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= Hungarian prehistory = Hungarian prehistory ( Hungarian : magyar őstörténet ) spans the period of history of the Hungarian people , or Magyars , which started with the separation of the Hungarian language from other Finno @-@ Ugric or Ugric languages around 800 BC , and ended with the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin around 895 AD . Based on the earliest records of the Magyars in Byzantine , Western European , and Hungarian chronicles , scholars considered them for centuries to have been the descendants of the ancient Scythians and Huns . This historiographical tradition disappeared from mainstream history after the realization of similarities between the Hungarian language and the Uralic languages in the late 18th century . Thereafter , linguistics became the principal source of the study of the Hungarians ' ethnogenesis . In addition , chronicles written between the 9th and 15th centuries , the results of archaeological research and folklore analogies provide information on the Magyars ' early history . Study of pollen in fossils based on cognate words for certain trees – including larch and elm – in the daughter languages suggests the speakers of the Proto @-@ Uralic language lived in the wider region of the Ural Mountains , which were inhabited by scattered groups of Neolithic hunter @-@ gatherers in the 4th millennium BC . They spread over vast territories , which caused the development of a separate Proto @-@ Finno @-@ Ugric language by the end of the millennium . Linguistic studies and archaeological research evidence that those who spoke this language lived in pit @-@ houses and used decorated clay vessels . The expansion of marshlands after around 2600 BC caused new migrations . No scholarly consensus on the Urheimat , or original homeland , of the Ugric peoples exists : they lived either in the region of the Tobol River or along the Kama River and the upper courses of the Volga River around 2000 BC . They lived in settled communities , cultivated millet , wheat , and other crops , and bred animals – especially horses , cattle , and pigs . Loan words connected to animal husbandry from Proto @-@ Iranian show that they had close contacts with their neighbors . The southernmost Ugric groups adopted a nomadic way of life by around 1000 BC , because of the northward expansion of the steppes . The development of the Hungarian language started around 800 BC with the withdrawal of the grasslands and the parallel southward migration of the nomadic Ugric groups . The history of the ancient Magyars during the next thousand years is uncertain ; they lived in the steppes but the location of their Urheimat is subject to scholarly debates . According to one theory , they initially lived east of the Urals and migrated west to " Magna Hungaria " by 600 AD at the latest . Other scholars say Magna Hungaria was the Magyars ' original homeland , from where they moved either to the region of the Don River or towards the Kuban River before the 830s AD . Hundreds of loan words adopted from Chuvash @-@ type Turkic languages prove the Magyars were closely connected to Turkic peoples . Byzantine and Muslim authors regarded them as a Turkic people in the 9th and 10th centuries . An alliance between the Magyars and the Bulgarians in the late 830s was the first historical event that was recorded with certainty in connection with the Magyars . According to the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus , the Magyars lived in Levedia in the vicinity of the Khazar Khaganate in the early 9th century and supported the Khazars in their wars " for three years " . The Magyars were organized into tribes , each headed by their own " voivodes " , or military leaders . After a Pecheneg invasion against Levedia , a group of Magyars crossed the Caucasus Mountains and settled in the lands south of the mountains , but the majority of the people fled to the steppes north of the Black Sea . From their new homeland , which was known as Etelköz , the Magyars controlled the lands between the Lower Danube and the Don River in the 870s . The confederation of their seven tribes was led by two supreme chiefs , the kende and the gyula . The Kabars – a group of rebellious subjects of the Khazars – joined the Magyars in Etelköz . The Magyars regularly invaded the neighboring Slavic tribes , forcing them to pay a tribute and seizing prisoners to be sold to the Byzantines . Taking advantage of the wars between Bulgaria , East Francia , and Moravia , they invaded Central Europe at least four times between 861 and 894 . A new Pecheneg invasion compelled the Magyars to leave Etelköz , cross the Carpathian Mountains , and settle in the Carpathian Basin around 895 . = = = Archaeology = = = Since the 1830s , archaeology has played an important role in the study of the Magyar prehistory . Archaeologists have applied two methods ; the so @-@ called " linear method " attempts to determine the route of the migrating Magyars from their original homeland to the Carpathian Basin , while the " retrospective method " tries to discover the antecedents of 10th @-@ century assemblages from the Carpathian Basin in the Eurasian steppes . However , only twelve cemeteries in the steppes have yielded finds that show similarities to assemblages unearthed in the Carpathian Basin . The dating of those cemeteries is also controversial . Both the scarcity of published archaeological material and the misdating of some sites may have contributed to the low number of archaeological sites that can be attributed to the Hungarians in the steppes , according to archaeologist László Kovács . Kovács also says that the Hungarians ' migration from the steppes and their settlement in the Carpathian Basin may have caused the development of a new material culture , rendering the identification of pre @-@ conquest Hungarians difficult . Archaeological research has demonstrated that the material culture of the Avars and other steppe peoples who settled in the Carpathian Basin before the Hungarians experienced a similarly significant change after they left the steppes and settled in their new homeland . Buckles , belt mounts , and other objects of the so @-@ called " Subotcy horizon " , which were unearthed at Caterinovca , Slobozia , and other sites along the middle course of the Dniester show similarities with archaeological finds from the 10th @-@ century Carpathian Basin . These objects were carbon dated to the late 9th century . The same archaeological sites also yielded vessels similar to the pottery of the neighboring Slavic territories . = = = Linguistics = = = The study of the Hungarian language is one of the main sources of the research on the ethnogenesis of the Hungarian people because a language shows the circumstances of its own development and its contacts with other idioms . According to a scholarly theory , the oldest layers of Hungarian vocabulary show features of the territory in which the language emerged . The study of loan words from other languages is instrumental in determining direct contacts between the ancient speakers of the Hungarian language and other peoples . Loan words also reflect changes in the way of life of the Magyars . = = = Written sources = = = Written sources on the prehistoric Hungarians may begin with Herodotus , who wrote of the Iyrcae , a people of equestrian hunters who lived next to the Thyssagetae . Based on the location of the homeland of the Iyrcae and their ethnonym , Gyula Moravcsik , János Harmatta , and other scholars identify them as Hungarians ; their view has not been universally accepted . The 6th @-@ century Byzantine historian John Malalas referred to a Hunnic tribal leader called Muageris , who ruled around 527 AD . Moravcsik , Dezső Pais , and other historians connect Muageris 's name to the Hungarians ' endonym ( Magyar ) ; they say Malalas 's report proves the presence of Magyar tribes in the region of the Sea of Azov in the early 6th century AD . This identification is rejected by most scholars . The Continuation of the Chronicle by Friar George , which was written in the middle of the 10th century , recorded the first historical event – an alliance between the Magyars and the Bulgarians in the late 830s – that can without doubt be connected to the Magyars . The Byzantine Emperor Leo the Wise 's Tactics , a book written around 904 , contained a detailed description of their military strategies and way of life . Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus 's De administrando imperio ( " On Governing the Empire " ) , which was completed between 948 and 952 , preserves most information on the Magyars ' early history . Al @-@ Jayhani , the minister of Nasr II , ruler of the Samanid Empire , collected the reports of merchants who had traveled in the western regions of the Eurasian steppes in the 870s and 880s . Although Al @-@ Jayhani 's work was lost , later Muslim scholars Ibn Rusta , Gardizi , Abu Tahir Marwazi , and Al @-@ Bakri used his book , preserving important facts about the late 9th @-@ century Magyars . However , their works also contain interpolations from later periods . Among the sources written in Western Europe , the longer version of the Annals of Salzburg , Regino of Prüm 's Chronicon , the Annals of Fulda , and Liutprand of Cremona 's Antapodosis ( " Retribution " ) , provide contemporaneous or near @-@ contemporaneous information of the 9th @-@ century Magyars . There are also references to the Magyars dwelling in the Pontic steppes in the legends of Cyril , Methodius and other early Slavic saints . According to historian András Róna @-@ Tas , information preserved in the Russian Primary Chronicle , which was completed in the 1110s , has to be " treated with extreme caution " . The first Hungarian chronicles were written in the late 11th or early 12th centuries but their texts were preserved in manuscripts compiled in the 13th to 15th centuries . Most extant chronicles show that the earliest works contained no information on the history of the Hungarians before their conversion to Christianity in the 11th century . The only exception is the Gesta Hungarorum , which is the earliest extant Hungarian chronicle , whose principal subject is the Magyars ' pagan past . However , the reliability of this work , which was written by a former royal notary now known as Anonymus , is suspect . In his monograph of medieval Hungarian historians , Carlile Aylmer Macartney describes it as " the most famous , the most obscure , the most exasperating and most misleading of all the early Hungarian texts " . = = Ethnonyms = = The Hungarians were mentioned under various ethnic names in Arabic , Byzantine , Slavic , and Western European sources in the 9th and 10th centuries . Arabic scholars referred to them as Magyars , Bashkirs , or Turks ; Byzantine authors mentioned them as Huns , Ungrs , Turks , or Savards ; Slavic sources used the ethnonyms Ugr or Peon , and Western European authors wrote of Hungrs , Pannons , Avars , Huns , Turks , and Agaren . According to the linguist Gyula Németh , the multiple ethnonyms – especially Ungr , Savard , and Turk – reflect that the Magyars had been integrated in various empires of the Eurasian steppes – the tribal confederations of the Onogurs and of the Sabirs , and the Turkic Khaganate – before gaining their independence . Ibn Rusta was the first to record a variant of the Hungarians ' self @-@ designation ; ( al @-@ Madjghariyya ) . According to a scholarly theory , the ethnonym " Magyar " is a composite word . The first part of the word ( magy- ) is said to have been connected to several recorded or hypothetical words , including the Mansi 's self @-@ designation ( māńśi ) and a reconstructed Ugric word for man ( * mańća ) . The second part ( -er or -ar ) may have developed from a reconstructed Finno @-@ Ugrian word for man or boy ( * irkä ) or from a Turkic word with a similar meaning ( eri or iri ) . Alan W. Ertl writes that the ethnonym was initially the name of a smaller group , the Megyer tribe ; it developed into an ethnonym because Megyer was the most powerful tribe within the people . Most scholars agree that the Hungarian exonym and its variants were derived from the Onogurs ' name . This form started spreading in Europe with Slavic mediation . = = Legend of the Wondrous Hind = = Most historians agree that the legend of the wondrous hind preserved the Hungarians ' own myth of their origins . The late 13th @-@ century chronicler Simon of Kéza was the first to record it . The legend says two brothers , Hunor and Magor , were the forefathers of the Huns and Hungarians . They were the sons of Ménrót and his wife , Eneth . While chasing a hind , they reached as far as the marches of the Sea of Azov , where they abducted the wives of Belar 's sons and two daughters of Dula , the prince of the Alans . According to historian Gyula Kristó , Eneth 's name derived from the Hungarian word for hind ( ünő ) , showing that the Magyars regarded this animal as their totemistic ancestor . Kristó also says the four personal names mentioned in the legend personify four peoples : the Hungarians ( Magor ) , the Onogurs ( Hunor ) , the Bulgars ( Belar ) and the Dula – kindred of the Alans or Bulgars ( Dulo ) . The hunt for a beast , ending with the arrival in a new homeland , was a popular legend among the peoples of the Eurasian steppes , including the Huns and the Mansi . The myth that a people were descended from two brothers was also widespread . Consequently , it is possible that Simon of Kéza did not record a genuine Hungarian legend , but borrowed it from foreign sources . After the confusion of tongues the giant [ Ménrót ] entered the land of Havilah , which is now called Persia , and there he begot two sons , Hunor and Mogor , by his wife Eneth . It was from them that the Huns , or Hungarians , took their origins . ... [ A ] s Hunor and Mogor were Ménrót 's first born , they journeyed separately from their father in tents . Now it happened one day when they had gone out hunting in the Meotis marshes that they encountered a hind in the wilderness . As they went in pursuit of it , it fled before them . Then it disappeared from their sight altogether , and they could not find it no matter how long they searched . But as they were wandering through these marshes , they saw that the land was well suited for grazing cattle . They then returned to their father , and after obtaining his permission they took all their possessions and went to live in the Meotis marshes . ... So they entered the Meotis marshes and remained there for five years without leaving . Then in the sixth year they went out , and when by chance they discovered that the wives and children of the sons of Belar were camped in tents in a lonely place without their menfolk , they carried them off with all their belongings as fast as they could into the Meotis marshes . Two daughters of Dula , prince of the Alans , happened to be among the children who were seized . Hunor took one of them in marriage and Mogor the other , and to these women all the Huns owe their origin . = = Historiography = = = = = Medieval theories = = = According to the Annals of St. Bertin , the Magyars who invaded East Francia in 862 were enemies " hitherto unknown " to the local population . Likewise , Regino of Prüm wrote that the Magyars had been " unheard of in the previous centuries because they were not named " . in the sources . Both remarks evince that late 9th @-@ century authors had no knowledge of the Magyars ' origins . However , the Magyar raids reminded the Western European and Byzantine scholars of earlier historians ' descriptions of the Scythians or Huns , which gave rise to their identification with those peoples . For instance , Leo the Wise listed the Hungarians among the " Scythian nations " . The similarity between the Latin ethnonyms Huni and Hungari strengthened the identification of the two peoples , which became commonplace in Western Europe in the 11th century . The Chronicon Eberspergense was the first source that clearly stated that the Huns and the Hungarians were the same people . The earliest Hungarian chronicles adopted the idea that the Huns and Hungarians were closely related . Anonymus did not mention the Huns , but he referred to Attila the Hun as a ruler " from whose line Prince Álmos " , the supreme head of the Magyar tribes , descended . However , Simon of Kéza explicitly identified the Huns and the Hungarians in the 1280 . He started his chronicle with a book of the history of the Huns , thus presenting the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin as the reoccupation of a land inherited from their ancestors . Thereafter the identification of the two peoples was the basic theory of the origins of the Hungarians for centuries . = = = Modern scholarship = = = Scholarly attempts in the early 18th century to prove a relationship between the Finns and the Huns led to the realization of the similarities between the Finnish and Hungarian languages . János Sajnovics 's Demonstratio , the first systematic comparative study of Hungarian and the Saami languages , was published in 1770 . Three decades later , Sámuel Gyarmathi demonstrated similarities between a larger group of languages that are now known as Uralic languages . However , the majority of Hungarian scholars only gradually adopted Sajnovics 's and Gyarmathi 's views . In the 1830s , Pál Hunfalvy still wrote that Hungarian had an intermediate position between the Finnish and Turkic languages , but later accepted that Hungarian is closely related to the Mansi and Khanty languages . Hereafter linguistics played a pre @-@ eminent role in the research of the Magyars ' prehistory because it was always the dominant linguistic theory that determined the interpretation of historical and archaeological evidence . Consequently , as historian Nóra Berend writes , Hungarian prehistory is " a tenuous construct based on linguistics , folklore analogies , archaeology , and later written evidence " , because there are no certain records of the Magyars before the 9th century and the identification of archaeological cultures with peoples is highly debatable . Historian László Kontler identifies " the history of Hungarian origins " as " the history of a community whose genetic composition and cultural character has been changing , but which has assuredly spoken Hungarian or its predecessor language " . According to mainstream scholarly consensus , the Hungarians are not the autochthonous population of the Carpathian Basin . Their ancestors arrived there through a series of westward migrations across the Eurasian steppes around 894 , centuries after their departure from their original homeland located somewhere in the East . Many details of the Magyars ' prehistory – the location of their original homeland , the ancient Magyars ' connections with the Turkic peoples and the Khazar Khaganate , their lifestyle and political organization , and the background of their conquest of the Carpathian Basin – are still subject to scholarly debates . With regard of the connections between the Magyars and the Turkic tribes , archaeologist Gyula László mooted an alternative theory in the 1960s . According to his theory of the " double conquest " , a large group of people who spoke a Finno @-@ Ugrian language arrived in the Carpathian Basin in 670 , and a Turkic @-@ speaking people conquered the same territory in the late 9th century . László 's theory has never been widely accepted . = = Formation of the Magyar people = = = = = Before the separation of the Hungarian language ( before c . 800 BC ) = = = Hungarian has traditionally been classified as an Ugric language within the family of Uralic languages , but alternative views exist . For instance , linguist Tapani Salminen rejects the existence of a Proto @-@ Ugric language , saying Hungarian was a member of an " areal genetic unit " that also included Permic languages . Paleolinguistic research suggests the speakers of the Proto @-@ Uralic language lived in a territory where four trees – larch , silver fir , spruce , and elm – grew together . The study of pollen in fossils shows these trees could be found on both sides of the Ural Mountains along the rivers Ob , Pechora , and Kama in the 4th millennium BC . The land between the Urals and the Kama was sparsely inhabited during this period . From around 3600 BC , the Neolithic material culture of the wider region of the Urals spread over vast territories to the west and east . Regional variants emerged , showing the appearance of groups of people who had no close contact with each other . About 1000 basic words of the Hungarian language – including the names of the seasons and natural phenomena , and the most frequently used verbs – had cognates in other Finno @-@ Ugric languages , suggesting the temporary existence of a Proto @-@ Finno @-@ Ugric language . Between around 2600 and 2100 BC , climatic changes caused the spread of swamps on both sides of the Urals , forcing groups of inhabitants to leave their homelands . The Finno @-@ Ugric linguistic unity disappeared and new languages emerged around 2000 BC . Whether the groups speaking the language from which Hungarian emerged lived to the east or to the west of the Urals in this period is debated by historians . Further climate changes occurring between 1300 and 1000 BC caused the northward expansion of the steppes by about 200 – 300 kilometres ( 120 – 190 mi ) , compelling the southernmost Ugric groups to adopt a nomadic lifestyle . Around 800 BC , the climate again changed with the beginning of a wetter period , forcing the nomadic Ugric groups to start a southward migration , following the grasslands . Their movement separated them from the northern Ugric groups , which gave rise to the development of the language from which modern Hungarian emerged . According to historian László Kontler , the concept of the " sky @-@ high tree " and some other elements of Hungarian folklore seem to have been inherited from the period of the Finno @-@ Ugric unity . The melodies of the most common Hungarian funeral songs show similarities to tunes of Khanty epic songs . = = = Original homeland ( c . 800 BC – before 600 AD ) = = = The stag and the eagle , which are popular motifs of 10th @-@ century Magyar art , have close analogies in Scythian art . The Scythians , Sarmatians , and other peoples who spoke Iranian languages dominated the Eurasian steppes between around 800 BC and 350 AD . During this period , all ethnic groups in the steppes were nomads with almost identical material cultures , for which the certain identification of the Magyars is impossible . Consequently , the location of their original homeland is subject to scholarly debates . Róna @-@ Tas says the development of Hungarian started in the region of the rivers Kama and Volga , west of the Urals . Archaeologist István Fodor writes that the original homeland lay to the east of the Urals . He says that some features of the tumuli erected at Chelyabinsk in the 4th century BC , including the northward orientation of the heads of the deceased and the geometric motifs on the clay vessels put in the graves , are similar to older burials that he attributes to Ugric peoples . = = Migrations = = = = = Early westward migrations ( before 600 AD – c . 750 or 830 AD ) = = = In the 1230s , Friar Julian went to search for the Magyars ' legendary homeland Magna Hungaria after reading about it and a group of Magyars who had remained there in a Hungarian chronicle . He met a Hungarian @-@ speaking group " beside the great Etil river " ( the Volga or the Kama ) in the land of the Volga Bulgars , in or in the wider region of present @-@ day Bashkortostan in Eastern Europe . Whether Magna Hungaria was the original homeland of the Magyars , or whether the Magyars ' ancestors settled in Magna Hungaria after their migration to Europe from their Western Siberian original homeland is still subject to scholarly debates . According to a third scholarly theory , Magna Hungaria was neither the Magyars ' original homeland nor their first homeland in Europe . Instead , the ancestors of the Eastern Magyars whom Friar Julian met had moved to Magna Hungaria from the south . According to a scholarly theory , the name of at least one Magyar tribe , Gyarmat , is connected to the name of a Bashkir group , Yurmatï . Specific burial rites – the use of death masks and the placing of parts of horses into the graves – featuring a 9th- or 10th @-@ century cemetery at the confluence of the Volga and Kama near present @-@ day Bolshie Tigany in Bashkortostan are also evidenced among the Magyars who lived in the Carpathian Basin in the 10th century . Most specialists say that the cemetery at Bolshie Tigany was used by Magyars who either remained in Magna Hungaria when other Magyar groups left the territory , or who moved there from other regions which were inhabited by the Magyars during their migrations . If the Magyars ' original homeland was situated in Western Siberia , instead of being identical with Magna Hungaria , their ancestors moved from Western Siberia to Eastern Europe . This must have happened between 500 BC and 700 AD , because there were several major movements of peoples across the steppes during this period . The " Prohorovo culture " spread towards modern @-@ day Bashkortostan around 400 BC . The westward migration of the Huns forced many groups of people of Western Siberia to depart for Europe between about 350 and 400 AD . The Avars ' attack against the Sabirs in Siberia set in motion a number of migrations in the 460s . Between around 550 and 600 , the migration of the Avars towards Europe compelled many nomadic groups to move . The arrival of the Huns ended the dominance of Iranian peoples in the Eurasian steppes . Thereafter the Sabirs , Avars , Onoghurs , Khazars , and other Turkic peoples controlled the grasslands of Eastern Europe for centuries . Gardizi described the Magyars as " a branch of the Turks " ; Leo the Wise and Constantine Porphyrogenitus called them Turks . About 450 Hungarian words were borrowed from Turkic languages before around 900 . The oldest layer of Hungarian folk songs show similarities to Chuvash songs . These facts show the Magyars were closely connected to the Turks while they stayed in the Pontic steppes . Gyula Németh , András Róna @-@ Tas and other scholars write that for centuries , the Magyars lived around the Kuban River , to the north of the Caucasus Mountains . They say it was there that the Magyars adopted the Turkic terminology of viticulture , including bor ( " wine " ) and seprő ( " dregs " ) , and the Turkic names of cornel ( som ) , grapes ( szőlő ) and some other fruits . According to these scholars , the Hungarian words of Alanic origin – including asszony ( " lady " , originally " noble or royal lady " ) – were also borrowed in the same region . = = = Levedia ( c . 750 or 830 – c . 850 ) = = = The Khazar Khaganate was the dominant power in the steppes between the rivers Dnieper and Volga after around 650 . Archaeological finds show that the Khagans controlled a multi @-@ ethnic empire . The " Saltovo @-@ Mayaki culture " , which flourished in the same region around 750 and 900 , had at least seven variants . In the Hungarian chronicles , the legend of the wondrous hind seems to have preserved the memory of the Magyars ' " close symbiosis , intermarriages , and incipient fusion " with various ethnic groups – Alans , Bulgars , and Onogurs – of this large region . Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus wrote that the Magyars " had of old their dwelling next to Chazaria , in the place called Levedia , " adding that " a river Chidmas , also called Chingilous " ran through this territory . The identification of the ( one or two ) rivers is uncertain . Porphyrogenitus associated Levedia with the whole territory dominated by the Magyars , but most modern historians agree that he only described a smaller region situated on the Don River . The period when the Magyars settled in Levedia is also uncertain ; this happened either before 750 ( István Fodor ) or around 830 ( Gyula Kristó ) . Porphyrogenitus said that the Magyars had been named " Sabartoi asphaloi " , or " steadfast Savarts " , while staying in Levedia . Róna @-@ Tas says the ethnonym is an invented term with no historical credibility . Based on the same denomination , Károly Czeglédy , Dezső Dümmerth , Victor Spinei , and other historians associated the Magyars either with the late 6th @-@ century Sabirs or with the Suvar tribe of the Volga Bulgars . Porphyroneitus wrote that the Magyars " lived together with the Chazars for three years , and fought in alliance with the Chazars in all their wars " , which suggests that the Magyars were subjugated to the Khazar Khagan , according to a scholarly view . On the other hand , historian György Szabados says , the emperor 's words prove the equal position of the Magyars and the Khazars , instead of the Magyars ' subjugation to the Khagan . Although the emperor said that the Magyars ' cohabitation with the Khazars lasted only for three years , modern historians tend to propose a longer period ( 20 , 30 , 100 , 150 , 200 or even 300 years ) . According to a memorial stone erected in or before 831 , a Bulgarian military commander named Okorsis drowned in the Dnieper during a military campaign . Florin Curta says this inscription may be the " ' first clue ' to the upheaval on the steppes created by the migration of the Magyars into the lands between the Dnieper and the Danube " . The earliest certainly identifiable events of the Magyars ' history occurred in the 830s . The Bulgarians hired them to fight against their Byzantine prisoners , who rebelled and tried to return to Macedonia in the late 830s , but the Byzantines routed them on the banks on the Lower Danube . According to the Annals of St. Bertin , Rus ' envoys who visited Constantinople in 839 could only return to their homeland through the Carolingian Empire because " the route by which they had reached Constantinople had taken them through primitive tribes that were very fierce and savage " ; Curta and Kristó identify those tribes with the Magyars . Ibn Rusta wrote that the Khazars " used to be protected from attack by the Magyars and other neighboring peoples " by a ditch . According to a scholarly theory , Ibn Rusta 's report shows that the Khazar fort at Sarkel , which was built in the 830s , was one of the forts protecting the Khazars against the Magyars . According to Porphyrogenitus , In Levedia , the Magyars " were seven clans , but they had never had over them a prince either native or foreign , but there were among them ' voivodes ' " , or chiefs . Although the exact meaning of the term the emperor used ( genea ) cannot be exactly determined , scholars have traditionally considered the Magyar " clans " or " tribes " as ethnic and territorial units . In the Hungarian chronicles , references to " seven leading persons " or " seven captains " denote the existence of seven Magyar tribes . Porphyrogenitus said the tribes did not " obey their own particular [ voivodes ] , but [ had ] a joint agreement to fight together with all earnestness and zeal ... wheresoever war breaks out " , suggesting the tribal chiefs were military rather than political leaders . According to Kristó , the emperor 's report also shows the tribal confederation was not a " solid political formation with strong cohesion " in the early 9th century . The Gesta Hungarorum referred to the seven Magyar chiefs as " Hetumoger " , or " Seven Magyars " . Similar ethnonyms – including Toquz Oghuz ( " Nine Oghuzes " ) and Onogur ( " Ten Ogurs " ) – suggest the Gesta preserved the name of the confederation of the Magyar tribes . According to Porphyrogenitus , Levedia was named after Levedi , one of the Magyar voivodes . During Levedi 's life , the Kangars , a distinct group within the Pechenegs ' tribal confederation whom the Khazars had expelled from their homeland , invaded Levedia and forced the Magyars to cede the territory . A Magyar group fled across the Caucasus Mountains as far as Persia . However , the masses departed for the West and settled in a region called Etelköz . Most historians agree the Magyars ' forced exodus from Levedia occurred around 850 . [ T ] he Pechenegs who were previously called " Kangar " ( for this " Kangar " was a name signifiying nobility and valour among them ) , these , then , stirred up war against the [ Khazars ] and , being defeated , were forced to quit their own land and to settle in that of the [ Magyars ] . And when battle was joined between the [ Magyars ] and the Pechenegs who were at that time called " Kangar " , the army of the [ Magyars ] was defeated and split into two parts . One part went eastwards and settled in the region of Persia , and they to this day are called by the ancient denomination of the [ Magyars ] " Sabartoi asphaloi " ; but the other part , together with their voivode and chief [ Levedi ] , settled in the western regions , in places called [ Etelköz ] ... . = = = Etelköz ( c . 850 – c . 895 ) = = = Constantine Porphyrogenitus identified Etelköz with the lands where the rivers " Barouch " , " Koubou " , " Troullos " , " Broutos " , and " Seretos " run . The identification of the last three rivers with the Dniester , the Prut , and the Siret is without debate , but the traditional identification of the Barouch with the Dnieper and the Koubou with the Southern Bug is refuted by Spinei . Al @-@ Jayhani wrote that the Magyars ' territory was located between two rivers named " tl " and " dwb " in the 870s . According to modern scholars , tl may refer to the Volga , the Don , or the Dnieper ; dwb is identified as the Danube . According to the Gesta Hungarorum , the Magyars lived in " Scythia " or " Dentumoger " ; the latter name , which refers to the Don River , suggests the Magyars inhabited the eastern regions of the Pontic steppes , according to Spinei . The Khazar Khagan sent his envoys to the Magyars shortly after they fled from Levedia and settled in Etelköz , according to Porphyrogenitus . The Khagan invited Levedi to a meeting , proposing to make Levedi the supreme head of the confederation of the Magyar tribes in exchange for the acceptance of his suzerainty . Instead of accepting the offer , Levedi suggested the new rank should be offered to another voivode , Álmos , or the latter 's son , Árpád . The Khagan accepted Levedi 's proposal and upon his demand the Magyar chiefs proclaimed Árpád their head . According to Kristó and Spinei , Porphyrogenitus ' report preserved the memory of the creation of a central office within the federation of the Magyar tribes . Róna @-@ Tas says the story relates only a " change of dynasty " ; the fall of Levedi 's family and the emergence of the Árpád dynasty . In contrast with Porphyrogenitus 's story , the Gesta Hungarorum says it was not Árpád , but his father who was elected the first supreme prince of the Magyars . According to Muslim scholars , the Magyars had two supreme leaders , the kende and the gyula , the latter being their ruler in the 870s . Their report implies the Khagan granted a Khazar title to the head of the federation of the Magyar tribes ; Ibn Fadlan recorded that the third Khazar dignitary was styled kündür in the 920s . The Muslim scholar 's report also implies the Magyars adopted the Khazar system of " dual kingship " , whereby supreme power was divided between a sacred ruler ( the kende ) and a military leader ( the gyula ) . Between the country of the [ Pechenegs ] and the country of the Iskil , which belongs to the [ Volga Bulgars ] , lies the first of the Magyar frontiers . ... Their chief rides at the head of 20 @,@ 000 horsemen . He is named kundah , but the one who actually rules them is called jilah . All the Magyars implicitly obey this ruler in wars of offence and defence . ... Their territory is vast , extending to the Black Sea , into which two rivers flow , one larger than the Oxus . Their campsites are located between these two rivers . Porphyrogenitus wrote that the Kabars – a group of Khazars who rebelled against the Khagan – joined the Magyars in Etelköz at an unspecified time , suggesting that the Magyars had got rid of the Khagan 's suzerainty . The Kabars were organized into three tribes , but a single chieftain commanded them . Porphyrogenitus also wrote that the Kabars " were promoted to be first " tribe , because they showed themselves " the strongest and most valorous " of the tribes . Accordingly , the Kabars formed the Magyars ' vanguard , because nomadic peoples always placed the associated tribes in the most vulnerable position . Ibn Rusta wrote that the Magyars subjected the neighboring Slavic peoples , imposing " a heavy tribute on them " and treating them as prisoners . The Magyars also " made piratical raids on the Slavs " and sold those captured during these raids to the Byzantines in Kerch on the Crimean peninsula . A band of Magyar warriors attacked the future Saint Cyril the Philosopher " howling like wolves and wishing to kill him " in the steppes near the Crimea , according to the saint 's legend . However , Cyril convinced them to " release him and his entire retinue in peace " . The inhabitants of the regions along the left bank of the Dniester – whom the Russian Primary Chronicle identified as Tivertsi – fortified their settlements in the second half of the 9th century , which seems to be connected to the Magyars ' presence . A plundering raid in East Francia in 862 was the Magyars ' first recorded military expedition in Central Europe . This raid may have been initiated by Rastislav of Moravia , who was at war with Louis the German , according to Róna @-@ Tas and Spinei . The longer version of the Annals of Salzburg said the Magyars returned to East Francia and ransacked the region of Vienna in 881 . The same source separately mentioned the Cowari , or Kabars , plundering the region of Kulmberg or Kollmitz in the same year , showing that the Kabars formed a distinct group . In the early 880s , a " king " of the Magyars had an amicable meeting with Methodius , Archbishop of Moravia , who was returning from Constantinople to Moravia , according to Methodius ' legend . When the King of Hungary came to the lands of the Danube , Methodius wished to see him . And though some were assuming and saying : " He will not escape torment , " Methodius went to [ the king ] . And as befits a sovereign , [ the king ] received [ Methodius ] with honor , solemnity , and joy . Having conversed with [ Methodius ] as befits such men to converse , [ the king ] dismissed [ Methodius ] with an embrace an many gifts . Kissing him , [ the king ] said : " O venerable Father , remember me always in your holy prayers . " = = = The Hungarian Conquest ( c . 895 – 907 ) = = = The Magyars returned to Central Europe in July 892 , when they invaded Moravia in alliance with Arnulf , king of East Francia . Two years later , they stormed into the March of Pannonia . According to the Annals of Fulda , they " killed men and old women outright , and carried out the young women alone with them like cattle to satisfy their lusts " . Although this source does not refer to an alliance between the Magyars and Svatopluk I of Moravia , most historians agree the Moravian ruler persuaded them to invade East Francia . During their raids in the Carpathian Basin , the Magyars had several opportunities to collect information on their future homeland . The Samanid emir , Isma 'il ibn Ahmad , launched an expedition against the Oghuz Turks in 893 , forcing them to invade the Pechenegs ' lands between the Volga and Ural rivers . After being expelled from their homeland , the Pechenegs departed for the west in search of new pastures . The Magyars had in the meantime invaded Bulgaria in alliance with the Byzantine Emperor Leo the Wise . Simeon I of Bulgaria sent envoys to the Pechenegs and persuaded them to storm into Etelköz . The unexpected invasion destroyed the unguarded dwelling places of the Magyars , forcing them to leave the Pontic steppes and seek refuge over the Carpathian Mountains . The Magyars occupied their new homeland in several phases , initially settling the lands east of the Danube and only invading the March of Pannonia after Arnulf of East Francia died in 899 . They destroyed Moravia before 906 and consolidated their control of the Carpathian Basin through their victory over a Bavarian army in the Battle of Brezalauspurc in 907 . = = Way of life = = = = = Economy = = = Most Neolithic settlements were situated on the banks of rivers and lakes in the proposed original homeland of the Uralic peoples , but no houses have been excavated there . The local inhabitants primarily used tools made of stone – especially jasper from the southern Urals – , bone and wood , but baked clay vessels decorated with broken or wavy lines were also found . Their economy was based on fishing , hunting , and gathering . The basic Hungarian words connected to these activities – háló ( net ) , íj ( bow ) , nyíl ( arrow ) , ideg ( bowstring ) , and mony ( egg ) – are inherited from the Proto @-@ Uralic period . Paleolithic drawings on rocks in the Urals depict scenes of hunting for reindeer and moose . The Hungarian words for house ( ház ) , dwelling ( lak ) , door ( ajtó ) , and bed ( ágy ) are of Proto @-@ Finno @-@ Ugric origin . Houses built in the presumed Finno @-@ Ugric homeland in the wider region of the Urals in the 3rd millennium BC show regional differences ; in the valley of the Sosva River , square pit @-@ houses were dug deep into the ground ; along the Kama River , rectangular semi @-@ pit houses were built . The local people were hunter @-@ gatherers . They used egg @-@ shaped , baked clay vessels that were decorated with rhombuses , triangles , and other geometrical forms . They buried their dead in shallow graves and showered the bodies with red ochre . They also placed objects including tools , jewels made of pierced boar tusks , and small pendants in the form of animal heads into the graves . Copper objects found in the graves , which were manufactured in the Caucasus Mountains , indicate that the inhabitants of the lands on both sides of the Ural Mountains had trading contacts with faraway territories around 2000 BC . Words from the Proto @-@ Ugric period – ló ( " horse " ) , nyereg ( " saddle " ) , fék ( " bridle " ) , and szekér ( " wagon " ) – show that those who spoke this language rode horses . Animal husbandry spread on both sides of the Urals from around 1500 BC . The bones of domestic animals – cattle , goats , sheep , pigs , and horses – comprised 90 % of all animal bones excavated in many settlements . Loan words from Proto @-@ Iranian suggest the Ugric @-@ speaking populations adopted animal husbandry from neighboring peoples . For instance , the Hungarian words for cow ( tehén ) and milk ( tej ) are of Proto @-@ Iranian origin . Archaeological finds – including seeds of millet , wheat , and barley , and tools including sickles , hoes , and spade handles – prove the local population also cultivated arable lands . The Magyars ' ancestors gave up their settled way of life because of the northward expansion of the steppes during the last centuries of the 2nd millennium BC . Ethnographic studies of modern nomadic populations suggest cyclic migrations – a year @-@ by @-@ year movement between their winter and summer camps – featured in their way of life , but they also cultivated arable lands around their winter camps . Most historians agree the Magyars had a mixed nomadic or semi @-@ nomadic economy , characterized by both the raising of cattle and the cultivation of arable lands . Turkic loanwords in the Hungarian language show the Magyars adopted many practices of animal husbandry and agriculture from the Turkic peoples between the 5th and 9th centuries . For instance , the Hungarian words for pig ( disznó ) , castrated hog ( ártány ) , ox ( ökör ) , barley ( árpa ) , garden ( kert ) , plough ( eke ) , weed ( gyom ) , refuse of grain ( ocsú ) , fallow land ( tarló ) , and sickle ( sarló ) are of Turkic origin . Most loanwords were borrowed from Bulgar or other Chuvash @-@ type Turkic language , but the place and the time of the borrowings are uncertain . The Magyars ' connections with the people of the Saltovo @-@ Mayaki culture may have contributed to the development of their agriculture , according to Spinei . According to Ibn Rusta , the late 9th @-@ century Magyars " dwell in tents and move from place to place in search of pasturage " , but during the winters they settled along the nearest river , where they lived by fishing . He also said their " land is well watered and harvests abundant " , showing they had arable lands , although it is unclear whether those lands were cultivated by the Magyars themselves or by their prisoners . Taxes collected from the neighboring peoples , a slave trade , and plundering raids made the Magyars a wealthy people . Gardezi wrote that they were " a handsome people and of good appearance and their clothes are of silk brocade and their weapons are of silver and are encrusted with pearls " , proving their growing wealth . However , 9th @-@ century Byzantine and Muslim coins have rarely been found in the Pontic steppes . Archaeological finds from the Carpathian Basin provide evidence of the crafts practiced by the Magyars . 10th @-@ century warriors ' graves yielding sabres , arrow @-@ heads , spear @-@ heads , stirrups , and snaffle bits made of iron show that blacksmiths had a pre @-@ eminent role in the militarized Magyar society . Engraved or gilded sabres and sabretache plates – often decorated with precious stones – and golden or silver pectoral disks evidence the high levels of skills of Magyar gold- and silversmiths . Cemeteries in the Carpathian Basin also yielded scraps of canvas made of flax or hemp . The positioning of metal buttons in the graves shows the Magyars wore clothes that either opened down the front or were fastened at the neck . Ear @-@ rings were the only accessories worn above the belt by Magyar warriors ; jewelry on their upper bodies would have hindered them from firing arrows . In contrast , Magyar women wore head jewelry decorated with leaf @-@ like pendants , ear @-@ rings , decorated pectoral disks , and rings with gemstones . A man seeking a bride was expected to pay a bride price to her father before the marriage took place , according to Gardizi 's description of the late 9th @-@ century Magyars . The Hungarian word for bridegroom – vőlegény from vevő legény ( " purchasing lad " ) – and the expression eladó lány ( verbatim , " bride for sale " ) confirm the reliability of the Muslim author 's report . A decree of Stephen I of Hungary prohibiting the abduction of a girl without her parents ' consent implies that pretended abduction of the bride by her future husband was an integral part of ancient Magyar matrimonial ceremonies . = = = Military = = = The Magyars ' military tactics were similar to those of the Huns , Avars , Pechenegs , Mongols , and other nomadic peoples . According to Emperor Leo the Wise , the main components of Magyar warfare were long @-@ distance arrow @-@ fire , surprise attack , and feigned retreat . However , the contemporaneous Regino of Prüm said the Magyars knew " nothing about ... taking besieged cities " . Archaeological research confirms Leo the Wise 's report of the use of sabres , bows , and arrows . However , in contrast with the emperor 's report , spears have rarely been found in Magyar warriors ' tombs . Their most important weapons were bone @-@ reinforced reflex bows , with which they could shoot at a specific target within 60 – 70 metres ( 200 – 230 ft ) . In battle [ the Magyars ] do not line up as do the [ Byzantines ] in three divisions , but in several units of irregular size , linking the divisions close to one another although separated by short distances , so that they give the impression of one battle line . Apart from their battle line , they maintain an additional force that they send out to ambush careless adversaries of theirs or hold in reserve to support a hard @-@ pressed section . ... Frequently they tie the extra horses together to the rear , that is , behind their battle line , as protection for it . They make the depth of the files , that is , the rows , of their battle line irregular because they consider it more important that the line should be thick than deep , and they make their front even and dense . They prefer battles fought at long range , ambushes , encircling their adversaries , simulated withdrawals and wheeling about , and scattered formations . = = = Religion = = = Modern scholarly theories of the Magyars ' pagan religious beliefs and practices are primarily based on reports by biased medieval authors and prohibitions enacted during the reigns of Christian kings . Both Christian and Muslim sources say the Magyars worshipped forces of nature . They gave offering to trees , fountains , and stones , and made sacrifices at wells ; these are evidenced by the prohibition of such practices during the reign of Ladislaus I of Hungary in the late 11th century . In accordance with the custom of the peoples of the Eurasian steppes , the pagan Magyars swore oaths on dogs , which were bisected to warn potential oathbrakers of their fate . Simon of Kéza also wrote about the sacrifice of horses . According to the Gesta Hungarorum , the seven Magyar chiefs confirmed their treaty " in pagan manner with their own blood spilled in a single vessel " . Scholars studying the Magyars ' religion also take into account ethnographic analogies , folklore , linguistic evidence , and archaeological research . Artifacts depicting a bird of prey or a tree of life imply both symbols were important elements of the Magyar religion . Trepanation – the real or symbolic wounding of the cranium – was widely practiced by 10th @-@ century Magyars . Gyula László writes that real trepanations – the opening of the skull with a chiesel and the closing of the wound with a sheet of silver – were actually surgical operations similarly to those already practiced by Arab physicians , whereas symbolic trepanations – the marking of the skull with an incised circle – were aimed at the disposal of a protective talisman on the head . According to Róna @-@ Tas , a Hungarian word for cunning , ( agyafúrt ) – verbatim " with a drilled brain " – may reflect these ancient practices . The Magyars buried their dead , laying the deceased on their backs with the arms resting along their bodies or upon their pelvises . A deceased warrior 's tomb always contained material connected with his horse . These are most frequently its skin , skull , and the lower legs ; these were put into its master 's grave , but occasionally only the harness was buried together with the warrior , or the horse 's skin was stuffed with hay . The Magyars rolled the corpses in textiles or mats and placed silver plates on the eyes and the mouth . Scholarly theories note the similarities between the táltos of Hungarian folklore and Siberian shamans , but the existence of shamans among the ancient Magyars cannot be proven . Many elements of the Hungarian religious vocabulary , including boszorkány ( " witch " ) , elbűvöl ( " to charm " ) , and the ancient Hungarian word for holy ( igy or egy ) , are of Turkic origin . Many of these loanwords were adopted into their Christian vocabulary : búcsú ( indulgence ) , bűn ( sin ) , gyón ( confess ) , isten ( god ) , and ördög ( devil ) . According to Gyula László , a Hungarian children 's verse that refers to a fife , a drum , and a reed violin preserves the memory of a pagan ritual for expelling harmful spirits by raising great noise . The refrain of another children 's verse , which mentions three days of the week in reverse order , may have preserved an ancient belief in the existence of an afterlife world where everything is upside @-@ down . Stork , oh stork , oh little stork , What has made your leg bleed so ? A Turkish child made the cut , A Magyar child will cure it With fife and drum and a reed violin .
= All That Glitters ( TV series ) = All That Glitters is an American sitcom by producer Norman Lear . It consisted of 65 episodes and aired between April 18 and July 15 , 1977 in broadcast syndication . The show , a spoof of the soap opera format , depicted the trials and tribulations of a group of executives at the Globatron corporation . The twist of the series was that it was set within a world of complete role @-@ reversal : Women were the " stronger sex , " the executives and breadwinners , while the " weaker sex " – the men – were the secretaries or stay @-@ at @-@ home househusbands . Men were often treated as sex objects . The series features Eileen Brennan , Greg Evigan , Lois Nettleton , Gary Sandy , Tim Thomerson and Jessica Walter . Comic actor and cartoon voice artist Chuck McCann was also a regular . Linda Gray played transgender fashion model Linda Murkland , the first transgender series regular on American television . Before and after its premiere , All That Glitters was negatively received and the series lasted just 13 weeks . = = Production = = All That Glitters was series creator Norman Lear 's attempt to duplicate his success with the syndicated soap opera spoof Mary Hartman , Mary Hartman . Lear described the premise simply : " God created Eve first , took out her rib and gave her a companion so she wouldn 't be lonely . " Lear came up with the idea on a trip to Washington , D.C. : " I had visited the Institute of Policy Studies , and I just loved the whole thing . And I thought there was a series in it — a five @-@ times @-@ a @-@ week series : I went to bed thinking about that , and I woke up the next morning thinking what would happen if the male @-@ female equation were changed ? What would happen if the women had all the power and all the advantage , and the men had what the women normally would have ? ” The world of All That Glitters had always been female @-@ dominated but Lear also used the series to comment on changing sex roles in the United States in the 1970s . Former Major League Baseball player Wes Parker almost literally walked into his role . He was doing play @-@ by @-@ play reporting for a Los Angeles television station owned by Lear 's partner , Jerry Perenchio . " Lear casually asked if I 'd be interested in the part . I said yes , but knew it was out of the question , because in real life things don 't happen that way . Nobody walks in and gets on a Norman Lear show . I read for the part , got it and didn 't sleep at all that night . " Linda Gray was somewhat non @-@ plussed upon being offered the role of transgender Linda Murkland . " I remember meeting Norman and him saying , ' You 'll be perfect for the role . ' I didn 't know whether to take that as a compliment or what . " To prepare for her role , Linda Gray asked Lear to arrange for her to meet with a transgender woman . Gray met with her for several hours prior to the beginning of filming and on a couple of occasions during production . Lois Nettleton reportedly based her characterization of Christina Stockwood on Clark Gable . Production started in early March 1977 with director Herbert Kenwith . In test screenings prior to its premiere , reaction to the show was sharply divided . According to executive producer Stephanie Sills , the strongest negative reaction came from male executives . " They didn 't mind being portrayed by women . It was simply that they detest the way we depicted them . " Feminists were uncertain how to react to the series , with some being concerned that audiences would not perceive the show as satire but as an attempt to represent how a female @-@ dominated society would actually operate . Lear marketed the program through his company , TAT Syndication . The series ran five nights a week . = = Cast = = Barbara Baxley – L.W. Carruthers , President of Globatron Eileen Brennan – Ma Packer Vanessa Brown – Peggy Horner , Globatron executive Anita Gillette – Nancy Langston , Globatron executive Linda Gray – Linda Murkland , model Jim Greenleaf – Jeremy Stockwood , Christina 's son David Haskell – Michael McFarland , Andrea 's boyfriend Chuck McCann – Bert Stockwood , Christina 's husband Lois Nettleton – Christina Stockwood , Globatron executive Wes Parker – Glenn Langston , Nancy 's husband Gary Sandy – Dan Kincaid , Globatron secretary Louise Shaffer – Andrea Martin , lawyer Marte Boyle Slout – Grace Smith , Globatron executive Tim Thomerson – Sonny Packer Jessica Walter – Joan Hamlyn , agent = = Critical reaction = = All That Glitters debuted the week of April 18 , 1977 on about 40 stations in late @-@ night syndication . It was poorly critically received , with one reviewer going so far as to call the show 's theme song " blasphemous " for suggesting that God was female and created Eve first . Time magazine sharply criticized the series , calling it " embarrassingly amateurish " , with " flaccid " and " wearying " jokes , flat writing , " mediocre " acting and " aimless " direction . The Wall Street Journal concurred , saying that while the series ' role @-@ reversal premise may have been adequate for a play or film , it was too limiting to serve as the basis for a continuing series . These limitations showed up most clearly , the Journal says , in the lead performances . Although praising the performers themselves as talented , they are cited for being " unable to infuse much life into their roles " . The Journal pegs the fundamental problem with All That Glitters as that " its characters are not people at all , merely composites of the least attractive characteristics of each sex . The satire focuses not on the way real , recognizable people behave , but on stereotypes and cliches about masculine and feminine attitudes . Even when stood on their heads , they still remain stereotypes and cliches . " New Times Magazine was much more receptive to the series . Although labeling it " unquestionably the weirdest [ show ] that Lear has ever produced " , New Times found that the series was not " a satire of mannerisms but of attitudes " . All That Glitters required that viewers watch closely to pick up on the subtleties and nuances , " not so much for what the show says , but for the way that it 's said " . All That Glitters , after initially capturing 20 % of viewers in major markets in its opening weeks , had lost about half of that audience mid @-@ way through its run . The series was cancelled after 13 weeks , last airing on July 15 , 1977 . Although the show was panned , it and Lear , along with Mary Hartman , Mary Hartman , are credited with expanding the subject matter that television producers were able to explore with lessened fear of antagonizing sponsors or viewers . In the years since the series , it has garnered something of a positive reputation , with one critic listing it and other Lear efforts as " imaginative shows that contained some of the most striking satires of television and American society ever broadcast " . While the show itself was unsuccessful , it did spawn a hit song . " You Don 't Bring Me Flowers " , which had been written with the intention of its being the theme song , was recorded by Neil Diamond and Barbra Streisand and made it to # 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 . By the time the show made it to air , another song had been chosen as the theme . The replacement , " Genesis Revisited " , was later described by the New York Times as " sparkl [ ing ] with witty rhymes and a punchy good humor " . The song was performed by Kenny Rankin . The lyrics for both songs were written by Alan and Marilyn Bergman ( the music for " Genesis Revisited " is credited solely to Alan Bergman ) .
= Hurricane Vince = Hurricane Vince was an unusual hurricane that developed in the northeastern Atlantic basin . Forming in October during the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season , it strengthened over waters thought to be too cold for tropical development . Vince was the twentieth named tropical cyclone and twelfth hurricane of the extremely active season . Vince developed from an extratropical system on October 8 , becoming a subtropical storm southeast of the Azores . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) did not officially name the storm until the next day , shortly before Vince became a hurricane . The storm weakened at sea and made landfall on the Iberian Peninsula as a tropical depression on October 11 . Vince was the first tropical system to do so since the 1842 Spain hurricane . It dissipated over Spain , bringing much needed rain to the region , and its remnants passed into the Mediterranean Sea . = = Meteorological history = = On October 5 , an operationally unnamed subtropical storm which had gone unnoticed by the NHC was absorbed by a temperate frontal low , which was moving to the southeast over the Azores . The low pressure system gained a more concentrated circulation and lost its frontal structure after absorbing the subtropical storm . The developing system became a subtropical storm itself early on October 8 , 580 miles ( 930 km ) southeast of Lajes in the Azores . However , the NHC decided not to name the system Vince at the time , because the water temperature was too low for normal development for a tropical cyclone . The storm gradually gained the tropical characteristics of symmetry and a warm inner core and became a tropical storm the next day . Its transformation to a tropical system occurred over water cooler than 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) , much colder than the 26 @.@ 5 ° C ( 80 ° F ) usually required for tropical development . Soon after it became a tropical storm on October 9 near Madeira , with a ragged eye already present , the NHC officially named it Tropical Storm Vince and began to issue advisories . At the time there was some uncertainty as to whether Vince was tropical or subtropical but , in his post @-@ season analysis , forecaster James L. Franklin of the NHC conceded that Vince had formed as a subtropical storm and had evolved into a tropical storm before it was named . The storm 's ragged eye quickly solidified and contracted into a " bona fide " eye with a diameter of 15 mi ( 25 km ) . This increase in organization was accompanied by strengthening , and Vince reached its peak strength as a hurricane with 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds later that day . The NHC forecaster decided that " if it looks like a hurricane , it probably is , despite its environment and unusual location " . Hurricane Vince 's impressive organization was very short lived as westerly wind shear began to erode the eye within hours . In response , the storm weakened to a tropical storm shortly thereafter . A broad low @-@ level trough approached the storm from the northwest , pulling the convection northward as the storm 's low @-@ level center accelerated eastward . On October 10 , two brief bursts of convection surprised forecasters , but with the sea surface temperature as low as 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) , the flares were not sustained . Vince continued to weaken as it approached the Iberian Peninsula and became a tropical depression on October 11 , shortly before it made landfall near Huelva , Spain . The fast @-@ moving tropical depression quickly dissipated over land . Its remnants moved across southern Spain , dumping rain on the drought @-@ ridden region , and moved into the Mediterranean Sea south of Alicante in the early hours of October 12 . = = Preparations and impact = = The Spanish Center for Emergency Coordination declared a rain pre @-@ emergency for the province of Castellón in the anticipation that Hurricane Vince would bring rains capable of flooding . The Instituto Nacional de Meteorología ( INM ) issued a bulletin that warned of a 40 % chance of flooding . Four Spanish autonomous communities ( Asturias , Catalonia , Castile and León , and Galicia ) issued flood warnings , and Canarias issued a wind warning . Spanish fishing fleets off the Andalusian coast returned to port and weathered the storm on their moorings rather than in the open ocean . Spain 's population , which had been battling fires after a record breaking summer drought , welcomed the rains brought by Vince 's remnants . In two days the storm brought more rain to the province of A Coruña than had fallen all summer , easing the sinking water levels in provincial reservoirs , but also causing traffic jams and minor floods . In Córdoba province , the A @-@ 303 , A @-@ 306 and OC @-@ 293 roads were partially flooded but " passable with caution " . Municipal roadworks on la Ronda de Poniente , a major traffic artery connecting the city to nearby highways , were flooded and partially destroyed . The entrance of the University of A Coruña was temporarily blocked by flood waters on October 11 , and a nearby roundabout was submerged . These damages were minor , and no fatalities were reported . The highest winds reported on land were 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) at Jerez , Spain , although some ships recorded stronger . Vince was comparable to normal rain events from temperate systems , with only 1 to 2 inches ( 25 to 50 mm ) of rain falling . Through a play on words of a song in the musical My Fair Lady , National Hurricane Center forecaster James Franklin in the Tropical Cyclone Report for Vince wrote , " the rain in Spain was mainly less than 2 inches , although 3 @.@ 30 inches ( 84 mm ) fell in the plain at Córdoba . " = = Records and naming = = Although Hurricane Vince developed in an unusual location in the northeastern Atlantic , well away from where tropical cyclones are usually found , it is neither the most northerly @-@ forming nor the most easterly @-@ forming Atlantic tropical storm ; these records are held by Alberto of the 1988 season at 41 @.@ 5 ° N , and Ginger of the 1967 season at 18 @.@ 1 ° W , respectively . Hurricane Vince developed into a hurricane farther east than any other known storm , at 18 @.@ 9 ° W. The National Hurricane Center declared that Vince was the first tropical cyclone on record to have made landfall on the Iberian Peninsula . Historical documents , however , suggest that a possibly stronger tropical storm , the 1842 Spain hurricane , struck the Iberian Peninsula on October 29 , 1842 . Vince 's record north was broken by Tropical Storm Grace in 2009 . When Subtropical Storm Vince formed on October 8 , it was the earliest in the season that the twenty @-@ first tropical or subtropical storm had ever developed , 38 days ahead of the previous record held by Tropical Storm Twenty @-@ one of the 1933 season . Hurricane Vince was also the first named " V " storm in the Atlantic since naming began in 1950 . Because the storm did not cause significant damage , the name Vince was not retired by the World Meteorological Organization .
= Hurricane Arlene ( 1987 ) = Hurricane Arlene was the first named storm and longest @-@ lived tropical cyclone of the 1987 Atlantic hurricane season . Forming out of an area of low pressure associated with a decaying frontal system along the North Carolina coastline , Arlene tracked in a general eastward direction across the Atlantic Ocean , taking an erratic track with several curves . On August 13 , the storm brushed Bermuda as a weak tropical storm before continuing out to sea . On August 20 , the storm briefly stalled before becoming a hurricane two days later . Early on August 24 , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over the far north Atlantic before curving southeast and dissipating near the Iberian Peninsula on August 26 . In Bermuda , Arlene produced winds up to 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) and waves up to 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) ; however , little damage resulted from the storm . Offshore , a blind man was undertaking a challenge to become the first blind man to cross the Atlantic alone ; he encountered rough seas and high winds from the storm , causing US $ 8 @,@ 000 in damages to his ship over a two @-@ day span . Between August 26 and 27 , the remnants of the system produced heavy rains over portions of Western Europe . = = Meteorological history = = Hurricane Arlene originated out of an area of low pressure associated with a decaying frontal system along the North Carolina coastline on August 8 . Tracking towards the southeast in a gradual anticyclonic loop , the system slowly increased in organization and intensity . By August 10 , the low neared the Bahamas but remained disorganized . The following day , while located over Andros Island , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) upgraded the system to a tropical depression , the third of the season , based on its appearance on satellite imagery . Upon becoming a depression on August 10 , the forward movement of the storm shifted to the northwest in response to an approaching trough off the Eastern United States and an elongated subtropical ridge to the south . The depression intensified into a tropical storm at 1800 UTC on August 11 ; however , operationally it was not upgraded until a reconnaissance mission by the hurricane hunters found flight @-@ level winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . The storm tracked towards Bermuda along a trough of low pressure in the Atlantic Ocean . Throughout August 13 , the proximity of Arlene to the trough prevented significant development . Around 1500 UTC , the center of Arlene tracked about 55 mi ( 89 km ) north of Bermuda . Several hours later , a ship near the center of the storm reported 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) winds ; however , due to the disorganized presentation of the storm , these winds were not considered to be representative of Arlene 's true intensity . Over the following several days , the storm tracked around several low pressure systems . By August 15 , Arlene traveled southeast before re @-@ curving to the northeast on August 18 . The intensity of the storm also continuously fluctuated during this period peaking at 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) and was as low as 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) . The northeast movement followed a passing short @-@ wave trough on August 18 ; the forward motion of the storm also increased due to the trough . On August 20 , the steering currents around Arlene collapsed , leading to the storm nearly stalling for 24 hours . During this period , the storm developed excellent outflow and intensified . Operationally , Arlene was upgraded to a hurricane at 2200 UTC on August 20 based on the appearance of an eye @-@ feature on satellite imagery ; however , post @-@ storm analysis indicated that the storm did not attain hurricane @-@ status until 0600 UTC on August 22 . This occurred 14 @.@ 5 days after its formation . Upon attaining hurricane @-@ status , Arlene rapidly tracked northward due to a strengthening area of high pressure near the Azores . Shortly after , the storm attained its peak intensity with winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 987 mbar ( hPa ) . Continuing rapidly northward , the hurricane began to interact with a baroclinic zone over the cold waters of the north Atlantic . This resulted in the storm undergoing an extratropical transition which it completed by 0000 UTC on August 24 . The extratropical remnants of the storm continued to track around the periphery of the high pressure system , turning towards the southeast the following day . By August 26 , the storm became increasingly disorganized and hard to pinpoint on satellite imagery . The storm finally dissipated at 1800 UTC off the coast of Portugal that day . = = Preparations and impact = = As Tropical Storm Arlene tracked towards Bermuda , residents on the island were advised to take precautions and board up their homes . This followed the issuance of a tropical storm advisory for the island . On August 12 , Arlene produced squally weather throughout Bermuda as the outer bands impacted the region . Rainfall from the storm peaked at 1 @.@ 65 in ( 42 mm ) . A blind sailor was caught in the storm for two days while trying to become the first blind man to cross the Atlantic Ocean alone . On August 14 , he encountered the full @-@ force of the storm , 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) seas and 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) winds battered his 36 ft ( 11 m ) foot @-@ sloop called the Eye Opener while trying to dock in Bermuda . The forced docking at Bermuda cost the sailor roughly US $ 8 @,@ 000 due to damages from the storm . On August 14 , Arlene brushed Bermuda , producing torrential rains , rough seas and gusty winds . The center of the storm remained far enough offshore that only minor damage occurred on the island . On August 26 , the extratropical remnants of Arlene impacted Spain , bringing 1 @.@ 25 in ( 32 mm ) to Rota , surpassing the highest rainfall for the month of August set in 1971 . The remnant moisture from Arlene continued through the Mediterranean Sea and produced heavy rains across Italy on August 27 .
