks and been a senior member of the faculty today . "
= = Move to Montana = =
In mid @-@ 1969 , Kaczynski moved into his parents ' small residence in Lombard , Illinois . Two years later , he moved into a remote cabin he built himself just outside Lincoln , Montana , where he lived a simple life on very little money , without electricity or running water . Kaczynski worked odd jobs and received financial support from his family , which he used to purchase his land and , without their knowledge , would later use to fund his bombing campaign . In 1978 , he worked briefly with his father and brother at a foam rubber factory , where he was fired by his brother , David , for harassing a female supervisor he had previously dated and who had refused him as a boyfriend for not " sharing much in common . "
Kaczynski 's original goal was to move out to a secluded place and become self @-@ sufficient so that he could live autonomously . He began to teach himself survival skills such as tracking , edible plant identification , and how to construct primitive technologies such as bow drills . After watching the wild land around him be destroyed by development and industry , he decided it was impossible to live in nature . He performed isolated acts of sabotage and initially targeted the developments near his cabin . The ultimate catalyst which drove him to begin his campaign of bombings was when he went out for a walk to one of his favorite wild spots , only to find that it had been destroyed and replaced with a road . About this , he said :
The best place , to me , was the largest remnant of this plateau that dates from the tertiary age . It 's kind of rolling country , not flat , and when you get to the edge of it you find these ravines that cut very steeply in to cliff @-@ like drop @-@ offs and there was even a waterfall there . It was about a two days ' hike from my cabin . That was the best spot until the summer of 1983 . That summer there were too many people around my cabin so I decided I needed some peace . I went back to the plateau and when I got there I found they had put a road right through the middle of it ... You just can 't imagine how upset I was . It was from that point on I decided that , rather than trying to acquire further wilderness skills , I would work on getting back at the system . Revenge .
He began dedicating himself to reading about sociology and books on political philosophy , such as the works of Jacques Ellul , and also stepped up his campaign of sabotage . He soon came to the conclusion that more violent methods would be the only solution to what he saw as the problem of industrial civilization . He says that he lost faith in the idea of reform , and saw violent collapse as the only way to bring down the techno @-@ industrial system . Regarding his switch from being a reformer of the system to developing a means of taking it down , he said :
I don 't think it can be done . In part because of the human tendency , for most people , there are exceptions , to take the path of least resistance . They 'll take the easy way out , and giving up your car , your television set , your electricity , is not the path of least resistance for most people . As I see it , I don 't think there is any controlled or planned way in which we can dismantle the industrial system . I think that the only way we will get rid of it is if it breaks down and collapses ... The big problem is that people don 't believe a revolution is possible , and it is not possible precisely because they do not believe it is possible . To a large extent I think the eco @-@ anarchist movement is accomplishing a great deal , but I think they could do it better ... The real revolutionaries should separate themselves from the reformers ... And I think that it would be good if a conscious effort was being made to get as many people as possible introduced to the wilderness . In a general way , I think what has to be done is not to try and convince or persuade the majority of people that we are right , as much as try to increase tensions in society to the point where things start to break down . To create a situation where people get uncomfortable enough that they 're going to rebel . So the question is how do you increase those tensions ?
= = Bombings = =
= = = Initial bombings = = =
Kaczynski 's activities came to the attention of the FBI in 1978 with the explosion of his first , primitive homemade bomb . Over the next 17 years , he mailed or hand @-@ delivered a series of increasingly sophisticated explosive devices that killed three people and injured 23 more .
The first mail bomb was sent in May 1978 to materials engineering professor Buckley Crist at Northwestern University . On May 25 , the package was found in a parking lot at the University of Illinois at Chicago , with Crist 's return address . The package was " returned " to Crist , but when Crist received the package , he noticed that it was not addressed in his own handwriting . Suspicious of a package he had not sent , he contacted campus police officer Terry Marker , who opened the package , which exploded immediately . Marker required medical assistance at Evanston Hospital for injuries to his left hand .
The bomb was made of metal that could have come from a home workshop . The primary component was a piece of metal pipe , about 1 inch ( 25 mm ) in diameter and 9 inches ( 230 mm ) long . The bomb contained smokeless explosive powders , and the box and the plugs that sealed the pipe ends were handcrafted from wood . In comparison , most pipe bombs usually use threaded metal ends sold in many hardware stores . Wooden ends lack the strength to allow significant pressure to build within the pipe , explaining why the bomb did not cause severe damage . The primitive trigger device that the bomb employed was a nail , tensioned by rubber bands designed to slam into six common match heads when the box was opened . The match heads would burst into flame and ignite the explosive powders . When the trigger hit the match heads , only three ignited . A more efficient technique , later employed by Kaczynski , was to use batteries and heat filament wire to ignite the explosives faster and more effectively .
The initial 1978 bombing was followed by bombs sent to airline officials , and in 1979 , a bomb was placed in the cargo hold of American Airlines Flight 444 , a Boeing 727 flying from Chicago to Washington , D.C. The bomb began smoking , forcing the pilot to make an emergency landing . Some passengers were treated for smoke inhalation . Only a faulty timing mechanism prevented the bomb from exploding . Authorities said it had enough power to " obliterate the plane " .
As bombing an airliner is a federal crime in the United States , the FBI became involved after this incident and derived the code name UNABOM ( UNiversity and Airline BOMber ) . U.S. Postal Inspectors , who initially had the case , labeled the suspect the " Junkyard Bomber " because of the material used to make the mail bombs . In 1979 , an FBI @-@ led task force that included the ATF and U.S. Postal Inspection Service was formed to investigate the case . The task force grew to more than 150 full @-@ time investigators , analysts , and others . This team made every possible forensic examination of recovered components of the explosives and studied the lives of victims in minute detail . These efforts proved of little use in identifying the suspect , who built his bombs essentially from " scrap " materials available almost anywhere . The victims , investigators later learned , were chosen irregularly from library research .
In 1980 , chief agent John Douglas , working with agents in the FBI 's Behavioral Sciences Unit , issued a psychological profile of the unidentified bomber which described the offender as a man with above @-@ average intelligence with connections to academia . This profile was later refined to characterize the offender as a neo @-@ Luddite holding an academic degree in the hard sciences , but this psychologically based profile was discarded in 1983 in favor of an alternative theory developed by FBI analysts concentrating on the physical evidence in recovered bomb fragments . In this rival profile , the bomber suspect was characterized as a blue @-@ collar airplane mechanic . A 1 @-@ 800 hotline was set up by the UNABOM Task Force to take any calls related to the Unabomber investigation , with a $ 1 million reward for anyone who could provide information leading to the Unabomber 's capture .
= = = Casualties = = =
The first serious injury occurred in 1985 , when John Hauser , a graduate student and captain in the United States Air Force , lost four fingers and vision in one eye . The bomb , like others of Kaczynski 's , was handcrafted and made with wooden parts .
Hugh Scrutton , a 38 @-@ year @-@ old Sacramento , California computer store owner , was killed in 1985 by a nail @-@ and @-@ splinter @-@ loaded bomb placed in the parking lot of his store . A similar attack against a computer store occurred in Salt Lake City , Utah on February 20 , 1987 . The bomb , which was disguised as a piece of lumber , injured Gary Wright when he attempted to remove it from the store 's parking lot . The explosion severed nerves in Wright 's left arm and propelled more than 200 pieces of shrapnel into his body . Kaczynski 's brother , David — who would play a vital role in Kaczynski 's capture by alerting federal authorities to the prospect of his brother 's being involved in the Unabomber cases — sought out and became friends with Wright after Kaczynski was detained in 1996 . David Kaczynski and Wright have remained friends and occasionally speak together publicly about their relationship .
After a six @-@ year break , Kaczynski struck again in 1993 , mailing a bomb to David Gelernter , a computer science professor at Yale University . Though critically injured , Gelernter eventually recovered . Another bomb mailed in the same weekend was sent to the home of Charles Epstein from the University of California , San Francisco , who lost several fingers upon opening it . Kaczynski then called Gelernter 's brother , Joel Gelernter , a behavioral geneticist , and told him , " You are next . " Geneticist Phillip Sharp at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology also received a threatening letter two years later . Kaczynski wrote a letter to The New York Times claiming that his " group , " called FC ( an acronym that stood for " Freedom Club " ) was responsible for the attacks .
In 1994 , Burson @-@ Marsteller executive Thomas J. Mosser was killed by a mail bomb sent to his North Caldwell , New Jersey home . In another letter to The New York Times , Kaczynski claimed that FC " blew up Thomas Mosser because ... Burston @-@ Marsteller [ sic ] helped Exxon clean up its public image after the Exxon Valdez incident " and , more importantly , because " its business is the development of techniques for manipulating people 's attitudes . " This was followed by the 1995 murder of Gilbert Brent Murray , president of the timber industry lobbying group California Forestry Association , by a mail bomb addressed to previous president William Dennison , who had retired .
In all , 16 bombs — which injured 23 people and killed three — were attributed to Kaczynski . While the devices varied widely through the years , all but the first few contained the initials " FC . " Inside his bombs , certain parts carried the inscription " FC , " which Kaczynski later asserted stood for " Freedom Club . " Latent fingerprints on some of the devices did not match the fingerprints found on letters attributed to Kaczynski . As stated in the " Additional Findings " section of the FBI affidavit ( where a balanced listing of other uncorrelated evidence and contrary determinations also appeared ) :
203 . Latent fingerprints attributable to devices mailed and / or placed by the UNABOM subject were compared to those found on the letters attributed to Theodore Kaczynski . According to the FBI Laboratory no forensic correlation exists between those samples .
One of Kaczynski 's tactics was leaving false clues in every bomb . He would make them hard to find deliberately to mislead investigators into thinking they had a clue . The first clue was a metal plate stamped with the initials " FC " hidden somewhere ( usually in the pipe end cap ) in every bomb . One false clue he left was a note in a bomb that did not detonate which reads " Wu — It works ! I told you it would — RV " . A more obvious clue was the Eugene O 'Neill $ 1 stamps used to send his boxes . One of his bombs was sent embedded in a copy of Sloan Wilson 's novel Ice Brothers .
The FBI theorized that Kaczynski had a theme of nature , trees and wood in his crimes . He often included bits of tree branch and bark in his bombs . Targets selected included Percy Wood , Professor Leroy Wood Bearson and Thomas Mosser . Crime writer Robert Graysmith noted , " in the Unabomber 's case a large factor was his obsession with wood . "
= = = List of bombings = = =
= = Industrial Society and Its Future = =
In 1995 , Kaczynski mailed several letters , including some to his victims and others to major media outlets , outlining his goals and demanding that his 50 @-@ plus page , 35 @,@ 000 @-@ word essay Industrial Society and Its Future , abbreviated to " Unabomber Manifesto " by the FBI , be printed verbatim by a major newspaper or journal . He stated that if this demand were met , he would then end his bombing campaign . The document was a densely written manifesto that called for a worldwide revolution against the effects of modern society 's " industrial @-@ technological system " . There was a great deal of controversy as to whether the document should be published , but the United States Department of Justice , along with FBI Director Louis Freeh and Attorney General Janet Reno , recommended publication out of concern for public safety and in hopes that a reader could identify the author . Bob Guccione of Penthouse volunteered to publish it , but Kaczynski replied that , since Penthouse was less " respectable " than the other publications , he would in that case " reserve the right to plant one ( and only one ) bomb intended to kill , after our manuscript has been published . " The pamphlet was finally published by The New York Times and The Washington Post on September 19 , 1995 . Penthouse never published it .
Throughout the manuscript , produced on a typewriter without the capacity for italics , Kaczynski capitalizes entire words in order to show emphasis . He always refers to himself as either " we " or " FC " ( Freedom Club ) , though there is no evidence that he worked with others . Donald Foster , who analyzed the writing at the request of Kaczynski 's defense , notes that the manuscript contains instances of irregular spelling and hyphenation , as well as other consistent linguistic idiosyncrasies ( which led him to conclude that it was indeed Kaczynski who wrote it ) .
Industrial Society and Its Future begins with Kaczynski 's assertion that " the Industrial Revolution and its consequences have been a disaster for the human race . " The first sections of the text are devoted to a discussion of the psychology of leftists and the negative consequences on individuals and small groups within the " industrial @-@ technological system . " Kaczynski writes that the industrial system has robbed contemporary humans of their autonomy , diminished their rapport with nature , and forced them " to behave in ways that are increasingly remote from the natural pattern of human behavior . " The later sections speculate about the future evolution of this system , arguing that it will inevitably lead to the end of human freedom , call for a " revolution against technology , " and attempt to indicate how that might be accomplished .
= = = Political and social views = = =
In his opening and closing sections , Kaczynski addresses Leftism as a movement and analyzes the psychology of leftists , arguing that they are " True Believers in Eric Hoffer 's sense " who participate in powerful social movements to compensate for their insecurity and feelings of inferiority :
When someone interprets as derogatory almost anything that is said about him ( or about groups with whom he identifies ) we conclude that he has inferiority feelings or low self @-@ esteem . This tendency is pronounced among minority rights advocates , whether or not they belong to the minority groups whose rights they defend . They are hypersensitive about the words used to designate minorities . ... Those who are most sensitive about " politically incorrect " terminology are not the average black ghetto @-@ dweller , Asian immigrant , abused woman or disabled person , but a minority of activists , many of whom do not even belong to any " oppressed " group but come from privileged strata of society . Political correctness has its stronghold among university professors , who have secure employment with comfortable salaries , and the majority of whom are heterosexual , white males from middle @-@ class families .
He goes on to explain how the nature of leftism is determined by the psychological consequences of " oversocialization . " Kaczynski " attribute [ s ] the social and psychological problems of modern society to the fact that society requires people to live under conditions radically different from those under which the human race evolved and to behave in ways that conflict with the patterns of behavior that the human race developed while living under the earlier conditions . " He further specifies the primary cause of a long list of social and psychological problems in modern society as the disruption of the " power process , " which he defines as having four elements :
The moral code of our society is so demanding that no one can think , feel and act in a completely moral way . ... Some people are so highly socialized that the attempt to think , feel and act morally imposes a severe burden on them . In order to avoid feelings of guilt , they continually have to deceive themselves about their own motives and find moral explanations for feelings and actions that in reality have a non @-@ moral origin . We use the term " oversocialized " to describe such people .
The three most clear @-@ cut of these we call goal , effort and attainment of goal . ( Everyone needs to have goals whose attainment requires effort , and needs to succeed in attaining at least some of his goals . ) The fourth element is more difficult to define and may not be necessary for everyone . We call it autonomy and will discuss it later . ... We divide human drives into three groups : ( 1 ) those drives that can be satisfied with minimal effort ; ( 2 ) those that can be satisfied but only at the cost of serious effort ; ( 3 ) those that cannot be adequately satisfied no matter how much effort one makes . The power process is the process of satisfying the drives of the second group .
Kaczynski goes on to claim that " [ i ] n modern industrial society natural human drives tend to be pushed into the first and third groups , and the second group tends to consist increasingly of artificially created drives . " Among these drives are " surrogate activities " , activities " directed toward an artificial goal that people set up for themselves merely in order to have some goal to work toward , or let us say , merely for the sake of the ' fulfillment ' that they get from pursuing the goal " . He argues that these surrogate activities are not as satisfactory as the attainment of " real goals " for " many , if not most people " .
He claims that scientific research is a surrogate activity for scientists , and that for this reason " science marches on blindly , without regard to the real welfare of the human race or to any other standard , obedient only to the psychological needs of the scientists and of the government officials and corporation executives who provide the funds for research . "
Kaczynski developed his philosophical ideas early in life , and up to the moment of the bombings , carried on an extensive ongoing debate with his brother David . Ted identified strongly with positivism , meaning that he strongly believed in an objective reality and that through sensory experience and analysis of this , one can obtain authentic knowledge . Kaczynski , throughout most of his earlier years ( the 1960s , deconstructivism , a distrust of " the system " , a desire for revolution ) remained " the intellectual outsider " and considered himself more important than others .
= = = = Perceived control methods = = = =
As mentioned above , the result of the " disruption of the power process " is the primary cause of various maladies in society ( e.g. , crime , depression , etc . ) . Kaczynski maintains that rather than recognizing that humans currently live in " conditions that make them terribly unhappy , " " the system " ( i.e. , industrial society ) develops ways of controlling human responses to the overly stressful environment in which they find themselves .
The following are current examples ( according to Kaczynski ) of this trend :
Imagine a society that subjects people to conditions that make them terribly unhappy , then gives them the drugs to take away their unhappiness . Science fiction ? It is already happening to some extent in our own society . It is well known that the rate of clinical depression had been greatly increasing in recent decades . We believe that this is due to disruption of the power process ...
The entertainment industry serves as an important psychological tool of the system , possibly even when it is dishing out large amounts of sex and violence . Entertainment provides modern man with an essential means of escape . While absorbed in television , videos , etc . , he can forget stress , anxiety , frustration , dissatisfaction .
Sylvan Learning Centers , for example , have had great success in motivating children to study , and psychological techniques are also used with more or less success in many conventional schools . " Parenting " techniques that are taught to parents are designed to make children accept fundamental values of the system and behave in ways that the system finds desirable .
= = = Historical views and predictions = = =
In the last sections of the manifesto , Kaczynski carefully defines what he means by freedom and provides an argument that it would " be hopelessly difficult ... to reform the industrial system in such a way as to prevent it from progressively narrowing our sphere of freedom " . He says that " in spite of all its technical advances relating to human behavior the system to date has not been impressively successful in controlling human beings " and predicts that " [ i ] f the system succeeds in acquiring sufficient control over human behavior quickly enough , it will probably survive . Otherwise it will break down " and that " the issue will most likely be resolved within the next several decades , say 40 to 100 years . " He gives various dystopian possibilities for the type of society which would evolve in the former case . He claims that revolution , unlike reform , is possible , and calls on sympathetic readers to initiate such revolution using two strategies : to " heighten the social stresses within the system so as to increase the likelihood that it will break down " and to " develop and propagate an ideology that opposes technology . " He gives various tactical recommendations , including avoiding the assumption of political power , avoiding any collaboration with leftists , and supporting free trade agreements in order to bind the world economy into a more fragile , unified whole .
= = = Related works and influences = = =
As a critique of technological society , the manifesto echoed contemporary critics of technology and industrialization , such as John Zerzan , Herbert Marcuse , Fredy Perlman , Jacques Ellul ( whose book The Technological Society was referenced in an 1971 essay by Kaczynski ) , Lewis Mumford , and Neil Postman . Its idea of the " disruption of the power process " similarly echoed social critics emphasizing the lack of meaningful work as a primary cause of social problems , including Lewis Mumford , Paul Goodman , and Eric Hoffer ( whom Kaczynski explicitly references ) . The general theme was also addressed by Aldous Huxley in his dystopian novel Brave New World , which Kaczynski references . The ideas of " oversocialization " and " surrogate activities " recall Freud 's Civilization and Its Discontents and his theories of rationalization and sublimation ( the latter term being used three times in the manifesto , twice in quotes , to describe surrogate activities ) .
In a Wired article on the dangers of technology , titled " Why The Future Doesn 't Need Us , " Bill Joy , cofounder of Sun Microsystems , quoted Ray Kurzweil 's The Age of Spiritual Machines , which quoted a passage by Kaczynski on types of society that might develop if human labor were entirely replaced by artificial intelligence . Joy wrote that , although Kaczynski 's actions were " murderous , and , in my view , criminally insane " , that , " as difficult as it is for me to acknowledge , I saw some merit in the reasoning in this single passage . I felt compelled to confront it . "
Anders Behring Breivik , the Norwegian admitted perpetrator of the July 22 , 2011 bombing and massacre in Norway , published a manifesto in which large chunks of text were copied and pasted from the manifesto of Kaczynski , with certain terms substituted ( e.g. , replacing " leftists " with " cultural Marxists " and " multiculturalists " ) .
Bombshell ( Southern Methodist University Press , 2001 ) , a novel by Liza Wieland , is a fictional depiction of Kaczynski 's life and activities . In Wieland 's version of events , a bomber named The Professor has a daughter who recognizes her father 's writing and struggles with her moral and familial obligations .
Ted 's brother , David Kaczynski published his memoir , Every Last Tie : The Story of the Unabomber and his Family detailing what it was like to grow up with Ted , as well as the difficult decision that he and his wife faced when they grew to suspect that Ted was the Unabomber .
= = Search = =
Before the publication of the manifesto , Ted Kaczynski 's brother , David Kaczynski , was encouraged by his wife Linda to follow up on suspicions that Ted was the Unabomber . David Kaczynski was at first dismissive , but progressively began to take the likelihood more seriously after reading the manifesto a week after it was published in September 1995 . David Kaczynski browsed through old family papers and found letters dating back to the 1970s written by Ted and sent to newspapers protesting the abuses of technology and which contained phrasing similar to what was found in the Unabomber Manifesto .
Prior to the publishing of the manifesto , the FBI held numerous press conferences requesting the help of the public in identifying the Unabomber . They were convinced that the bomber was from the Chicago area ( where he began his bombings ) , had worked or had some connection in Salt Lake City , and by the 1990s was associated with the San Francisco Bay Area . This geographical information , as well as the wording in excerpts from the manifesto that were released prior to the entire manifesto being published , was what had persuaded David Kaczynski 's wife , Linda , to urge her husband to read the manifesto .
After the manifesto was published , the FBI received over a thousand calls a day for months in response to the offer of a $ 1 million reward for information leading to the identity of the Unabomber . There were also large numbers of letters mailed to the UNABOM Task Force that purported to be from the Unabomber , and thousands of suspect leads were sifted through . While the FBI was occupied with new leads , David Kaczynski first hired private investigator Susan Swanson in Chicago to investigate Ted 's activities discreetly . The Kaczynski brothers had become estranged in 1990 , and David had not seen Ted for ten years . David later hired Washington , D.C. attorney Tony Bisceglie to organize evidence acquired by Swanson and make contact with the FBI , given the likely difficulty in attracting the FBI 's attention . He wanted to protect his brother from the danger of an FBI raid , such as the Ruby Ridge or the Waco Siege , since he assumed Ted would not take kindly to being contacted by the FBI and would likely react irrationally or violently .
In early 1996 , former FBI hostage negotiator and criminal profiler Clinton R. Van Zandt was contacted by an investigator working with Tony Bisceglie . Bisceglie asked Van Zandt to compare the manifesto to typewritten copies of handwritten letters David had received from his brother . Van Zandt 's initial analysis determined that there was better than a 60 percent chance that the same person had written the letters as well as the manifesto , which had been in public circulation for half a year . Van Zandt 's second analytical team determined an even higher likelihood that the letters and the manifesto were the product of the same author . He recommended that Bisceglie 's client immediately contact the FBI .
In February 1996 , Bisceglie provided a copy of the 1971 essay written by Ted Kaczynski to the FBI . At the UNABOM Task Force headquarters in San Francisco , Supervisory Special Agent Joel Moss immediately recognized similarities in the writings . Linguistic analysis determined that the author of the essay papers and the manifesto were almost certainly the same . When combined with facts gleaned from the bombings and Kaczynski 's life , that analysis provided the basis for a search warrant .
David Kaczynski had attempted to remain anonymous at the outset , but he was swiftly identified , and within a few days an FBI agent team was dispatched to interview David and his wife with their attorney in Washington , D.C. At this and subsequent meetings with the team , David provided letters written by his brother in their original envelopes , so the use of postmark dates enabled the enhancement of the timeline of Ted Kaczynski 's activities being developed by the Task Force . David developed a respectful relationship with the primary Task Force behavioral analyst , Special Agent Kathleen M. Puckett , with whom he met many times in Washington , D.C. , Texas , Chicago , and Schenectady , New York , over the nearly two months before the federal search warrant was served on Kaczynski 's cabin .
David Kaczynski had once admired and emulated his older brother , but had later decided to leave the survivalist lifestyle behind . He had received assurances from the FBI that he would remain anonymous and that his brother would not learn who had turned him in , but his identity was leaked to CBS News in early April 1996 . CBS anchorman Dan Rather called FBI director Louis Freeh , who requested 24 hours before CBS broke the story on the evening news . The FBI scrambled to finish the search warrant and have it issued by a federal judge in Montana ; afterwards , an internal leak investigation was conducted by the FBI , but the source of the leak was never identified . In 1996 the Evergreen Park Community High School District No. 231 was also placed on lockdown while FBI agents searched Kaczynski 's school records . At the end of that school day , students were greeted by reporters asking how they felt about going to the same high school the Unabomber had attended . That night the news story was released to public .
Paragraphs 204 and 205 of the FBI search and arrest warrant for Ted Kaczynski stated that " experts " — many of them academics consulted by the FBI — believed the manifesto had been written by " another individual , not Theodore Kaczynski " . As stated in the affidavit , only a handful of people believed Kaczynski was the Unabomber before the search warrant revealed the cornucopia of evidence in Kaczynski 's isolated cabin . The search warrant affidavit written by FBI Inspector Terry D. Turchie reflects this conflict , and is striking evidence of the opposition to Turchie and his small cadre of FBI agents that included Moss and Puckett — who were convinced Kaczynski was the Unabomber — from the rest of the UNABOM Task Force and the FBI in general :
204 . Your affiant is aware that other individuals have conducted analyses of the UNABOM Manuscript _ _ determined that the Manuscript was written by another individual , not Kaczynski , who had also been a suspect in the investigation .
205 . Numerous other opinions from experts have been provided as to the identity of the unabomb subject . None of those opinions named Theodore Kaczynski as a possible author .
= = Arrest = =
FBI agents arrested Kaczynski on April 3 , 1996 , at his remote cabin outside Lincoln , Montana , where he was found in an unkempt state . Combing his cabin , the investigators found a wealth of bomb components , 40 @,@ 000 handwritten journal pages that included bomb @-@ making experiments and descriptions of the Unabomber crimes ; and one live bomb , ready for mailing . They also found what appeared to be the original typed manuscript of the manifesto . By this point , the Unabomber had been the target of one of the most expensive investigations in the FBI 's history .