= M @-@ 105 ( Michigan highway ) = M @-@ 105 was the designation of a former state trunkline highway in The Thumb region of the US state of Michigan . It served as a connecting route between M @-@ 53 in Popple and M @-@ 83 ( now M @-@ 142 ) near Elkton . The designation was in use in the 1920s and 1930s , and it has not been reused since . = = Route description = = M @-@ 105 began at an intersection with M @-@ 53 ( Van Dyke Road ) in the small community of Popple , just before M @-@ 53 curved east towards Bad Axe . Known as Pinnebog Road , the trunkline traveled first north and then northwesterly , crossing the Pinnebog River . After intersecting Stein Road , M @-@ 105 turned due north for about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) through farm country and rural areas before meeting M @-@ 83 ( Pigeon Road ) , a few miles east of Elkton . The highway served as a shortcut connector between M @-@ 53 and M @-@ 83 . = = History = = The first appearance of M @-@ 105 on maps was in 1928 . The designation was decommissioned in 1939 when the roadway was transferred back to local control . The designation has not been used since . = = Major intersections = = The entire highway was in Colfax Township , Huron County .
= Great northern tilefish = The great northern tilefish ( Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps ) , or golden tile , is the largest species in the family Malacanthidae ( tilefishes ) , which grows to an average length between 38 and 44 inches ( 970 and 1 @,@ 120 mm ) . The great northern tilefish is a slow @-@ growing and long @-@ lived species , which has four stages of life . After hatching from eggs , the larvae will be found in plankton . As they grow into juveniles , the individuals will seek shelter until finding or making their own burrows . As adults , the tilefish will continue to expand its burrow in the sediment throughout its life . The diet of the larvae is unknown , but presumed to consist of zooplankton ; juveniles and adults feed upon various benthic invertebrates , crustaceans and fish . After reaching sexual maturity between 5 and 7 years of age , females will lay eggs throughout the mating season for the male to fertilize , with each female laying an average of 2 @.@ 3 million eggs . The great northern tilefish has been subject to regulation to prevent overfishing . Regulations include catch limits and gear restrictions to prevent damage to the species ' habitat and population . The result of these regulations has seen a rebounding of the population , which led to an increase in the 2012 catch limit in the southern part of the Atlantic seaboard . = = Taxonomy and naming = = The species was first discovered in 1879 , when a cod trawler caught some by chance while working off of the coast of Massachusetts . The species was named Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps by George Brown Goode and Tarleton Hoffman Bean in 1896 in their seminal work Oceanic Ichthyology , A Treatise on the Deep @-@ Sea and Pelagic Fishes of the World , from a sample collected 80 miles ( 130 km ) south east of Nomans Land , Massachusetts . Its genus is Lopholatilus , which itself is in the family Malacanthidae , commonly known as tilefish . The Malacanthidae are part of the Percoidea , a suborder of the order Perciformes . L. chamaeleonticeps gained its moniker " great northern tilefish " from its prodigious size and its discovery at relatively high latitudes for a member of Malacanthidae . When used in cooking , the species is generally referred to as the " golden tile " , for the large yellow spots across its blue @-@ green back and lighter @-@ yellow or pink sides . The species is distinguished from other members of their large family by a prominent crest on their head . = = Characteristics = = The great northern tilefish is the largest species of the family Malacanthidae ; male specimens can grow up to 112 centimetres ( 44 in ) FL ( fork length ) and females to 100 centimetres ( 39 in ) FL . During their first four years of life , they grow at a rate of typically 10cm / yr after which their rate of growth slows down . They grow reach sexual maturity once they are between 50 and 70 centimetres ( 20 and 28 in ) in length Various studies have shown that the life expectancy of fish that survive into adulthood is in the range 25 – 35 years . The back of the fish is iridescent and blue @-@ green in color , with many yellow and gold spots . The belly is white . The head color changes from a light blue to a pinkish mix during spawning season . Specimens have a tone of blue under their eyes . Their pectoral fins are a light tone of sepia , and the margin of the anal fin is a purplish @-@ blue color . Lengths at age suggest that males grow faster than females , but the observed ages showed that females live longer . The largest male specimen was 44 @.@ 1 in ( 1 @,@ 120 mm ) long and approximately 20 years old , the largest female specimen was 39 years old and reached a total length of 40 @.@ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 020 mm ) . The oldest tilefish recorded to date was a 46 @-@ year @-@ old female specimen that reached lengths of 33 @.@ 5 in ( 850 mm ) , while the oldest recorded male specimen was 41 @.@ 3 in ( 1 @,@ 050 mm ) and 29 years . This study shows that the Female specimens may be smaller than the males , but their lifespan is longer than the males . = = Behavior = = The great northern tilefish has a unique burrowing behavior and habitat preference . In addition to their unique habitat choice , golden tilefish display sexually dimorphic growth with males growing to larger sizes and are behaviorally dominant over their female counterparts . The great northern tilefish is not a migratory fish ; it stays in one local area that fits its needs all year round . It is theorized that seasonal migration may occur with changes in the water temperatures around the Nantucket Shoals and Georges Bank during the winter or spring , but this theory has no definitive evidence . A competing theory suggests that the tilefish may instead reduce its activity or hibernate within its burrows during times of cold temperatures . The life cycle of the great northern tilefish begins as an egg , which is non @-@ adhesive and buoyant . Eggs that are artificially fertilized and kept in an environment between 71 ° F ( 22 ° C ) to 76 ° F ( 24 ° C ) hatch after 40 hours . The hatching larvae are around .1 inches ( 2 @.@ 5 mm ) in length . The larvae are found in plankton from July to September in the Middle Atlantic Bight . The transitional phase between larvae to juveniles is unknown , but juveniles either find or excavate a burrow or place of shelter to inhabit . After they grow in size and become sexually active the adults will spawn throughout the mating season to propagate the species . The tilefish 's construction and expansion of burrows are the subject of ongoing research to better understand the behavior of the species . It is unknown if the tilefish begins the construction a burrow or if it expands an existing one . The burrow is presumed to be lengthened and widened by the tilefish as it continues to grow and age . Tilefish typically are found in their own burrows , with sharing have been exhibited with male and female pairs . Tilefish tend to congregate in their habitat , with their burrows in relative proximity to each other , the species does not form schools . The grouping of tilefish can be as dense as 13 @,@ 000 burrows per square kilometer off the southern U.S. Atlantic coast , but 1 @,@ 600 burrows per square kilometer were reported in inhabited areas of the Gulf of Mexico and 2 @,@ 500 burrows per square kilometer near the Hudson Canyon . Tilefish burrows also provide a home for various different species that live in the area , such as mollusks and other crustaceans . = = = Predation = = = The predators of the tilefish are poorly understood . Juveniles can be preyed upon by dogfish or conger eels , which are prey for adult tilefish . Sharks have been presumed be predators of the tilefish , but there is no evidence of free @-@ swimming tilefish being attacked by dusky sharks or sandbar sharks . The one listed predator for the tilefish is the goosefish . Two studies in the 1980s concluded that the function of the tilefish 's burrows were predator avoidance , but this has been disputed because chased tilefish try to out @-@ swim its predators rather than entering its burrow to seek shelter . = = = Diet = = = The diet of tilefish larvae is unknown , but it is believed to be zooplankton . Juvenile and adults are omnivorous with a preference for small benthic invertebrates , with a staple being crabs and lobster . Great northern tilefish also consume bivalve molluscs , salps , squid , Atlantic dogfish , mackrel , hagfish and herring . Human trash is also eaten , including potato peels and meat bones have also been noted . It will also eat other tilefish in a display of cannibalistic characteristics . = = = Reproduction = = = The fish spawn during the early spring to the late fall , from March to November . Peak spawning occurs during May to September in Mid @-@ Atlantic Bight regions , differences in temperatures affect the breeding time . In U.S waters further south the spawning season occurs from April to June . Males grow faster and reach larger size than females . Fishing pressure may cause males to spawn at smaller sizes , and at a younger age . The spawning behavior of the species is unknown , but it is presumed to be polygamous with the female choosing the male . Pair bonding has been exhibited which is assumed to be a behavior that serves to insure fertilization of the eggs during the season . It was estimated that females can spawn approximately every four days for a total of 34 times per season . Depending on the size , the average female may lay up to 195 @,@ 000 – 8 million eggs during spawning season , with the average female laying 2 @.@ 3 million eggs . In response to the over fishing , the tilefish 's age of sexual maturity has been dramatically affected . From 1978 to 1982 the median age of sexual maturity in males declined by 2 @.@ 5 years from 7 @.@ 1 to 4 @.@ 6 years . This resulted in the males becoming sexually mature before females . In 2008 , the median age of sexual maturity in males had risen to 5 @.@ 9 years . Females of the species also exhibit low reproducibility after becoming sexually mature , instead increasing with age and their sexual maturity has varied to a lesser extent then the male population across the years . A small percentage of Golden tilefish are known to be intersexual , having opposite non @-@ functional sex @-@ tissues . Male tilefish specimens also inhibited a cavity that came from ovarian tissue and sperm sinuses . A study by Lombardi @-@ Carlson in 2012 found that tilefish of both genders in the Gulf of Mexico exhibited a higher rate of intersex characteristics than other populations . = = Distribution and habitat = = The species is abundant in the United States territorial waters of the Atlantic ocean extending north into Nantucket Shoals and Georges Bank and moving down along the east coast of the United States and into the Gulf of Mexico along the continental shelf . Great northern tilefish are have been reported to be most abundant between 300 feet ( 91 m ) and 480 feet ( 150 m ) deep at 76 ° F ( 24 ° C ) . The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration report differs , stating that the species live at the bottom of the ocean where they burrow into the sediment , between 250 feet ( 76 m ) and 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) deep where the temperature ranges from 9 ° C ( 48 ° F ) and 58 ° F ( 14 ° C ) . The great northern tilefish is known to dig and occupy burrows along the outer continental shelf , and on the flanks of submarine canyons in malleable clay substrate . Due to their long life expectancy , slow growth , complex breeding system , and habitat specificity , they are vulnerable to over @-@ exploitation , and they are susceptible to mass mortality events due to cold water intrusion and over @-@ fishing . Their abundance is strongly correlated with presence of silt @-@ clay substrate , because the soft clay enables the fish to create the burrow itself by simply digging away the clay substrate . It had been documented that the minimum temperature threshold for golden tilefish is 9 ° C ( 48 ° F ) . Temperature observations and measurements are obtained via interpolated observations . Temperature plots indicate that 9 ° C ( 48 ° F ) is the norm for the area around Florida and the Gulf of Mexico . = = Population and conservation status = = Decline in age , size during sexual maturity in great northern tilefish population is occurring throughout the continental shelf . In the mid @-@ Atlantic Bight , smaller sizes and younger ages at maturity were observed in 2008 , compared to the survey data from the 1980s where recorded measurements showed a larger population . The recent estimates of age and size at maturity in the southern U.S. waters were smaller than those previously reported in the late 1980s . There were also very few juvenile tilefish seen in tilefish population surveys in the southern U.S. waters in both the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico . Declines in population could negatively affect other organisms in their surrounding environment due to the fact that without tilefish , the burrows underneath the continental shelf will disappear , therefore putting an end to the symbiotic relationship with other organisms that use the tunnels as shelter . Fishing regulations include catch limits and gear restrictions to prevent damage to the species habitat and population . There are different gear restrictions for commercial and recreational fishers . In 2007 , regulations were imposed to reduce the harvesting by one third , as a response to overfishing in the South Atlantic . The South Atlantic catch limit was later increased in October 2012 as a response to the increased population . The 2013 limits in the souther U.S. Atlantic waters for the species , measured in gutted weight , is currently 405 @,@ 971 pounds for longline and 135 @,@ 324 pounds for hook @-@ and @-@ line fishing .
= Beatrice Hicks = Beatrice Alice Hicks ( January 2 , 1919 – October 21 , 1979 ) was an American engineer , the first woman engineer to be hired by Western Electric , and both co @-@ founder and first president of the Society of Women Engineers . Despite entering the field at a time where engineering was seen as an inappropriate career for a woman , Hicks held a variety of leadership positions and eventually became the owner of an engineering firm . During her time there , Hicks developed a gas density switch that would be used in the U.S. space program , including the Apollo moon landing missions . = = Early life = = Beatrice Hicks was born in 1919 in Orange , New Jersey , to William Lux Hicks , a chemical engineer , and Florence Benedict . Hicks decided at an early age that she wished to be an engineer . While her parents neither supported nor opposed Hicks ' desired career path , some of her teachers and classmates tried to discourage her from becoming an engineer , viewing it as a socially unacceptable role for a woman . She graduated from Orange High School in 1935 and received a bachelor 's degree in chemical engineering from Newark College of Engineering ( now New Jersey Institute of Technology ) in 1939 , one of only two women in her class . During college , Hicks worked in the treasury office of an Abercrombie & Fitch store as a telephone operator , and in the university 's library . After receiving her undergraduate degree , Hicks stayed at Newark College of Engineering for three years as a research assistant , where she studied the history of Edward Weston 's inventions and took additional classes at night . = = Career = = In 1942 Hicks took a job at the Western Electric Company , designing and testing quartz crystal oscillators in Kearny , New Jersey . She was the first woman to be employed by Western Electric as an engineer , and she spent three years working there . Upon the death of her father , she joined the Bloomfield , New Jersey based Newark Controls Company , a metalworking firm that her father had founded . Hicks served as chief engineer and then as vice president in charge of engineering , before purchasing control of the company from her uncle in 1955 . Hicks designed and patented a gas density switch later used in the U.S. space program , including the moon landing , and was a pioneer in the field of sensors that detected when devices were reaching structural limits . Hicks authored several technical papers on the gas density switch . While at Newark Controls Hicks pursued a master 's degree in physics , which she received in 1949 from the Stevens Institute . In 1950 Hicks and other women based on the East coast of the United States began meeting in an organization , the goal of which was to advance female engineers and increase female participation in engineering . The organization was incorporated as the Society of Women Engineers two years later . Hicks served as the president of the organization for two consecutive terms , from 1950 to 1952 . In 1963 the Society of Women Engineers presented their highest honor , the Society of Women Engineers Achievement Award , to Hicks . Hicks toured the United States , championing the cause of female engineers through outreach and speaking engagements . She believed that while female engineers would initially be closely watched , they would also be quickly accepted . In 1948 Hicks married fellow engineer Rodney Duane Chipp , who held two director level engineering positions before starting a consulting firm . In 1960 the couple were selected by the National Society of Professional Engineers for a month @-@ long research and speaking tour of South America , which focused on international cooperation between American and South American engineers . When Chipp died in 1966 , Hicks sold off Newark Controls Company and took over her late husband 's consulting business . Hicks was also selected to serve on the Defense Advisory Committee for Women in Services between 1960 and 1963 , was the director of the First International Conference of Women Engineers and Scientists , and represented the United States at four International Management Congresses . Hicks died on October 21 , 1979 in Princeton , New Jersey . = = Awards and professional honors = = Because of her role in Newark Controls Company , Mademoiselle magazine named Hicks " Woman of the Year in Business " in 1952 . In 1978 Hicks was invited to join the National Academy of Engineering , the highest professional honor in engineering , and became the sixth woman to join the organization . In 2002 Hicks was inducted into the National Women 's Hall of Fame . Hicks received honorary doctorates from Hobart and William Smith College , Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute , Stevens Institute of Technology , and Worcester Polytechnic Institute . She was the first female recipient of an honorary doctorate from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute . She was a member of both the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers .
= Chudleigh , Tasmania = Chudleigh is a small rural village 64 kilometres ( 40 mi ) west of Launceston in northern Tasmania , Australia . The town is in the Chudleigh Valley , between the Gog range and the Great Western Tiers . The area is primarily used for farming , though timber and lime production have been significant industries . The fertile flats of the valley are of alluvial origin , from the Permian era . The Chudleigh show , run by the Agricultural and Horticultural society , is an agricultural show held each February . Since 1889 the show has been held 125 times , and it is one of the state 's oldest such events . The area had been the lands of the Pallittorre Aboriginal Tasmanians for thousands of years . European settlement and disease drove them from the lands and decimated their population . Chudleigh was first settled by Europeans in the 1830s for agriculture and lime production . The town was laid out , probably prior to 1835 , to have up to 5000 residents though the population never became large . An early resident , John Badcock Gardiner , named Chudleigh , probably after Chudleigh in Devon , England . During the 19th century a town hall , four churches , a school , an inn , post office , police station and telegraph office were built . Over time the churches , school , inn and post office have closed . A rail line from Deloraine to Mole Creek served the town from 1890 till its closure in 1985 . Chudleigh has a population , as measured by the 2011 census , of 335 . The town has a privately run wildlife park , a shop selling and making honey products , and a few other stores . As part of a beautification drive in 2001 , the main street was planted with roses , and the town is now promoted as a " village of roses " . = = Geography = = Chudleigh lies 64 kilometres ( 40 mi ) west of Launceston and 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) east of Mole Creek in northern Tasmania , Australia . The town is in the fertile Chudleigh Valley that is bounded by the Gog and Magog ranges , to the north , and the Great Western Tiers , to the south @-@ west . The town itself is just south of the Lobster rivulet , a tributary of the Mersey river which also runs near the town to the north . The land around the town is mostly suited to grazing , intensive grazing in some areas , though some is marginal cropping land that requires careful crop rotation interspersed with seasons where the land is left fallow . The hills of the area have prominent basalt , limestone and dolerite depending on location . The fertile flats are of alluvial origin with Permian era sediments that have formed mudstone and sandstone . Some areas are notably frosty in winter and experience occasional snowfall . = = History = = Aboriginal Tasmanians have lived on the island of Tasmania for thousands of years . The earliest archaeological evidence for Aboriginal habitation of Tasmania is from the valley of the Forth River , 35 @,@ 000 years before the present . Prior to European settlement , Chudleigh was part of the lands of the Pallittorre Aboriginal tribe . Their range included Deloraine , east of Chudleigh , and the Gog mountain range to the north @-@ west where they mined ochre in the Toolumbunner ochre pits . The Pallittorre people lived in the area and used to have a camping ground , where the Church of England cemetery was established later . Land clearing , road construction , disease and conflicts with settlers drove them from their lands and decimated the population . Their population in the area has been estimated to drop from 200 to 60 during 1827 @-@ 30 . At the time of settlement the Chudleigh area was covered with bogs and wild bush . During the early 1820s the Van Diemen 's Land Company created a track or stock route from Deloraine to Emu Bay ( now Burnie ) that ran via Chudleigh and Mole Creek . The route enabled them to move grazing livestock from the higher rainfall areas in the west of Tasmania , to the population centres further east . The company built facilities , including a store , in Chudleigh . Europeans settled the area west of Deloraine from the early 1800s , and cattle were being grazed — illegally — in the Chudleigh area from as early as 1823 . John Badcock Gardiner , who probably named Chudleigh after the village with the same name in Devon , England , was granted 850 acres ( 340 ha ) in the area after arriving in Tasmania in 1829 with his family . The town 's area was first granted to Lieutenant Travers Hartley Vaughan in 1830 . Vaughan sold the land in 1837 to Henry Reid , who was later briefly a member of the Tasmanian Legislative Council . An early industry in the area was limestone mining and lime production . By 1831 a lime burning industry had been established . The lime was sent to Launceston for use in construction . The town of Chudleigh was surveyed and marked into town blocks , many of them 10 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) . The date of this survey is not recorded but it was likely done by John Batman , founder of Melbourne , prior to 1835 . The town was laid out to hold a population of 5 @,@ 000 , as it was intended to be a railway junction on a line from Launceston to North West Tasmania . Later road and transport developments caused the idea of such a large settlement at Chudleigh to be abandoned . Dan Picket , an ex @-@ convict who has been granted a ticket of leave , built the first hotel , the two @-@ storey Chudleigh Inn , around 1850 . The building was later reduced to a single storey . This hotel or inn was noted as being used by 1851 . A police watch house was completed c.1860. By 1862 an extensive system of caves had been discovered in the area , attracting visitors . In the 1860s a 30 @-@ by @-@ 11 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 by 3 @.@ 4 m ) single @-@ room school building was constructed . The school opened 1 July 1864 with 14 pupils and a single teacher , though it apparently closed sometime after and reopened 28 January 1883 with a larger class of 34 pupils . In 1884 a new building , and teacher 's residence , was completed at a cost of 1531 pounds . The new school was on the road to Mole Creek near the bridge over Lobster Rivulet , and had around 26 – 27 students . The school suffered regular flooding of the building , access roads and paths . Due to this flooding it was moved , in the 1930s , to next to the Methodist chapel in Sorrell street . The school was extended in 1936 and remained in operation until closed , by the Tasmanian education department due to low student numbers , on 30 September 1965 . From then students had to travel to the school at Mole Creek . The township of Chudleigh was formally declared in 1866 . It continued to expand and by 1883 also had a post and telegraph office , two stores , two churches , and over a dozen houses . An agricultural and horticultural show was first held in 1889 . The Chudleigh Agricultural and Horticultural Society has run the show annually since , except for breaks from 1914 – 28 and 1939 – 45 due to the two World Wars . The show has been run on various grounds , but the present one has been used since it was purchased in 1932 . Chudleigh 's town hall was completed in 1895 , and opened during a public event on 11 April that year . It was funded by public subscription and built local builder Davis Brothers on donated land . It was built as a 46 by 26 feet ( 14 @.@ 0 by 7 @.@ 9 m ) weather board building set on stone foundations , with a corrugated iron roof . There was a near tragedy in the hall in late 1922 when a generator caught fire while the hall was being used by 300 people . The inwards opening doors and lack of a fire door were cited as significant problems . Chudleigh had a post office from 1865 . Around 1899 it was moved to a new building though it has since been closed and the building sold as a private home . Chudleigh had a registered maternity hospital in the early 20th century . For some time the town had an Australian rules football club . It closed in the 1930s , reformed in 1939 , then finally closed in the 1980s . Telegraph communication followed construction of the railway line in the late 19th century . The first telephones were installed in Chudleigh homes in the 1930s , and mains electricity in the 1940s . = = = Religion = = = Chudleigh has had churches for four different Christian denominations , though none remain . An Anglican cemetery was opened in 1864 .. Construction of an Anglican ( then the Church of England ) church began in 1866 and the building was completed in 1868 . This church , the Church of the Good Shepard , was in the parish of Deloraine . It was replaced with a new building , built by local carpenter Hugh Miles , in 1880 . The new building was consecrated in 1895 . It held services until 1976 , was later sold , and is now a private residence . A Presbyterian cemetery was established in 1860 . By 1877 a Presbyterian church had been built in what is now Burnett street , though it was later destroyed by fire . A small Salvation Army citadel , comprising a number of buildings , was established in Jones street in 1878 . It was closed in 1938 and one of the buildings transported to Invermay , Tasmania where it was used as a Salvation Army band room . A Wesleyan chapel was built prior to 1877 , around 4 to 5 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 to 8 @.@ 0 km ) from Chudleigh , next to Lobster Rivulet . Methodist services began in the town in 1874 , but ceased in 1876 when the pulpit was taken over by a Presbyterian minister . Land for a church was purchased in the town in April 1885 . The building , and adjacent stables , were completed soon after and the opening service held 19 July 1885 . To allow for an extension the building was later moved , and the stables removed . In 1977 the church became , along with most Methodist churches in Australia , part of the Uniting Church in Australia . It was closed in 1984 due to a lack of parishioners , and sold to become a private home . = = = Railway = = = A rail line was built from Mole Creek to Deloraine , through Chudleigh . It ran 20 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 12 @.@ 7 mi ) from a junction on the western line and opened on 5 April 1890 . The rail line was used for mail , freight and passengers ; occasional passenger services went as far as Devonport . Passenger services mostly ceased when they were replaced with a bus service in 1960 . The line continued to be used for transporting logs for some time after this . Throughout its existence , the line was primarily used to carry timber to the paper mill at Burnie and , in later days , woodchips to Bell Bay . Passenger services had been mostly self @-@ propelled railcars after the 1920s . The line was closed in 1985 , and the tracks lifted in 1992 . = = Present = = Chudleigh serves as a service centre for the surrounding area , whose main industries involve farming and timber . The town has few services . There is a shop producing and selling honey related products , a service station , general store , second @-@ hand book store and a shop selling gifts and home wares related to roses . There are a large number of roses planted in the main street as part of a beautification drive , begun in 2001 , to make the town a " village of roses " . There are some historic buildings , with connection to the town 's early history . Bentley house 's landscape is on the Tasmanian Heritage Register and the house itself is registered by the Tasmanian Heritage Council . Cattle were farmed on the land from at least 1827 and the house was finished in 1879 , at which time the property was owned by Donald Norman Cameron , later member of the Tasmanian House of Assembly . At the south @-@ east corner of the town , on the main road , is a restored building that was made for the Van Diemen 's Land company in 1827 – 8 as a grain store . A sign commemorates acrimony around its restoration or remodelling , stating " Building restored November 2003 . Despite the best efforts of The National Trust and Mrs Patrica Woods . " . Patrica Woods was as the time president of the National Trust of Australia ( Tasmania ) . The main street has a surveyor 's cottage that was built around 1840 The Chudleigh show , run by the Agricultural and Horticultural society , is held each February . It is one of the state 's oldest agricultural shows ; in 2015 the 126th show was held . Melita honey farm runs a shop on the main street that sells a wide variety of honey related products . Mole Creek Karst National Park is nearby . Caves in the park thread through the limestone that underlies the area around Chudleigh . Nearby the town is the 130 @-@ hectare ( 320 @-@ acre ) Lobster Rivulet Forest Reserve , which contains a series of scenic waterfalls . Trowunna Wildlife Park is a 65 @-@ acre ( 26 ha ) private sanctuary a short distance on the main road towards Mole Creek . The park contains native Australian animals both in enclosures and free @-@ ranging . It works as part of the effort to preserve Tasmanian devils by keeping a population that are free of facial tumour disease , and runs as a training centre for animal handling and animal keeping . Chudleigh is in the Meander Valley Council local government area , the Division of Lyons — for the state house of assembly and the federal house of representatives — and the state legislative council electoral division of Western Tiers . = = = Demographics = = = The town 's population , including the surrounding district , was reported in 1877 as approximately 1000 .. Chudleigh had a population of 162 in 1901 and 200 in 2000 . There were around 150 people living in 40 houses just within the town 's boundaries in 2002 . As of the 2011 census 335 people lived in the town and surrounding 92 @.@ 4 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 35 @.@ 7 sq mi ) area . = = Climate = = Tasmania has an oceanic temperate climate characterised by cool summer and mild winters , with a small maximum temperature variation during the year . Chudliegh lies in the rain shadow of the Great Western Tiers ; rainfall in parts of the tiers exceeds 2 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 79 in ) . Since the 1950s average temperatures in the surrounding Meander Valley have steadily risen and since the 1970s average rainfall has declined .
= Pssst = Pssst is an action video game developed and published by Ultimate Play the Game that was released for the ZX Spectrum in June 1983 . In the game , Robbie the Robot has to protect his plant ( a Thyrgodian Megga Chrisanthodil ) as it is attacked by various insects , each of which needs a different repellent to neutralise it . Pssst was the second game to be released by Ultimate , after Jetpac . The game was written by Chris Stamper and graphics were designed by his brother , Tim Stamper . Pssst was one of the very few Spectrum games also available in ROM format for use with the Interface 2 , allowing " instantaneous " loading of the game ( the normal method of cassette loading could take several minutes ) . The game received positive reviews from two publications upon release , with critics mainly praising its presentation and gameplay . It was placed 40th on the " Best Selling Software " list by Personal Computer Games in December 1983 . = = Gameplay = = The game is presented from a single , 2D perspective , and revolves around Robbie the Robot 's objective to defend his plant from interstellar space slugs . The plant grows from a pot at the bottom centre of the screen , and spray cans containing three different pesticides are located on ledges on each side of the screen . Bonus items such as fertiliser and spades appear on unoccupied ledges which will increase both the players score and the plant 's growth rate . There are three types of coloured insect , and three types of pesticide , which will either kill , stun , or have no effect on the insects . The player can only carry one type of pesticide at a time ; during the early stages of the game the lethal pesticide can be carried at all times , but later stages have more than one type of insect on screen at once , making the choice of pesticide more tactical . As the plant grows , it will sprout leaves ; these both increase the growth rate and increase its vulnerability to the insects . Once the plant reaches a predetermined height , the player will be able to advance to the next level . A life will be deducted whenever the plant dies or the player makes contact with an insect . = = Background = = Ashby Computers and Graphics was founded by brothers Tim and Chris Stamper , along with Tim 's wife , Carol , from their headquarters in Ashby @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Zouch in 1982 . Under the trading name of Ultimate Play the Game , they began producing multiple video games for the ZX Spectrum throughout the early 1980s . Prior to founding Ultimate , the Stamper brothers had backgrounds in designing arcade machines , but failed to market their games successfully . The company were known for their reluctance to reveal details about their operations and upcoming projects . Little was known about their development process except that they used to work in " separate teams " ; one team would work on development whilst the other would concentrate on other aspects such as sound or graphics . Pssst was one of the few Spectrum games also available in ROM format for use with the Interface 2 , allowing " instantaneous " loading of the game when the normal method of cassette loading could take several minutes . The game used the common technique of placing planar sprites with image sprites atop another , which often created graphical errors and overlapped colours on the console . Pssst was also able to run on the 16K version of the Spectrum . = = Reception = = Paul Liptrot of Home Computing Weekly praised the graphics , stating them as overall " smooth @-@ moving " and colourful , as well as praising the " addictive " gameplay . In the second issue of Personal Computer Games , the game was placed 40th on the its best selling software list . In the fourth issue of Personal Computing Games , Pssst was nominated for a 1983 game of the year list on account of Ultimate 's " famous graphics " . According to the reviewer , other attributes of the game included its " originality " and " fun " in comparison to other Ultimate titles that were released in 1983 . In a retrospective review , a reviewer of Retro Games ! Now summarised that the game " was not the best " of Ultimate 's releases for the ZX Spectrum , despite considering it to be " less lauded " than the others . However , they considered Pssst to be a " taste of things to come " and a significant improvement over the " clunky " and " jumpy " animation of previous games for the ZX Spectrum .
= Love the Way You Lie = " Love the Way You Lie " is a song recorded by the American rapper Eminem , featuring the Barbadian singer Rihanna , from Eminem 's seventh studio album Recovery ( 2010 ) . The singer and songwriter Skylar Grey wrote and recorded a demo of the song alongside the producer Alex da Kid when she felt she was in an abusive romantic relationship with the music industry . Eminem wrote the verses and chose Rihanna to sing the chorus , resulting in a collaboration influenced by their past experiences in difficult relationships . Recording sessions were held in Ferndale , Michigan , and Dublin , Ireland . Backed by guitar , piano and violin , the track is a midtempo hip hop ballad with a pop refrain and describes two lovers who refuse to separate despite being in a dangerous love – hate relationship . Interscope Records released the song in August 2010 as the second single from Recovery . Critics praised its melody but were divided on thematic aspects such as poignancy and accuracy . Eminem promoted the single with performances at the 2010 Electronic Entertainment Expo , the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards and festivals . The music video , directed by Joseph Kahn , stars Dominic Monaghan and Megan Fox in a violent relationship and shows Eminem and Rihanna in front of a burning house . The clip had a mixed reception due to scenes of domestic violence . Reporters suggested that the song and its accompanying video were influenced by Eminem 's and Rihanna 's relationships with their respective ex @-@ lovers Kimberly Scott and Chris Brown . Critics listed " Love the Way You Lie " among the best tracks of 2010 and of Eminem 's career . The song won many awards and received five Grammy nominations . It is Eminem 's best @-@ selling single and ranked number one on several record charts , including the United States ' Billboard Hot 100 for seven weeks . The single sold six million copies in the US and was the best @-@ selling song of 2010 in the United Kingdom . Musical acts such as Cher Lloyd and The Band Perry have performed cover versions . Rihanna has said that the theme of domestic violence , a topic on which she claims many people do not have insight , is what makes the song effective . She later recorded " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " , narrated mostly from her perspective . = = Writing and production = = Development of " Love the Way You Lie " began with the backing track and hook melody , which were created by the British hip hop producer Alex da Kid . When making a track , he said he spends hours making loops and produces an electronic drum rhythm before adding live instrumentation . The drums are sampled from live recordings he saves . Alex da Kid recorded an acoustic guitar for the verses with a Georg Neumann U87 microphone and an Avid Mbox audio interface . He told Sound on Sound magazine that this song had given him an opportunity to reintroduce live guitar in hip hop music . During the session , he used Waves RVerb and REQ equalization on his main kick track and a MaxxBass plug @-@ in on two others . Writing began in late 2009 , when the American singer Holly Hafermann resided at the Artula Retreat in Bandon , Oregon , and composed songs . Later , in New York , under her new stage name Skylar Grey , she visited her Universal Music publisher , Jennifer Blakeman , to seek help presenting her work ; Blakeman suggested she collaborate with Alex da Kid . The producer emailed Grey his track , which suggested a theme of abusive romantic relationships to her as she spontaneously sang lyrics to the melody . She told the Los Angeles Times that she was in an abusive relationship with the music industry : " I love it so much , and I give it all that I have , yet it beats me down . " This idea inspired her writing , a process she found came naturally , as if she were creating an alternative pop song for herself . She wrote the chorus to " Love the Way You Lie " in fifteen minutes and recorded vocals for Alex da Kid 's demo . In early 2010 , Alex da Kid offered the Shady Records Senior Director Rigo " Riggs " Morales some backing tracks . Morales enjoyed the tracks and sent them to Eminem , who was seeking a different musical approach for his next album . Impressed with Alex da Kid 's work , Eminem asked for more tracks and subsequently heard " Love the Way You Lie " . He chose it and told his manager Paul Rosenberg he wanted to collaborate with the Barbadian singer Rihanna . Eminem told Skyrock FM , " It 's one of those tracks that I felt like only she could pull it off . " Rosenberg sent the track to Rihanna , who accepted Eminem 's request " at the last moment . " Eminem then wrote the rapped verses . Rihanna said she joined the collaboration because she could relate to the theme of the song , as she and Eminem had been in difficult relationships on " different ends of the table " . Eminem had released the songs " ' 97 Bonnie & Clyde " ( 1998 ) and " Kim " ( 2000 ) , in which he fantasizes , respectively , about murdering and verbally abusing his then @-@ wife Kimberly Scott . They had divorced in 2001 and again in 2006 after a remarriage . In February 2009 , Rihanna 's relationship with the American singer Chris Brown had ended following his felony assault on her . Rihanna described " Love the Way You Lie " as unique , realistic and deep , saying that it " broke down the cycle of domestic violence " because few people had insight on the topic . = = Recording = = Mike Strange recorded and mixed Eminem 's vocals at Effigy Studios in Ferndale , Michigan . The sessions took two days . Strange edited the vocals with D @-@ Verb — a reverberation software — and an Extra Long Delay plug @-@ in . He preferred to make few changes ; for " Love the Way You Lie " he almost exclusively used board compression and console equalization . Strange used the Bricasti and Eventide Reverb 2016 mixing tools for " brighter " reverberation . Detroit musician Luis Resto has contributed to the arrangement on many of Eminem 's songs , but did not do so for " Love the Way You Lie " . According to Strange , " Everything we needed was already in the track , apart from the vocals . " Two to three weeks after the sessions , Alex da Kid arrived to help mix and master the track . He wanted to replace the acoustic guitar on the demo , but Eminem chose to keep it . Strange said , " It was simply a matter of trying to match and then to improve on the demo [ Alex da Kid ] ' d sent us . " Strange 's brother Joe engineered the track . Rihanna 's recording sessions took place at Sun Studios in Dublin , Ireland . Marcos Tovar mixed her vocals , which were engineered by Spike Lindsey and mastered from Detroit over the Internet . The American songwriter Makeba Riddick provided additional vocal production . Strange used equalization , compression and reverberation but left the vocal balance . He assumed that Rihanna was satisfied with her recorded vocals and did not make major changes on her seven stereo vocal tracks . = = Composition = = " Love the Way You Lie " is a midtempo hip hop ballad . The lyrics describe a couple 's refusal to separate despite having an abusive relationship . According to the sheet music from Universal Music Publishing Group , the song is in the key of B ♭ major with a common time signature and a tempo of 84 beats per minute . The vocal range spans from B ♭ 3 to D5 . " Love the Way You Lie " opens as Rihanna sings the pop refrain over a piano : Just gonna stand there and watch me burn But that 's alright , because I like the way it hurts . Just gonna stand there and hear me cry But that 's alright , because I love the way you lie . The refrain is based on a Gm – E ♭ ( add2 ) – B ♭ – F / A chord progression . Fraser McAlphine of the BBC wrote that Rihanna feels confined " in a cell of [ her ] own creation " . She sings without vibrato , a pulsating musical effect used to add expression . One commentator , The New York Times ' David Brownie , wrote that despite this , her voice subtly shows grief and regret . Eminem then " zap [ s ] out into a ballady rap " : " I can 't tell you what it really is / I can only tell you what it feels like . " The verses follow a Gm – E ♭ ( add2 ) B ♭ – Fsus / A chord progression . Eminem regrets an end to an abusive , failed relationship , describing mutual violence and expressing both fondness and anger . The two artists ' characters are portrayed in a romantic relationship when he responds to Rihanna by concluding the verse : " I laid hands on her . I 'll never stoop so low again / I guess I don 't know my own strength . " Rihanna sings the chorus again , backed by an electric guitar and a piano . Acoustic guitar , violin and drums accompany Eminem 's verses . The lyrics transition from discussing positive aspects of love to describing violent events . Eminem raps , " It 's the rage that took over , it controls you both , so they say it 's best to go your separate ways . Guess that they don 't know ya , cause today that was yesterday . " Sady Doyle of The Atlantic interpreted these lyrics as the rapper 's confession to having abused Scott , as he " turns the anger and accusations toward himself " . In the second verse , Eminem accepts the outcome after feeling sorry , admitting , " Yesterday is over , it 's a different day . " His frustration increases and he raps that two personalities can clash and devastate : " maybe that 's what happens when a tornado meets a volcano " . The described love – hate relationship worsens and leads to domestic violence . Eminem admits to lying about promises he makes and says late in the song , " If she ever tries to fuckin ' leave again , I 'ma tie her to the bed and set this house on fire " , a reference to Rihanna 's lyrics . = = Release and response = = On May 27 , 2010 , Eminem revealed the title of " Love the Way You Lie " as part of the track list of his seventh studio album Recovery , which came out on June 21 . Initially a radio single , the song was released later by Polydor Records as a CD in the United Kingdom on August 9 , 2010 . Interscope Records distributed it in Germany on August 20 . " Love the Way You Lie " received generally favorable reviews . An editor for Rap @-@ Up listed it among the four best tracks from the album . New York Times writer Jon Caramanica considered it " one of the album 's most engaging songs " and praised Eminem 's ability to assess issues from the perspectives of both sexes . MTV 's Rodriguez wrote that the song echoes content from Eminem 's earlier albums , but finds him " sober " and " more mature " . He added that the lyrics allude to Eminem 's relationship with Scott and that " Love the Way You Lie " is his closest approach to a love song . Editors of The A.V. Club compared the single with " Kim " and " ' 97 Bonnie & Clyde " ; they found he is more tempered in " Love the Way You Lie " when discussing a " mutually destructive relationship " and that Rihanna 's involvement creates an eerie mood . Critics especially praised Rihanna 's contribution . Michael Menachem of Billboard complimented her " exquisitely melodic and surprisingly hopeful " vocal performance and " Eminem 's dark , introspective " rapping . He noted that the percussion complements both artists and that Alex da Kid gave the classical arrangement a mainstream touch . Kyle Anderson , writing for MTV , remarked that the song showcases Rihanna 's emotional vocals and Eminem 's " most intense rhymes about his tumultuous relationships " . He regarded " Love the Way You Lie " as an honest , " well @-@ constructed pop song with a killer hook " and likened the " slow @-@ burning " music to that of " Someone Like You " , a 2011 single by the British singer Adele . The Houston Chronicle pop critic Joey Guerra commented that Rihanna brought a " sandpaper and silk sheen " to the track . = = = Themes = = = Critics have commented on the message in the lyrics . Anderson noted a dark theme , while Nick Levine of Digital Spy , Allie Townsend of Time magazine and Jocelyn Noveck of The Associated Press suggested the previous relationships of both artists influenced the song . Levine gave it four stars out of five . According to Eric Hayden of The Atlantic Wire , the song refers to an alcoholic couple , possibly inspired by Rihanna 's relationship with Brown . McAlphine awarded " Love the Way You Lie " four stars out of five . According to him , the song would not have been effective if it had featured only Eminem 's point of view and feelings of regret ; he wrote that Rihanna 's representing the opposite side of the relationship shows " proper storytelling " and " sends a message " because of her breakup with Brown . McAlphine wrote that as a result the song depicts a more realistic abusive relationship and could be featured in a campaign for women 's shelters . He praised Eminem 's accuracy and understanding of the topic . Winston Robbins from the music website Consequence of Sound attributed the song 's poignancy to Rihanna 's past abusive relationship , and a theme of infidelity and abuse . On the critical side , The Daily Telegraph 's Jenny McCartney dismissed the metaphors in the chorus and thought the song 's topic was over @-@ hyped . She disagreed with the critical praise , arguing that women accept abusive relationships for deeper reasons than sexual and emotional pleasure , such as family and financial issues and helplessness . In an NPR article , the writer Maura Johnston commented that the lyrics portray Rihanna as the subject of Eminem 's violence . Jay Smooth , a New York radio personality , responded that " while Eminem explores the psyche of the abuser with an almost disturbing amount of depth and detail , " Rihanna 's perspective is downplayed and not explained fully . Johnston and Smooth wrote that such imbalances are a prevalent issue in popular music duets . To Sady Doyle , although " Love the Way You Lie " is one of Eminem 's most affecting tracks and finds him remorseful , it does not make up for his past misogynistic actions and hateful songs . Noveck questioned whether the lyrics are " a treatise against ( or apology for ) domestic violence , or an irresponsible glorification of it ? Or , is it something uncomfortable in between ? " Marjorie Gilberg , executive director of the anti @-@ teenage violence group Break the Cycle , commented that " Love the Way You Lie " can teach listeners about the dangers of abusive relationships if interpreted correctly . She believed that because popular culture often depicts what is socially acceptable , people may accept such violence more easily . She added , " One problem , though , ... is that the song reflects myths about domestic violence — myths that lead to blaming the victim . " Gilberg said the victim is often accused of being as guilty as the partner but wants to be loved , not abused . Terry O 'Neill , a feminist and the president of the National Organization for Women , criticized the lyric , " But your temper 's just as bad as mine is / You 're the same as me " , saying it is a typical excuse used by abusive men for aggression and that " it 's only 2 @-@ year @-@ olds and violent men who use violence to get what they want . " She added that Rihanna unintentionally glorifies domestic violence in the song despite attempting to fight it . = = = Recognition = = = " Love the Way You Lie " ranked in various best @-@ of @-@ 2010 lists . Claire Suddath of Time placed it at number five on her top @-@ ten list and wrote , " That this song didn 't come across sounding clichéd or tasteless is a testament to both artists ' skill . " AOL Radio considered the song the best of 2010 hip hop music , regarding Eminem as imaginative and passionate . It ranked ninth on MTV News ' top @-@ twenty @-@ five list . Its editor James Montgomery attributed the song 's success to its theme and relation to the artists ' past abusive relationships . He concluded , " You cannot write a song any better than that , because that 's how this kind of thing happens in real life . " The New York Post placed the song at second place on their " top 210 songs from 2010 " list and regarded it as a " comeback club anthem . " In April 2011 , Gabriel Alvarez of Complex magazine ranked it at number 100 on their " 100 Best Eminem Songs " list , calling it a love song and praising Rihanna 's vocals as beautiful . " Love the Way You Lie " and its accompanying music video were nominated for five Grammy Awards at the 2011 ceremony , including " Record of the Year " , " Song of the Year " and " Best Short Form Music Video " . It won the People 's Choice Awards for " Favorite Music Video " and " Favorite Song " . = = Commercial performance = = " Love the Way You Lie " reached number one on several record charts worldwide . It entered the United States ' Billboard Hot 100 at number two in the issue dated July 10 , 2010 . The single debuted at number one on the US Digital Songs after selling 338 @,@ 000 digital copies in its first week . From July 31 to September 11 , 2010 , it had a seven @-@ week run at the top of the Hot 100 , giving Eminem his fourth , and Rihanna her seventh , number @-@ one US hit . The single sold more than 300 @,@ 000 digital copies in the week of August 14 , 2010 , rising to number two on the Pop Songs and Radio Songs charts . In the Billboard issue for August 21 , 2010 , Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems recognized the single with the BDS Certified Award for 50 @,@ 000 radio spins . It topped the Pop Songs chart in the same issue , giving Eminem his third number @-@ one track on the chart and Rihanna her sixth . " Love the Way You Lie " was the first number @-@ one hit on the Rap Songs chart with Eminem as the lead artist since his 2000 single " The Real Slim Shady " . With sales of 4 @,@ 245 @,@ 000 copies , " Love the Way You Lie " was the third @-@ best @-@ selling single of 2010 in the US . There , it sold 6 million copies by October 2013 and 6 @.@ 5 million copies by October 2015 . The song entered the Australian Singles Chart on July 4 , 2010 , at number fourteen . It rose to the top three weeks later , occupying the position for six weeks and staying on the chart for 38 weeks in total . In Austria , " Love the Way You Lie " debuted at number 31 , on July 2 , 2010 , and ascended to number one on September 4 . After making a final consecutive appearance on March 4 , 2011 , it reappeared at number 75 on August 26 . The song spent 47 weeks on the chart . " Love the Way You Lie " charted for 30 weeks in France , where debuted and peaked at number three on July 2 , 2010 . It was South Korea 's third @-@ best @-@ selling song in 2010 by a foreign artist , with 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 653 downloads . On the UK Singles Chart , the song debuted at number seven on June 27 , 2010 , and peaked at number two four weeks later . By the end of 2010 , " Love the Way You Lie " had sold 854 @,@ 000 copies in the UK , making it the country 's biggest @-@ selling song of the year . In October 2011 , it became the 109th song to reach 1 million sales there . By November 2012 , the single had sold 1 @.@ 05 million copies in the UK , placing at number 100 on the Official Charts Company 's " The Million Sellers " list . As of June 2015 , it is the 17th best @-@ selling single of the 2010s in the UK . According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry , " Love the Way You Lie " sold 9 @.@ 3 million copies worldwide in 2010 . In December 2011 , it was certified as Eminem 's best @-@ selling single . = = Music video = = = = = Production = = = The music video for " Love the Way You Lie " was Eminem 's third to be directed by the American filmmaker Joseph Kahn . Despite having planned to shoot a feature film and stop directing pop videos , Kahn chose to work on " Love the Way You Lie " because , according to him , the song discusses an important topic . This was an opportunity for him to direct a video for Eminem without the comedic themes of their previous collaborations . For the video , Kahn considered the British actor Dominic Monaghan as a co @-@ star for his versatility , which he thought would help him play an antagonist . Kahn cast the American actress Megan Fox , which he had presumed would be almost impossible because of her popularity with directors . Fox , a fan of Eminem , accepted the role unhesitatingly . Rosenberg gave Kahn one day to write a treatment , which Kahn finished in 45 minutes . He filmed Eminem 's and Rihanna 's parts on July 20 , 2010 ; scenes with Fox and Monaghan were shot three days later . By July 24 , 2010 , they finished the shoot . Kahn confirmed the completion of the director 's cut the next day . He said Fox 's involvement made the video powerful , commenting for Vibe : We wanted to make a specific story about two people — Meg and Dom — not a video that was representative of all couples or all domestic violence situations . I 'm not saying that all couples fight this way . I just want people just to be able to identify with the characters and recognize that they 've seen relationships like this where two people are together that are completely wrong for each other and things spiral out of control . ... Megan was the key to this video . ... I 'll tell you as a director the reason why [ Fox and Monaghan 's ] scenes in the video feel so real is because in the moment they were real . Monaghan told MTV he thought the couple represents Eminem and Scott . The clip was produced by Kathy Angstadt and Maryann Tanedo of HSI Productions . Shortly before its release , Eminem reported in a press statement : " Joseph and I worked pretty closely together to make sure we got this right " . He said the difficult topic resulted in a powerful video because of the contributions of Rihanna , Fox and Monaghan . Fox donated her appearance fee to the Soujourn House , a battered women 's shelter . On August 5 , 2010 , the video premiered on MTV and the music video website Vevo . = = = Synopsis = = = Rihanna sings the chorus in front of a burning house , while an interspersing scene shows fire on a woman 's ( Fox ) palms . In another scene , the woman is asleep with her lover ( Monaghan ) and wakes up . As Eminem begins to rap in an open field , the woman attacks her lover after seeing the name " Cindy " and a phone number written on his hand . He unsuccessfully tries to kiss the woman and brings her back after she attempts to leave him . The man then pushes her onto the wall and aims his fist at her , puncturing the wall instead . After Rihanna sings again , the video flashes back to when the couple first meet " at a seedy dive bar next door " to a liquor store . The man steals a bottle of vodka and they kiss on the rooftop . During the present , the man apologizes to his lover and they are reconciled . In another flashback , he attacks someone who plays pool with his lover . Eminem joins Rihanna in front of the burning house for the final verse . Meanwhile , after the flashback , the woman comes home and locks herself in the bathroom to stop her abusive lover from entering . In another scene , the fire on her palms vanishes as she clasps her hands . Flames later engulf Eminem and the couple , who are then shown fighting in front of the burning house . In the end , the couple stays together and the video returns to their first scene , in which they sleep . = = = Reception = = = The clip broke what was a YouTube record at the time of its release for the most hits in one day , with 6 @.@ 6 million . It had a mixed reception from critics , most of whom commented on scenes of domestic violence . NPR 's Zoe Chace deemed the video sickening , while AOL Music listed it at number five on their list of the " Top 10 Most Controversial Music Videos in Pop " . Stephanie Nilva — the executive director of trauma resource center Day One — told MTV News that it mainly raises " the topic of dating violence among young people " . Nilva praised the clip 's accurate depiction of patterns in an abusive relationship and thought the video 's potency came from Eminem 's history of violence @-@ themed songs and Brown 's assault on Rihanna . A writer for Rap @-@ Up considered the video realistic , as " art imitates life " . Conor Friedersdorf of The Atlantic called it an inaccurate portrayal of domestic violence due to insufficient violence , as evidenced by the lack of injuries after punching through a wall . Mariel Concepcion of Billboard suggested the video was inspired by the lyric , " Just gonna stand there and watch me burn , but that 's alright because I like the way it hurts . " Rihanna 's appearance was criticized . Writing for Rolling Stone magazine , Daniel Kreps called it " especially striking " and noted her relationship with Brown . An editor from The Boston Globe commented that although the video is realistic , it hinders Rihanna 's ability to set an example for women in abusive relationships . Billy Johnson Jr. from Yahoo ! Music wrote that Fox 's character alternated between vulnerable and confrontational personalities , while Monaghan 's character is similar to Eminem . Kahn , who understood why viewers thought Eminem 's and Rihanna 's relationships influenced the video , asked that they realize this is untrue . He said the team had been conscious of such personal matters and Fox 's and Monaghan 's characters are only significant to each other . Reviewers discussed the acting . Peter Gicas of E ! News noted that Fox and Monaghan portray " combustible behavior the tune is hellbent on describing . " The New York Post 's Jarett Wieselman wrote that they play their roles perfectly and help make the video powerful . Entertainment Weekly 's Whitney Pastorek found the violent acting sexually appealing , while Willa Paskin of New York magazine wrote that the cast 's appeal " hypnotize [ s ] " viewers . Paskin noted the use of sepia toning in the burning @-@ house scenes . Matthew Wilkening of AOL Radio commented that the video leaves viewers to decide " if it 's a good thing or a bad thing that the pair always end up reconciling . " Mikey Fresh of Vibe commented that Fox 's natural reaction when Monaghan pierces the wall and almost hits her is an " incredible act of vulnerability " . L Magazine 's Benjamin Sutton likened the scene in which the characters burn to the Marvel Comics character Chris Bradley , whom Monaghan portrays in the 2009 action film X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine . As of July 2016 , the video is the site 's 24th most viewed video , with more than 1 @.@ 1 billion views . = = Live performances = = Eminem has promoted " Love the Way You Lie " at concerts . On June 15 , 2010 , he and Rihanna performed the song at Los Angeles ' Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010 , accompanied by the drummer Travis Barker and D12 's Mr. Porter . Eminem sang " Love the Way You Lie " at the Scottish festival T in the Park on July 10 , 2010 , dedicating it to " everybody who ' [ d ] been in a fucked @-@ up relationship . " He then performed the song at Ireland 's annual Oxegen festival on July 11 , 2010 . James Hendicott from State wrote that the rapper 's personality " fill [ ed ] the stage " and that his vocals were sharp and packed " plenty of punch " . He criticized the use of a pre @-@ recorded backing track and noted the lack of live music and female vocals . Eamon Sweeney from the Irish Independent called Eminem 's performance only " mildly impressive " . On July 21 , 2010 , the rapper joined Rihanna on her Last Girl on Earth Tour to perform in Los Angeles . He then performed at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards and was voted the best performer of the ceremony in an MTV poll , earning 34 percent of votes . Rihanna made a surprise appearance despite having said she could not perform because of her schedule . Suddath of Time called their duet dull . Eminem sang " Love the Way You Lie " without Rihanna at the 2011 Bonnaroo Music Festival for almost 80 @,@ 000 people . According to MTV News ' Montgomery , the " sheer tenacity with which he attacked " was his strength . Patrick Doyle of Rolling Stone felt Eminem delivered a triumphal act by " constantly bouncing across the stage " and singing energetically . Eminem performed " Love the Way You Lie " on the second day of Chicago 's annual Lollapalooza festival on August 6 , 2011 . Members of the audience sang the chorus to compensate for Rihanna 's absence . Piet Levy of USA Today named the show a " tragic stunner " , while Katie Hasty of HitFix added that it displayed competition between the sexes . Eminem and Rihanna performed in Staffordshire on the first day of V2011 ( V Festival ) , on August 20 , 2011 . James Lachno of The Daily Telegraph considered it an " affecting " rendition . The Guardian called their performance thrilling and an editor for the British newspaper Metro felt that it was the best part of the evening . Eminem closed the festival on the night of August 21 in Chelmsford , Essex , for an audience of 120 @,@ 000 . A reporter for the International Business Times thought that Eminem 's duet with Rihanna was the highlight of the show . = = Cover versions = = Various musical acts have performed cover versions of " Love the Way You Lie " . Eric Stanley , an American violinist , remixed the song on the violin . The country music group The Band Perry sang the song at the June 2010 CMT Music Awards . Two months later , Taylor Momsen — the lead singer of the American rock band The Pretty Reckless — performed a cover version for BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge as part of a mashup with the song " Islands " by the English pop band The xx . Assisted by a guitarist from her band , she began with a section of " Islands " and transitioned into the chorus of " Love the Way You Lie " . Cher Lloyd , a British singer , performed the song in the final five of The X Factor UK 's seventh season . A writer from The Sun called the performance " stripped @-@ back " and " without any of her usual stage gimmicks . " Mernie Gilmore of the Daily Express commented that the song is " a duet for a reason " as Lloyd performed both Eminem 's and Rihanna 's parts . In 2010 , the Russian guitarist Alex Feather Akimov , released " Love The Way You Lie ( Heavy Remix ) " , a recording that was recognized by Billboard.biz ( Web Trends ) . The American post @-@ hardcore band A Skylit Drive recorded a cover of the single for Punk Goes Pop 4 , the 2011 release of the Punk Goes ... series . = = Sequel = = On November 3 , 2010 , an alternative version titled " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " leaked onto the Internet . Rihanna is the lead vocalist and Eminem is a featured guest . The song mainly views matters from Rihanna 's perspective and is based on Grey 's demo . Rihanna agreed to record a sequel despite initially thinking " the original couldn 't be beaten " . She said that the sequel involved less production , with only piano and drums . It is the eleventh and final track on her 2010 studio album Loud . Grey 's version appears on her 2012 extended play The Buried Sessions of Skylar Grey and her 2013 studio album Don 't Look Down as " Love the Way You Lie ( Part III ) " . Rihanna performed a short medley that comprised " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " , " What 's My Name ? " and " Only Girl ( In the World ) " at the American Music Awards of 2010 . Another medley , consisting of " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " and " I Need a Doctor " , was performed at the 2011 Grammy Awards . While the Chicago Sun @-@ Times considered the track an unnecessary sequel , the BBC reviewer James Skinner wrote , " ' Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) ' even bests the original , Eminem 's verse exuding the kind of volatile , simmering menace that got everyone so excited about him in the first place . But it is Rihanna 's vocal — at once commanding , soulful and vulnerable — that anchors the song " . = = Awards = = = = Track listing = = CD single " Love the Way You Lie " ( featuring Rihanna ) – 4 : 15 " Not Afraid " ( Live at T in the Park ) – 6 : 54 = = Personnel = = The credits for " Love the Way You Lie " are adapted from the liner notes of Recovery . Eminem – mixing engineer , writer , vocalist Rihanna – vocalist Skylar Grey – writer Alex da Kid – mastering engineer , mixing engineer , producer , writer Mike Strange – mixing engineer , recording engineer Marcos Tovar – recording engineer Joe Strange – engineering assistant Spike Lindsey – engineering assistant Makeba Riddick – producer ( vocals ) J. Brow – guitarist = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = Since May 9 , 2013 , RIAA certifications for digital singles include on @-@ demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads .
= Nitrogen narcosis = Narcosis while diving ( also known as nitrogen narcosis , inert gas narcosis , raptures of the deep , Martini effect ) , is a reversible alteration in consciousness that occurs while diving at depth . It is caused by the anesthetic effect of certain gases at high pressure . The Greek word ναρκωσις ( narcosis ) is derived from narke , " temporary decline or loss of senses and movement , numbness " , a term used by Homer and Hippocrates . Narcosis produces a state similar to drunkenness ( alcohol intoxication ) , or nitrous oxide inhalation . It can occur during shallow dives , but does not usually become noticeable at depths less than 30 meters ( 100 ft ) . Except for helium and probably neon , all gases that can be breathed have a narcotic effect , although widely varying in degree . The effect is consistently greater for gases with a higher lipid solubility , and there is good evidence that the two properties are mechanistically related . As depth increases , the mental impairment may become hazardous . Divers can learn to cope with some of the effects of narcosis , but it is impossible to develop a tolerance . Narcosis affects all divers , although susceptibility varies widely from dive to dive , and between individuals . Narcosis may be completely reversed in a few minutes by ascending to a shallower depth , with no long @-@ term effects . Thus narcosis while diving in open water rarely develops into a serious problem as long as the divers are aware of its symptoms , and are able to ascend to manage it . Diving beyond 40 m ( 130 ft ) is generally considered outside the scope of recreational diving . Below these depths , as narcosis and oxygen toxicity become critical risk factors , specialist training is required in the use of various helium @-@ containing gas mixtures such as trimix or heliox . These mixtures prevent narcosis by replacing some of the breathing gas with non @-@ narcotic helium . = = Classification = = Narcosis results from breathing gases under elevated pressure , and may be classified by the principal gas involved . The noble gases , except helium and probably neon , as well as nitrogen , oxygen and hydrogen cause a decrement in mental function , but their effect on psychomotor function ( processes affecting the coordination of sensory or cognitive processes and motor activity ) varies widely . The effects of carbon dioxide consistently result in a diminution of mental and psychomotor function . The noble gases argon , krypton , and xenon are more narcotic than nitrogen at a given pressure , and xenon has so much anesthetic activity that it is a usable anesthetic at 80 % concentration and normal atmospheric pressure . Xenon has historically been too expensive to be used very much in practice , but it has been successfully used for surgical operations , and xenon anesthesia systems are still being proposed and designed . = = Signs and symptoms = = Due to its perception @-@ altering effects , the onset of narcosis may be hard to recognize . At its most benign , narcosis results in relief of anxiety – a feeling of tranquility and mastery of the environment . These effects are essentially identical to various concentrations of nitrous oxide . They also resemble ( though not as closely ) the effects of alcohol or marijuana and the familiar benzodiazepine drugs such as diazepam and alprazolam . Such effects are not harmful unless they cause some immediate danger to go unrecognized and unaddressed . Once stabilized , the effects generally remain the same at a given depth , only worsening if the diver ventures deeper . The most dangerous aspects of narcosis are the impairment of judgement , multi @-@ tasking and coordination , and the loss of decision @-@ making ability and focus . Other effects include vertigo and visual or auditory disturbances . The syndrome may cause exhilaration , giddiness , extreme anxiety , depression , or paranoia , depending on the individual diver and the diver 's medical or personal history . When more serious , the diver may feel overconfident , disregarding normal safe diving practices . The relation of depth to narcosis is sometimes informally known as " Martini 's law " , the idea that narcosis results in the feeling of one martini for every 10 m ( 33 ft ) below 20 m ( 66 ft ) depth . Professional divers use such a calculation only as a rough guide to give new divers a metaphor , comparing a situation they may be more familiar with . Reported signs and symptoms are summarized against typical depths in meters and feet of sea water in the following table : = = Causes = = The cause of narcosis is related to the increased solubility of gases in body tissues , as a result of the elevated pressures at depth ( Henry 's law ) . Modern theories have suggested that inert gases dissolving in the lipid bilayer of cell membranes cause narcosis . More recently , researchers have been looking at neurotransmitter receptor protein mechanisms as a possible cause of narcosis . The breathing gas mix entering the diver 's lungs will have the same pressure as the surrounding water , known as the ambient pressure . After any change of depth , the pressure of gases in the blood passing through the brain catches up with ambient pressure within a minute or two , which results in a delayed narcotic effect after descending to a new depth . Rapid compression potentiates narcosis owing to carbon dioxide retention . A divers ' cognition may be affected on dives as shallow as 10 m ( 33 ft ) , but the changes are not usually noticeable . There is no reliable method to predict the depth at which narcosis becomes noticeable , or the severity of the effect on an individual diver , as it may vary from dive to dive even on the same day . Significant impairment due to narcosis is an increasing risk below depths of about 30 m ( 100 ft ) , corresponding to an ambient pressure of about 4 bar ( 400 kPa ) . Most sport scuba training organizations recommend depths of no more than 40 m ( 130 ft ) because of the risk of narcosis . When breathing air at depths of 90 m ( 300 ft ) – an ambient pressure of about 10 bar ( 1 @,@ 000 kPa ) – narcosis in most divers leads to hallucinations , loss of memory , and unconsciousness . A number of divers have died in attempts to set air depth records below 120 m ( 400 ft ) . Because of these incidents , Guinness World Records no longer reports on this figure . Narcosis has been compared with altitude sickness insofar as its variability ( though not its symptoms ) ; its effects depend on many factors , with variations between individuals . Thermal cold , stress , heavy work , fatigue , and carbon dioxide retention all increase the risk and severity of narcosis . Carbon dioxide has a high narcotic potential and also causes increased blood flow to the brain , increasing the effects of other gases . Increased risk of narcosis results from increasing the amount of carbon dioxide retained through heavy exercise , shallow or skip breathing , or because of poor gas exchange in the lungs . Narcosis is known to be additive to even minimal alcohol intoxication , and also to the effects of other drugs such as marijuana ( which is more likely than alcohol to have effects that last into a day of abstinence from use ) . Other sedative and analgesic drugs , such as opiate narcotics and benzodiazepines , add to narcosis . = = Mechanism = = The precise mechanism is not well understood , but it appears to be the direct effect of gas dissolving into nerve membranes and causing temporary disruption in nerve transmissions . While the effect was first observed with air , other gases including argon , krypton and hydrogen cause very similar effects at higher than atmospheric pressure . Some of these effects may be due to antagonism at NMDA receptors and potentiation of GABAA receptors , similar to the mechanism of nonpolar anesthetics such diethyl ether or ethylene . However , their reproduction by the very chemically inactive gas argon makes them unlikely to be a strictly chemical bonding to receptors in the usual sense of a chemical bond . An indirect physical effect – such as a change in membrane volume – would therefore be needed to affect the ligand @-@ gated ion channels of nerve cells . Trudell et al. have suggested non @-@ chemical binding due to the attractive van der Waals force between proteins and inert gases . Similar to the mechanism of ethanol 's effect , the increase of gas dissolved in nerve cell membranes may cause altered ion permeability properties of the neural cells ' lipid bilayers . The partial pressure of a gas required to cause a measured degree of impairment correlates well with the lipid solubility of the gas : the greater the solubility , the less partial pressure is needed . An early theory , the Meyer @-@ Overton hypothesis , suggested that narcosis happens when the gas penetrates the lipids of the brain 's nerve cells , causing direct mechanical interference with the transmission of signals from one nerve cell to another . More recently , specific types of chemically gated receptors in nerve cells have been identified as being involved with anesthesia and narcosis . However , the basic and most general underlying idea , that nerve transmission is altered in many diffuse areas of the brain as a result of gas molecules dissolved in the nerve cells ' fatty membranes , remains largely unchallenged . = = Management and diagnosis = = The management of narcosis is simply to ascend to shallower depths ; the effects then disappear within minutes . In the event of complications or other conditions being present , ascending is always the correct initial response . Should problems remain , then it is necessary to abort the dive . The decompression schedule can still be followed unless other conditions require emergency assistance . The symptoms of narcosis may be caused by other factors during a dive : ear problems causing disorientation or nausea ; early signs of oxygen toxicity causing visual disturbances ; or hypothermia causing rapid breathing and shivering . Nevertheless , the presence of any of these symptoms should imply narcosis . Alleviation of the effects upon ascending to a shallower depth will confirm the diagnosis . Given the setting , other likely conditions do not produce reversible effects . In the rare event of misdiagnosis when another condition is causing the symptoms , the initial management – ascending closer to the surface – is still essential . = = Prevention = = The most straightforward way to avoid nitrogen narcosis is for a diver to limit the depth of dives . Since narcosis becomes more severe as depth increases , a diver keeping to shallower depths can avoid serious narcosis . Most recreational dive schools will only certify basic divers to depths of 18 m ( 60 ft ) , and at these depths narcosis does not present a significant risk . Further training is normally required for certification up to 30 m ( 100 ft ) on air , and this training should include a discussion of narcosis , its effects , and cure . Some diver training agencies offer specialized training to prepare recreational divers to go to depths of 40 m ( 130 ft ) , often consisting of further theory and some practice in deep dives under close supervision . Scuba organizations that train for diving beyond recreational depths , may forbid diving with gases that cause too much narcosis at depth in the average diver , and strongly encourage the use of other breathing gas mixes containing helium in place of some or all of the nitrogen in air – such as trimix and heliox – because helium has no narcotic potential . The use of these gases forms part of technical diving and requires further training and certification . While the individual diver cannot predict exactly at what depth the onset of narcosis will occur on a given day , the first symptoms of narcosis for any given diver are often more predictable and personal . For example , one diver may have trouble with eye focus ( close accommodation for middle @-@ aged divers ) , another may experience feelings of euphoria , and another feelings of claustrophobia . Some divers report that they have hearing changes , and that the sound their exhaled bubbles make becomes different . Specialist training may help divers to identify these personal onset signs , which may then be used as a signal to ascend to avoid the narcosis , although severe narcosis may interfere with the judgement necessary to take preventive action . Deep dives should be made only after a gradual training to test the individual diver 's sensitivity to increasing depths , with careful supervision and logging of reactions . Diving organizations such as Global Underwater Explorers ( GUE ) emphasize that such sessions are for the purpose of gaining experience in recognizing the onset symptoms of narcosis for an individual , which are somewhat more repeatable than for the average group of divers . Scientific evidence does not show that a diver can train to overcome any measure of narcosis at a given depth or become tolerant of it . Equivalent narcotic depth ( END ) is a commonly used way of expressing the narcotic effect of different breathing gases . The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Diving Manual now states that oxygen and nitrogen should be considered equally narcotic . Standard tables , based on relative lipid solubilities , list conversion factors for narcotic effect of other gases . For example , hydrogen at a given pressure has a narcotic effect equivalent to nitrogen at 0 @.@ 55 times that pressure , so in principle it should be usable at more than twice the depth . Argon , however , has 2 @.@ 33 times the narcotic effect of nitrogen , and is a poor choice as a breathing gas for diving ( it is used as a drysuit inflation gas , owing to its low thermal conductivity ) . Some gases have other dangerous effects when breathed at pressure ; for example , high @-@ pressure oxygen can lead to oxygen toxicity . Although helium is the least intoxicating of the breathing gases , at greater depths it can cause high pressure nervous syndrome , a still mysterious but apparently unrelated phenomenon . Inert gas narcosis is only one factor influencing the choice of gas mixture ; the risks of decompression sickness and oxygen toxicity , cost , and other factors are also important . Because of similar and additive effects , divers should avoid sedating medications and drugs , such as marijuana and alcohol before any dive . A hangover , combined with the reduced physical capacity that goes with it , makes nitrogen narcosis more likely . Experts recommend total abstinence from alcohol for at least 12 hours before diving , and longer for other drugs . Abstinence time needed for marijuana is unknown , but owing to the much longer half @-@ life of the active agent of this drug in the body , it is likely to be longer than for alcohol . = = Prognosis and epidemiology = = Narcosis is potentially one of the most dangerous conditions to affect the scuba diver below about 30 m ( 100 ft ) . Except for occasional amnesia of events at depth , the effects of narcosis are entirely removed on ascent and therefore pose no problem in themselves , even for repeated , chronic or acute exposure . Nevertheless , the severity of narcosis is unpredictable and it can be fatal while diving , as the result of illogical behavior in a dangerous environment . Tests have shown that all divers are affected by nitrogen narcosis , though some experience lesser effects than others . Even though it is possible that some divers can manage better than others because of learning to cope with the subjective impairment , the underlying behavioral effects remain . These effects are particularly dangerous because a diver may feel they are not experiencing narcosis , yet still be affected by it . = = History = = French researcher Victor T. Junod was the first to describe symptoms of narcosis in 1834 , noting " the functions of the brain are activated , imagination is lively , thoughts have a peculiar charm and , in some persons , symptoms of intoxication are present . " Junod suggested that narcosis resulted from pressure causing increased blood flow and hence stimulating nerve centers . Walter Moxon ( 1836 – 1886 ) , a prominent Victorian physician , hypothesized in 1881 that pressure forced blood to inaccessible parts of the body and the stagnant blood then resulted in emotional changes . The first report of anesthetic potency being related to lipid solubility was published by Hans H. Meyer in 1899 , entitled Zur Theorie der Alkoholnarkose . Two years later a similar theory was published independently by Charles Ernest Overton . What became known as the Meyer @-@ Overton Hypothesis may be illustrated by a graph comparing narcotic potency with solubility in oil . In 1939 , Albert R. Behnke and O. D. Yarborough demonstrated that gases other than nitrogen also could cause narcosis . For an inert gas the narcotic potency was found to be proportional to its lipid solubility . As hydrogen has only 0 @.@ 55 the solubility of nitrogen , deep diving experiments using hydrox were conducted by Arne Zetterström between 1943 and 1945 . Jacques @-@ Yves Cousteau in 1953 famously described it as " l ’ ivresse des grandes profondeurs " or the " rapture of the deep " . Further research into the possible mechanisms of narcosis by anesthetic action led to the " minimum alveolar concentration " concept in 1965 . This measures the relative concentration of different gases required to prevent motor response in 50 % of subjects in response to stimulus , and shows similar results for anesthetic potency as the measurements of lipid solubility . The ( NOAA ) Diving Manual was revised to recommend treating oxygen as if it were as narcotic as nitrogen , following research by Christian J. Lambertsen et al. in 1977 and 1978 .
= Beit Al Quran = Beit Al Qur 'an ( Arabic : بيت القرآن , meaning : the House of Qur 'an ) is a multi @-@ purpose complex dedicated to the Islamic arts and is located in Hoora , Bahrain . Established in 1990 , the complex is most famous for its Islamic museum , which has been acknowledged as being one of the most renowned Islamic museums in the world . = = Establishment = = Construction of the complex began in 1984 and the museum was officially opened in March 1990 by Abdul Latif Jassim Kanoo . It was built to " accommodate a comprehensive and valuable collection of the Qur 'an and other rare manuscripts " , a concept which , according to a regional magazine , is unique in the Persian Gulf region . The core of the museum 's holdings is Kanoo 's own collection of Qur 'anic manuscripts and Islamic art , since he was reportedly said to have been an avid collector . As his collection grew , he reportedly came to feel a strong sense of responsibility toward the rare manuscripts he had acquired . In 1990 , he donated his collection to the museum he established to operate a first @-@ of @-@ its @-@ kind institution dedicated to the service of the Qur 'an and the preservation of historic manuscripts . The establishment of the institute was funded completely by public donations , with added help from a variety of people from all walks of life in Bahrain , ranging from heads of state to school children . The facilities at Beit Al Qur 'an are free to the general public . The institution and its museum house an internationally celebrated collection of historic Quranic manuscripts from various parts of the Islamic world , from China in the East and to Spain in the West , representing a progression of calligraphic traditions from the first Hijri century ( 622 – 722 AD ) and of the Islamic Golden Age , to the present day . = = Facilities = = The Beit al Qur 'an complex is open to the public on Saturdays to Wednesdays from 9am to 12pm and 4pm to 6pm respectively . The complex 's exterior designs are based on an old fashioned 12th @-@ century mosque . The entire complex itself comprises a mosque , a library , an auditorium , a madrasa , and a museum that consists of ten exhibition halls . A large stained glass dome covers the grand hall and mosque . The Mihrab , the sign indicating the direction to Mecca , is covered in blue ceramic tiles with engraved Al Qursi Qur 'anic verse . The library consists of over 50 @,@ 000 books and manuscripts in three languages – Arabic , English and French – that are mostly on Islam . The institute does specialise in Islamic art , and many of the reference books have international importance . The library and its reading rooms are open to the public during working hours with internet access available , as well as providing individual rooms for researchers and specialists . There is also an auditorium – named the Mohammed Bin Khalifa Bin Salman Al Khalifa Lecture Hall – which can accommodate up to 150 people , and is mainly used for lectures and conferences . Guest speakers are brought to Bahrain from many countries , including the US , UK , and France . The conference hall is often made available for general use for public lectures in cooperation with different societies and institutions in Bahrain . The Yousuf Bin Ahmad Kanoo School for Qur 'anic Studies is located within the site . The school offers seven study areas fully equipped with computers and modern aids , with separate classes for women and children learning the Qur 'an . = = Museum = = The Al Hayat Museum is the complex 's most recognized establishments ; it consists of ten halls spread over two floors , exhibiting rare Qur 'anic manuscripts from different periods , starting from the first century Hijra ( 700 AD ) . Manuscripts on parchments that originate from Saudi Arabia ( Mecca and Medina ) , Damascus and Baghdad , are present in the museum . The manuscripts undergo special procedures for the preservation of these artifacts , in order to protect them from damages . Some of the artifacts present in the museum include a rare manuscript of the Qur 'an , dating to 1694 AD and was printed in Germany . The museum also houses the world 's oldest translated copy of the Qur 'an , which was translated to Latin in Switzerland and dates to 955 AD . The first copy of the Qur 'an , written during the reign of Caliph Uthman ibn Affan , is on display in the museum alongside a number of small copies of the Qur 'an , which could only be read using optical instruments . Grains , peas and rice , dating from the 14th century in present @-@ day Pakistan , which contain surahs engraved into them , are displayed in the museum . The exhibits include a rare number of gold and copper pottery and glass from different eras of Iraq , Turkey , Iran and Egypt , respectively . The works of Islamic scholars , such as Ibn Taymiyyah are preserved in the museum . It has been claimed to have been " the only institute in the world dedicated to the Qur 'an and Qur 'anic studies " .
= Dartmouth College Greek organizations = Dartmouth College is host to many Greek organizations , and a significant percentage of the undergraduate student body is active in Greek life . In 2005 , the school stated that 1 @,@ 785 students were members of a fraternity , sorority , or coeducational Greek house , comprising about 43 percent of all students , or about 60 percent of the eligible student body . Greek organizations at Dartmouth provide both social and residential opportunities for students , and are the only single @-@ sex residential option on campus . Greek organizations at Dartmouth do not provide dining options , as regular meals service has been banned in Greek houses since 1909 . Social fraternities at Dartmouth College grew out of a tradition of student literary societies that began in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries . The first social fraternities were founded in 1842 and rapidly expanded to include the active participation of over half of the student body . Fraternities at Dartmouth built dedicated residence and meeting halls in the early 1900s and in the 1920s , and then struggled to survive the lean years of the 1930s . Dartmouth College was among the first institutions of higher education to desegregate fraternity houses in the 1950s , and was involved in the movement to create coeducational Greek houses in the 1970s . Sororities were introduced to campus in 1977 . In the early 2000s , campus @-@ wide debate focused on whether or not the Greek system at Dartmouth would become " substantially coeducational " , but most houses retain single @-@ sex membership policies . Currently , Dartmouth College extends official recognition to sixteen all @-@ male fraternities , nine all @-@ female sororities , and three coeducational fraternities . The Greek houses are largely governed through three independent councils , the Interfraternity Council , the Panhellenic Council , and the Coed Council . Dartmouth College has two cultural interest fraternities , and two cultural interest sororities , which do not participate in the major governing councils , but are member organizations of national associations . A chapter of the Phi Beta Kappa honor society is active , but there are no professional fraternities with active chapters at Dartmouth College . = = History = = Social fraternities at Dartmouth College grew out of a tradition of student literary societies that began in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries . The first such society at Dartmouth , the Social Friends , was formed in 1783 . A rival organization , called the United Fraternity , was founded in 1786 . A chapter of Phi Beta Kappa was established at Dartmouth in 1787 , and counted among its members Daniel Webster , class of 1801 . These organizations were , in large part , the only social life available to students at the college . The organizations hosted debates on a variety of topics not encountered in the curriculum of the day , and amassed large libraries of titles not found in the official College library . Both the Social Friends and the United Fraternity created libraries in Dartmouth Hall , and met in a room called Society Hall inside Dartmouth Hall . In 1815 , the college decided to intervene in the hotly contested recruitment battle between the Social Friends and the United Fraternity by restricting each society to recruit only from separate halves of the new student class . In 1825 , the college began simply assigning new students to one society or the other . Interest in the literary societies declined in the 1830s and 1840s . The College library and instructional curriculum had expanded to include much of what the literary societies had supported , and new Greek letter societies began to appear on campus . In 1841 , two factions of the United Fraternity split off from the literary society . One of the new societies called itself Omega Phi and on May 10 , 1842 , obtained a charter as the Zeta chapter of Psi Upsilon . The other faction to split from the United Fraternity organized itself on July 13 , 1842 , as Kappa Kappa Kappa , a local fraternity . More Greek organizations were founded , and by 1855 , 64 % of students , mostly upperclassmen , were members of the Greek letter societies on campus . Initially , the original Greek letter societies would not extend invitations of membership to first year students . Two separate Greek letter organizations were created exclusively for freshmen : Kappa Sigma Epsilon and Delta Kappa . These societies would dissolve in 1883 , when the fraternities of the upper classes began to pledge freshmen . A chapter of Phi Beta Kappa survived at Dartmouth , but by the 1830s had established its role as a strictly literary society by dropping requirements of secrecy for membership and activities . The new , social Greek organizations distinguished themselves from Phi Beta Kappa and the previous literary societies in several ways . The new fraternities were self @-@ selective and exclusive . Each organization developed its own secret rituals and procedures . Most of the societies began to invest in creating their own meeting halls , either upstairs rooms in buildings on Main Street , or free @-@ standing structures near campus . There were 11 active Greek organizations at Dartmouth College in 1900 . [ a ] = = = Expansion of the fraternity system = = = The fortunes of the fraternity system at Dartmouth followed a boom and bust pattern in the early twentieth century . Several organizations purchased frame houses or built their own between 1898 and 1907 , including Beta Theta Pi , Kappa Kappa Kappa , Phi Delta Alpha , and Psi Upsilon . The economic expansion of the 1920s created a boom in the fortunes of the fraternities , allowing many to build new brick residences near campus , including Zeta Psi , Kappa Kappa Kappa , Phi Sigma Kappa , Sigma Nu , Sigma Alpha Epsilon , Chi Phi , Theta Delta Chi , Phi Gamma Delta , Sigma Chi , Gamma Delta Chi , and Delta Tau Delta . It was during this period that Webster Avenue developed as " fraternity row " . The new residences were built without significant dining facilities , as the Trustees of the college had banned fraternities from serving regular meals in their chapter houses and had limited the number of resident brothers by the fall semester of 1909 . College administrators also challenged the fraternities to become more engaged in College life and less focused on their fraternity life during this time . College President Ernest Martin Hopkins personally decided to abolish freshman rush in 1924 . As did the nation , fraternities at Dartmouth went through difficult times during the Great Depression . The decade of the 1930s saw almost no building projects at all in the fraternity system , and many houses could no longer afford regular maintenance . One of the great tragedies at Dartmouth College occurred on a winter night in 1934 , when nine members of Theta Chi died from carbon monoxide poisoning after a metal chimney on a dilapidated coal furnace in the basement of the chapter house broke in the night . In 1935 , Dartmouth historian and professor Leon Burr Richardson asserted in a survey that , in light of the national suffering , the fraternity chapters should ask themselves if they had " any excuse for existence . " Four fraternities dissolved during the Great Depression ( Alpha Sigma Phi , Alpha Tau Omega , Lambda Chi Alpha , and Sigma Alpha Mu ) , and two ( Phi Kappa Sigma and Alpha Chi Rho ) merged to pool scarce resources in order to survive . All of the surviving fraternities closed for the duration of World War II , as the campus was largely ( although not exclusively ) used to educate , train , and house Navy sailors and Marines in the V @-@ 12 Navy College Training Program . The fraternities of Dartmouth College were directly involved in the African @-@ American Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s . In 1952 , the Dartmouth chapter of Theta Chi was derecognized by its national over a dispute regarding minority membership . The Dartmouth chapter reorganized as a local fraternity named Alpha Theta . A campus @-@ wide referendum held in 1954 on the issue of desegregation of fraternities resulted in a majority in favor of requiring fraternities on campus to eliminate racially discriminatory membership policies by the year 1960 , and to secede from national groups that retained such policies in their charters . This became a binding obligation imposed on the fraternities by the college administration , and several fraternities at Dartmouth dissociated from their national organizations , including the chapters of Phi Sigma Kappa ( 1956 ) , Delta Tau Delta ( 1960 ) , Phi Delta Theta ( 1960 ) , Sigma Chi ( 1960 ) , and Sigma Nu ( 1963 ) . National social changes also affected Greek societies at Dartmouth in the 1960s and 1970s . Many began to question the value of belonging to a national fraternal organization . The Dartmouth chapters of Chi Alpha Rho , Chi Phi , Delta Upsilon , Phi Gamma Delta , Phi Kappa Psi , and Sigma Phi Epsilon all disaffiliated from their national fraternities in the 1960s . As political activism increased , fraternities were increasingly seen as anachronistic , and in 1967 , the faculty voted 67 @-@ 16 to adopt a proposal to abolish fraternities at Dartmouth . The proposal was rejected by the Board of Trustees . = = = Coeducation to the present = = = Coeducation would dramatically change all social life at Dartmouth College , including the fraternity system . The college first began admitting women as full @-@ time students in 1972 . By the fall of 1973 , five local fraternities ( Alpha Theta , Foley House , The Tabard , Phi Tau , and Phi Sigma Psi ) had all decided to adopt a coeducational membership policy and admit women as full members . The first sorority on campus , Sigma Kappa , was founded in 1977 . Many alumni expressed strong concerns that the need for housing for new sororities would inevitably lead to financial pressure and the possible dissolution of existing fraternities at the college . In response , the Trustees imposed a moratorium limiting the campus to no more than six recognized sororities . Converting from an all @-@ male to a coeducational membership policy was not enough to save at least one Greek organization on campus . In 1981 , the Harold Parmington Foundation reorganized itself as a new coeducational fraternity Delta Psi Delta , but the organization never attracted many new members and was finally forced to dissolve in the spring of 1991 . In addition , Foley House disassociated from the Greek system in fall 1984 , transitioning into an affinity house as part of the college 's residential living programs . It moved off Webster Avenue to a new location on West Street ( where it is still in operation as of the 2013 @-@ 14 academic year ) . During the 1980s and 1990s , College administrators introduced new initiatives to hold the Greek organizations on campus more accountable for their actions and to offer more social alternatives to the predominantly single @-@ sex Greek system . In 1982 , the administration announced that Greek organizations would have to comply with a set of " minimum standards " , enforced through annual reviews , in order to remain in good standing with the college . These standards included not only health and safety regulations regarding the conditions of the Greek houses , but requirements for Greek @-@ sponsored activities deemed beneficial to the college community at large . The College introduced Undergraduate Societies to campus in 1993 , as a residential and social alternative to Greek organizations . Similar to the Greek houses in many respects , Undergraduate Societies were required to have open , coeducational membership policies . Panarchy voted to change its status to an undergraduate society and was joined the following year by a newly formed society , called Amarna . In the fall of 1993 , Student Assembly President Andrew Beebe , class of 1993 , argued in favor of the coeducation of the entire Greek system in his remarks at fall Convocation . During that same academic term , College President James O. Freedman predicted that the Greek system at Dartmouth would be coeducational within 10 years . In 1999 , the college administration announced a " Residential and Social Life Initiative " to improve campus life . Speculation that all single @-@ sex fraternities and sororities would be required to adopt coeducational membership policies led to intense campus debate . In a survey conducted by The Dartmouth newspaper , 49 % of the student body responded , and 83 % of those respondents were in favor of retaining a single @-@ sex Greek system at Dartmouth . In a December , 2006 interview , College President Jim Wright admitted that it had been " a serious mistake " to announce the Student Life Initiative in the manner in which it was presented to the campus , but expressed that in his opinion , " the Greek system at Dartmouth now is stronger than it 's ever been . " = = Fraternities = = The single @-@ sex male @-@ only fraternities at Dartmouth College are largely organized and represented to the college through the Interfraternity Council ( IFC ) . The Interfraternity Council is a student @-@ led governance organization that assists the member Greek organizations with finances , public relations , programming , judicial administration , recruitment , and academic achievement . Alpha Phi Alpha is not a member of the IFC , but is a member of the National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council . Lambda Upsilon Lambda is also not a member of the IFC , but is a member of the National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations . = = = Alpha Phi Alpha ( ΑΦΑ ) = = = The Theta Zeta chapter of Alpha Phi Alpha was founded as the first historically African @-@ American fraternity at Dartmouth College in 1972 . The first members of the fraternity traveled to Boston , Massachusetts on the weekends of the 1971 spring academic term to attend pledge events at the Sigma chapter . The Dartmouth chapter was chartered as the 381st chapter of Alpha Phi Alpha on May 12 , 1972 . Early chapter meetings on campus were held in both the Choates dormitories and Cutter @-@ Shabazz Hall . The fraternity secured their own house in 1982 , a duplex structure that , since renovated , today houses the Delta Delta Delta sorority . Facing smaller membership , the fraternity decided to relocate to a smaller house near the western end of Webster Avenue in the late 1980s , and in 1992 , the fraternity again relocated to College @-@ owned apartment housing . The Dartmouth chapter of Alpha Phi Alpha sponsors an annual step performance known as the Green Key StepShow . Notable alumni of the chapter include National Football League all @-@ star Reggie Williams , class of 1976 , and current Executive Vice President of Baseball Operations in Major League Baseball , Jimmie Lee Solomon , class of 1978 . = = = Alpha Chi Alpha ( ΑΧΑ ) = = = Alpha Chi Alpha ( " Alpha Chi " ) was founded in 1956 as the Phi Nu chapter of Alpha Chi Rho , a national fraternal organization . A previous Phi Nu chapter of Alpha Chi Rho at Dartmouth had merged with the Kappa chapter of Phi Kappa Sigma in 1935 to become Gamma Delta Chi , a local fraternity still in existence at Dartmouth . The second Phi Nu chapter of Alpha Chi Rho is unrelated to the first chapter . The men of Alpha Chi Rho again broke away from the national group in 1963 and became a local fraternity named Alpha Chi Alpha . The Dartmouth chapter objected to a clause in the national fraternity organization 's constitution that required all Alpha Chi Rho brothers to " accept Jesus as their lord and savior . " The land and house used by the Alpha Chi Alpha fraternity are owned by the college . Dartmouth invested $ 1 @.@ 3 Million in renovations completed in the fall of 2004 , which included the razing of the " Barn " structure that was used as social space by the brothers of Alpha Chi Alpha to make way for a new expanded basement and main floor area . Renovations on the Alpha Chi Alpha physical plant were completed in 2005 . = = = Dartmouth Beta ( ΒΑΩ ) = = = Dartmouth Beta ( " Beta " ) was founded in 1858 as a local fraternity at Dartmouth 's Chandler Scientific School named Sigma Delta Pi . This was the second Chandler fraternity and the seventh fraternity founded at the college . The fraternity changed its name to Vitruvian ( a tribute to the Roman architect Vitruvius ) in 1871 and later established two short @-@ lived chapters at other schools . In 1889 , the local brotherhood decided to join a national fraternity and the organization soon became the Alpha Omega chapter of Beta Theta Pi . It built a house ( now South Fairbanks Hall ) designed by Beta graduate Charles A. Rich of Lamb & Rich in 1904 , and it built its second house on Webster Avenue in 1933 . Notable alumni of the organization include but are not limited to : former US Representative from New Hampshire Frank G. Clarke , author Norman Maclean , former Governor of New Hampshire Walter R. Peterson ' 47 , businessman Alan Reich ' 52 , former Dartmouth President David T. McLaughlin ' 54 , owner of the Cincinnati Bengals Mike Brown ' 57 , founder of the Big East Conference Dave Gavitt ' 59 , former Athletic Director of Syracuse University Jake Crouthamel ' 60 , member of College Football Hall of Fame and Chief Executive Officer of the Hanover Company Murry Bowden ' 71 , professional poker player Chip Reese ' 73 , Politician Joel Hyatt ' 72 , US Congressman John Carney ' 78 , college football coach Buddy Teevens ' 78 , former NFL football coach Dave Shula ' 81 , former NFL quarterback Jeff Kemp ' 81 , Olympic skier Tiger Shaw ' 85 , former NFL quarterback Jay Fiedler ' 94 , and actor Brian J. White ' 96 . Beta Theta Pi was suspended by the college on three occasions in the 1990s . An incident of hazing in 1994 led to a year @-@ long period of derecognition . In the summer of 1995 , a member of Beta Theta Pi read a poem aloud during a house meeting that was deemed to be racist and sexist , and resulted in many calling for derecognition of the fraternity . In 1996 , a Coed Fraternity Sorority Council judiciary committee found Beta Theta Pi guilty of six violations of college and fraternity policies . The College derecognized Beta Theta Pi permanently on December 6 , 1996 . The Hanover Police Department reported that the brothers of Beta Theta Pi did an estimated $ 15 @,@ 000 in damage to the property soon after hearing of the permanent derecognition decision . It returned to campus as a local fraternity , Beta Alpha Omega , in the fall of 2008 . = = = Bones Gate ( BG ) = = = Bones Gate ( " BG " ) was founded in 1901 as the Gamma Gamma Chapter of the Delta Tau Delta fraternity . In 1960 the Gamma Gamma chapter dissociated from Delta Tau Delta when the national organization sought to officially bar minorities from membership . The new local fraternity at Dartmouth went unnamed until 1962 , when the brothers adopted the name " Bones Gate " after an English tavern well @-@ known to the members . Well known television director and BG alumnus Tucker Gates founded the Earl Anthony Appreciation Society in the basement tube room during the winter of 1982 , combining two of his favorite activities ; watching the Pro Bowlers Tour on TV and drinking Budweiser from a quart bottle . In the summer of 2005 , the Bones Gate residence underwent significant structural renovations to bring the building up to the college 's minimum standards . Improvements included an enclosed fire escape running from the basement to the third floor , a new bathroom on the ground floor , and the rehabilitation of all other bathrooms . The brothers of Bones Gate strive to live by their credo of welcoming friends to their house : " This Gate Hangs High and Hinders None . Refresh , Enjoy and Travel On . " = = = Gamma Delta Chi ( ΓΔΧ ) = = = Gamma Delta Chi ( " GDX " ) can trace its history to two fraternities on the Dartmouth College campus , Phi Kappa Sigma and Alpha Chi Rho . Gamma Delta Epsilon , a local fraternity , was founded in 1908 , disbanded in 1912 , but was reformed in 1921 . In 1928 , the Gamma Delta Epsilon house sought to establish itself as a chapter of a national fraternity and obtained a charter from the Phi Kappa Sigma national fraternity , becoming its Kappa Chapter . Epsilon Kappa Alpha , was established as a local fraternity on the Dartmouth campus in 1915 . As with Gamma Delta Epsilon , Epsilon Kappa Alpha sought to become a chapter of a national fraternity and was granted a charter as the Phi Nu chapter of Alpha Chi Rho in 1918 . The Dartmouth chapters of Alpha Chi Rho and Phi Kappa Sigma found themselves in similar financial situations in 1934 . Both chapters owned prime lots near campus that lacked adequate residential structures . The two fraternities decided to share their resources and in 1935 merged to become a new local fraternity , Gamma Delta Chi . The lot formerly owned by Alpha Chi Rho was sold to the Church of Christ at Dartmouth where a new church building was constructed , and the revenue from the land sale supported the construction of a new house at Gamma Delta Chi 's current location . ( The Alpha Chi Rho national fraternity would later re @-@ establish a Phi Nu chapter at Dartmouth in 1956 as a separate fraternity from Gamma Delta Chi . This second Phi Nu chapter would dissociate from the Alpha Chi Rho national in 1963 to become a local fraternity named Alpha Chi Alpha . ) In the 1960s Gamma Delta Chi was especially well known for its antique fire engine , which transported brothers and their dates to football games ; and for its Sunday morning fogcutter parties , open to all who had survived the previous night 's activities . = = = Theta Delta Chi ( ΘΔΧ ) = = = Theta Delta Chi ( " Theta Delt , TDX " ) was founded at Dartmouth College in 1869 as the Omicron Deuteron chapter of the national fraternity , and was the eighth fraternity founded at Dartmouth . Theta Delta Chi was the scene of a famous murder in June , 1920 . Henry Maroney , class of 1920 , was shot to death in his room at Theta Delta Chi by Robert Meads , class of 1919 . Meads was reportedly the central figure in a large @-@ scale bootlegging operation at the college during the early years of Prohibition . An already intoxicated Maroney reportedly stole a quart of Canadian whisky from Meads . Later that same night , Meads found Maroney in his room at the fraternity and shot him through the heart . Meads was convicted of a lesser charge of manslaughter and given a sentence of 15 to 20 years hard labor . The sensational murder is reportedly the source of the nickname given to the Theta Delta Chi residence : the " Boom Boom Lodge " . Theta Delta Chi has several distinguished alumni , including Robert Frost , who attended Dartmouth for a time in 1892 . = = = Kappa Kappa Kappa ( ΚΚΚ ) = = = Kappa Kappa Kappa ( " Tri @-@ Kap " ) is a local fraternity founded on July 13 , 1842 . Currently , it is the oldest local fraternity in the nation and the second permanent Greek @-@ letter fraternal society established at Dartmouth College . The organization has no affiliation with the Ku Klux Klan , which was founded after Kappa Kappa Kappa was founded and unfortunately adopted the Latin initials " KKK " , similar to the Greek alphabet letters Kappa Kappa Kappa . According to legend , Kappa Kappa Kappa sued the Ku Klux Klan for defamation of name , but lost because the judge ruled that the similarity in the initials of the organizations was sheer coincidence . Kappa Kappa Kappa was the first society at Dartmouth to have a freestanding fraternity building in Hanover and one of the first in the country . Some prominent alumni include Channing Cox ( 1901 ) , Dr. Bob , ( 1902 ) Nick Lowery ( 1978 ) , Paul Donnelly Paganucci ( 1953 ) , and Peter Robinson ( 1979 ) . = = = Lambda Upsilon Lambda ( ΛΥΛ ) = = = Lambda Upsilon Lambda , known more formally as La Unidad Latina , Lambda Upsilon Lambda Fraternity , Inc. was established at Dartmouth in 1997 . The Psi Chapter of Lambda Upsilon Lambda is the college 's first historically Latino fraternity . The fraternity has no physical plant . Lambda Upsilon Lambda sponsors Noche Dorada , an annual semi @-@ formal dinner that features a guest speaker invited to the campus to address issues of Latino culture . The fraternity also supports the Brazil Project , in conjunction with the Sigma chapter at Wesleyan University , which supports thirteen families in Brazil . = = = Sigma Phi Epsilon ( ΣΦΕ ) = = = Sigma Phi Epsilon ( " Sig Ep " ) at Dartmouth College was founded on April 22 , 1908 , as the local fraternity Omicron Pi Sigma . In 1909 , the local fraternity became New Hampshire Alpha Chapter of Sigma Phi Epsilon . By the late 1960s , the house had become disenchanted with the national organization and felt that the Dartmouth membership would be better served as a local fraternity . The brothers voted to dissociate from the national organization on January 18 , 1967 . A vote of the alumni of the New Hampshire Alpha chapter on February 1 , 1967 , supported the decision . The new local fraternity adopted the name Sigma Theta Epsilon ( which was also used by an unrelated national fraternity ) . The Sigma Phi Epsilon national continued to communicate with the local Sigma Theta Epsilon fraternity at Dartmouth , and by 1981 was willing to offer significant financial support for building renovations in exchange for reaffiliation . Convinced that the national organization had reformed in its commitment to the individual chapters , the local fraternity voted to rejoin Sigma Phi Epsilon on February 18 , 1981 . The national Sigma Phi Epsilon organization is known for its Balanced Man Program , an ongoing program of development through which members challenge themselves and to use their different talents and backgrounds to help each other become balanced men ( having a Sound Mind in a Sound Body ) and balanced servant leaders for the world 's communities . Members of Sigma Phi Epsilon become members the moment they join the fraternity , without having to endure a traditional pledge period . However , they commit to taking on a series of personal and leadership development challenges for the rest of their time as an undergraduate . The New Hampshire Alpha Chapter of Sigma Phi Epsilon was actually the first chapter to adopt the Balanced Man Program . Prominent alumni of the New Hampshire Alpha chapter include Theodor S. Geisel , class of 1925 , better known as " Dr. Seuss " and former Chairman of Dartmouth 's Board of Trustees and CEO of Freddie Mac , Charles E. Haldeman . = = = Sigma Nu ( ΣΝ ) = = = Sigma Nu ( " Sig Nu " ) at Dartmouth College was originally formed in 1903 as the Pukwana Club , an organization that was created as a reaction to the perceived elitism of Greek organizations at the time . The club ’ s concept was based on the love for the traditions of Dartmouth , faithful friendship , and honorable dealings . In 1907 , the Pukwana Club joined the national fraternity system after it received a charter to become the Delta Beta chapter of Sigma Nu . Sigma Nu ’ s " Way of Honor " principle was very similar to the principles expressed in the Pukwana Club ’ s original charter . The first residence for Sigma Nu at Dartmouth was purchased and refurbished in 1911 . Known as the Green Castle , it served as chapter headquarters until the current house was built in 1925 . In response to the national fraternity ’ s segregationist membership policies , the fraternity went local in 1963 , becoming Sigma Nu Delta . In 1984 , after the national fraternity 's policies were changed , the fraternity reaffiliated with the national . In the summer of 2007 , the Sigma Nu residence underwent significant structural renovations to bring the building up to the college 's minimum standards and improve living facilities . Improvements included an enclosed fire escape running from the first floor to the third floor , a redone kitchen and bathroom , new flooring , a new study room , and alterations to bedrooms . Prominent alumni include acting Solicitor General of the United States Neal Katyal ' 91 . = = = Phi Delta Alpha ( ΦΔA ) = = = Phi Delta Alpha ( " Phi Delt " ) was founded in 1884 as the New Hampshire Alpha chapter of Phi Delta Theta , a national fraternity . Early meetings of the fraternity were held in the Tontine Building on Main Street . The meeting location moved to the Currier Building in 1887 when the Tontine Building burned down . Phi Delta Theta began construction on a new house in 1898 , and the building was completed in 1902 , designed by Charles Rich of Lamb & Rich . In January 1960 , the Dartmouth chapter broke away from the national because the national would not allow minorities to pledge the house . The new , local fraternity replaced the last letter in its name with Alpha . In March 2000 , the fraternity was derecognized by the college . One of the primary reasons for the punishment was that four members of Phi Delta Alpha started a fire in the Chi Gamma Epsilon basement next door . Rig . Under the leadership of Gig Faux , class of 1984 , Phi Delta Alpha applied to the college for rerecognition in fall 2002 . The first rush class was formed in the winter of 2003 . Current General Electric Chief Executive Officer , Jeffrey Immelt , class of 1978 , is a former president of Phi Delta Alpha . Other influential alumni include current Dartmouth trustees R. Bradford Evans ' 64 and William W. Helman IV ' 80 , former Dartmouth trustee Peter Fahey ' 68 , billionaire oilman Trevor Rees @-@ Jones ' 74 , and Pulitzer winners Nigel Jaquiss ' 84 and Joseph Rago ' 05 . In January 2010 , a fire damaged the fraternity 's physical plant . No one was harmed , but the house was closed for renovations until June 2010 . = = = Chi Gamma Epsilon ( ΧΓΕ ) = = = Chi Gamma Epsilon ( " Chi Gam " ) was founded in 1905 as the Gamma Epsilon chapter of Kappa Sigma , a national fraternity . The Dartmouth chapter dissociated from the national fraternity in 1987 . The disputes with the national organization were primarily over the amount of loans the national organization could offer the local chapter . Initially , the new local fraternity adopted the name Kappa Sigma Gamma , but the national fraternity took offense to the likeness of the names . After a period simply being known by its address , 7 Webster Avenue , the fraternity came upon the name by which it is now known . Chi Gamma Epsilon made national headlines in 1998 for co @-@ sponsoring a " ghetto " theme party with the sisters of Alpha Xi Delta sorority that many found to be offensive for its racial stereotypes of African @-@ Americans . Several Chi Gamma Epsilon / Kappa Sigma alumni brothers found fame in Major League Baseball careers , including all @-@ star players Brad Ausmus , class of 1991 , and Mike Remlinger , class of 1987 , and former Baltimore Orioles General Manager Jim Beattie , class of 1976 . Other prominent brothers include Vivid Entertainment President William Asher , class of 1984 @.