After his capture , Kaczynski was among the several individuals who had been suspected of being the unidentified Zodiac Killer . Among the links that raised suspicion were the fact that Kaczynski lived in the San Francisco Bay Area from 1967 to 1969 ( the same period that most of the Zodiac 's confirmed killings occurred in California ) , both individuals were highly intelligent with an interest in bombs and codes , and both wrote letters to newspapers demanding the publication of their words with the threat of continued violence toward others if the demand was not met . However , his whereabouts could not be verified for all of the killings , and the gun and knife murders committed by the Zodiac Killer differ from Kaczynski 's bombings , so he was not further pursued as a suspect . Robert Graysmith of San Francisco , author of the 1986 book Zodiac , said the similarities are " fascinating " but undoubtedly purely coincidental .
In 1996 , a docudrama was produced titled Unabomber : The True Story , featuring actors Dean Stockwell as Ben Jeffries , Robert Hays as David Kaczynski and Tobin Bell as Ted Kaczynski . In this film a determined postal inspector was followed as he tracked down the suspect and also centered on Kaczynski 's brother , who played a key role in the investigation .
= = Trial = =
Kaczynski 's lawyers , headed by Montana federal defender Michael Donahoe and Judy Clarke , attempted to enter an insanity defense to save Kaczynski 's life , but Kaczynski rejected this plea . A court @-@ appointed psychiatrist diagnosed Kaczynski as suffering from paranoid schizophrenia , but declared him competent to stand trial . Kaczynski 's family said Ted would psychologically " shut down " when pressured . In the book Technological Slavery , Kaczynski recalls two prison psychologists , Dr. James Watterson and Dr. Michael Morrison , who visited him almost every day for a period of four years , who told him that they saw no indication that he suffered from any such serious mental illness , and that the diagnosis of his being paranoid schizophrenic was " ridiculous " and a " political diagnosis . " Dr. Morrison made remarks to him about psychologists and psychiatrists providing any desired diagnosis if they are well paid for doing so .
A federal grand jury indicted Kaczynski in April 1996 on 10 counts of illegally transporting , mailing , and using bombs . He was also charged with killing Scrutton , Mosser , and Murray . Initially , the government prosecution team indicated that it would seek the death penalty for Kaczynski after it was authorized by United States Attorney General Janet Reno . David Kaczynski 's attorney asked the former FBI agent who made the match between the Unabomber 's manifesto and Kaczynski to ask for leniency — he was horrified to think that turning his brother in might result in his brother 's death . Eventually , Kaczynski was able to avoid the death penalty by pleading guilty to all the government 's charges , on January 22 , 1998 . Later , Kaczynski attempted to withdraw his guilty plea , arguing it was involuntary . Judge Garland Ellis Burrell Jr. denied his request . The United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit upheld that decision .
The early hunt for the Unabomber in the United States portrayed a perpetrator far different from the eventual suspect . The Unabomber Manifesto consistently uses " we " and " our " throughout , and at one point in 1993 investigators sought an individual whose first name was " Nathan " , due to a fragment of a note found in one of the bombs . However , when the case was finally presented to the public , authorities denied that there was ever anyone other than Kaczynski involved in the crimes . Explanations were later presented as to why Kaczynski targeted some of the victims he selected .
On August 10 , 2006 , Judge Garland Burrell Jr. ordered that personal items seized in 1996 from Kaczynski 's Montana cabin should be sold at a " reasonably advertised Internet auction . " Items the government considers to be bomb @-@ making materials , such as writings that contain diagrams and " recipes " for bombs , were excluded from the sale . The auctioneer paid the cost and kept up to 10 % of the sale price , and the rest of the proceeds must be applied to the $ 15 million in restitution that Burrell ordered Kaczynski to pay his victims .
Included among Kaczynski 's holdings which were auctioned are his original writings , journals , correspondences , and other documents allegedly found in his cabin ( for example , a copy of Strunk & White 's The Elements of Style ) . The judge ordered that all references in those documents that allude to any of his victims must be removed before they were sold . Kaczynski challenged those ordered redactions in court on First Amendment grounds , arguing that any alteration of his writings is an unconstitutional violation of his freedom of speech .
The auction concluded in June 2011 , and raised over $ 232 @,@ 000 .
= = Prison sentence = =
Kaczynski is serving eight life sentences without the possibility of parole as Federal Bureau of Prisons register number 04475 @-@ 046 at ADX Florence , the federal Administrative Maximum Facility supermax in Florence , Colorado . When asked if he was afraid of losing his mind in prison , Kaczynski replied :
No , what worries me is that I might in a sense adapt to this environment and come to be comfortable here and not resent it anymore . And I am afraid that as the years go by that I may forget , I may begin to lose my memories of the mountains and the woods and that 's what really worries me , that I might lose those memories , and lose that sense of contact with wild nature in general . But I am not afraid they are going to break my spirit .
Kaczynski has been an active writer in prison . The Labadie Collection , part of the University of Michigan 's Special Collections Library , houses Kaczynski 's correspondence from over 400 people since his arrest in April 1996 , including carbon copy replies , legal documents , publications , and clippings . The names of most correspondents will be kept sealed until 2049 . Kaczynski has also been battling in federal court in Northern California over the auction of his journals and other correspondence . On January 10 , 2009 , the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in San Francisco rejected Kaczynski 's arguments that the government 's sale of his writings violates his freedom of expression . His writings , books , and other possessions were sold online , and the money raised was sent to several of his victims .
Kaczynski 's cabin was removed and was to be destroyed . Kaczynski said he gave it to Charlotte Holdman , an investigator on Kaczynski 's defense team . It was seized by the U.S. government and is on display at the Newseum in Washington , D.C. In a three @-@ page handwritten letter to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit , Kaczynski objected to the public exhibition of the cabin , claiming it was being exhibited despite victims ' objections to the generation of publicity connected with the UNABOM case .
In a letter dated October 7 , 2005 , Kaczynski offered to donate two rare books to the Melville J. Herskovits Library of African Studies at Northwestern University 's campus in Evanston , Illinois , the location of the first two attacks . The recipient , David Easterbrook , turned the letter over to the university 's archives . Northwestern rejected the offer , noting that the library already owned the volumes in English and did not desire duplicates .
On May 24 , 2012 , Kaczynski submitted his current information to the Harvard University alumni association . He listed his eight life sentences as " awards " and his current occupation as " prisoner . "
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= Savile Row =
Savile Row ( pronounced / ˌsævɪl ˈroʊ / ) is a street in Mayfair , central London . Known principally for its traditional bespoke tailoring for men , the street has had a varied history that has included accommodating the headquarters of the Royal Geographical Society at 1 Savile Row , where significant British explorations to Africa and the South Pole were planned ; and more recently , the Apple office of the Beatles at 3 Savile Row , where the band 's final live performance was held on the roof of the building .
Originally named Savile Street , it was built between 1731 and 1735 as part of the development of the Burlington Estate . It was designed under the influence of Burlington 's interpretation of Palladian architecture , known as " Burlingtonian " . Henry Flitcroft , under the supervision of Daniel Garrett , appears to have been the main architect – though 1 and 22 – 23 Savile Row were designed by William Kent . Initially , the street was occupied mainly by military officers and their wives ; later William Pitt the Younger and Irish @-@ born playwright and MP , Richard Brinsley Sheridan were residents .
Tailors started doing business in the area in the late 18th century ; first in Cork Street , about 1790 , then by 1803 in Savile Row itself . In 1846 , Henry Poole , later credited as the creator of the dinner jacket or tuxedo , opened an entrance to Savile Row from his tailoring premises in Old Burlington Street . In 1969 , Nutters of Savile Row modernised the style and approach of traditional Savile Row tailoring ; a modernisation that continued in the 1990s with the " New Bespoke Movement " , involving the designers Richard James , Ozwald Boateng , and Timothy Everest . The term " bespoke " as applied to fine tailoring is understood to have originated in Savile Row , and came to mean a suit cut and made by hand .
= = Location = =
Savile Row runs parallel to Regent Street between Conduit Street at the northern end and Vigo Street at the southern . Linking roads include New Burlington Place , New Burlington Street , Boyle Street , and Clifford Street .
= = Ownership = =
The freehold is owned by the Pollen Estate , who work in partnership with Westminster City Council to protect the street 's tailoring heritage under the Savile Row SPA ( Special Policy Area ) .
As of August 2014 , Norway ’ s Oil Fund , the world ’ s largest sovereign wealth fund , had acquired a 57 @.@ 8 % interest in the Pollen Estate . This includes properties in Mayfair , among which is Savile Row .
= = History = =
The first house in what would become Savile Row was " a fine House and Ground " , built in 1674 on the site of what is now No. 1 , and occupied by a series of nobles until it was demolished in 1730 in preparation for the laying out of the houses on the east of Savile Row in 1731 . Savile Row was built between 1731 and 1735 , on freehold land known as Ten Acres belonging to a merchant tailor , William Maddox , as part of the development of the Burlington Estate , and is named after Lady Dorothy Savile , wife of the 3rd Earl of Burlington . Maddox 's land , consisting mainly of fruit and other trees covering what would become Savile Row and the streets around , some of which is still owned by his descendants as the Pollen Estate . When initially laid out – under the name Saville Street – Savile Row ran from Burlington Gardens ( then Vigo Lane ) to Boyle Street , with houses only on the east side , but in the 19th century , houses were built on the west side .
= = = Nineteenth century = = =
Initially , the street was occupied by military officers and their wives , along with politicians : William Pitt the Younger wrote letters from the street when it was called Savile Street ; Irish @-@ born playwright and MP , Richard Brinsley Sheridan lived at 14 Savile Row for a short time , before his death at 7 Savile Row in 1816 . Jules Verne had Phileas Fogg , his lead character in Around the World in Eighty Days , live at 7 Savile Row – a " fashionable address " and " the former home of Sheridan " . It may have been the affluent and influential nature of the residents of Savile Row that first attracted dealers in luxury goods to the area . Tailors started to take premises around Savile Row in the late 18th century , first in Cork Street , about 1790 , then by 1803 in Savile Row itself . In 1846 , Henry Poole , credited as creator of the dinner jacket or tuxedo , opened an entrance at 37 Savile Row from his late father 's tailoring premises at 4 Old Burlington Street . As tailoring moved into the street , the house frontages were altered to bring natural light into the tailors ' working area with the addition of glass frontages and light wells . The houses have been much altered over time ; the original Burlingtonian design has been mostly lost , though No. 14 still retains much of the original external features .
= = = Royal Geographical Society = = =
The Royal Geographical Society occupied No. 1 from 1870 to 1912 , from where significant British exploration was planned , including into Asia , Africa , and the South Pole ; and , according to the society , the address " became associated with adventure and travel " . David Livingstone was laid out in state at the society 's headquarters , before being buried in Westminster Abbey . In 1871 , shortly after the Royal Geographical Society moved into Savile Row , so did the Savile Club ; a gentlemen 's club founded in 1868 as the New Club , occupying rooms overlooking Trafalgar Square ; it changed to its current name during its residence at 12 Savile Row , retaining the name when it moved in 1882 to premises in Piccadilly .
= = = Twentieth century = = =
Savile Row was extended to Conduit Street in 1937 – 38 , and by 1939 , the Metropolitan Police Station was constructed on the corner of Boyle Street . This police station was damaged in another German bombing raid in September 1940 , during which the building opposite , No. 21a , was destroyed , as was No. 7 earlier that month . Fortress House , an eight @-@ storey block of offices faced with Portland stone , was constructed at 23 Savile Row in 1949 @-@ 50 and occupied by a series of government ministries , ending with a long period of occupation by English Heritage until 2006 . It was demolished in 2009 and replaced by a new mixed @-@ use development designed by Eric Parry , Architects .
In July 1968 , the Beatles moved Apple Corps , their multimedia corporation , into 3 Savile Row . A studio was built in the basement ; though it was poorly designed , the Beatles recorded Let It Be there before a new studio was constructed in 1971 at an estimated cost of $ 1 @.@ 5 million . Various artists , including Badfinger , Mary Hopkin , and Marc Bolan recorded in the basement studio until it closed in May 1975 . The Beatles ' final live performance , known as the " rooftop concert " , was held on the roof of the building , on 30 January 1969 , and was recorded for the documentary film Let It Be ; the last words of the band , spoken by John Lennon as the police stopped the performance , were " I hope we passed the audition . "
In 1969 , Nutters of Savile Row modernised the style and approach of the traditional tailors ; a modernisation which continued in the 1990s with the " New Bespoke Movement " , involving the designers Richard James , Ozwald Boateng , and Timothy Everest . With increasing rents and criticisms from Giorgio Armani of falling behind the times , the number of tailors in Savile Row had declined to 19 in 2006 , from approximately 40 in the 1950s . However , tailoring businesses have increased since 2006 ; as of October 2014 , a local online directory listed 44 tailoring and clothing businesses on and around Savile Row . Some tailors had expressed concern in 2005 that an increase in commercial development in the area could lead to the death of the business locally , as tailors , many of whom traditionally manufacture their suits in their premises , in basement studios , could be priced out of the local property market . The Savile Row Bespoke Association was founded in 2004 to protect and develop bespoke tailoring as practised in Savile Row and the surrounding streets . The member tailors are typically required to put at least 50 hours of hand labour into each two @-@ piece suit . The Association , along with the owners , the Pollen Estate , is working in partnership with Westminster Council to protect the street 's tailoring heritage under the Savile Row SPA ( Special Policy Area ) .
The Association objected to the American retailer Abercrombie & Fitch 's plan to open a children 's store at 3 Savile Row , concerned that chain stores entering the street would drive up rents , and took part in , what was then , a successful protest in 2012 . However , A & F were allowed to move in and set up a children 's store in 2013 . A & F again attracted criticism in January 2015 for its store 's colour scheme : brown .
= = Architecture = =
The original architectural plan for Savile Row is believed to have been drawn up by Colen Campbell , with Henry Flitcroft as the main architect of the street , under the supervision of Daniel Garrett ; though 1 and 22 – 23 Savile Row were designed by William Kent , who moved into No. 2 . These architects were all under the influence of Burlington 's interpretation of Palladian architecture , known as " Burlingtonian " , which was to have some influence on English architecture in the 16th century . As tailoring moved into the street , the house frontages were altered to bring natural light into the tailors ' working area with the addition of glass frontages and light wells . The houses have been much altered over time ; the original Burlingtonian design has been mostly lost , though No. 14 still retains much of the original external features . When the Royal Geographical Society occupied No. 1 , they built a glass @-@ roofed map @-@ room in the courtyard , a small astronomical observatory on the roof , and a new portico – which may be the basis for the current appearance of the façade .
= = Tailoring = =
Savile Row 's reputation is built on bespoke tailoring , where each suit is made to individually fit . The term " bespoke " , which has an etymology developing from " to exclaim " through " discussed in advance " and is generally understood to mean " made to order " , became associated with fine tailoring , with tailors claiming that the term has been in common use for tailoring since the 17th century . Savile Row tailors argue that " bespoke " , in relation to tailoring , is understood to mean a suit cut and made by hand ; however , after a ruling by the Advertising Standards Authority in 2008 , the term may now also be applied to machine sewed garments , provided they are made @-@ to @-@ measure . Suits , at Kilgour & French , cost at least £ 5000 . The Creative Director Carlo Brandelli makes no apologies for the cost . Brandelli insists : " That the street ’ s tailors have been underselling themselves for generations , certainly compared to the couture houses of Paris . "
Customers of the " golden mile of tailoring " have included Lord Nelson , Napoleon III , Winston Churchill , Prince Charles , and Jude Law , but though it is sometimes reported that Ian Fleming and his character James Bond bought suits in Savile Row , there is no evidence for this in the novels ; both Fleming and the Bond film character wore suits designed by non @-@ Savile Row tailors , in particular Anthony Sinclair of nearby Conduit Street .
Tailors , attracted by the affluent and influential nature of the residents of Savile Row , started to open businesses in the area in the late 18th century , first in Cork Street , about 1790 , then by 1803 in Savile Row itself . None of those original tailors survive today , though Henry Poole & Co , who through Edward VII 's patronage , helped make the street fashionable , still have a presence in Savile Row . Poole moved the company into 32 Savile Row in 1846 , following the death of his father James Poole , and the company is now at No. 15 . Henry Poole is credited as creator of the dinner jacket , when he made a smoking jacket for the young Edward VII in 1860 .
Tailoring was softened in the early 20th century by Frederick Scholte when he developed the English drape for the Duke of Windsor . Scholte 's " dress soft " style was developed into the " London cut " , the house style of Anderson & Sheppard , by Per Anderson , a protégé of Sholte . The " London cut " is a high small armhole with a generous upper sleeve that permits the jacket to remain close to the neck while freeing the arm to move with comfort .
Though the reputation of tailoring on Savile Row is for made @-@ to @-@ measure suits , ready @-@ to @-@ wear clothes were introduced by Gieves & Hawkes , a company formed in 1974 by the merger of two separate businesses who both date from the late 19th century : Gieves , a Royal Navy tailor founded in Portsmouth ; and Hawkes , a London @-@ based cap @-@ maker and tailor to the British Army . Hardy Amies Ltd further broadened the scope and appeal of tailoring in Savile Row : in 1961 , he staged the first men 's ready @-@ to @-@ wear catwalk shows , at the Ritz Hotel in London , he designed costumes for the 1966 England World Cup team , and for the 1968 film 2001 : Space Odyssey , and dressed the Queen , designing the gown used for the Silver Jubilee portrait in 1977 . Hardy Amies founded the company in 1946 , converting the bombed out shell of No. 14 . Though Amies sold the business and retired in 2001 , the company is still operating from No. 14 , now under the control of Fung Capital .
Modernisation of tailoring continued in 1969 with Nutters of Savile Row . Nutters of Savile Row was opened on Valentine 's Day 1969 by Tommy Nutter and Edward Sexton , who had worked together at Donaldson , Williamson & Ward . Financially backed by Cilla Black and Peter Brown of the Beatles Apple Corps , Nutters used bold window displays , created by the then unknown Simon Doonan ; and clients included the Beatles , Mick Jagger , Elton John , and Andrew Lloyd Webber . Nutter left the company in 1976 and went to work at Kilgour . He died in 1992 .
Modernisation had slowed by the early 1990s ; Savile Row tailors were " struggling to find relevance with an audience that had grown increasingly disassociated " . Three tailors , Ozwald Boateng , Timothy Everest ( an apprentice of Nutter 's ) , and Richard James , then became known for revitalising the bespoke style for the modern market - having each broken away independently from the Savile Row mould . Public relations professional Alison Hargreaves coined the term " New Bespoke Movement " to describe collectively the work of this " new generation " of tailors . Interest reached a peak in 1997 when the three were featured together in Vanity Fair . The newcomers altered their shop fronts and used marketing and publicity to their advantage ; challenging the traditional Savile Row styling , they brought twists and " a fine sense of colour to bespoke suits . " They were seen to " push the envelope of modern suit making and bespoke active wear , creating more contemporary silhouettes with bolder fabrics , " and set out to attract celebrity clients , sell their clothing via supermarket chains , and attract wider national and international custom , raising the profile of their new tailoring style .
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= Final Fantasy XII =
Final Fantasy XII ( ファイナルファンタジーXII , Fainaru Fantajī Tsuerubu ) is a fantasy role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square Enix for the PlayStation 2 home video console . Released in 2006 , it is the twelfth title in the mainline Final Fantasy series . The game introduced several innovations to the series : an open world split into zones , a seamless battle system , a controllable camera , a customizable " gambit " system which lets the player control the artificial intelligence ( AI ) of characters in battle ; and a " license " system that determines which abilities and equipment are used by characters . Final Fantasy XII also includes elements from previous games in the series such as summoned monsters , Chocobos , and Moogles .
The game takes place in the fictional land of Ivalice , where the empires of Archadia and Rozarria are waging an endless war . Dalmasca , a small kingdom , is caught between the warring nations . When Dalmasca is annexed by Archadia , its princess , Ashe , creates a resistance movement . During the struggle , she meets Vaan , a young adventurer who dreams of becoming a sky pirate in command of an airship . They are quickly joined by a band of allies ; together , they rally against the tyranny of the Archadian Empire .
Final Fantasy XII received critical acclaim , earning numerous " Game of the Year " awards in various categories from noted video game publications . Selling more than two million copies in Japan , it became the fourth best @-@ selling PlayStation 2 game of 2006 worldwide . By November 2009 , over 6 million copies of the game were sold worldwide . A sequel , Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings , was released for the Nintendo DS in 2007 . A high @-@ definition remaster of the International Zodiac Job System version , subtitled The Zodiac Age , will be released worldwide for the PlayStation 4 in 2017 .
= = Gameplay = =
Throughout the game , the player directly controls the on @-@ screen character from a third @-@ person perspective to interact with people , objects , and enemies . Unlike previous games in the series , the player can also control the camera with the right analog stick , allowing for a 360 ° view of the surroundings . While in towns and cities , the player may only see from the perspective of Vaan , but any character may be controlled in the field . The world of Final Fantasy XII is rendered to scale relative to the characters in it ; instead of a caricature of the character roaming around miniature terrain , as found in the earlier Final Fantasy games , every area is represented proportionally . The player navigates the overworld on foot , Chocobo , or by airship . Players may save their game to a memory card using save crystals or gate crystals , and may use the latter to teleport between gate crystals . An in @-@ game bestiary provides incidental information about the world of Final Fantasy XII .
Final Fantasy XII restructures the system of earning gil , the currency of the Final Fantasy games ; instead of gil , most enemies drop " loot " which can be sold at shops . This ties into a new battle mechanic which rewards the player with improved loot for slaying a particular type of enemy multiple times in a row . Selling different types of loot also unlocks a bazaar option in shops , which provides items at a lower cost , or items exclusive to the bazaar .
= = = Battle system = = =
Excluding the MMORPG Final Fantasy XI , Final Fantasy XII is the first entry in the main Final Fantasy series not to include random encounters . Instead , enemies are visible in the overworld and the player may choose to fight or avoid them . Battles unfold in real time using the " Active Dimension Battle " ( ADB ) system . Battles begin when the party comes within range of an aggressive enemy , the party attacks an enemy , or a story event initiates a confrontation . When a character or enemy begins an action , target lines connect characters to other party members or enemies ; different colors represent the different types of action . The player may swap to and issue commands to any of the three characters in the party , but guest characters are controlled by artificial intelligence ( AI ) . Battle commands are initiated through a series of menus , and include Attack , Magicks & Technicks , Mist , Gambits , and Items . The player may switch any active character with an inactive character at any time , unless the active character is targeted by an attack or ability . Characters who are knocked out may also be substituted .
A new feature in Final Fantasy XII is the " gambit " system , which allows the player to program each character to perform certain commands in battle in response to specified conditions . Using gambits , the player may set reactions to different stimuli for each character . Each gambit consists of three parts : a target , an action , and a priority . The target specifies which ally or foe to act on and the condition for applying the action . For example , the target " Ally : HP < 70 % " causes the character to target any ally whose hit points have fallen below 70 % . The action is the command to be performed on the target . The priority determines which gambit to perform when multiple gambits are triggered . These heuristics guide the characters when acting autonomously , though player @-@ directed commands are always given top priority .
In Final Fantasy XII , a mysterious phenomenon known as " Mist " is the key energy which allows characters to cast summoning magic and perform " Quickenings " . After defeating an Esper in combat , the player will be able to summon it to the battlefield . Similar to Final Fantasy X , the summoned creatures become active participants in battle , as opposed to the cinematic attacks seen in previous games in the series . Unlike Final Fantasy X , however , Espers follow hidden gambits , rather than the player 's direct command . The summoner remains an active member in the fight , able to attack and cast support magic , instead of leaving the party or standing idle while the summoned creature fights . An Esper will leave the battle if either the summoner or itself is knocked out , its time limit expires , or it executes its special attack . Some Espers have origins in Final Fantasy Tactics and Final Fantasy Tactics Advance and others are derived from the final bosses of previous Final Fantasy games such as Chaos , the final boss of the first Final Fantasy , and Zeromus , the final boss of Final Fantasy IV .
Final Fantasy XII introduces " Quickenings " , a new Limit Break system unique compared to those in previous games in the series . Characters learn Quickenings by progressing to specific panels on the License Board . Each character can learn three Quickenings , which are unique to that character . Characters may string together Quickenings into large combo attacks , called Mist Chains , via timed button presses . If a Mist Chain reaches a certain length , a final strike will be initiated at the end of the Quickening cycle , called a Concurrence .
= = = Growth system = = =
As in many role @-@ playing games , characters " level up " each time they earn a set number of experience points from defeating enemies ; each level gained increases the character 's statistics and improves performance in battle . Statistics include hit points , the amount of damage a character can receive ; strength , the power of the character 's physical attacks ; and magic , the potency of the character 's magical spells .
In addition to leveling up , players may improve their characters via the License Board . The License Board is an array of panels that contain " licenses " which allow a character to perform certain actions . The board is split into two parts ; the upper part comprises Magick , Technick , Accessory , and Augment ( stat increases and other permanent buffs ) licenses , and the bottom part comprises mostly Weapon and Armor licenses . To use a Magick , Technick , or piece of equipment , the character must obtain its corresponding license by spending the required amount of LP ( License Points ) . LP are earned in battle along with the experience points . Like the Sphere Grid in Final Fantasy X , all characters may obtain all licenses on the board ; however , each Quickening and Esper license may only be activated by a single character .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Final Fantasy XII is set within the land of Ivalice during an age when " magic was commonplace " and " airships plied the skies , crowding out the heavens " . At this time , magicite , a magic @-@ rich mineral , is commonly used in magic spells and in powering airships — a popular form of transportation in Ivalice . Ivalice is divided into three continents : Ordalia , Valendia , and Kerwon . Ordalia is located in the western part of Ivalice . The Rozarrian Empire makes its home in the vast inland plains of this continent as the eastern portion of it is largely desert or " jagd " — lawless regions so rich in Mist , the ethereal manifestation of magicite , that airships cannot function . Valendia is the home of Imperial Archadia , where lush highlands dot the landscape . Central to the story is Dalmasca , a small kingdom between the two continents and empires . Located in the middle of the Galtean Peninsula of Ordalia , Dalmasca is surrounded by an expanse of desert . The temperate climate of Dalmasca differs from the cold environs of Kerwon to the south and the lush plains of Valendia and Ordalia . During this time , Ivalice is beset by the pending war between the forces of Rozarria and Archadia . Caught between the two powerful Empires , Dalmasca and a number of smaller nations have already been subjugated by Archadia two years before the game begins .