@ and eBay Inc . CEO John Donahoe . = = = Chi Heorot ( ΧH ) = = = Chi Heorot ( " Heorot " , " XH " ) was founded in 1897 as a local fraternity named Alpha Alpha Omega , and in 1902 was granted a charter as the Chi chapter of the Chi Phi Fraternity . In 1903 , the fraternity moved to its present location , and in 1927 it sold off its eighteenth @-@ century house and built the house that stands today . In 1968 , the house dissociated from the national fraternity , and adopted the name Chi Phi Heorot . The " Heorot " in Chi Phi Heorot comes from the medieval poem Beowulf , in which Heorot is the great hall where warriors converge to tell their stories . After several suspensions by the college in the early 1980s , it re @-@ joined the Chi Phi national in 1981 . This was short @-@ lived ; in 1987 , because of damage done to the house that the college insisted upon having repaired for safety reasons but the Chi Phi national refused to help finance , the Dartmouth brotherhood again opted to become a local fraternity . In exchange for financing renovations to the structure , the college assumed ownership of the property and house . In its second incarnation as a local fraternity , the brotherhood chose the name Chi Heorot . Notable alumni include Gerry Geran ' 18 , Adam Nelson ' 97 , and Andrew Weibrecht ' 09 , all Olympic medalists . = = = Psi Upsilon ( ΨΥ ) = = = The Zeta Chapter of Psi Upsilon International Fraternity ( " Psi U " ) was founded at Dartmouth in 1842 , the first fraternity at Dartmouth College . In 1907 , Psi Upsilon built the wood frame house it still occupies , designed by noted New Jersey theater architect and Dartmouth alumnus Fred Wesley Wentworth . Several additions during the latter half of the twentieth century greatly improved the structure , which houses around twenty brothers each year . The house most recently underwent substantial renovations during the spring of 2006 . F. Scott Fitzgerald famously enjoyed the 1938 Winter Carnival in the Psi Upsilon chapter house . The Zeta chapter creates an ice pond in its yard every winter and is known as the " keg jumping fraternity " for its most @-@ popular Winter Carnival activity . Prominent alumni of the Zeta chapter of Psi Upsilon includes former United States Vice President Nelson Rockefeller ' 30 , and billionaire hedge fund manager of Lone Pine Capital , Steve Mandel ' 78 . = = = Zeta Psi ( ΖΨ ) = = = Zeta Psi ( " Zete " ) at Dartmouth College was founded in 1853 as the Psi Epsilon chapter of the national fraternity , and was the fifth fraternity founded at the college . The fraternity became inactive in 1863 , but was revived from 1871 through 1873 after which it again became inactive . The current Psi Epsilon Chapter of Zeta Psi at Dartmouth was established in 1920 . In 2001 , the Dartmouth chapter was derecognized by the college because " the fraternity harassed specific fellow students and violated ethical standards that Dartmouth student organizations agree to uphold , by periodically creating and circulating among Zeta Psi members ' newsletters ' that purported to describe situations , some of them of a sexual nature , of various members of the fraternity and other students . " Zeta Psi , meanwhile , countered that " nothing could be further from the truth ... Dartmouth College lacks jurisdiction to punish Psi Epsilon of Zeta Psi 's for alleged violations of its own rules or regulations , " . From 2001 to 2006 , Zeta Psi continued to operate as an independent fraternity , not officially recognized by Dartmouth College . In January 2007 , Dartmouth College announced an agreement that would allow Zeta Psi to reorganize on campus as early as 2009 . Part of the agreement dictated that the organization " go dark " , with no activities or recruiting , for a period of two years . During these two years , alumni raised millions of dollars and the physical plant was entirely gutted and renovated , with a three @-@ story addition being constructed on the west @-@ side of the house . Also , the basement was enlarged . On October 12 , 2009 , the Psi Epsilon Association of Zeta Psi Fraternity ( Dartmouth Zete 's alumni association ) announced that 35 undergraduates had joined the newly re @-@ recognized fraternity . As of January 2011 , after only little more than a year , Zete has around 60 brothers and counting . = = Sororities = = The single @-@ sex female @-@ only sororities at Dartmouth College are largely organized and represented to the college through the Panhellenic Council . The Panhellenic Council is a student @-@ led governance organization that assists the member Greek organizations by promoting values , education , leadership , friendships , cooperation and citizenship . Alpha Pi Omega and Sigma Lambda Upsilon are not members of the Panhellenic Council , but are members of the National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations . = = = Alpha Xi Delta ( ΑΞΔ ) = = = The Theta Psi chapter of Alpha Xi Delta ( " AXID " ) was founded as Delta Pi Omega in 1997 . On January 6 , 1997 , the local sorority was officially recognized by the college , and on July 2 , 1997 , the sisters voted to affiliate with the Alpha Xi Delta national sorority . On February 21 , 1998 , the local organization 's petition was approved by the national with a charter as the Theta Psi chapter . Alpha Xi Delta initially occupied the house currently home to Beta Theta Pi , until it was announced in 2008 that Beta was repossessing the house and that the sorority would have to relocate elsewhere . In the fall of 2009 , they moved into a newly renovated house . Since the Theta Psi chapter 's founding in 1997 , Alpha Xi Delta has graduated multiple Rhodes Scholars . The Dartmouth chapter of Alpha Xi Delta sorority 's national philanthropy is " Autism Speaks " . They also volunteer for The Upper Valley Haven , a local group that provides shelter and education to families . = = = Alpha Pi Omega ( ΑΠΩ ) = = = Alpha Pi Omega was established by women at Dartmouth College in May 2001 . The organization was chartered as the Epsilon Chapter of the national historically Native American sorority in 2006 , and was officially recognized by the college as a full chapter beginning with the fall 2006 academic term . The sorority has college @-@ owned housing on campus . Alpha Pi Omega has a six @-@ week @-@ long pledge period known as the Honey Process . For college governance purposes , the Epsilon Chapter associates locally with the local member societies of the National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations . = = = Alpha Phi ( ΑΦ ) = = = Alpha Phi was recognized on March 3 , 2006 , as the Dartmouth College colony of the international sorority . The colony officially became a chapter on April 28 , 2007 . Alpha Phi first participated in formal recruitment in September 2007 . Philanthropy is important to the sisters at Alpha Phi , who host an annual campus @-@ wide Red Dress Gala to raise money for women 's cardiac care . Sisters also volunteer in various local community service events . Alpha Phi has a close @-@ knit sisterhood , and sisters participate in termly bonding events , like apple @-@ picking and jewelry studio workshops , as well as weekly events , such as chapter meetings and sisterhood dinners . Mixers , semi @-@ formal and formal events are also a part of Alpha Phi 's programming calendar . = = = Epsilon Kappa Theta ( ΕΚΘ ) = = = Epsilon Kappa Theta ( " EKT , " " Theta " ) at Dartmouth College was founded in January 1982 as the Epsilon Kappa colony of the Kappa Alpha Theta national sorority . Epsilon Kappa was the 100th colony of the sorority . The sorority initially met in a wide variety of locations , including the basement of the college president 's house . In 1984 , the sorority moved into Brewster Hall , a College @-@ owned house that had previously been used as an International House and later as temporary housing for the Alpha Chi Omega sorority . In 1992 , the sisters of the Epsilon Kappa chapter of Kappa Alpha Theta found the strict national rules and the primarily Christian religious readings and rituals of the organization to be antithetical to the spirit of feminism and inclusivity that the chapter desired . The national organization was unhappy with the colony 's decision to disobey their rules and their failure to follow the sorority 's rituals . On May 4 , 1992 , the Dartmouth chapter notified the Kappa Alpha Theta national organization of its unanimous vote to disaffiliate and become a local sorority . The national organization revoked the charter of Epsilon Kappa . The Dartmouth women chose the new name Epsilon Kappa Theta . The current Epsilon Kappa Theta residence is a Victorian house over 100 years old . = = = Kappa Delta ( ΚΔ ) = = = Kappa Delta ( " KD " ) , a national sorority , colonized the Eta Xi chapter on the Dartmouth campus in 2009 . The Dartmouth Panhellenic Council approved the sorority on May 25 , 2009 . The Council considered the large pledge classes at other sororities on campus in deciding to authorize another sorority . The sorority recruited its first members in the summer of 2009 , and Kappa Delta held its first formal rush during the fall 2009 academic term , offering membership bids to 37 women . Kappa Delta 's new 23 @-@ bedroom house at 1 Occom Ridge was built over the 2013 – 2014 school year and was completed in the fall of 2014 . It contains a formal room , gourmet kitchen , a library , and two bedrooms on the first floor , in addition to 21 more single bedrooms located on the second and third floors . K ∆ has one of the strongest sisterhoods on Dartmouth College campus , and the sisterhood is involved in numerous philanthropic endeavors , including working with the Girl Scouts of United States of America , Prevent Child Abuse America , The New Hampshire Children 's Trust , and the Confidence Coalition . Each term , ΚΔ also participates in a " You Make Me Smile " campaign where sisters write encouraging messages on balloons and hand them out across campus to raise spirits before finals week . Along with weekly sisterhood meetings and events , like movie and spa nights , sisters attend formal and semi @-@ formal dances , barbecues , and sisterhood retreats . = = = Kappa Delta Epsilon ( ΚΔΕ ) = = = Kappa Delta Epsilon ( " KDE " ) is a local sorority founded in the fall of 1993 by the Panhellenic Council at Dartmouth . After the dissolution of the Xi Kappa Chi local sorority in the spring of 1993 , the Panhellenic Council decided that there was a need for a new sorority to replace it . Fifty women joined the new sorority in the first rush in the fall of 1993 . The Kappa Delta Epsilon physical plant was extensively remodeled by the college during the summer of 2003 . The remodeled building contains a main meetings room , kitchen , two bedrooms and a back porch on the first floor . The second and third floors contain all bedrooms which house about thirteen more resident sisters . The basement consists of the fireplace room , the pub room , and the sisters @-@ only room . = = = Kappa Kappa Gamma ( ΚΚΓ ) = = = The Epsilon Chi chapter of Kappa Kappa Gamma ( " KKG " , " Kappa " ) was founded at Dartmouth on December 30 , 1978 , and was the second sorority at Dartmouth College . The sisters of Kappa Kappa Gamma sponsor events for the campus , go on sister retreats , hold barbecues , and have formal and semi @-@ formal dances . They have weekly house meetings in order to communicate news and issues about the house , to catch up on the week ’ s events , and to spend time with their fellow sisters . Philanthropy is an important part of the Epsilon Chi chapter ’ s activities . The sisters cook dinners on a regular basis for David ’ s House , an institution that supports and houses families of sick children at a local hospital , in a joint effort with the brothers of Sigma Alpha Epsilon . Kirsten Gillibrand , class of 1988 and the first Dartmouth alumna elected to the United States House of Representatives , was an officer of Kappa Kappa Gamma as an undergraduate . = = = Sigma Delta ( ΣΔ ) = = = Sigma Delta ( " Sigma Delt " ) was the first sorority at Dartmouth College , founded in May 1977 as a chapter of the national sorority Sigma Kappa . In April 1981 , Sigma Kappa moved into a residence formerly inhabited by the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity . The local chapter at Dartmouth began to have differences with the national organization concerning religion in sorority rituals and an emphasis on men in national sorority songs . The Dartmouth chapter dissociated from the national organization in the fall of 1988 , becoming Sigma Delta . The classes of 1989 , 1990 , and 1991 that formed the new local sorority dedicated the new organization to principles of " strength , friendship , and acceptance of difference " . Since reorganizing as a local sorority , Sigma Delta has hosted at least one open party each term in addition to service events . Actress Connie Britton ( 89 ' ) was a member of the first local class and served as Sisterhood Chair during her sophomore summer . = = = Sigma Lambda Upsilon ( ΣΛΥ ) = = = Sigma Lambda Upsilon , more formally known as Sigma Lambda Upsilon / Señoritas Latinas Unidas Sorority , Inc . , was established by four women at Dartmouth College in 2003 , as the Alpha Beta chapter of the national , historically @-@ Latina sorority . The sorority has no physical plant or designated College @-@ owned housing . The Dartmouth chapter supports several activities including philanthropic events , formal dinners , and a Summer Book Club . = = = Chi Delta ( XΔ ) = = = Chi Delta ( " Chi Delt " ) at Dartmouth College was founded as the Gamma Gamma chapter of Delta Delta Delta sorority in 1984 . The house was the first Greek organization to secede from the Co @-@ ed Fraternity Sorority Council in the spring of 2000 , a move that eventually precipitated the dissolution of that organizing body as other Greek organization on campus followed suit . Chi Delta remains a member of the Panhellenic Council , which represents the interests of the sororities on campus . On May 29 , 2015 , the Dartmouth chapter of Delta Delta Delta unanimously voted to disaffiliate from its national organization and become a local sorority . = = Coeducational fraternities = = The three coeducational fraternities at Dartmouth College are organized and represented to the college through the Coed Council . The Coed Council is a student @-@ led governance organization that assists the member Greek organizations with public relations , programming , recruitment , and academic achievement . All three coeducational fraternities at Dartmouth own the land and residence buildings they occupy . = = = Alpha Theta ( ΑΘ ) = = = Alpha Theta was founded as a local fraternity named Iota Sigma Upsilon on March 3 , 1920 , by a group of seven students . In 1921 the fraternity received a charter as the Alpha Theta chapter of Theta Chi . John Sloan Dickey , later president of the college , joined the fraternity in 1928 and was elected house president only two weeks later , while still a pledge . Nine brothers of Theta Chi died in a tragic accident on the morning of February 25 , 1934 , when the metal chimney of the building 's old coal furnace blew out in the night and the residence filled with poisonous carbon monoxide gas . Alpha Theta was one of the first collegiate fraternities in the United States to break from its national organization over civil rights issues . In 1951 , while Dickey served as president of the college , the student body passed a resolution calling on all fraternities to eliminate racial discrimination from their constitutions . The Theta Chi national organization 's constitution contained a clause limiting membership in fraternity to " Caucasians " only . On April 24 , 1952 , the members of the Dartmouth chapter voted unanimously to stop recognizing the racial clause in Theta Chi 's constitution . Upon learning that the Dartmouth delegation to Theta Chi 's national convention later that year planned to raise questions about the clause , the Alpha Theta chapter was derecognized by the national organization on July 25 , 1952 . The house reincorporated as a local fraternity and adopted the name Alpha Theta . Alpha Theta was also one of the first all @-@ male fraternities to admit female members . In 1972 , Dartmouth admitted the first class of female students and officially became a coeducational institution . Alpha Theta also voted to become coeducational . After a few years , most of the women in the fraternity had become inactive and the house voted to become single @-@ sex male @-@ only again on November 10 , 1976 . The house returned to a coeducational membership policy in 1980 . = = = The Tabard ( ΣΕΧ ) = = = The Tabard at Dartmouth College was founded in 1857 as a local fraternity for students in the Chandler Scientific School named Phi Zeta Mu . In 1893 , as the Chandler School was absorbed by Dartmouth , the house sought to associate itself with a national fraternity and was granted a charter as the Eta Eta chapter of Sigma Chi national fraternity . In April 1960 , the Dartmouth chapter of Sigma Chi became the third fraternity on campus to dissociate from its national organization , following the 1954 Undergraduate Council referendum requiring fraternities to amend its national charters to end discrimination against minorities or go " local " . [ 92 ] The fraternity officially chose to use the name The Tabard , but retained use of the Greek letters ΣΧ for its local corporation use to include all living and deceased members of both the chapter 's national affiliation and the new local independent organization . The new name was inspired by The Tabard , a fictitious London inn described in the General Prologue of The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer . The Tabard was one of five Greek organizations at Dartmouth to become coeducational and admit women pledges when the college began admitting women students in 1972 . The organization unofficially uses the Greek letters Sigma Epsilon Chi ( ΣΕΧ ) , having inserted an " E " between the Sigma and Chi on a wrought iron railing above the front door of their residence . Prominent alumni of the Tabard include : its first president Stephen W. Bosworth , class of 1961 - U.S. Ambassador to South Korea , the Philippines , and Tunisia , as well as Chairman of the Board of Trustees of Dartmouth College ; Gordon Campbell , class of 1970 - the 34th Premier of British Columbia ; and Aisha Tyler , class of 1992 - an American actress , comedian , and author . = = = Phi Tau ( ΦΤ ) = = = Phi Tau was founded at Dartmouth College in 1905 as the Tau Chapter of Phi Sigma Kappa . While the national fraternity proved to be an early leader among its peers in the area of non @-@ discrimination , mid @-@ 1950s Tau Chapter leaders led the demand for such post @-@ war era changes . The pace of change was contentious : Phi Sigma Kappa had previously had occasional foreign student members at many chapters . Unlike other fraternities , it had also welcomed Catholics and Jews at a time when most fraternity members were Protestant . But it did not yet welcome Blacks . In a reactionary response to a short @-@ lived policy that limited pledging of Black students between 1952 – 56 , and in a move that allowed it to avoid unpaid debts to the national , Tau broke with Phi Sigma Kappa and reformed itself as Phi Tau on March 7 , 1956 , naming the national fraternity as racist . Yet ironically , the Dartmouth chapter won the debate over the issue : the same discriminatory policy that caused Tau to withdraw was itself rescinded by the national fraternity at its Summer Convention just two months later , leaving Phi Sigma Kappa chapters free to pledge Black members . There has been no reconciliation , even though both groups remain progressive . Today , Phi Tau prides itself on its progressiveness ; when the house constitution was rewritten in 1956 , references to gender were deliberately excluded , making the house officially coeducational even before Dartmouth College accepted women as students . Phi Tau is the only coeducational Greek organization at Dartmouth that has always had female members since first admitting them , and was the first Greek house at Dartmouth to add sexual orientation to its non @-@ discrimination clause . Members of Phi Tau refer to one another as " brothers " regardless of gender . The fraternity is known for its quarterly " Milque and Cookies " party , featuring thousands of homemade cookies and milkshakes . Phi Tau completely replaced their residence hall in 2002 , at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 8 million , funded in part by the sale of 1 @,@ 675 square metres ( 0 @.@ 4 acres ) of land to the college . = = Reemerging Greek organizations = = As of 2008 , three derecognized or otherwise inactive Greek organizations are in the process of returning to campus . = = = Alpha Kappa Alpha ( ΑΚΑ ) = = = Alpha Kappa Alpha ( AKA ) at Dartmouth College was founded in 1983 as the Xi Lambda chapter of the national sorority . Alpha Kappa Alpha was the first historically African @-@ American sorority at Dartmouth College . The College supported the sorority with dedicated apartment housing until it became defunct in the spring of 2003 . The sorority had no members of the class of 2004 and was unable to recruit new members for subsequent classes because of a national moratorium on recruitment related to a hazing incident at another chapter . In February 2008 , it was announced that Alpha Kappa Alpha would return to campus and resume activity in the spring or fall of 2008 . = = Defunct Greek organizations = = Greek organizations at Dartmouth College that dissolved over the years have largely done so as a result of financial difficulties or critically low membership and interest . = = = Acacia = = = The Zayin chapter of Acacia , a national fraternity , was founded at Dartmouth on March 31 , 1906 . The Acacia national organization never heard from the Dartmouth chapter again , and lacks records of any student members or activities that the chapter might have pursued . The national declared the chapter dissolved in 1908 . Acacia was the first fraternity at Dartmouth to dissolve , and the Zayin chapter was the first Acacia chapter at any campus to close . = = = Alpha Delta ( ΑΔ ) = = = Alpha Delta ( " AD " ) was initially founded by members of the Gamma Sigma Society . In 1847 , the society became the Dartmouth chapter of Alpha Delta Phi , a national fraternity . The house dissociated from its parent corporation in 1969 and renamed itself The Alpha Delta Fraternity . Alpha Delta is well known for being part of the inspiration behind the movie National Lampoon 's Animal House . The screenplay , co @-@ written by Chris Miller , class of 1963 , was inspired by a pair of short stories Miller wrote in National Lampoon in 1974 and 1975 ( " The Night of the Seven Fires " and " Pinto 's First Lay " ) about his experiences as a member of Alpha Delta . In November 2006 , Miller published a 336 page memoir of his experiences in the fraternity under the title The Real Animal House : The Awesomely Depraved Saga of the Fraternity That Inspired the Movie . Alpha Delta was derecognized by Dartmouth College on April 13 , 2015 . = = = Alpha Sigma Phi ( ΑΣΦ ) = = = Alpha Sigma Phi at Dartmouth College was originally founded in 1925 , as a local fraternity named Sigma Alpha , The local fraternity became the Alpha Eta chapter of Alpha Sigma Phi , a national fraternity , in 1928 . Faced with financial difficulties during the Great Depression , the Dartmouth chapter dissolved in 1936 . C. Everett Koop , class of 1937 and Surgeon General of the United States from 1982 to 1989 , was a member of one of the final Alpha Sigma Phi pledge classes at Dartmouth . = = = Alpha Tau Omega ( ΑΤΩ ) = = = Alpha Tau Omega was founded at Dartmouth College in 1915 as the local fraternity Sigma Tau Omega . In 1924 , the local fraternity was granted a charter to become the Delta Sigma chapter of national fraternity Alpha Tau Omega . The Dartmouth chapter dissolved in 1936 , at the height of the Great Depression . = = = Delta Kappa Epsilon ( ΔΚΕ ) = = = The Pi Chapter of Delta Kappa Epsilon ( " Deke " ) was founded in 1853 . It was the fourth social fraternity at Dartmouth College . Eight brothers of Delta Kappa Epsilon were famously involved in a 1949 murder of a fellow Dartmouth student . The men , after heavy drinking at three different fraternities , sought out a former member of the freshman football team . Finding him asleep in his dormitory room , but wearing a letter sweater that the eight men felt he did not deserve to be wearing , they beat him and he soon thereafter died of the injuries . Two Delta Kappa Epsilon brothers were brought to trial , fined , and given suspended sentences for the crime . In response to the murder , College President John Sloan Dickey announced that he felt it was important to reduce the influence of the fraternity system on campus . The organization was renamed Storrs House in 1970 before dissolving entirely . = = = Delta Sigma Theta ( ΔΣΘ ) = = = Delta Sigma Theta is an historically African @-@ American sorority at Dartmouth College that was founded in 1982 as the Che @-@ Ase Interest Group . At the time , the college had imposed a moratorium on the founding on new sororities , but when the moratorium was lifted , the group was recognized by the college as a sorority in the fall of 1984 . The women contacted the Delta Sigma Theta national sorority and were granted a charter as the Pi Theta chapter in the spring of 1985 . Delta Sigma Theta provided an extensive array of public service through the Five @-@ Point Thrust program . Until the chapter 's dissolution , the sisters of Delta Sigma Theta had cosponsored the Step Show , an annual cultural dance performance , with the brothers of Alpha Phi Alpha . The sorority had occupied dedicated College @-@ owned apartment housing until June , 2004 , when all but one member of the Dartmouth chapter graduated . An attempt was made to recruit new members in the summer , and it succeeded , but not for long , as the chapter currently has no members at Dartmouth . = = = Delta Upsilon ( ΔΥ ) = = = Delta Upsilon at Dartmouth College was originally founded as Epsilon Kappa Phi , a local fraternity , at Dartmouth College in 1920 . In 1926 , the local fraternity became the Dartmouth chapter of Delta Upsilon , a national fraternity . The fraternity dissociated from the national in 1966 , and adopted the name Foley House . Foley House was one of the six local Greek organizations that became coeducational in 1972 . In 1984 , the organization decided to drop its association with the Greek system entirely and became one of the Affinity Housing programs offered by the college , available to any student interested in cooperative housing . = = = Delta Phi Epsilon ( ΔΦΕ ) = = = Delta Phi Epsilon was founded at Dartmouth College in 1984 as the Epsilon Alpha chapter of the national sorority . The sorority was derecognized by the college in June , 1989 , when it failed to maintain an active membership of at least 35 students . The Dartmouth chapter made an effort to revive itself by separating from the national in 1990 to become Pi Sigma Psi , a local sorority , but dissolved soon thereafter . = = = Delta Psi Delta ( ΔΨΔ ) = = = Delta Psi Delta was established at Dartmouth College in 1950 as the Dartmouth chapter of Tau Epsilon Phi , a national fraternity . The Dartmouth chapter dissociated from the national in 1969 , and reformed itself as the Harold Parmington Foundation . Faced with falling membership in 1981 , the fraternity reformed itself with a more traditional Greek letter name , Delta Psi Delta , and opened its membership to women as well as men . Faced with critically low enrollment , Delta Psi Delta finally dissolved in 1991 . The local , coeducational fraternity at Dartmouth was not associated with either the Canadian sorority or the local fraternities at California State University , Chico and Linfield College also named Delta Psi Delta . = = = Zeta Beta Chi ( ΖΒΧ ) = = = Zeta Beta Chi was founded in 1984 as a local sorority named Alpha Beta . In 1986 , the sorority gained a charter as the Dartmouth chapter of Delta Gamma , a national sorority . In 1997 , the sorority voted to go local again , and reformed as Zeta Beta Chi . Plagued with low membership , the sorority was already on a marginal financial footing in 1998 , when a College inspection during the summer discovered mercury contamination in the sorority 's basement , the former house of Arthur Sherburne Hardy . The College closed the building for the remainder of the year , negatively impacting fall rush . The sorority announced its dissolution in December 1998 . = = = Harold Parmington Foundation ( HPF ) = = = The Harold Parmington Foundation was a local fraternity founded in 1970 after the Dartmouth chapter of Tau Epsilon Phi dissociated from its national organization . The new local fraternity continued to reside in 15 Webster Avenue , the house now occupied by the Epsilon Kappa Theta sorority . With only one member each from the classes of 1983 and 1984 , the fraternity reorganized itself as a coeducational fraternity named Delta Psi Delta . A past president of the fraternity , Brian Dale , class of 1980 , was one of the passengers on American Airlines Flight 11 that was hijacked and flown into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City during the September 11 , 2001 attacks . = = = Kappa Alpha Psi ( ΚΑΨ ) = = = Kappa Alpha Psi at Dartmouth College was founded in 1987 as the Mu Chi chapter of the national fraternity . Kappa Alpha Psi was the second historically African @-@ American fraternity at Dartmouth College . Its membership was active through at least the end of the 1990s . The Kappa Alpha Psi national currently lists the Mu Chi chapter as inactive . = = = Lambda Chi Alpha ( ΛΧΑ ) = = = Lambda Chi Alpha was founded at Dartmouth College in 1914 as the Theta Zeta chapter of the national fraternity . Faced with insurmountable financial stress during the Great Depression , the Dartmouth chapter dissolved in 1932 . = = = Xi Kappa Chi ( ΞΚΧ ) = = = Xi Kappa Chi was originally established at Dartmouth in 1980 as the Zeta Mu chapter of Alpha Chi Omega , a national sorority . The sorority dissociated from the national organization in 1990 and became a local sorority named Xi Kappa Chi . Faced with low membership in 1993 , the local sorority considered an affiliation with Phi Mu , a national sorority , as a possibility of attracting more new members hesitant to rush a small local sorority . The Phi Mu national organization sent representatives to Dartmouth in April , 1993 , but based on their report , the Phi Mu national council voted against a Dartmouth chapter . Xi Kappa Chi was dissolved by the Dartmouth Panhellenic Council in 1993 . = = = Pi Lambda Phi ( ΠΛΦ ) = = = The Pi chapter of the national fraternity Pi Lambda Phi was established at Dartmouth College in 1924 . The membership of the Dartmouth chapter was predominantly Jewish . About half of the college 's fraternities at the time had national constitutions that explicitly forbade membership to Jews , and for many of the other chapters , it was an informal policy to exclude membership to Jewish students . The national constitution of Pi Lambda Phi expressly accepted members of all religions . Pi Lambda Phi was not initially accepted by the Dartmouth Greek community , and efforts in 1924 and 1925 to gain formal admission into the Interfraternity Council failed . The fraternity was finally recognized in the spring of 1927 . The fraternity 's first residence , purchased in 1924 , was a building on South Street originally occupied by a Roman Catholic church . The fraternity would reside there until 1961 , when it moved to a house north of Webster Avenue on Occom Ridge . The chapter dissolved in 1971 . = = = Sigma Alpha Mu ( ΣΑΜ ) = = = Sigma Alpha Mu was established at Dartmouth College in 1930 as the Sigma Upsilon chapter of the national fraternity . At the time , the Sigma Alpha Mu national limited membership in the organization to Jewish men . Sigma Alpha Mu placed more emphasis on the observances of Judaism than did the other predominantly Jewish fraternity on campus , Pi Lambda Phi , and had difficulty attracting the interest of most mainstream Jewish students on campus . The Dartmouth chapter dissolved in 1935 , during the Great Depression . = = = Sigma Alpha Epsilon ( ΣΑΕ ) = = = Sigma Alpha Epsilon ( " SAE " ) at Dartmouth College was founded in 1903 as a local fraternity named Chi Tau Kappa . In 1908 , the fraternity sought to associate itself with a national fraternity and was granted a charter from Sigma Alpha Epsilon to become the New Hampshire Alpha chapter . With funding support from the national organization , the fraternity acquired a house on School Street that had previously been the residence of a College professor . By 1916 , the fraternity had moved to a wood house on College Street north of the Green . The fraternity would replace the structure entirely with a new brick residence built between 1928 and 1931 , one of the final fraternity building projects started on campus before the Great Depression . Sigma Alpha Epsilon members are encouraged by their national organization to emulate the tenets of The True Gentleman , a statement written by John Walter Wayland . Notable alumni of the chapter include the United States Secretary of the Treasury Henry M. Paulson , Jr . , class of 1968 , and benefactor to Dartmouth College Barry MacLean , class of 1960 . Sigma Alpha Epsilon was derecognized by Dartmouth College on Feb. 4 , 2016 . = = = Tau Epsilon Phi ( ΤΕΦ ) = = = Tau Epsilon Phi was established at Dartmouth College in 1950 as the Epsilon Delta chapter of the national fraternity . The Dartmouth chapter dissociated from the national in 1969 , and voted to call itself the Harold Parmington Foundation . = = = Phi Gamma Delta ( FIJI ) = = = Phi Gamma Delta was founded at Dartmouth College as the Delta Upsilon chapter of the national fraternity in 1901 . The Dartmouth chapter seceded from the national fraternity in 1965 , and adopted the new name of Phoenix . The new local fraternity dissolved in 1971 . The fraternity has no association with the Phoenix all @-@ female senior society founded at Dartmouth in 1984 . = = = Phi Kappa Psi ( ΦKΨ ) = = = Phi Kappa Psi ( " Phi Psi " ) traces its heritage at Dartmouth College to the Beta Psi local fraternity , founded in 1895 . Beta Psi became the New Hampshire Alpha chapter of Phi Kappa Psi in 1896 . The Dartmouth chapter dissociated from the national in 1967 as a result of the national 's reaction to the chapter 's pledging of a black pledge , adopting the new name Phi Sigma Psi . Phi Sigma Psi was one of the six fraternities that adopted a formal coeducational membership policy in 1972 . In the late 1980s , the membership began referring to the organization as " Phi Psi / Panarchy " . The fraternity changed its name to The Panarchy in 1991 . In 1993 , the college began a program for " undergraduate societies " as open @-@ membership alternatives to the Greek system . In September 1993 , the members of Panarchy voted to disaffiliate from the Greek system and became the first of two Undergraduate Societies .
= Sheldon Manor = Sheldon Manor near Chippenham , Wiltshire , England , is Wiltshire 's oldest inhabited manor house and dates back to Saxon times . Its structure is mostly 17th @-@ century and it is a Grade I listed building . = = History = = The medieval settlement of Sheldon , first mentioned in 803 , no longer exists , having been deserted by 1582 ; a 1976 survey confirmed its remains to lie to the rear of the Manor , which itself stands on the site of an older habitation known as " The Holloway " . The manor of Sheldon was granted to Sir William de Beauvilain in about 1180 ; on his death , as a Norman , it was forfeit to The Crown as an escheat and then granted to the de Godarville family in 1231 by Henry III . In 1250 it passed to Sir Geoffrey Gascelyn on his marriage to Joan de Godarville . In 1424 the Manor was sold to Sir Walter Hungerford , and after some time was eventually granted to Catherine Parr temporarily until the Hungerford heir achieved majority . For many years , the property was tenanted until Sir Edward Hungerford sold the Manor in 1684 and in 1711 it was bought by William Norris , whose last survivor died in 1828 . In 1854 it was bought by Sir Gabriel Goldney , whose son lived there until 1911 , followed by the Bailey family . From 1917 the Manor was owned by the Gibbs family being Major Martin Anthony Gibbs ( 1916 – 1994 ) , a former High Sheriff of Wiltshire , his wife Elsie Margaret Mary ( 1922 @-@ 2012 , née Hamilton @-@ Dalrymple ) and their six children . In 1982 , Mrs Gibbs published a historical and architectural account of the Manor . The Manor is now within the civil parish of Chippenham Without ; unbroken occupation since 1282 makes Sheldon Manor Wiltshire 's longest continuously inhabited manor house . It was granted Grade I listed building status by the Historic Building and Monuments Commission for England in 1960 . = = Architecture and antiques = = The earliest parts of the structure are thought to be a window on the west side and the porch , dating back to the late 13th century . Pevsner considered the porch to be " astounding , but much too big for the present house " . Most of the main structure , consisting of two and a half storeys , and of rubble stone and stone @-@ tiled roofs , dates to c . 1659 when it was built for a Mr Forster , although some parts are earlier . Later additions date to post @-@ 1711 and improvements to c . 1911 . External features There is a small stone chapel in the grounds , believed to date to about 1450 and built by the Hungerford family for use by themselves and their servants . It has an east window with Perpendicular tracery . After a long period of use as stables , it was restored in the twentieth century . There is also a brick @-@ built storehouse mounted on staddle stones to prevent incursion by rats . Antiques The Manor has collections of Nailsea glass , Persian saddlebags , porcelain and oak furniture , including an Elizabethan refectory table and chairs . There are paintings by Tissot , David Teniers and Bassano , vases by William de Morgan and " an unusual collection of glass walking sticks . " = = Modern times = = The Manor was the first winner of AA / NPI Historic House Awards , for its " architectural integrity and warm welcome " ; its gardens , which are open to the public although the house itself is not , include a notable rose garden , ancient yews , an arboretum and mulberry bushes . It is a licensed venue for weddings and hosts summer productions of Shakespeare and operas in its grounds . It is also home to the Cleveland Bay Endeavour , a project to " conserve and promote " the Cleveland Bay horse , an endangered breed . The owners of the house were described in 1988 by the New York Times as " ... provid [ ing ] that essential ingredient so many historic buildings lack : a sense of continuity with the past and the feeling that Sheldon Manor is still a living organism , not an ancient relic . " In 1995 , the Manor was used as the location for Uppercross in the BBC production Persuasion and in 2008 for BBC One 's Bonekickers .
= Bart After Dark = " Bart After Dark " is the fifth episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 24 , 1996 . After accidentally breaking a stone gargoyle at a local house , Bart is forced to work there as punishment . He assumes it will be boring work , but is pleasantly surprised when he learns that it is actually a burlesque house . Marge is horrified to find out about the burlesque house , and resolves to have it shut down . The episode was directed by Dominic Polcino and was written by Richard Appel . It won an Emmy Award for " Outstanding Music and Lyrics " for the song " We Put the Spring in Springfield " . = = Plot = = An Itchy & Scratchy cartoon is interrupted with a news report that an oil tanker has crashed and spilled millions of gallons of oil on " Baby Seal Beach " . Lisa sees the report and asks Marge if she can go and help save the wildlife . After some begging , Marge agrees and the two go to help out , leaving Bart and Homer home alone . The house quickly becomes a mess and Bart goes out to play with his friends . Milhouse 's toy airplane crashes into a house after Nelson tampers with the remote control and Bart , despite warnings that the house is inhabited by a witch , goes to retrieve it . While doing so , he accidentally knocks down a stone gargoyle and Belle , the owner of the house , goes to Homer and says she will not press charges but demands he be punished . Homer originally dismisses this , but Belle threatens to come back and speak with Marge , leading Homer to force Bart to do chores for Belle . Fearing the worst , Bart soon discovers that the house is actually a burlesque house called the Maison Derrière ( the " back house " as Belle translates it to Bart ) and quickly takes a new enthusiasm to his job . Meanwhile , Marge and Lisa arrive at the beach , but discover that the ability to help the animals is reserved for celebrities , who are already doing the job . The two are put to work cleaning rocks , and soon abandon the job and drive home . While picking up Bart , Homer learns about the true nature of the burlesque house , but does nothing about Bart working there . Principal Skinner visits the house and sees Bart as the door greeter . He reports it to the Lovejoys and the Flanders who confront Homer about the matter . Homer declares that he has no problem with Bart working there just as Marge returns home unexpectedly . Marge asks Belle to close down the burlesque house , but Belle refuses saying that the house is a part of Springfield . At a town meeting , Marge brings up the matter of the house and shows pictures of several prominent citizens leaving . They form a mob so they can go destroy the burlesque house . The mob arrives at the house and immediately start destroying things . Bart and Homer arrive and Homer decides to try to convince the mob to stop . He does so by singing a musical number accompanied by Belle and some of her dancers . The town soon joins in and are convinced to let the house stay . However , Marge arrives with a bulldozer , having missed the song . The town announces their intentions to let the house stay , but Marge tries to sing her own song about her views . During the opening lines , she accidentally puts the bulldozer into drive and destroys a wing of the burlesque house . Marge now finds that the tables have turned , and loses any support she once had . She apologizes profusely and , to pay for the damage , she starts a ventriloquist act at the house , but when Homer yells " Take it off ! " , Bart ( now a bouncer ) kicks him out of the house . = = Production = = The episode was written by Richard Appel and directed by Dominic Polcino . Appel who was looking for new locales to put Bart and thought it would be funny to have him work at a burlesque house . The problem was to find a way to put such a house in Springfield , which was solved with the bit with the toy airplane . There were a dozen different possible names for the Burlesque house , some of which were raunchy . Josh Weinstein has said that there are so many sleazy characters in The Simpsons that it was easy to find people for the scenes in the burlesque house . A character modeled after John Swartzwelder can also be seen . Belle was not modeled after anyone in particular and she was redesigned several times . Belle was voiced by Tress MacNeille but there had been previous efforts to cast a guest voice for the role . = = Cultural references = = A lot of the episode 's plot is based on the film The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas . The oil spill is a reference to the Exxon Valdez oil spill . The Sea Captain was shown to be drunk at the helm , which is a reference to Joseph Hazelwood , who was the captain of the Exxon Valdez and was accused of being drunk . Reverend Lovejoy says " This house is a very , very , very fine house " , a reference to the Crosby , Stills , Nash , & Young song " Our House " . The vehicle driven by the environmentalist on the beach is called the " Begley 2000 " after environmentalist Ed Begley Jr . = = Reception = = In its original broadcast , " Bart After Dark " finished 57th in ratings for the week of November 18 – 24 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 5 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 2 million viewing households . It was the fourth @-@ highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Melrose Place and Beverly Hills , 90210 . Ken Keeler and Alf Clausen won a Primetime Emmy Award for " Outstanding Music and Lyrics " for " We Put the Spring in Springfield " . The song was also a part of the album Go Simpsonic with The Simpsons .
= Mark Matthews = Mark Matthews ( August 7 , 1894 ? – September 6 , 2005 ) was an American veteran of the Second World War and a Buffalo Soldier . Born in Alabama and growing up in Ohio , Matthews joined the 10th Cavalry Regiment when he was only 15 years old , after having been recruited at a Lexington , Kentucky racetrack and having documents forged so that he appeared to meet the minimum age of 17 . While stationed in Arizona , he joined General John J. Pershing 's Mexico expedition to hunt down Mexican general Pancho Villa . He was later transferred to Virginia , where he took care of President Roosevelt and First Lady Eleanor 's horses and was a member of the Buffalo Soldiers ' drum and bugle corps . In his late 40s , he served in combat operations in the South Pacific during World War II and achieved the rank of First Sergeant . He was noted as an excellent marksman and horse showman . Leaving the United States Army a few years before it was integrated , Matthews then took a job as a security guard in Maryland , rising to the rank of chief of the guards and then retiring in 1970 . After the war , he told stories of military experiences and grew to become a symbol of the Buffalo Soldiers . He met with Bill Clinton and Colin Powell in his later years , and dedicated a barracks in Virginia in honor of the Buffalo Soldiers . Having experienced excellent health for most of his life , Matthews died of pneumonia at the age of 111 and was buried in Arlington National Cemetery . At the time of his death , he was recognized as the oldest living Buffalo Soldier as well as the oldest man , and the second @-@ oldest person , in the District of Columbia . = = Early life = = Matthews was born in Greenville , Alabama and grew up in Mansfield , Ohio . His horse riding career began early , when he would deliver newspapers on the back of a pony . When he was only 15 years old , he met members of the 10th Cavalry , the original Buffalo Soldier unit , while tending to horses on a racetrack in Lexington , Kentucky . Although there is disagreement as to the origins of the name " Buffalo Soldiers , " it referred to several segregated units within the United States army . Although the legal age of recruitment was 17 at the time , documents were forged and Matthews signed up to join the army in Columbus , Ohio . = = Military career = = After his training , Matthews was first stationed in Fort Huachuca in Arizona . At the time , the army was still using Native Americans as guides in the western United States . During his tenure in the state , he was regarded as an excellent marksman . Next , he joined General John J. Pershing 's campaign into Mexico in 1916 to hunt for Pancho Villa . Although Matthews admitted to never having met Villa , he would claim that " I knew where he was at . " When the United States turned its attention to World War I , Europe had no use for American cavalry , therefore Matthews and the 10th Regiment remained in the United States for the duration of the conflict . In 1931 , he was transferred to Fort Myer in Virginia . While stationed there , Matthews and some of his troops were escorts for King George VI and his wife Queen Elizabeth when they came to visit President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the White House . He earned acclaim for his horse shows , which helped sell war bonds during World War II and he tended to First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt 's personal horses . He also played on the polo team while stationed in the state . He was also a member of the Buffalo Soldiers ' drum and bugle corps , and performed at funerals in Arlington National Cemetery , where he himself would later be buried . Since the Army would not allow colored soldiers to be seen at white funerals at this time , he was forced to hide in the woods while playing " Taps " . A decade later , he fought in World War II and saw combat action at the Battle of Saipan in the South Pacific . During the conflict , he rose to the rank of First Sergeant . He had originally been sent to train with the Tuskegee Airmen , but was deemed to be too old at the time . = = Later life = = Although there were conflicting reports on whether he retired from the Army in 1947 , 1949 or 1950 , he left the army only shortly before the Buffalo Soldiers were disbanded as part of President Harry S. Truman 's initiative to integrate the Army . His next job was at the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda where he worked as a security guard . By the time he retired for a second time , in 1970 , he had become the chief of the guards at the institution . He spent much of his spare time fishing , reading the Bible , and recounting tales of his extensive military experiences , which made him a popular and respected figure within the community . His wife of 57 years , Genevieve Hill Matthews , died in 1986 and one of his daughters , Shirley Ann , died two years later . In his old age , he became a symbol for the Buffalo Soldiers . In 1994 , he met with President Bill Clinton at the White House . In 1997 , at the age of 103 , Matthews was present at Arlington National Cemetery for a service honoring the Buffalo Soldiers , where he unveiled a plaque that dedicated his former barracks in honor of the soldiers . For his 108th birthday in 2002 , he met with then @-@ United States Secretary of State Colin Powell , where Powell was presented with a portrait of Matthews . He was a member of his local church , a Prince Hall Masonic Temple and the Washington chapter of the 9th and 10th Cavalry Association until his death . Although partially blind from glaucoma by the age of 109 and completely blind from cataracts by 111 , he nevertheless retained his memory and good health until his final days ; his medical history showed no signs of high blood pressure , heart or kidney trouble or diabetes . He was able to walk without a cane or walker , preferring not to use one , and was able to feed himself , including Cheerios for breakfast , his favorite vanilla ice cream with his other meals and a daily can of Ensure for energy . While he enjoyed recounting tales from his military experience , he never complained about the segregated nature of his unit , preferring instead to focus on his own exploits on the job . Matthews died at the claimed age of 111 of pneumonia in Washington , D.C. At the time of his death , he was recognized as the oldest living former Buffalo Soldier , the oldest man in Washington and the second oldest person in Washington overall behind then oldest American Corinne Dixon Taylor . He was survived by three of his four daughters , his son , nine grandchildren and seventeen great @-@ grandchildren . He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery in September 2005 and Washington , D.C. Mayor Anthony A. Williams spoke at his funeral , which was also attended by councilman and future mayor Adrian Fenty .
= Capcom Five = The Capcom Five are five video games unveiled by Capcom in late 2002 and published from March 2003 . At a time when Nintendo 's GameCube console had failed to capture market share , Capcom announced five new GameCube titles with the apparent goal of boosting hardware sales and showing off third @-@ party developer support . Capcom USA followed up with confirmation that they would be exclusive to the GameCube . The five games were P.N.03 , a futuristic third @-@ person shooter ; Viewtiful Joe , a side @-@ scrolling action @-@ platformer ; Dead Phoenix , a shoot ' em up ; Resident Evil 4 , a survival horror third @-@ person shooter ; and Killer7 , an action @-@ adventure game with first @-@ person shooter elements . Though not directly related to each other , they were all overseen by Resident Evil creator Shinji Mikami and , except Killer7 , developed by Capcom 's Production Studio 4 . Capcom USA later clarified that only Resident Evil 4 was intended to be exclusive ; the initial announcement was due to a miscommunication with their parent company . Of the five games , Dead Phoenix was canceled and only P.N.03 retained its status as a GameCube exclusive , though it was a critical and commercial failure . Both Viewtiful Joe and Killer7 sold modestly , the former despite critical acclaim and the latter owing to polarized reviews . Even so , Killer7 gained a significant cult following , effectively launching the career of creator Suda51 . Resident Evil 4 was the runaway success of the five , though its GameCube sales were undercut by the announcement of a Sony PlayStation 2 port to be released later in 2005 . Viewtiful Joe also saw a PlayStation 2 version with expanded features , and Killer7 debuted on multiple platforms simultaneously . Since the release of the Nintendo 64 , Nintendo has struggled to attract third @-@ party developers like Capcom to produce games for its systems . Industry analysts see the Capcom Five case , particularly the loss of GameCube exclusivity for Resident Evil 4 , as a major blow to Nintendo – Capcom relations and is emblematic of Nintendo 's failure to attract third @-@ party support during the GameCube era . = = Background = = During the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) and Super NES ( SNES ) eras , Nintendo and Capcom enjoyed a close relationship , with Mega Man as one of the NES ' most prominent franchises . This closeness was partially due to Nintendo 's monopoly of the video game console market , which allowed the company to compel third @-@ party developers to release exclusive content according to Nintendo 's schedule . Sega 's rival Genesis system forced Nintendo to relax some of its restrictions on third parties with respect to the SNES . However , relations with third @-@ party developers reached a turning point when Nintendo decided to retain a proprietary cartridge @-@ based format for the Nintendo 64 , in the face of Sony 's disc @-@ based PlayStation . Due to increased manufacturing costs and severely limited cartridge memory capacity , many third parties — Capcom included — moved to the PlayStation to start new franchises , such as Resident Evil . On this new platform , developers could create bigger games while avoiding the restriction of ordering the manufacture of expensive proprietary cartridges through Nintendo , which could lead to under- or over @-@ stocking inventory which might eat into revenue . This third @-@ party abandonment allowed the PlayStation to outsell the Nintendo 64 during that console generation . With the GameCube , Nintendo tried to reclaim third @-@ party developers and catch up to Sony 's PlayStation 2 by featuring disc @-@ based media and powerful system hardware . However , in the first year after its launch , Nintendo only sold 4 @.@ 7 million consoles . In this climate of flagging sales , Capcom held a surprise press conference in Japan in November 2002 , announcing five new titles for the GameCube : P.N.03 , Viewtiful Joe , Dead Phoenix , Resident Evil 4 , and Killer7 . The games would be developed in @-@ house by Capcom 's Production Studio 4 with Resident Evil series creator Shinji Mikami as supervisor . The lone exception was Killer7 , to be produced at Grasshopper Manufacture , with Mikami as co @-@ writer alongside director Suda51 . When pressed for comment on console exclusivity , a Capcom USA representative confirmed the claim , generating the perception that Capcom was hoping to boost the GameCube 's sales and reputation . A statement on their website echoed this support for GameCube . However , Capcom USA soon rescinded their confirmation , blaming it on a miscommunication with the parent company . They clarified that only Resident Evil 4 would definitely be exclusive . = = Release and reception = = = = = P.N.03 = = = P.N.03 is a science fiction @-@ themed third @-@ person shooter , released in Japan on March 27 , 2003 . The game features a dexterous protagonist named Vanessa Z. Schneider who battles an army of maverick robots . The game earned the name Jaguar during development due to Vanessa 's fluid motions and agility . Acting as director , Mikami attempted to differentiate it from Devil May Cry by adding defensive and evasive maneuvers . This desire , combined with the limited development time , also led to the replacement of Vanessa 's guns with energy bolts . Upon its release , reviewers criticized the game 's short length and sluggish controls , with an average score of 63 out of 100 on Metacritic . Mikami was unsatisfied with the finished product , stating he had hoped to put " a lot more " time into its development . P.N.03 was the only game of the five that remained a GameCube exclusive . = = = Viewtiful Joe = = = Viewtiful Joe is a 2.5D side @-@ scrolling action @-@ platformer , released on June 26 , 2003 . The title character is a parody of tokusatsu superheroes and is trying to save his girlfriend , who has been trapped in " Movieland " by a group of supervillains known as Jadow . To complete his quest , Joe must use his Viewtiful Effects Powers , which are based on camera tricks and special effects used in films . These include " Slow " , which simulates bullet time ; " Mach Speed " , allowing Joe to attack all enemies with his afterimages ; and " Zoom In " , which triggers a camera close @-@ up and unlocks special attacks . Internally , Capcom treated the game as a " staff @-@ focused project " with the goal of increasing the skills of director Hideki Kamiya . The game achieved a Metacritic score of 93 and won GameCube Game of the Year awards from numerous publications including IGN , GMR , and USA Today . The game sold out its initial shipment of 100 @,@ 000 to achieve a lifetime total of 275 @,@ 000 units . Producer Atsushi Inaba considered the game a success , achieving his goals of training staff , keeping a small budget , and selling well . However , these numbers were lower than Capcom expected , prompting the publisher to port Viewtiful Joe to PlayStation 2 in 2004 , with expanded features . This version sold 46 @,@ 000 copies with a slightly lower Metacritic score of 90 owing to the lack of progressive scan and frame rate slowdown generated by the porting process . = = = Dead Phoenix = = = Dead Phoenix was going to be a 3D shoot ' em up featuring a winged man named Phoenix . Based on trailer footage , IGN compared the gameplay to Panzer Dragoon . Players would take control of a winged man as he flies around shooting massive enemies , with the aid of allies on foot . Capcom 's announcement described the setting as a mythical floating city , full of monsters and dragons . Game Informer announced that a Japanese release was planned in mid @-@ 2003 . The game was believed to be canceled by May 2003 , but Capcom stated at a press conference prior to the 2003 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) that it was still in development . IGN speculated that the game may have been retooled as a new Kid Icarus title , based on Nintendo 's trend in the early 2000s of licensing properties to third parties . It was canceled in August 2003 after failing to appear at E3 . = = = Resident Evil 4 = = = Resident Evil 4 , a survival horror third @-@ person shooter , had its North American premiere on January 11 , 2005 , and its Japanese release on January 27 . Players take on the role of Leon S. Kennedy , a United States Secret Service agent who has been ordered to rescue the daughter of the President of the United States from a cult in rural hispanophone Europe . The cult has been using a mind @-@ controlling parasite to turn local villagers into violent drones . The game went through numerous changes during its long development — the team created and discarded four prototypes before settling on the final product . Among these was a version directed by Hideki Kamiya that would be turned into the first Devil May Cry game . Taking over directorial duties , Mikami made the fifth and final version very different compared to previous Resident Evil games , with an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder perspective and an increased emphasis on action and combat . Resident Evil 4 was the only game of the five to remain confirmed as a GameCube exclusive ; Mikami claimed that he would " cut his own head off " ( a Japanese colloquialism for quitting his job ) if it were to be released on another platform . However , just two months before the game 's January 2005 release , Capcom revealed that a PlayStation 2 port would be published nine months after the GameCube version in response to pressure from users and shareholders . This surprise announcement undercut the title 's GameCube sales , which totaled 1 @.@ 6 million , compared to the sales of the PlayStation 2 version , which exceeded 2 million . Mikami apologized to GameCube fans for failing to uphold his promise of console exclusivity . Despite these corporate conflicts , the game received an overwhelmingly positive critical response with Metacritic scores of 96 for both versions . It went on to sweep many Game of the Year awards for 2005 and is consistently listed among the greatest games of all time . = = = Killer7 = = = Killer7 , released on June 9 , 2005 , is an action @-@ adventure game with first @-@ person shooter elements and an unconventional " on rails " control scheme . Unlike other members of the five , Killer7 was developed at Grasshopper Manufacture under the direction of Suda51 . Players control the members of an elite group of assassins who are actually physical manifestations of a god @-@ like being named Harman Smith . The game restricts the player 's movement to specific branching paths through the environment and combat is only available while stationary in first @-@ person view . This stripped @-@ down control scheme was implemented as a deconstruction of conventional control mechanics . Gameplay was not finalized until late in development as Suda51 concentrated most resources on story and visual work . This back @-@ loading of development resulted in several delays , the last of which was due to an artistic desire to release the game on July 7 ( 7 / 7 ) in North America . Killer7 debuted as a multi @-@ console release , the only one of the five to do so , to polarized reviews . Some reviewers praised the game for its complex noir plot involving a political conflict between Japan and the US , while others panned it as confusing and incomprehensible . Similarly , the control scheme had both critics and proponents , the latter comparing it to Myst , Snatcher , and other " old @-@ school " adventure games . Although it received a lukewarm 74 Metacritic score , Killer7 was honored by many video game publications in their year @-@ end awards . Common nominations included " Best Story " , " Best Artistic Design " , and " Most Innovative Design " . However , the central theme was a recognition of Killer7 's status as a cult game with limited appeal . IGN named it " Best Game No One Played " and Kristan Reed of Eurogamer called it " a concept game , an arthouse game , a simple game , an often beautiful game , but most certainly never an everyman 's game " . = = Legacy = = The Capcom Five announcement came at a time when Nintendo had been struggling with its new console , with the apparent goal of supporting the fledgling system . However , each successive game 's release reinforced Capcom 's view that the GameCube was unprofitable ; they ported the games one @-@ by @-@ one to Sony 's PlayStation 2 . These ports were generally inferior in quality : many reviewers noted slowdown issues and lower resolution graphics . Ultimately , four games were released and only one remained exclusive to GameCube . This lone GameCube exclusive was P.N.03 and not Resident Evil 4 , as Capcom had repeatedly emphasized in press releases . GameCube owners and Nintendo fans were disappointed by the Capcom Five 's failure to improve the GameCube 's reputation and sales . Luke Plunkett of Kotaku noted that despite best intentions , Capcom 's five even at their full potential could not have made up for the GameCube 's failings in that generation 's console wars . The dramatic reversal of the five is representative of the attitudes of third @-@ party developers toward Nintendo 's platform . Capcom discovered a few business principles through their experience with development and release of the five . The first was to focus on multi @-@ platform releases . Second , Capcom needed to streamline development . Prior to the five , the company had announced expected losses of US $ 103 million for fiscal year 2002 , largely due to poor sales and extended development times , and ultimately posted over US $ 163 million in losses . Resident Evil 4 was a case in point , beginning development in 1999 and going through four discarded versions by the time of its 2005 release . The third lesson was to focus on old franchises rather than create new ones ; Resident Evil 4 was the only unmitigated commercial success of the five and also the only game based on an existing property . To wit , Viewtiful Joe 2 started development shortly after the release of Viewtiful Joe and was completed just a year later . However , the brisk schedule meant that the team was not given time to implement all the features they had wanted , including a cooperative gameplay mode . Viewtiful Joe 2 debuted on both GameCube and PlayStation 2 to reach a wider audience and maximize profitability . To facilitate Viewtiful Joe 2 's development , Capcom turned " Team Viewtiful " into Clover Studio , a semi @-@ autonomous production company with a focus on developing new intellectual properties ( IPs ) . The separation was also in part due to Resident Evil 4 's PlayStation 2 release , which caused significant tensions between Capcom and Mikami , who had touted the game 's console exclusivity . However , the studio only produced two new IPs before Capcom closed it in late 2006 , following the resignations of Atsushi Inaba , Hideki Kamiya , and Shinji Mikami . These resignations were part of a series of high @-@ profile departures from Capcom , including Yoshiki Okamoto in 2003 and Keiji Inafune in 2010 . The former Clover developers charged that Capcom 's corporate management was reluctant or actively opposed to risky new ideas , a complaint shared by Inafune . They would go on to found PlatinumGames with members of their old studio . In 2008 , they announced the " Platinum Three " , referring to MadWorld , Infinite Space , and Bayonetta , which would attempt to carry on the Capcom Five 's ambitious and creative original spirit . Outside of Capcom , Killer7 served as a turning point for Suda51 and his studio , Grasshopper Manufacture , effectively launching his career . With Capcom as publisher , Killer7 was his first game to be released outside Japan . While its sales were not up to Capcom 's standards , the game 's cult success encouraged the director to remake two of his older Japan @-@ only games , The Silver Case and Flower , Sun , and Rain , for Western release . It also allowed his next major title , No More Heroes , to be released to critical and commercial success . The game also cemented Suda51 's status as an auteur video game director . He would later work with Shinji Mikami again on Shadows of the Damned . Despite the relative failure of the project as a whole , the individual games of the Capcom Five had a lasting impact on game design . After experimenting with action gameplay in P.N.03 , Mikami was able to apply his experience to Vanquish , which serves as an evolution and refinement of the former 's gameplay . On the other hand , Adam Sorice of Nintendojo suggested that P.N.03 's stereotypically sexy all @-@ female cast had unfortunate implications for gender equality in gaming . He also opined that the commercial failure of such a women @-@ driven game made Capcom reluctant to feature female leads in future games for a number of years . Beyond its critical success , Resident Evil 4 became one of the most influential games of the decade . Its " over @-@ the @-@ shoulder " perspective has inspired third @-@ person shooters and action games as diverse as Gears of War and Batman : Arkham Asylum . Leon 's precision @-@ aiming laser sight has also found its way into Dead Space and Grand Theft Auto , as an alternative to " lock @-@ on " targeting . On a broader scale , Resident Evil 4 deconstructed the survival horror conventions the first Resident Evil games established . Some reviewers accused the game of abandoning the genre 's essence by adopting an increased emphasis on action and combat . Following Resident Evil 4 's lead , many " horror " games in the next few years would shift toward more combat @-@ heavy gameplay , including Silent Hill : Homecoming and Alone in the Dark . According to industry sources , Capcom 's reversal on GameCube exclusivity , particularly with Resident Evil 4 , was a betrayal that soured relations between Capcom and Nintendo for several years . After this early pulling of Capcom support , the GameCube went on to sell 22 million units , less than the Nintendo 64 's 33 million units and only a fraction of the PlayStation 2 's 155 million units . Though Resident Evil 4 was eventually ported to Nintendo 's Wii in 2007 , it also received a high @-@ definition re @-@ release for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in 2011 . The 2002 GameCube remake of Resident Evil and Resident Evil Zero also received remasters for newer consoles in 2015 and 2016 respectively . Super Smash Bros. Brawl was released in 2008 , featuring third party characters like Solid Snake from Konami and Sonic the Hedgehog from Sega as a selling point . Kotaku reported on a rumor that Nintendo refused to include a character from Capcom as a direct result of Resident Evil 4 's multi @-@ platform release . Years later , Capcom 's own Mega Man appeared as a playable character in the next game in the series , Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U. Ultimately , the GameCube failed to reinvigorate flagging support from third parties , a trend continued from the Nintendo 64 through its successor , the Wii . The Wii had mostly relied on first @-@ party titles to sell systems until 2009 when in @-@ house development could not keep up with demand for new material . This caused sales to drop and prompted a shift toward more aggressive courting of third @-@ party developers . Despite this , the Wii would go on to become one of the most commercially successful home video game consoles of all time . For the Wii U and Nintendo 3DS , Nintendo has attempted to recruit outside developers early on to avoid a repeat of what happened to the Wii and reclaim the third @-@ party support it enjoyed in the NES and SNES eras , though its success in this regard has been mixed .
= Final Destination ( film ) = Final Destination is a 2000 American supernatural horror film directed by James Wong , and is the first installment of the Final Destination film series . The screenplay was written by James Wong , Glen Morgan , and Jeffrey Reddick , based on a story by Reddick . The film stars Devon Sawa , Ali Larter , Kerr Smith , and Tony Todd . Sawa portrays a teenager who cheats death after having a premonition of a catastrophic plane explosion . He and several of his classmates leave the plane before the explosion occurs , but Death later takes the lives of those who were meant to die on the plane . The film began as a spec script written by Reddick for an episode of The X @-@ Files , in order for Reddick to get a TV agent , however , he never submitted it to The X @-@ Files after a colleague at New Line Cinema persuaded him to write it as a feature @-@ length film . Later , Wong and Morgan , The X @-@ Files writing partners , became interested in the script and agreed to rewrite and direct the film , marking Wong 's film directing debut . Filming took place in New York and Vancouver , with additional scenes filmed in Toronto and San Francisco . It was released on March 17 , 2000 , and became a financial success , making $ 10 million on its opening weekend . The DVD release of the film , released on September 26 , 2000 , in the United States and Canada , includes commentaries , deleted scenes , and documentaries . The film received mixed reviews from critics . Negative reviews described the film as " dramatically flat " and " aimed at the teen dating crowd , " while positive reviews praised the film for " generating a respectable amount of suspense , " " playful and energized enough to keep an audience guessing , " and " an unexpectedly alert teen @-@ scream disaster chiller " . It received the Saturn Award for Best Horror Film and Best Performance by a Younger Actor for Sawa 's performance . The film 's success spawned a media franchise , encompassing four additional installments , as well as a series of novels and comic books . = = Plot = = High school student Alex Browning boards Volée Airlines Flight 180 with his classmates for their senior trip to Paris , France . Before take @-@ off , Alex has a premonition that the plane will suffer a catastrophic engine failure , causing the plane to explode in mid @-@ air , and killing everyone on board . When the events from his vision begin to repeat themselves in reality , he panics and a fight breaks out between Alex and his rival , Carter Horton . This leads to several passengers being removed from the plane , including Alex ; Carter ; Alex 's best friend , Tod Waggner ; Carter 's girlfriend , Terry Chaney ; teacher Valerie Lewton ; and students Billy Hitchcock and Clear Rivers . None of the passengers , except for Clear , believe Alex about his vision until the plane explodes on take @-@ off , killing the remaining passengers on board . Afterwards , the survivors are interrogated by two FBI agents , who believe that Alex had something to do with the explosion . Thirty @-@ nine days later , the survivors attend a memorial service for the victims . That night , Tod is killed when a chain reaction causes him to be strangled in his bathtub . His death is deemed a suicide ; however , Alex does not believe that Tod killed himself . He and Clear sneak into the funeral home to see Tod 's body , where they meet mortician William Bludworth , who tells them that they have ruined Death 's plan , and Death is now claiming the lives of those who were meant to die on the plane . The next day , Alex and Clear discuss what the mortician said at a cafe . Alex believes that if they look out for omens they can cheat Death again , although Clear is skeptical . They encounter the rest of the survivors ; and when Carter provokes Alex , Terry storms off in anger and is suddenly killed by a speeding bus . After watching a news report on the cause of the explosion , Alex realizes that the survivors are dying in the order they were meant to die on the plane . He deduces that Ms. Lewton is next and rushes to her house to ensure her safety . Thinking Alex is up to no good , Ms. Lewton calls the FBI agents , who take him in for questioning . Although Alex is unable to convince the agents of what is happening they decide to let him go . Nonetheless , he is too late to save Ms. Lewton , whose house explodes after she is impaled by a falling kitchen knife . The remaining survivors reunite and discuss what to do while driving through town . During the discussion Carter learns that he is next on Death 's list . Frustrated over having no control over his life , Carter parks his car on railroad tracks , wanting to die on his own terms . He changes his mind at the last minute ; but cannot get out when his seat belt jams . Alex manages to save Carter when his seat belt rips , just before his car is smashed by an oncoming train . As Billy warns the others to stay away from Carter he is suddenly decapitated by flying shrapnel from the car wreckage . Alex deduces that since he intervened Death skipped Carter and moved onto Billy , and realizes that he is next on Death 's list . While hiding out in a fortified cabin Alex recalls switching seats with two girls in his premonition , meaning Clear is actually next , and he rushes to save her while being chased by agents . Meanwhile , Clear is trapped inside her car with a leaking gas tank , surrounded by loose live wires . Alex arrives in time to save Clear and grabs the wire , allowing her to escape from the car seconds before it explodes , leaving Alex incapacitated . Six months later , Alex , Clear , and Carter travel to Paris to celebrate their survival . While discussing their ordeal , Alex explains that Death never skipped him . After seeing more omens he leaves the table , and is almost hit by a bus , which swerves and crashes into a large neon sign that swings down towards Alex . Carter pushes Alex out of the way at the last second , and Alex says that Death has skipped him . When Carter asks who is next the sign suddenly swings back down towards Carter , implying that Death 's plan is still in action . = = Cast = = For more details on the characters , see List of Final Destination characters . Devon Sawa as Alex Browning Ali Larter as Clear Rivers Kerr Smith as Carter Horton Kristen Cloke as Valerie Lewton Daniel Roebuck as Agent Weine Roger Guenveur Smith as Agent Schreck Chad E. Donella as Tod Waggner Seann William Scott as Billy Hitchcock Tony Todd as William Bludworth Amanda Detmer as Terry Chaney Brendan Fehr as George Waggner Lisa Marie Caruk as Christa Marsh Christine Chatelain as Blake Dreyer Forbes Angus as Larry Murnau Barbara Tyson as Barbara Browning Robert Wisden as Ken Browning Numerous film characters are named after famous Horror film directors , actors and producers : Billy Hitchcock is named after Alfred Hitchcock , the Browning family and Tod Waggner are named after Tod Browning , Larry Murnau is a reference to Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau , Agent Schreck quotes Max Schreck and George Waggner is directly named after Universal Horror film producer George Waggner . = = Production = = = = = Development = = = The original idea was written by Jeffrey Reddick as a spec script for The X @-@ Files in order to get a TV agent . " I was actually flying home to Kentucky and I read a story about a woman who was on vacation and her mom called her and said , ' Don ’ t take the flight tomorrow , I have a really bad feeling about it . ’ She switched flights and the plane that she would have been on crashed , " said Reddick . " I thought , that ’ s creepy — what if she was supposed to die on that flight ? " Building on his idea , Reddick wrote script and got an agent , but never submitted the script to The X @-@ Files after a colleague at New Line Cinema suggested he write it as a feature film . One of the biggest misconceptions about the project is that it was based on the real @-@ life disaster of TWA Flight 800 that occurred in 1996 . Like in the movie , the TWA disaster involved a Boeing 747 that exploded after take @-@ off from JFK International Airport in New York en route to Paris . The TV spec script for The X @-@ Files however , was actually written in 1994 . New Line Cinema bought Jeffrey 's treatment and hired him to write the original draft of the script , which featured Death as an unseen force . After the script was finished , New Line Cinema submitted the script to directors , including writing partners James Wong and Glen Morgan . Both writers were willing to make it into a film , although they rewrote the script to comply with their standards . " I believe that at one time or another we 've all experienced a sense of prescience . We have a hunch , a feeling , and then that hunch proves true , " Wong said . " We want to do for planes and air travel what Jaws did for sharks and swimming " . Morgain said , " The main thing they wanted about Death coming to get people is that you never saw a kind of a Michael Myers figure . You never saw a killer . And they liked that idea and they said , ' Okay . Go write it . ' Once we had a basic story , I started cataloging the strange coincidences in my own life . For example , I was in the Vancouver airport waiting for a flight when John Denver came on over the loudspeaker . I remember saying to myself , ' Hey , he just died in a plane crash – that 's a little weird . ' We wrote that version of that experience into the script . " Producers Craig Perry and Warren Zide from Zide / Perry Productions helped with the film 's budget , because both were similarly fascinated about the idea of an invisible force executing its victims . Perry , a fan of The X @-@ Files , claimed that he " responded to Wong and Morgan 's work for one specific reason : dread " . New Line Cinema accepted financing and distributing rights for the film after Reddick came to them personally . = = = Casting = = = " One of the most important things we were looking for in casting was the actors ' ability to play the subtleties – the little things that a character doesn 't say or do that create the edge , the things that get under your skin and spook you , " Morgan said about the auditions . Alex Browning , the last role cast , went to Canadian actor Devon Sawa , who previously starred in the 1999 film Idle Hands . Sawa said that when " [ he ] read the script on a plane , [ he ] found [ himself ] peeking out the window at the engine every couple of minutes " and " [ he ] went down and met Glen and Jim and [ he ] thought they were amazing and already had some great ideas " . However , Morgan and Wong were undecided about casting him for the part , so they requested him to perform again as they reviewed his previous works . Morgan was astounded by Sawa 's performance in Idle Hands , and Sawa was hired . Sawa described his role as " in the beginning , [ Alex ] was kinda loopy and cotter , and you know , probably not the most popular guy in school . I think he might have been a dork , you know , doing their stuff and they had their own thing going and they 're after the two beautiful girls in school , but there 's no chance of that happening . I guess after the plane goes down , his world completely changes " . " Devon has an every man quality that makes him accessible , " Wong said . " He doesn 't appear as if he 's supremely self @-@ assured . He 's more of a regular kid who can take on the complexities of the role and become a hero " . Perry was amazed by Sawa 's vulnerability in acting , describing him as " a very distinctive actor . He 's very loose and he 's kind of a cut @-@ up when he 's not on camera , but the moment the camera 's on , I 'd never seen anybody to completely slide right through the moment " . Ali Larter , who starred in the 1999 film Varsity Blues , was cast as female lead Claire Rivers . " The film shows how easy it is to turn on someone , to blame someone when you 're scared , " Larter said . " It 's also about trusting your intuitions and yourself " . She defined her part as " that girl who has a lot of loss in her life and has fallen for herself , and had made a life within that . She 's an artist , she lives by herself , and she 's kinda holding to her grip for what the world has given her " . Seann William Scott , famous for portraying Steve Stifler in the 1999 film American Pie , was hired as class clown Billy Hitchcock . Scott admired the film , and felt that " it 's [ as ] dark and eerie as any Twilight Zone " . He laughed at his role , saying that " [ he ] is lacking some social skills , he doesn 't have quite a few friends , and he 's like the tag @-@ along " . Scott was surprised when in the script his character was written as fat . The writers eventually changed it for Scott . Dawson 's Creek star Kerr Smith was cast as jock Carter Horton . Smith identified Carter as " your typical high school bully whose life depends on anger " and mentioned the fact that Carter feared Alex not having control of his own life . Kristen Cloke , Morgan 's wife , was cast as teacher Valerie Lewton . " I have incredible respect for them , " said Cloke . " Jim 's the kind of director who knows exactly what he wants . As an actor , I can find a way to get there if I know specifically what I 'm going for , and Jim gives me that . The fact that he won 't move on until he 's got exactly what he wants creates a safe environment , which allows me to experiment and try different things " . Cloke described her part as " strong and sassy – in control . After the crash she comes unglued , probably more than any of the kids , and it 's a quick , drastic change . I had to understand the psychology of a person who can turn on a dime like that " . Newcomers Amanda Detmer and Chad E. Donella were cast as students Terry Chaney and Tod Waggner , respectively . " When I first read the script , the thing that struck me most was that the characters were well @-@ written and the relationships between them were strong and believable , " Detmer said . " That 's important , because you have to care about these people in order to be worried about what might happen to them " . Detmer defined Terry as " very put @-@ together [ and ] seems content to defer to [ Carter ] – to not make waves . But the stress of what happens affects their relationship and interestingly enough brings out a certain strength in her " . On the other hand , Donella observed how similar his role was to himself . " I believe in fate . I think you come into this life with some things to accomplish and you 're taken out earlier or later depending on the game plan " . Tony Todd , who played Candyman in the 1992 film Candyman , was cast as mortician William Bludworth . Morgan initially wanted Todd for the role because he felt his deep voice would give the film an eerie tone . Additional cast members included Daniel Roebuck and Roger Guenveur Smith as FBI agents Agent Weine and Agent Schreck ; Brendan Fehr , Christine Chatelain and Lisa Marie Caruk as students George Waggner , Blake Dreyer and Christa Marsh ; Barbara Tyson and Robert Wisden as Barbara and Ken Browning , Alex ' parents ; and Forbes Angus as teacher Larry Murnau . = = = Filming = = = With Final Destination cast , filming took place on Long Island for the plane scene and Vancouver Island for the additional scenes . Unfortunately , the cast members were filming other projects during production , so filming schedules had to be moved repeatedly in order for all of the cast to appear . Sawa restrained his appearance in The Guilty during production , and even commented that " [ he ] had to share a trailer with Bill Pullman because it was bigger and would make him look more famous " . Smith , who was a regular in Dawson 's Creek , had to hold episodes for the film . According to Detmer , her death scene ( being rammed by a speeding bus ) was filmed first because " it was easy but much anticipated " . All death scenes were filmed using lifecasts of the actual actors . The death scenes , the memorial , the forest scene and the scenes in Paris were all filmed in Victoria . Additional scenes were filmed in Toronto and San Francisco . For the airport , the crew used Vancouver International Airport as a stand @-@ in for John F. Kennedy International Airport , the airport mentioned in the film . = = = Effects = = = The plan behind the scenes was to create an intriguing visual signature . To serve the subtleties of the script and to help personify death , production designer John Willet developed the concept of " skewing " the sets . " What I 've tried to do with the sets themselves , with their design and with various color choices , is to make things just a little unnatural , " Willet explained . " Nothing that calls attention to itself , but instead creates a sense of uneasiness — the unsettling feeling that something 's not quite right " . To achieve this mystique , Willet designed two versions of virtually every set — one version was used before the crash and the other sets were used for scenes after the jet explodes . " On the skewed sets I force the perspective either vertically or horizontally , " Willet explained . " Nothing is square and , although you can 't put your finger on it , it just makes you feel like something is not right " . Skewing was also part of the overall design for the color palette used in set decoration and costume design . " In the real world , the colors are bright and rich , " Willet said . " In the skewed world , they 're washed out and faded . Nothing is obvious , and it 's only in the overall effect that these subtle differences will work their magic " . The plane scene during which passengers die in mid @-@ air was created inside a very large sound stage . The three @-@ ton hydraulic gimbal was operated automatically . " We spent two months building this central set piece that weighs about 45 @,@ 000 pounds and holds 89 people , " special effects supervisor Terry Sonderhoff explained . Used for filming the on @-@ board sequences , it could be shifted on the gimbal to create a pitching movement of up to 45 degrees side @-@ to @-@ side and 60 degrees front @-@ to @-@ back , realistically conveying the horror of airborne engine failure . Sawa said that " the screams of the cast inside the gimbal made it appear more real " . Wong said , " You walk into the studio and there 's a huge gimbal with a plane on top and you think , ' What have I done ? ' I was afraid we were gonna have 40 extras vomiting . " A miniature model of the Boeing 747 airplane was created for the explosion scene . The model , one of the most detailed miniature scenes in the film , was about 10 feet long and 7 feet wide , and the landing gear was made from all machined metals . According to visual effects supervisor Ariel Velasco Shaw , the miniature had to be launched about 40 feet up into the air to make it look like a real Boeing 747 exploded into a fireball . If blowing up a four @-@ foot plane , the explosion must be a minimum of eight feet in the air . To film the explosion in detail , the crew used three cameras running 120 frames per second and one camera running 300 frames per second ( if they had filmed using a real @-@ time camera , the succession of the explosion would not be filmed in a particular order ) . The train scene ( in which Carter 's car is smashed by the train ) was one of the most difficult scenes to shoot . The car used for the crash was a replica of the original , severed in half prior to filming . According to Sonderhoff , in order to ensure the safety of the actors , they had to make sure that there was no real sheet metal in the car . For the death scenes , the crew used several lifecasts of the actors and chocolate syrup for fake blood . Creating the Rube Goldberg effect for Ms. Lewton 's death scene was the most difficult to plan according to the crew . Perry said that " it was very hard to generate an atmosphere of dread , to create suspense out of scenes that are common " . = = = Music = = = = = = = Soundtrack = = = = No official album accompanied the motion picture . However , six songs are featured in the film , the most prominent of which is " Rocky Mountain High " by John Denver , which is heavily highlighted throughout the film , reminding the survivors that Denver died in a plane crash . The song is heard either before an accident or a character 's demise , and is also played by a street performer ( Alessandro Juliani ) in French . Other songs featured in the film include " Hundred Grand " by Pete Atherton ( during the Flight 180 memorial scene ) , " Into the Void " by Nine Inch Nails ( during the café scene ) , " All the Candles in the World " by Jane Siberry ( during Carter 's car scene ) , and " And When I Die " by Joe 90 ( during the end credits ) . = = = = Score = = = = Final Destination : The Complete Original Motion Picture Score was released on March 17 , 2000 . The film 's score was conducted by Daytime Emmy Award @-@ winning composer Shirley Walker . Wong and Morgan initially wanted Walker to score the film after having previously worked with her on their sci @-@ fi television series Space : Above and Beyond . Walker said , " [ Morgan and Wong ] are great believers in melody and having music for the characters and situations they find themselves in . Of course , the atmosphere had to be there also , especially for a film with as much suspense building as this film has " . The score is mostly low @-@ key , with the exception of the suspense and death scenes . It was performed by a union orchestra , obliging New Line Cinema to grant the film its own score . Walker described her score as " very theme @-@ driven , conservative music that covers the range from bizarre animal noises with stronger visceral impact to stirring emotional music with well @-@ defined melodies that evolve through the storytelling " . The " Main Title " piece , used for the opening credits , was rare for opening a film aimed at a youth audience at the time . " What a treat for me to get to write a piece that calls you into the movie and lets you know something bad is going to happen from the get go " , Walker said . According to Walker , " Main Title " consumed most of her time , due to its " dark theme and counter melody which carries throughout the score " . The score was positively received by critics . Judge Harold Jervais of DVD Verdict wrote how " [ the sound effects , dialogue and ] Walker 's wonderfully creepy and effective score are mixed together to form a very pleasing , almost organic @-@ like whole " . Mike Long of DVD Review said that " Shirley Walker ’ s eerie score comes across powerfully with a wide spatial integration " . Derek Germano of The Cinema Laser wrote that " Walker 's creepy musical score is really a winner , and is one of the things that will help to make Final Destination a minor genre classic a few years down the road " . = = Release = = = = = Box office = = = The film premiered on March 17 , 2000 , in 2 @,@ 587 theaters across the United States and Canada , earning $ 10 @,@ 015 @,@ 822 on its opening weekend , with an average of $ 3 @,@ 871 per theater . Final Destination placed at No. 3 in the United States box office on its opening weekend , behind biography film Erin Brockovich and the science fiction film Mission to Mars . The film remained at No. 3 during the second weekend , before dropping to No. 7 on its third weekend . Final Destination continuously dropped across subsequent weekends until it fell from the top @-@ 10 list on its eighth weekend . The film lasted in theaters for 22 weekends , its last screening airing in 105 theaters and grossing $ 52 @,@ 675 , placing at No. 56 . Final Destination grossed $ 53 @,@ 331 @,@ 147 in the United States and Canada on its total screening , and earned $ 59 @,@ 549 @,@ 147 in other territories , earning an overall gross of $ 112 @,@ 880 @,@ 294 internationally . = = = Home media = = = Final Destination was released on DVD on September 26 , 2000 , in the United States and Canada . The DVD bonus features include three audio commentaries , three deleted scenes , and two documentaries . The first commentary features Wong , Morgan , Reddick , and editor James Coblentz describing the minute subtleties included by the creative team throughout the film , which either allude to death or foreshadow the deaths in the film invisible upon initial airing . They also discuss how the film was made and how they fought the executives of New Line Cinema over various factors . The second commentary includes Sawa , Smith , Cloke , and Donella discussing what was involved in certain scenes and how they each were cast . The third commentary is the isolated music score of Walker included in the film 's score . Deleted scenes cover two subplots of Alex and Clear , an alternate ending where Alex dies after rescuing Clear from the live wires , Clear bearing a baby which she names Alex , and Clear and Carter finishing as the only survivors of the film . The first documentary entitled A Look at Test Screenings runs for 13 minutes and outlines the test screening process , giving an overview of how those screenings were conducted and scored . The featurette shows video footage of the test screening audience and specific comments regarding why the deleted scenes were either cut or reshot . The second documentary , titled Premonitions , explores real @-@ life intuitive investigator Pam Coronado , who has helped police solve many murders and missing person cases with her psychic abilities . The featurette runs for 20 minutes . Some DVDs contain two non DVD @-@ ROM games — Death Clock and Psychic Test — in addition to the film 's theatrical trailer and filmographies of the cast and crew . = = Reception = = = = = Critical response = = = The film received mixed reviews from critics . Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported 34 % of critics gave the film positive write @-@ ups based on 101 reviews , with an average rating of 4 @.@ 7 / 10 . The site 's consensus of opinion is that " despite a panel of X @-@ Files alums at the helm and a promising premise , flighty performances and poor execution keep Final Destination from ever taking off " . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film holds a mixed / average score of 36 based on 28 reviews . On June 14 , 2010 , Nick Hyman of Metacritic included Final Destination in the website 's editorial 15 Movies the Critics Got Wrong , noting that " the elaborate suspense / action set pieces from the first two films are more impressive than most " . On the negative side , Stephen Holden of The New York Times said that " even by the crude standards of teenage horror , Final Destination is dramatically flat " . Lou Lumenick of the New York Post commented that " the film 's premise quickly deteriorates into a silly , badly acted slasher movie — minus the slasher " . Kevin Maynard of Mr. Showbiz described the film as " crude and witless " , while Rita Kempley of The Washington Post wrote that " your own final destination just might be the box office , to demand your money back " . Robert Cashill of Newsweek remarked that the film " should be in video store bins " , and Jay Carr of The Boston Globe commented that it " starts by cheating death and ends by cheating us " . Phoebe Flowers of Miami Herald felt the film " stoops well below substituting style for substance " , whereas Lisa Alspector of the Chicago Reader described the film as " disturbing — if less sophisticated than the best SF ( science fiction ) -horror TV " . Luke Thompson of the Dallas Observer found it " a waste of a decent premise " ; Ernest Hardy of LA Weekly said that the film " fails because it takes itself both too seriously and not seriously enough " . Although Barbara Shulgasser of the Chicago Tribune said that it " met the low standards of a mediocre TV movie " , Desmond Ryan of the Philadelphia Inquirer commented that it was " as full of terrible acting as it is devoid of suspense " . Both Susan Wloszczyna of USA Today and Walter Addiego of the San Francisco Examiner thought it was " stupid , silly and gory " . In contrast , the film gathered positive reviews from top critics . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times enjoyed the film and gave it three out of four stars , stating that " Final Destination will no doubt be a hit and inspire the obligatory sequels . Like the original Scream , this movie is too good to be the end of the road . I have visions of my own " . Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle praised the film , saying " [ it ] was playful and energized enough to keep an audience guessing " . Joe Leydon of Variety praised the film , saying " [ it ] generates a respectable amount of suspense and takes a few unexpected turns while covering familiar territory " , while Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times said it was " a terrific theatrical feature debut for television veterans Glen Morgan and James Wong " . Chris Kaltenbach of The Baltimore Sun found the film " fitfully thrilling " , while Maitland McDonagh of TV Guide defined the film as " serviceable enough , if you come to it with sufficiently modest expectations " . Despite the film 's generally mixed reception , critics praised Sawa 's performance as Alex . Holden of The New York Times commented that " The disaster and Alex 's premonitions set up a heavy @-@ handed fable about death and teenage illusions of invulnerability " . David Nusair of Reel Film Reviews remarked " Sawa 's personable turn as the hero is matched by a uniformly effective supporting cast rife with familiar faces ( i.e. Seann William Scott , Brendan Fehr , Tony Todd , etc ) ... , " while Leydon of Variety pointed out that " Sawa is credible as the second @-@ sighted Alex — unlike many other actors cast a teen protagonists , he actually looks like he might still be attending high school — but the supporting players are an uneven bunch " . LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle praised Sawa and Ali Larter 's pairing , saying that " Larter and Sawa , who becomes more scruffy and wild @-@ eyed as the film progresses , make an appealing pair " . = = = Accolades = = = The film had a major impact on the horror film audience , earning the Saturn Award for Best Horror Film in 2000 . Sawa won the Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Younger Actor the same year , and Larter won the Young Hollywood Award for a Breakthrough Performance by a Female . At the 2001 Blockbuster Entertainment Awards , both Sawa and Larter were nominated for Favorite Actor in Horror ( Internet Only ) and Favorite Actress in Horror ( Internet Only ) , respectively . Both actors lost the awards to Scream 3 actors David Arquette and Neve Campbell . Additionally , cinematographer Robert McLachlan was nominated for Best Cinematography in a Theatrical Feature at the Canadian Society of Cinematographers Awards in 2001 , but lost to Pierre Gill for his work on The Art of War . The film 's concept was listed at No. 46 in Bravo 's 100 Greatest Scary Moments , in which Smith represented the film . The Flight 180 explosion scene was included in the lists of best fictional plane crashes or disaster scenes by Break Studios , Unreality Magazine , New Movies.net , The Jetpacker , MaximOnline , and Filmsite.org. Filmsite.org also included the plane scene and the deaths of three characters ( Tod , Terry , and Ms. Lewton ) in its Scariest Movie Moments and Scenes , and all fatalities in its Best Film Deaths Scenes . The demise of Detmer 's character entered the listings of the most shocking deaths on film of George Wales and Simon Kinnear of Total Film ( No. 29 and No. 10 , respectively ) , Simon Hill of Eat Horror ( No. 10 ) , and Dirk Sonningsen of Mania ( No. 10 ) .
= Thierry Henry = Thierry Daniel Henry ( French pronunciation : [ tjɛʁi ɑ ̃ ʁi ] ; born 17 August 1977 ) is a retired French professional footballer who played as a forward . He played for Monaco , Juventus , Barcelona , New York Red Bulls and spent eight years at Arsenal where he is the club 's all @-@ time record goalscorer . At international level he represented France and is his country 's record goalscorer . Henry made his professional debut with Monaco in 1994 . Good form led to an international call @-@ up in 1998 , after which he signed for the Serie A defending champions Juventus . A year later he signed for Premier League club Arsenal for £ 11 million . It was at Arsenal that Henry made his name as a world @-@ class player . Under long @-@ time mentor and coach Arsène Wenger , Henry became a prolific striker and Arsenal 's all @-@ time leading scorer with 228 goals in all competitions . He won two league titles and three FA Cups at the club . In 2003 and 2004 Henry was runner @-@ up for the FIFA World Player of the Year . He was also named the PFA Players ' Player of the Year twice , and the FWA Footballer of the Year three times . Henry spent his final two seasons with Arsenal as club captain , leading them to the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final . In June 2007 , after eight years with Arsenal , he transferred to Barcelona for a fee of € 24 million . In 2009 , he was an integral part of the club 's historic treble when they won La Liga , the Copa del Rey and the UEFA Champions League . He went on to achieve an unprecedented sextuple by also winning the Supercopa de España , the UEFA Super Cup and the FIFA Club World Cup . In total , Henry has been named in the UEFA Team of the Year five times . In 2010 , he joined the New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer , winning the Eastern Conference title with the team in 2010 . He returned to Arsenal on loan for two months in 2012 . In 2013 , Henry with the New York Red Bulls won the MLS Supporters ' Shield . Henry enjoyed success with the French national team , winning the 1998 FIFA World Cup , UEFA Euro 2000 and 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup . In October 2007 , he surpassed Michel Platini 's record to become France 's top goalscorer of all time . Henry retired from international football after the 2010 FIFA World Cup . Henry was also one of the top commercially marketed footballers ; he was ranked ninth in the world in 2006 . = = Early years = = Henry is of Antillean heritage : his father , Antoine , is from Guadeloupe ( La Désirade island ) , and his mother , Maryse , is from Martinique . He was born and raised in Les Ulis suburb of Paris which , despite sometimes being seen as a tough neighbourhood , provided good footballing facilities . As a seven @-@ year @-@ old , Henry showed great potential , prompting Claude Chezelle to recruit him to the local club CO Les Ulis . His father pressured him to attend training , although the youngster was not particularly drawn to football . He joined US Palaiseau in 1989 , but after a year his father fell out with the club , so Henry moved to ES Viry @-@ Châtillon and played there for two years . US Palaiseau coach Jean @-@ Marie Panza , Henry 's future mentor , followed him there . = = Club career = = = = = Monaco ( 1992 – 1999 ) and Juventus ( 1999 ) = = = In 1990 , Monaco sent scout Arnold Catalano to watch Henry , then at the age of 13 in a match . Henry scored all six goals as his side won 6 – 0 . Catalano asked him to join Monaco without even attending a trial first . Catalano requested that Henry complete a course at the elite Clairefontaine academy , and despite the director 's reluctance to admit Henry due to his poor school results , he was allowed to complete the course and joined Arsène Wenger 's Monaco as a youth player . Subsequently , Henry signed professional forms with Monaco , and made his professional debut on 31 August 1994 , in a 2 – 0 loss against Nice . Although Wenger suspected that Henry should be deployed as a striker , he put Henry on the left wing because he believed that his pace , natural ball control and skill would be more effective against full @-@ backs than centre @-@ backs . After a tentative start to his Monaco career , Henry was named the French Young Footballer of the Year in 1996 , and in the 1996 – 97 season , his solid performances helped the club win the Ligue 1 title . During the 1997 – 98 season , he was instrumental in leading his club to the UEFA Champions League semi @-@ final , setting a French record by scoring seven goals in the competition . By his third season , he had received his first cap for the national team , and was part of the winning team in the 1998 FIFA World Cup . He continued to impress at his tenure with Monaco , and in his five seasons with the French club , the young winger scored 20 league goals in 105 appearances . Henry left Monaco in January 1999 , one year before his intimate and closest teammate David Trezeguet , and moved to Italian Serie A club Juventus for £ 10 @.@ 5 million . He played on the wing , but he was ineffective against the Serie A defensive discipline in a position uncharacteristic for him , and scored just three goals in 16 appearances . = = = Arsenal ( 1999 – 2007 ) = = = Unsettled in Italy , Henry transferred from Juventus on 3 August 1999 to Arsenal for an estimated fee of £ 11 million , reuniting with his former manager Arsène Wenger . It was at Arsenal that Henry made his name as a world @-@ class footballer , and although his transfer was not without controversy , Wenger was convinced he was worth the transfer fee . Brought in as a replacement for fellow French forward Nicolas Anelka , Henry was immediately moulded into a striker by Wenger , a move that would pay rich dividends in years to come . However , doubts were raised about his ability to adapt to the quick and physical English game when he failed to score in his first eight games . After several difficult months in England , Henry even conceded that he had to " be re @-@ taught everything about the art of striking . " These doubts were dispelled when he ended his first season at Arsenal with an impressive goal tally of 26 . Arsenal finished second in the Premier League behind Manchester United , and lost in the UEFA Cup Final against Turkish club Galatasaray . Coming off the back of a victorious UEFA Euro 2000 campaign with the national team , Henry was ready to make an impact in the 2000 – 01 season . Despite recording fewer goals and assists than his first season , Henry 's second season with Arsenal proved to be a breakthrough , as he became the club 's top goalscorer . Armed with one of the league 's best attacks , Arsenal finished runner @-@ up to perennial rivals Manchester United in the Premier League . The team also reached the final of the FA Cup , losing 2 – 1 to Liverpool . Henry remained frustrated , however , by the fact that he had yet to help the club win honours , and frequently expressed his desire to establish Arsenal as a powerhouse . Success finally arrived during the 2001 – 02 season . Arsenal finished seven points above Liverpool to win the Premier League title , and defeated Chelsea 2 – 0 in the FA Cup Final . Henry became the league 's top goalscorer and netted 32 goals in all competitions as he led Arsenal to a double and his first silverware with the club . There was much expectation that Henry would replicate his club form for France during the 2002 FIFA World Cup , but the defending champions suffered a shock exit at the group stage . 2002 – 03 proved to be another productive season for Henry , as he scored 32 goals in all competitions while contributing 23 assists — remarkable returns for a striker . In doing so , he led Arsenal to another FA Cup triumph ( where he was man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match in the Final ) , although Arsenal failed to retain their Premier League title . Throughout the season , he competed with Manchester United 's Ruud van Nistelrooy for the league scoring title , but the Dutchman edged Henry to the Golden Boot by a single goal . Nonetheless , Henry was named both the PFA Players ' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year . His rising status as one of the world 's best footballers was affirmed when he emerged runner @-@ up for the 2003 FIFA World Player of the Year award . Entering the 2003 – 04 season , Arsenal were determined to reclaim the Premier League crown . Henry was again instrumental in Arsenal 's exceptionally successful campaign ; together with the likes of Dennis Bergkamp , Patrick Vieira and Robert Pirès , Henry ensured that the Gunners became the first team in more than a century to go through the entire domestic league season unbeaten , claiming the league title in the process . Apart from being named for the second year running as the PFA Players ' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year , Henry emerged once again as the runner @-@ up for 2004 FIFA World Player of the Year award . With 39 goals scored in all competitions , the Frenchman led the league in goals scored and won the European Golden Boot . However , as was the case in 2002 , Henry was unable to lead the national side to honours during UEFA Euro 2004 . This dip in success was compounded when Arsenal failed again to secure back @-@ to @-@ back league titles when they lost out to Chelsea in the 2004 – 05 season , although Arsenal did win the FA Cup ( the Final of which Henry missed through injury ) . Henry maintained his reputation as one of Europe 's most feared strikers as he led the league in scoring , and with 31 goals in all competitions , he was the co @-@ recipient ( with Diego Forlán ) of the European Golden Boot , and is currently the only player to have officially won the award twice in a row ( Ally McCoist also had two Golden Boots in a row , but both were deemed unofficial ) . The unexpected departure of Arsenal 's captain Patrick Vieira in the 2005 close season led to Henry being awarded club captaincy , a role which many felt was not naturally suited for him ; the captaincy is more commonly given to defenders or midfielders , who are better @-@ placed on the pitch to read the game . Along with being chief goalscorer , he was responsible for leading a very young team which had yet to gel fully . The 2005 – 06 season proved to be one of remarkable personal achievements for Henry . On 17 October 2005 , Henry became the club 's top goalscorer of all time ; two goals against Sparta Prague in the Champions League meant he broke Ian Wright 's record of 185 goals . On 1 February 2006 , he scored a goal against West Ham United , bringing his league goal tally up to 151 , breaking Arsenal legend Cliff Bastin 's league goals record . Henry scored his 100th league goal at Highbury , a feat unparalleled in the history of the club , and a unique achievement in the Premier League . On the final day of the Premier League season , Henry scored a hat @-@ trick against Wigan Athletic in the last ever match played at Highbury . He completed the season as the league 's top goalscorer , was voted the FWA Footballer of the Year for the third time in his career , and was selected in the FIFA World XI . Nevertheless , Arsenal failed to win the Premier League title again , but hopes of a trophy were revived when Arsenal reached the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final . The Gunners eventually lost 2 – 1 to Barcelona , and Arsenal 's inability to win the league title for two consecutive seasons combined with the relative inexperience of the Arsenal squad caused much speculation that Henry would leave for another club . However , he declared his love for the club and accepted a four @-@ year contract , and said he would stay at Arsenal for life . Arsenal vice @-@ chairman David Dein later claimed the club had turned down two bids of £ 50 million from Spanish clubs for Henry before the signing of the new contract . Had the transfer materialised , it would have surpassed the then @-@ world record £ 47 million paid for Zinedine Zidane . Henry 's 2006 – 07 season was marred by injuries . Although he scored 10 goals in 17 domestic appearances for Arsenal , Henry 's season was cut short in February . Having missed games due to hamstring , foot , and back problems , he was deemed fit enough to come on as a late substitute against PSV in a Champions League match , but began limping shortly after coming on . Scans the next day revealed that he would need at least three months to heal from new groin and stomach injuries , missing the rest of the 2006 – 07 season . Wenger attributed Henry 's injuries to a protracted 2005 – 06 campaign , and reiterated that Henry was keen on staying with the Gunners to rebuild for the 2007 – 08 season . = = = Barcelona ( 2007 – 2010 ) = = = On 25 June 2007 , in an unexpected turn of events , Henry was transferred to Barcelona for € 24 million . He signed a four @-@ year deal for a reported € 6 @.@ 8 ( £ 4 @.@ 6 ) million per season . It was revealed that the contract included a release clause of € 125 ( £ 84 @.@ 9 ) million . Henry cited the departure of Dein and continued uncertainty over Wenger 's future as reasons for leaving , and maintained that " I always said that if I ever left Arsenal it would be to play for Barcelona . " Despite their captain 's departure , Arsenal got off to an impressive start for the 2007 – 08 campaign , and Henry admitted that his presence in the team might have been more of a hindrance than a help . He stated , " Because of my seniority , the fact that I was captain and my habit of screaming for the ball , they would sometimes give it to me even when I was not in the best position . So in that sense it was good for the team that I moved on . " Henry left Arsenal as the club 's leading all @-@ time league goalscorer with 174 goals and leading all @-@ time goalscorer in European competitions with 42 goals ; in July 2008 , Arsenal fans voted him as Arsenal 's greatest player ever in Arsenal.com 's Gunners ' Greatest 50 Players poll . At Barcelona , Henry was given the number 14 jersey , the same as he had worn at Arsenal . He scored his first goal for his new club on 19 September 2007 in a 3 – 0 Champions League group stage win over Lyon , and he recorded his first hat @-@ trick for Barça in a Primera División match against Levante ten days later . But with Henry mostly deployed on the wing throughout the season , he was unable to reproduce the goal @-@ scoring form he achieved with Arsenal . He expressed dissatisfaction with the move to Barcelona in the initial year , amidst widespread speculation of a return to the Premier League . In an interview with Garth Crooks on BBC Football Focus , Henry described missing life " back home " and even " the English press . " However , Henry concluded his debut season as the club 's top scorer with 19 goals in addition to nine league assists , second behind Lionel Messi 's ten . Henry went on to surpass this tally in a more integrated 2008 – 09 campaign , winning the first trophy of his Barcelona career on 13 May 2009 when Barcelona defeated Athletic Bilbao in the Copa del Rey final . Barcelona won the Primera División and UEFA Champions League soon after , completing a treble for the Frenchman , who had combined with Messi and Samuel Eto 'o to score 100 goals between them that season . The trio was also the most prolific trio in Spanish league history , scoring 72 goals and surpassing the 66 goals of Real Madrid 's Ferenc Puskás , Alfredo Di Stéfano and Luis del Sol of the 1960 – 61 season ( this was later surpassed by Real Madrid trio Cristiano Ronaldo , Karim Benzema and Gonzalo Higuaín who scored 89 goals in 2011 – 12 ) . Later in 2009 , Henry helped Barcelona win an unprecedented sextuple , consisting of the aforementioned treble , the Supercopa de España , the UEFA Super Cup , and the FIFA Club World Cup . The following season , the emergence of Pedro meant that Henry only started 15 league games . Before the La Liga season ended , and with a year still left on his contract , club president Joan Laporta stated on 5 May 2010 that Henry " may go away in the summer transfer window if that 's what he wants . " After Henry returned from the 2010 World Cup , Barcelona confirmed that they had agreed to the sale of Henry to an unnamed club , with the player still to agree terms with the new club . = = = New York Red Bulls ( 2010 – 2014 ) = = = In July 2010 , Henry signed a multi @-@ year contract with Major League Soccer ( MLS ) club New York Red Bulls for the 2010 season as its second designated player . He made his full MLS debut on 31 July in a 2 – 2 draw against Houston Dynamo , assisting both goals to Juan Pablo Ángel . His first MLS goal came on 28 August in a 2 – 0 victory against San Jose Earthquakes . The Red Bulls eventually topped the MLS Eastern Conference by one point over Columbus Crew before losing 3 – 2 on aggregate against San Jose Earthquakes in the quarter @-@ finals of the 2010 MLS Cup Playoffs . The next season , the Red Bulls were 10th overall in the league , and bowed out in the Conference semi @-@ finals of the 2011 MLS Cup Playoffs . = = = = Return to Arsenal ( loan ) = = = = After training with Arsenal during the MLS off @-@ season , Henry re @-@ signed for the club on a two @-@ month loan deal on 6 January 2012 . This was to provide cover for Gervinho and Marouane Chamakh , who were unavailable due to their participation in the 2012 Africa Cup of Nations . Henry made his second Arsenal debut as a substitute against Leeds United in the FA Cup third round and scored the only goal . In his last league game on loan , he scored the winning goal in stoppage time in a 2 – 1 win against Sunderland . = = = = Return to New York Red Bulls = = = = On 17 February 2012 , Henry returned to Red Bulls to prepare for the 2012 season . His base salary of $ 5 million ( $ 5 @.@ 6 million guaranteed ) made him the highest @-@ paid player in the MLS — surpassing David Beckham , who had taken a salary cut for his last year with the Los Angeles Galaxy . In 2013 , Henry 's base salary dropped to $ 3 @.@ 75 million setting him behind Robbie Keane 's $ 4 million base salary . With bonuses , however , Henry remained the highest @-@ paid player with $ 4 @.@ 35 million compared to Keane 's $ 4 @.@ 33 million . On 31 March 2012 , Henry scored his first MLS hat @-@ trick in a 5 – 2 Red Bulls win over the Montreal Impact . He was named MLS Player of the Month that same month . On 27 October 2013 , Henry scored once and provided two assists in the last game of the season against the Chicago Fire at Red Bull Arena to help his team win 5 – 2 and become champions of the regular season . It was the club 's first major trophy in their 17 @-@ year history . On 12 July 2014 , Henry provided a goal and three assists in a 4 – 1 Red Bulls win over the Columbus Crew . With that effort he became the all @-@ time assist leader for the New York Red Bulls with 37 , surpassing Amado Guevara and Tab Ramos . On 1 December 2014 , it was announced that Henry had left the Red Bulls after four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years at the club . On 16 December , he announced his retirement as a player and stated that he would begin working for Sky Sports as a pundit . = = International career = = Henry enjoyed a successful career with the France national team , winning the first of his 123 caps in June 1997 , when his good form for Monaco was rewarded with a call @-@ up to the Under @-@ 20 French national team , where he played in the 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship alongside future teammates William Gallas and David Trezeguet . Within four months , France head coach Aimé Jacquet called Henry up to the senior team . The 20 @-@ year @-@ old made his senior international debut on 11 October 1997 in a 2 – 1 win against South Africa . Jacquet was so impressed with Henry that he took him to the 1998 FIFA World Cup . Although Henry was a largely unknown quantity at international level , he ended the tournament as France 's top scorer with three goals . He was scheduled to appear as a substitute in the final , where France beat Brazil 3 – 0 , but Marcel Desailly 's sending off forced a defensive change instead . In 1998 , he was made Chevalier ( Knight ) of the Légion d 'honneur , France 's highest decoration . Henry was a member of France 's UEFA Euro 2000 squad , again scoring three goals in the tournament , including the equaliser against Portugal in the semi @-@ final , and finishing as the country 's top scorer . France later won the game in extra time following a converted penalty kick by Zinedine Zidane . France went on to defeat Italy in extra @-@ time in the final , earning Henry his second major international medal . During the tournament , Henry was voted man of the match in three games , including the final against Italy . The 2002 FIFA World Cup featured a stunning early exit for both Henry and France as the defending champions were eliminated in the group stage after failing to score a goal in all three games . France lost against Senegal in their first group match and Henry was red carded for a dangerous sliding challenge in their next match against Uruguay . In that game , France played to a 0 – 0 draw , but Henry was forced to miss the final group match due to suspension ; France lost 2 – 0 to Denmark . Henry returned to form for his country at the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup . Despite playing without team stalwarts Zidane and Patrick Vieira , France won , in large part owing to Henry 's outstanding play , for which he was named Man of the Match by FIFA 's Technical Study Group in three of France 's five matches . In the final , he scored the golden goal in extra time to lift the title for the host country after a 1 – 0 victory over Cameroon . Henry was awarded both the Adidas Golden Ball as the outstanding player of the competition and the Adidas Golden Shoe as the tournament 's top goalscorer with four goals . In UEFA Euro 2004 , Henry played in all of France 's matches and scored two goals . France beat England in the group stage but lost to the eventual winners Greece 1 – 0 in the quarter @-@ finals . During the 2006 FIFA World Cup Henry remained as one of the automatic starters in the squad . He played as a lone striker , but despite an indifferent start to the tournament , became one of the top players of the World Cup . He scored three goals , including the winning goal from Zidane 's free kick against defending champions Brazil in the quarter @-@ final . However , France subsequently lost to Italy on penalties ( 5 – 3 ) in the final . Henry did not take part in the penalty shoot @-@ out , having been substituted in extra time after his legs had cramped . Henry was one of ten nominees for the Golden Ball award for Player of the Tournament , an award which was ultimately presented to his teammate , Zidane and was named a starting striker on the 2006 FIFPro World XI team . On 13 October 2007 , Henry scored his 41st goal against the Faroe Islands , joining Michel Platini as the country 's top goalscorer of all time . Four days later at the Stade de la Beaujoire , he scored a late double against Lithuania , thereby setting a new record as France 's top goalscorer . On 3 June 2008 , Henry made his 100th appearance for national team in match against Colombia , becoming the sixth French player ever to reach that milestone . Henry missed the opening game of France 's short @-@ lived UEFA Euro 2008 campaign , where they were eliminated in the group stages after being drawn in the same group as Italy , the Netherlands and Romania . He scored France 's only goal in the competition in a 4 – 1 loss to the Netherlands . The French team struggled during the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifiers and finished second in their group behind Serbia . During the play @-@ offs against the Republic of Ireland , Henry was involved in a controversy in the second leg of the game at the Stade de France on 18 November 2009 . With the aggregate score tied at 1 – 1 and the game in extra time , he used his hand twice to control the ball before delivering a cross to William Gallas who scored the winner . This sparked a barrage of criticism against the Frenchman , while national team coach Raymond Domenech and Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger defended him . The Football Association of Ireland lodged a formal complaint with FIFA , seeking a replay of the game , which FIFA declined . Henry said that he contemplated retiring from international football after the reactions to the incident , but maintained that he was not a " cheat " ; hours after FIFA had ruled out a replay , he stated that " the fairest solution would be to replay the game " . FIFA President Sepp Blatter described the incident as " blatant unfair play " and announced an inquiry into how such incidents could be avoided in future , and added that the incident would be investigated by the Disciplinary Committee . Blatter also said Henry told him that his family had been threatened in the aftermath of the incident . In January 2010 , FIFA announced that there was no legal basis to sanction Henry . Henry did not feature in the starting line @-@ up for France at the 2010 FIFA World Cup . France drew in their first game against Uruguay , and lost 2 – 0 in their second against Mexico . The team was thrown into disarray when Nicolas Anelka was expelled from the team , and captain Patrice Evra led a team protest by refusing to train . In the final group game against host @-@ nation South Africa in which Henry came on as a second @-@ half substitute , France lost 2 – 1 and were eliminated from the tournament . He then announced his retirement from international football , having won 123 caps and scored 51 goals for Les Bleus , thus finishing his international career as France 's all @-@ time top scorer , and second most capped player after Lilian Thuram . = = Style of play = = Although Henry played up front as a striker during his youth , he spent his time at Monaco and Juventus playing on the wing . When Henry joined Arsenal in 1999 , Wenger immediately changed this , switching Henry to his childhood position , often pairing him with Dutch veteran Dennis Bergkamp . During the 2004 – 05 season , Wenger switched Arsenal 's formation to 4 – 5 – 1 . This change forced Henry to adapt again to fit into the Arsenal team , and he played many games as a lone striker . Still , Henry remained Arsenal 's main offensive threat , on many occasions conjuring spectacular goals . Wenger said of his fellow Frenchman : " Thierry Henry could take the ball in the middle of the park and score a goal that no one else in the world could score " . One of the reasons cited for Henry 's impressive play up front is his ability to calmly score from one @-@ on @-@ ones . According to his father Antoine , Henry picked up his precision shooting from watching his idol Marco van Basten . He was also influenced by Romário , Ronaldo and African star George Weah , a new breed of strikers in the 1990s who would also operate outside the penalty area before running with the ball towards goal . At his physical peak from the late 1990s to the mid 2000s , Henry 's ability to dribble past opponents with exceptional pace , skill and composure , meant that he could get in behind defenders regularly enough to score . In 2004 , former Arsenal striker Alan Smith commented on Henry : " I have to say I haven 't seen a player like him . He 's an athlete with great technical ability and a tremendous desire to be the best . " When up front , Henry is occasionally known to move out wide to the left wing position , something which enables him to contribute heavily in assists : between 2002 – 03 and 2004 – 05 , the striker managed almost 50 assists in total and this was attributed to his unselfish play and creativity . Henry would also drift offside to fool the defence then run back onside before the ball is played and beat the offside trap , although he never provided Arsenal a distinct aerial threat . Given his versatility in being able to operate as both a winger and a striker , the Frenchman is not a prototypical " out @-@ and @-@ out striker " , but he has emerged consistently as one of Europe 's most prolific strikers . In set pieces , Henry was the first @-@ choice penalty and free kick taker for Arsenal , having scored regularly from those positions . = = Awards and honours = = = = = Club = = = Monaco Ligue 1 : 1996 – 97 Trophée des Champions : 1997 Arsenal Premier League ( 2 ) : 2001 – 02 , 2003 – 04 FA Cup ( 3 ) : 2001 – 02 , 2002 – 03 , 2004 – 05 FA Community Shield ( 2 ) : 2002 , 2004 Barcelona La Liga ( 2 ) : 2008 – 09 , 2009 – 10 Copa del Rey : 2008 – 09 Supercopa de España : 2009 UEFA Champions League : 2008 – 09 UEFA Super Cup : 2009 FIFA Club World Cup : 2009 New York Red Bulls Supporters ' Shield : 2013 MLS Eastern Conference ( Regular season ) : 2010 , 2013 = = = National = = = France FIFA World Cup Winner : France 1998 Runners @-@ up : Germany 2006 UEFA European Football Championship Winner : Belgium & Netherlands 2000 FIFA Confederations Cup Winner : France 2003 King Hassan II International Cup Tournament Winner : Morocco 2000 = = = Individual = = = Henry has received many plaudits and awards in his football career . He was runner @-@ up for the 2003 and 2004 FIFA World Player of the Year awards ; in those two seasons , he also won back @-@ to @-@ back PFA Players ' Player of the Year titles . Henry is the only player ever to have won the FWA Footballer of the Year three times ( 2003 , 2004 , 2006 ) , and the French Player of the Year on a record four occasions . Henry was voted into the Premier League Overseas Team of the Decade in the 10 Seasons Awards poll in 2003 , and in 2004 he was named by football legend Pelé on the FIFA 100 list of the world 's greatest living players . In terms of goal @-@ scoring awards , Henry was the European Golden Boot winner in 2004 and 2005 ( sharing it with Villarreal 's Diego Forlán in 2005 ) . Henry was also the top goalscorer in the Premier League for a record four seasons ( 2002 , 2004 , 2005 , 2006 ) . In 2006 , he became the first player to score more than 20 goals in the league for five consecutive seasons ( 2002 to 2006 ) . With 175 , Henry is currently fifth in the list of all @-@ time Premier League goalscorers , behind Alan Shearer , Andy Cole , Wayne Rooney and Frank Lampard . All of his Premier League goals were for Arsenal , giving him the record for most goals in the competition for one club , until it was broken by Rooney in 2016 . France 's all @-@ time record goalscorer was , in his prime in the mid 2000s , regarded by many coaches , footballers and journalists as one of the best players in the world . In November 2007 , he was ranked 33rd on the Association of Football Statisticians ' compendium for " Greatest Ever Footballers . " Arsenal fans honoured their former player in 2008 , declaring Henry the greatest Arsenal player . In two other 2008 surveys , Henry emerged as the favourite Premier League player of all time among 32 @,@ 000 people surveyed in the Barclays 2008 Global Fan Report . In 2009 , Henry was voted the best Premier League player of the 2000s . Arsenal fan and The Who lead singer Roger Daltrey mentions Henry in the tribute song " Highbury Highs " , which he performed at Arsenal 's last ever game at Highbury on 7 May 2006 . On 10 December 2011 , Arsenal unveiled a bronze statue of Henry at the Emirates Stadium as part of its 125th anniversary celebrations . A summary of Henry 's individual awards is as follows : Ballon d 'Or – Runner @-@ up : 2003 ; Third @-@ place : 2006 FIFA World Player of the Year – Silver Award : 2003 , 2004 UNFP Ligue 1 Young Player of the Year : 1996 – 97 PFA Players ' Player of the Year : 2002 – 03 , 2003 – 04 PFA Team of the Year : 2000 – 01 , 2001 – 02 , 2002 – 03 , 2003 – 04 , 2004 – 05 , 2005 – 06 PFA Team of the Century ( 1907 – 2007 ) : Team of the Century 1997 @-@ 2007 Overall Team of the Century FWA Footballer of the Year : 2002 – 03 , 2003 – 04 , 2005 – 06 Premier League Golden Boot : 2001 – 02 , 2003 – 04 , 2004 – 05 , 2005 – 06 . Golden Boot Landmark Award 10 : 2004 – 05 Golden Boot Landmark Award 20 : 2004 – 05 Premier League Player of the Month : April 2000 , September 2002 , January 2004 , April 2004 BBC Goal of the Season : 2002 – 03 UEFA Team of the Year : 2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 , 2006 MLS Best XI : 2011 , 2012 , 2014 MLS Player of the Month : March 2012 Best MLS Player ESPY Award : 2013 MLS All @-@ Star : 2011 , 2012 , 2013 , 2014 Onze d 'Or : 2003 , 2006 European Golden Boot : 2003 – 04 , 2004 – 05 French Player of the Year : 2000 , 2003 , 2004 , 2005 , 2006 IFFHS World 's Top Goal Scorer of the Year : 2003 FIFA FIFPro World XI : 2006 FIFA World Cup All @-@ Star Team : Germany 2006 FIFA Confederations Cup Golden Ball : France 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup Golden Shoe : France 2003 UEFA European Football Championship Team of the Tournament : 2000 FIFA 100 : 2004 Time 100 Heroes & Pioneers no.16 : 2007 English Football Hall of Fame : 2008 Premier League 10 Seasons Awards ( 1992 – 93 – 2001 – 02 ) Overseas Team of the Decade Premier League 20 Seasons Awards Fantasy Team ( Panel choice ) Fantasy Team ( Public choice ) Légion d 'Honneur : 1998 UEFA Ultimate Team of the Year ( published 2015 ) UEFA Euro All @-@ time XI ( published 2016 ) = = Career statistics = = = = = Club = = = As of 10 November 2014 1One of Henry 's goals in Arsenal 's 7 – 1 win over Blackburn Rovers was given as an own goal to Scott Dann , which took his club figure down to 228 goals . = = = International = = = As of 23 December 2011 . Note = = Outside football = = = = = Personal and family life = = = Henry married English model Nicole Merry , real name Claire , on 5 July 2003 . The ceremony was held at Highclere Castle , and on 27 May 2005 the couple celebrated the birth of their first child , Téa . Henry dedicated his first goal following Téa 's birth to her by holding his fingers in a " T " shape and kissing them after scoring in a match against Newcastle United . When Henry was still at Arsenal , he also purchased a home in Hampstead , North London . However , shortly after his transfer to Barcelona , it was announced that Henry and his wife would divorce ; the decree nisi was granted in September 2007 . Their separation concluded in December 2008 when Henry paid Merry a divorce settlement close to her requested sum of £ 10 million . Henry is now dating Bosnian model Andrea Rajačić . As a fan of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) , Henry is often seen with his friend Tony Parker at games when not playing football . Henry stated in an interview that he admires basketball , as it is similar to football in pace and excitement . Having made regular trips to the NBA Finals in the past , he went to watch Parker and the San Antonio Spurs in the 2007 NBA Finals ; and in the 2001 NBA Finals , he went to Philadelphia to help with French television coverage of the Finals as well as to watch Allen Iverson , whom he named as one of his favourite players . = = = Social causes = = = = = = = UNICEF = = = = Henry is a member of the UNICEF @-@ FIFA squad , where together with other professional footballers he appeared in a series of TV spots seen by hundreds of millions of fans around the world during the 2002 and 2006 FIFA World Cups . In these spots , the players promote football as a game that must be played on behalf of children . = = = = Stand Up Speak Up = = = = Having been subjected to racism in the past , Henry is an active spokesperson against racism in football . The most prominent incident of racism against Henry was during a training session with the Spanish national team in 2004 , when a Spanish TV crew caught coach Luis Aragonés referring to Henry as " black shit " to José Antonio Reyes , Henry 's teammate at Arsenal . The incident caused an uproar in the British media , and there were calls for Aragonés to be sacked . Henry and Nike started the Stand Up Speak Up campaign against racism in football as a result of the incident . Subsequently , in 2007 , Time featured him as one of the " Heroes & Pioneers " on the Time 100 list . = = = Other work = = = Along with 45 other football players , Henry took part in FIFA 's " Live for Love United " in 2002 . The single was released in tandem with the 2002 FIFA World Cup and its proceeds went towards AIDS research . Henry also supports the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation and Cystic Fibrosis Trust . = = = Endorsements = = = In 2006 , Henry was valued as the ninth @-@ most commercially marketable footballer in the world , and throughout his career he has signed many endorsements and appeared in commercials . = = = = Renault = = = = Henry featured in the Renault Clio advertisements in which he popularised the term va @-@ va @-@ voom , meaning " life " or " passion . " His romantic interest in the commercial was his then @-@ girlfriend , later his wife ( now divorced ) , Claire Merry . " Va @-@ va @-@ voom " was subsequently added to the Concise Oxford English Dictionary . = = = = Nike = = = = At the beginning of his career , Henry signed with sportswear giant Nike . In the buildup to the 2002 World Cup in Korea and Japan , Henry featured in Nike 's " Secret Tournament " advertisement , directed by Terry Gilliam , along with 24 superstar football players including Ronaldo , Ronaldinho , Luís Figo , Francesco Totti , Roberto Carlos and Japanese star Hidetoshi Nakata , with former player Eric Cantona the tournament " referee . " In a 2004 advertisement , Henry pits his wits against football stars such as Claude Makélélé , Edgar Davids and Freddie Ljungberg in locations such as his bedroom and living room , which was partly inspired by Henry himself , who revealed that he always has a football nearby , even at home . In tandem with the 2006 FIFA World Cup , Henry also featured in Nike 's Joga Bonito campaign , Portuguese for " beautiful game . " = = = = Reebok = = = = Henry 's deal with Nike ended after the 2006 FIFA World Cup , when he signed a deal with Reebok to appear in their " I Am What I Am " campaign . As part of Reebok Entertainment 's " Framed " series , Henry was the star of a half @-@ hour episode that detailed the making of a commercial about Henry directed by Spanish actress Paz Vega . = = = = Puma = = = = In 2011 , Henry switched to Puma boots , first wearing the brand in the 2011 MLS All Star game against Manchester United , before announcing a multi @-@ year partnership for Puma to be his performance and lifestyle footwear and apparel sponsor . His first official game with Puma was in the Emirates Cup against former club Arsenal . = = = = Gillette = = = = In February 2007 , Henry was named as one of the three ambassadors of Gillette 's " Champions Program , " which purported to feature three of the " best @-@ known , most widely respected and successful athletes competing today " and also showcased Roger Federer and Tiger Woods in a series of television commercials . For reasons of recognition , Derek Jeter appears in Henry 's place in the advertisements broadcast in North America . In reaction to the handball controversy following the France @-@ Ireland 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier , Gillette faced a boycott and accusations of doctoring French versions of their Champions poster , but subsequently released a statement backing Henry . = = = = Pepsi = = = = Henry was part of Pepsi 's " Dare For More " campaign in 2005 , alongside the likes of David Beckham and Ronaldinho . = = = = Beats = = = = Henry starred in a 2014 advert for Beats headphones with other global football stars including Neymar and Luis Suárez , with the theme of " The Game Before the Game " and the players pre @-@ game ritual of listening to music . = = = = Video Games = = = = Henry features in EA Sports ' FIFA video game series ; he appears on the covers of FIFA 2001 to FIFA 2005 , in several different editions . He was also a cover star for the Konami Pro Evolution Soccer video game series , and was featured on the covers of Pro Evolution Soccer 4 to Pro Evolution Soccer 6 .
= James the Deacon = James the Deacon ( Latin : Iacomus Diaconus ; died after 671 ) was a Roman deacon who accompanied Paulinus of York on his mission to Northumbria . He was a member of the Gregorian mission which came to England to Christianize the Anglo @-@ Saxons from their native Anglo @-@ Saxon paganism , although when he arrived in England is unknown . After Paulinus left Northumbria , James stayed near Lincoln and continued his missionary efforts , dying sometime after 671 according to the medieval chronicler Bede . = = Life = = James was presumably an Italian , like the other members of the Gregorian mission . The dates of his birth and of his arrival in Britain are unknown . He went with Paulinus to Northumbria accompanying Æthelburh , sister of King Eadbald of Kent , who went to Northumbria to marry King Edwin . Traditionally this event is dated to 625 , but the historian D. P. Kirby argues that the mission to Northumbria probably happened before 619 . Edwin died in battle at Hatfield fighting against Penda of Mercia and Caedwalla in 633 . Edwin had been the main supporter of Paulinus ' mission , and with his death , a pagan backlash set in . Paulinus fled to Kent , along with Æthelburg and Edwin and Æthelburg 's daughter Eanflæd . James , however , remained behind in Northumbria and continued missionary efforts . James ' efforts were centred in Lincoln , at a church that Paulinus had built there , the remains of which may lie under the church of St. Paul @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Bail . This was in the dependent kingdom of Lindsey , where Paulinus had preached prior to Edwin 's death , and it was reconquered by one of Edwin 's successors , Oswald of Northumbria in the 640s . Bede writes that James lived in a village near Catterick , which " bears his name to this day " . He reports that James undertook missionary work in the area and lived to a great age . During the reign of King Oswiu of Northumbria , James attended the royal court , for he celebrated Easter with Oswiu 's queen , Eanflæd , Edwin 's daughter . Both James and Eanflæd celebrated Easter on the date used by the Roman church , which led to conflicts with Oswiu , who celebrated Easter on the date calculated by the Irish church . These dates did not always agree , and was one of the reasons that Oswiu called the Synod of Whitby in 664 to decide which system of Easter calculation his kingdom would use . James was present at the Synod of Whitby , according to Bede 's account of events there . Bede states that after the synod , and the return of Roman customs , James , as a trained singing master in the Roman and Kentish style , taught many people plainsong or Gregorian chant in the Roman manner . James ' date of death is unknown , but Bede implies that he was still alive during Bede 's lifetime , which presumably means that he died after Bede 's birth , sometime around 671 or 672 . This would mean that he was at least 70 years old at his death . It has been suggested that James was Bede 's informant for the life of Edwin , the works of Paulinus , and perhaps for the Synod of Whitby . The historian Frank Stenton calls James " the one heroic figure in the Roman mission " . This reflects the fact that many of the Gregorian missionaries had a habit of fleeing when things went wrong . After his death , James was venerated as a saint . His feast day is 17 August ( Catholic ) or 11 October ( Anglican ) .