= = = Characters = = =
The six main playable characters in Final Fantasy XII are Vaan , an energetic orphan of Rabanastre who dreams of becoming a sky pirate ; Ashe , a determined princess of Dalmasca who lost her father and her husband in the Archadian invasion ; Basch , a disgraced knight of Dalmasca charged with treason for slaying the king ; Balthier , a gentlemanly sky pirate who pilots his airship , the Strahl ; Fran , Balthier 's partner and a Viera exile whose knowledge extends to legends and myths ; and Penelo , Vaan 's childhood friend who accompanies him on journeys to " keep an eye on him " .
The Archadian Empire is ruled by House Solidor , headed by Emperor Gramis . The emperor 's sons are Vayne and Larsa , the former a military genius and the latter a charismatic seeker of peace . Judge Magisters , upholders of Archadian law , protect House Solidor and execute every command issued by the ruling family . The technological marvels of airships and synthetic nethicite — a form of magicite that absorbs Mist — are thanks to Doctor Cid , a prominent researcher from Archadia . The Resistance against Archadia includes Dalmascan knight Vossler , an ally of Basch ; Marquis Halim Ondore IV , the game 's narrator and ruler of the skycity Bhujerba ; Reddas , a sky pirate based in the port at Balfonheim ; and the Rozarrian Empire , of which Al @-@ Cid Margrace is a prince of the ruling family . The mythos of Final Fantasy XII revolves around a character known as Dynast @-@ King Raithwall , a man who once united Ivalice to create the Galtean Alliance in ages past .
= = = Story = = =
In Dalmasca 's capital city of Rabanastre , Princess Ashe of Dalmasca and Prince Rasler of Nabradia have just wed , as the Archadian Empire invades the two countries . Rasler is killed in the war , the city of Nabudis destroyed in a single explosion , and the Dalmascan king Raminas is assassinated moments after signing a treaty of surrender . Marquis Ondore announces that the assassin was Dalmascan captain Basch , who has been sentenced to death , and that Princess Ashe has committed suicide .
Two years later , Vaan , a Rabanastre street urchin , ignores his friend Penelo 's objections and infiltrates the palace during a dinner celebrating the appointment of Archadian prince Vayne Solidor as consul . In the treasury he finds a piece of magicite , a powerful magical crystal . He is discovered by Balthier and Fran , a pair of sky pirates looking for the magicite . The three escape as Dalmascan Resistance forces assault the palace , and in the sewers they meet the Resistance leader , Amalia , before being captured by Archadian forces . Detained in the Nalbina dungeons , they meet Basch , who was imprisoned but not killed , and who claims his twin brother Gabranth was the one to kill the king . The four escape together with the help of Penelo , and flee to the floating city of Bhujerba .
In Bhujerba , they meet Lamont , a curious boy who is Vayne 's younger brother , Larsa , in disguise . Basch confronts the Marquis over his lies , but the party is captured and detained aboard the Archadian airship Leviathan , headed by Judge Ghis . On the Leviathan , the party is reunited with Amalia , who is revealed to be Princess Ashe . Ghis takes the magicite , which is revealed to be a royal Dalmascan artifact , " deifacted nethicite " , from Vaan to send to Archadia . The party escapes the airship , but as Ashe had planned to use the magicite as proof that she was the princess , the group makes plans to collect another of the pieces of nethicite , the Dawn Shard . They do so , but are again captured by Ghis ; when he tries to use the Dawn Shard in the Leviathan rather than the " manufacted " magicite it normally uses , his entire airship fleet is destroyed in a mirror of the destruction of Nabudis , and the party flees again .
The party encounters Larsa , who seeks a peace treaty between Dalmasca and the empire . Convinced , Ashe and the group go to Mt . Bur @-@ Omisace to seek the Gran Kiltias Anastasis , Ivalice 's religious leader , and beg his approval of her as queen of Dalmasca . There , they also meet Al @-@ Cid Margrace , a member of the Rozarrian Empire ruling family , who is seeking to avert a war between Rozarria and Archadia and is in talks with Larsa . Their plans are curtailed when Anastasis is killed by Archadia , and soon afterwards the Archadian emperor dies and Vayne ascends the throne .
After retrieving the Sword of Kings , which can destroy nethicite , the party journeys to Archadia to retrieve Larsa , who has been taken . There they discover Doctor Cid , who created manufacted magicite , and who directs them to go to Giruvegan as it is the source of nethicite . In Giruvegan , only Ashe can enter the final area , where she encounters the makers of nethicite , the immortal Occuria , who " pull the strings of history " ; they give her the Treaty Blade to cut new pieces of nethicite from the Sun @-@ cryst , the source of all nethicite and its power . She learns that one of the Occuria has defected to put the " reins of History back in the hands of Man " , and led Cid to create manufacted magicite to reduce the relative power of the Occuria . Archadia 's expansion campaign was a front to capture the existing shards of nethicite .
Ashe and the party journey to Pharos tower , the location of the Sun @-@ cryst , where she decides not to take her revenge by following the Occuria 's wishes , but instead destroy the Sun @-@ cryst . The party defeats Gabranth , who admits to having killed King Raminas , and then Cid , before destroying the crystal . The group later learns from Al @-@ Cid that the Dalmascan Resistance , led by Ondore , is about to fight Archadia in Rabanastre , but the Archadian forces now include the Sky Fortress Bahamut , powered by the Mist released by the destruction of the Sun @-@ Cryst . They infiltrate the Bahamut , and find Larsa attempting to dissuade his brother Vayne from his plans for war . They defeat Vayne and Venat , and Ashe and Larsa announce the end of the conflict to the battlefield . Larsa becomes the Archadian emperor and Ashe the Queen of Dalmasca ; Basch replaces his brother Gabranth as Larsa 's protector ; Vaan and Penelo fly an airship to meet Balthier and Fran for another adventure .
= = Development = =
Development for Final Fantasy XII began in December 2000 and was headed by Final Fantasy Tactics director Yasumi Matsuno and Final Fantasy IX director Hiroyuki Ito . Matsuno provided the original concept and plot but was forced to bow out of his roles midway through production due to health concerns . The team was restructured as a consequence : the new directorial duo consisted of Ito and Hiroshi Minagawa , while Akitoshi Kawazu of SaGa series fame became the game 's executive producer . Series creator Hironobu Sakaguchi was disappointed by Matsuno 's departure and declined to play the game beyond its introduction .
The desire to move away from random encounters was present since the beginning of development . This desire fueled the development of the Active Dimension Battle system so players could seamlessly move from battle to exploration . The gambit system was conceived early on as a way to facilitate this change . Battle system designer Hiroshi Tomomatsu states that it gradually moved away from a complex and rigid formula to the more flexible form seen in the final version of the game . Ito drew inspiration for gambits from plays in American football where each team member has a specific job to do based on the conditions and desired outcome . As for the license system , he explained that needing " licenses " to perform certain actions was a natural extension of the rigid structured society of Archadia , as epitomized by its Judges .
At the early stages of development , Minagawa revealed that numerous ideas and features were planned for the game , but were dropped from the final stages due to certain constraints and hardware limitations . Some of these included the ability for a second player to join in the gameplay , enabling a two @-@ player mode . Another idea that was given a considerable amount of thought was the ability to recruit non @-@ player characters to join in the mob hunts . Due to the technical limitations of the console and multiple number of characters joining the fray , the development phase took longer than expected , causing delays .
Design inspiration came from a mix of medieval Mediterranean countries as demonstrated by the architectural styles found throughout Ivalice along with many of the races populating the region . The art team , led by art directors Hideo Minaba and Isamu Kamikokuryō , visited Turkey , which influenced the game 's Mediterranean @-@ style setting . The developers also used styles and deco from other sources including areas in India and New York City . Of note is the use of Sanskrit in the city of Bhujerba . Phrases such as " svagatam " ( welcome ) and titles like " parijanah " ( guide ) are lifted directly from Sanskrit . Minaba mentions that the team tried to bring out Arabic culture in the design of the game . War is a prominent theme of the game and the developers stated that the cutscene battles are influenced by Ancient Rome . When asked to comment on the fan observation of a Star Wars influence , Minaba replied that although he was a fan of the series , it was not necessarily an influence to the game 's designs .
Basch was initially meant to be the main protagonist of the story , but the focus was eventually shifted to Vaan and Penelo when the two characters were created later in development . The development team explained that their previous game , Vagrant Story , which featured a " strong man in his prime " as the protagonist had been unsuccessful and unpopular ; the change regarding Final Fantasy XII from a " big and tough " protagonist to a younger , youthful one was thus decided after targeting demographics were considered . With the casting of actor Kouhei Takeda for the voice acting and motion capture , Vaan became less feminine and more " active , upbeat bright and positive " . Comments were made about the similarity between main character designer and background design supervisor Akihiko Yoshida 's creations and those of Tetsuya Nomura , another Square Enix character designer . Yoshida feels this connection is sparked by the style of color used by both artists , which involves a color consistency between the characters and the environments . The designers stated that non @-@ human characters and races feature a prominent role in the game , which was influenced by an interest in history among the developers .
Miwa Shoda wrote a storyline for the game premised on the basis of the cutscenes and world setting that had already been finished when she joined the team . Scenario writer Daisuke Watanabe in turn fleshed out Shoda 's plot into a script . During the English localization process , Alexander O. Smith , who had previously worked on Vagrant Story and Final Fantasy X , acted as producer and translator . While still preserving the meaning behind the Japanese script , Smith made the decision to use different dialects of English to reproduce the regional differences in pronunciation found in the Japanese version . He also tried to distance the game from the " flat reads " found in other dubbed work by casting voice actors who had experience in theatre work . In terms of general changes , the localization team introduced widescreen 16 : 9 ratio support and reinserted scenes that were left out of the original Japanese version for political reasons and to preserve an " All Ages " CERO rating .
On November 15 , 2005 , a playable demo of the game was shipped with the North American release of Dragon Quest VIII . To commemorate the release of Final Fantasy XII , playable demos of the English version were available at DigitalLife 's Gaming Pavilion in New York on October 11 , 2006 , a day dubbed " Final Fantasy XII Gamer 's Day " . Additionally , Square Enix gave fans the chance to cosplay as characters from Final Fantasy XII . Each person was asked to show Square Enix three photos of his or her costume for a chance to win a trip to New York and participate in the Final Fantasy XII Gamer 's Day event .
As of July 30 , 2008 , Final Fantasy XII holds the Guinness World Record for longest development period in a video game production . The record states it took a total of five years , spanning from 2001 until its release in 2006 . At a Final Fantasy XII " postmortem " at MIT in March 2009 , Hiroshi Minagawa mentioned that several years of production were devoted to the creation of custom tools used for the development of the game . It was also listed as 8th on the Guinness top 50 games of all time in 2009 .
= = = Music = = =
Hitoshi Sakimoto composed and arranged most of the game 's soundtrack , with Hayato Matsuo and Masaharu Iwata creating seven and two tracks respectively . Nobuo Uematsu , following his departure from Square Enix in 2004 , only contributed the ending song , " Kiss Me Goodbye " . Sakimoto experienced difficulty following in Uematsu 's footsteps , but he decided to create a unique soundtrack in his own way . " Kiss Me Good @-@ Bye " was performed in both English and Japanese by Angela Aki . Uematsu noted Aki 's style of playing the keyboard while singing reminded him of his childhood idol , Elton John , which was one of the reasons he chose her . The English version of the song was featured in both the Japanese and North American versions of the game . In addition to the theme song , violinist Taro Hakase co @-@ composed , arranged , and performed the game 's ending credits theme , Symphonic Poem " Hope " , along with Yuji Toriyama .
Two promotional soundtracks were released before the original soundtrack , Symphonic Poem " Hope " and The Best of the Final Fantasy XII Soundtrack , on March 1 and 15 , 2006 , respectively . The former contains all the music used in the game 's trailer performed by Taro Hakase , including Symphonic Poem " Hope " . The original soundtrack itself was released in Japan on May 31 , 2006 . It consists of 4 CDs with 100 tracks , and includes promotional tracks not in the final version of the game . The CD single for " Kiss Me Good @-@ Bye " was released on the March 15 , 2006 . A limited edition was also released , featuring a DVD containing the music video for " Kiss Me Good @-@ Bye " . Tofu Records has released an abridged version of the original soundtrack , which contains 31 songs , including " Kiss Me Good @-@ Bye " .
= = Merchandise = =
On March 16 , 2006 , Sony Computer Entertainment Japan released a special Final Fantasy XII package , which contained a PlayStation 2 game system , the Final Fantasy XII game , a standard DualShock controller , and a vertical console stand . The Japanese third @-@ party manufacturer Hori also released Final Fantasy XII memory cards on the day of the game 's release ; stickers of Final Fantasy XII characters are included . Game peripheral maker Logicool ( Logitech 's Japanese branch ) released a special edition Final Fantasy XII controller alongside the title on March 16 . Suntory produced " Final Fantasy XII Potion " — a drink containing such ingredients as royal jelly , chamomile , sage , thyme , and marjoram . The drinks became commercially available in Japan on March 7 , 2006 . Suntory also released a Final Fantasy XII Premium Box , which came with a Final Fantasy XII collector 's card . The Potion was a limited edition product and is no longer available . Final Fantasy XII was also adapted into a manga by Gin Amou . Square Enix published the series in a total of five tankōbon volumes from December 22 , 2006 to August 22 , 2009 .
Studio BentStuff published three Ultimania books : Final Fantasy XII Battle Ultimania and the Final Fantasy XII Scenario Ultimania on June 16 , 2006 , and Final Fantasy XII Ultimania Ω on November 24 , 2006 . The Battle Ultimania provides a description and analysis of the new battle system and its components , and developer interviews . The Scenario Ultimania describes the main scenarios in the game , profiles on the characters and areas in Ivalice , developer interviews , and details on each location . The last guide , the Ultimania Ω , includes voice actor interviews , the complete story of Final Fantasy XII including additional character profiles , a collection of artworks and illustrations , the complete play guide , and a novella written by Benny Matsuyama , author of Hoshi wo Meguru Otome from the Final Fantasy VII Ultimania Ω Guide . Another Ultimania edition , the Final Fantasy XII International Zodiac Job System Ultimania , was released on September 6 , 2007 , as a guide book for the international version of the game . On December 18 , 2012 the game was re @-@ released as part of the Final Fantasy 25th Anniversary Ultimate Box Japanese package .
For the North American release , a " Collector 's Edition " was available through GameStop and EB Games . This edition includes the original game packaged in a metallic case along with a special bonus disc , which contains Final Fantasy XII developer interviews , an art gallery , U.S. and Japanese trailers , and a featurette entitled " History of Final Fantasy " , which gives a brief overview of most released and upcoming Final Fantasy games . On January 26 , 2007 , Square Enix Product Blog revealed full @-@ color Gabranth , Ashe , Balthier , and Vaan figures .
= = Sales = =
Final Fantasy XII sold more than 1 @,@ 764 @,@ 000 copies in its first week in Japan , almost equaling the sales of Final Fantasy X in its first week . A Square Enix conference report stated that Final Fantasy XII sold more than 2 @.@ 38 million copies in Japan in the two weeks since its March 16 , 2006 release . In North America , Final Fantasy XII shipped approximately 1 @.@ 5 million copies in its first week . It was the fourth best @-@ selling PlayStation 2 game of 2006 worldwide . As of March 2007 , the game has shipped over 5 @.@ 2 million copies worldwide . By November 2009 , over 6 million copies of the game were sold worldwide .
= = Reception = =
The game received critical acclaim , scoring a 92 on Metacritic . On March 16 , 2006 , Final Fantasy XII became the sixth game to receive a perfect score from the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu , making it the first Final Fantasy game and the first PlayStation 2 title to do so . It is also the second Yasumi Matsuno title to garner a perfect score , the first being Vagrant Story . The game was praised for its graphics , scenarios , game system , and the freshness it brought to the Final Fantasy series . It was praised for its seamless transitions between full motion video segments and the in @-@ game engine , and was voted number one for Best Art Style on IGN 's weekly Top Ten . Newtype USA named Final Fantasy XII its " Game of the Month " for November 2006 , praised the gameplay , graphics , and story , and called it " the best RPG to have been released for any Sony platform " .
Although GameSpot lauded the gambit and license systems as an innovative and in @-@ depth way for the player to control the characters , it criticized them for being too complicated and difficult to adjust to , especially for newer players of the series . The reviewer also criticized the sometimes tedious back and forth travel . On the other hand , GameSpot took particular note of the " excellent " voice cast . IGN praised the game 's rich storyline and artistic direction , shown through its " sheer depth of character " . It also assuaged criticism that the gambit system would " let the game play itself " , countering that gambits do not function without a player . However , it noted that , while " still extremely strong " , Final Fantasy XII has one of the series ' weaker soundtracks .
Executive producer Akitoshi Kawazu was pleased by Famitsu 's rating but admitted that he thought the game was not perfect ; he felt that the storyline did not meet some fans ' expectations . Kawazu expressed his frustration and regrets regarding the storyline , citing creative differences between the PlayOnline and Final Fantasy Tactics members of the development team .
Final Fantasy XII was named best PlayStation 2 game and best role @-@ playing game by numerous video game journals and websites , including GameSpot , GameSpy and IGN . Both Edge and Famitsu awarded it Game of the Year 2006 . The Japan Game Awards 2006 honored Final Fantasy XII with their " Grand Award " and " Award for Excellence " and the PlayStation Awards 2006 bestowed the " Double Platinum Prize " . It was selected for the list " Top 100 New Japanese Styles " , a list of " products and services originating in Japan to serve as a mark of excellence " . Final Fantasy XII also received nominations in such categories as best role @-@ playing game , story , art direction , character design and original musical score at the Interactive Achievement Awards , Game Developers Choice Awards , BAFTA Video Games Awards , Spike Video Game Awards , and the Satellite Awards , but lost all to The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion , Okami , Gears of War and God of War II , respectively .
= = Sequels and rereleases = =
= = = International Zodiac Job System = = =
An international version of the game , Final Fantasy XII International Zodiac Job System , was announced on May 10 , 2007 . It was released in Japan on August 9 , 2007 as part of both Final Fantasy 20th anniversary and Ivalice Alliance . The game includes twelve License Boards ( instead of the original one ) , each corresponding to a different Zodiac sign and job . The battle system as a whole has been tweaked ; guest characters and summons are controllable by the player , and holding the L1 button doubles the game 's running speed . Additionally , the game features the English voices and the widescreen 16 : 9 ratio support of the North American version , along with a bonus disc based on the one initially released with the North American version . There is also a " New Game + " option , " New Game- ( minus ) " ( where characters do not gain experience ) , and a " Trial Mode " which allows the player to hunt monsters in 100 different maps to gain items and money .
= = = Revenant Wings = = =
A sequel , Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings , was released for the Nintendo DS in 2007 . It takes place one year after the events of Final Fantasy XII , following the adventures of Vaan . The game became one of four titles in the Ivalice Alliance series , which also includes International Zodiac Job System .
= = = Fortress = = =
Fortress , a spin @-@ off action game developed by Grin , was to have been a " game with an epic scale both in story and production values " that took place in Ivalice following the events of Revenant Wings . Square Enix cancelled the project after six months of development .
= = = The Zodiac Age = = =
In June 2016 , Square Enix announced Final Fantasy XII : The Zodiac Age , a high @-@ definition remaster of the Japanese @-@ only International Zodiac Job System , scheduled for release worldwide in 2017 for the PlayStation 4 . The Zodiac Age also includes trophy support , a newly recorded soundtrack , and better technical performance .
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= Robinson Crusoes of Warsaw =
Robinson Crusoes of Warsaw were people who , after the end of the 1944 Warsaw Uprising and the subsequent planned destruction of Warsaw by Nazi Germany , decided to stay and hide in the ruins of the German @-@ occupied city . The period of hiding spanned as long as three and a half months , from the day of the capitulation of the uprising , October 2 , 1944 , until the entry of the Red Army on January 17 , 1945 . Most of the Robinsons were Jews , although a considerable number of non @-@ Jewish Poles were also present . The hideaways lived in the ruins of houses , basements , and bunkers which had been prepared ahead of time . They lived in extremely dire circumstances , while the city was being destroyed around them . Some managed to escape Warsaw , many were captured and killed by the Germans , while others survived until the withdrawal of German troops .
The estimates of the number of hideaways vary from several hundred to about two thousand . Even though the majority of the Robinsons perished during the war , most of the information about their circumstances comes from those who survived . The largest group of hideaways consisted of probably around 36 individuals who were led by two medical doctors . The Robinsons also included a group of Jewish Combat Organization ( Polish : Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa , ŻOB ) Warsaw ghetto fighters , who managed to leave the ruined city in mid @-@ November .
The terms " Robinson Crusoes " or " Robinsons " for the hideaways appeared almost immediately , and were popularized in many contemporary and later works , including memoirs , newspaper reports , and films , by both writers and the " Robinsons " themselves , the most famous of whom was the composer Władysław Szpilman , whose story was the subject of the film The Pianist ( 2002 ) .
= = Background = =
The Warsaw Uprising , which began on August 1 , 1944 , was an attempt by the Polish Home Army ( Armia Krajowa , AK ) to liberate the capital of Poland from Nazi occupation in advance of approaching Soviet forces . The insurrectionists hoped for Soviet and Allied support , but in early August Joseph Stalin halted the Red Army on the right bank of the Vistula and denied British and American planes , which carried aid to the uprising , landing rights in Soviet controlled territory . Despite the fact that in September the Soviets captured the Praga suburb and allowed a few limited landings by Allied planes , the insurrection became more and more isolated and pushed into an ever shrinking area within the city . By early September , without Soviet aid , the uprising was doomed . While capitulation talks were already in progress , the Germans took the suburb of Żoliborz on September 30 . The final surrender agreement was concluded on October 2 , by the commander of the Home Army in Warsaw , Tadeusz Bór @-@ Komorowski , and the German general in charge of suppressing the uprising , Erich von dem Bach .
The provisions of the capitulation agreement stipulated that the Home Army soldiers were to be accorded full combatant status and treated as prisoners of war . The civilian population of Warsaw was to evacuate the city , be transferred to holding camps and then released . From the date of the surrender all civilians and soldiers had three days to leave the capital .
Another portion of the agreement , point # 10 , stated that the German command would ensure the preservation of remaining public and private property as well as the evacuation or protection of objects and buildings of " artistic , cultural or sacred value " . However , soon after the fighting was over at a conference held on October 9 , 1944 , Heinrich Himmler , Reichsführer of the SS , ordered the total destruction of the city . Himmler stated : " The city must completely disappear from the surface of the earth and serve only as a transport station for the Wehrmacht . No stone can remain standing . Every building must be razed to its foundation . " The task of carrying out the destruction was assigned to SS @-@ Brigadeführer Paul Otto Geibel . Subsequently , the buildings of the city were systematically reduced to ruin , one by one .
= = Origins and usage of the term = =
About two weeks after the fall of the Warsaw Uprising , on October 17 , 1944 , the commander of the German 9th Army stationed in Warsaw , Smilo von Lüttwitz , issued an order in which he informed his soldiers that there was a large number of " sneaky Poles " still hiding in the ruins of Warsaw . According to Smilo , they " posed a threat to the German forces " . Von Lüttwitz ordered a large scale łapanka ( police action / round @-@ up ) to " cleanse the city " of them . The order also sanctioned immediate execution of any individuals found hiding in the ruins . In some rare cases , those found were placed in a specially created concentration camp , and used as manual labor as the German army looted the remnants of the city .
The phenomenon of the hideaways was noticed soon after the Red Army captured Warsaw . On January 26 , 1945 , a bulletin of the Żydowska Agencja Prasowa ( Jewish News Agency ) reported that 48 individuals had emerged from hiding and referred to them as jaskiniowcy , or " cavemen " . The term " Robinsons " soon became common , a reference to the fictional castaway Robinson Crusoe in the Daniel Defoe novel . The Soviet writer and journalist , Vasily Grossman upon entering the ruined city , described finding four Jewish and six non @-@ Jewish Poles who had just left their hideouts .
The term and the analogy with the castaway has often been made by Robinsons in their own memoirs , as well as by other writers . Dawid Fogelman had been imprisoned at the Gęsiówka concentration camp . After the camp was liberated by the Polish Home Army , he joined its ranks and fought in the uprising . At the end of the fighting , Fogelman became a Robinson , hiding in a bunker on Szczęśliwa Street , where he began writing a diary . He wrote : " We lived like Robinson Crusoe , with the one difference that he was free , could move about freely , while we lived in hiding . " While Fogelman 's diary survived , his ultimate fate is unknown .
In his memoirs , Władysław Szpilman also compared himself to Crusoe and , like Fogelman , emphasized the isolation and hopelessness which characterized the Warsaw Crusoes . Szpilman 's memoir served as a basis for a screenplay , written as early as 1945 by the Polish writers Jerzy Andrzejewski and Czesław Miłosz , entitled Robinson of Warsaw . The movie that was eventually filmed , Miasto Nieujarzmione ( " Unyoked city " ) , was heavily censored by the communist authorities , and its original theme changed to such an extent that Miłosz requested his name be removed from the film 's credits . The experience with the film contributed to Miłosz 's disillusionment with cinema as an artistic medium .
Wacław Gluth @-@ Nowowiejski , a member of the Home Army who was wounded during the uprising and barely managed to escape the Wehrmacht 's Marymont massacre of civilians and wounded soldiers , hid in the basement of a destroyed house from mid @-@ September until mid @-@ November . Gluth @-@ Nowowiejski wrote several books about his experiences after the war , including Rzeczpospolita Gruzów ( " The Commonwealth of Ruins " ) and Stolica jaskiń : z pamięci warszawskiego Robinsona ( " The capital of caves : memoirs of a Warsaw Robinson " ) .
Major Danuta Ślązak of the Home Army , hid out with a group of wounded patients whom she had saved from a hospital that had been set on fire by the Germans during the last days of the uprising . After the war she wrote a book about her experiences , Byłam Warszawskim Robinsonem ( I was a Warsaw Robinson ) . A portion of her group left the hiding place after German troops called out for them to surrender and were immediately executed . The rest remained hidden and escaped detection . Eventually they used the corpses of their murdered companions to disguise the entry to their hiding place .
The name " Robinsons " has also been used to refer to those Jews who hid out in the ruins of the Warsaw Ghetto in the aftermath of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising . Uri Orlev 's ( Jerzy Orlowski ) children 's book The Island on Bird Street ( 1981 ) , adapted into a 1997 film , tells the story of an 11 @-@ year @-@ old boy who hides out in the ruins of the ghetto . Orlev also draws analogies with Robinson Crusoe in this work ; in fact one of the few things Alex , the story 's protagonist , possesses is a copy of Defoe 's novel .
Other memoirs by the Robinsons include Bunkier ( The Bunker ) by Chaim Goldstein , Byłem ochroniarzem Karskiego ( Karski 's Bodyguard ) by Dawid Landau , Ukrywałem się w Warszawie : styczeń 1943 – styczeń 1945 ( I Hid in Warsaw : January 1943 – January 1945 ) by Stefan Chaskielewicz , Moje szczęśliwe życie ( My Fortunate Life ) by Szymon Rogoźinski , and Aniołowie bez skrzydeł ( Angels Without Wings ) by Czesława Fater . Many other testimonies and recollections are contained in the archives of the Emmanuel Ringelblum Żydowski Instytut Historyczny ( Jewish Historical Institute ) in Warsaw and Yad Vashem in Jerusalem .
= = Reasons for staying = =
The capitulation agreement between the Home Army and German forces stipulated that insurgents were to be treated as regular prisoners of war . The city 's civilians were to be transferred to transit camps and afterward released .
Although the agreement did not stipulate different treatment for Poles who were ethnically Jewish , many Jews feared that the agreement would not be honored in their case . In fact , the Nazis conducted a " medical examination " at the Pruszków internment camp , in order to " catch out " Jews from among Warsaw 's refugees . As a consequence , a large number of the Jews who were still in Warsaw at the time of the uprising , decided to remain in hiding rather than join the non @-@ Jewish civilians leaving the city . According to memoirs from the period , the choice often came down to whether a particular person " looked Aryan " and could pass for a non @-@ Jewish Pole .
A significant number of non @-@ Jewish Poles also did not trust the Germans and decided not to leave the city . Many wounded Home Army soldiers became stranded during the uprising and were simply not able to evacuate in time . For others , the choice to remain resulted from feelings of despair and hopelessness brought by the fall of the uprising ; at least initially , they simply did not have the motivation to leave .
= = Number and demographics = =
Between the end of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising ( May 1943 ) and beginning of 1944 , there were between 10 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 Jews hiding in the Ghetto ruins . The number of Robinsons after the Warsaw Uprising has been estimated at between several hundred and two thousand , spread across all the suburbs of Warsaw . Another source gives the number as between 400 and 1 @,@ 000 . Most of those hiding were Jewish , including some who had been in hiding since the fall of the ghetto uprising , though a significant number were non @-@ Jewish Poles . Unlike Szpilman , whose case was somewhat unrepresentative , most of those in hiding remained in medium @-@ sized to large groups , often of mixed ethnicities . The majority of the Robinsons were men .
Many of the hiding places and makeshift bunkers were prepared in advance by those anticipating the fall of the uprising . As a result , the sequence whereby people became Robinsons closely followed the military developments of the insurrection . The first groups went into hiding in Wola during the Wola massacre and in Starówka ( Warsaw Old Town ) , while fighting was still taking place in other parts of the city . The majority of the Robinsons hid when German forces captured the Żoliborz and Śródmieście ( Warsaw City Centre ) districts from the insurgents .
The largest known group of Robinsons was composed of approximately 37 people under the leadership of Roman Fiszer and medical doctors , Dr. Beer and Prof. Henryk Beck . Beck was the director of a makeshift insurgent hospital during the uprising . As it became clear that the insurrection was going to fail , he and Cpt . Władysław Kowalski , a Home Army soldier who also decided to stay , converted two adjacent basements into a well @-@ equipped and -supplied hiding place . The group stockpiled water , coffee , medicines , fuel , and various foodstuffs . Additionally , Beck kept a set of watercolors , crayons , ink , and paper , which he used to illustrate life in the bunker . As some of the members had fought in the uprising , the group also possessed a small cache of weapons , unusual for Robinsons . A dog , Bunkierek ( " bunker puppy " ) , also stayed with them and , according to the memoirs , did not bark or make any noise .
After their water ran out , the Beck / Fiszer group developed a routine whereby some of the group worked to dig a well , while others watched out for approaching Germans , and yet others ventured outside the bunker to scavenge for useful items . The group eventually dug their way to two water canals and built a well . On November 17 , during an excursion outside the bunker , the group made contact with a small partisan unit , also in hiding , led by a Russian soldier POW who had been liberated during the uprising . Subsequently , several of the group would join the partisans for small scale attacks on German troops . The group survived until the entry of the Red Army in mid @-@ January .
= = Living conditions = =
Initially , the living conditions of the Robinsons varied according to whether or not they had had time to prepare . There were roughly three days between the signing of the capitulation and the deadline for civilians to leave the city , during which those who made the decision to stay could stockpile food and water , and camouflage their hiding places . As time passed , supplies ran out , and many Robinsons had to change their locations for security reasons . The situation soon became equally desperate for all who remained .
While food was extremely hard to come by , an even more pressing need was obtaining drinking water . Thirst and the search for water are mentioned in most of the Robinsons ' memoirs . The most common sources originally included toilet cisterns , boilers , and standing water found inside bathtubs . As these ran out , those in hiding were forced to risk sneaking access to wells , which were often guarded by German soldiers . Some memoirs describe long periods observing a particular well and waiting for a chance to obtain a quick drink . Another method involved obtaining polluted sewer water from the canals , and then filtering it through coals wrapped in rags . Generally , records indicate that whatever scant water supplies existed were shared fairly among individuals hiding as a group . In at least one instance , one person was unable to withstand the thirst and drank the whole group 's water supply . As a result , Jakub Wiśnia , a former Gęsiówka inmate and after its liberation , a Home Army soldier , was court @-@ martialed by his fellow group members and sentenced to death . The execution was to be postponed until after liberation , but when that occurred , the Robinsons were so overwhelmed with joy , the crime was forgiven and the sentence was never mentioned again .
There were numerous instances of death from drinking poisoned or fouled water ( there were still many unburied , decomposing corpses inside the ruins ) . In one instance , desperate Robinsons were driven to drink their own urine and subsequently died .
The coming of winter improved the water situation for some who had access to icicles , but the cold made living conditions worse . It was impossible for those in hiding to build fires to warm themselves , as smoke could reveal their location to the Germans . As a consequence , many died of cold .
Unlike the Robinson Crusoe of the novel , who craved human contact , most of the Warsaw Crusoes tried to avoid it at all cost . This contradiction was noted by both the Robinsons and those who wrote about them after the war . Being discovered by the Germans in almost all cases meant immediate death . There were , however , some exceptions , the best known being that of Szpilman 's encounter with Wilm Hosenfeld , a captain of the Wehrmacht who helped to hide and feed him . In a few instances those captured were first forced to help the Germans with the looting of the city 's ruins , before being either executed or sent to the Pruszków camp .
A few of the Robinsons actually tried to actively take revenge on the occupying forces . The most famous of these , who became a local legend , was an individual known only as " Ares " ( after the Greek god of war ) , described by Gluth @-@ Nowowiejski , based on interviews with the Robinsons he conducted . Ares , active in the Śródmieście district , staged numerous ambushes of German soldiers , in at least one case using an improvised explosive device . According to Gluth @-@ Nowowiejski 's sources , he would leave behind graffiti of his name , as well as slogans such as " Hitler kaput " . Other messages included communications to the German soldiers . In one case he dumped a body of a soldier he had killed with the note : " This awaits all of you in Warsaw " . In another he wrote : " Ares is a ghost , not matter – your search for him is useless " . Eventually , Ares met his demise when the Germans left some poisoned food for him to find . Soon they discovered a man in the ruins who was obviously sick from having eaten it . He shot at them before taking his own life . According to some sources , other individuals took on Ares ' struggle but used the names of other Greek Gods as their signature .
Within some of the destroyed suburbs , a limited postal system between various Robinson groups was established . Dawid Landau had served as a bodyguard to the courier of the Polish government in exile , Jan Karski , while Karski secretly entered the ghetto to gather information for a report on the extermination of Polish Jews by Nazi Germany for the Western allies , in 1943 . Later , Landau fought in both of the Warsaw uprising as part of Żydowski Związek Wojskowy ( Jewish Military Union , ŻZW ) and afterward decided to stay in the ruins . In his memoirs he reports that the post functioned through the use of empty electrical socket boxes . Various groups would leave notes for others informing them of who was alive and in hiding , news from the front that had been obtained , as well as requests for special forms of assistance . According to Landau , the most common pleas were for doctors or other forms of medical help .
= = Escape = =
Some of those who had initially remained in the ruins of the city after the uprising later made attempts to leave . This was particularly true of Robinsons who had stayed , not of their own choice , but due to unfavorable circumstances .
The best known case of post @-@ uprising departure involved a group of Jewish Combat Organization fighters under the leadership of Icchak Cukierman and Marek Edelman , who had taken part in both the Ghetto and the Warsaw Uprisings . Originally , the former Ghetto fighters stayed together in a large group , but in the second week of October , some of them moved to a different location . Those remaining stayed in the same place on Promyka Street until mid @-@ November , when they were contacted by Ala Margolis , a courier from the Home Army , who had previously managed to leave the city . Margolis and a " rescue squadron " of five people returned to get the rest of the group out . The Germans had begun a systematic search and destruction of ruined houses near the hiding place , which meant time was running out . Dressed as nurses and doctors , with clothes and Red Cross IDs provided by Dr. Lesław Węgrzynowski , director of the Home Army sanitation unit , the rescue squadron and the seven in hiding made their way out of the city through two German checkpoints . The group consisted of five men and two women : Edelman , Cukierman , Cywia Lubetkin ( later , Cukierman 's wife ) , Tosia Goliborska , Julek Fiszgrund , Tuwia Borzykowski , and Zygmunt Warman . The first checkpoint was crossed during dinner , and the Germans did not bother to examine the group , but at the second , an SS officer noticed that Warman , who was lying in a stretcher , was wearing combat boots . He yelled , " These are Polish bandits ! " , but one of the escorts dressed as a nurse quickly declared that the patients in the stretcher were ill with typhus . The SS soldiers backed off , and the group moved on its way .
In many cases , the opportunity to leave Warsaw came by chance . For example , the hiding diarist Wacław Gluth @-@ Nowowiejski was taken out , after he was accidentally found by a woman ( name unknown ) who had been given permission by the Germans to remove some of her property from the ruins . On their way out of the city the group also had to pass German checkpoints and encountered difficulties similar to those of the ŻOB fighters . A Wehrmacht soldier accused the wounded and sick Gluth @-@ Nowowiejski of being a " bandit " but let him pass after protestations made by his escort .
= = Individual Robinsons = =
Of the total number of the Robinsons who hid in the ruins of the city only a portion 's names and locations are known . The recognized individuals are mostly the ones who either survived the war themselves or who came into contact with other survivors at some point . As such , the list of the known hideaways is not representative ; the majority of the Robinsons died while in hiding , and hence their identities , were never recorded . The table below lists some of those who have been mentioned in the memoirs or other written works on the subject .
Sources for table :
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= SMS Medusa =
SMS Medusa was the seventh member of the ten @-@ ship Gazelle class , built by the Imperial German Navy . She was built by the AG Weser dockyard in Bremen , laid down in early 1900 , launched in December 1900 , and commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in July 1901 . Armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , Medusa was capable of a top speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) .
Medusa served in all three German navies over the span of over forty years . She served as a fleet scout in the period before World War I , and during the first two years of the conflict , she was used as a coastal defense ship . She was one of six cruisers Germany was allowed to keep by the Treaty of Versailles , and she served in the early 1920s in the Reichsmarine . She was withdrawn from service in 1924 and used in secondary duties , but in 1940 , the Kriegsmarine converted Medusa into a floating anti @-@ aircraft battery . She defended the port of Wilhelmshaven until the closing days of the war , when she was scuttled by her crew . The wreck was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1948 – 1950 .
= = Construction = =
Medusa was ordered under the contract name " E " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in early 1900 and launched on 5 December 1900 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 26 July 1901 . The ship was 104 @.@ 8 meters ( 344 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 12 @.@ 2 m ( 40 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 84 m ( 15 @.@ 9 ft ) forward . She displaced 2 @,@ 972 t ( 2 @,@ 925 long tons ; 3 @,@ 276 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple @-@ expansion engines . They were designed to give 8 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 6 @,@ 000 kW ) , for a top speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) . The engines were powered by ten coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers . Medusa carried 560 tonnes ( 550 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 3 @,@ 560 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 590 km ; 4 @,@ 100 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 14 officers and 243 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 40 @,@ 000 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition , for 100 shells per gun . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes . They were submerged in the hull on the broadside . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 20 to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick . The conning tower had 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning , Medusa was assigned to the fleet reconnaissance forces . In 1905 , she was assigned to the Cruiser Division , alongside her sisters Ariadne and Amazone and the armored cruiser Prinz Heinrich . She served in the fleet scout role up to the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , at which point she was employed as a coastal defense vessel . In 1917 , she had four of her guns removed , and she was used as an auxiliary ship for the old ironclad König Wilhelm , which was being used as a training ship for naval cadets .
Medusa survived the war and was one of six light cruisers Germany was permitted to keep in service by the Treaty of Versailles . The ship served in the Reichsmarine from 1920 to 1924 ; in 1922 , Medusa was assigned to the Active Squadron in the Baltic Station , alongside the battleship Hannover . In 1924 she was withdrawn from service . On 29 March 1929 , she was stricken from the naval register and thereafter used as a barracks ship in Wilhelmshaven . In July 1940 , during World War II , Medusa was converted into a floating anti @-@ aircraft battery in Wilhelmshaven . Her armament at that point consisted of one 10 @.@ 5 cm SK C / 32 gun , four 10 @.@ 5 cm SK C / 33 guns , two 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns , and four 2 cm guns . She was then assigned to Naval Anti @-@ aircraft Group 222 , and remained in the harbor at Wilhelmshaven for the duration of the war . Her crews scuttled the ship on 3 May 1945 , days before the end of the war in Europe . The wreck was ultimately salvaged in 1948 – 1950 and broken up for scrap .
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= Microsoft Security Essentials =
Microsoft Security Essentials ( MSE ) is an antivirus software ( AV ) product that provides protection against different types of malicious software such as computer viruses , spyware , rootkits and Trojan horses . Before version 4 @.@ 5 , MSE ran on Windows XP , Windows Vista and Windows 7 , but not on Windows 8 and later , which have built @-@ in AV components . MSE 4 @.@ 5 and later do not run on Windows XP . The license agreement allows home users and small businesses to install and use the product free of charge . It replaces Windows Live OneCare , a discontinued commercial subscription @-@ based AV service , and the free Windows Defender , which until Windows 8 protected users from only adware and spyware .
Built upon the same virus definitions and scanning engine as other Microsoft antivirus products , MSE provides real @-@ time protection , constantly monitoring activities on the computer and scanning new files as they are downloaded or created and disabling detected threats . It lacks the personal firewall of OneCare or the centralized management features of Forefront Endpoint Protection .
Microsoft 's announcement of its own AV software on 18 November 2008 was met with mixed reactions from the AV industry . Symantec , McAfee and Kaspersky Lab — three competing independent software vendors — dismissed it as an unworthy competitor , but AVG Technologies and Avast Software appreciated its potential to expand the consumers ' choice of AV software . AVG , McAfee , Sophos and Trend Micro claimed that the integration of the product into Microsoft Windows would be a violation of competition law .
The product received generally positive reviews praising its user interface , low resource usage and freeware license . It secured AV @-@ TEST certification on October 2009 , having demonstrated its ability to eliminate all widely encountered malware . However , it lost the certificate on October 2012 , having shown a constant decline in protection and repair scores . In June 2013 , MSE achieved the lowest possible protection score , zero . According to a March 2012 report by anti @-@ malware specialist OPSWAT , MSE was the most popular AV product in North America and the second most popular in the world , which has resulted in the appearance of several rogue antivirus programs that try to impersonate it .
= = Features = =
Microsoft Security Essentials is an antivirus software ( AV ) product that fights malicious software ( malware ) , including computer viruses , spyware , Trojan horses and rootkits . It replaces Windows Live OneCare , a discontinued commercial subscription @-@ based AV service , and the free Windows Defender , which until Windows 8 only protected users from adware and spyware . It automatically checks for and downloads the virus definitions it relies on from Microsoft Update , a web @-@ based software service updated three times a day . Users may alternatively download the updates manually from the Microsoft Security Portal website . On 30 September 2011 , a faulty definition update caused the product to incorrectly tag Google Chrome as malware . The issue was resolved within three hours . MSE originally ran on Windows XP , Windows Vista and Windows 7 , although versions 4 @.@ 5 and later do not run on Windows XP and Microsoft stopped producing definition updates for Windows XP on 14 July 2015 .
MSE is built upon the same foundation as other Microsoft security products ; all use the same virus definitions and anti @-@ malware engine , known as Microsoft Malware Protection Engine ( MSMPENG ) . It does not have the personal firewall of OneCare or the centralized management features of Forefront Endpoint Protection .
MSE provides real @-@ time protection , constantly monitoring activities on the computer and scanning new files as they are downloaded or created . It disables detected threats and prompts for user input on how to deal with them . If no response is received within ten minutes , suspected threats are handled according to the default actions defined in the application 's settings . Depending on those settings , it may also create System Restore checkpoints before removing the detected malware . As a part of real @-@ time protection , by default , MSE reports all suspicious behaviors of monitored programs to Microsoft Active Protection Service ( MAPS , originally Microsoft SpyNet ) , a web @-@ based service . If the report matches a newly discovered malware threat with an unreleased virus definition , the new definition is downloaded to remove the threat .
Hardware requirements for the product depend on the operating system ; on a computer running Windows Vista or Windows 7 , it requires a 1 GHz processor , 1 GB of RAM , a computer monitor with a display resolution of at least 800 × 600 pixels , 200 MB of free hard disk space and an Internet connection .
= = Development = =
On 18 November 2008 , Microsoft announced plans for a free consumer security product , codenamed Morro . This development marked a change in Microsoft 's consumer AV marketing strategy : instead of offering a subscription @-@ based security product with a host of other tools , such as backup and a personal firewall , Morro would offer free AV protection with a smaller impact on system resources . Amy Barzdukas , senior director of product management for the Online Services and Windows Division at Microsoft , announced that Morro would not directly compete with other commercial AV software ; rather it was focused on the 50 to 60 percent of PC users who did not have or would not pay for AV protection . By 17 June 2009 , the official name of Morro was revealed : Microsoft Security Essentials .
On 23 June 2009 , Microsoft released a public beta to 75 @,@ 000 users in the United States , Israel , China and Brazil . Anticipated to be available in 20 markets and 10 languages , the product was scheduled for release before the end of 2009 ; the final build was released on 29 September 2009 .
= = = Version 2 @.@ 0 = = =
Almost a year after the initial release , Microsoft quietly released the second version . It entered the technical preview stage on 19 July 2010 , and the final build was released on 16 December 2010 . It includes Network Inspection System ( NIS ) , a network intrusion detection system that works on Windows Vista and Windows 7 , as well as a new anti @-@ malware engine that employs heuristics in malware detection . Version 2 @.@ 0 integrates with Internet Explorer to protect users against web @-@ based threats . NIS requires a separate set of definition updates .
= = = Version 4 @.@ 0 = = =
Sixteen months after the release of version 2 @.@ 0 , Microsoft skipped version 3 @.@ 0 and released Microsoft Security Essentials 4 @.@ 0 . A public beta program started on 18 November 2011 , when Microsoft sent out invitations to potential participants without announcing a version number . The first beta version was released on 29 November 2011 , and the final build on 24 April 2012 . Microsoft subsequently initiated a pre @-@ release program that provides volunteers with the latest beta version and accepts feedback .
= = = Version 4 @.@ 5 = = =
On 21 February 2014 , version 4 @.@ 5 entered beta stage . On the same day , Microsoft announced that starting with this version , Windows XP would not be supported . Older versions would continue to receive virus definition updates until 14 July 2015 .
= = = Future = = =
Microsoft Security Essentials does not run on Windows 8 and later , which has its own security subsystem . On 13 September 2011 , at Buildconference in Anaheim , California , Microsoft unveiled the developer preview of Windows 8 , which had a security component capable of preventing an infected USB flash memory from compromising the system during the boot process . On 15 September , Windows 8 developer 's blog confirmed that Windows Defender in Windows 8 would take over the role of virus protection . In an included video , Jason Garms of Microsoft showed how Windows Defender is registered with Action Center as an AV and spyware protection tool , and how it blocks drive @-@ by malware . On 3 March 2012 , Softpedia reviewed the consumer preview of Windows 8 and noted the similarity in appearance of Windows Defender and Microsoft Security Essentials 4 @.@ 0 Beta . According to Softpedia , Windows 8 Setup requires Microsoft Security Essentials to be uninstalled before upgrading Windows 7 .
= = Licensing = =
The product 's license agreement allows home users to download , install and use it on an unlimited number of computers in their households free of charge , so long as each computer has a legitimately licensed copy of Microsoft Windows . Since October 2010 , small businesses have also been allowed to install the product on up to 10 devices , but use in academic institutions and governmental locations is forbidden , as is reverse @-@ engineering , decompiling or disassembling the product or working around its designed limitations .
MSE requires no registration or personal information to be submitted during installation ; however , the validity of the operating system 's license is verified during and after installation using the Windows Genuine Advantage system . If said license is found to be invalid , the software will notify the user and will cease to operate after a period of time .
= = Reception = =
= = = Industry response = = =
The announcement and debut of Microsoft Security Essentials was met with mixed responses from the AV industry . Symantec , McAfee and Kaspersky Lab , three competing vendors , claimed it to be inferior to their own software . Jens Meggers , Symantec 's vice president of engineering for Norton products , dismissed it as " very average – nothing outstanding " . Tom Powledge of Symantec urged his customers to be mindful of what protection they chose , bearing in mind that OneCare offered " substandard protection " and an " inferior user experience " . Joris Evers , director of worldwide public relations for McAfee stated " with OneCare 's market share of less than 2 % , we understand Microsoft 's decision to shift attention to their core business . " Justin Priestley of Kaspersky stated that Microsoft " continued to hold a very low market share in the consumer market , and we don 't expect the exit of OneCare to change the playing field drastically . "
Avast Software said that it had an ambivalent view towards the product . Vincent Steckler , Avast Software CEO said " MSE is not the silver bullet but it is also not the bad sequel to One Care that some claim . " A representative of AVG Technologies stated , " We view this as a positive step for the AV landscape . AVG has believed in the right to free antivirus software for the past eight years . " However , AVG raised the issue of distributing the software product and said , " Microsoft will have to do more than simply make the product available , " adding that integration of Microsoft Security Essentials with Microsoft Windows would be a violation of competition law . McAfee , Sophos and later Trend Micro affirmed that an antitrust lawsuit would surely have followed if Microsoft had bundled the product with Windows .
The announcement of Microsoft Security Essentials affected the stocks of AV vendors . On 19 November 2008 , after Microsoft announced codename Morro , Symantec and McAfee shares fell 9 @.@ 44 and 6 @.@ 62 percent respectively . On 10 June 2009 , after announcing an upcoming beta version , Microsoft shares rose 2 @.@ 1 percent . Symantec and McAfee shares , however , fell 0 @.@ 5 and 1 @.@ 3 percent respectively . Daniel Ives , an analyst with FBR Capital Markets , said that Microsoft Security Essentials would be a " long @-@ term competitive threat " , although near @-@ term impact would be negligible .
= = = Reviews and awards = = =
The public beta version received several reviews , citing its low resource usage , straightforward user interface and price point . Brian Krebs of The Washington Post reported that a quick scan on a Windows 7 computer took about 10 minutes and a full scan about 45 minutes . Ars Technica reviewed it positively , citing its organized interface , low resource usage , and its status as freeware .
Nick Mediati of PCWorld noted MSE 's " clear @-@ cut " and " cleanly designed " tabbed user interface . He did , however , find some of the settings to be cryptic and confusing , defaulting to " recommended action " , with the only explanation of what that action is to be found in the help file . He was also initially confused because the user interface failed to mention that Microsoft Security Essentials automatically updates itself , rather than having to be manually updated via the Update tab ; an explanation of this feature was included in the final release .