= Basiliscus = Basiliscus ( Latin : Flavius Basiliscus Augustus ; Greek : Βασιλίσκος ) ( d . 476 / 477 ) was Byzantine Emperor from 475 to 476 . A member of the House of Leo , he came to power when Emperor Zeno had been forced out of Constantinople by a revolt . Basiliscus was the brother of Empress Aelia Verina , who was the wife of Emperor Leo I ( 457 – 474 ) . His relationship with the Emperor allowed him to pursue a military career that , after minor initial successes , ended in 468 , when he led the disastrous Roman invasion of Vandal Africa , in one of the largest military operations of Late Antiquity . Basiliscus succeeded in seizing power in 475 , exploiting the unpopularity of Emperor Zeno , the " barbarian " successor to Leo , and a plot organised by Verina that had caused Zeno to flee Constantinople . However , during his short rule , Basiliscus alienated the fundamental support of the Church and the people of Constantinople , promoting the Miaphysite christological position in opposition to the Chalcedonian faith . Also , his policy of securing his power through the appointment of loyal men to key roles antagonised many important figures in the imperial court , including his sister Verina . So , when Zeno tried to regain his empire , he found virtually no opposition , triumphantly entering Constantinople , and capturing and killing Basiliscus and his family . The struggle between Basiliscus and Zeno impeded the Eastern Roman Empire 's ability to intervene in the fall of the Western Roman Empire , which happened in early September 476 . When the chieftain of the Heruli , Odoacer , deposed Western Emperor Romulus Augustus , sending the imperial regalia to Constantinople , Zeno had just regained his throne , and he could only appoint Odoacer dux of Italy , thereby ending the Western Roman Empire . = = Origins and early career = = Likely of Balkan origin , Basiliscus was the brother of Aelia Verina , wife of Leo I. It has been argued that Basiliscus was uncle to the chieftain of the Heruli , Odoacer . This link is based on the interpretation of a fragment by John of Antioch ( 209 @.@ 1 ) , which states that Odoacer and Armatus , Basiliscus ' nephew , were brothers . However , not all scholars accept this interpretation , since sources do not say anything about the foreign origin of Basiliscus . It is known that Basiliscus had a wife , Zenonis , and at least one son , Marcus . Basiliscus ' military career started under Leo I. The Emperor conferred upon his brother @-@ in @-@ law the dignities of dux , or commander @-@ in @-@ chief , in Thrace . In this country Basiliscus led a successful military campaign against the Bulgars in 463 . He succeeded Rusticius as magister militum per Thracias ( 464 ) , and had several successes against the Goths and Huns ( 466 or 467 ) . Basiliscus 's value rose in Leo 's consideration . Verina 's intercession in favour of her brother helped Basiliscus ' military and political career , with the conferral of the consulship in 465 and possibly of the rank of patricius . However , his rise was soon to meet a serious reversal . = = Disastrous expedition against the Vandals = = In 468 , Leo chose Basiliscus as leader of the famous military expedition against Carthage . The invasion of the kingdom of the Vandals was one of the greatest military undertakings recorded in the annals of history , a combined amphibious operation with over ten thousand ships and one hundred thousand soldiers . The purpose of the operation was to punish the Vandal king Geiseric for the sacking of Rome in 455 , in which the former capital of the Western Roman Empire had been overwhelmed , and the Empress Licinia Eudoxia ( widow of Emperor Valentinian III ) and her daughters had been taken as hostages . The plan was concerted between Eastern Emperor Leo , Western Emperor Anthemius , and General Marcellinus , who enjoyed independence in Illyricum . Basiliscus was ordered to sail directly to Carthage , while Marcellinus attacked and took Sardinia , and a third army , commanded by Heraclius of Edessa , landed on the Libyan coast east of Carthage , making rapid progress . It appears that the combined forces met in Sicily , whence the three fleets moved at different periods . Ancient and modern historians provided different estimations for the number of ships and troops under the command of Basiliscus , as well as for the expenses of the expedition . Both were enormous ; Nicephorus Gregoras speaks of one hundred thousand ships , the more reliable Cedrenus says that the fleet that attacked Carthage consisted of eleven hundred and thirteen ships , having each one hundred men on board . The most conservative estimation for expedition expenses is of 64 @,@ 000 pounds of gold , a sum that exceeded a whole year 's revenue . Sardinia and Libya were already conquered by Marcellinus and Heraclius , when Basiliscus cast anchor off the Promontorium Mercurii , now Cap Bon , opposite Sicily , about forty miles from Carthage . Geiseric requested Basiliscus to allow him five days to draw up the conditions of a peace . During the negotiations , Geiseric gathered his ships and suddenly attacked the Roman fleet . The Vandals had filled many vessels with combustible materials . During the night , these fire ships were propelled against the unguarded and unsuspecting Roman fleet . The Roman commanders tried to rescue some ships from destruction , but these manoeuvres were blocked by the attack of other Vandal vessels . Basiliscus fled in the heat of the battle . One half of the Roman fleet was burned , sunk , or captured , and the other half followed the fugitive Basiliscus . The whole expedition had failed . Heraclius effected his retreat through the desert into Tripolitania , holding the position for two years until recalled ; Marcellinus retired to Sicily , where he was reached by Basiliscus ; the general was , however , assassinated , perhaps at the instigation of Ricimer , by one of his own captains ; and the king of the Vandals expressed his surprise and satisfaction , that the Romans themselves would remove from the world his most formidable antagonists . After returning to Constantinople , Basiliscus hid in the church of Hagia Sophia to escape the wrath of the people and the revenge of the Emperor . By the mediation of Verina , Basiliscus obtained the Imperial pardon , and was punished merely with banishment to Heraclea Sintica , in Thrace . = = Rise to power = = In 471 and 472 , Basiliscus helped Leo I to get rid of the Germanic influence in his court , helping in the murder of the Alan Magister militum Aspar . The death of Aspar caused a revolt in Thrace , led by the Thracian Ostrogoth Theodoric Strabo , and Basiliscus was dispatched to suppress the revolt , something he successfully did with the aid of his nephew Armatus . In 474 he received the rank of caput senatus , " first among the senators " . At the death of Leo , Zeno , who was a " barbarian " of Isaurian stock , but at the same time son @-@ in @-@ law of Leo , ascended to Emperor , after a short reign of his own son Leo II ( 474 ) . The " barbarian " origins of the Emperor caused antipathy towards Zeno among the people of Constantinople . Furthermore , the strong Germanic portion of the military , led by Theodoric Strabo , disliked the Isaurian officers that Leo I brought to reduce his dependency on the Ostrogoths . Finally , Zeno alienated his fellow Isaurian general Illus , who was bribed by Basiliscus . In the middle of the conspiracy was Verina , who fomented a popular revolt against the Emperor . The uprising , supported by Theodoric Strabo , Illus and Armatus , was successful , and Verina convinced the Emperor to leave the city . Zeno fled to his native lands , bringing with him some of the Isaurians living in Constantinople , and the Imperial treasury . Basiliscus was then acclaimed as Augustus on 9 January 475 at the Hebdomon palace , by the palace ministers and the Senate . The mob of Constantinople got its revenge against Zeno , killing almost all of the Isaurians left in the city . In the beginning , everything seemed to go well for the new Emperor , who even tried to set up a new dynasty by conferring the title of Augusta upon his wife Aelia Zenonis and creating his son Marcus , Caesar , and later Augustus ; however , due to his mismanagement as emperor , Basiliscus quickly lost most of his supporters . = = Rule = = = = = Corruption and the fire of Constantinople = = = The most urgent problem facing the new Emperor was the scarcity of resources left in the imperial treasury . Basiliscus was forced to raise heavy taxes , and to revert to the practice of auctioning the offices , obviously causing a diffuse discontent in the population . He also extorted money from the church , with the help of the Prefect Epinicus , Verina 's long @-@ time favourite . Early in his reign , Constantinople suffered a massive fire , which destroyed houses , churches , and completely incinerated the huge library built by Emperor Julian . The fire was seen as a bad omen for the rule of Basiliscus . = = = Tensions with his collaborators = = = Basiliscus had relied on the support of some major figures of the court in his bid for power . However , he quickly lost most of them . First , Basiliscus alienated his own sister Verina 's support , executing the Magister Officiorum Patricius . Patricius was the lover of Verina , and the empress had planned to raise him to the imperial rank and to marry him : the very revolt against Zeno had been organised to make Patricius emperor . Basiliscus , however , had out @-@ witted his sister , and , after the flight of Zeno , had the ministers and the Senate choose him , and not Patricius , as Emperor . Basiliscus ordered the death of Patricius , as the officer was a natural candidate to overthrow the new Emperor ; as a consequence , Verina later intrigued against Basiliscus , because of her lover 's execution . Also , Theodoric Strabo , whose hatred of the Isaurian Zeno had compelled him to support Basiliscus ' revolt , left the new Emperor 's side . Basiliscus had in fact raised his own nephew Armatus , who was rumoured to be also the lover of Basiliscus ' wife , to the rank of magister militum , the same that Strabo held . Finally , the support of Illus was most likely wavering , given the massacre of the Isaurians allowed by Basiliscus . = = = Religious controversies = = = In that time , the Christian faith was shaken by the contrast between Miaphysites and Chalcedonians . These were two opposing christological positions ; the Chalcedonians claimed that Christ had both human and divine natures , while the Miaphysites claimed he had only one single united nature . The Council of Chalcedon , convoked by Emperor Marcian in 451 , had ruled out Miaphysitism , with the support of the pope in the West and many bishops in the East . However , the Miaphysite position was still strong : the two Miaphysite Patriarchs Timothy Aelurus of Alexandria and Peter the Fuller of Antioch were deposed . From the beginning of his rule , Basiliscus showed his support for the Miaphysites . Zacharias Scholasticus reports how a group of Egyptian Miaphysite monks , having heard of Emperor Leo 's death , had moved from Alexandria to Constantinople to petition Zeno in favour of Timothy , but at their arrival in the capital , they found the newly elected Basiliscus instead . The Magister Officiorum Theoctistus , the former physician of Basiliscus , was the brother of one of the monks , so the delegation obtained an audience with Basiliscus , and , with the support of Theoctistus and of the Empress , they convinced Basiliscus to recall from exile the banished Miaphysite Patriarchs . Basiliscus re @-@ instated Timothy Aelurus and Peter the Fuller to their sees , and by persuasion of the former issued ( 9 April 475 ) a circular letter ( Enkyklikon ) to the bishops calling them to accept as valid only the first three ecumenical synods , and reject the Council of Chalcedon . All bishops were to sign the edict . While most of the Eastern bishops accepted the letter , Patriarch Acacius of Constantinople refused , with the support of the population of the city , clearly showing his disdain towards Basiliscus by draping the icons in Hagia Sophia in black . = = Fall and death = = Soon after his elevation , Basiliscus had despatched Illus and his brother Trocundus against Zeno , who , now in his native fortresses , had resumed the life of an Isaurian chieftain . Basiliscus , however , failed to fulfill the promises he made to the two generals ; furthermore , they received letters from some of the leading ministers at the court , urging them to secure the return of Zeno , for the city now preferred a restored Isaurian to a Miaphysite whose unpopularity increased with the fiscal rapacity of his ministers . During his operations in Isauria , Illus took Zeno 's brother , Longinus , prisoner and kept him in an Isaurian fortress . Because he thought he would have great influence over a restored Zeno , he changed sides and marched with Zeno towards Constantinople in the summer of 476 . When Basiliscus received news of this danger , he hastened to recall his ecclesiastical edicts and to conciliate the Patriarch and the people , but it was too late . Armatus , as magister militum , was sent with all available forces in Asia Minor , to oppose the advancing army of the Isaurians , but secret messages from Zeno , who promised to give him the title of magister militum for life and to confer the rank of Caesar on his son , induced him to betray his master . Armatus avoided the road by which Zeno was advancing and marched into Isauria by another way . This betrayal decided the fate of Basiliscus . In August 476 , Zeno besieged Constantinople . The Senate opened the gates of the city to the Isaurian , allowing the deposed emperor to resume the throne . Basiliscus fled to sanctuary in a church , but he was betrayed by Acacius and surrendered himself and his family after extracting a solemn promise from Zeno not to shed their blood . Basiliscus , his wife Aelia Zenonis and his son Marcus were sent to a fortress in Cappadocia , where Zeno had them enclosed in a dry cistern , to die from exposure . Basiliscus had ruled for twenty months . He is described by sources as a successful general , but slow of understanding and easy to deceive .
= West Bromwich Albion F.C. = West Bromwich Albion Football Club / ˈbrɒmɪtʃ / , also known as West Brom , The Baggies , The Throstles , Albion or simply WBA , is an English professional football club based in West Bromwich in the West Midlands . The club was formed in 1878 and has played at its home ground , The Hawthorns , since 1900 . Albion were one of the founding members of the Football League in 1888 and have spent the majority of their existence in the top tier of English football . They have been champions of England once , in 1919 – 20 and have been runners @-@ up twice but they have had more success in the FA Cup , winning it five times . The first came in 1888 , the year the league was founded , and the most recent in 1968 , their last major trophy . They also won the Football League Cup at the first attempt in 1966 . The club 's longest consecutive period in the top division was between 1949 and 1973 , and from 1986 to 2002 they spent their longest ever spell out of the top division . The 2016 – 17 season is now their eleventh non consecutive season in the top flight since 2002 . The team has played in navy blue and white stripes for most of the club 's history . Albion have a number of long @-@ standing rivalries with other West Midlands clubs ; their traditional rivals have always been Wolverhampton Wanderers with whom they contest the Black Country derby . = = History = = = = = Early Years ( 1878 – 1960 ) = = = The club was founded as West Bromwich Strollers in 1878 by workers from George Salter 's Spring Works in West Bromwich , in Staffordshire . They were renamed West Bromwich Albion in 1880 , becoming the first team to adopt the Albion suffix . Albion was a district of West Bromwich where some of the players lived or worked , close to what is today Greets Green . The club joined the Birmingham & District Football Association in 1881 and became eligible for their first competition , the Birmingham Cup . They reached the quarter @-@ finals , beating several longer @-@ established clubs on the way . In 1883 , Albion won their first trophy , the Staffordshire Cup . Albion joined the Football Association in the same year ; this enabled them to enter the FA Cup for the first time in the 1883 – 84 season . In 1885 the club turned professional , and in 1886 they reached the FA Cup final for the first time , losing 2 – 0 to Blackburn Rovers in a replay . They reached the final again in 1887 , but lost 2 – 0 to Aston Villa . In 1888 the team won the trophy for the first time , beating strong favourites Preston North End 2 – 1 in the final . In March 1888 , William McGregor wrote to what he considered to be the top five English teams , including Albion , informing them of his intention to form an association of clubs that would play each other home and away each season . Thus when the Football League started later that year , Albion became one of the twelve founder members . Albion 's second FA Cup success came in 1892 , beating Aston Villa 3 – 0 . They met Villa again in the 1895 final , but lost 1 – 0 . The team suffered relegation to Division Two in 1900 – 01 , their first season at the Hawthorns . They were promoted as champions the following season but relegated again in 1903 – 04 . The club won the Division Two championship once more in 1910 – 11 , and the following season reached another FA Cup Final , where they were defeated by Second Division Barnsley in a replay . Albion won the Football League title in 1919 – 20 for the only time in their history following the end of the First World War , their totals of 104 goals and 60 points both breaking the previous league records . The team finished as Division One runners @-@ up in 1924 – 25 , narrowly losing out to Huddersfield Town , but were relegated in 1926 – 27 . In 1930 – 31 they won promotion as well as the FA Cup , beating Birmingham 2 – 1 in the final . The " Double " of winning the FA Cup and promotion has not been achieved before or since . Albion reached the final again in 1935 , losing to Sheffield Wednesday , but were relegated three years later . They gained promotion in 1948 – 49 , and there followed the club 's longest unbroken spell in the top flight of English football , a total of 24 years . In 1953 – 54 Albion came close to being the first team in the 20th century to win the League and Cup double . They succeeded in winning the FA Cup , beating Preston North End 3 – 2 , but injuries and a loss of form towards the end of the season meant that they finished as runners @-@ up to fierce rivals Wolves in the league . Nonetheless , Albion became known for their brand of fluent , attacking football , with the 1953 – 54 side being hailed as the " Team of the Century " . One national newspaper went so far as to suggest that the team be chosen en masse to represent England at the 1954 World Cup finals . They remained one of the top English sides for the remainder of the decade , reaching the semi @-@ final of the 1957 FA Cup and achieving three consecutive top five finishes in Division One between 1957 – 58 and 1959 – 60 . = = = Ups and Downs ( 1960 – 1992 ) = = = Although their league form was less impressive during the 1960s , the second half of the decade saw West Bromwich Albion establish a reputation as a successful cup side . In 1966 , under manager Jimmy Hagan , they beat West Ham in their first League Cup appearance , winning 5 – 3 on aggregate in the last two @-@ legged final . The following year they reached the final again , the first at Wembley , but lost 3 – 2 to Third Division Queens Park Rangers after being 2 – 0 up at half @-@ time . Albion 's cup form continued under Hagan 's successor Alan Ashman . He guided the club to their last major trophy to date , the 1968 FA Cup , when they beat Everton in extra time thanks to a single goal from Jeff Astle . Albion reached the FA Cup semi @-@ final and European Cup Winners Cup quarter @-@ final in 1969 , and were defeated 2 – 1 by Manchester City in the 1970 League Cup Final . The club were less successful during the reign of Don Howe , and were relegated to Division Two at the end of 1972 – 1973 , but gained promotion three years later under the guidance of player @-@ manager Johnny Giles . Under Ron Atkinson , Albion reached the 1978 FA Cup semi @-@ final but lost to Ipswich Town . They were then the first Western football team to tour China , playing several exhibition games over 3 weeks . In 1978 – 79 , the team finished third in Division One , their highest placing for over 20 years , and also reached the UEFA Cup quarter @-@ final , where they were defeated by Red Star Belgrade . In his second spell as manager , Ronnie Allen guided the team to both domestic cup semi @-@ finals in 1981 – 82 . The mid @-@ 1980s saw the start of Albion 's longest and deepest decline . They were relegated in 1985 – 86 with the worst record in the club 's history , beginning a period of sixteen years outside the top flight . Five years later the club were relegated to the Third Division for the first and only time . = = = Recent Years ( 1992 – present ) = = = Albion had spent the majority of their history in the top @-@ flight of English football , but when the FA Premier League was founded in 1992 the club found themselves in the third tier , which had been renamed Division Two . In 1992 – 93 Albion finished fourth and entered the playoffs for the first time , having just missed out the previous year . Albion 's first appearance at Wembley for over twenty years — and their last ever at the original stadium — saw them beat Port Vale 3 – 0 to return to the second level – now renamed the First Division . Manager Ossie Ardiles then joined Tottenham Hotspur however , and a succession of managers over the next few seasons saw Albion consolidate their Division One status without ever mounting a serious promotion challenge . The appointment of Gary Megson in March 2000 heralded an upturn in the club 's fortunes . Megson guided Albion to Division One safety in 1999 – 2000 , and to the play @-@ offs a year later . He went on to lead the club to promotion to the Premier League in 2001 – 02 . After being relegated in their first Premier League season , they made an immediate return to the top flight in 2003 – 04 . In 2004 – 05 Megson 's successor , former Albion midfielder Bryan Robson , led the team to a last @-@ day " Great Escape " , when Albion became the first Premier League club to avoid relegation having been bottom of the table at Christmas . This feat was repeated by Sunderland in the 2013 – 14 season , but West Brom remain the only team to also have been bottom during the final day of the season . Despite this success , they failed to avoid the drop the following season , and Robson was replaced by Tony Mowbray in October 2006 . The club competed in the Championship promotion playoff final at Wembley Stadium on 28 May 2007 , but lost 1 – 0 to Derby County . The following season , in 2007 – 08 , Mowbray led the Baggies to Wembley again , this time in the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup , where they lost 1 – 0 to Portsmouth . One month later , Albion were promoted to the Premier League as winners of the Championship , but were relegated at the end of the 2008 – 09 campaign . In June 2009 , Mowbray left the club to manage Celtic and was replaced by Roberto Di Matteo in the role of head coach . Di Matteo led the club back to the Premier League at the first attempt , but was dismissed in February 2011 and replaced by Roy Hodgson . May 2012 saw Roy Hodgson , having led West Brom to a 10th @-@ place finish in his first season , leave to accept an offer to become the manager of the England national football team . Steve Clarke then led Albion to an 8th @-@ place finish in 2012 – 13 , their highest in the Premier League , but was sacked during the following season after four consecutive league defeats and only winning 7 league games throughout the calendar year . Clarke was replaced as head coach by Pepe Mel , who left by mutual consent a few months later at the end of the 2013 / 14 season . He was replaced by Alan Irvine . Irvine then got his first win with West Brom against Tottenham Hotspur F.C. on 21 September 2014 in a 1 – 0 victory . Alan Irvine was sacked on 29 December 2014 following 7 defeats in 9 games and only 4 wins in 19 games . On 1 January 2015 , Pulis was appointed head coach . He won his first game in charge 7 – 0 against Conference Premier side Gateshead in an FA Cup third round match . = = Colours & crest = = = = = Colours = = = West Bromwich Albion have played in navy blue and white striped shirts for the majority of their existence , usually with white shorts and white socks . The team is occasionally referred to as the Stripes by supporters . A number of different colours were trialled during the club 's formative years however , including cardinal red and blue quarters in 1880 – 81 , yellow and white quarters in 1881 – 82 , chocolate and blue halves in 1881 – 82 and 1882 – 83 , red and white hoops in 1882 – 83 , chocolate and white in 1883 – 84 and cardinal red and blue halves in 1884 – 85 . The blue and white stripes made their first appearance in the 1885 – 86 season , although at that time they were of a lighter shade of blue ; the navy blue stripes did not appear until after the First World War . For the regional leagues played during the Second World War , Albion were forced to switch to all @-@ blue shirts , as rationing meant that striped material was considered a luxury . Like all football clubs , Albion sport a secondary or " change " strip when playing away from home against a team whose colours clash with their own . As long ago as the 1890s , and throughout much of the club 's early history , a change strip of white jerseys with black shorts was worn . The away shirt additionally featured a large ' V ' during the First World War . In the 1935 FA Cup Final however , when both of Albion and Sheffield Wednesday 's kits clashed , a switch was made to plain navy blue shirts . An all @-@ red strip was adopted at the end of the 1950s , but was dropped following defeat in the 1967 League Cup Final , to be replaced by the all @-@ white design that was worn during the club 's FA Cup run of 1967 – 68 . Since then the away strip has changed regularly , with yellow and green stripes the most common of a number of different designs used . In the 1990s and 2000s a third kit has occasionally been introduced . Albion players — along with those of other Football League teams — first wore numbers on the back of their shirts in the abandoned season of 1939 – 40 , and names on the back of their shirts from 1999 – 2000 . Red numbers were added to the side of Albion players ' shorts in 1969 . = = = = Kit sponsors = = = = BSR Housewares became the club 's first shirt sponsor during the 1981 – 82 season . The club 's shirts have been sponsored for the majority of the time since then , although there was no shirt sponsor at the end of the 1993 – 94 season , after local solicitors Coucher & Shaw were closed down by the Law Society . Unusually for a Premier League club , Albion were again without a shirt sponsor for the start of the 2008 – 09 campaign , as negotiations with a new sponsor were still ongoing when the season began . The longest @-@ running shirt sponsorship deal agreed by the club ran for seven seasons between 1997 and 2004 with the West Bromwich Building Society . Other sponsors have included T @-@ Mobile ( 2004 – 08 ) , Homeserve ( 2010 – 11 ) , Bodog ( 2011 – 12 ) , Zoopla ( 2012 – 14 ) , Intuit Quickbooks ( 2014 – 15 ) , TLCBET ( 2015 – 16 ) , and UK @-@ K8 ( 2016 – present ) . Since May 2011 , West Brom 's kit has been manufactured by Adidas , who are contracted until 2016 . Previous manufacturers have included Diadora ( 1997 @-@ 2006 ) and Umbro ( 2006 – 11 ) . = = = Badge = = = Albion 's main club badge dates back to the late 1880s , when the club 's secretary Tom Smith suggested that a throstle ( song thrush ) sitting on a crossbar be adopted for the badge . Since then , the club badge has always featured a throstle , usually on a blue and white striped shield , although the crossbar was replaced with a hawthorn branch at some point after the club 's move to the Hawthorns . The throstle was chosen because the public house in which the team used to change kept a pet thrush in a cage . It also gave rise to Albion 's early nickname , the Throstles . As late as the 1930s , a caged throstle was placed beside the touchline during matches and it was said that it only used to sing if Albion were winning . In 1979 an effigy of a throstle was erected above the half @-@ time scoreboard of the Woodman corner at the Hawthorns , and was returned to the same area of the ground following redevelopment in the early 2000s . In 1975 a version of the badge ( on a roundel rather than a shield ) was granted by the College of Arms to the Football League , for licensing to the club . The badge was described in heraldic blazon as On a roundel paly of thirteen argent and azure a missel thrush perched on a raspberry branch leaved and fructed proper . This is the only known occasion on which the branch has been described as a raspberry branch rather than a hawthorn branch : Rodney Dennys , the officer of arms responsible , may have been imperfectly briefed . The badge has been subject to various revisions through the years , meaning that the club was unable to register it as a trademark . As a result of this , the badge was re @-@ designed in 2006 , incorporating the name of the club for the first time . The new badge gave Albion the legal protection they sought . The main club badge should be distinguished from the badge displayed on the first team strip , as the two have rarely coincided . No badge appeared on the kit for most of the club 's history , although the Stafford knot featured on the team jerseys for part of the 1880s . The West Bromwich town arms were worn on the players ' shirts for the 1931 , 1935 and 1954 FA Cup finals . The town 's Latin motto , Labor omnia vincit , translates as " labour conquers all things " or " work conquers all " . The town arms were revived as the shirt badge from 1994 until 2000 , with the throstle moved to the collar of the shirts . Albion 's first regular shirt badge appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s where it was blue . Although it featured the throstle , it did not include the blue and white striped shield of the club badge . A similar design was also used during the late 1980s and early 1990s . In the mid @-@ 1970s , a more abstract version of the throstle was used on the club 's shirts , while in the late 1970s through to the mid @-@ 1980s , an embroidered WBA logo was displayed , a common abbreviation of the club 's name in print . Not until the early 21st century did the full club badge appear on the team 's shirts . = = Stadium = = The speed with which the club became established following its foundation is illustrated by the fact that it outgrew four successive grounds in its first seven years . The first was Cooper 's Hill , where they played from 1878 to 1879 . From 1879 to 1881 they appear to have alternated between Cooper 's Hill and Dartmouth Park . During the 1881 – 82 season they played at Bunn 's Field , also known as the Birches . This had a capacity of between 1 @,@ 500 and 2 @,@ 000 , and was Albion 's first enclosed ground , allowing the club to charge an entrance fee for the first time . From 1882 to 1885 , as the popularity of football increased , Albion rented the Four Acres ground from the well @-@ established West Bromwich Dartmouth Cricket Club . But they quickly outgrew this new home and soon needed to move again . From 1885 to 1900 Albion played at Stoney Lane ; their tenure of this ground was arguably the most successful period in the club 's history , as they won the FA Cup twice and were runners @-@ up three times . By 1900 , when the lease on Stoney Lane expired , the club needed a bigger ground yet again and so made its last move to date . All of Albion 's previous grounds had been close to the centre of West Bromwich , but on this occasion they took up a site on the town 's border with Handsworth and Smethwick . The new ground was named the Hawthorns , after the hawthorn bushes that covered the area and were cleared to make way for it . Albion drew 1 – 1 with Derby County in the first match at the stadium , on 3 September 1900 . The record attendance at the Hawthorns was on 6 March 1937 , when 64 @,@ 815 spectators saw Albion beat Arsenal 3 – 1 in the FA Cup quarter @-@ final . The Hawthorns became an all @-@ seater stadium in the 1990s , in order to comply with the recommendations of the Taylor Report . Its capacity today is 26 @,@ 850 , the four stands being known respectively as the Birmingham Road End , Smethwick End , East Stand and West Stand . At an altitude of 551 feet ( 168 m ) above sea level , the Hawthorns is the highest of all the 92 Premier League and Football League grounds . The Hawthorns is certificated under the highest UEFA pitch surfaces which means it is ready to host almost any competition if required however attendance may scupper this . Its West Stand could be developed over the Halford 's Lane road at the back of the stand to allow an upper tier , approximately adding around 5 @,@ 000 to the capacity of The Hawthorns . Other developments can include the filling in of The Millenium and East @-@ Rainbow corners if and when required . West Bromwich Albion as a football club own many retail outlets around The Hawthorns stadium including its Megastore , its club store in Merry Hill and seasonally a club store for the first time in 2014 , in West Bromwich Town Centre . They also own the former Hawthorns Pub a Grade II listed building behind the West Stand on the corner of Halford 's Lane and the Birmingham Road . This is opening against the home fixture vs Southampton in September 2015 . It will be the official club fanzone with licensed bars , live music , fan favourites such as mascots and children activities as well as being shared with a high street food outlet . This is to compete with the famous The Vine pub in Roebuck Lane which a popular destination for all visiting and home football fans year @-@ in @-@ year @-@ out . = = Supporters = = The West Bromwich Albion Supporters Club has branches throughout the United Kingdom , as well as in Ireland , Australia , Malta , Greece ( unofficial ) , Jersey , Northern Ireland , United States ( unofficial ) , India and Thailand . Albion 's " club anthem " is The Lord 's my Shepherd , a setting of Psalm 23 . Supporters of the team celebrate goals by bouncing up and down and chanting " Boing Boing " . This dates back to the 1992 – 93 season , when the team was promoted from the new Second Division . In recent years fans of the team have celebrated the end of each season by adopting a fancy dress theme for the final away match , including dressing as vikings in 2004 in honour of Player of the Season Thomas Gaardsøe . In 2002 – 03 Albion 's fans were voted the best in the Premier League by their peers , while in the BBC 's 2002 " national intelligence test " Test the Nation , they were found to be " more likely to be smarter than any other football supporters , registering an average score of 138 " . Famous Fans include comedian Frank Skinner , former ITV presenter Adrian Chiles , One Direction singer Liam Payne , comedian Lenny Henry , tennis player Goran Ivanisevic , Cat Deeley , and guitarist Eric Clapton . = = = Publications = = = The club has published an official matchday programme for supporters since 1905 . The publication was entitled Albion News for many years , but was renamed Albion from the 2002 – 03 season until the close season of 2013 , when it was renamed back to Albion News . It won Premier League Programme of the Year in 2002 – 03 and Third Division Programme of the Year in 1991 – 92 . In 2007 – 08 it was awarded Championship Programme of the Year by both Programme Monthly and the Football Programme Directory . The programme has a circulation in excess of 8 @,@ 000 copies . The first West Bromwich Albion fanzine , Fingerpost , was published from 1983 until 1992 , and was followed by several others , most notably Grorty Dick ( 1989 – 2005 ) and Last Train to Rolfe Street ( 1992 – 1995 ) . Since Grorty Dick ceased publication in 2005 , the club now only has one fanzine dedicated to it ; ' Baggie Shorts ' which is produced by the West Bromwich Albion Supporters ' Club London Branch . = = = " Baggies " nickname = = = Although known in their early days as " the Throstles " , the club 's more popular nickname among supporters came to be the Baggies , a term which the club itself looked down upon for many years but later embraced . The phrase was first heard at the Hawthorns in the 1900s , but its exact origins are uncertain . One suggestion is that the name was bestowed on Albion supporters by their rivals at Aston Villa , because of the large baggy trousers that many Albion fans wore at work to protect themselves from molten iron in the factories and foundries of the Black Country . Club historian Tony Matthews however suggests that it derives from the " bagmen " , who carried the club 's matchday takings in big leather bags from the turnstiles to the cash office on the halfway line . Other theories relate to the baggy shorts worn by various players during the club 's early years . The official club mascots are named Baggie Bird and Albi ; both are based on the throstle depicted on the club crest . = = Rivalries = = Historically , Albion 's greatest rivals have always been Aston Villa from nearby Birmingham . The two clubs contested three FA Cup Finals between 1887 and 1895 ( Villa winning two and Albion one ) . More recently however , most Albion fans have begun to see Wolverhampton Wanderers as their main rivals – particularly between 1989 and 2002 when Albion and Villa were never in the same division but Albion were in the same division as Wolves for 11 out of 14 seasons . However , with Albion and Villa being in different divisions for so many years , the rivalry is less heated as Aston Villa supporters consider Birmingham City as their main local rivals and not Albion despite geographical distance between the two clubs . = = = Black Country Derby = = = Albion and Wolves have contested the Black Country derby , it is one of the longest standing derbys in world football , being played more than 150 times ; their first major clash was an FA Cup tie in 1886 . The rivalry came to prominence when the two clubs contested the league title in 1953 – 54 , and during the 1990s it intensified to new heights among supporters , with both clubs languishing in Division One for much of the decade and only local pride at stake . Moreover , in 2002 Albion came from being 11 points adrift to overhaul Wolves to gain promotion . The rivalry was further heightened after the sides met in the play @-@ offs in 2007 . A 2004 survey by Planetfootball.com confirmed that the majority of both Albion and Wolves supporters consider the other to be their main rival . A less @-@ heated rivalry also exists with Birmingham City , with whom Albion contested the 1931 FA Cup final , as well as a semi @-@ final in 1968 . Despite their geographical location Walsall are seen as lesser rivals , having played in a lower division than Albion for most of their history . A number of hooligan firms associate themselves with Albion , including Section 5 , Clubhouse and the Smethwick Mob . = = = West Bromwich Albion – Aston Villa Rivalry = = = Ranked by The Daily Telegraph as the most fierce in the region behind the Black Country derby and the Second City derby games between Aston Villa and West Brom are quite fierce . The two first met on 9 December 1882 , in the second round of the Staffordshire Cup : Villa hosted a 3 – 3 draw in front of 13 @,@ 900 fans , while in the replay West Bromwich Albion won by a single goal with an attendance of 10 @,@ 500 . On 3 January 1885 they met for the first time in the third round of the FA Cup : a goalless draw at West Bromwich Albion was followed by a 3 – 0 victory for them away at Aston Villa . The following year , both teams became founder members of The Football League . They met first in a league fixture on 19 January 1889 , Villa winning 2 – 0 at home , and again the next week in a 3 – 3 draw . The two teams met in two further FA Cup finals in the 19th century , a 3 – 0 win for West Bromwich Albion in 1892 and a 1 – 0 win for Aston Villa in 1895 . Birmingham City were relegated from the Premier League in 2011 and Wolverhampton Wanderers a season later , leaving Aston Villa and West Bromwich Albion as the only West Midlands teams in England 's top division and without their respective main rivals and with Albion finishing above their nearest rivals for the second season in a row , the historic rivalry is re @-@ surfacing . At the end of the 2015 – 16 season Aston Villa were relegated leaving West Brom the only West Midlands team in the top flight for the 2016 – 17 season . = = In popular culture = = In the 2000s BBC television drama series New Tricks the characters Jack Halford , Brian Lane and Gerry Standing were so named by the writer Roy Mitchell in honour of the Halford Lane standing area of Albion 's ground . The 1960s television documentary programme Look at Britain screened an episode called " The Saturday Men " focusing on the club Frank Skinner and Paula Wilcox starred in the comedy series Blue Heaven which followed the adventures of an Albion supporter in the 1990s and included scenes from the Hawthorns . Skinner is a real life Albion supporter . = = Ownership and governance = = In the club 's formative years , West Bromwich Albion were run by a seven @-@ man playing committee , and funded by each member contributing a weekly subscription of 6d ( six pence ) ( 2 ½ p ) . Albion 's first chairman was Henry Jackson , appointed in 1885 , with the club becoming a limited company in June 1891 . Other early chairmen of Albion included Jem Bayliss and Billy Bassett , both of whom had earlier played for the club . Indeed , from 1878 to 1986 there was always an Albion player or ex @-@ player on the club 's committee or board of directors . Bassett became an Albion director in 1905 , following the resignation of the previous board in its entirety . The club was in deep financial trouble and had had a writ served upon them by their bank , but Bassett and returning chairman Harry Keys rescued the club , aided by local fund @-@ raising activities . Bassett became chairman in 1908 , and helped the club to avoid bankruptcy once more in 1910 by paying the players ' summer wages from his own pocket . He remains Albion 's longest @-@ serving chairman , having held the position until his death in 1937 . The club 's longest @-@ serving director was Major H. Wilson Keys , during the period 1930 – 1965 , including 15 years as chairman . He became FA vice @-@ president in 1969 . Sir Bert Millichip served as Albion chairman from 1974 to 1983 , after which he chose to concentrate on his role as chairman of the Football Association . In 1996 the club became a Public limited company , issuing shares to supporters at £ 500 and £ 3000 each . The shares were quoted on the Alternative Investment Market , but the club withdrew from the stock exchange in order to become a private company again in 2004 . The name of the company thus reverted from West Bromwich Albion plc to West Bromwich Albion Limited , the latter becoming a subsidiary of West Bromwich Albion Holdings Limited . Current chairman Jeremy Peace took up the post in 2002 , after a rift between previous chairman Paul Thompson and manager Gary Megson forced Thompson to quit the club . In September 2007 , Peace acquired additional shares in West Bromwich Albion Holdings Limited , taking his total stake in the company to 50 @.@ 56 % . This triggered a requirement , under the Takeover Code , for him to make a mandatory cash offer for the remaining shares in both WBA Holdings Ltd and WBA Ltd . Later that year , Michelle Davies became Albion 's first female director . She , however , has since stepped down from this position . Jeremy Peace announced in June 2008 that he was looking for a major new investor for the club , but no firm proposals were received by 31 July deadline . On 24 July 2015 , Jeremy Peace announced that his sale exclusivity deal was now off after potential buyer was unable to fulfil terms of sale . = = Players = = As of 6 July 2016 . = = = First team squad = = = Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality . = = = = Out on loan = = = = Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality . = = = Development squad = = = As of 27 March 2016 Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality . = = = = Out on loan = = = = Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality . = = = Coaching staff = = = = = = Former players = = = As part of the club 's 125th anniversary celebrations in 2004 , a survey was commissioned via the official West Bromwich Albion website and the Express & Star newspaper to determine the greatest West Bromwich Albion players of all time . A modern @-@ day 16 @-@ man squad was compiled from the results ; all selected players are depicted on a commemorative mural displayed at the Hawthorns . Fourteen of the sixteen players are English @-@ born , with a fifteenth , Cyrille Regis , being a full England international . The list of sixteen is as follows : Other notable honours bestowed upon West Bromwich Albion players include the PFA Young Player of the Year award , which was presented to Cyrille Regis in 1979 . In 1998 , Billy Bassett and Bryan Robson were named among the list of Football League 100 Legends , along with Arthur Rowley , Geoff Hurst and Johnny Giles . Bryan Robson was also an inaugural inductee into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2002 , to be joined two years later by Geoff Hurst . Bobby Robson , a player with Albion , has also been inducted , although this was for his achievements as a manager . In 1919 – 20 , Fred Morris became the first Albion player to finish as top goalscorer in Division One , a feat which has since been repeated by Ronnie Allen , Derek Kevan , Jeff Astle and Tony Brown . Brown , who holds the club records for goals and appearances , was voted into the PFA Centenary Hall of Fame in July 2007 . = = = Player of the Year = = = = = Partial list of managers = = The following managers have all led West Bromwich Albion to at least one of the following achievements whilst in charge of the club : winning a major trophy or reaching the final , achieving a top three league finish in the top flight , winning promotion or reaching the quarter @-@ finals of a major European competition . = = Records = = West Bromwich Albion 's record victory was their 12 – 0 league win against Darwen on 4 April 1892 . This is still the widest margin of victory for a game in the top @-@ flight of English football , although the record was equalled by Nottingham Forest when they beat Leicester Fosse by the same scoreline in 1909 . Albion 's biggest FA Cup victory came when they beat Chatham 10 – 1 on 2 March 1889 . The club 's record league defeat was a 3 – 10 loss against Stoke City on 4 February 1937 , while a 0 – 5 defeat to Leeds United on 18 February 1967 represents Albion 's heaviest FA Cup loss . Tony Brown holds a number of Albion 's club records . He has made the most appearances overall for the club ( 720 ) , as well as most appearances in the league ( 574 ) , FA Cup ( 54 ) and in European competition ( 17 ) . Brown is the club 's top scorer in the league ( 218 ) , the FA Cup ( 27 ) and in Europe ( 8 ) . He is also the club 's record scorer overall , with 279 goals . W. G. Richardson scored 328 goals for the club , but this includes 100 during the Second World War , which are not normally counted towards competitive totals . Richardson holds the club record for most league goals in a single season , scoring 39 times in 1935 – 36 . Albion 's most capped international player , taking into account only those caps won whilst at the club , is Chris Brunt . He has appeared 38 times for Northern Ireland as a West Bromwich Albion player , earning 48 caps in total . Jesse Pennington is the club 's most capped England international , with 25 caps . The highest transfer fee paid by the club is £ 12 million to Zenit for José Salomón Rondón on 10 August 2015 . The deal could rise to over £ 15 million with appearance fee and other add ons . The record transfer from Albion to another club is that of Curtis Davies to Aston Villa in July 2008 , for a fee of £ 8 @.@ 5 million . = = Honours = = Football League First Division ( old ) , Premier League ( modern ) Champions : 1919 – 20 Runners up : 1924 – 25 , 1953 – 54 Football League Second Division ( old ) , Football League Championship ( modern ) Champions : 1901 – 02 , 1910 – 11 , 2007 – 08 Runners up : 1930 – 31 , 1948 – 49 , 2001 – 02 , 2003 – 04 , 2009 – 10 FA Cup Winners : 1888 , 1892 , 1931 , 1954 , 1968 Finalists : 1886 , 1887 , 1895 , 1912 , 1935 Football League Cup Winners : 1966 Finalists : 1967 , 1970 FA Charity Shield Winners : 1920 , 1954 ( shared with Wolves ) Runners @-@ up : 1931 , 1968 FA Youth Cup Winners : 1976 Finalists : 1955 , 1960 Tennent Caledonian Cup Winners : 1977 Birmingham Senior Cup Winners : 1886 , 1895 , 1988 , 1990 , 1991 , 2012 , 2014 Finalists : 1887 , 1888 , 1890 , 1892 , 1894 , 1903 , 1905 , 2002 Staffordshire Senior Cup Winners : 1883 , 1886 , 1887 , 1889 , 1900 , 1902 , 1903 , 1924 , 1926 , 1932 , 1933 , 1951 , 1969 ( shared with Stoke City ) Watney Cup Finalists : 1971
= 1990 Toledo Rockets football team = The 1990 Toledo Rockets football team represented the University of Toledo during the 1990 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season . The Rockets were led by first @-@ year head coach Nick Saban , and competed as a member of the Mid @-@ American Conference ( MAC ) . They finished the season with a record of nine wins and two losses ( 9 – 2 , 7 – 1 in MAC play ) and as MAC co – champions with Central Michigan . The 1990 Rockets squad opened the season with six consecutive victories over Miami ( OH ) , Northern Illinois , Ball State , Ohio , Eastern Michigan and Bowling Green . At the time of the matchup , their meeting against Central Michigan served as a de facto MAC conference championship game . Although Toledo lost 13 – 12 , victories over Kent State and Western Michigan coupled with a Central Michigan loss to Ball State gave the Rockets a share of the MAC championship . Toledo then concluded the season with a loss to Navy and a victory over Arkansas State . In February 1991 , Nick Saban resigned as head coach of the Rockets after only one season to become defensive coordinator of the National Football League 's Cleveland Browns . = = Before the season = = Toledo finished their 1989 season with a record of six wins and five losses ( 6 – 5 , 6 – 2 in MAC play ) and tied for second place in the final conference standings . Although the Rockets finished the season with a winning record , on November 22 , 1989 , head coach Dan Simrell was fired by Toledo athletic director Al Bohl . By mid @-@ December , the finalists were narrowed to Pete Cordelli ( then the quarterback coach at Notre Dame ) and Nick Saban ( then the secondary coach for the Houston Oilers ) . On December 22 , 1989 , Bohl announced the Saban had been hired to replace Simrell as head coach at Toledo . The position was Saban 's first as a head coach . = = Schedule = = = = Game notes = = = = = Miami = = = To open the 1990 season , Toledo traveled to Oxford to play the Miami Redskins . In what was both the head coaching debut for Saban and the Redskins ' Randy Walker , the Rockets won 20 – 14 . Toledo scored first on a one @-@ yard Troy Parker run early in the first quarter for a 7 – 0 lead . However , Miami responded on the kickoff that followed when Milt Stegall returned it 92 @-@ yards for the score to tie the game at 7 – 7 . Later in the first , Jeff Lamb recovered a Jim Clement fumble at the Redskins 12 @-@ yard line . Three plays later , Parker scored his second one @-@ yard touchdown to give Toledo a 14 – 7 lead . Early in the second quarter , Dave Walkosky intercepted a Clement pass to give the Rockets possession at their 33 @-@ yard line . Nine plays later , Parker scored his third touchdown of the afternoon , this time from two @-@ yards out . Rusty Hanna then had his extra point attempt blocked and Toledo led 20 – 7 at halftime . In the third quarter , a snap went over the head of punter Brian Borders to give Miami possession at the Toledo 21 @-@ yard line . However , a goal line stand by the Rockets ' defense kept the Redskins out of the endzone on a failed fourth @-@ and @-@ one running play . In the fourth quarter , Miami scored the final points of the game on a five @-@ yard Terry Carter touchdown run to make the final score 20 – 14 . The victory improved Toledo 's all @-@ time record against Miami to 16 – 22 . = = = Northern Illinois = = = In their first home game of the 1990 season , Toledo defeated the Northern Illinois Huskies 23 – 14 in what was the first game played since the completion of an $ 18 million ( $ 32 @.@ 6 million in 2016 dollars ) renovation at the Glass Bowl . Toledo scored first on an eight @-@ yard run by Troy Parker to take an early 7 – 0 lead . The Huskies responded with a 15 @-@ yard run by Stacey Robinson to tie the game at 7 – 7 at the end of the first quarter . In the second quarter , Rusty Hanna then retook the lead for Toledo with his 23 @-@ yard field goal before Northern Illinois responded with a 12 @-@ yard Robinson touchdown pass to Ray Patterson for a 14 – 10 halftime lead for the Huskies . In the third quarter , the Rockets retook the lead after Kevin Meger scored on a 26 @-@ yard run , and after a failed extra point attempt Toledo led 16 – 14 . Parker then scored the final points of the game in the fourth with his two @-@ yard touchdown run for the 23 – 14 win . Parker set a new school record with his 40 running attempts and rushed for 205 yards on the afternoon . For his performance , Parker was named the Mid @-@ American Conference Offensive Player of the Week . The victory improved Toledo 's all @-@ time record against Northern Illinois to 16 – 6 . = = = Ball State = = = In week three , Toledo defeated the Ball State Cardinals 28 – 16 at Scheumann Stadium in Muncie . After a scoreless first quarter , Toledo took a 7 – 0 halftime lead after Kevin Meger scored on a two @-@ yard run to complete a 75 @-@ yard drive . The Rockets then extended their lead to 14 – 0 early in the third quarter on a two @-@ yard Troy Parker run before the Cardinals cut the lead to 14 – 3 on a 47 @-@ yard Kenny Stucker field goal late in the quarter . In the fourth quarter , each team traded a pair of touchdowns with Toledo winning the game 28 – 16 . Toledo scored on touchdown runs of two @-@ yards by Parker and ten @-@ yards by Meger . Ball State scored touchdowns on a 19 @-@ yard Corey Croom run and on a 22 @-@ yard Scott Hammersley pass to Travis Moore . The victory improved Toledo 's all @-@ time record against Ball State to 8 – 8 . = = = Ohio = = = For the third time in as many road games the Rockets were victorious , and this time Toledo defeated the Ohio Bobcats 27 – 20 at Peden Stadium in Athens . After a scoreless first quarter , each team connected on a field goal before Troy Parker scored the first touchdown of the game on an 11 @-@ yard run for a 10 – 3 Toledo lead . Each team again traded field goals later in the quarter to make the halftime score 13 – 6 . In the third quarter , Parker scored on a nine @-@ yard run for Toledo and Ohio responded with a one @-@ yard touchdown run for a 20 – 13 Rockets lead at the start of the fourth quarter . In the fourth , the Bobcats tied the game up at 20 – 20 when Anthony Thornton threw a 29 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Courtney Burton . Toledo then scored the game @-@ winning touchdown with only 0 : 17 remaining in the game when Parker scored on a one @-@ yard run to complete a 68 @-@ yard , 15 play drive . The victory improved Toledo 's all @-@ time record against Ohio to 21 – 19 – 1 . = = = Eastern Michigan = = = With Troy Parker seeing limited action due to an injury , Neil Trotter rushed for 145 yards and Corey Ivey for 96 as Toledo defeated the Eastern Michigan Hurons 37 – 23 . The Rockets took a 10 – 0 lead in the first quarter on an eight @-@ yard Ivey touchdown run and 37 @-@ yard Rusty Hanna field goal . In the second , both teams scored ten points to give Toledo a 20 – 10 halftime lead . The Hurons scored on an 85 @-@ yard Craig Thompson punt return and a 36 @-@ yard Jim Langeloh field goal ; the Rockets scored on a 32 @-@ yard Hanna field goal and three @-@ yard Kevin Meger touchdown run . In the third , Eastern Michigan cut the lead to 20 – 17 after Cameron Moss scored on a 48 @-@ yard touchdown run . Toledo responded with 17 consecutive , fourth quarter points to win the game . After a 37 @-@ yard Hanna field goal , touchdowns were scored on a 28 @-@ yard Meger pass to Marcus Goodwin and on a four @-@ yard Parker run . The Hurons scored again late in the game on an 11 @-@ yard Shane Jackson touchdown pass to Chris Nyenhuis to make the final score 37 – 23 . The victory improved Toledo 's all @-@ time record against Eastern Michigan to 11 – 7 . = = = Bowling Green = = = Before what was the second largest crowd to witness a game at the Glass Bowl , Toledo defeated the Bowling Green Falcons 19 – 13 to win the Peace Pipe . After a Rusty Hanna field goal gave the Rockets an early 3 – 0 lead , a pair of Erik White touchdown passes gave the Falcons a 13 – 3 halftime lead . However , the Toledo defense shutout the Bowling Green offense in the second half , and the Rockets came back to win 19 – 13 . Points were scored in the third on a seven @-@ yard touchdown run by Kevin Meger and a one @-@ yard Troy Parker touchdown run . Hanna added a field goal in the fourth . The victory improved Toledo 's all @-@ time record against Bowling Green to 22 – 29 – 4 . = = = Central Michigan = = = In the hype that led to their game against the Central Michigan Chippewas , the press billed the contest as the de facto MAC championship game . At Mount Pleasant , the Rockets failed to score a touchdown and suffered their first loss of the season in a 13 – 12 loss . The Rockets scored first on a 28 @-@ yard Rusty Hanna field goal , but the Chippewas responded with a 53 @-@ yard Jeff Bender touchdown pass to Ken Ealy to take a 7 – 3 lead at the end of the first quarter . A 46 @-@ yard Hanna field goal in the second cut the Central lead to 7 – 6 at halftime . In the third quarter , Toledo briefly retook the lead after Hanna connected on field goals of 41 and 26 yards . However , the Chippewas scored the game @-@ winning touchdown later in the quarter when Bender threw a 38 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Bob Kench for the 13 – 12 victory . For his six @-@ tackle performance , Mark Rhea was named the Mid @-@ American Conference Defensive Player of the Week . The loss brought Toledo 's all @-@ time record against Central Michigan to 7 – 10 – 2 . = = = Kent State = = = Against head coach Nick Saban 's alma mater , the Rockets defeated the Kent State Golden Flashes 28 – 14 , one week after their first loss of the season . Toledo scored first on a one @-@ yard Troy Parker touchdown run for a 7 – 0 lead . The Flashes responded with a 14 @-@ yard Joe Dalpra touchdown pass to tie the game at 7 – 7 at the end of the first . After the Rockets regained the lead on a 35 @-@ yard Rusty Hanna field goal , Kent took a 14 – 10 halftime lead on a six @-@ yard Dalpra touchdown run . A second , 35 @-@ yard field goal cut the Kent State lead to 14 – 13 , and a pair of fourth @-@ quarter touchdowns sealed the victory for Toledo . Touchdowns were scored by Neil Trotter on a 38 @-@ yard run and on a three @-@ yard pass from Kevin Meger to Dan Grossman for the 28 – 14 win . The victory improved Toledo 's all @-@ time record against Kent State to 18 – 19 . = = = Western Michigan = = = In their final conference game of the season , Toledo defeated the Western Michigan Broncos 37 – 9 to secure the conference co @-@ championship with Central Michigan . Toledo led 7 – 6 at halftime after Kevin Meger threw a 33 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Rickey Isaiah for the Rockets , and Dan Boggan scored for the Broncos on a one @-@ yard touchdown run . Toledo then scored three third @-@ quarter touchdowns to take a 28 – 6 lead . Touchdowns were scored on a three @-@ yard Meger pass to Jerry Evans , a 14 @-@ yard Meger run , and on a 67 @-@ yard Meger pass to Romauldo Brown . The Broncos then scored their final points of the game on a 31 @-@ yard Jay Barresi field goal to make the score 28 – 9 at the start of the fourth quarter . In the fourth , Damon Nelson scored on a one @-@ yard touchdown run and Western snapped a punt out of the end zone for a safety and a 37 – 9 Toledo win . The victory improved Toledo 's all @-@ time record against Western Michigan to 23 – 22 . = = = Navy = = = In what was the Rockets ' first all @-@ time meeting against Navy , 14 unanswered points in the fourth quarter gave the Midshipmen the 14 – 10 win at the Glass Bowl . Toledo led 10 – 0 as they entered the fourth quarter with points scored on a 34 @-@ yard Hanna field goal in the first and on a six @-@ yard David Andrews touchdown run in the third . Navy came back to win the game in the fourth on a pair of Jason Pace touchdowns . The first came on a nine @-@ yard run and the second on a five @-@ yard reception from Alton Grizzard . The loss effectively resulted in the Rockets failing to get a bowl bid as Central Michigan got the automatic MAC bid to the California Bowl due to having the tiebreaker over Toledo . = = = Arkansas State = = = In the final game of the season , Toledo defeated the Arkansas State Indians 43 – 28 at the Glass Bowl . The Indians scored first on a 24 @-@ yard Troy Mabone touchdown run followed by a one @-@ yard Neil Trotter touchdown run for a 7 – 7 tie at the end of the first . In the second quarter Trotter scored on a two @-@ yard run and Mabone on a one @-@ yard run before a 38 @-@ yard Kevin Meger touchdown pass to Rickey Isaiah and 33 @-@ yard Rusty Hanna field goal gave the Rockets a 24 – 14 halftime lead . In the third , Aubrey Miller recovered a Toledo fumble in the endzone for a touchdown and cut the Rockets lead to 24 – 21 . Each team then traded touchdowns with Toledo scoring on a 27 @-@ yard Pat Johnson run and Arkansas State on a one @-@ yard Roy Johnson run to make the score 31 – 28 at the start of the fourth . In the fourth , Toledo scored 12 unanswered points for the win . Damon Nelson scored on a four @-@ yard touchdown run and Hanna connected on field goals of 33 and 41 yards in the 43 – 28 win . The nine wins were the most won by a Toledo squad since the 1983 season . = = Saban resignation = = Nick Saban resigned as Toledo 's head coach on February 13 , 1991 , after one season to become defensive coordinator of the National Football League 's Cleveland Browns under Bill Belichick . As defensive coordinator for the New York Giants , Belichick had to postpone assembling his new coaching staff until after Super Bowl XXV . Therefore , Saban 's resignation wasn 't announced until well after the season had ended . Additionally , Saban wanted any potential move to occur after February 6 , National Signing Day for recruits .