Neil Rubenking of PC Magazine successfully installed the beta version on 12 malware @-@ infected systems and commented on its small installation package ( about 7 MB , depending on the operating system ) and speedy installation . But the initial virus definition update took between 5 and 15 minutes , and the full installation occupied about 110 MB of disk space . Rubenking noted that the beta version sets Windows Update into fully automatic mode , although it can be turned off again through Windows Control Panel . Some full scans took more than an hour on infected systems ; a scan on a clean system took 35 minutes . An on @-@ demand scan test Rubenking conducted in June 2009 with the beta version found 89 percent of all malware samples : 30 percent of the commercial keyloggers , 67 percent of rootkits , but only half of the scareware samples . The product 's real @-@ time protection found 83 percent of all malware and blocked the majority of it : 40 percent of the commercial keyloggers and 78 percent of the rootkits were found .
On 7 January 2010 , Microsoft Security Essentials won the Best Free Software award from PC Advisor . In December the same year , it secured the Bronze award from AV @-@ Comparatives for proactive detection of 55 percent of new or unknown malware , the Silver award for low false @-@ positives ( six occurrences ) and the Bronze award for overall performance .
In October 2009 , AV @-@ TEST conducted a series of trials on the final build of the product in which it detected and caught 98 @.@ 44 percent of 545 @,@ 034 computer viruses , computer worms and software Trojan horses as well as 90 @.@ 95 percent of 14 @,@ 222 spyware and adware samples . It also detected and eliminated all 25 tested rootkits , generating no false @-@ positives . Between June 2010 to January 2013 , AV @-@ TEST tested Microsoft Security Essentials 14 times ; in 11 out of 14 cases , MSE secured AV @-@ TEST certification of outperforming AV industry average ratings . Microsoft Security Essentials 2 @.@ 0 was tested and certified on March 2011 . The product achieved a protection score of 2 @.@ 5 out of 6 , a repair score of 3 @.@ 5 out of 6 and a usability score of 5 @.@ 5 out of 6 . Report details show that although version 2 @.@ 0 was able to find all malware samples of the WildList ( widespread malware ) , it was not able to stop all Internet @-@ based attacks because it lacks personal firewall and anti @-@ spam capabilities . In an April 2012 test , version 2 @.@ 1 achieved scores of 3 @.@ 0 , 5 @.@ 5 and 5 @.@ 0 for protection , repair and usability . Version 4 @.@ 0 for Windows 7 SP1 ( x64 ) was tested in June 2012 and achieved scores of 2 @.@ 5 , 5 @.@ 5 and 5 @.@ 5 for protection , repair and usability . In October 2012 , the product lost its AV @-@ TEST certification when Microsoft Security Essentials 4 @.@ 1 achieved scores of 1 @.@ 5 , 3 @.@ 5 and 5 @.@ 5 for its protection , repair and usability .
In AV @-@ TEST 's 2011 annual review , Microsoft Security Essentials came last in protection , seventh in repair and fifth in usability . In the 2012 review , it came last in protection and best in usability ; however , having lost its certificate , it was not qualified for the usability award . In June 2013 , MSE achieved the lowest possible protection score , zero . In August 2015 for Windows 7 it was last , with 3 blobs out of 6 for protection . Performance — in the sense of speed — and usability were good . MSE found 99 @.@ 7 % of " widespread and prevalent malware discovered in the last 4 weeks " , slightly better than the industry average , but only 87 @.@ 2 % of " 0 @-@ day malware attacks , inclusive of web and e @-@ mail threats " , against an industry average of 98 @.@ 2 % .
= = Market share = =
On 29 September 2010 , a year after its initial release , Microsoft announced that MSE had more than 30 million users . The Security Industry Market Share Analysis report of June 2011 , published by OPSWAT , describes it as one of the most popular AV products in the world , with 10 @.@ 66 percent of the global market and 15 @.@ 68 percent of the North American market . The same report shows Microsoft as the number one AV vendor in North America with 17 @.@ 07 percent market share , and the number four AV vendor worldwide .
John Dunn of PCWorld , who analyzed the report , noted that the tendency to use free AV software is something new : " After all , free antivirus suites have been around for years but have tended to be seen as the poor relations to paid software . " He named Microsoft Security Essentials as an influence on PC users to adopt free AV software .
A September 2011 OPSWAT report found that MSE had further increased its market share to become the second most popular AV product in the world , and remained the most popular in North America . OPSWAT reported in March 2012 that the product had maintained its position , and that Microsoft 's market share had improved by 2 percent worldwide and 3 percent in North America . Seth Rosenblatt of CNET News commented on how the product 's share rose from 7 @.@ 27 in 2010 to 10 @.@ 08 in 2012 , stating that " use of the lightweight security suite exploded last year " .
= = Impersonation by malware = =
The popularity of Microsoft Security Essentials has led to the appearance of malware abusing its name . In February 2010 , a rogue security package calling itself " Security Essentials 2010 " appeared on the Internet . Designated TrojanDownloader : Win32 / Fakeinit by Microsoft , it bears no visual resemblance to the Microsoft product . It reappeared in November 2010 , this time calling itself " Microsoft Security Essentials 2011 " . A more dangerous rogue appeared in August 2010 . Designated Rogue : Win32 / FakePAV or Unknown Win32 / Trojan , it closely resembles Microsoft Security Essentials and uses sophisticated social engineering to deceive users and infect their systems , under the guise of five different fictional anti @-@ malware products . It also terminates and prevents the launch of 156 different programs , including Registry Editor , Windows Command Prompt , Internet Explorer , Mozilla Firefox , Opera , Safari and Google Chrome .
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= The Office ( U.S. season 9 ) =
The ninth and final season of the American television comedy The Office premiered on NBC on September 20 , 2012 , and concluded on May 16 , 2013 , consisting of 25 episodes . The Office is an American adaptation of the British comedy series of the same name , and is presented in a mockumentary format , portraying the daily lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictitious Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . The ninth season of The Office aired on Thursdays at 9 : 00 p.m. ( Eastern ) in the United States , as part of the Comedy Night Done Right television block . This is the second season not to star Steve Carell as lead character Michael Scott , although he returned for a cameo appearance in the series finale .
The ninth season largely focuses on the relationship between Jim ( John Krasinski ) and Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) . After Jim decides to follow his dream and start a sports marketing company in Philadelphia , Pam begins to worry about moving , and the couple 's relationship experiences stress . Meanwhile , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) abandons the office for a three @-@ month boating trip , and eventually quits his job to pursue his dream of becoming a star , although he soon becomes famous for a viral video . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) is finally promoted to regional manager . The documentary airs , and a year later , the members of the office gather for Dwight and Angela 's marriage as well as a final round of interviews .
Following the decline in ratings from the previous year , the ninth season of The Office managed to stabilize around 4 million viewers per episode . The series finale , however , was watched by over 5 @.@ 69 million viewers , making it the highest @-@ rated episode that the show had aired in over a year . The season ranked as the ninety @-@ fourth most watched television series during the 2012 – 13 television year and saw a decrease in ratings from the previous season . Critical reception was moderately positive ; although some critics took issue with certain aspects , such as the reveal of the in @-@ series documentary crew , many argued that it was an improvement over the previous season . Others lauded the way the show was able to successfully wrap @-@ up its story arcs . " Finale " was nominated for three awards at the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards , and won for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series .
= = Production = =
The ninth season of the show was produced by Reveille Productions and Deedle @-@ Dee Productions , both in association with Universal Television . The show is based on the British comedy series of the same name , which was created by Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant for the BBC . In addition , the two are executive producers on the show . On May 11 , 2012 , NBC renewed The Office for a ninth season . Series developer Greg Daniels returned as showrunner this season . Daniels stated that the season would feature more big season arcs , saying " I 'll tell you that the last couple of years , I don 't think we did any big arc @-@ type things in the way that we used to in the beginning , I think the thing we 're going to do is bring back a lot of arcs . " Brent Forrester , who had been a consulting producer and writer since the third season was promoted to executive producer , alongside new series writer Dan Sterling .
In a conference call with reporters on August 21 , 2012 , Daniels announced that this would be the final season of the series . Daniels said , " This year feels like the last chance to really go out together and make an artistic ending for the show that pays off a lot of the stuff that matters most to fans . " Daniels also said all the questions would be answered , such as who was behind the documentary , and why they had been filming it for so long , as well as the reveal of the Scranton Strangler . A central point during the season was the romance between Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) and Pete Miller ( Jake Lacy ) . According to Michael Ausiello of TVLine , the nature of their relationship was heavily debated by the writers and producers ; he noted that " the triangle [ between Andy , Erin , and Pete ] has stirred up a number of debates in the writers room , which tells me even they don 't know at this point which guy Erin will choose . " According to Kemper , Daniels asked for her personal input due to her understanding of the character .
For the season , cast members John Krasinski , Jenna Fischer , Rainn Wilson , and Ed Helms were credited as producers . Krasinski also directed an episode . Guest directors for the season included noted actor Bryan Cranston , who directed the episode " Work Bus " , and filmmaker Jon Favreau , who directed the episode " Moving On " . Daniels directed the first episode , which he also wrote . This marked the first time that he had both written and directed an episode of The Office since the fourth season entry " Fun Run " . Ken Kwapis directed the series finale ; he also directed the show 's pilot episode . While The Office was mainly filmed on a studio set at Valley Center Studios in Van Nuys , California , the city of Scranton , Pennsylvania , where the show is set , was also used for shots of the opening theme . Angela Kinsey and Rainn Wilson , during an interview , expressed the hope to film an episode of the season in Scranton . Although this never came to fruition , exterior shots of the real Scranton bar The Bog were featured in the tenth episode " Lice " .
Originally , the season was supposed to contain 24 episodes , which would have meant that the series aired exactly 200 episodes . However , the series ' penultimate episode was elongated into 2 separate episodes , resulting in " Finale " — which was announced previously as an hour @-@ long special — being the 24th and 25th episodes of the season . This meant that the last part of " Finale " is the series ' 201st episode . On March 19 , 2013 , the official Office fansite OfficeTally launched a campaign on Change.org to " super @-@ size or extend " the finale ; this campaign was motivated by a statement made by Daniels , in which he mentioned he would " beg " the studio to air a longer episode . On May 2 , 2013 the petition amassed 20 @,@ 000 signatures . On May 7 , NBC announced the series finale would be extended , and air in a 75 minute time slot . A one @-@ hour retrospective of the series aired prior to the one @-@ hour series finale on May 16 .
= = Cast = =
The Office employs an ensemble cast . Most of the main characters , and some minor ones , are based on characters from the British version of The Office . While these characters normally have the same attitudes and perceptions as their British counterparts , the roles have been redesigned to better fit the American show . The show is known for its large cast size , many of whom are known particularly for their improvisational work . Rainn Wilson portrays Dwight Schrute , who , based upon Gareth Keenan , is the Assistant to the Regional Manager , although the character frequently fails to include " to the " in his title . John Krasinski portrays Jim Halpert , a sales representative and prankster , who is based upon Tim Canterbury , and is married to Pam Halpert , the office administrator . Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) , who is based on Dawn Tinsley , is shy , but is often a cohort with Jim in his pranks on Dwight . Ed Helms plays Andy Bernard , the preppy manager — who was previously a salesman — and boastful Cornell alumnus whose love for a cappella music and awkward social skills generates mixed feelings from his employees .
Krasinski and Helms appeared in fewer episodes in order to film several upcoming movies . Helms was temporarily written out the series with a storyline that saw his character travel to the Caribbean with his brother on a boat . As such , Helms made only a small appearance in " The Whale " and was absent from the following eight episodes . He returned in the episode " Couples Discount " . According to TVLine , he returned to work right before the show 's Christmas break . Wilson was initially slated to appear in only 13 episodes before leaving for a planned Dwight @-@ centric spin @-@ off , but the spin @-@ off was not picked up by NBC . Mindy Kaling and B. J. Novak have much lesser roles as Kelly Kapoor and Ryan Howard , respectively . Both Kaling and Novak appeared in the season opener " New Guys " , and both returned for the series finale . Actress Catherine Tate , who joined the series as a series regular midway through season eight portraying Nellie Bertram , continued with the series . Clark Duke and Lacy joined the cast as customer service representatives hired to deal with the many neglected customer service complaints Kelly has amassed over the years ; Lacy 's character , Pete , is also a love interest for Erin .
Kinsey and Wilson also noted that the cast and crew could neither " confirm nor deny " but were " hoping " for a return of Steve Carell as Michael Scott . In mid @-@ December , Krasinski later revealed that he was optimistic about a return ; in an interview with E ! Online Krasinski said that the producers were supposedly " still trying to figure out [ Carell 's ] schedule " and that the finale " just wouldn 't be the same without him " . However , NBC chairman Robert Greenblatt later admitted during an interview that while he is " hopeful " , he does not think Carell will return ; he noted that Carell was satisfied with his character 's exit and did not want to tarnish it . On January 16 , Daniels revealed that Carell would not appear in the finale in any capacity , a decision that Carell later reiterated . Three months later , however , the producers for The Office mounted " an 11th hour effort last month " to get Carell to make a cameo in the show 's final episode , according to TVLine . Carell 's personal representative confirmed that Carell was on the set for the final episode , but that he did not film any scenes . However , an anonymous source close to the show cryptically said " don 't rule anything out " . TVLine later reported on May 6 , that Carell would appear in a cameo , although NBC declined to comment and Carell 's representatives continued to deny the reports . Carell , however , did end up returning for the finale ; his character , Michael Scott , becomes Dwight 's best man at his wedding . A month after the episode aired , Carell explained in an interview with TVLine that he " lied for months to the press , to almost everyone , really " . He noted that he " felt terribly for the cast and for [ executive producer ] Greg Daniels , because they all lied , too . " Krasinski , on the other hand , explained that " It was so thrilling . We all just flat @-@ out lied … It was just one of those things that we all vowed and had to protect " .
In addition to Carell , the season also saw the return of several " veteran cast members " . Former series regular David Denman was the first to do so , appearing as Roy Anderson in the second episode of the season " Roy 's Wedding " ; he was last seen as part of the Threat Level Midnight film in season seven . Josh Groban reprised his role as Andy 's brother , Walter Jr , appearing in the episode " The Boat " . Melora Hardin returned as Jan Levinson in the episode " The Whale " and had a small vocal cameo in the episode " Couples Discount " . " Junior Salesman " saw the return of several minor characters , including Lance Krall as Sensei Ira ( who first appeared in the second season episode " The Fight " ) , Noel Petok as Troy Underbridge ( who first appeared in the fourth season episode " Night Out " ) , Beth Grant as Dwight 's babysitter ( who first appeared in the fourth season episode " Dinner Party " ) , and James Urbaniak as Rolf ( who first appeared in the fifth season episode " Company Picnic " ) . Although cast member Zach Woods ' series regular contract was not renewed for the season , he returned to the series as a guest star , in the episode " Moving On " . David Koechner returned as Todd Packer in " The Farm " . " Finale " also featured the return of several recurring characters , such as Nancy Carell as Carol Stills ( who played the recurring role of Michael 's real @-@ estate agent and short @-@ time girlfriend ) , Sendhil Ramamurthy as Ravi , Jackie Debatin as Elizabeth ( who first appeared in the third season episode " Ben Franklin " ) , Devon Abner as Devon ( who was a former Dunder Mifflin employee fired in " Halloween " ) , and Spencer Daniels as Jake Palmer ( who first played Meredith 's son in the season two episode " Take Your Daughter to Work Day " ) .
Stephen Colbert guest starred in the Halloween episode as Broccoli Rob , a former member of Here Comes Treble , Andy 's a cappella group . The episode " Lice " guest starred Julius Erving playing himself as an investor in Jim 's sports marketing business . Former NBC co @-@ chairman and The Office executive producer Ben Silverman had a minor recurring role as one of Jim 's colleagues . He appeared in the episodes " Here Comes Treble " , " Suit Warehouse " , " Customer Loyalty " , and " Moving On " . The fourteenth episode , " Junior Salesmen " , featured several guest stars . These included Eric Wareheim as Gabor , Matt L. Jones as Zeke , and Will McCormack as Wolf . In the episode " Promos " , athlete Ryan Howard played a version of himself . Comedian Roseanne Barr had a two @-@ episode arc as a talent agent named Carla Fern , and first appeared in the episode " Stairmageddon " . Michael Imperioli guest starred in the episode " Livin ' the Dream " as Sensei Billy , acting as a foil for Dwight . The episode " A.A.R.M. " guest starred Aaron Rodgers , Clay Aiken , Mark McGrath , Santigold , and Jessica St. Clair , all playing themselves . The series finale guest starred : Rachael Harris as Angela 's sister ; Joan Cusack and Ed Begley Jr. as Erin 's biological parents ; Malcolm Barrett as Stanley 's replacement ; and Bill Hader and Seth Meyers as themselves .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The season aired on Thursdays at 9 : 00 p.m. , as part of the Comedy Night Done Right programming block . The season premiere , " New Guys " received a 2 @.@ 1 / 6 percent share in the Nielsen ratings among viewers aged 18 to 49 , meaning that 2 @.@ 1 percent of viewers aged 18 to 49 watched the episode , and 6 percent of viewers watching television at the time watched the episode . The episode was viewed by 4 @.@ 28 million viewers and became the lowest @-@ rated season premiere for the series . In addition , it marked a 46 percent drop in viewership from the season eight premiere " The List " . For the first sixteen episodes , the series was able to maintain roughly 4 million viewers . However , starting with the seventeenth episode " The Farm " , ratings began to drop below this threshold . The series hit an all @-@ time low with the twentieth episode , " Paper Airplane " , which was viewed by only 3 @.@ 25 million viewers , and received a 1 @.@ 7 rating / 5 percent share . The series finale was viewed by 5 @.@ 69 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 0 rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This made it the highest @-@ rated episode of the season ; it also marked an increase in the previous season finale , which garnered only 4 @.@ 49 million viewers . " Finale " was the most watched episode of The Office since the eighth season episode " Pool Party " , but ranked as the third @-@ least watched finale of the series , following the eighth and first season finales . Although in its ninth season , The Office no longer was NBC 's highest @-@ rated scripted comedy series — it was surpassed by Go On — it often ranked as the highest @-@ rated scripted NBC series on Thursday nights . Rainn Wilson argued that the show 's lower ratings were a combination of the overall trend in lower television ratings in 2012 , as well as the fact that " NBC didn 't promote [ the series ] one bit " . NBC increased their usual ad @-@ price by 200 percent for the finale , asking for $ 400 @,@ 000 dollars per commercial . This was largely due to the anticipated increase in viewership that the finale would bring .
The season ranked as the ninety @-@ fourth most watched television series during the 2012 – 13 season , with an average of 5 @.@ 061 million viewers . The season also tied with the CBS series Rules of Engagement and the Fox series American Dad ! to be the forty @-@ third most watched television series in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . In this category , the show received a 2 @.@ 6 rating . This meant that , on average , the season was viewed by 2 @.@ 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds . It was viewed by 3 @.@ 32 million in this demographic . In terms of viewers , the ninth season ranked as the lowest @-@ rated season of The Office , although it beat the first season 's ranking , which was the 102nd most watched program for the 2004 – 05 year .
= = = Critical response = = =
The ninth season of The Office received moderately positive reviews from television critics . Based on seven critiques , review aggregation website Metacritic gave the ninth season of the show a 64 out of 100 rating , which denotes " generally favorable reviews " . Entertainment website Holy Moly named the series one of the best shows during the 2012 – 13 season , writing that " this final season of The Office has been great " largely due to the fact that " every single relationship in the show rings true with the audience . " Michael Tedder of Vulture commented that he was " willing to call it the fourth best season of the show overall , which is by no means faint praise . " He explained that this was largely due to the fact that the " final season was a chance to see how everyone else would end up " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club wrote that " the tension between Jim and Pam in the final season ended up being highly controversial for a number of reasons ... but it also provided the most hopeful moments of the series ' final stretch " , although he did note that it was clear that the writers had " blatantly " set it up . He felt that the finale was able to successfully return the series " to what had always been its heart — to have true fulfillment " . Roth Cornet of IGN awarded the season an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , denoting a " great " year . She felt that the character growth in the final few episodes was particularly well executed , and the last stretch of the season helped raise it after a rocky start ; ultimately , she felt that the writers were able to craft the proper ending for the show . She was , however , critical of Andy 's characterization , noting that he was merely used as a plot device when convenient . Many critics argued that the season was an improvement , in both writing and humor , over the previous season .
Several specific episodes received praise . Andrea Reiher of Zap2it named " Dwight Christmas " the best comedy TV episode of 2012 . She wrote that the episode " was not only funny but had a huge nostalgia factor " , and continued the show 's trend of strong Christmas episodes . Reiher also praised the episode 's two subplots , writing that " drunk Darryl and Die Hard " helped produce " a classic episode of The Office that brought back the warm and fuzzy feelings of the early seasons of the show . " The season 's penultimate entry , " A.A.R.M. " , received a glowing response from many critics . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix wrote that the episode was " surprisingly ... terrific in most areas . " Roth Cornet of IGN noted that " The interplay between Jim , Dwight , and Pam has been the core of the series since Michael Scott 's departure , and it was good to see the trio front and center once again as The Office comes to a close . " The series finale , in particular , was praised by critics . Sepinwall called it " a tremendously satisfying conclusion to a show that could make us gasp with laughter , but that could also make us cry or smile " . Cornet wrote that it " was a strong hour of television [ and ] the finale shone and delivered on all of its promise . " Nick Campbell of TV.com wrote that the episode was " just right " for the series . Other episodes were not received as positively . " Lice " , for instance , was called " terrible " by Campbell , as well as the " epitome of filler " by Brett Davinger of The California Literary Review . " The Farm " was largely derided due to its uneven nature , and the broad humor that was utilized in it .
The reveal of the in @-@ series documentary crew in " Customer Loyalty " received large amounts of critical attention . E ! Online named the reveal one of the " Best TV Moments of the Week " . Verne Gay of Newsday called the scene a " historic " moment for the show . Conversely , Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club wrote an article that argued that the mockumentary format made the camera " an audience surrogate " , and that by revealing the documentary crew , " the audience no longer felt welcome " . The subplot involving Brian ( played by Chris Diamantopoulos ) , a boom mic operator for the in @-@ series documentary , was met with mostly negative reviews . Michael Tedder of Vulture called it " the least interesting way this camera crew reveal could have gone " . Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic criticized the reintroduction of the character in the episode " Promos " , noting that his reappearance felt " forced " . McNutt called it " an abandoned novelty " . Daniels later revealed in an interview that the subplot was a red herring to keep viewers emotionally invested in Pam and Jim 's story . He explained , " we never intended him to actually [ interfere with Pam and Jim 's marriage ] , but wanted people to worry about it so they would be engaged in the story . "
= = = Awards = = =
On December 12 , 2012 , the series was nominated for a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series , but lost to Modern Family . Michael Scott 's return was nominated and won the fan @-@ voted " Best TV Moment " at the 3rd Critics ' Choice Television Awards on June 10 , 2013 . Greg Daniels was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series at the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards for " Finale " . " Finale " was also nominated for an Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series Emmy and an Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series Emmy ; David Rogers and Claire Scanlon for " Finale " won the latter , marking the fifth win for The Office at the Emmys overall and the series ' first win since 2009 . Rogers and Scanlon also won an American Cinema Editors award for Best Edited Half @-@ Hour Series for Television . In addition , the web documentary " The Office : The Farewells " , which aired on NBC.com prior to the series ' conclusion , was nominated for an Outstanding Special Class Program Creative Arts Emmy Award .
= = Episodes = =
In the following table , " U.S. viewers ( million ) " refers to the number of Americans who viewed the episode on the night of broadcast . Episodes are listed by the order in which they aired , and may not necessarily correspond to their production codes . ‡ denotes an hour @-@ long episode ( with advertisements ; actual runtime around 42 minutes ) , and ¤ denotes an extended 75 @-@ minute episode ( with advertisements ; actual runtime around 52 minutes )
= = Home media release = =
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= Starbreeze Studios =
Starbreeze Studios is a video game development studio and publisher , based in Stockholm , Sweden . Notable games developed include The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay , Payday 2 and Brothers : A Tale of Two Sons .
Founded by members of the demogroup Triton , the company was merged with O3 Games in 2002 but the name Starbreeze was retained . The company produced titles including Enclave and Knights of the Temple : Infernal Crusade . In the early 2000s , cancellations of their projects due to conflicts with publishers , and a failed acquisition , led to a severe financial crisis , resulting in staff lay @-@ offs during the development of Starbreeze 's fourth game , The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay . This game received critical acclaim and helped Starbreeze establish a reputation for producing a good licensed game . The company worked on The Darkness , whose sales were considered satisfactory .
Starbreeze partnered with Electronic Arts to develop a reboot to the Syndicate series , but it ended up being a commercial failure , and many staff members moved to rival company MachineGames , established by Starbreeze 's founders . As a result , the company shifted part of its focus on developing smaller games , such as Brothers : A Tale of Two Sons . Starbreeze began expanding the company in 2012 with its acquisition of Overkill Software . Overkill 's first title after the acquisition , Payday 2 , helped Starbreeze make a record profit after suffering an accumulated loss of $ 14 @.@ 4 million since its inception . In 2015 , the company announced that it would start publishing video games from independent developers , and that it had begun the development of a virtual reality headset named Project Star VR .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and merger = = =
The company was founded by Swedish programmer Magnus Högdahl . Högdahl was a former member of the PC demoscene group Triton , and specialized in making tech demos . He decided to leave the company after his project , an action role @-@ playing game named Into the Shadows , was cancelled . He then decided to found his own studio and began crafting his own game engine . He actively recruited staff among his acquaintances and the studio was officially established in 1998 in Härnösand , Sweden .
Högdahl serving as the company 's head and tech lead , was responsible for creating a new game engine for future games , and looking for publishers willing to help publish its games . At that time , the company had only about five employees , and had created a prototype for a video game and pitched it to publishers at E3 1998 . Gremlin Interactive agreed to publish the game , and the deal was finalized in late 1998 . The company grew to have roughly eleven staff members . The game was a first @-@ person action role @-@ playing game named Sorcery . With a high fantasy setting , the game featured 3D visuals and its gameplay was similar to that of Diablo and Quake . However , Gremlin Interactive was acquired by Infogrames in 2000 and the partnership with Starbreeze dissolved , resulting in the game 's cancellation .