= Tipping the Velvet = For the TV serial based on the novel , see Tipping the Velvet ( TV serial ) Tipping the Velvet is a historical novel published as Sarah Waters ' debut novel in 1998 . Set in Victorian England during the 1890s , it tells a coming of age story about a young woman named Nan who falls in love with a male impersonator , follows her to London , and finds various ways to support herself as she journeys through the city . The picaresque plot elements have prompted scholars and reviewers to compare it to similar British urban adventure stories written by Charles Dickens and Daniel Defoe . The novel has pervasive lesbian themes , concentrating on eroticism and self @-@ discovery . Waters was working on a PhD dissertation in English literature when she decided to write a story she would like to read . Employing her love for the variety of people and districts in London , she consciously chose an urban setting . As opposed to previous lesbian @-@ themed fiction she had read where the characters escape an oppressive society to live apart from it , Waters chose characters who interact with their surroundings . She has acknowledged that the book imagines a lesbian presence and history in Victorian London where none was recorded . The main character 's experiences in the theatrical profession and her perpetual motion through the city allow her to make observations on social conditions while exploring the issues of gender , sexism , and class difference . As Waters ' debut novel , Tipping the Velvet was highly acclaimed and was chosen by The New York Times and The Library Journal as one of the best books of 1998 . Waters followed it with two other novels set in the Victorian era , both of which were also well received . Reviewers have offered the most praise for Tipping the Velvet 's use of humour , adventure , and sexual explicitness . The novel was adapted into a somewhat controversial three @-@ part series of the same name produced and broadcast by the BBC in 2002 and a stage play in 2015 . = = Inspiration and publication = = When Sarah Waters was 19 years old , she joined a student house in Whitstable , Kent , sharing a bed and then falling in love with another young woman . They lived there for two winters in what became a six @-@ year relationship . She recalled , " It was cold , isolated , romantic and so intense — quite special . " In 1995 , Waters was at Queen Mary and Westfield College writing her PhD dissertation on gay and lesbian historical fiction from 1870 onward when she became interested in the Victorian era . While learning about the activism in socialism , women 's suffrage , and utopianism of the period , she was inspired to write a work of fiction of the kind that she would like to read . Specifically , Waters intended to write a story that focused on an urban setting , diverging from previous lesbian @-@ themed books such as Isabel Miller 's Patience and Sarah , in which two women escape an oppressive home life to live together freely in the woods . She said to herself at the time , " there 's so much more to lesbian history than that " . Waters was drawn to the Victorian era because of the ( mis ) understandings of what social norms existed during the period . As she stated , " I find it a fascinating period because it feels very close to us , and yet in lots of ways it is utterly strange : many of the things we think we know about it are stereotypes , or simply wrong . " Considering herself part of gay and lesbian literary heritage , Waters was influenced by Oscar Wilde , and Chris Hunt , who wrote Street Lavender , an historical novel with gay male themes also set in the Victorian era . She has stated that Tipping the Velvet is a female version of Street Lavender , with a plot similar to My Secret Life by " Walter " . Waters pitched Tipping the Velvet to ten British publishers , but after they all rejected it , she began considering American publishing houses . Although she was picked up quickly by a literary agency , the agent spent almost a year trying to sell the book to a mainstream publisher . By the time Tipping the Velvet was accepted by Virago Press — one of the ten that had previously passed on the project — Waters had already begun work on her second novel . = = Plot = = Nancy " Nan " Astley is a sheltered 18 @-@ year @-@ old living with her working @-@ class family and helping in their oyster restaurant in Whitstable , Kent . She becomes instantly and desperately enamoured with a " masher " , or male impersonator , named Kitty Butler , who performs for a season at the local theatre . They begin a friendship that grows when , after Kitty finds an opportunity to perform in London for better exposure , she asks Nan to join her . Nan enthusiastically agrees and leaves her family to act as Kitty 's dresser while she performs . Although Kitty and Nan acknowledge their relationship to be sisterly , Nan continues to love Kitty until a jealous fight forces Kitty to admit she feels the same , although she insists that they keep their relationship secret . Simultaneously , Kitty 's manager Walter decides that Kitty needs a performing partner to reach true success , and suggests Nan for the role . Nan is initially horrified by the idea , but takes to it . The duo become quite famous until Nan realises she is homesick after being gone from her family for more than a year . Her return home is underwhelming , so she returns to London early to find Kitty in bed with Walter . They announce that the act is finished and they are to be married . Astonished and deeply bruised by the discovery , Nan wanders the streets of London , finally holing herself in a filthy boarding house for weeks in a state of madness until her funds run out . After spying the male costumes she took as her only memory of her time with Kitty , Nan begins to walk the streets of London as a man and easily passes . She is solicited by a man for sex and begins renting , but dressed only as a man for male clients , never letting them know she is a woman . She meets a socialist activist named Florence who lives near the boarding house , but before she can get to know her , Nan is hired by a wealthy widow with licentious tastes named Diana . Although realising — and initially enjoying — that she is an object to Diana and her friends , Nan stays with her for over a year as " Neville " , dressed in the finest men 's clothes Diana can afford . The relationship erodes , however , and Diana throws Nan into the streets . Nan stumbles through London trying to find Florence , which she eventually does ; Florence is now melancholy , however , with a child . Nan stays with Florence and her brother Ralph , working as their housekeeper . Nan and Florence grow closer during the year they live together , and Nan learns that the previous boarder with Florence and Ralph had a child and died shortly after giving birth . Florence was deeply in love with the boarder but her affections were not returned . During an outing to a women 's pub , Nan is recognised by former fans , to Florence 's astonishment , and Nan divulges her own spotty past to Florence . Cautiously , they begin a love affair . Putting her theatrical skills to use , Nan assists Ralph in preparing a speech at an upcoming socialist rally . At the event Nan jumps onstage to help Ralph when he falters , and is noticed once more by Kitty , who asks her to come back so they can continue their affair in secret . Realising how much shame Kitty continues to feel , how much of herself was compromised during their affair , and that her truest happiness is where she is now , Nan turns Kitty away and joins Florence . = = Literary elements = = = = = Style = = = The greatest literary strengths in Tipping the Velvet , according to reviewers and literary scholars , are the vibrant portrayal of the districts and streets of London , and Waters ' ability to create sympathetic and realistic characters . Her use of synaesthesia in lush descriptions particularly interested Harriet Malinowitz in The Women 's Review of Books . For example , Malinowitz cites the scene when Nan first meets Kitty , removing her glove to shake Kitty 's hand . Very much an oyster girl , Nan 's hands are covered with " those rank sea @-@ scents , of liquor and oyster @-@ flesh , crab @-@ meat and whelks , which had flavoured my fingers and those of my family for so many years we had ceased , entirely , to notice them . " Nan is mortified that she smells like a herring , but Kitty assuages her fears , kissing her hand and telling her she instead smells like a mermaid . Malinowitz includes this and other descriptions of sights , sounds , and smells in Victorian London as examples of elements that are " breathlessly and wittily detailed " . Although Waters was born in Pembrokeshire , Wales , she considers herself a London writer because of her intense affection for the city , due in part to her immigration to it . Specifically , Waters is moved by walking through London and seeing remnants of many historical eras : " It 's ... almost like it 's peopled with ghosts — again , jostling up against each other or passing through each other . I find that very exciting . " Her love for the city is apparent to many reviewers . In the Lesbian Review of Books Donna Allegra writes , " [ S ] he summons the era 's attitudes and ambiance projecting them onto the screen of the reader 's mind with Dolby wrap @-@ around sound such that you feel you 're vacationing on all points between Chelsea and the East End . " Miranda Seymour in The New York Times remarks on the " breathless passion " of the narrator 's voice as being absolutely convincing , citing as an example Nancy 's statement to her sister at the start of the book about why she continues to visit Kitty Butler : ... It 's like I never saw anything at all before . It 's like I am filling up , like a wine @-@ glass when it 's filled with wine . I watch the acts before her and they are like nothing — they 're like dust . Then she walks on the stage and — she is so pretty ; and her suit is so nice ; and her voice is so sweet ... She makes me want to smile and weep , at once ... I never saw a girl like her before . I never knew that there were girls like her . Donna Allegra and Christina Patterson in The Observer also praise Nan as a passionate and captivating character . Patterson and Mel Steel in The Independent compare her resourcefulness to that of Moll Flanders . Of her three Victorian @-@ set novels , Waters uses humour and " an attractive lightness of touch " most effectively in Tipping the Velvet , according to Paulina Palmer . Nan the narrator describes the irony of her " curious gaslit career " as a rent @-@ boy only to end up — in Diana 's words — as her " tart " . Waters had such fun writing the novel that she told Robert McCrum from The Observer in 2009 that if she had no obligations to meet stemming from her subsequent success as a writer that she would continue writing Nan 's story . = = = Genre = = = Nan 's path through the plot indicates that Tipping the Velvet is part Bildungsroman , and her journeys through the streets of London invoke elements of a picaresque novel . Scholar Emily Jeremiah characterises the story as a Bildungsroman : a coming @-@ of @-@ age adventure but one that far surpasses a simple coming @-@ out story . Stefania Ciocia in Literary London writes that the plot has classical elements of a fairy tale as it follows the main character 's growth and progression , and has a moral ending that includes a course of events where Nan forsakes three suitors for her — in this case — Princess Charming . Nan finds true love with Florence , who is a bit dowdy , somewhat stout , certainly not wealthy , and driven to improve the world ; the least likely of all the characters . A review in Publishers Weekly states that the series of events leading to Nan finding love are " unpredictable and moving " . Nan 's experiences eventually reveal serious faults of the society she moves through , the primary element of a picaresque novel . For this and other reasons , Waters ' books are frequently compared to stories by Charles Dickens ; the reader follows Nan 's movement from sheltered naif to exuberant theatre performer to rent @-@ boy to mistress to housewife then socialist orator , showing allegiance to none of these professions or ideals . Michael Upchurch in The Seattle Times writes that Nan 's inability or unwillingness to adhere to any profession or setting , remaining malleable until the end of the novel indicates she is her own worst enemy . Likewise , Marianne Brace in The Independent considers Nan selfish and unsympathetic . Ciocia writes that with half the novel taking place in theatrical settings , Nan may be playing a role as character in her own life or a play on a stage set in a theatre or the streets of London . She starts as a spectator watching Kitty onstage , and later with Kitty , watching how men move and behave to improve their act . She becomes a performer , with Kitty , as a renter and again for the predatory Diana and her friends . Finally she takes the role of director as she assists and impels Ralph to perform his speech . At this point , she is able to reconcile her identity and the story ends . Waters consciously chose to create a complicated plot , and was impressed with Iris Murdoch 's claim that she herself had entire stories worked out well in advance of writing them , a method Waters used with Tipping the Velvet . = = Themes = = = = = Sexuality = = = Sexuality and sexual identity is the most prevalent theme in the novel . The title is an obscure Victorian pornographic slang reference to cunnilingus . Nick Rennison in Contemporary British Authors characterises Tipping the Velvet as an " unabashed and unapologetic celebration of lesbian eroticism and sexual diversity " . Donna Allegra writes with appreciation of how the existence of Waters ' characters in a heterosexual existence forces an analysis of closeted positions . The sexism of the period puts a stranglehold on women , forcing readers to compare women in the Victorian era with present @-@ day sexual attitudes . Nan never has difficulty accepting her love for Kitty Butler and other women ; Kitty 's union with Walter , however , " reeks of lesbophobia " , according to Allegra . Music halls could be rough in some areas , but Kitty is shown handling drunken and rowdy audiences with humour and grace . The only instance where she is overcome and flees the stage is when a drunken patron shouts a euphemism for a lesbian at her . This episode leads to the final scene of Part I when Nan stumbles upon Kitty and Walter in bed . Kitty does not display any pleasure in their union , but rather complacence tinged with shame . Allegra compares Kitty 's desire for normality overshadowing her desire for love with Nan to " compulsory heterosexuality ... emblematic of and particular to lesbian existence " . Scholar Paulina Palmer asserts that Waters , in Tipping the Velvet and her two following novels also set in the Victorian era — Affinity and Fingersmith — is establishing a literary tradition that has not existed : " Women engaging in same @-@ sex relationships in the Victorian era were on the whole invisible and we have little knowledge of their literary interests . " Waters , however , acknowledges that accuracy about lesbian life in the Victorian era is not her primary goal : " My purpose was not to be authentic , but to imagine a history that we can ’ t really recover . " Short bursts of lesbian @-@ themed literary activity occurred in 1920s with authors such as Natalie Clifford Barney and Djuna Barnes . Another surge of activity published as lesbian pulp fiction occurred in the 1950s and early 1960s , during which several notable lesbian authors such as Ann Bannon and Valerie Taylor helped to establish lesbian literary identity . These fictions helped to inform readers about the lives and cultural landmarks of lesbians when very little information existed . Waters states that she is not on a deliberate crusade to write about lesbians , but that it is a reflection of what she knows : " Lesbianism is at the top of the agenda for my books because it 's at the top of the agenda for my life . It would be bizarre not to write about it . " In 2009 , as she reflected on her reasons for writing Tipping the Velvet and Fingersmith , Waters said she was searching for her own identity as a lesbian writer . Among Waters ' Victorian @-@ set novels , depictions of sexual encounters are also , according to Palmer , the most vivid in Tipping the Velvet . A review in The Advocate calls the book " riotously sexy " , and The Seattle Times suggests the scene where Nan shows Kitty how to open and eat an oyster is evocative of Tom Jones . This follows a marked difference in recently written fiction by and for lesbians . Frank depictions of lesbian sexuality specifically penned by women have been quieted by censorship that equated lesbian sex with aberrant mental behaviour , or employed it as an erotic element controlled by , and for the benefit of , men . Lesbian literary scholar Bonnie Zimmerman writes , " Lesbians have been reticent and uncomfortable about sexual writing in part because we wish to reject the patriarchal stereotype of the lesbian as a voracious sexual vampire who spends all her time in bed . It is safer to be a lesbian if sex is kept in the closet or under the covers . We don ’ t wish to give the world another stick with which to beat us . " = = = Gender = = = Nan not only experiences a series of misadventures and lesbian relationships , but also shifts from female to male at the same time , giving the reader an opportunity to view London society from multiple perspectives . Gender masquerade and reaction to it permeates the novel . According to Harriet Malinowitz , Waters uses the symbolism of clothing such as skirts , pants , stays , braces , bonnets , ties , and chemises " with the sort of metaphorical significance that Melville gives to whales " . Stefania Ciocia declares that in all of 19th century English literature , the only type of character who was able to enjoy adventures native to the picaresque novel were males who acted as the observer or stroller , walking through the city from one district to the next . The single exception to this was Moll Flanders , a prostitute . Nancy Astley behaves as both , giving her the ability to offer her perceptions of London society as both a man and a woman . Music halls , where both Nan and Kitty are employed — and put on display — as male impersonators , allow about half the novel 's action and commentary on gender to take place , according to scholar Cheryl Wilson . When Nan puts on trousers for the first time to perform as Kitty 's partner and realises the impact of their double act together , she states , " whatever successes I might achieve as a girl , they would be nothing compared to the triumphs I should enjoy clad , however girlishly , as a boy " . Male impersonation is common in the world of the novel , and some performers are quite popular . Only certain types of depictions of men , however , were acceptable in reality . Nan and Kitty pretend to be London " swells " : gentlemen on the town who sing about their sweethearts . Wilson provides evidence that such depictions were supported by class divisions , as poorer music hall patrons enjoyed the fun poked at the upper class , and the upper class generally found it harmless enough to laugh at themselves . Mashers such as the famed Vesta Tilley capitalised on the fact that both men and women were able to laugh at common perceptions of femininity and masculinity . Writing in 1998 about a period more than 100 years before , Waters employs a continuity between the past and present , particularly as it relates to an outsider 's view of sexuality and gender . Diana bestows Nan with the finest gift she had ever received , an expensive watch that requires no winding . She has nowhere to be except at Diana 's beck and call , and never leaves Diana 's mansion without her . Emily Jeremiah uses this as an example of how Tipping the Velvet fits Judith Halberstam 's declaration that homosexual historiographies " produce alternative temporalities " . Gay and lesbian stories do not use the same rites of passage that most mainstream stories do , leaving aside the importance of birth , marriage , reproduction , and death . This transcendence of time is evident in the narration of the novel . It is Nan 's first @-@ person account of her own past , told many years later . When Nan divulges her past to Florence , Waters uses the first line of the novel to signify where she begins , cycling the story . Even the novel 's language bridges this divide . Waters often employs the word " queer " to describe the unusual or remarkable , instead of its post @-@ 1922 connotation to refer to homosexuality . She also uses the term specifically to highlight what is unusual as it applies to gender , or Nan 's own emotions toward Kitty . Nan 's father uses the symbol of the oyster , what he calls a " real queer fish " that exhibits both male and female characteristics , and compares it to Kitty who sits before them in feminine attire though they have seen her on stage dressed as a man . The landlady of the boarding house where Kitty and Nan are staying appraises Nan 's first male costume , and is troubled by the " queerness " of it because she looks too much like a man , instead of a woman pretending to be a man . Donna Allegra suggests that by using the contemporary term for prostitutes , " gay girls " , Waters is winking at her readers . = = = Class = = = Starting as a working @-@ class girl and experiencing music halls , prostitution , luxury , and a socialist struggle for utopia , Nan 's journeys through the class system in Tipping the Velvet are as varied as her gender portrayals and love affairs . Aiobheann Sweeney in The Washington Post notes , " like Dickens , [ Waters ] digs around in the poorhouses , prisons and asylums to come up with characters who not only court and curtsy but dramatise the unfairness of poverty and gender disparity in their time " . Paulina Palmer sees the reading material available in the various locations of Nan 's settings as symbols of the vast class differences in Victorian London . Specifically , Diana keeps a trunk full of pornographic literature which she and Nan read to each other in between sexual encounters . She is an extremely wealthy resident of the London neighbourhood St John 's Wood , and identifies as a Sapphist — a contemporary term for a lesbian . Nan uses the euphemism " tom " throughout the novel , particularly to refer to herself and other working class lesbians . Although " tom " was used as a Victorian reference to lesbianism , Waters admits it was probably not as prevalent as her characters suggest it was . Waters includes a historical reference to the medical profession starting to acknowledge and identify female homosexuality in the 19th century when a friend of Diana 's named Dickie reads aloud during a party from a medical text describing the histories of several acknowledged lesbians , including Dickie 's own . One story discussed among the wealthy women at the party is about a young woman with a large clitoris , which they consider congenital in lower @-@ class women . They attempt to prove their point with Diana 's maid Zena , but Nan prevents this humiliation , which precipitates her final rift with Diana . Using Dickie 's book to strike Nan across the face , Diana gives her a black eye and bloody cheek before throwing her out into the street with Zena . Nan goes to Florence 's house , which is filled with socialist literature . Although Diana is a supporter of women 's suffrage , she discourages Nan from reading such literature , confiscating any political material Nan picks up . In contrast , Nan feels hopelessly uninformed when Florence and her friends engage in heated political debates . She asks questions , but feels stupid about not knowing the answers . Florence introduces her to the writings of Walt Whitman , Eleanor Marx , and Edward Carpenter , which they sexualise by using as an introduction to intimacy . = = Critical reception = = Tipping the Velvet was critically acclaimed upon its release and Waters ' writing style highly praised . Harriet Malinowitz wrote that the story is an " utterly captivating , high octane narrative " and Mel Steel of The Independent wrote , " Could this be a new genre ? The bawdy lesbian picaresque novel ? Whatever it is , take it with you . It 's gorgeous . " Kirkus Reviews also praised it , writing " Waters ' debut offers terrific entertainment : swiftly paced , crammed with colorful depictions of 1890s London and vividly sketched Dickensian supporting characters " , comparing the depiction of Nancy 's parents to the fishing community in David Copperfield , and adding that it " pulsat [ es ] with highly charged ( and explicitly presented ) erotic heat " . John Perry in The San Francisco Chronicle stated that it " has the qualities of an extravagantly upholstered armchair . Tricked out in gaudy fabric and yards of fringe , it offers a sensual experience that leaves the reader marveling at the author 's craftsmanship , idiosyncrasy and sheer effort . " Perry did acknowledge , however , that modern optimism was probably the impetus driving Waters ' vision of a lesbian past . Christina Patterson called Waters " an extremely confident writer , combining precise , sensuous descriptions with irony and wit in a skilled , multi @-@ layered pastiche of the lesbian historical romance . " Renee Graham 's review in The Boston Globe characterised the novel 's style as " plush and inviting — delicious , even " . In The New York Times , Miranda Seymour drew attention to the scene when Nan dresses up as Hadrian 's lover , the page Antinous who was drowned in the Nile , for a masquerade benefiting Diana 's friends in a hedonistic bacchanalia that ends violently with Nan cast out of the house into the cold , highlighting it as a passage of " startling power " . Although Seymour was disappointed with the ending , she wrote , " If lesbian fiction is to reach a wider readership — as much , though far from all , of it deserves to do — Waters is just the person to carry the banner . " Several reviewers compared Tipping the Velvet to Jeanette Winterson 's Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit for a similar story of a woman 's sexual awakening . Waters credits Winterson as an influence in lesbian writing , but states that the books are quite different and her writing is not like Winterson 's at all . Waters suggests that reviewers have bracketed them together because Winterson was the only other lesbian author they could recall . The popularity of her first novel cast a standard for Affinity to follow , which Waters consciously made darker , set in a women 's prison with a character who connects with spirits of the dead . Waters found it daunting to follow the success of Tipping the Velvet and reviewers marked the differences in the main characters : where Nan adventurously seeks out and states her desires , Margaret in Affinity is compelled by desire , but internally struggles with it . Tipping the Velvet won the Lambda Literary Award for lesbian fiction in 2000 , and the Betty Trask Award , given to Commonwealth citizens who have produced their first novel before reaching the age of 35 . The Library Journal chose it as one of their Best Books of the Year for 1999 , and the New York Times included it on its list of Notable Books of the Year . = = Adaptations = = = = = Television = = = Tipping the Velvet was adapted into a BBC television drama serial of the same name , originally screened in three episodes on BBC Two in 2002 . It was produced for the BBC by the independent production company Sally Head Productions , and starred Rachael Stirling as Nan , Keeley Hawes as Kitty , Anna Chancellor as Diana , and Jodhi May as Florence . The BBC had previously adapted Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit in 1990 and some other scenes in dramas to follow , but none had been so explicit . Sally Head Productions defended the decision to air the entire program uncut . Waters was quite surprised that the BBC chose to produce and broadcast a television adaptation that faithfully followed the relish and detail of sexual escapades in the book . Stirling thoroughly enjoyed the role , despite her avowed heterosexuality : " To counteract any hard @-@ core sex within it , there 's a huge sense of humour and a huge sense of fun and frivolity and joy of life . It was so utterly believable that you never for a moment thought , Fuck , there 's no reason why I 'm standing here naked . " Screenwriter Andrew Davies said he was attracted to the story because it featured a girl transitioning into womanhood and it included his interests in Victorian erotica ; he compared it to Pride and Prejudice — for which he wrote the BBC screenplay — " with dirty bits " . Both Waters and Davies were concerned about the use of dildos in scenes with Diana , but the BBC allowed it . When news releases told of the BBC featuring swearing and sex toys , the Daily Mail reported that viewers began to protest . BBC representatives downplayed the gratuitousness of the story , comparing it to Moll Flanders . Waters especially appreciated the way Davies interpreted Kitty 's ambivalence about being in love with Nan . He wrote the line for her , " I hate the way you make me feel " , which according to Waters crystallises Kitty 's complicated emotions well . The music in the adaptation was written for the film . Waters wrote song titles but not lyrics in the music references in the novel . For one song , during Kitty and Nan 's first performance in the adaptation , Davies wrote a composition that had Kitty show Nan — dressed and performing as brothers — how to pick up girls in the park . It involved Kitty teaching Nan how to kiss , which they do onstage in front of audiences who are watching women , dressed as men , who are in reality having an affair with each other beyond the view of the audience . Waters wrote a similar description as Nan compares their act to their relationship ; their sexual encounters to their performance onstage , noting the irony that Kitty insisted on absolute secrecy yet there they performed in front of thousands : " You are too slow — you go too fast — not there , but here — that 's good — that 's better ! It was as if we walked before the crimson curtain , lay down upon the boards and kissed and fondled — and were clapped , and cheered , and paid for it ! " A persistent rumour claims a film adaptation of Tipping the Velvet will be directed by Sofia Coppola , starring Beyoncé Knowles and Eva Longoria . However , Longoria insists that everything about the rumour is false , right down to quotes cited to her and Knowles . Knowles also wonders where the false quotes and story originate from . In 2009 , UK playwright Amanda Whittington wrote a stage adaptation of Tipping the Velvet . It was showcased by Guildhall School of Music and Drama at The Bridewell Theatre , London , in October 2009 . Directed by Katharine Rogers , the production featured original music hall songs and was praised for its authentic interpretation of the novel . = = = Stage = = = On 14 April 2015 , it was announced the play would receive its world premiere the same year and would begin previews at the Lyric Hammersmith on 18 September 2015 , with an official opening night on 28 September , booking for a limited period until 24 October . Following its premiere production the play is scheduled to transfer to the Royal Lyceum Theatre , Edinburgh , as part of the 50th anniversary season of the Royal Lyceum Theatre company , where it will run from 28 October to 14 November 2015 . Tipping the Velvet has been adapted for the stage by Laura Wade and is directed by Lyndsey Turner , with choreography by Alistair David , design by Lizzie Clachan , lighting design by Jon Clark , music by Michael Bruce and sound by Nick Manning .
= Banksia verticillata = Banksia verticillata , commonly known as granite banksia or Albany banksia , is a species of shrub or ( rarely ) tree of the genus Banksia in the family Proteaceae . It is native to the southwest of Western Australia and can reach up to 3 m ( 10 ft ) in height . It can grow taller to 5 m ( 16 ft ) in sheltered areas , and much smaller in more exposed areas . This species has elliptic green leaves and large , bright golden yellow inflorescences or flower spikes , appearing in summer and autumn . The New Holland honeyeater ( Phylidonyris novaehollandiae ) is the most prominent pollinator , although several other species of honeyeater , as well as bees , visit the flower spikes . A declared vulnerable species , it occurs in two disjunct populations on granite outcrops along the south coast of Western Australia , with the main population near Albany and a smaller population near Walpole , and is threatened by dieback ( Phytophthora cinnamomi ) and aerial canker ( Zythiostroma ) . B. verticillata is killed by bushfire and new plants regenerate from seed afterwards . Populations take over a decade to produce seed and fire intervals of greater than twenty years are needed to allow the canopy seed bank to accumulate . = = Description = = Banksia verticillata grows as a spreading , bushy shrub with many branches up to 3 m ( 10 ft ) high , but can reach 5 m ( 16 ft ) high in sheltered locations . It may be much lower or even adopt a prostrate habit in highly exposed areas which are blasted by high wind , or occasionally grow as a single @-@ trunked tree . The rough grey bark has fissures , the stems and branches are finely hairy when young and become smooth with age . The leathery bright green leaves are arranged whorled , or alternately on branches , and are borne on 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 1 mm long petioles . They measure 3 – 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 8 in ) in length , and 0 @.@ 7 – 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) in width , and are elliptic in shape with entire ( straight ) recurved margins . They are initially hairy and become smooth with maturity , although their undersides remain covered with white hair . The golden @-@ yellow inflorescences appear in summer and autumn ( January to April ) and are 8 – 20 cm ( 3 – 8 in ) high and 6 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) wide . The smooth pistils are 3 – 3 @.@ 5 cm long and hooked at the end . Individual flowers open from the base of the flower spike , the wave of anthesis moving up the inflorescence . Occasionally , flowers on exposed parts may open early . It takes around 9 @.@ 5 days for all flowers to open , and rates are similar during the day and night . The inflorescences age to grey and the individual old flowers linger for some time before falling . Up to 100 small woody follicles may follow on old flower spikes . Measuring 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 5 cm wide , 3 – 4 mm wide , and jutting out 2 – 3 mm from the spike , they open after several years , releasing the seed . Follicles more commonly appear in the middle third of the spike . The reasons for this are unknown , although timing of visits by pollinators or some anatomical factor may be relevant . = = Taxonomy = = = = = Discovery and naming = = = The earliest known botanical collection of B. verticillata was made by Scottish surgeon and naturalist Archibald Menzies during the visit of the Vancouver Expedition to King George Sound in September and October 1791 . As a result of this collection the species was introduced into cultivation in England , yet it did not result in formal publication of the species . The next known collection was in December 1801 , during the visit of HMS Investigator to King George Sound . Little is known of the circumstances of this collection , other than what is written on the specimen label : " King Georges Sound Dec [ embe ] r 1801 " . The specimen is credited to Robert Brown , but gardener Peter Good and the botanical artist Ferdinand Bauer also contributed to Brown 's specimen collection , often without attribution . A more precise date and location cannot be given , as neither Brown nor Good mentions the collection in his diary . Bauer did not publish an illustration of the species and his original field sketches are lost , but William Westall appears to have incorporated it into two of his field sketches , and certainly included it in the foreground of one of the oil paintings that he later worked up for the Admiralty . Brown formally described and named the species in his 1810 On the Proteaceae of Jussieu . He did not identify a type specimen , but the one specimen in his collection has since been formally declared the lectotype for the species . He also did not explicitly give an etymology for the specific epithet , but it is accepted that the name derives from the Latin verticillatus ( " whorled " ) , in reference to the whorled leaf arrangement . No subspecies or varieties of Banksia verticillata have been identified ; it has no taxonomic synonyms ; and its only nomenclatural synonym is Sirmuellera verticillata ( R.Br. ) Kuntze , which arose from Otto Kuntze 's unsuccessful 1891 attempt to replace Banksia with the new name Sirmuellera . = = = Infrageneric placement = = = In Brown 's arrangement of Banksia , B. verticillata was placed between B. compar ( now B. integrifolia subsp. compar ) and B. coccinea ( scarlet banksia ) in phyletic order . No infrageneric arrangement was provided other than the removal of one distinctive species into a subgenus of its own , because of its unusual domed flower head . As B. verticillata flowers occur in characteristic flower spikes , it was retained in Banksia verae , the " true banksias " . Banksia verae was renamed Eubanksia by Austrian botanist Stephan Endlicher in 1847 , with B. verticillata remaining between the same two species as in Brown 's sequence . A more detailed arrangement was published by Carl Meissner in 1856 . Eubanksia was demoted to sectional rank , and divided it into four series . B. verticillata was placed in series Salicinae because its leaves are more or less linear , and have white undersides . Based as they were on leaf characters , Meissner 's series were highly heterogeneous , and George Bentham discarded them all in his 1870 revision of Banksia . B. verticillata was instead placed in a new section , Oncostylis , because of its hooked styles . This arrangement would stand for over a century . For many years there was confusion between B. verticillata and B. littoralis ( swamp banksia ) . Until 1984 , the latter was circumscribed as encompassing what is now Banksia seminuda ( river banksia ) , which has whorled leaves like B. verticillata . Thus it was easy to perceive B. verticillata as falling within the range of variation of this broadly defined species . The confusion was largely cleared up once B. seminuda was recognised as a distinct taxon . Alex George published a new taxonomic arrangement of Banksia in his landmark 1981 monograph The genus Banksia L.f. ( Proteaceae ) . Endlicher 's Eubanksia became B. subg . Banksia , and was divided into three sections , one of which was Oncostylis . Oncostylis was further divided into four series , with B. verticillata placed in series Spicigerae because its inflorescences are cylindrical . In 1996 , Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published a new arrangement for the genus , after cladistic analyses yielded a cladogram significantly different from George 's arrangement . With respect to B. verticillata , their findings largely accorded with George 's arrangement : section Oncostylis was discarded as polyphyletic , but series Spicigerae was inferred to be monophyletic , and B. verticillata appeared in a succession of clades with the species previously identified as its closest relatives : first B. littoralis , then B. seminuda , then B. brownii , and finally B. occidentalis ( red swamp banksia ) : This clade became the basis of Thiele and Ladiges ' B. subser . Occidentales , which was defined as " characterised by opposite @-@ decussate seedling leaves and adult leaves in true whorls . " This arrangement stood until 1999 , when George largely reverted to his 1981 arrangement in his monograph for the Flora of Australia series . Under George 's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia , B. verticillata 's taxonomic placement may be summarised as follows : Banksia B. subg . Banksia B. sect . Banksia ( 9 series , 50 species , 9 subspecies , 3 varieties ) B. sect . Coccinea ( 1 species ) B. sect . Oncostylis B. ser . Spicigerae ( 7 species , 2 subspecies , 4 varieties ) B. spinulosa ( 4 varieties ) B. ericifolia ( 2 subspecies ) B. verticillata B. seminuda B. littoralis B. occidentalis B. brownii B. ser . Tricuspidae ( 1 species ) B. ser . Dryandroideae ( 1 species ) B. ser . Abietinae ( 13 species , 2 subspecies , 9 varieties ) B. subg . Isostylis ( 3 species ) More recent molecular research by Austin Mast and colleagues provide further support of B. verticillata 's placement among its nearest relatives , but these do not appear to be closely related to the remaining members of B. ser . Spicigerae , but rather occur in a clade that is sister ( next closest relative ) to B. nutans : ( B. seminuda is omitted because it was not sampled in the study , not because it occurs elsewhere in the cladogram . ) = = Distribution and habitat = = Banksia verticillata is found in scattered populations in two disjunct segments : one clustered around Walpole , and the other around Albany and eastwards to Cheynes Beach . All but one are located within 2 km ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) of the coast , the exception is less than 10 km ( 6 mi ) inland . Plants grow on exposed coastal granite outcrops , often in cracks within boulders as well as shallow rocky soils . It is the only Banksia which grows exclusively in a granite soil . It grows in association with Taxandria marginata , Western Australian peppermint ( Agonis flexuosa ) , Andersonia sprengelioides and species of Hakea in scrub and heath . = = Ecology = = The New Holland honeyeater ( Phylidonyris novaehollandiae ) is a major visitor and pollinator of Banksia verticillata . These birds can travel 15 m ( 50 ft ) between inflorescences in a feeding session , and preferentially choose flower spikes with partly opened flowers . Other honeyeater species observed , the white @-@ cheeked honeyeater ( Phylidonyris nigra ) and western spinebill ( Acanthorhynchus superciliosus ) , visit this species to a much lesser extent . The brown honeyeater ( Lichmera indistincta ) has also been recorded as a visitor . Small mammals are not major pollinators , although bush rats ( Rattus fuscipes ) and house mice ( Mus musculus ) have been recorded . Honey bees ( Apis mellifera ) visit flower spikes but are not effective pollinators . B. verticillata is significantly threatened by at least three microorganisms . Several populations have reduced or vanished from dieback ( Phytophthora cinnamomi ) , such as those at Two Peoples Bay Nature Reserve and Gull Rock National Park . The honey fungus Armillaria luteobubalina has killed plants in Torndirrup National Park , and aerial canker ( Zythiostroma ) has decimated populations at Waychinicup National Park east of Albany . B. verticillata plants are generally killed by fire and regenerate from seed . A field study after a mild fire in Torndirrup National Park published in 1994 found that plants burnt by fire were ten times as likely to have seedlings come up under their crown as unburnt plants ( with an average of 25 @.@ 2 seedlings per burnt plant ) , and burnt spikes released double the number of seeds as unburnt spikes . Despite this , interfire recruitment ( seedlings arising between fires ) has also been recorded , and might be more common than in other Banksia species . Observations at several of the populations showed many plants produced their first seed anywhere from 13 to 17 years of age , leading to a recommendation of 20 years between fires to allow seed banks to accumulate . If fire occurs too frequently , plants are burned before reaching maturity or before they have produced sufficient seed to ensure regeneration of the population . This may cause a population decline or even local extinction . Too long a time between fires also causes population decline , as more plants die of natural attrition without releasing their seed , resulting in seed wastage . = = Conservation = = Banksia verticillata has been declared vulnerable under the federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 , and Rare under Western Australia 's Wildlife Conservation Act 1950 . A 1995 census yielded an estimated total population size of 4500 plants . Apart from dieback and aerial canker , frequency of bushfires and illegal picking have been cited as threats . Ongoing management includes monitoring of current populations , gathering more data on best response to fire , and restricting access to populations . Seed has been collected from many populations , but germination rates after ten years of storage are much lower than in Banksia brownii . Translocation is considered an option in the future , as is spraying with phosphite , particularly in the vicinity of Walpole . Used successfully on B. brownii but as yet untrialled with B. verticillata , phosphite boosts the resistance of both infected and uninfected plants , and also acts as a direct fungicide . Aerial spraying of phosphite boosts plant survival and slows the spread of infection , but must be carefully managed as studies have shown that foliar spraying of phosphite adversely affects root and shoot growth . = = Cultivation = = Banksia verticillata is seldom seen in cultivation . The natural growing conditions point to a sunny aspect and good drainage as being important in cultivation . It is good for coastal situations and erosion control . Very sensitive to dieback , B. verticillata ( like most other western Australian banksias ) perishes quickly in humid conditions or poor drainage . It has been grafted successfully onto Banksia integrifolia . Seeds do not require any treatment , and take 19 to 49 days to germinate .
= Despicable Me 2 = Despicable Me 2 is a 2013 American 3D computer @-@ animated comedy film and the sequel to the 2010 animated film Despicable Me . Produced by Illumination Entertainment for Universal Pictures , and animated by Illumination Mac Guff , the film is directed by Pierre Coffin and Chris Renaud , and written by Cinco Paul and Ken Daurio . Steve Carell , Russell Brand , Miranda Cosgrove , Elsie Fisher , and Dana Gaier reprise their roles as Gru , Dr. Nefario , Margo , Agnes , and Edith respectively . Kristen Wiig , who played Miss Hattie in the first film , voices agent Lucy Wilde , while Ken Jeong , who played the Talk Show Host , voices Floyd Eagle @-@ san . New cast members include Benjamin Bratt as Eduardo " El Macho " Pérez and Steve Coogan as Silas Ramsbottom , head of the Anti @-@ Villain League ( AVL ) . The film premiered on June 5 , 2013 in Australia , and was theatrically released in the United States on July 3 , 2013 . The film received mostly positive reviews from critics , and was nominated for Academy Award for Best Animated Feature and for Academy Award for Best Original Song ( for " Happy " ) , losing both to Walt Disney Animation Studios ' Frozen . Grossing over $ 970 million worldwide against its budget of $ 76 million , the film became the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing animated film of 2013 and the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2013 . It is also the most profitable film in the 101 @-@ year history of Universal Studios . A prequel / spin @-@ off film , Minions , focusing on the little yellow henchmen before they met Gru , was released on July 10 , 2015 . A third film , Despicable Me 3 , is scheduled for release on June 30 , 2017 . = = Plot = = A mysterious vehicle using a huge magnet steals a highly potent mutagen known as PX @-@ 41 from a secret laboratory in the Arctic Circle . The Anti @-@ Villain League ( AVL ) , headed by Silas Ramsbottom , tries to recruit former supervillain , Felonious Gru , to track down those responsible and recover the mutagen , but Gru refuses , claiming that he is now a legitimate businessman as well as the devoted father of Margo , Edith , and Agnes . Dr. Nefario , Gru 's friend and assistant , tells Gru that he " misses being evil " , and opts to leave him for new employment . Gru reluctantly agrees to investigate the theft of the mutagen , and is partnered with undercover AVL agent Lucy Wilde . The pair begin their search in the Paradise Shopping Mall , disguised as bakery employees . Gru immediately comes to suspect Mexican restaurant owner , Eduardo Pérez , of being the infamous " El Macho " , a legendary supervillain who supposedly died after skysurfing a shark into the center of an active volcano . Gru and Lucy break into Eduardo 's restaurant at night , but find nothing to prove that he is the culprit . Meanwhile , Agnes confides her dream to one day have a mother , and believes that Gru will fall in love with Lucy , but , despite her excitement , Gru tells her that his relationship with Lucy is strictly professional . Although still suspicious of Eduardo , Gru agrees to pursue other suspects , including wig merchant Floyd Eagle @-@ san . However , after witnessing Eduardo 's two @-@ timing son , Antonio , sweep Margo off her feet , and invite everyone , including Margo , to his Cinco de Mayo party , Gru renews his focus on Eduardo . Afterwards , Gru is set up on what transpires to be a horrible dinner date with a vacuous woman named Shannon . During the meal , Shannon notices Gru 's wig and is about to humiliate him when Lucy , visiting the restaurant herself , renders Shannon unconscious with a tranquilizer dart . They take Shannon home and , after spending personal time with Lucy , Gru comes to realize that Agnes was right ; he has fallen in love with Lucy . The next day , the AVL arrest Floyd Eagle @-@ san after an almost @-@ empty jar of the PX @-@ 41 mutagen is found in his shop , and Ramsbottom declares the investigation closed . Lucy is reassigned to Australia , but before leaving she gives Gru her lipstick Taser as a reminder of her . Realizing that he genuinely loves Lucy , Gru is heartbroken , yet still cannot find the courage to ask her out on a date . Instead , he brings the girls to the Cinco de Mayo party and , whilst there , finds undeniable proof that Eduardo is indeed " El Macho " . Gru discovers that El Macho and his partner , none other than Dr. Nefario , have been abducting Gru 's Minions and using the stolen PX @-@ 41 serum to mutate them into insanely savage , purple , hairy ' Evil Minions ' . El Macho announces his plan to launch rockets full of the mutated Minions into major cities in order to achieve world domination . He makes Gru an offer , proposing that they team @-@ up , but Gru leaves without giving an answer . On her flight to Australia , Lucy realizes that she has also fallen in love with Gru . Using a backpack hang @-@ glider , she jumps out of the plane and hang glides down to the party , only to be captured by El Macho after his pet chicken , Pollito , retrieves her AVL ID badge from her purse . Fortunately , Dr. Nefario informs Gru , and to rescue Lucy , Gru visits Macho along with two Minions covered in purple paint , pretending he was captured by them . Fighting alongside his daughters and Nefario , Gru and his team spray all of the mutated Minions with jelly containing a powerful antidote that Dr. Nefario made , whereupon they revert to their friendly yellow state . Macho then takes the mutagen himself , but Gru and Dr. Nefario overcome him using Lucy 's lipstick Taser and a fart gun . Gru sees Lucy strapped to a TNT @-@ loaded shark rocket and starts to untie her , but Pollito launches the rocket , sending the rocket flying towards the same volcano where Macho previously faked his death . Lucy accepts Gru 's invitation for a date , and the pair dive into the ocean seconds before the rocket enters the volcano . After 147 dates , Gru and Lucy are married and Margo , Edith , and Agnes finally have a mother . The Minions close with a rendition of " I Swear " and " Y.M.C.A " as the whole family celebrates . = = Cast = = Steve Carell as Felonius Gru , a former villain turned father . Kristen Wiig as Lucy Wilde , an Anti @-@ Villain League agent and Gru 's love interest . Wiig also voiced Miss Hattie in the first film . Benjamin Bratt as Eduardo " El Macho " Pérez , the owner of Salsa & Salsa , a Mexican restaurant in the Paradise Mall , and the mastermind behind the theft of the PX @-@ 41 serum . Al Pacino was originally cast in the role , but left the film due to creative differences . Miranda Cosgrove as Margo , the oldest of the three girls and the most overprotective of the trio . Elsie Fisher as Agnes , the youngest child of the three girls , who is obsessed with unicorns Dana Gaier as Edith , the middle and tomboy of the three girls Russell Brand as Dr. Nefario , Gru 's elderly , hearing impaired gadget man Ken Jeong as Floyd Eagle @-@ san , the owner of Eagle Hair Club , a wig store in the Paradise Mall . Jeong also voiced Talk Show Host in the previous film . Steve Coogan as Silas Ramsbottom , the head of the Anti @-@ Villain League Moisés Arias as Antonio Pérez , Margo 's love interest and Eduardo 's son Nasim Pedrad as Jillian , Gru 's irritating matchmaking neighbor Kristen Schaal as Shannon , Jillian 's superficial friend Pierre Coffin as Kevin the Minion , Bob the Minion , Stuart the Minion , Additional Minions , and Evil Minions . According to Coffin , he lent his voice to 899 Minions . Chris Renaud as Additional Minions , Evil Minions , and Italian waiter Vanessa Bayer as Flight Attendant Nickolai Stoilov as Arctic Lab Guards = = Production = = Chris Meledandri , CEO of Illumination Entertainment , said in July 2010 that a sequel was in the works . Release was tentatively scheduled for July 3 , 2013 . Miranda Cosgrove stated on her official Facebook and Twitter page on October 14 , 2011 that she had recorded her first lines , while Meledandri confirmed in February 2012 that they had started working on the film . = = = Casting = = = In February 2012 , it was reported that Al Pacino had joined the cast to voice the villain , Eduardo . In April 2012 , producers confirmed that Steve Carell , Russell Brand , Miranda Cosgrove , Dana Gaier and Elsie Fisher were returning to reprise their roles . Kristen Wiig , who voiced Miss Hattie in the original film , voices Lucy Wilde , an agent of the Anti @-@ Villain League ( AVL ) who recruits Gru to track and take down a tough , Mexican villain named El Macho . Steve Coogan joined the cast as Silas Ramsbottom , the head of the Anti @-@ Villain League . On May 3 , 2013 , just a month before the film 's premiere , producers announced that Al Pacino had left the film over creative differences about how his character should come to life . At the time of his departure , Pacino 's character had already been fully voiced and animated . Chris Renaud , co @-@ director of the film , commented on Pacino 's departure : " So we don 't want an unhappy actor , and we want something that is well @-@ realized on all sides . If you don 't see eye to eye , sometimes it 's easier to ( part company ) and move on from there . " Benjamin Bratt , who had already been considered before Pacino , stepped in to voice Eduardo . Chris Meledandri , producer of the film , admitted that he was not " aware of any of the major animated films of the last 15 years that has brought an actor in at such a late stage " . Due to the finished animation , Bratt had to match his timing exactly to the character 's mouth movement . Initially , during his five @-@ day recording , he tried to imitate Pacino 's voice , but found it impossible , saying " no one can out @-@ Al Pacino Al Pacino " . He ended up only using Pacino as an inspiration , and resolved to go with his own interpretation of the character . His work was commended by Variety , saying : " You 'd never guess he wasn 't the filmmakers ' first choice . " = = Release = = Despicable Me 2 premiered on June 5 , 2013 , at Event Cinemas in Bondi Junction , New South Wales , Australia . Steve Carell and Miranda Cosgrove were present at the red carpet premiere . In France , it premiered on June 12 , 2013 , as part of the Annecy International Animated Film Festival . The American premiere was held at Universal CityWalk in Los Angeles on June 22 , 2013 ; Steve Carell , Miranda Cosgrove , Kristen Wiig , Benjamin Bratt , Ken Jeong , Elsie Fisher , Dana Gaier , Nasim Pedrad and composer Pharrell Williams were present at the " yellow carpet " premiere . The film was theatrically released in the United States on July 3 , 2013 . It was digitally re @-@ mastered into IMAX 3D format and released in select international IMAX theatres . This film was also shown in the 4DX format , featuring tilting seats , water sprays , strobe lightning , aroma , wind , pops , and ticklers , in selected countries . Cinépolis opened its first 4DX room at the Centro Comercial Limonar Premier mall in Cali , Colombia , with the release of the film . As with the first film , which did not have a theatrical release in China , the film 's distributor Universal Pictures had troubles releasing the sequel . When it was reported in July 2013 that the film had been denied a theatrical release in China , then the second largest film market in the world , some analysts attributed this to the protection of locally produced animation . There were also rumors that the film 's release was banned in China because the film 's minions too much resembled former Chinese president Jiang Zemin . China 's Film Bureau was " furious " about the negative comments , stating that the film was not submitted for censorship approval . In fact , there was reportedly a " commercial conflict " between Universal and Edko Films , the film 's local distributor , over which titles are to be imported . Edko had decided that the film " would not do well in China and decided against using one of the precious quota slots for the film . " In December 2013 , a few weeks after the Universal Pictures ' announcement that it would open a Beijing office , it was reported that Despicable Me 2 would be theatrically released in China on January 10 , 2014 . = = = Marketing = = = A blimp dressed to appear as a Minion , named " Despicablimp , " toured the United States from March 2013 in a six @-@ month tour to promote the film 's release . As one of the largest airships in the world , measuring 165 feet ( 50 m ) in length , 55 feet ( 17 m ) in height , and weighing 8 @,@ 000 pounds ( 3 @.@ 6 t ) , it crossed the country three times during its 20 @,@ 000 miles ( 32 @,@ 000 km ) -long tour , visiting hundreds of events , including the film 's premiere in Hollywood . The blimp , an American Blimp Corporation A @-@ 150 model , could be tracked in real @-@ time via GPS at the Despicablimp Command Center website , which allowed fans to post photos of sightings , and compete for various prizes , including for a ride in the blimp . A free mobile action video game inspired by the Despicable Me franchise , titled Despicable Me : Minion Rush , was released on June 13 , 2013 . The game , developed by Gameloft , was adapted for iPhone , iPad and Android devices . Played as one of the Minions , it allows customization of the character , who must perform various tasks , including defeating Vector and a new villain created for the game , to earn the title of Minion of the Year . The game was downloaded more than 100 million times in the first three months after its release , and won a BAFTA 's British Academy Children 's Award in the category BAFTA 's Kids Vote . For the film 's release , Roblox , a massively multiplayer online game , released two virtual items , a Minion and goggles . Six books were released for the film : The Junior Novel , The Anti @-@ Villain League Handbook , Undercover Super Spies , Attack of the Evil Minions ! , Make a Minion , and Meet the Minions . Universal Pictures and Illumination Entertainment partnered with more than 100 licensing and promotional partners in a deal valued at an unprecedented $ 250 million . One of the partners was McDonald 's , which included in its Happy Meals various Minion toys , some of them unique to a specific country . To take advantage of banana @-@ loving Minions , Chiquita Brands International ran various sweepstakes , and a Minion , voiced by Pierre Coffin , performed the song " Chiquita Banana " in the film . Thinkway Toys released various toys and figures , and Hasbro made special Monopoly and Operation games . Custom 3D glasses , modelled after the Minions ' goggles , were released exclusively at Best Buy and Look3D , the producer of the glasses , for use in RealD 3D theatres and with passive 3D home theatre systems . = = = Home media = = = Despicable Me 2 was released in Digital HD on November 26 , 2013 , and on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on December 10 , 2013 . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray combo pack features three " mini movies " titled Puppy , Panic in the Mailroom , and Training Wheels . A Walmart exclusive Blu @-@ ray / DVD combo pack included two limited edition Minion toys . In its first week of home entertainment release , 4 @.@ 5 million physical and digital units had been sold , earning $ 80 million and breaking several records . The film had the highest first @-@ week sales for a digital title ever and became the best selling animated Blu @-@ ray title in its first week , surpassing its predecessor , which previously held the record . Despicable Me 2 was the best selling Blu @-@ ray of 2013 with 4 @,@ 689 @,@ 747 sold for a total of $ 93 @,@ 734 @,@ 824 in sales . It was also the second best selling DVD for the year 2013 with 4 @,@ 566 @,@ 911 sold for sales totaling $ 77 @,@ 250 @,@ 269 . As of January 2015 , Despicable Me 2 has sold 6 @,@ 998 @,@ 018 DVDs and 5 @,@ 560 @,@ 038 Blu @-@ ray discs totalling $ 112 @,@ 572 @,@ 748 and $ 114 @,@ 061 @,@ 866 respectively totalling $ 226 @,@ 634 @,@ 614 in North America . = = Soundtrack = = Despicable Me 2 : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the soundtrack album for the film , released on June 18 , 2013 through Back Lot Music . The original music was composed by Heitor Pereira and Pharrell Williams . The album was promoted by the highly successful single " Happy " performed by Williams . = = = Track listing = = = All music composed by Heitor Pereira , except where noted . = = = Chart positions = = = = = Reception = = = = = Critical response = = = Despicable Me 2 received generally positive reviews from critics . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 73 % approval rating with an average rating of 6 @.@ 6 / 10 based on 172 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " Despicable Me 2 offers plenty of eye @-@ popping visual inventiveness and a number of big laughs . " Another review aggregator , Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating from mainstream critics , gave the film a score of 62 out of 100 , based on 39 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . The film earned an " A " from audiences polled by CinemaScore , on an A + to F scale . Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film two and a half stars out of four , saying " Steve Carell 's Slavic inflections as Gru do the trick , as before . Wiig 's clever hesitations and comic timing help save the day . " Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a negative review , saying " The new edition doesn 't quite catch that inspired spark . " Stephen Whitty of The Star @-@ Ledger gave the film three out four stars , saying " Not only a fun cartoon but – that rare thing – a sequel which actually improves on the original . " Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York Daily News gave the film two out of five stars , saying " Armed with masses of minions and an excess of adorability , Despicable Me 2 is guaranteed to charm anyone who 's out of school and already bored . " Soren Anderson of The Seattle Times gave the film two and a half stars out of four , saying " It 's fun . It 's cheerful . It 's lollipop colorful . Best of all , it features lots of minion mischief , which guarantees plenty of laughs . But what it doesn 't have is an edge . " Peter Howell of the Toronto Star gave the film two and a half stars out of four , saying " It feels at times as if Despicable Me 2 actually is The Minions Movie . Coffin and Renaud and returning screenwriters Cinco Paul and Ken Daurio haven 't managed to come up with a dastardly plot to rival the shrinking and stealing of the moon from the previous film . " Stephen Holden of The New York Times gave the film two and a half stars out of five , saying " It is consistently diverting and so cute you 'll want to pet it . Yet it is also weightless and lacks a center . " Rafer Guzman of Newsday gave the film two and a half stars out of four , saying " Better , or at least sweeter , than the first , with Wiig adding some much @-@ needed romantic charm to the toddler @-@ level humor . " Tirdad Derakhshani of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film two and a half stars out of five , saying " If you 're looking for quality prepackaged , predigested Hollywood family fun this summer , you could do a lot worse than Despicable Me 2 . " Keith Uhlich of Time Out gave the film three out of five stars , saying " A fleeter film than its predecessor , Despicable Me 2 delights more often than it disappoints . " Alonso Duralde of The Wrap gave the film a negative review , saying " The minions are still wacky scene @-@ stealers – and once again , we don 't get nearly enough of them – but Gru and his daughters have been blanded down to bad @-@ sitcom level . " Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film two out of four stars , saying " With its predecessor having made a whopping $ 540 million globally , it 's no wonder that Universal saw fit to order a sequel . But it 's not enough just to trot out legions of minions and cobble together a plot . Audiences deserve more imagination and inventiveness than this wan recycling . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a ' C ' grade , saying " By the end , every child in the audience will want his or her own monster @-@ minion toy . Adults will just regret the way that Despicable Me 2 betrays the original film 's devotion to bad @-@ guy gaiety . " Sara Stewart of the New York Post gave the film three out of four stars , saying " Sure , it 's not as novel as the first time we were here , but directors Pierre Coffin and Chris Renaud stay true to the clever , slapstick vibe . " James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film three out of four stars , saying " Despicable Me 2 feels like an opportunity to get together with some old friends , hang out , and discover what they 've been up to . " Tom Russo of The Boston Globe gave the film a positive review , saying " The scope of the ' toon espionage @-@ adventure goings @-@ on is surprisingly limited . But the filmmakers so clearly love working on these characters , their creative joy is infectious . " Stephanie Merry of The Washington Post gave the film three out of four stars , saying " The animation is beguiling , particularly when Lucy drives her car into the ocean , transforming it into a submarine that scoots around sharks and fish . " Peter Debruge of Variety gave the film a positive review , saying " While not quite as charming or unique as the original , Despicable Me 2 comes awfully close , extending co @-@ directors Chris Renaud and Pierre Coffin 's delightfully silly sensibility to a bit larger universe . " Peter Hartlaub of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film three out of four stars , saying " It 's a credit that the writing can be so funny in the moment , that it takes time to realize there 's no cohesive story , zero dramatic tension and nary a practical lesson for either the characters in the film or the people watching in the theater . " James Rocchi of MSN Movies gave the film four out of five stars , saying " Heartfelt and hilarious , smart and silly , action @-@ packed but never violent , Despicable Me 2 is that rare sequel that outshines its beginnings . " Colin Covert of the Star Tribune gave the film three out of four stars , saying " For an adult , the predictability could turn you blasé . For kids , revisiting these jokes is a howl . Pinkie promise . " Mary F. Pols of Time gave the film a positive review , saying " As a sequel it stands level with the first film , and may have the edge on it . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film three out of four stars , saying " Co @-@ directors Chris Renaud and Pierre Coffin , who do Minion voices expertly , never let up on the laughs . A fart joke in 3 @-@ D may not be three times as wacky , but the high spirits of Despicable Me 2 are irresistible fun . " A.A. Dowd of The A.V. Club gave the film a ' C ' grade , saying " What 's missing — and this was the crucial component of part one — is a little sour to undercut the sweet . Like its protagonist , a bad guy gone boringly good , Despicable Me 2 has no edge . It 's fatally nice and insufficiently naughty . " Laremy Legel of Film.com gave the film a 6 @.@ 3 out of 10 , saying " Despicable Me 2 is fun , especially near the culmination . Structural issues aside , it 's impossible not to like these characters , all of them , rendered with love , always entertaining even when the story around them doesn 't make much sense . " = = = Box office = = = Despicable Me 2 grossed $ 368 million in North America , and $ 602 @.@ 7 million in other countries , for a worldwide total of $ 970 @.@ 8 million . Calculating in all expenses , Deadline.com estimated that the film made a profit of $ 394 @.@ 5 million . It is currently the twenty @-@ eighth highest @-@ grossing film , the fifth highest @-@ grossing animated film , the third highest @-@ grossing 2013 film ( behind Frozen and Iron Man 3 ) , the second highest @-@ grossing 2013 animated film , the highest @-@ grossing Illumination Entertainment film , and the second highest @-@ grossing Universal Studios film ( behind Jurassic Park ) . With a budget of $ 76 million , the film is the most profitable film in the 101 @-@ year history of Universal Studios . North America Despicable Me 2 is the twenty @-@ sixth highest @-@ grossing film , the fourth highest @-@ grossing 2013 film , the sixth highest @-@ grossing animated film , the seventh highest @-@ grossing 3 @-@ D film , and the highest @-@ grossing Illumination Entertainment film . It is the sixth animated film to pass the $ 300 million mark . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold more than 40 million tickets in North America . The film opened on Wednesday , July 3 , 2013 at first place with $ 35 @.@ 0 million ( including $ 4 @.@ 7 million from Tuesday night showings ) . Its opening @-@ day gross stands as third highest for an animated feature , and the seventh highest among films opening on a Wednesday . The film then dropped 30 % to $ 24 @.@ 5 million on Thursday , marking the second @-@ largest non @-@ opening Thursday gross . Over the five @-@ day Independence Day weekend ( Wednesday @-@ to @-@ Sunday , including Tuesday night showings ) , the film earned $ 143 @.@ 1 million , the highest five @-@ day start for an animated film ( ahead of Toy Story 3 's $ 141 @.@ 0 million five @-@ day debut ) . During the traditional three @-@ day opening weekend ( Friday @-@ to @-@ Sunday ) , the film earned $ 83 @.@ 5 million . The film 's three @-@ day opening @-@ weekend gross was the largest among Illumination Entertainment films , the third largest for an Independence Day holiday , the fourth largest among animated films , the seventh largest among films released in July , and the tenth largest among films not released on a Friday . The film remained in the first position at the box office for two consecutive weekends . Other countries Despicable Me 2 is the twenty @-@ seventh highest @-@ grossing film , the third highest @-@ grossing animated film , the fourth highest @-@ grossing Universal film , and the third highest @-@ grossing 2013 film . It is also only the fourth animated film to have grossed over $ 600 million . On its first weekend , Despicable Me 2 opened only in Australia with $ 6 @.@ 66 million , ahead of Monsters University which opened on the same weekend . The film set an opening @-@ day record in Latvia . In total , it opened at number one in 67 territories , and set opening @-@ weekend records among animated films in Latin America , Indonesia , Malaysia , Philippines , Vietnam , and Lebanon , as well as opening @-@ weekend records among all films in South Africa and Venezuela . The film remained in the first position at the box office for two consecutive weekends during July 2013 . The film 's largest openings occurred in the United Kingdom , Ireland and Malta ( $ 22 @.@ 5 million ) , China ( $ 15 @.@ 4 million ) and Mexico ( $ 14 @.@ 9 million ) . In total earnings , its largest markets were the United Kingdom , Ireland and Malta ( $ 72 @.@ 2 million ) , China ( $ 53 @.@ 0 million ) and Mexico ( $ 47 @.@ 7 million ) . = = = Accolades = = = = = Prequel and sequel = = = = = Prequel = = = A prequel feature film titled Minions , featuring the Minions as the main characters , was released on July 10 , 2015 . Written by Brian Lynch , it was directed by Pierre Coffin and Kyle Balda , and produced by Chris Meledandri and Janet Healey . The film , set in the 1960s , focuses on the Minions before they met Gru , where they compete for the right to become henchmen of an ambitious villain , Scarlet Overkill , voiced by Sandra Bullock . = = = Sequel = = = On January 15 , 2014 , it was announced that a sequel , titled Despicable Me 3 will be released on June 30 , 2017 .
= Tropical Storm Chris ( 2006 ) = Tropical Storm Chris was the fourth tropical storm of the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season . Forming on July 31 in the Atlantic Ocean east of the Leeward Islands from a tropical wave , Chris moved generally to the west @-@ northwest , skirting the northern fringes of the Caribbean islands . Chris was a relatively short @-@ lived storm , reaching a peak intensity with winds at 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) on August 2 , while positioned north of St. Martin . The storm gradually weakened before finally dissipating on August 5 , near eastern Cuba . Overall impact was minimal , amounting to moderate amounts of rainfall throughout its path . No deaths were reported . = = Meteorological history = = A tropical wave moved westward off the coast of Africa on July 27 . Initially , virgorous convection persisted throughout the wave axis , though dry air greatly diminished the convection on July 28 . The wind field remained well @-@ defined as it continued westward , and deep convection increased two days later along the northern end of the wave axis . Dvorak classifications began on July 30 in response to an increase in vertical depth and organization of the convection . On July 31 a buoy recorded a change of wind direction from northeast to west , indicating a small low pressure area formed . Convective organization rapidly increased as it turned to the northwest , and the system developed into Tropical Depression Three on August 1 while located about 235 miles ( 375 km ) east @-@ southeast of Barbuda . Forecasters initially predicted wind shear from an upper level low would prevent strengthening and cause dissipation within three days . However , the depression continued to organize as deep convection continued to develop near the circulation despite moderate amounts of wind shear , and the system intensified into Tropical Storm Chris six hours after developing . The convection gradually consolidated over the system , and by late on the 1st Chris reached winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) while passing 50 miles ( 80 km ) north of the northern Leeward Islands . The structure of Chris continued to improve and become more symmetrical , and an upper level eye feature developed early on August 2 . Outflow improved in all quadrants , as well , and the storm reached a peak intensity of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) shortly thereafter while located 120 miles ( 195 km ) east of St. Thomas . Despite initial predictions of Chris intensifying to a hurricane as a ridge of high pressure forced it west @-@ northwestward , upper level shear dissipated the well @-@ defined inner core of the storm , and Chris started to weaken . Early on August 3 , strong wind shear over Chris detached the deep convection from the low level circulation , while a building ridge to its north turned the storm towards the west into an area of drier air . By mid @-@ day on the 3rd the circulation was devoid of any convection within 85 miles ( 135 km ) , while the deeper convection spread across Puerto Rico and Hispaniola . Late on August 3 , deep convection developed over the center of circulation again , though persistent vertical shear weakened Chris to a tropical depression on August 4 . Due to computer models predicting lesser amounts of shear , forecasters indicated the possibility of moderate strengthening in the Gulf of Mexico to a 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) storm . However , convection remained minimal , and Chris degenerated into a remnant area of low pressure late on August 4 . Late on August 5 , convection increased in the remnants of the storm , and forecasters indicated the potential for slow development over the Gulf of Mexico due to marginally favorable conditions . Redevelopment never occurred , and the remnant circulation dissipated near Havana , Cuba on August 6 . = = Preparations = = When the National Hurricane Center issued its first advisory on Tropical Depression Three , the governments of Antigua and Barbuda , Anguilla , Saint Kitts and Nevis , and the British Virgin Islands issued a Tropical Storm Warning for their respective territories . When the depression strengthened to Tropical Storm Chris , Tropical Storm Warnings were also issued for Saba , Sint Eustatius , Saint @-@ Barthélemy , and Saint Martin . Three Royal Caribbean cruise ships re @-@ routed their paths to avoid the storm . Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) representatives coordinated with local emergency management officials in the United States Virgin Islands to determine if preparation necessities would be adequate , such as hospital usage , shelters , and sand bags . On August 1 , officials in Puerto Rico issued a tropical storm warning for the island . The next day , approximately 600 tourists evacuated the islands of Vieques and Culebra . On August 2 , the government of the Bahamas issued a Hurricane Watch for the Turks and Caicos Islands , the Acklins and Crooked Islands , Ragged Island , Inagua , and Mayaguana . In response to the threat , officials urged citizens to stock up on hurricane supplies , while boat owners in Staniel Cay secured their boats in preparation for the storm . In response to the storm 's projected path into the Gulf of Mexico , prices for crude oil rose on the New York Mercantile Exchange at branch offices in London . Natural gas prices rose considerably in New York Mercantile Exchange electronic trading on August 2 . Anticipation of a threat to supply by a potential Hurricane Chris coupled with high demand during an ongoing heat wave were cited as factors in the price move . In New Orleans , officials including Mayor Ray Nagin prepared for a possible evacuation of the city if Chris entered the Gulf of Mexico as a hurricane . The evacuation plan included moving all residents out of the city as a worst @-@ case scenario , intended to avoid a re @-@ occurrence of Hurricane Katrina around one year prior . Florida Emergency Management requested ten mobile recovery centers , and placed hospitals in the Florida Keys on standby for evacuation . Officials in Mississippi identified the need for 110 to assist in an evacuation process in case of a possible landfall . Both Louisiana and Texas emergency operation centers monitored the progress of the storm , though did not execute any preparation action . = = Impact = = Despite its initial threat , Chris caused little impact in the Lesser Antilles . Overall damage from Chris was minimal . The storm dropped light rainfall in Puerto Rico , peaking at 3 @.@ 09 inches ( 78 mm ) in Fajardo . The rainfall from the storm caused the Fajardo River to overflow its banks , which temporarily closed a highway in the northeastern portion of the island . Rainfall reached up to 2 inches ( 50 mm ) across portions of Hispaniola , the Turks and Caicos , the Bahamas , and eastern Cuba , and reached 4 inches ( 100 mm ) in some mountainous areas . In Santo Domingo in the Dominican Republic , heavy rainfall caused severe flooding . Las Américas reported 5 @.@ 01 inches ( 127 mm ) of rainfall from Chris . Several people were left temporarily homeless due to flooding entering their households . The flooding left many roads impassable near the capital city , and also resulted in landslides . The flooding also covered rice fields in the northeastern portion of the country . The National Office of Meteorology issued flood warnings for residents in low @-@ lying areas and near rivers in the northeast and southeast portions of the country . Despite the flooding , overall damage was minor , and there are no casualties associated with Chris .