O3 Games was founded by Lars Johansson , who also worked at a demoscene company . Its first game was The Outforce , a real @-@ time strategy space game that was released in 2000 and subsequently became a success for the company . O3 needed to expand so that it could continue video game development . After Sorcery 's cancellation , Starbreeze ran into financial difficulties . Unable to support itself financially , Starbreeze needed to merge with another developer to continue in business . The two companies discussed a merger in Uppsala and merged shortly afterwards , retaining the name Starbreeze Studios .
= = = Post @-@ merger = = =
After the merger , the company began working on Enclave , a medieval fantasy , multiplayer @-@ only video game inspired by Team Fortress . The game also became the company 's first project with international appeal , enabling Starbreeze to partner with various publishers including Swing Entertainment , Conspiracy Entertainment , and Vivendi . However , Swing Entertainment faced bankruptcy at that time , and decided to turn the game into a single @-@ player action @-@ adventure video game with the goal of sending it to market as soon as possible . The game was released in 2002 , and Starbreeze had to lay off staff after its release . Enclave II was also in development . The sequel was said to feature a more elaborate story , 28 different maps , 10 playable characters , and an improved fighting system . However , these features were axed when Starbreeze got into legal troubles with the publisher , resulting in the game 's cancellation . Another game , Knights of the Temple : Infernal Crusade , was successfully released with help from publisher TDK Mediactive . However its sequel was shifted to another developer . Starbreeze attempted to acquire another studio , Rock Solid Games , but the agreement between the two fell apart and brought both companies financial problems .
Another project being worked on by Starbreeze at that time was The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay . Set in the The Chronicles of Riddick movie universe , the game was published by Vivendi . The team took inspiration from films such as Escape from Alcatraz and video games such as GoldenEye 007 and the Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell series . However , the company was downsizing due to its financial problems and the number of employees dropped from 80 to 25 , and the entire development team moved away from the main Starbreeze floor to prevent it from being affected by low morale , and to allow it to focus on the game 's development . The game enjoyed an 18 @-@ month development cycle , which was significantly longer than typical licensed games . A PlayStation 2 version of the game was also in development , but was ultimately cancelled as the then head of Vivendi 's publishing division , Michael Pole , ordered its cancellation to " make his mark " . Universal Motion Pictures intervened and kept the game 's Xbox version . Escape from Butcher Bay received critical acclaim upon its launch , with many critics regarding it as one of the best licensed games ever made . Its gameplay element including the puzzle @-@ solving mechanics , the stealth segment , and its ahead @-@ of @-@ its @-@ time visuals , also received praise from critics . Despite receiving critical acclaim , it was not a commercial success for Starbreeze .
After the release of Escape from Butcher Bay , Starbreeze again encountered financial difficulties after having not received a significant royalty payment from Vivendi . It sold part of its motion capture and animation department to a British company , Centroid . However , the game helped set Starbreeze 's reputation as a studio capable of making good licensed titles . With the help of Union Entertainment , an intermediary company , Starbreeze signed an agreement with Majesco Entertainment for a new title set within the The Darkness universe owned by Top Cow Comics on July 16 , 2004 . Mid @-@ way through the game 's development , Majesco underwent restructuring because of financial difficulties , shifted its focus , and dropped the game . 2K Games stepped up and acquired the publishing rights . 2K extended the game 's development cycle , and asked Starbreeze to develop a multiplayer mode for the game . The Darkness was released in 2007 . It fared worse than the team expected critically , but its commercial performance was satisfactory , selling more than 1 million copies worldwide .
After working on two different licensed games , the team intended to develop its own games . A game named Kano , involving mind @-@ reading , was started but was never completed . After the release of The Darkness , the company signed a two @-@ project contract with Vivendi . One of the games was a new property known as Polaris . The game was set in a post @-@ apocalyptic environment . Players were tasked to overcome snowstorms , and defeat terrorists and monsters cooperatively with other players . Vivendi was not convinced the game would succeed and adjusted the contract to a remake of Escape from Butcher Bay , The Chronicles of Riddick : Assault on Dark Athena . Vivendi originally named the game Riddick 2 but Starbreeze disagreed claiming the name would raise expectations among gamers that the remake might not be able to deliver . Vivendi 's subsidiary Sierra Entertainment was set to publish the game . After the merger between Activision and Vivendi , the new company began streamlining Vivendi and put the game , along with Brütal Legend , and Ghostbusters : The Video Game up for sale . Atari eventually acquired the publishing rights and the game was released in 2009 .
= = = 2010 — 2016 = = =
Starbreeze then partnered with Electronic Arts for two different games , one was known as Project Redlime , while the other was an action @-@ adventure video game set within the Bourne universe . The Bourne game was cancelled as a direct result of Matt Damon and director Paul Greengrass not participating in the fourth Bourne film . Project Redlime had a larger scale than the Bourne game . It was said to be a reinvention of one of Electronic Arts ' franchises . The company shifted from a technology @-@ orientated company to focus more on the core gameplay mechanics of their new project . Syndicate was announced in September 2011 . The game suffered from a troubled development , with Starbreeze completely reworking the game one year after its initial development . There were also many creative differences between the developer and the publisher , and the two companies suffered from an inharmonious relationship . During the game 's development , seven senior members of the company , including Högdahl , left to form their own smaller studio . Some of them formed MachineGames to work on their own original games . With a budget that was less than other typical AAA video games , Syndicate received average reviews and was a commercial failure . Grefberg left the company after the game 's completion , and 25 employees were laid off .
Many employees left Starbreeze when MachineGames recruited . Then CEO Johan Kristiansson also stepped down , and was replaced by Mikael Nemark . Nemark took the studio in a new direction . Besides focusing on AAA video games , it would also allocate resources to develop smaller , downloadable games in order to broaden the company 's portfolio . These new games would no longer use the engine created by Högdahl . In 2011 , Starbreeze announced that it was partnering with Epic Games to use their engine , Unreal Engine , for their first small titles . In 2012 , Starbreeze announced Cold Mercury , a free @-@ to @-@ play video game and a project codenamed P13 . Prior to that , Josef Fares , an award winning Swedish director , had been unsuccessfully pitching game ideas to several Swedish developers . Starbreeze was in need of new , original properties , and accepted Fares ' pitch . P13 later became Brothers : A Tale of Two Sons . Focusing on creating an emotional and " personal " experience , Starbreeze partnered with publisher 505 Games to publish the game . It was released in 2013 to critical acclaim and received numerous awards and accolades . The rights to the Brothers intellectual property was later acquired by 505 Games in 2015 . After the success of Brothers , Fares announced that he had established a new studio named Hazelight and is working on a project with Electronic Arts .
In 2012 , Starbreeze also announced that they had acquired Overkill Software , the developer of Payday : The Heist , granting them rights to all of Overkill 's propriety technology and intellectual properties . At the time , Overkill was working on the sequel , Payday 2 , a game that was set to " broaden the Payday template " . The game was a massive commercial success , and was profitable from pre @-@ order sales alone . Payday 2 also became Starbreeze 's best selling game of all time , and helped the company to make a record profit for the first time after suffering an accumulated loss of $ 14 @.@ 4 million between 1998 and June 2013 . The game 's success also prompted publisher 505 Games to invest $ 5 million in Starbreeze in March 2015 to continue to improve and develop additional content for Payday 2 over twenty months . The game was ported to PlayStation 4 and Xbox One under the title Payday 2 : Crimewave Edition .
Starting in 2014 the company began broadening its business . On 25 September 2014 , Starbreeze Studios announced that they had acquired a Los Angeles @-@ based studio called Geminose for $ 7 million . The studio is currently working on a toys @-@ to @-@ life game . In May 2015 , Starbreeze announced that the company would start publishing video games from independent developers . The first independent title set to be published by Starbreeze is Raid : World War II , an upcoming four @-@ player , World War II shooter , being developed by Lion Game Lion . During E3 2015 , Starbreeze Studios announced Project StarVR , a virtual reality headset , which is currently under development by InfinitEye , a firm acquired by Starbreeze . The company also acquired Payday Productions and the film rights to Payday in July 2015 . In terms of projects , Starbreeze subsidiary Overkill is working on Overkill 's The Walking Dead , which is set to be released in 2017 with the help of publisher 505 Games , and Storm , which was merged from Starbreeze 's own Cold Mercury . Starbreeze is also set to publish a John Wick game developed by WEVR and Grab for virtual reality platforms . The core Starbreeze team also received investment from Korean publisher Smilegate to develop a new first @-@ person cooperative game set within the Crossfire universe . Starbreeze also announced that it will be publishing Dead by Daylight , an asymmetrical , multiplayer , survival horror game developed by Behavior Interactive .
On 30 May 2016 , 505 Games announced that it had sold the Payday franchise and intellectual property to Starbreeze in exchange for US $ 30 million worth of stock . Starbreeze also announced that they had acquired the name and the franchises of Cinemaware a day later .
= = Developer = =
= = Publisher = =
= = Philosophy = =
According to Starbreeze , the studio both develops and produces intellectual properties and licensed projects which allow it to have creative control . According to Starbreeze 's CEO Johan Kristiansson , in 2008 the company did not wish to recruit numerous employees because of the time that is needed to integrate them into the company . After the 2012 departure of many employees , and the disappointing commercial sales of Syndicate , Mikael Nermark , the company 's CEO , decided to shift the company 's focus from producing standard licensed games to creating new and original intellectual properties . He stated that he believed strongly in Starbreeze 's ability to make games that are more than typical AAA games , and that its employees would consider making games their " daily work " , taking ownership of their projects .
As an independent company , Starbreeze believes that in addition to developing AAA games , it must develop some smaller @-@ scale projects like Brothers : A Tale of Two Sons , or free @-@ to @-@ play games like Cold Mercury to survive . Nermark added further that he is confident that the studio is capable of bringing its " style " and business model to all genres and that gameplay innovation is one of the most important elements when developing a game .
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= Chelsea F.C. =
Chelsea Football Club ( / ˈtʃɛlsiː / ) are an English professional football club based in Fulham , London , that competes in the Premier League of England . Founded in 1905 , the club 's home ground since then has been Stamford Bridge .
Chelsea had their first major success in 1955 , when they won the league championship . They then won various cup competitions between 1965 and 1996 . The club 's greatest period of success has been during the last two decades , winning 17 major trophies since 1997 . Chelsea have won five national league titles , seven FA Cups , five League Cups and four FA Community Shields , one UEFA Champions League , two UEFA Cup Winners ' Cups , one UEFA Europa League and one UEFA Super Cup . Chelsea are the only London club to win the UEFA Champions League , and one of four clubs , and the only British club , to have won all three main UEFA club competitions .
Chelsea 's regular kit colours are royal blue shirts and shorts with white socks . The club 's crest has been changed several times in attempts to re @-@ brand the club and modernise its image . The current crest , featuring a ceremonial lion rampant regardant holding a staff , is a modification of the one introduced in the early 1950s . The club have the sixth @-@ highest average all @-@ time attendance in English football . Their average home gate for the 2015 – 16 season was 41 @,@ 500 , the seventh highest in the Premier League . Since 2003 , Chelsea have been owned by Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich . In 2016 , they were ranked by Forbes magazine as the seventh most valuable football club in the world , at £ 1 @.@ 15 billion ( $ 1 @.@ 66 billion ) .
= = History = =
In 1904 , Gus Mears acquired the Stamford Bridge athletics stadium with the aim of turning it into a football ground . An offer to lease it to nearby Fulham was turned down , so Mears opted to found his own club to use the stadium . As there was already a team named Fulham in the borough , the name of the adjacent borough of Chelsea was chosen for the new club ; names like Kensington FC , Stamford Bridge FC and London FC were also considered . Chelsea were founded on 10 March 1905 at The Rising Sun pub ( now The Butcher 's Hook ) , opposite the present @-@ day main entrance to the ground on Fulham Road , and were elected to the Football League shortly afterwards .
The club won promotion to the First Division in their second season , and yo @-@ yoed between the First and Second Divisions in their early years . They reached the 1915 FA Cup Final , where they lost to Sheffield United at Old Trafford , and finished third in the First Division in 1920 , the club 's best league campaign to that point . Chelsea attracted large crowds and had a reputation for signing big @-@ name players , but success continued to elude the club in the inter @-@ war years .
Former Arsenal and England centre @-@ forward Ted Drake became manager in 1952 and proceeded to modernise the club . He removed the club 's Chelsea pensioner crest , improved the youth set @-@ up and training regime , rebuilt the side with shrewd signings from the lower divisions and amateur leagues , and led Chelsea to their first major trophy success – the League championship – in 1954 – 55 . The following season saw UEFA create the European Champions ' Cup , but after objections from The Football League and the FA Chelsea were persuaded to withdraw from the competition before it started . Chelsea failed to build on this success , and spent the remainder of the 1950s in mid @-@ table . Drake was dismissed in 1961 and replaced by player @-@ coach Tommy Docherty .
Docherty built a new team around the group of talented young players emerging from the club 's youth set @-@ up and Chelsea challenged for honours throughout the 1960s , enduring several near @-@ misses . They were on course for a treble of League , FA Cup and League Cup going into the final stages of the 1964 – 65 season , winning the League Cup but faltering late on in the other two . In three seasons the side were beaten in three major semi @-@ finals and were FA Cup runners @-@ up . Under Docherty 's successor , Dave Sexton , Chelsea won the FA Cup in 1970 , beating Leeds United 2 – 1 in a final replay . Chelsea took their first European honour , a UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup triumph , the following year , with another replayed win , this time over Real Madrid in Athens .
The late 1970s through to the 1980s was a turbulent period for Chelsea . An ambitious redevelopment of Stamford Bridge threatened the financial stability of the club , star players were sold and the team were relegated . Further problems were caused by a notorious hooligan element among the support , which was to plague the club throughout the decade . In 1982 , Chelsea were , at the nadir of their fortunes , acquired by Ken Bates for the nominal sum of £ 1 , although by now the Stamford Bridge freehold had been sold to property developers , meaning the club faced losing their home . On the pitch , the team had fared little better , coming close to relegation to the Third Division for the first time , but in 1983 manager John Neal put together an impressive new team for minimal outlay . Chelsea won the Second Division title in 1983 – 84 and established themselves in the top division , before being relegated again in 1988 . The club bounced back immediately by winning the Second Division championship in 1988 – 89 .
After a long @-@ running legal battle , Bates reunited the stadium freehold with the club in 1992 by doing a deal with the banks of the property developers , who had been bankrupted by a market crash . Chelsea 's form in the new Premier League was unconvincing , although they did reach the 1994 FA Cup Final with Glenn Hoddle . It was not until the appointment of Ruud Gullit as player @-@ manager in 1996 that their fortunes changed . He added several top international players to the side , as the club won the FA Cup in 1997 and established themselves as one of England 's top sides again . Gullit was replaced by Gianluca Vialli , who led the team to victory in the League Cup Final , the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup Final and the UEFA Super Cup in 1998 , the FA Cup in 2000 and their first appearance in the UEFA Champions League . Vialli was sacked in favour of Claudio Ranieri , who guided Chelsea to the 2002 FA Cup Final and Champions League qualification in 2002 – 03 .
In June 2003 , Bates sold Chelsea to Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich for £ 140 million . Over £ 100 million was spent on new players , but Ranieri was unable to deliver any trophies , and was replaced by José Mourinho . Under Mourinho , Chelsea became the fifth English team to win back @-@ to @-@ back league championships since the Second World War ( 2004 – 05 and 2005 – 06 ) , in addition to winning an FA Cup ( 2007 ) and two League Cups ( 2005 and 2007 ) . Mourinho was replaced by Avram Grant , who led the club to their first UEFA Champions League final , which they lost on penalties to Manchester United .
In 2009 , Guus Hiddink guided Chelsea to another FA Cup success . In 2009 – 10 , his successor Carlo Ancelotti led them to their first Premier League and FA Cup " Double " , and becoming the first English top @-@ flight club to score 100 league goals in a season since 1963 . In 2012 , caretaker manager Roberto Di Matteo led Chelsea to their seventh FA Cup , and their first UEFA Champions League title , beating Bayern Munich 4 – 3 on penalties , the first London club to win the trophy . In 2013 , interim manager Rafael Benítez guided Chelsea to win the UEFA Europa League against Benfica , becoming the first club to hold two major European titles simultaneously and one of four clubs , and the only British club , to have won all three of UEFA 's major club competitions . In the summer of 2013 , Mourinho returned as manager , leading Chelsea to League Cup success in March 2015 , and their fifth league title two months later .
= = Stadium = =
Chelsea have only had one home ground , Stamford Bridge , where they have played since the team 's foundation . It was officially opened on 28 April 1877 and for the first 28 years of its existence it was used almost exclusively by the London Athletic Club as an arena for athletics meetings and not at all for football . In 1904 the ground was acquired by businessman Gus Mears and his brother Joseph , who had also purchased nearby land ( formerly a large market garden ) with the aim of staging football matches on the now 12 @.@ 5 acre ( 51 @,@ 000 m ² ) site . Stamford Bridge was designed for the Mears family by the noted football architect Archibald Leitch , who had also designed Ibrox , Craven Cottage and Hampden Park . Most football clubs were founded first , and then sought grounds in which to play , but Chelsea were founded for Stamford Bridge .
Starting with an open bowl @-@ like design and one covered terrace , Stamford Bridge had an original capacity of around 100 @,@ 000 . The early 1930s saw the construction of a terrace on the southern part of the ground with a roof that covered around one fifth of the stand . It eventually became known as the " Shed End " , the home of Chelsea 's most loyal and vocal supporters , particularly during the 1960s , 70s and 80s . The exact origins of the name are unclear , but the fact that the roof looked like a corrugated iron shed roof played a part .
In the early 1970s , the club 's owners announced a modernisation of Stamford Bridge with plans for a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art 50 @,@ 000 all @-@ seater stadium . Work began on the East Stand in 1972 but the project was beset with problems and was never completed ; the cost brought the club close to bankruptcy , culminating in the freehold being sold to property developers . Following a long legal battle , it was not until the mid @-@ 1990s that Chelsea 's future at the stadium was secured and renovation work resumed . The north , west and southern parts of the ground were converted into all @-@ seater stands and moved closer to the pitch , a process completed by 2001 .
When Stamford Bridge was redeveloped in the Bates era many additional features were added to the complex including two hotels , apartments , bars , restaurants , the Chelsea Megastore , and an interactive visitor attraction called Chelsea World of Sport . The intention was that these facilities would provide extra revenue to support the football side of the business , but they were less successful than hoped and before the Abramovich takeover in 2003 the debt taken on to finance them was a major burden on the club . Soon after the takeover a decision was taken to drop the " Chelsea Village " brand and refocus on Chelsea as a football club . However , the stadium is sometimes still referred to as part of " Chelsea Village " or " The Village " .
The Stamford Bridge freehold , the pitch , the turnstiles and Chelsea 's naming rights are now owned by Chelsea Pitch Owners , a non @-@ profit organisation in which fans are the shareholders . The CPO was created to ensure the stadium could never again be sold to developers . As a condition for using the Chelsea FC name , the club has to play its first team matches at Stamford Bridge , which means that if the club moves to a new stadium , they may have to change their name . Chelsea 's training ground is located in Cobham , Surrey . Chelsea moved to Cobham in 2004 . Their previous training ground in Harlington was taken over by QPR in 2005 . The new training facilities in Cobham were completed in 2007 .
Stamford Bridge has been used for a variety of other sporting events since 1905 . It hosted the FA Cup Final from 1920 to 1922 , has held ten FA Cup semi @-@ finals ( most recently in 1978 ) , ten FA Charity Shield matches ( the last in 1970 ) , and three England international matches , the last in 1932 ; it was also the venue for an unofficial Victory International in 1946 . The 2013 UEFA Women 's Champions League Final was played at Stamford Bridge .
In October 1905 it hosted a rugby union match between the All Blacks and Middlesex , and in 1914 hosted a baseball match between the touring New York Giants and the Chicago White Sox . It was the venue for a boxing match between world flyweight champion Jimmy Wilde and Joe Conn in 1918 . The running track was used for dirt track racing between 1928 and 1932 , greyhound racing from 1933 to 1968 , and Midget car racing in 1948 . In 1980 , Stamford Bridge hosted the first international floodlit cricket match in the UK , between Essex and the West Indies . It was also the home stadium of the London Monarchs American Football team for the 1997 season .
The current club ownership have stated that a larger stadium is necessary in order for Chelsea to stay competitive with rival clubs who have significantly larger stadia , such as Arsenal and Manchester United . Owing to its location next to a main road and two railway lines , fans can only enter the ground via the Fulham Road exits , which places constraints on expansion due to health and safety regulations . The club have consistently affirmed their desire to keep Chelsea at their current home , but have nonetheless been linked with a move to various nearby sites , including the Earls Court Exhibition Centre , Battersea Power Station and the Chelsea Barracks . In October 2011 , a proposal from the club to buy back the freehold to the land on which Stamford Bridge sits was voted down by Chelsea Pitch Owners shareholders . In May 2012 , the club made a formal bid to purchase Battersea Power Station , with a view to developing the site into a new stadium , but lost out to a Malaysian consortium . The club subsequently announced plans to redevelop Stamford Bridge into a 60 @,@ 000 @-@ seater stadium .
= = Crest and colours = =
= = = Crest = = =
Chelsea have had four main crests , which all underwent minor variations . The first , adopted when the club was founded , was the image of a Chelsea pensioner , the army veterans who reside at the nearby Royal Hospital Chelsea . This contributed to the club 's original " pensioner " nickname , and remained for the next half @-@ century , though it never appeared on the shirts . When Ted Drake became Chelsea manager in 1952 , he began to modernise the club . Believing the Chelsea pensioner crest to be old @-@ fashioned , he insisted that it be replaced . A stop @-@ gap badge which comprised the initials C.F.C. was adopted for a year . In 1953 , the club crest was changed to an upright blue lion looking backwards and holding a staff . It was based on elements in the coat of arms of the Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea with the " lion rampant regardant " taken from the arms of then club president Viscount Chelsea and the staff from the Abbots of Westminster , former Lords of the Manor of Chelsea . It also featured three red roses , to represent England , and two footballs . This was the first Chelsea crest to appear on the shirts , in the early 1960s .
In 1986 , with Ken Bates now owner of the club , Chelsea 's crest was changed again as part of another attempt to modernise and because the old rampant lion badge could not be trademarked . The new badge featured a more naturalistic non @-@ heraldic lion , in white and not blue , standing over the C.F.C. initials . This lasted for the next 19 years , with some modifications such as the use of different colours , including red from 1987 to 1995 , and yellow from 1995 until 1999 , before the white returned . With the new ownership of Roman Abramovich , and the club 's centenary approaching , combined with demands from fans for the popular 1950s badge to be restored , it was decided that the crest should be changed again in 2005 . The new crest was officially adopted for the start of the 2005 – 06 season and marked a return to the older design , used from 1953 to 1986 , featuring a blue heraldic lion holding a staff . For the centenary season this was accompanied by the words ' 100 YEARS ' and ' CENTENARY 2005 – 2006 ' on the top and bottom of the crest respectively .
= = = Colours = = =
Chelsea have always worn blue shirts , although they originally used the paler eton blue , which was taken from the racing colours of then club president , Earl Cadogan , and was worn with white shorts and dark blue or black socks . The light blue shirts were replaced by a royal blue version in around 1912 . In the 1960s Chelsea manager Tommy Docherty changed the kit again , switching to blue shorts ( which have remained ever since ) and white socks , believing it made the club 's colours more modern and distinctive , since no other major side used that combination ; this kit was first worn during the 1964 – 65 season . Since then Chelsea have always worn white socks with their home kit apart from a short spell from 1985 to 1992 , when blue socks were reintroduced .
Chelsea 's away colours are usually all yellow or all white with blue trim . More recently , the club have had a number of black or dark blue away kits . As with most teams , they have also had some more unusual ones . At Docherty 's behest , in the 1966 FA Cup semi @-@ final they wore blue and black stripes , based on Inter Milan 's kit . In the mid @-@ 1970s , the away strip was a red , white and green kit inspired by the Hungarian national side of the 1950s . Other memorable away kits include an all jade strip worn from 1986 – 89 , red and white diamonds from 1990 – 92 , graphite and tangerine from 1994 – 96 , and luminous yellow from 2007 – 08 . The graphite and tangerine strip often appears in lists of the worst football kits ever .
= = Support = =
Chelsea are one of the most widely supported football clubs in the world . They have the sixth highest average all @-@ time attendance in English football and regularly attract over 40 @,@ 000 fans to Stamford Bridge ; they were the seventh best @-@ supported Premier League team in the 2013 – 14 season , with an average gate of 41 @,@ 572 . Chelsea 's traditional fanbase comes from all over the Greater London area including working @-@ class parts such as Hammersmith and Battersea , wealthier areas like Chelsea and Kensington , and from the home counties . There are also numerous official supporters clubs in the United Kingdom and all over the world . Between 2007 and 2012 , Chelsea were ranked fourth worldwide in annual replica kit sales , with an average of 910 @,@ 000 . Chelsea 's official Twitter account has 6 @.@ 29 million followers , the fifth highest among football clubs .
At matches , Chelsea fans sing chants such as " Carefree " ( to the tune of Lord of the Dance , whose lyrics were probably written by supporter Mick Greenaway ) , " Ten Men Went to Mow " , " We All Follow the Chelsea " ( to the tune of " Land of Hope and Glory " ) , " Zigga Zagga " , and the celebratory " Celery " , with the latter often resulting in fans ritually throwing celery . The vegetable was banned inside Stamford Bridge after an incident involving Arsenal midfielder Cesc Fàbregas at the 2007 League Cup Final .
During the 1970s and 1980s in particular , Chelsea supporters were associated with football hooliganism . The club 's " football firm " , originally known as the Chelsea Shed Boys , and subsequently as the Chelsea Headhunters , were nationally notorious for football violence , alongside hooligan firms from other clubs such as West Ham United 's Inter City Firm and Millwall 's Bushwackers , before , during and after matches . The increase of hooligan incidents in the 1980s led chairman Ken Bates to propose erecting an electric fence to deter them from invading the pitch , a proposal that the Greater London Council rejected .
Since the 1990s , there has been a marked decline in crowd trouble at matches , as a result of stricter policing , CCTV in grounds and the advent of all @-@ seater stadia . In 2007 , the club launched the ' Back to the Shed ' campaign to improve the atmosphere at home matches , with notable success . According to Home Office statistics , 126 Chelsea fans were arrested for football @-@ related offences during the 2009 – 10 season , the third highest in the division , and 27 banning orders were issued , the fifth @-@ highest in the division .
= = = Rivalries = = =
Chelsea have long @-@ standing rivalries with North London clubs Arsenal and Tottenham Hotspur . A strong rivalry with Leeds United dates back to several heated and controversial matches in the 1960s and 1970s , particularly the 1970 FA Cup Final . More recently a rivalry with Liverpool has grown following repeated clashes in cup competitions . Chelsea 's fellow West London sides Brentford , Fulham and Queens Park Rangers are generally not considered major rivals , as matches have only taken place intermittently due to the clubs often being in separate divisions . A 2004 survey by Planetfootball.com found that Chelsea fans consider their main rivalries to be with ( in order ) : Arsenal , Tottenham Hotspur and Manchester United . In the same survey , fans of six clubs ( Arsenal , Fulham , Leeds United , QPR , Tottenham and West Ham United ) named Chelsea as one of their three main rivals . In a 2008 poll conducted by the Football Fans Census , Chelsea fans named Liverpool , Arsenal and Manchester United as their most disliked clubs .
= = Records = =
Chelsea 's highest appearance @-@ maker is ex @-@ captain Ron Harris , who played in 795 competitive games for the club between 1961 and 1980 . The record for a Chelsea goalkeeper is held by Harris 's contemporary , Peter Bonetti , who made 729 appearances ( 1959 – 79 ) . With 103 caps ( 101 while at the club ) , Frank Lampard of England is Chelsea 's most capped international player .
Frank Lampard is Chelsea 's all @-@ time top goalscorer , with 211 goals in 648 games ( 2001 – 2014 ) ; he passed Bobby Tambling 's longstanding record of 202 in May 2013 . Seven other players have also scored over 100 goals for Chelsea : George Hilsdon ( 1906 – 12 ) , George Mills ( 1929 – 39 ) , Roy Bentley ( 1948 – 56 ) , Jimmy Greaves ( 1957 – 61 ) , Peter Osgood ( 1964 – 74 and 1978 – 79 ) , Kerry Dixon ( 1983 – 92 ) and Didier Drogba ( 2004 – 12 and 2014 – 2015 ) . Greaves holds the record for the most goals scored in one season ( 43 in 1960 – 61 ) .
Chelsea 's biggest winning scoreline in a competitive match is 13 – 0 , achieved against Jeunesse Hautcharage in the Cup Winners ' Cup in 1971 . The club 's biggest top @-@ flight win was an 8 – 0 victory against Wigan Athletic in 2010 , which was matched in 2012 against Aston Villa . Chelsea 's biggest loss was an 8 – 1 reverse against Wolverhampton Wanderers in 1953 . Officially , Chelsea 's highest home attendance is 82 @,@ 905 for a First Division match against Arsenal on 12 October 1935 . However , an estimated crowd of over 100 @,@ 000 attended a friendly match against Soviet team Dynamo Moscow on 13 November 1945 . The modernisation of Stamford Bridge during the 1990s and the introduction of all @-@ seater stands mean that neither record will be broken for the foreseeable future . The current legal capacity of Stamford Bridge is 41 @,@ 837 . Every starting player in Chelsea 's 57 games of the 2013 – 14 season was a full international – a new club record .
Chelsea hold the English record for the highest ever points total for a league season ( 95 ) , the fewest goals conceded during a league season ( 15 ) , the highest number of Premier League victories in a season ( 29 ) , the highest number of clean sheets overall in a Premier League season ( 25 ) ( all set during the 2004 – 05 season ) , and the most consecutive clean sheets from the start of a league season ( 6 , set during the 2005 – 06 season ) . The club 's 21 – 0 aggregate victory over Jeunesse Hautcharage in the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup in 1971 remains a record in European competition . Chelsea hold the record for the longest streak of unbeaten matches at home in the English top @-@ flight , which lasted 86 matches from 20 March 2004 to 26 October 2008 . They secured the record on 12 August 2007 , beating the previous record of 63 matches unbeaten set by Liverpool between 1978 and 1980 . Chelsea 's streak of eleven consecutive away league wins , set between 5 April 2008 and 6 December 2008 , is also a record for the English top flight . Their £ 50 million purchase of Fernando Torres from Liverpool in January 2011 was the record transfer fee paid by a British club until Ángel di María signed for Manchester United in August 2014 for £ 59 @.@ 7 million .
Chelsea , along with Arsenal , were the first club to play with shirt numbers , on 25 August 1928 in their match against Swansea Town . They were the first English side to travel by aeroplane to a domestic away match , when they visited Newcastle United on 19 April 1957 , and the first First Division side to play a match on a Sunday , when they faced Stoke City on 27 January 1974 . On 26 December 1999 , Chelsea became the first British side to field an entirely foreign starting line @-@ up ( no British or Irish players ) in a Premier League match against Southampton .
In May 2007 , Chelsea were the first team to win the FA Cup at the new Wembley Stadium , having also been the last to win it at the old Wembley . They were the first English club to be ranked # 1 under UEFA 's five @-@ year coefficient system in the 21st century . They were the first team in Premier League history to score at least 100 goals in a single season , reaching the milestone on the final day of the 2009 – 10 season . Chelsea are the only London club to win the UEFA Champions League , after beating Bayern Munich in the 2012 final . Upon winning the 2012 – 13 UEFA Europa League , Chelsea became the first English club to win all four European trophies and the only club to hold the Champions League and the Europa League at the same time .
= = Ownership and finances = =
Chelsea Football Club were founded by Gus Mears in 1905 . After his death in 1912 , his descendents continued to own the club until 1982 , when Ken Bates bought the club from Mears ' great @-@ nephew Brian Mears for £ 1 . Bates bought a controlling stake in the club and floated Chelsea on the AIM stock exchange in March 1996 . In July 2003 , Roman Abramovich purchased just over 50 % of Chelsea Village plc 's share capital , including Bates ' 29 @.@ 5 % stake , for £ 30 million and over the following weeks bought out most of the remaining 12 @,@ 000 shareholders at 35 pence per share , completing a £ 140 million takeover . Other shareholders at the time of the takeover included the Matthew Harding estate ( 21 % ) , BSkyB ( 9 @.@ 9 % ) and various anonymous offshore trusts . After passing the 90 % share threshold , Abramovich took the club back into private hands , delisting it from the AIM on 22 August 2003 . He also took on responsibility for the club 's debt of £ 80 million , quickly paying most of it .
Thereafter , Abramovich changed the ownership name to Chelsea FC plc , whose ultimate parent company is Fordstam Limited , which is controlled by him . Chelsea are additionally funded by Abramovich via interest free soft loans channelled through his holding company Fordstam Limited . The loans stood at £ 709 million in December 2009 , when they were all converted to equity by Abramovich , leaving the club themselves debt free , although the debt remains with Fordstam . Since 2008 the club have had no external debt .
Chelsea did not turn a profit in the first nine years of Abramovich 's ownership , and made record losses of £ 140m in June 2005 . In November 2012 , Chelsea announced a profit of £ 1 @.@ 4 million for the year ending 30 June 2012 , the first time the club had made a profit under Abramovich 's ownership . This was followed by a loss in 2013 and then their highest ever profit of £ 18 @.@ 4 million for the year to June 2014 .
Chelsea have been described as a global brand ; a 2012 report by Brand Finance ranked Chelsea fifth among football brands and valued the club 's brand value at US $ 398 million – an increase of 27 % from the previous year , also valuing them at US $ 10 million more than the sixth best brand , London rivals Arsenal – and gave the brand a strength rating of AA ( very strong ) . In 2016 , Forbes magazine ranked Chelsea the seventh most valuable football club in the world , at £ 1 @.@ 15 billion ( $ 1 @.@ 66 billion ) . As of 2016 , Chelsea are ranked eighth in the Deloitte Football Money League with an annual commercial revenue of £ 322 @.@ 59 million .
= = = Sponsorship = = =
Chelsea 's kit has been manufactured by Adidas since 2006 , which is contracted to supply the club 's kit from 2006 to 2018 . The partnership was extended in October 2010 in a deal worth £ 160 million over eight years . This deal was again extended in June 2013 in a deal worth £ 300 million over another ten years . Previously , the kit was manufactured by Umbro ( 1975 – 81 ) , Le Coq Sportif ( 1981 – 86 ) , The Chelsea Collection ( 1986 – 87 ) and Umbro again ( 1987 – 2006 ) .
Chelsea 's first shirt sponsor was Gulf Air , agreed during the 1983 – 84 season . The club were then sponsored by Grange Farms , Bai Lin Tea and Simod before a long @-@ term deal was signed with Commodore International in 1989 ; Amiga , an offshoot of Commodore , also appeared on the shirts . Chelsea were subsequently sponsored by Coors beer ( 1994 – 97 ) , Autoglass ( 1997 – 2001 ) , Emirates ( 2001 – 05 ) , Samsung Mobile ( 2005 – 08 ) and Samsung ( 2008 – 15 ) . Chelsea 's current shirt sponsor is the Yokohama Rubber Company . Worth £ 40 million @-@ per @-@ year , the deal is second in English football to Chevrolet 's £ 50 million @-@ per @-@ year sponsorship of Manchester United .
The club has a variety of other sponsors and official partners , which include Gazprom , Delta Air Lines , Sauber , Audi , Singha , EA Sports , Dolce & Gabbana , Barbados Tourism Authority , Atlas , AZIMUT Hotels , BNI , Indosat , Vietinbank , Nitto Tire , Orico , Guangzhou R & F , Coca @-@ Cola , Grand Royal , Digicel , Lucozade Sport , and Viagogo .
= = Popular culture = =
In 1930 , Chelsea featured in one of the earliest football films , The Great Game . One @-@ time Chelsea centre forward , Jack Cock , who by then was playing for Millwall , was the star of the film and several scenes were shot at Stamford Bridge , including the pitch , the boardroom , and the dressing rooms . It included guest appearances by then @-@ Chelsea players Andrew Wilson , George Mills , and Sam Millington . Owing to the notoriety of the Chelsea Headhunters , a football firm associated with the club , Chelsea have also featured in films about football hooliganism , including 2004 's The Football Factory . Chelsea also appear in the Hindi film Jhoom Barabar Jhoom . In April 2011 , Montenegrin comedy series Nijesmo mi od juče made an episode in which Chelsea play against FK Sutjeska Nikšić for qualification of the UEFA Champions League .
Up until the 1950s , the club had a long @-@ running association with the music halls ; their underachievement often provided material for comedians such as George Robey . It culminated in comedian Norman Long 's release of a comic song in 1933 , ironically titled " On the Day That Chelsea Went and Won the Cup " , the lyrics of which describe a series of bizarre and improbable occurrences on the hypothetical day when Chelsea finally won a trophy . In Alfred Hitchcock 's 1935 film The 39 Steps , Mr Memory claims that Chelsea last won the Cup in 63 BC , " in the presence of the Emperor Nero . " Scenes in a 1980 episode of Minder were filmed during a real match at Stamford Bridge between Chelsea and Preston North End with Terry McCann ( played by Dennis Waterman ) standing on the terraces .
The song " Blue is the Colour " was released as a single in the build @-@ up to the 1972 League Cup Final , with all members of Chelsea 's first team squad singing ; it reached number five in the UK Singles Chart . The song has since been adopted as an anthem by a number of other sports teams around the world , including the Vancouver Whitecaps ( as " White is the Colour " ) and the Saskatchewan Roughriders ( as " Green is the Colour " ) . In the build @-@ up to the 1997 FA Cup Final , the song " Blue Day " , performed by Suggs and members of the Chelsea squad , reached number 22 in the UK charts . Bryan Adams , a fan of Chelsea , dedicated the song " We 're Gonna Win " from the album 18 Til I Die to the club .
= = Chelsea Ladies = =
Chelsea also operate a women 's football team , Chelsea Ladies . They have been affiliated to the men 's team since 2004 and are part of the club 's Community Development programme . They play their home games at Wheatsheaf Park , the home ground of Conference South club Staines Town . The club were promoted to the Premier Division for the first time in 2005 as Southern Division champions and won the Surrey County Cup in 2003 – 04 , 2006 – 10 , 2012 , and 2013 . In 2010 Chelsea Ladies were one of the eight founder members of the FA Women 's Super League . In 2015 , Chelsea Ladies won the FA Women 's Cup for the first time , beating Notts County Ladies at Wembley Stadium , and a month later clinched their first FA WSL title to complete a league and cup double . John Terry , the current captain of the Chelsea men 's team , is the President of Chelsea Ladies .
= = Players = =
= = = First team squad = = =
As of 22 July 2016 .
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
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= Daddy 's Double =
Daddy 's Double is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Film Corporation . The film focuses on Hal , a young man , who proposes to Sue , his love interest . Her father overhears and becomes furious before whisking his daughter away to a boarding school . Hal and Sue attempt to elope , but it is foiled . Hal then gets an idea to disguise himself as the father and reclaim Sue . The plan works , but the father follows in pursuit . He breaks into the wedding ceremony at the parson 's house and sees his double . He then laughs and approves of the marriage . The film was the fourth release by Thanhouser and it was met with favorable reviews by critics . In 2007 , a surviving print was released on DVD with a new original score composed and performed by Raymond A. Brubacher .
= = Plot = =
At the Post 's home , Hal Dunton sits down with his love interest Sue Post , cautiously checking to see if they are alone . Hal then proposes to Sue and in the excitement , her father comes into the room . He is outraged and believes his daughter is too young to be married and promptly makes Hal leave before scolding his daughter . Before departing , Hal meets and pleads with the father as he takes the daughter away by car . The father refuses and Hal is knocked down before the father and daughter depart to a boarding school . The father meets with the mistress and leaves Sue in her care , much to Sue 's distress .
Whisked away from her home and her beloved , Sue is in despair until Hal appears outside her window with a ladder . The attempted elopement fails when the mistress catches Hal in the act and dismisses him . She awaits Sue to descend and round the corner before halting her and forcing her back inside . The father pulls up to a place of business and Hal , who is walking by , attempts to greet the father . The angry father ignores him , but Hal turns and sees the wigmaker 's store next to him . An idea strikes him and he pays a photographer to get a photo of the father on the way out , which further angers him . Hal then sends a message to Sue , that he will come and claim her the following day , disguised as her father .
Hal head to the wigmaker and is disguised as the father . So well is the disguise that the father 's chauffeur is convinced and takes Hal to the boarding school . The father quickly exits in time to see his chauffeur drive away and hails a taxi . Hal arrives at the boarding school and the disguise works , claims Sue and drives away . Seconds later the father arrives and confronts the mistress , departing to pursue in a fit of anger . Hal and Sue go to the parson 's house to be immediately wed . The father is delayed for a short time by car trouble , but quickly arrives before the two are wed . He bursts in and sees his double and both he and Hal laugh . The father relents and approves the marriage as Hal removes his disguise in front of the stunned Parson .
= = Cast = =
Frank H. Crane as Mr. Post or " Daddy "
Fred Santley as Hal Dunton or " Daddy 's double "
Isabelle Daintry as Sue Post
= = Production = =
The scenario was written by Lloyd F. Lonergan . Lonergan was the writer of all three previous productions of the Thanhouser company . Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman still employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . He was the most important script writer for Thanhouser , averaging 200 scripts a year from 1910 to 1915 . The director of the film is not known for certain , but two Thanhouser directors are possible . Barry O 'Neil was the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy , who would direct many important Thanhouser pictures , including its first two @-@ reeler , Romeo and Juliet . Lloyd B. Carleton was the stage name of Carleton B. Little , a director who would stay with the Thanhouser Company for a short time , moving to Biograph Company by the summer of 1910 . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute either as the director for this particular production , but he does credit Blair Smith as the cameraman . The film is composed of 28 shots , 8 titles and 1 insert .
The cast for the film featured Thanhouser 's first leading male actor , Frank H. Crane , along with two stage actors , Isabelle Daintry and Fred Santley . Isabelle Daintry has one other known Thanhouser credit , but this marks Fred Santley 's only known credit . During this era , the players in the film were not credited and anonymity was the rule .
= = Release and reception = =
The one reel drama , approximately 960 feet , was released on Tuesday April 5 , 1910 . The film would also be released in the United Kingdom on October 16 , 1910 . The surviving feel reel says the Gaumont Company of London ( Gaumont British ) had exclusive rights to Thanhouser films outside of the United States . The film was shown across the United States , including theaters in Kansas , New York , Pennsylvania , Texas , and Indiana . One of the last advertisements for the film came three years after its release by the Neosho Picture Show Company of Neosho , Missouri .
The film received positive attention from film critics . The Morning Telegraph praised it as the best work from the new Thanhouser Company . The The New York Dramatic Mirror found it to have good acting which could still be more expressive , but was more indifferent to the use of unnecessary connecting scenes . The Moving Picture World stated , in a brief review , that the acting and photography was good .
In 2007 , the film was released by Thanhouser Company Film Preservation on a three @-@ disc DVD set along with eleven other surviving Thanhouser films . The surviving print was obtained from the British Film Institute and featured a new original score composed and performed by Raymond A. Brubacher . According to Silent Era , the archive holds the 35mm nitrate positive , the more stable 35mm safety negative and a 35mm reference positive .
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= Italian ironclad Re d 'Italia =
Re d 'Italia ( King of Italy ) was the lead ship of the Re d 'Italia @-@ class armored frigates built in the United States for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the early 1860s . She was laid down at the William H. Webb Shipyard in New York in November 1861 , was launched in April 1863 , and was completed a year later in September 1864 ; the two Re d 'Italia @-@ class ships were the only Italian ironclads built in the United States . The ships were broadside ironclads , armed with a battery of six 72 @-@ pounder guns and thirty @-@ two 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) guns .
Re d 'Italia initially served as the flagship of the Italian fleet , though she was replaced by the turret ship Affondatore shortly before the Battle of Lissa in 1866 . During that battle , Re d 'Italia was at the center of the melee . After her rudder was disabled by an Austrian vessel , the Austrian flagship , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max rammed her and tore a large hole in her hull . Re d 'Italia quickly rolled over and sank , taking some 400 of her crew with the ship , including her captain , Emilio Faà di Bruno .
= = Design = =
Re d 'Italia was 99 @.@ 61 meters ( 326 @.@ 8 ft ) long overall ; she had a beam of 16 @.@ 76 m ( 55 @.@ 0 ft ) and an average draft of 6 @.@ 17 m ( 20 @.@ 2 ft ) . She displaced 5 @,@ 610 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 520 long tons ; 6 @,@ 180 short tons ) normally and up to 5 @,@ 869 t ( 5 @,@ 776 long tons ; 6 @,@ 469 short tons ) at full load . Her hull was built from green wood . She had a crew of 565 . The ship 's propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by four coal @-@ fired , rectangular boilers . Her engine produced a top speed of 10 @.@ 6 to 10 @.@ 8 knots ( 19 @.@ 6 to 20 @.@ 0 km / h ; 12 @.@ 2 to 12 @.@ 4 mph ) from 1 @,@ 812 to 1 @,@ 845 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 351 to 1 @,@ 376 kW ) . She could steam for about 1 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 @.@ 5 knots ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ; 12 @.@ 1 mph ) . For long @-@ distance travel , Re d 'Italia was fitted with three masts and was barque @-@ rigged .
Re d 'Italia was a broadside ironclad , and she was armed with a main battery of six 72 @-@ pounder 8 in ( 200 mm ) guns and thirty @-@ two 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The ship was equipped with a spur @-@ shaped ram at the bow . The ship 's hull was sheathed with wrought iron armor that was 4 @.@ 75 in ( 121 mm ) thick . Her rudder and propellers , however , were not protected by her armor .
= = Service history = =
Re d 'Italia was built by William H. Webb at his shipyard in New York City . She was laid down on 21 November 1861 and launched on 18 April 1863 . The ship arrived in Italy in April 1864 and was commissioned into the Italian fleet on 18 September 1864 . Less than two years later , in June 1866 , Italy declared war on Austria , as part of the Third Italian War of Independence , which was fought concurrently with the Austro @-@ Prussian War . The Italian fleet commander , Admiral Carlo Pellion di Persano , initially adopted a cautious course of action ; he was unwilling to risk battle with the Austrian Navy , despite the fact that the Austrian fleet was much weaker than his own . Persano claimed he was simply waiting on the ironclad ram Affondatore , en route from Britain , but his inaction weakened morale in the fleet , with many of his subordinates openly accusing him of cowardice .
Rear Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff brought the Austrian fleet to Ancona on June 27 , in attempt to draw out the Italians . At the time , many of the Italian ships were in disarray ; several ships did not have their entire armament , and several others had problems with their engines . Re d 'Italia had a fire burning in her coal bunkers . Persano held a council of war aboard the ironclad Principe di Carignano to determine whether he should sortie to engage Tegetthoff , but by that time , the Austrians had withdrawn , making the decision moot . The Minister of the Navy , Agostino Depretis , urged Persano to act and suggested the island of Lissa , to restore Italian confidence after their defeat at the Battle of Custoza the previous month . On 7 July , Persano left Ancona and conducted a sweep into the Adriatic , but encountered no Austrian ships and returned on the 13th .
= = = Battle of Lissa = = =
On 16 July , Persano took the Italian fleet out of Ancona , bound for Lissa , where they arrived on the 18th . With them , they brought troop transports carrying 3 @,@ 000 soldiers ; the Italian warships began bombarding the Austrian forts on the island , with the intention of landing the soldiers once the fortresses had been silenced . In response , the Austrian Navy sent the fleet under Tegetthoff to attack the Italian ships . At that time , Re d 'Italia was Persano 's flagship in the 2nd Division , along with the ironclad San Martino and the coastal defense ship Palestro . After arriving off Lissa on the 18th , Persano sent most of his ships to bombard the town of Vis , but he was unable to effect the landing .
The next morning , Persano ordered another attack ; four ironclads would force the harbor defenses at Vis while Re d 'Italia and the rest of the fleet would attempt to suppress the outer fortifications . This second attack also proved to be a failure , but Persano decided to make a third attempt the next day . Re d 'Italia and the bulk of the fleet would again try to disable the outer forts in preparation for the landing . Before the Italians could begin the attack , the dispatch boat Esploratore arrived , bringing news of Tegetthoff 's approach . Persano 's fleet was in disarray ; the three ships of Admiral Giovanni Vacca 's 1st Division were three miles to the northeast from Persano 's main force , and three other ironclads were further away to the west . Persano immediately ordered his ships to form up with Vacca 's , first in line abreast formation , and then in line ahead formation . Re d 'Italia was the fourth ship in the Italian line , behind only Vacca 's ships .
Shortly before the action began , Persano decided to leave Re d 'Italia and transfer to Affondatore , though none of his subordinates on the other ships were aware of the change . They were thus left to fight as individuals without direction . More dangerously , by stopping Re d 'Italia , he allowed a significant gap to open up between Vacca 's three ships and the rest of the fleet . Tegetthoff took his fleet through the gap between Vacca 's and Persano 's ships , though he failed to ram any Italian vessels on the first pass . The Austrians then turned back toward Persano 's ships , and took Re d 'Italia , San Martino , and Palestro under heavy fire . The Austrian ships concentrated their fire on Re d 'Italia , paying particular attention to her stern . In their attempts to ram her , one of the Austrian ships destroyed Re d 'Italia 's rudder , leaving her unmaneuverable .
Re d 'Italia 's captain , Emilio Faà di Bruno , attempted to escape from the melee , but he could only steer his ship using her engines . Blocked by another Austrian ironclad , Faà di Bruno ordered his ship to reverse course . She was almost stopped when she was rammed by the Austrian flagship , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max . The Austrian ship 's ram tore a gaping hole in Re d 'Italia 's hull . She quickly rolled over to port and sank . Out of her crew , only 166 men were saved ; the remaining 400 went down with the ship , including Faà di Bruno .
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= Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 film ) =
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs is a 1937 American animated musical fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Productions and originally released by RKO Radio Pictures . Based on the German fairy tale by the Brothers Grimm , it is the first full @-@ length cel animated feature film and the earliest Disney animated feature film . The story was adapted by storyboard artists Dorothy Ann Blank , Richard Creedon , Merrill De Maris , Otto Englander , Earl Hurd , Dick Rickard , Ted Sears and Webb Smith . David Hand was the supervising director , while William Cottrell , Wilfred Jackson , Larry Morey , Perce Pearce , and Ben Sharpsteen directed the film 's individual sequences .
Snow White premiered at the Carthay Circle Theatre on December 21 , 1937 , followed by a nationwide release on February 4 , 1938 . It was a critical and commercial success , and with international earnings of $ 8 million during its initial release briefly assumed the record of highest grossing sound film at the time . The popularity of the film has led to it being re @-@ released theatrically many times , until its home video release in the 1990s . Adjusted for inflation , it is one of the top ten performers at the North American box office .
At the 11th Academy Awards , Walt Disney was awarded an honorary Oscar , and the film was nominated for Best Musical Score the year before . In 1989 , the United States Library of Congress deemed the film " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " and selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry and is ranked in the American Film Institute 's list of the 100 greatest American films , who also named the film as the greatest American animated film of all time in 2008 . Disney 's take on the fairytale has had a huge cultural impact , resulting in popular theme park attractions , a video game , and a Broadway musical .
= = Plot = =
Snow White is a lonely princess living with her stepmother , a vain and wicked Queen . The Queen fears that Snow White 's beauty surpasses her own , so she forces Snow White to work as a scullery maid and asks her Magic Mirror daily " who is the fairest one of all " . For several years the mirror always answered that the Queen was , pleasing her .
One day , the Magic Mirror informs the Queen that Snow White is now the fairest in the land . The jealous Queen orders her Huntsman to take Snow White into the forest and kill her . She further demands that the huntsman return with Snow White 's heart in a jeweled box as proof of the deed . However , the Huntsman cannot bring himself to kill Snow White . He tearfully begs for her forgiveness , revealing the Queen wants her dead , and urges her to flee into the woods and never look back . Lost and frightened , the princess is befriended by woodland creatures who lead her to a cottage deep in the woods . Finding seven small chairs in the cottage 's dining room , Snow White assumes the cottage is the untidy home of seven orphaned children .
In reality , the cottage belongs to seven adult dwarfs , named Doc , Grumpy , Happy , Sleepy , Bashful , Sneezy , and Dopey , who work in a nearby mine . Returning home , they are alarmed to find their cottage clean and suspect that an intruder has invaded their home . The dwarfs find Snow White upstairs , asleep across three of their beds . Snow White awakes to find the dwarfs at her bedside and introduces herself , and all of the dwarfs eventually welcome her into their home after they learn she can cook and clean beautifully . Snow White keeps house for the dwarfs while they mine for jewels during the day , and at night they all sing , play music and dance .
Meanwhile , the Queen discovers that Snow White is still alive when the mirror again answers that Snow White is the fairest in the land and reveals that the heart in the jeweled box is actually that of a pig . Using potion to disguise herself as an old hag , the Queen creates a poisoned apple that will put whoever eats it into the " Sleeping Death " , a curse that can only be broken by " love 's first kiss " , but dismisses that Snow White will be buried alive . The Queen goes to the cottage while the dwarfs are away , but the animals are wary of her and rush off to find the dwarfs . The Queen tricks Snow White into biting into the poisoned apple . As Snow White falls asleep the Queen proclaims that she is now the fairest of the land . The dwarfs return with the animals as the Queen leaves the cottage and give chase , trapping her on a cliff . She tries to roll a boulder over them but before she can do so , lightning strikes the cliff , causing her to fall to her death .
The dwarfs return to their cottage and find Snow White seemingly dead , being kept in a deathlike slumber by the poison . Unwilling to bury her out of sight in the ground , they instead place her in a glass coffin trimmed with gold in a clearing in the forest . Together with the woodland creatures , they keep watch over her . A year later , a prince , who had previously met and fallen in love with Snow White , learns of her eternal sleep and visits her coffin . Saddened by her apparent death , he kisses her , which breaks the spell and awakens her . The dwarfs and animals all rejoice as the Prince takes Snow White to his castle .
= = Cast = =
Adriana Caselotti as Snow White : Snow White is a young princess . Her wicked stepmother has forced her to work as a scullery maid in the castle . Despite this , she retains a cheerful but naïve demeanor .
Lucille La Verne as Evil Queen Grimhilde / Witch : The Queen is the stepmother of Snow White . Once her magic mirror tells her that Snow White is fairer than she is , she immediately enlists Humbert the huntsman to kill her in the woods . After she discovers that Snow White did not die , she disguises herself as an old hag and uses a poisoned apple to remove Snow White from her path without killing her .
Harry Stockwell as The Prince . The prince first sees Snow White singing at her wishing well . He immediately falls in love with her and her voice . He later reappears to revive her .
Roy Atwell as Doc : The leader of the seven dwarfs , Doc wears glasses and often mixes up his words . He is self @-@ appointed and funny .
Pinto Colvig as Grumpy and Sleepy in a dual role : Grumpy initially disapproves of Snow White 's presence in the dwarfs ' home , but later warns her of the threat posed by the Queen and rushes to her aid upon realizing that she is in danger , leading the charge himself . He has the biggest nose of the dwarfs , and is frequently seen with one eye shut . Sleepy is always tired and appears laconic in most situations . Sterling Holloway , who would later voice many other characters for future Disney films was originally considered to voice Sleepy by Walt Disney .
Otis Harlan as Happy : Happy is the joyous dwarf and is usually portrayed laughing .
Scotty Mattraw as Bashful : Bashful is the shyest of the dwarfs , and is often embarrassed by the presence of any attention directed at him .
Billy Gilbert as Sneezy : Sneezy 's name is earned by his extraordinarily powerful sneezes ( caused by hay fever ) , which are seen blowing even the heaviest of objects across a room .
Eddie Collins as Dopey ( vocal effects and live @-@ action reference only ) : Dopey is the only dwarf who does not have a beard . He is clumsy and mute , with Happy explaining that he has simply " never tried " to speak . In the movie 's trailer , Walt Disney describes Dopey as " nice , but sort of silly " . Mel Blanc was considered to voice Dopey by Walt Disney .
Moroni Olsen as The Magic Mirror : The Slave of the Magic Mirror appears as a green mask in clouds of smoke . The Queen regularly asks him who is the fairest in the land .
Stuart Buchanan as Humbert the Huntsman : Despite his status as the Queen 's assassin , the Huntsman cannot bear to kill Snow White , even when the Queen orders him to take the princess ' heart .
= = Production = =
Development on Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs began in early 1934 , and in June 1934 , Walt Disney announced the production of his first feature , to be released under Walt Disney Productions , to The New York Times . One evening that same year , Disney acted out the entire story of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs to his staff , announcing that the film would be produced as a feature @-@ length film .
Before Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , the Disney studio had been primarily involved in the production of animated short subjects in the Mickey Mouse and Silly Symphonies series . Disney hoped to expand his studio 's prestige and revenues by moving into features , and estimated that Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs could be produced for a budget of US $ 250 @,@ 000 ; this was ten times the budget of an average Silly Symphony .
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was to be the first full @-@ length cel animated feature in motion picture history , and as such Walt Disney had to fight to get the film produced . Both his brother and business partner Roy Disney and his wife Lillian attempted to talk him out of it , and the Hollywood movie industry referred to the film derisively as " Disney 's Folly " while it was in production . He had to mortgage his house to help finance the film 's production , which eventually ran up a total cost of $ 1 @,@ 488 @,@ 422 @.@ 74 , a massive sum for a feature film in 1937 .
= = = Story development = = =
On August 9 , 1934 , twenty @-@ one pages of notes — entitled " Snowwhite suggestions " — were compiled by staff writer Richard Creedon , suggesting the principal characters , as well as situations and ' gags ' for the story . As Disney had stated at the very beginning of the project , the main attraction of the story for him was the Seven Dwarfs , and their possibilities for " screwiness " and " gags " ; the three story meetings held in October and attended by Disney , Creedon , Larry Morey , Albert Hurter , Ted Sears and Pinto Colvig were dominated by such subjects . At this point , Disney felt that the story should begin with Snow White 's discovery of the Cottage of the Seven Dwarfs . Walt Disney had suggested from the beginning that each of the dwarfs , whose names and personalities are not stated in the original fairy tale , could have individual personalities . The dwarfs names were chosen from a pool of about fifty potentials , including Jumpy , Deafy , Dizzey , Hickey , Wheezy , Baldy , Gabby , Nifty , Sniffy , Swift , Lazy , Puffy , Stuffy , Tubby , Shorty and Burpy . The seven finalists were chosen through a process of elimination . The leader of the dwarfs , required to be pompous , self @-@ important and bumbling , was named Doc ; others were named for their distinguishing character traits . At the end of the October story meetings , however , only Doc , Grumpy , Bashful , Sleepy and Happy of the final seven were named ; at this point , Sneezy and Dopey were replaced by ' Jumpy ' and an unnamed seventh dwarf .
Along with a focus on the characterizations and comedic possibilities of the dwarfs , Creedon 's eighteen @-@ page outline of the story written from the October meetings , featured a continuous flow of gags as well as the Queen 's attempt to kill Snow White with a poisoned comb , an element taken from the Grimms ' original story . After persuading Snow White to use the comb , the disguised Queen would have escaped alive , but the dwarfs would have arrived in time to remove it . After the failure of the comb , the Queen was to have the Prince captured and taken to her dungeon , where she would have come to him ( story sketches show this event both with the Queen and the Witch ) and used magic to bring the dungeon 's skeletons to life , making them dance for him and identifying one skeleton as " Prince Oswald " , an example of the more humorous atmosphere of this original story treatment . It is written in story notes that the Queen has such magical power only in her own domain , the castle . With the Prince refusing to marry her , the Queen leaves him to his death ( one sketch shows the Prince trapped in a subterranean chamber filling with water ) as she makes her way to the dwarfs ' cottage with the poisoned apple . The forest animals were to help the Prince escape the Queen 's minions and find his horse . The Prince was to ride to the cottage to save Snow White , but took the wrong road ( despite warnings from the forest animals and his horse , whom he , unlike Snow White , could not understand ) . He therefore would not have arrived in time to save her from the Queen , but would have been able to save her with love 's first kiss . This plot was not used in the final film , though many sketches of the scene in the dungeon were made by Ferdinand Hovarth .
Other examples of the more comical nature of the story at this point include suggestions for a " fat , batty , cartoon type , self @-@ satisfied " Queen . The Prince was also more of a clown , and was to serenade Snow White in a more comical fashion . Walt Disney encouraged all staff at the studio to contribute to the story , offering five dollars for every ' gag ' ; such gags included the dwarfs ' noses popping over the foot of the bed when they first meet Snow White .
Disney became concerned that such a comical approach would lessen the plausibility of the characters and , sensing that more time was needed for the development of the Queen , advised in an outline circulated on November 6 that attention be paid exclusively to " scenes in which only Snow White , the Dwarfs , and their bird and animal friends appear " . The names and personalities of the dwarfs , however , were still " open to change " . A meeting of November 16 resulted in another outline entitled ' Dwarfs Discover Snowwhite ' , which introduced the character of Dopey , who would ultimately prove to be the most successful and popular of the dwarf characterisations . For the rest of 1934 Disney further developed the story by himself , finding a dilemma in the characterization of the Queen , who he felt could no longer be " fat " and " batty " , but a " stately beautiful type " , a possibility already brought up in previous story meetings . Disney did not focus on the project again until the autumn of 1935 . It is thought that he may have doubted his , and his studio 's ability , and that his trip to Europe that summer restored his confidence . At this point Disney and his writers focused on the scenes in which Snow White and the dwarfs are introduced to the audience and each other . He laid out the likely assignments for everyone working on the film in a memorandum of November 25 , 1935 , and had decided on the personalities of the individual dwarfs .
It had first been thought that the dwarfs would be the main focus of the story , and many sequences were written for the seven characters . However , at a certain point , it was decided that the main thrust of the story was provided by the relationship between the Queen and Snow White . For this reason , several sequences featuring the dwarfs were cut from the film . The first , which was animated in its entirety before being cut , showed Doc and Grumpy arguing about whether Snow White should stay with them . Another , also completely animated , would have shown the dwarfs eating soup noisily and messily ; Snow White unsuccessfully attempts to teach them how to eat ' like gentlemen ' . A partially animated sequence involved the dwarfs holding a " lodge meeting " in which they try to think of a gift for Snow White ; this was to be followed by the elaborate ' bed building sequence ' , in which the dwarfs and the forest animals construct and carve a bed for the princess . This also was cut , as it was thought to slow down the movement of the story . The soup @-@ eating and bed @-@ building sequences were animated by Ward Kimball , who was sufficiently discouraged by their removal to consider leaving the studio , however Disney persuaded him to stay by promoting him to supervising animator of Jiminy Cricket in his next feature Pinocchio ( 1940 ) .
= = = Animation = = =
The primary authority on the design of the film was concept artist Albert Hurter . All designs used in the film , from characters ' appearances to the look of the rocks in the background , had to meet Hurter 's approval before being finalized . Two other concept artists — Ferdinand Hovarth and Gustaf Tenggren — also contributed to the visual style of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs . Hovarth developed a number of dark concepts for the film , although many other designs he developed were ultimately rejected by Disney team as less easily translated into animation than Hurter 's . Tenggren was used as a color stylist and to determine the staging and atmosphere of many of the scenes in the film , as his style borrowed from the likes of Arthur Rackham and John Bauer and thus possessed the European illustration quality that Walt Disney sought . He also designed the posters for the film and illustrated the press book . However , Hovarth didn 't receive a credit for the film . Other artists to work on the film included Joe Grant , whose most significant contribution was the design for the Queen 's Witch form .
Art Babbit , an animator who joined the Disney studio in 1932 , invited seven of his colleagues ( who worked in the same room as him ) to come with him to an art class that he himself had set up at his home in the Hollywood Hills . Though there was no teacher , Babbit had recruited a model to pose for him and his fellow animators as they drew . These " classes " were held weekly ; each week , more animators would come . After three weeks , Walt Disney called Babbit to his office and offered to provide the supplies , working space and models required if the sessions were moved to the studio . Babbit ran the sessions for a month until animator Hardie Gramatky suggested that they recruit Don Graham ; the art teacher from the Chouinard Institute taught his first class at the studio on November 15 , 1932 , and was joined by Phil Dike a few weeks later . These classes were principally concerned with human anatomy and movement , though instruction later included action analysis , animal anatomy and acting .
Though the classes were originally described as a " brutal battle " , with neither instructor nor students well @-@ versed in the other 's craft , the enthusiasm and energy of both parties made the classes stimulating and beneficial for all involved . Graham often screened Disney shorts and , along with the animators , provided critique featuring both strengths and weaknesses . For example , Graham criticised Babbit 's animation of Abner the mouse in The Country Cousin as " taking a few of the obvious actions of a drunk without coordinating the rest of the body " , while praising it for maintaining its humour without getting " dirty or mean or vulgar . The country mouse is always having a good time " .
Very few of the animators at the Disney studio had had artistic training ( most had been newspaper cartoonists ) ; among these few was Grim Natwick , who had trained in Europe . The animator 's success in designing and animating Betty Boop for Fleischer Studios showed an understanding of human female anatomy , and when Walt Disney hired Natwick he was given female characters to animate almost exclusively . Attempts to animate Persephone , the female lead of The Goddess of Spring , had proved largely unsuccessful ; Natwick 's animation of the heroine in Cookie Carnival showed greater promise , and the animator was eventually given the task of animating Snow White herself . Though live action footage of Snow White , the Prince and the Queen was shot as reference for the animators , the artists animators disapproved of rotoscoping , considering it to hinder the production of effective caricature . None of Babbit 's animation of the Queen was rotoscoped ; despite Graham and Natwick 's objections , however , some scenes of Snow White and the Prince were directly traced from the live @-@ action footage .
The studio 's new Multiplane camera gave a three @-@ dimensional feeling in many sequences , and was also used to give a rotating effect in the scene where the Queen transforms into a witch .
= = = Music = = =
The songs in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs were composed by Frank Churchill and Larry Morey . Paul J. Smith and Leigh Harline composed the incidental music score . Well @-@ known songs from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs include " Heigh @-@ Ho " , " Some Day My Prince Will Come " , and " Whistle While You Work " . Since Disney did not have its own music publishing company at the time , the publishing rights for the music and songs were administered through Bourne Co . Music Publishers , which continues to hold these rights . In later years , the studio was able to acquire back the rights to the music from many of the other films , but not Snow White . Snow White became the first American film to have a soundtrack album , released in conjunction with the feature film . Before Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , a film soundtrack recording was unheard of and of little value to a movie studio .
= = = Cinematic influences = = =
At this time , Disney also encouraged his staff to see a variety of films . These ranged from the mainstream , such as MGM 's Romeo and Juliet ( 1936 ) — to which Disney made direct reference in a story meeting pertaining to the scene in which Snow White lies in her glass coffin — to the more obscure , including European silent cinema . Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , as well as the two Disney films to follow it , were also influenced by such German expressionist films as Nosferatu ( 1922 ) and The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari ( 1919 ) , both of which were recommended by Disney to his staff . This influence is particularly evident in the scenes of Snow White fleeing through the forest and the Queen 's transformation into the Witch . The latter scene was also inspired by Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde ( 1931 ) , to which Disney made specific reference in story meetings .
= = Release = =
= = = Original theatrical run = = =
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs premiered at the Carthay Circle Theatre on December 21 , 1937 , to a wildly receptive audience , many of whom were the same naysayers who dubbed the film " Disney 's Folly " . The film received a standing ovation at its completion from an audience that included Judy Garland and Marlene Dietrich . Six days later , Walt Disney and the seven dwarfs appeared on the cover of Time magazine . The New York Times said " Thank you very much , Mr. Disney " . Variety suggested that " [ so ] perfect is the illusion , so tender the romance and fantasy , so emotional are certain portions when the acting of the characters strikes a depth comparable to the sincerity of human players , that the film approaches real greatness . "
Following successful exclusive runs at Radio City Music Hall in New York City and a theater in Miami in January 1938 , RKO Radio Pictures put the film into general release on February 4 . It became a major box @-@ office success , making four times more money than any other motion picture released in 1938 . In its original release , Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs grossed $ 3 @.@ 5 million in the United States and Canada , and by May 1939 its total international gross of $ 6 @.@ 5 million made it the most successful sound film of all time , displacing Al Jolson 's The Singing Fool ( 1928 ) ( Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was soon displaced from this position by Gone with the Wind in 1940 ) . By the end of its original run , Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs had earned $ 7 @,@ 846 @,@ 000 in international box office receipts . This earned RKO a profit of $ 380 @,@ 000 .
= = = Re @-@ releases = = =
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was first re @-@ released in 1944 , to raise revenue for the Disney studio during the World War II period . This re @-@ release set a tradition of re @-@ releasing Disney animated features every seven to ten years , and Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was re @-@ released to theaters in 1952 , 1958 , 1967 , 1975 , 1983 , 1987 , 1993 and 1997 . Coinciding with the fiftieth anniversary release in 1987 , Disney released an authorized novelization of the story , written by children 's author Suzanne Weyn .
In 1993 , Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs became the first film to be entirely scanned to digital files , manipulated , and recorded back to film . The restoration project was carried out entirely at 4K resolution and 10 @-@ bit color depth using the Cineon system to digitally remove dirt and scratches and restore faded colors .
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs has had a lifetime gross of $ 418 @.@ 2 million across its original release and several reissues . Adjusted for inflation , and incorporating subsequent releases , the film still registers one of the top ten American film moneymakers of all time .
= = = Reception = = =
The film was a tremendous critical success , with many reviewers hailing it as a genuine work of art , recommended for both children and adults . Although film histories often state that the animation of the human characters was criticized , more recent scholarship finds that most reviewers praised the realistic style of the human animation , with several stating that audiences will forget that they are watching animated humans rather than real ones . At the 11th Academy Awards , the film won an Academy Honorary Award for Walt Disney " as a significant screen innovation which has charmed millions and pioneered a great new entertainment field " . Disney received a full @-@ size Oscar statuette and seven miniature ones , presented to him by 10 @-@ year @-@ old child actress Shirley Temple . The film was also nominated for Best Musical Score . " Some Day My Prince Will Come " has become a jazz standard that has been performed by numerous artists , including Buddy Rich , Lee Wiley , Oscar Peterson , Frank Churchill , and Oliver Jones . Albums by Miles Davis , by Wynton Kelly , and Alexis Cole .
Noted filmmakers such as Sergei Eisenstein and Charlie Chaplin praised Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs as a notable achievement in cinema ; Eisenstein went so far as to call it the greatest film ever made . The film inspired Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer to produce its own fantasy film , The Wizard of Oz , in 1939 . Another animation pioneer , Max Fleischer , decided to produce his animated feature film Gulliver 's Travels in order to compete with Snow White . The 1941 parody Ball of Fire featured a nightclub singer disrupting the lives of seven scholars ( and Gary Cooper ) while hiding from the police . The 1943 Merrie Melodies short Coal Black and de Sebben Dwarfs , directed by Bob Clampett , parodies Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs by presenting the story with an all @-@ black cast singing a jazz score .
Snow White 's success led to Disney moving ahead with more feature @-@ film productions . Walt Disney used much of the profits from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs to finance a new $ 4 @.@ 5 million studio in Burbank – the location on which The Walt Disney Studios is located to this day . Within two years , the studio completed Pinocchio and Fantasia , and had begun production on features such as Dumbo , Bambi , Alice in Wonderland and Peter Pan .
American Film Institute recognition
The American Film Institute ( AFI ) , an independent non @-@ profit organization created in the United States by the National Endowment for the Arts , releases a variety of annual awards and film lists recognizing excellence in film making . The AFI 100 Years ... series , which ran from 1998 to 2008 , created categorized lists of America 's best movies as selected by juries composed from among over 1 @,@ 500 artists , scholars , critics and historians . A film 's inclusion in one of these lists was based on the film 's popularity over time , historical significance and cultural impact . Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was selected by juries for inclusion on many AFI lists , including the following :
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies - # 49
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) - # 34
AFI 's 10 Top 10 - # 1 Animated film
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains : The Queen - # 10 Villain
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
" Someday My Prince Will Come " - # 19
" Whistle While You Work " - Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes : " Magic Mirror on the wall , who is the fairest one of all ? " - Nominated
AFI 's Greatest Movie Musicals - Nominated
= = = Home media = = =
On October 28 , 1994 , the film was released as the first video in the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection and the first in the Walt Disney Animated Classics series .
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was released on DVD on October 9 , 2001 , the first in Disney 's Platinum Editions , and featured , across two discs , the digitally restored film , a making @-@ of documentary narrated by Angela Lansbury , an audio commentary by John Canemaker and , via archived audio clips , Walt Disney .
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc on October 6 , 2009 , the first of Disney 's Diamond Editions , and a new DVD edition was released on November 24 , 2009 . The Blu @-@ ray includes a high @-@ definition version of the movie sourced from a new restoration by Lowry Digital , a DVD copy of the film , and several bonus features not included on the 2001 DVD . This set returned to the Disney Vault on April 30 , 2011 .
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment re @-@ released Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs on Blu @-@ ray and DVD on February 2 , 2016 , as the first of the Walt Disney Signature Collection line . It was released on Digital HD on January 19 , 2016 with bonus material .
= = Appearances in other media = =
= = = Theme parks = = =
Snow White 's Scary Adventures is a popular theme park ride at Disneyland ( an opening day attraction dating from 1955 ) , Tokyo Disneyland , and Disneyland Paris . Fantasyland at Walt Disney World 's Magic Kingdom underwent an expansion from 2012 to 2014 . The Snow White 's Scary Adventures ride was replaced with Princess Fairytale Hall , where Snow White and other princesses are located for a meet and greet . Included in the 2013 expansion of Fantasyland is the Seven Dwarfs Mine Train roller coaster . Snow White , her Prince , the Queen , and the Seven Dwarfs are also featured in parades and character appearances throughout the parks . Disneyland 's Fantasyland Theater hosted Snow White : An Enchanting Musical from 2004 to 2006 .
= = = Video games = = =
The first attempt at a Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs video game was for the Atari 2600 as part of their line of children 's games . It was never officially released , although a " homebrew " version was made available on a limited basis .
Walt Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was released for the Game Boy Color system in 2001 .
Snow White also makes an appearance in the PlayStation 2 game Kingdom Hearts as one of the seven fabled Princesses of Heart . A world based on the movie , Dwarf Woodlands , appears in Kingdom Hearts : Birth by Sleep for the PSP .
In 2013 's free @-@ to @-@ play mobile game Snow White : Queen 's Return ( also known as Seven Dwarfs : The Queen 's Return ) , an uncanonical continuation of the film , the Queen has survived the fall at the climax of the film and then reverted to her youthful form to cast a curse on Snow White and the dwarfs and their entire forest .
= = = Broadway musical = = =
Unknown Mary Jo Salerno played Snow White in the Disney @-@ produced Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( also known as Snow White Live ! ) at the Radio City Music Hall . Music and lyrics for four new songs were created by Jay Blackton and Joe Cook , respectively ; titles included " Welcome to the Kingdom of Once Upon a Time " and " Will I Ever See Her Again ? " . It ran from October 18 to November 18 , 1979 and January 11 to March 9 , 1980 , a total of 106 performances .
= = = Canceled prequel = = =
In the 2000s , DisneyToon Studios began development on a computer @-@ animated prequel to Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , titled The Seven Dwarfs . Director Mike Disa and screenwriter Evan Spiliotopoulos pitched a story explaining how the Dwarfs met , and how the Evil Queen killed Snow White 's father and took the throne . According to Disa , DisneyToon management changed the prequel to center around how Dopey lost his voice upon witnessing the death of his mother . After Disney purchased Pixar in 2006 , John Lasseter , DisneyToons ' new Chief Creative Officer , canceled Dwarfs .
= = = Live @-@ action film = = =
In March of 2016 , the studio announced a new film in development titled , Rose Red ; a live @-@ action spin @-@ off film which will be told from the point @-@ of @-@ view of Snow White 's sister , Red Rose .
= = = Other appearances = = =
The Seven Dwarfs made rare appearances in shorts , despite their popularity ; they simply were too numerous to animate efficiently . Commissioned shorts The Standard Parade ( 1939 ) , The Seven Wise Dwarfs ( 1941 , using mostly recycled footage ) , All Together ( 1942 ) and The Winged Scourge ( 1943 ) all include appearances .
The animated television series House of Mouse , which included many Disney character animated cameos , included the characters in the special Mickey 's Magical Christmas : Snowed in at the House of Mouse . The Evil Queen appeared in a starring role in the film Once Upon a Halloween as well . In the arena of live action , the fantasy television series Once Upon a Time ( produced by Disney @-@ owned ABC Studios ) regularly includes live @-@ action interpretations of these characters including Snow White , the Evil Queen and Grumpy .
A 1937 – 1938 newspaper comic strip adaptation was republished repeatedly as a comic book , most recently in 1995 .
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