= North American AJ Savage = The North American AJ Savage ( later A @-@ 2 Savage ) was a carrier @-@ based medium bomber built for the United States Navy by North American Aviation . The aircraft was designed shortly after World War II to carry atomic bombs and this meant that the bomber was the heaviest aircraft thus far designed to operate from an aircraft carrier . It was powered by two piston engines and a turbojet buried in the rear fuselage . The AJ @-@ 1 first became operational in 1950 and several were based in South Korea during 1953 as a deterrent against the Communists . Of the 140 built , plus three prototypes , 30 were reconnaissance aircraft . Inflight @-@ refueling equipment was deployed on the Savage in the mid @-@ 1950s . The bomber was replaced by the Douglas A3D Skywarrior beginning in 1957 . = = Design and development = = At the end of World War II , the U.S. Navy began a design competition on 13 August 1945 for a carrier @-@ based bomber which could carry a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 4 @,@ 536 kg ) bomb that was won by North American Aviation . Later that year , the Navy decided that it needed to be able to deliver atomic bombs and that the AJ Savage design would be modified to accommodate the latest Mark 4 nuclear bomb . A contract for three XAJ @-@ 1 prototypes and a static test airframe was awarded on 24 June 1946 . The first prototype made its maiden flight two years later on 3 July 1948 . That same year the US Navy began an interim capability program employing the Lockheed P @-@ 2 Neptune as its first carrier launched nuclear bomber aircraft until the Savage was in service , the Neptune launched using JATO assist but could not land on existing carriers , if launched they had to either ditch at sea after it 's mission or land at a friendly airbase . The AJ @-@ 1 was a three @-@ seat , high @-@ wing monoplane with tricycle landing gear . To facilitate carrier operations , the outer wing panels and the tailfin could be manually folded . It was fitted with two 2 @,@ 300 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 1 @,@ 700 kW ) Pratt & Whitney R @-@ 2800 @-@ 44W Double Wasp piston engines , mounted in nacelles under each wing with a large turbocharger fitted inside each engine nacelle , and a 4 @,@ 600 @-@ pound @-@ force ( 20 @,@ 000 N ) Allison J33 @-@ A @-@ 10 turbojet was fitted in the rear fuselage . Only intended to be used for takeoff and maximum speed near the target , the jet was fed by an air inlet on top of the fuselage that was normally kept closed to reduce drag . To simplify the fuel system , both types of engines used the same grade of avgas . One 201 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 760 l ; 167 imp gal ) self @-@ sealing fuel tank was housed in the fuselage , and another 508 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 1 @,@ 920 l ; 423 imp gal ) tank was located in each wing . The aircraft usually carried 300 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 1 @,@ 100 l ; 250 imp gal ) tip tanks and it could house three fuel tanks in the bomb bay with a total capacity of 1 @,@ 640 US gallons ( 6 @,@ 200 l ; 1 @,@ 370 imp gal ) . Other than its 12 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 5 @,@ 400 kg ) bombload , the bomber was unarmed . Two of the three prototypes crashed during testing , but their loss did not materially affect the development of the aircraft as the first batch of Savages had been ordered on 6 October 1947 . The most significant difference between the XAJ @-@ 1 and the production aircraft was the revision of the cockpit to accommodate a third crewman in a separate compartment . The first flight by a production aircraft occurred in May 1949 and Fleet Composite Squadron FIVE ( VC @-@ 5 ) became the first squadron to receive a Savage in September . The squadron participated in testing and evaluating the aircraft together with the Naval Air Test Center ( NATC ) in order to expedite the Savage 's introduction into the fleet . The first carrier takeoff and landing made by the bomber took place from the USS Coral Sea on 21 April and 31 August 1950 , respectively . Many , if not most , surviving AJ @-@ 1s had their tails upgraded to the improved AJ @-@ 2 configuration . A photo @-@ reconnaissance version of the Savage , initially known as the AJ @-@ 1P , but later designated as the AJ @-@ 2P , was ordered on 18 August 1950 . It had improved R @-@ 2800 @-@ 48 piston engines and the tail was redesigned to add 1 foot ( 30 cm ) of height to the tailfin . The 12 ° dihedral of the tail stabilizers was eliminated and the rudder enlarged which slightly lengthened the aircraft . Early AJ @-@ 2Ps retained the three @-@ man crew , but late @-@ model aircraft added a fourth crewman to the upper cockpit facing aft . The Savage 's internal fuel capacity was also increased . The nose of the aircraft was remodeled with a prominent " chin " to accommodate a forward @-@ looking oblique camera and a variety of oblique and vertical cameras could be fitted in the bomb bay . Photo @-@ flash bombs could be carried for night photography missions . The AJ @-@ 2 incorporated all of the changes made to the late model AJ @-@ 2P and 55 aircraft were ordered on 14 February 1951 . The AJ @-@ 2 deleted the separate compartment for the third crewman , but retained the third seat in the cockpit from the AJ @-@ 2P . Around 1954 , NATC modified the sole surviving XAJ @-@ 1 to conduct inflight refueling tests using the probe and drogue configuration . The turbojet engine was removed and the fuel hose and its drogue extended out from the jet 's former exhaust opening . Aircraft in service retained the turbojet and had their bomb bay doors modified to accommodate the hose and drogue . They were refueling aircraft during late 1954 . = = Operational history = = When first deployed , the AJ @-@ 1 was too large and heavy to be used by any American aircraft carrier except for the Midway class . The modernized Essex class carriers with reinforced decks and the very large Forrestal class could also handle the Savage . The aircraft was not popular aboard ship as " it was so big and cumbersome that it complicated any other flight operations the ship was required to conduct . " One problem was that the wings had to be folded one at a time by a crewman on top of the fuselage with a portable hydraulic pump , a time @-@ consuming process , so that the bomber could be moved out of the way to allow other aircraft to land or take off . One pilot reported that the AJ @-@ 1 was " a dream to fly and handled like a fighter " , when everything was working properly . The aircraft , however , was not very reliable , possibly because it was rushed into production before all the bugs could be worked out . Early in the Savage 's career , squadrons would typically deploy a detachment to Naval Air Station Port Lyautey , Morocco , for service with the Sixth Fleet and fly the bombers aboard aircraft carriers that were already deployed to the Mediterranean as needed . The plan was that the Savages would then be loaded with atomic bombs already aboard the carriers and launched once the carriers were in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea . The tactic to deliver the bombs was to fly at low level through Bulgaria and Romania before climbing at maximum power to the proper altitude to release the bomb . The aircraft would then perform a wingover maneuver and dive to low altitude , keeping the tail of the aircraft aimed at the target to avoid serious damage from the shock wave of the explosion . VC @-@ 5 made the first of its three deployments to Port Lyautey in February 1951 . Fleet Composite Squadron SIX ( VC @-@ 6 ) received its first Savages in late 1950 and deployed to Port Lyautey in October 1951 before transferring to the Pacific Fleet in October 1952 . In July 1953 it deployed a detachment of two aircraft to K @-@ 3 Air Base in Korea to act as a nuclear deterrent . VC @-@ 7 , VC @-@ 8 , and VC @-@ 9 received their AJ @-@ 1s beginning in June 1951 and all remained on the East Coast of the United States . The Navy redesignated all of its Savage @-@ equipped composite squadrons as heavy attack squadrons ( VAH ) on 1 November 1955 . The squadrons retained their existing numbers except for VC @-@ 8 which became VAH @-@ 11 as all East Coast squadrons were odd @-@ numbered . AJ tankers were used to refuel John Glenn 's Vought F8U @-@ 1P Crusader during the Project Bullet transcontinental speed record flight in July 1957 ; AJ @-@ 2s from VAH @-@ 6 on the West Coast and AJ @-@ 1s from VAH @-@ 11 on the East Coast . Beginning in 1957 the Douglas A3D Skywarrior began to replace the Savages in the VAH Squadrons . Their refueling role was continued by the formation in January 1958 of VAH @-@ 15 on East Coast and VAH @-@ 16 on the West Coast . Both squadrons were equipped with AJ @-@ 2s , but both were short @-@ lived and disbanded early the following year . The AJ @-@ 2P was flown by Photographic Squadron SIXTY ONE ( VJ @-@ 61 ) and Photographic Squadron SIXTY TWO ( VJ @-@ 62 ) , both of which were redesignated as Heavy Photographic Squadrons , VAP @-@ 61 and VAP @-@ 62 , respectively , on 2 July 1956 . VJ @-@ 61 was assigned to the Pacific Fleet and VJ @-@ 62 to the Atlantic Fleet . The squadrons never deployed as complete units , but rather deployed as one to three aircraft detachments . Detachment Queen was formed by VJ @-@ 61 during the Korean War at Naval Station Sangley Point , in the Philippines , to fly reconnaissance missions over the People 's Republic of China and North Korea . The detachment continued its missions after the war until at least June 1954 . Both squadrons frequently provided photographic mapping for agencies outside the Navy like the Army Map Service , the Army Corps of Engineers , the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey and the U.S. Departments of the Interior and Agriculture . The AJ @-@ 2s in these squadrons were replaced by Douglas A3D @-@ 2P Skywarriors beginning in 1959 , although the last month that they were reported in squadron service was January 1960 . Surviving AJ @-@ 1 and AJ @-@ 2 aircraft became A @-@ 2As and A @-@ 2Bs , respectively , when the Department of Defense redesignated all U.S. military aircraft in a common series in 1962 . Three AJ @-@ 2s were loaned to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration as weightlessness simulators from January 1960 to September 1964 . They were eventually destroyed during firefighting training . Three AJ @-@ 1s were purchased by AJ Air Tankers , Inc. in early 1960 for use as water bombers . Their turbojets were removed before the delivery flight to California , during which one aircraft crashed . The two surviving aircraft were fully modified for the role after delivery and could carry 2 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 7 @,@ 600 l ; 1 @,@ 700 imp gal ) of fire retardant . They first flew missions during the 1961 fire season . Another aircraft crashed on takeoff in September 1967 when an engine failed and the sole survivor only made a few more flights before it was scrapped in 1968 – 69 . At least one other AJ @-@ 2 was purchased and used as a water bomber before it was purchased in 1970 by Avco Lycoming for use as an engine testbed for the YF102 turbofan . The J33 turbojet had to be reinstalled and the aircraft required almost a year of maintenance before it could be flown to Avco Lycoming 's home airfield at Stratford , Connecticut . The YF102 , too fat to fully fit in the bomb bay , was mounted on a retractable mechanism that could be lowered below the aircraft for tests . The testing was conducted from January to July 1972 . Another round of testing on the commercial derivative of the F102 , the ALF 502 , was performed between January 1979 and December 1980 . In 1984 , routine maintenance discovered several loose rivets on the spar and further examination showed that the skin was starting to separate from the spar . This damage was too uneconomical to repair so Avco Lycoming decided to donate the last surviving Savage to the National Museum of Naval Aviation . The AJ @-@ 2 was flown to Naval Air Station Pensacola in Pensacola , Florida on 9 May 1984 . = = Variants = = XAJ @-@ 1 Prototype with two 2 @,@ 300 hp ( 1 @,@ 715 kW ) Pratt & Whitney R @-@ 2800 @-@ 44 radial engines and one Allison J33 @-@ A @-@ 10 turbojet , three built . AJ @-@ 1 ( A @-@ 2A ) Initial production version with two 2 @,@ 400 hp ( 1 @,@ 790 kW ) R @-@ 2800 @-@ 44W radial engines and one J33 @-@ A @-@ 10 turbojet , 55 built , survivors redesignated A @-@ 2A in 1962 . AJ @-@ 2 ( A @-@ 2B ) Updated production version with two 2 @,@ 500 hp ( 1 @,@ 864 kW ) R @-@ 2800 @-@ 48 radial engines and one J33 @-@ A @-@ 10 , taller tailfin , slightly longer fuselage and increased fuel capacity , 55 built , survivors redesignated A @-@ 2B in 1962 . AJ @-@ 2P Photo @-@ reconnaissance version of the AJ @-@ 2 with array of cameras , 30 built . NA @-@ 146 Company designation for three prototypes delivered to the USN as XAJ @-@ 1 . NA @-@ 155 Development of the XAJ @-@ 1 , mockup only not built . NA @-@ 156 Production variant delivered to the USN as AJ @-@ 1 , 12 built . NA @-@ 160 Production variant delivered to the USN as AJ @-@ 1 , 28 built . NA @-@ 169 Production variant delivered to the USN as AJ @-@ 1 , 15 built . NA @-@ 175 Photo @-@ reconnassance variant delivered to the USN as AJ @-@ 2P , 23 built . NA @-@ 183 Photo @-@ reconniassance variant delivered to the USN as AJ @-@ 2P , 7 built . NA @-@ 184 Improved production variant delivered to the USN as AJ @-@ 2 , 55 built . = = Operators = = United States United States Navy National Aeronautics and Space Administration = = Aircraft on display = = Only one preserved Savage exists today : A @-@ 2B Savage , Bureau Number 130418 , which is displayed at the National Naval Aviation Museum at Naval Air Station Pensacola , Florida . = = Specifications ( AJ @-@ 1 ) = = Data from U.S. Navy Standard Aircraft Characteristics , and American Attack Aircraft Since 1926 General characteristics Crew : three Length : 63 ft 1 in ( 19 @.@ 2 m ) Wingspan : 71 ft 5 in ( 21 @.@ 8 m ) Height : 20 ft 5 in ( 6 @.@ 2 m ) Wing area : 836 ft2 ( 78 m2 ) Empty weight : 27 @,@ 558 lb ( 12 @,@ 500 kg ) Loaded weight : 47 @,@ 000 lb ( 21 @,@ 363 kg ) Max. takeoff weight : 50 @,@ 954 lb ( 23 @,@ 161 kg ) Powerplant : 1 × Allison J33 @-@ A @-@ 10 turbojet , 4 @,@ 600 lbf ( 20 kN ) 2 × Pratt & Whitney R @-@ 2800 @-@ 44W radial engines , 2 @,@ 400 hp ( 1 @,@ 790 kW ) each Performance Maximum speed : 471 mph ( 409 kn , 758 km / h ) Range : 1 @,@ 731 mi ( 1 @,@ 505 nmi , 2 @,@ 787 km ) Service ceiling : 40 @,@ 800 ft ( 12 @,@ 440 m ) Rate of climb : 2 @,@ 900 ft / min ( 14 @.@ 7 m / s ) Wing loading : 63 @.@ 2 lb / ft2 ( 309 kg / m2 ) Power / mass ( prop ) : 0 @.@ 091 hp / lb ( 150 W / kg ) Thrust / weight ( jet ) : 0 @.@ 087 Armament Bombs : 12 @,@ 000 lb ( 5 @,@ 400 kg ) of conventional bombs or 1 nuclear bomb
= Lactarius rupestris = Lactarius rupestris is a species of mushroom in the Russulaceae family . Described as a new species in 2010 , it is known only from the semi @-@ arid region in the National Park of Catimbau of Brazil . The mushroom is characterized by a stout fruit body with a smooth and sticky orange cap up to 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter . The gills on the underside of the cap are closely spaced and frequently anastomosed . The stem is 35 – 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 8 in ) long by 18 – 21 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 – 0 @.@ 83 in ) thick . The mushrooms exude a sparse cream @-@ colored latex when cut or injured . = = Discovery and classification = = The species was found in the Brazilian semi @-@ arid region in the National Park of Catimbau , in July 2007 . It was described as new to science in a 2010 Mycotaxon publication by Felipe Wartchow of the Universidade Federal de Pernambuco . L. rupestris is one of 19 species of Lactarius known from Brazil . The epithet rupestris refers to the campos rupestres montane savanna — the ecoregion where the type species was collected . The authors note that the fungus does not readily fit into any of the infrageneric ( i.e. , below the level of genus ) classification schemes outlined by previous authorities . For example , although L. rupestris has several characteristics that make the section Edules proposed by Annemieke Verbeken a somewhat close match , the taxon cannot be included because the surface of its cap is neither sufficiently areolate ( cracked ) nor dry enough , and its spores are excessively ornamented in comparison . = = Description = = The cap of L. rupestris is 60 – 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) , concave to somewhat funnel @-@ shaped , with a central depression . Its color is orange at the center to brownish @-@ orange towards the margin . The cap surface is somewhat sticky , and the texture is either smooth to slightly cracked . It has an indistinct layer of matted mycelial " hairs " . The margin lacks striations and grooves , and is curled inward slightly . The gills are slightly decurrent ( running slightly down the length of the stem ) , cream @-@ salmon in color , and crowded closely together . They are up to 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 in ) broad and are frequently branched . The gill edges are smooth , and the same color as the gill face . There are several tiers of lamellulae ( short gills that do not extend fully from the cap margin to the stem ) interspersed between the gills . The stem is 35 – 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 8 in ) long by 18 – 21 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 – 0 @.@ 83 in ) thick , centrally attached to the stem , cylindrical , and tapers slightly near the base . It is pale ochraceous @-@ salmon , and slight longitudinal ribs can be seen with a magnifying glass . The flesh is spongy , pale yellow @-@ ochre in the cap , and cream @-@ yellow in the stem . The latex is cream @-@ colored to roughly the same color as the gills , and not abundant . = = = Microscopic characteristics = = = The spores are roughly ellipsoid to roughly spherical , and typically measure 7 – 8 @.@ 5 by 6 – 7 µm . The ornamentation on the spore surface is amyloid ( staining blue to blue @-@ black in Melzer 's reagent ) and finely wart @-@ like , with each wart ranging to 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 7 µm high . The warts are interconnected by thin ridges , but the ridges do not form a complete reticulum . The hilar appendage ( the part of a spore once attached to the basidium via the sterigma ) ranges in shape from narrowly obtuse to somewhat conical ; the plage is not very distinct , but has an amyloid spot . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium ) are 35 – 50 by 8 – 11 µm , club @-@ shaped , and bear mainly four , but sometimes two long ( 6 – 10 µm ) sterigmata . Pseudopleurocystidia are very scarce on the gill faces ; when present , they are thin @-@ walled , 170 µm long by 24 µm wide , with brownish refractive contents , and arise from deep in the tissue of the hymenophore . The edge of the gill is sterile ( lacking basidia ) , and has marginal cells that are 30 – 45 by 4 – 6 µm , cylindrical to somewhat sinuous ( curvy ) , thin @-@ walled , and hyaline ( translucent ) . The tissue of the cap has abundant sphaerocysts ( spherical , swollen cells common to the Russulaceae ) and measure 25 – 65 by 24 – 50 µm , in addition to filamentous hyphae that are up to 10 µm wide . Lactiferous ( latex @-@ containing ) hyphae are common in the cap tissue . They are up to 15 µm wide with a longitudinal orientation . Although they diverge from the trama somewhat ( spreading out from the center of the gill ) , they do not form projecting pseudocystidia . The subhymenium ( the layer of cells directly under the hymenium ) is made of club @-@ shaped to nearly spherical cells that are 16 – 27 by 9 – 17 µm . The tissue that comprises the hymenophore is made of several parts . It contains abundant , nearly isodiametric ( 17 – 25 by 13 – 18 µm ) cells , and filamentous hyphae that measure 3 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 µm ; lactiferous hyphae are frequent , up to 7 – 12 µm wide , straight and only occasionally branching . The cap cuticle is a trichoderm — meaning the outermost hyphae emerge roughly parallel , like hairs , perpendicular to the cap surface . It is up to 140 µm thick and comprises two layers . The upper layer , the suprapellis , is made of plentiful , colorless hyphae that are 20 – 51 by 4 – 6 µm , thin @-@ walled ( up to 0 @.@ 5 µm ) , and range in shape from obtuse to somewhat acute to knob @-@ like or pear @-@ shaped . The lower layer of the cap cuticle , the subpellis , is made of both plentiful hyphae that are 3 – 8 µm wide and somewhat more inflated colorless cells up to 10 – 18 µm wide . Lactarius rupestris does not have clamp connections in its hyphae . = = Habitat and distribution = = The mushroom was found buried with up to two @-@ thirds of the stem in sandy soil near several shrubs ( Fabaceae subfamily Mimosoideae and others ) in a semi @-@ arid region , after heavy precipitation . The species is known only from the type locality in Vale do Catimbau National Park in Brazil , in the state of Pernambuco . It fruits at an elevation of 900 to 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . This is part of the biodiverse cerrado ecoregion , in an area known as the campos rupestres . Although the fungus is suspected to be mycorrhizal ( like all Lactarius ) , there was a wide diversity of plant species growing in the open , dry forest where the mushroom was found ( including members of the tree families Euphorbiaceae , Fabaceae , Myrtaceae , Nyctaginaceae , and Polygonaceae — all known to form mycorrhizal associations ) , so the authors did not speculate on any specific interactions .
= All Good Things ... ( The Hills ) = " All Good Things ... " is the series finale of The Hills . It originally aired on MTV on July 13 , 2010 . In the episode , Lo Bosworth moves into a house with her boyfriend , while Stephanie Pratt begins a romantic relationship . Audrina Patridge finds a house in Hermosa Beach , and Kristin Cavallari decides to leave Los Angeles and move to Europe . The series ' final scene reveals that her departure to the airport was filmed in a studio backlot , responding to longtime speculation that the program was scripted . " All Good Things ... " was produced by Adam DiVello , Michael Friedman , Liz Gateley , Josh Lansky , Kristofer Lindquist , and Sara Mast . In addition to being the final episode , it serves as the twelfth installment of the sixth season . The episode received mixed reviews from critics , who were ambivalent towards the final scene . According to Nielsen ratings , it was watched by 3 million viewers , becoming the peak viewership of the season . The episode was released on DVD on September 21 , 2010 , packaged with the remainder of the sixth season . Upon the conclusion of their month @-@ long morning marathon of The Hills , titled " RetroMTV Brunch " , MTV aired an alternate ending to the series on August 9 , 2013 . The scene replaced the original backlot clip with footage of Jenner and Lauren Conrad talking in his apartment . Critics appreciated Conrad 's return , but also felt that the revision was less shocking than the original clip . = = Plot = = As Audrina , Lo , Stephanie find themselves content with their lives , Kristin is unsure whether she should pursue her future endeavors . Brody believes that he can maintain a friendship with Kristin , though Frankie and Taylor are concerned that she may still have romantic feelings towards him . That evening , Kristin tells Stacie that she has decided to move to Europe , wanting to have a " new beginning " , though Stacie is concerned that she is seeking revenge against Brody . Meanwhile , Audrina purchases a home in Hermosa Beach , while Stephanie begins a romantic relationship with Josh . To the surprise of the guests , Brody attended Kristin 's farewell party that evening . He confesses that he is saddened by her move , but she maintains that the decision is in her best interest . The next day , after much prior deliberation , Lo moves into her boyfriend Scott 's house and begins unpacking her belongings . Brody visits Kristin and Stacie as they pack the last of her belongings before leaving for the airport . After giving their final goodbyes , Brody sees Kristin 's limousine off while it drives off her street . As Kristin looks out of the window , a montage of archived footage from the series ' earlier seasons is shown . In the final scene of the series , with the camera on Brody , the Hollywood Hills backdrop is pulled away , while the camera pans back to reveal that the entire scene was filmed on a backlot . In reality , the vehicle had not driven off and Kristin stepped out of the vehicle to hug Jenner . An alternate ending to the series was broadcast in August 2013 . The scene depicts Brody returning to his apartment after seeing Kristin 's limousine off to Europe . Lauren Conrad is revealed to be sitting on his couch , and comforts him that " it 's hard to say goodbye " to a " friend of [ his ] " , before the camera focuses on a smiling Lauren . = = Production = = " All Good Things ... " was produced by Adam DiVello , Michael Friedman , Liz Gateley , Josh Lansky , Kristofer Lindquist , and Sara Mast . The sixth season was first announced in December 2009 , and was confirmed to be the final season in March 2010 . Upon the announcement , speculation arose that original focal point Lauren Conrad would return for the finale . Her former boss Lisa Love suggested that a scene could be filmed of the pair reuniting in Paris , while series creator DiVello wished to see Conrad getting married , presumably to her then @-@ boyfriend Kyle Howard . Cavallari stated that it would be " amazing " to see Conrad return , adding that her appearance would provide the program with " closure " . Ultimately , Conrad did not appear in the final episode , but was featured in the live aftershow , The Hills Live : A Hollywood Ending . DiVello stated that two versions of the final installment were filmed . He provided the MTV with both episodes , and added that he was unaware which version had been selected until it was broadcast . In July 2010 , Jenner stated that he had filmed an alternate ending of the series with Conrad , where " I [ would ] come back home , and basically Lauren 's at my place [ and I tell her about saying goodbye to a friend ] . We filmed this whole lovey @-@ dovey scene as if me and Lauren had been together this entire time " , which she confirmed that September . Upon the conclusion of their month @-@ long morning marathon of The Hills , titled " RetroMTV Brunch " , MTV aired the alternate ending to the series on August 9 , 2013 , which was revealed to be the clip Conrad and Jenner had previously mentioned . DiVello had stated that he preferred the second ending , and upon learning that MTV had not selected it as the original finale , persuaded the network to broadcast the clip . = = Reception and release = = " All Good Things ... " was met with generally mixed reviews from critics , many of whom were ambivalent towards the final scene . Despite criticizing the episode 's recurring theme of moving on , Emma Rosenblum from Vulture appreciated the ending as an " interesting twist " . Andy Dehnart of Reality Blurred felt that , from a production standpoint , the final scene was " really well @-@ done " and appeared realistic despite being filmed in a backlot . In contrast , Chadwick Matlin was displeased to see producers " capitalizing " on the controversy surrounding longtime scripting allegations , which he felt exploited its naive teenage fanbase . A writer for Daily News described the episode as " bittersweet " and " emotional " , but felt that the program " overstayed its welcome " . Megan Friedman from Time called the ending " surprisingly smart " , but felt it did not leave an impact on viewers who were already skeptical of the series ' truthfulness . Similarly , critics were ambivalent towards the alternate finale . Jenna Mullins from E ! praised Conrad 's return as being " shocking and glorious at the same time " , and felt that " clearly [ viewers ] should all prefer the ending with Lauren Conrad . " Kaitlin Reilly from Bustle described the suggestion of another love triangle involving Conrad and Cavallari to " [ feel ] vaguely like the ending to a horror movie " in that " it 's starting again " , but nonetheless appreciated the ending as " a wink to loyal fans " . Billy Niles from Zap2It noted that there was " no winking nod to a soundstage " , and opined that " nothing that freaking awesome happened . " Sonya Sorich of the Ledger @-@ Enquirer preferred the original conclusion , commenting that the revised clip was not as " startling " as the first . Lindsey Weber from Vulture suggested that the footage felt like a " total soap opera " in that it seemingly acknowledged that portions of the series were fabricated . In its original broadcast in the United States on July 13 , 2010 , " All Good Things ... " was watched by 3 million viewers . In doing so , it became the peak viewership of the season . In the country , the sixth season was released as a two @-@ disc DVD set on September 21 , 2010 .
= The Angel , Islington = The Angel , Islington is a historic landmark and a series of buildings that have stood on the corner of Islington High Street and Pentonville Road in Islington , London , England . The land originally belonged to the Clerkenwell Priory and has had various properties built on it since the 16th century . The site was bisected by the New Road , which opened in 1756 , and properties on the site have been rebuilt several times up to the 20th century . The corner site gave its name to Angel tube station , opened in 1901 , and the surrounding Angel area of London . The current structure was completed in 1903 and was known as the Angel Hotel . The building was acquired by J. Lyons and Co. in 1921 and was used as a restaurant . In 1935 it was chosen as a property for the British version of Monopoly . The building was sold to the London County Council in 1959 to be demolished as part of plans for road improvement works that did not take place . It was returned to private ownership , renovated from 1979 and reopened in 1982 as the Angel Corner House . It is currently used as offices and a branch of the Co @-@ operative Bank , and is a grade II listed building . In 1998 a new pub called the Angel , operated by J D Wetherspoon , opened at an adjacent premises . = = History = = = = = Early history = = = In the early 16th century , a building in this area of London on the Great North Road was known as the Sheepcote . It was named after lands belonging to St John 's Priory . The building was being used as an inn by the end of the 16th century and was known as the Angel by 1614 . The inn took its name from the Angel of the Annunciation which appeared on the sign . The Angel Inn became a useful stop when travelling to the City of London , as the rural area outside it was considered dangerous , with travellers having armed escorts from Wood 's Close to Islington . Despite its name , and common association with Islington , the grounds of the inn and all of the western edge of Islington High Street were in neighbouring Clerkenwell . = = = 17th – 18th century = = = By 1630 , the inn was owned by William Riplingham , officer of the Great Wardrobe . Riplingham built an extension of the courtyard ranges on the site of the Angel Inn around 1638 , for which he was fined due to breaking building regulations . These ranges survived up to the early 19th century . By 1677 , the Angel was owned by James Compton , 3rd Earl of Northampton and occupied by Edward Fawcett , who ran the inn until his death in 1696 . The premises accommodated livestock traders destined for Smithfield Market as well as long distance travellers . In the early 18th century , the Angel was the largest coaching house in a row of several along Islington High Street . Robert Bartholomew took over ownership of the inn in 1744 and was succeeded by his son , Christopher around 1766 , who continued to run it until the end of the century . The inn was the subject of William Hogarth 's 1747 drawing , The Stage @-@ Coach , Or The Country Inn Yard , which depicted busy coaching inn trade and traffic . In his book The Inns and Taverns of Old London published in 1909 , Henry C. Shelley said " The Angel dates back to before 1665 ... In the seventeenth century and later , as old pictures testify , the inn presented the usual features of a large old country hostelry . " The building of the New Road in 1756 bisected the Angel Inn site and the stable buildings were cut off on the southern side . The inn was on the northern side , on the corner of what is now the junction of Islington High Street and Pentonville Road , while the stables were now on what is St John Street , adjacent to the New Inn , which had been established in 1744 . The Angel benefited from the extra traffic brought by the New Road , and in addition to accommodation provided a number of assembly rooms for public meetings . The author and political activist Thomas Paine is believed to have begun writing Rights of Man at the Angel in 1790 , and there is a monument on Islington High Street commemorating this . = = = 19th century = = = By the start of the 19th century , fields south of the Angel were being built on , resulting in all land towards the City of London being urban . The Angel was rebuilt during 1819 and 1820 to become a post house and meeting place for various London businesses . The redevelopment was directed by Charles Smith , and subsequently let to James Smith . The size of the inn was reduced and adjacent plots were sold off , allowing development of houses and shops , though the inn 's grounds remained substantial . It was now advertised as the " Angel Inn Tavern and Hotel for Gentlemen and Families " , and the front of the tavern faced the New Road . By the 1850s , the Angel was reported to be in decline . The New Road was renamed Pentonville Road in 1857 , and the inn 's management successfully put shop fronts on the road around 1870 , along with extensive refurbishments . In 1880 , the Angel was refurbished internally for William Henry and Richard Baker , later to become large @-@ scale pub owners . In 1883 the stables were sold to the London Street Tramways and the main building was sold to the brewers Truman , Hanbury , Buxton & Co. in 1896 . Construction of a new building in pale terracotta stone with a corner cupola was started in 1899 by the architects Frederick James Eedle and Sydney Herbert Meyers . The brewers proclaimed the new building to be " the widest @-@ known hostelry in the world " , and work was completed in 1903 . A panel on a second floor balcony still bears this opening date . The parish of Clerkenwell became the Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury in 1900 and when the City and South London Railway opened a new tube station in the area in 1901 it was named Angel . = = = 20th – 21st century = = = The pub ceased trading in 1921 and the building was sold to restaurateurs J. Lyons and Co . It was adapted as the flagship site of the business , though it was not technically a standard Lyons Corners House . The restaurant remained popular , and could accommodate up to 300 people , as did Lyons Corner Houses across London throughout the 1920s and 30s , but fell out of favour as fast food began to become popular in the 1950s . In 1959 The Angel was closed and sold to the London County Council as part of a plan to demolish it to make way for a new road scheme at the Angel intersection . It was used temporarily by the City University . Finsbury merged with the Metropolitan Borough of Islington to form the London Borough of Islington in 1965 and ownership of the site passed to the Greater London Council . The proposals for demolition of the site along with road changes were opposed by Homes before Roads and the Islington Society . Plans to alter the intersection and create a layout similar to that at Old Street roundabout were abandoned and the building was saved from demolition . The Greater London Council sold the building to the New River Company , with the property becoming part of the London Merchant Securities portfolio . The building was renovated between 1979 and 1982 by McLaughlin & Harvey Ltd with architects Elsom Pack & Roberts converting the building for office use and renaming it Angel Corner House . The ground floor is now a branch of The Co @-@ operative Bank , and the ORC International market research agency occupies the upper floors . The building is now privately owned by Hamilton Investment Properties . The building , along with this section of Islington High Street has been part of the Angel conservation area since 1981 and The Corner House has been a Grade II listed building since 1991 . The council describe this as " the character or appearance of which it is desirable to preserve or enhance " . Local planning regulations stipulate that new development in the area must not be taller than the dome on the Angel Corner House . = = Related developments = = On 27 October 1998 , a J D Wetherspoon pub named The Angel opened at 3 Islington High Street , adjacent to the former pub building . It stands on the part of the original Angel Inn site that was redeveloped as shops in 1820 . Ten Four Pentonville Road is a redevelopment of Angel Mews . It is located at the site of the original Angel Inn 's stables . The Hilton London Angel Islington Hotel is named after the pub . It is located on Upper Street to the north of the original Angel . = = Cultural references = = " The Angel Islington " is a property in the British version of Monopoly . In the game it is the third @-@ cheapest property on the board , reflecting the downmarket state of Islington through most of the 20th century until its gentrification in the 1980s . Victor Watson , of British manufacturers John Waddington Ltd , and his wife , Marge , decided to include the property on the board whilst taking tea at the cafe . This account of events appears on a plaque displayed in the bank within the building ; the inscription says it is the " only site on the board named after a building " . It is part of the light blue group with Pentonville Road and Euston Road . In the game , a house at the Angel costs £ 50 ; by the turn of the 21st century a house on Islington High Street fetched around £ 600 @,@ 000 . In 1827 , James Pollard painted The Royal Mail Coaches for the North Leaving the Angel , Islington , currently on display in the Tate Gallery . The Charles Dickens novel Oliver Twist contains a reference to the Angel , where " London began in earnest " . Neil Gaiman 's fantasy television series Neverwhere has a character named Angel Islington , after the inn . " The Angel , Islington " is the opening track on singer / songwriter Frank Turner 's album Positive Songs for Negative People .
= IPad ( 1st generation ) = The first @-@ generation iPad ( / ˈaɪpæd / EYE @-@ pad ) is a tablet computer designed and marketed by Apple Inc. as the first in the iPad line . The device features an Apple A4 processor , a 9 @.@ 7 " touchscreen display , and on certain variants the capability of accessing cellular networks . Using the iOS operating system , the iPad can play music , send and receive email and browse the web . Other functions , which include the ability to play games and access references , GPS navigation software and social network services can be enabled by downloading apps . The device was announced and unveiled on January 27 , 2010 at a media conference . On April 3 , 2010 , the Wi @-@ Fi variant of the device was released in the United States , followed by the release of the Wi @-@ Fi + Cellular variant on April 30 . On May 28 , it was released in Australia , Canada , France , Japan , Italy , Germany , Spain , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . The device received primarily positive reviews from various technology blogs and publications . Reviewers praised the device for its wide range of capabilities and labelled it as a competitor to laptops and netbooks . Some aspects were criticized , including the closed nature of the operating system and the lack of support for the Adobe Flash multimedia format . During the first 80 days , three million iPads were sold . By the launch of the iPad 2 , Apple sold more than 15 million iPads . On March 2 , 2011 , Apple announced the iPad 2 and the discontinuation of production of the original iPad . = = History = = Apple co @-@ founder Steve Jobs stated in a 1983 speech that his company ’ s “ Strategy is really simple . What we want to do at Apple , is we want to put an incredibly great computer in a book that you can carry around with you and learn how to use in 20 minutes ... And we really want to do it with a radio link in it so you don ’ t have to hook up to anything and you ’ re in communication with all of these larger databases and other computers . ” Apple ’ s first tablet computer was the Newton MessagePad 100 , introduced in 1993 , which led to the creation of the ARM6 processor core with Acorn Computers . Apple also developed a prototype PowerBook Duo @-@ based tablet , the PenLite , but decided not to sell it in order to avoid hurting MessagePad sales . Apple released several more Newton @-@ based PDAs ; the final one , the MessagePad 2100 , was discontinued in 1998 . Apple reentered the mobile @-@ computing market in 2007 with the iPhone . Smaller than the ( not yet announced ) iPad and featuring a camera and mobile phone , it pioneered the multitouch finger @-@ sensitive touchscreen interface of Apple ’ s iOS mobile operating system . By late 2009 , the iPad 's release had been rumored for several years . Such speculation mostly talked about “ Apple ’ s tablet ” ; specific names included iTablet and iSlate . The actual name is reportedly an homage to the Star Trek PADD , a fictional device very similar in appearance to the iPad . The iPad was announced on January 27 , 2010 , by Jobs at an Apple press conference at the Yerba Buena Center for the Arts in San Francisco . Jobs later said that Apple began developing the iPad before the iPhone , but temporarily shelved the effort upon realizing that its ideas would work just as well in a mobile phone . The iPad ’ s internal codename was K48 , which was revealed in the court case surrounding leaking of iPad information before launch . Apple began taking pre @-@ orders for the iPad from US customers on March 12 , 2010 . The only major change to the device between its announcement and being available to pre @-@ order was the change of the behavior of the side switch from sound muting to that of a screen rotation lock . The Wi @-@ Fi version of the iPad went on sale in the United States on April 3 , 2010 . The Wi @-@ Fi + 3G version was released on April 30 . 3G service for the iPad in the United States is provided by AT & T and was initially sold with two prepaid contract @-@ free data plan options : one for unlimited data and the other for 250 MB per month at half the price . On June 2 , 2010 , AT & T announced that , effective June 7 , the unlimited plan would be replaced for new customers with a 2 GB plan at slightly lower cost ; existing customers would have the option to keep the unlimited plan . The plans are activated on the iPad itself and can be cancelled at any time . The iPad was initially only available for purchase on Apple ’ s online store and its retail locations ; it has since become available through retailers including Amazon , Walmart , and network operators . The iPad was launched in countries including Australia , Canada , France , Germany , Japan and the United Kingdom on May 28 . Online pre @-@ orders in those countries began on May 10 . Apple released the iPad in Hong Kong , Ireland , Mexico , New Zealand and Singapore on July 23 , 2010 . Israel briefly prohibited importation of the iPad because of concerns that its Wi @-@ Fi might interfere with other devices . On September 17 , 2010 , the iPad was officially launched in China . = = Features = = = = = Software = = = The iPad originally shipped with iOS 3 @.@ 2 . On September 1 , 2010 , it was announced the iPad would get iOS 4 @.@ 2 by November 2010 ; to fulfill this , Apple released iOS 4 @.@ 2 @.@ 1 to the public on November 22 . It comes with several applications , including Safari , Mail , Photos , Video , iPod , iTunes , App Store , Maps , Notes , Calendar , and Contacts . Several are improved versions of applications developed for the iPhone or Mac . The iPad syncs with iTunes on a Mac or Windows PC . Apple ported its iWork suite from the Mac to the iPad , and sells pared @-@ down versions of Pages , Numbers , and Keynote apps in the App Store . Although the iPad is not designed to replace a mobile phone , a user can use a wired headset or the built @-@ in speaker and microphone to place phone calls over Wi @-@ Fi or 3G using a VoIP application . On October 12 , 2011 , iOS 5 was released to various iOS devices , including the first @-@ generation iPad , and was downloadable through iTunes . The update was reported to contain hundreds of new features and tweaks , including Twitter integration , Notification Center and iMessage , which is a feature that allows users to send messages or multimedia files to other users on iOS or OS X , the operating system for Apple computers. iCloud , an iOS app and Apple @-@ provided internet storage service which allows users to sync and backup their user data and settings to / from other devices , was also made available through this update . On June 11 , 2012 it was announced that iOS 6 would not be released for the first @-@ generation iPad , making iOS 5 @.@ 1 @.@ 1 the final operating system officially available for the device . = = = Hardware = = = The first @-@ generation iPad features an Apple A4 SoC , which comprises a 1 GHz processor , 256 MB of RAM and a PowerVR SGX535 GPU . There are four physical switches on the iPad , including a home button near the display that returns the user to the main menu , and three plastic physical switches on the sides : wake / sleep and volume up / down , plus a software @-@ controlled switch whose function has changed with software updates . Originally the switch locked the screen to its current orientation , but iOS 4 @.@ 2 changed it to a mute switch , moving the rotation lock function to an onscreen menu . In the iOS 4 @.@ 3 update , a setting was added to allow the user to specify whether the side switch was used for rotation lock or mute . Unlike its successors , the first @-@ generation iPad has no cameras . The iPad 's touchscreen display is a 1 @,@ 024 by 768 pixel , 7 @.@ 75 × 5 @.@ 82 in ( 197 × 148 mm ) liquid crystal display ( diagonal 9 @.@ 7 in ( 246 @.@ 4 mm ) ) , with fingerprint- and scratch @-@ resistant glass . As a result of the device 's screen dimensions and resolution , the screen has a pixel density of 132 ppi . The display responds to other sensors : an ambient light sensor to adjust screen brightness and a 3 @-@ axis accelerometer to sense the iPad 's orientation and switch between portrait and landscape modes . Unlike the iPhone and iPod Touch 's built @-@ in applications , which work in three orientations ( portrait , landscape @-@ left and landscape @-@ right ) , the iPad 's built @-@ in applications support screen rotation in all four orientations , including upside @-@ down . Consequently , the device has no intrinsic " native " orientation ; only the relative position of the home button changes . The iPad was equipped with 16 GB , 32 GB , or 64 GB of memory . Furthermore , the device was available with two connectivity options : Wi @-@ Fi only or Wi @-@ Fi and Cellular . Unlike its successors , the Wi @-@ Fi + Cellular variant of the first @-@ generation iPad could only support carriers that utilized GSM / UMTS standards and was not compatible with CDMA networks ; however , like its successors , assisted GPS services are supported . The weight of the first @-@ generation iPad varied , dependent upon the connectivity options chosen . The Wi @-@ Fi only variant weighs 1 @.@ 5 lb ( 680 g ) whereas the variant with Wi @-@ Fi + Cellular weighs 1 @.@ 6 lb ( 730 g ) . Its dimensions , however , are identical across the entire range of variants , measuring 9 @.@ 56 × 7 @.@ 47 × 0 @.@ 50 in ( 243 × 190 × 13 mm ) . = = = Accessories = = = Apple offers several iPad accessories , most of which are adapters for the proprietary 30 @-@ pin dock connector , the iPad 's only port besides the headphone jack . A dock holds the iPad upright at an angle , and has a dock connector and audio line @-@ out port . Each generation of iPad requires a corresponding dock . A dock that included a physical keyboard was only supported for the original iPad , but all generations are compatible with Bluetooth keyboards that also work with Macs and PCs . The iPad can be charged with a 10 W standalone power adapter , which is also compatible with iPods and iPhones . = = Reception = = = = = Critical reception = = = Media reaction to the announcement of the device and the device itself was mixed . The media noted that thousands of people queued on the first day of sale in a number of countries with many of those who waited claiming that " it was worth it . " Walt Mossberg ( of The Wall Street Journal ) wrote , " It 's about the software , stupid " , meaning hardware features and build are less important to the iPad 's success than software and user interface , his first impressions of which were largely positive . Mossberg also called the price " modest " for a device of its capabilities , and praised the ten @-@ hour battery life . Others , including PC Advisor and the Sydney Morning Herald , wrote that the iPad would also compete with proliferating netbooks , most of which use Microsoft Windows . The base model 's price of $ 499 ( equivalent to $ 541 in 2015 ) was lower than pre @-@ release estimates by Wall Street analysts , and Apple 's competitors , all of whom were expecting a much higher entry price point . The media also praised the quantity of applications , as well as the bookstore and other media applications . In contrast , some sources , including the BBC , criticized the iPad for being a closed system and mentioned that the iPad faces competition from Android @-@ based tablets . However , at the time of the first @-@ generation iPad 's launch , Yahoo News noted that the Android tablet OS , known as " Honeycomb " , was not open source and has fewer apps available for it than for the iPad , though Google has since released the source code for Honeycomb . The Independent criticized the iPad for not being as readable in bright light as paper but praised it for being able to store large quantities of books . After its UK release , The Daily Telegraph said the iPad 's lack of Adobe Flash support was " annoying " . The iPad was selected by Time magazine as one of the 50 Best Inventions of the Year 2010 , while Popular Science chose it as the top gadget behind the overall " Best of What 's New 2010 " winner Groasis Waterboxx . = = = Commercial reception = = = 300 @,@ 000 iPads were sold on their first day of availability . By May 3 , 2010 , Apple had sold a million iPads ; this was just half the time it took Apple to sell the same number of original iPhones . After passing the one million mark , they continued selling rapidly , reaching 3 million sales after 80 days . During the financial conference call on October 18 , 2010 , Steve Jobs announced that Apple had sold more iPads than Macs for the fiscal quarter . In total , Apple sold more than 15 million first @-@ generation iPads prior to the launch of the iPad 2 – more than all other tablet PCs combined since the iPad 's release , and reaching 75 % of tablet PC sales at the end of 2010 . = = = Criticism = = = CNET criticized the iPad for its apparent lack of wireless sync , which other portable devices such as Microsoft 's Zune have had for a number of years . Walt Mossberg called it a " pretty close " laptop killer . David Pogue of The New York Times wrote a " dual " review , one part for technology @-@ minded people , and the other part for non @-@ technology @-@ minded people . In the former section , he notes that a laptop offers more features for a cheaper price than the iPad . In his review for the latter audience , however , he claims that if his readers like the concept of the device and can understand what its intended uses are , then they will enjoy using the device . PC Magazine 's Tim Gideon wrote , " you have yourself a winner " that " will undoubtedly be a driving force in shaping the emerging tablet landscape . " Michael Arrington of TechCrunch said , " the iPad beats even my most optimistic expectations . This is a new category of device . But it also will replace laptops for many people . " PC World criticized the iPad 's file sharing and printing abilities , and ArsTechnica critically noted that sharing files with a computer is " one of our least favorite parts of the iPad experience . "
= Halo 3 = Halo 3 is a 2007 first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Bungie for the Xbox 360 console . The third installment in the Halo franchise , the game concludes the story arc begun in 2001 's Halo : Combat Evolved and continued in 2004 's Halo 2 . The game was released on September 25 , 2007 , in Australia , Brazil , India , New Zealand , North America , and Singapore ; September 26 , 2007 , in Europe ; and September 27 , 2007 , in Japan . Halo 3 's story centers on the interstellar war between twenty @-@ sixth century humanity and a collection of alien races known as the Covenant . The player assumes the role of the Master Chief , a cybernetically enhanced supersoldier , as he battles the Covenant . The game features vehicles , weapons , and gameplay elements not present in previous titles of the series , as well as the addition of saved gameplay films , file sharing , and the Forge map editor — a utility which allows the player to perform modifications to multiplayer levels . Bungie began developing Halo 3 shortly after Halo 2 shipped . The game was officially announced at E3 2006 , and its release was preceded by a multiplayer beta open to select players who purchased the Xbox 360 game Crackdown . Microsoft spent $ 40 million on marketing the game , in an effort to sell more game consoles and broaden the appeal of the game beyond the established Halo fanbase . Marketing included cross @-@ promotions and an alternate reality game . On the day before its official release , 4 @.@ 2 million units of Halo 3 were in retail outlets . Halo 3 grossed US $ 300 million in its first week . More than one million people played Halo 3 on Xbox Live in the first twenty hours . To date , Halo 3 has sold in excess of 14 @.@ 5 million copies , making it the fifth best selling Xbox 360 game of all time , the second best selling game in the Halo franchise , the best selling Xbox 360 exclusive title and the best selling first person shooter on the console outside of the Call of Duty games . The game was also the best @-@ selling video game of 2007 in the U.S. Overall , the game was very well received by critics , with the Forge and multiplayer offerings singled out as strong features ; however some reviewers criticized single @-@ player aspects , especially the plot and campaign layout . A prequel to the game , Halo 3 : ODST , was released worldwide on September 22 , 2009 . A sequel , Halo 4 , released on November 6 , 2012 , was developed by 343 Industries and grossed $ 220 million on its launch day . Halo 3 was rereleased as part of Halo : The Master Chief Collection for the Xbox One on November 11 , 2014 . = = Gameplay = = Halo 3 is a shooter game where players primarily experience gameplay from a first @-@ person perspective . Much of the gameplay takes place on foot , but also includes segments focused on vehicular combat . The balance of weapons and objects in the game was adjusted to better adhere to the " Golden Triangle of Halo " : these are weapons , grenades , and melee attacks , which are available to a player in most situations . Players may dual @-@ wield some weapons , forgoing the use of grenades and melee attacks in favor of the combined firepower of two weapons . Many weapons available in previous installments of the series return with minor cosmetic and power alterations . Unlike previous installments , the player 's secondary weapon is visible on their player model , holstered or slung across the player 's back . Halo 3 introduces " support weapons " , which are cumbersome two @-@ handed weapons that slow the player , but offer greatly increased firepower in return . In addition to weapons , the game contains a new class of gear called equipment ; these items have various effects , ranging from defensive screens to shield regeneration and flares . Only one piece of equipment can be carried at a time . The game 's vehicular component has been expanded with new drivable and AI @-@ only vehicles . Halo 3 contains non @-@ gameplay additions , such as Forge , a map @-@ editing tool . Forge enables players to insert and remove game objects , such as weapons , crates and vehicles into existing multiplayer maps . Almost all weapons , vehicles , and interactive objects can be placed and moved on maps with Forge . Players can enter Forge games and edit and manipulate objects in real time . A budget limits the amount of objects that can be placed . Players may also save up to 100 films of gameplay to their Xbox 360 's hard drive , viewing the action from any angle and at different speeds . Halo 3 offers a form of file sharing , where items such as saved films , screenshots , and custom variants can all be uploaded to Bungie 's official website , Bungie.net. Anyone can browse user created content that has been uploaded to Bungie 's website and tag it to automatically download to their console next time they sign into Xbox Live on Halo 3 . = = = Modes = = = Halo 3 's story or campaign mode can be played through alone or cooperatively with up to three other players via Xbox Live or System Link . Instead of having each player be an identical character as in previous Halo games , the first player plays as Master Chief , and the second player plays as the Arbiter . The other two players control two Covenant Elites , N 'tho ' Sraom and Usze ' Taham , each with their own backstories . No matter which character is played , each player has identical abilities , though their starting weapons vary . Hidden skulls found on each level cause changes to the gameplay when enabled , such as giving the enemies extra health , changing in @-@ game dialogue , or modifying AI behavior . These skulls , as well as the difficulty level and the speed at which the level is completed , provide multipliers to the total score . Players are awarded gamerscore points for unlocking Achievements by reaching a certain score in each level . Local area network or Xbox Live supports up to sixteen players in multiplayer matches , with game modes including variations of deathmatch and Capture the Flag . Players must actively seek out other players through their Xbox Live Friends list , using the party invite system , or the LAN search feature to play multiplayer matches with their own custom rules and customized maps . If they are connected to Xbox Live however , a player can choose to have the game decide for them the exact rules and map to play on , as well as finding additional people to play against or with , using the " Matchmaking " system ( the automated grouping of players of similar skill ) . A player will decide from a selection of developer designed " playlists " which each contain a certain way to experience the game . Like other multiplayer Xbox 360 titles , Halo 3 uses a customized version of TrueSkill ranking system for its matchmaking on a per @-@ playlist basis . A linear measure of a player 's experience with the matchmade portion of the game and each particular playlist is also tracked ( denoted as EXP ) . To help players have an enjoyable time online , several peace @-@ of @-@ mind features are implemented within easy reach , such as avoid / feedback options on a player 's service record , as well as voice chat mute straight from the in @-@ game scoreboard . Like Halo 2 , Halo 3 supports downloadable content and updates . = = Synopsis = = = = = Setting and characters = = = Halo 3 is set in a science fiction setting during the years 2552 and 2553 . In the year 2525 , a theocratic alliance of alien races known as the Covenant discover humanity spread across dozens of interstellar colonies . The Covenant declare humanity an affront to their gods and begin destroying colonies by bombarding the planets with barrages of plasma , turning their surfaces into glass . Despite efforts to keep the Covenant from finding further human worlds , a Covenant fleet discovers Earth during Halo 2 . " Halos " are massive ringworlds , ranging from thousands to tens of thousands of kilometers in diameter , scattered across the galaxy . These rings were constructed thousands of years ago by a race known as the Forerunners as weapons of last resort against the parasitic alien species known as the Flood . When activated , the Halos would destroy all sentient life in the galaxy , depriving the Flood of its food . The Forerunners disappeared after they activated the rings . In Halo : Combat Evolved , whilst fleeing the Covenant , the UNSC ship Pillar of Autumn stumbled upon one of these ringworlds , Installation 04 . The humans manage to destroy the ring , stopping the Flood ; the Covenant , unaware of the destructive nature of the rings , attempt to fire another ring , Installation 05 , during Halo 2 in order to fulfill their religious prophecy . One race in the Covenant , the Elites , learn the truth about the rings , and join forces with humanity in order to stop the firing of the ring . Though they are successful , the unexpected shutdown of the installation triggers a fail @-@ safe protocol , priming all the rings for firing from one location , referred to as the Ark . Still oblivious to the true nature of the rings , the Covenant High Prophet of Truth and the remaining loyalist Covenant proceed to head to Earth , where they believe the Ark is buried . Halo 3 's protagonist is Master Chief Petty Officer John @-@ 117 , a surgically enhanced supersoldier known as a " Spartan " . The Chief fights alongside the Arbiter , a disgraced Covenant Elite commander . Two other Elite characters , N 'tho ' Sraom and Usze ' Taham , appear as the third and fourth players in cooperative play . Supporting characters from previous games return , including human soldiers Avery Johnson and Miranda Keyes . The Forerunner artificial intelligence 343 Guilty Spark , who tries and fails to stop the Master Chief from destroying its ringworld in Halo : Combat Evolved , also makes an appearance . Also playing a role in the story is the Flood entity known as the " Gravemind " . In Halo 2 , this leader of the Flood escapes from confinement on Installation 05 , invades the Covenant mobile capital city of High Charity , and captures Cortana , a human @-@ created artificial intelligence . = = = Plot = = = After the events of the comic tie @-@ in Halo : Uprising , the Master Chief crashes in eastern Africa , where he is found by Johnson and the Arbiter . The Chief , Johnson , and company fight Covenant in the jungle and arrive at a UNSC outpost . Here , Keyes and Lord Hood plan a final effort to stop the Covenant leader , the High Prophet of Truth , from activating a Forerunner artifact uncovered outside the ruins of the city of New Mombasa . The Chief clears anti @-@ air Covenant defenses so Hood can lead the last of Earth 's ships against the Prophet , but Truth activates the buried artifact , creating a slipspace portal which he and his followers enter . A Flood @-@ infested ship crash @-@ lands nearby ; Elite forces arrive and vitrify Flood @-@ infected areas of Earth , stopping the threat . Following a message Cortana left aboard the Flood ship , the Chief , Arbiter , Elites , Johnson , Keyes and their troops follow Truth through the portal . Joining them is 343 Guilty Spark , who aids the Chief as he has no function to fulfill after the destruction of his ringworld . Traveling through the portal , the humans and Elites discover an immense artificial structure known as the Ark , far beyond the edges of the Milky Way galaxy . Here , Truth can remotely activate all the Halos . The Flood arrive aboard High Charity in full force , beginning to infest the installation . Truth captures Johnson , as he needs a human to use Forerunner technology . Keyes is killed attempting a rescue , and Johnson is forced to activate the rings . Gravemind forges a truce with the Chief and Arbiter to stop Truth . The Arbiter , Master Chief , and Flood forces arrive and overwhelm Truth 's guards , rescuing Johnson and halting the installations ' activation . After the Arbiter kills Truth , Gravemind turns on the Chief and Arbiter . The Chief , Arbiter and Guilty Spark discover that the Ark is constructing another Halo to replace the one that the Chief previously destroyed . The Chief decides to activate this Halo ; the ringworld would eliminate the Flood infestation on the Ark while sparing the galaxy at large from destruction . To activate the ring , the Chief rescues Cortana , who has the Activation Index of the destroyed Halo , from High Charity and destroys the city . Arriving on the new Halo , Cortana warns that Gravemind is trying to rebuild itself on the ring . The Chief , Arbiter , and Johnson travel to Halo 's control room to activate the ring . Guilty Spark explains that because the ring is not yet complete , a premature activation will destroy it and the Ark . When Johnson ignores his warning , Guilty Spark fatally wounds him to protect " his " ring . Although the Chief destroys Guilty Spark , Johnson soon dies of his injuries . Chief activates the ring , and escapes the ring 's self @-@ destruction on the UNSC frigate Forward Unto Dawn . However , the force of Halo 's blast causes the slipspace portal to collapse , resulting in only the front half of Forward Unto Dawn , carrying the Arbiter , making it back to Earth . A memorial service is held on Earth for the fallen heroes of the Human @-@ Covenant war , during which the Arbiter and Lord Hood briefly exchange words regarding the fallen Master Chief . After the memorial service , the Arbiter and his Elite brethren depart for their home planet , Sanghelios . Meanwhile , the rear half of the Forward Unto Dawn drifts in unknown space . Cortana drops a distress beacon , but acknowledges it may be many years before they are rescued . The Chief enters cryonic sleep , telling Cortana to " wake me , when you need me . " If the game is completed at the Legendary difficulty level , the scene continues to show the piece of Forward Unto Dawn drifting towards an unknown planet , revealed in the sequel to be known as " Requiem " , the primary setting of the campaign of Halo 4 . = = Development = = Halo 3 was initially conceived before Halo 2 was released in 2004 . Much of the staff were preoccupied in making extra content for Halo 2 , while others continued with the groundwork for the development of Halo 3 . Bungie remained quiet as to what their new project was , leaving comments in their weekly update alluding to a " new project " . The game was officially announced with a real @-@ time cinematic trailer at E3 2006 . Bungie kept the public informed on game development via weekly updates on their web site . During development , the game was divided into single player and multiplayer builds ; this made debugging and testing the much smaller multiplayer files quicker . While details of Halo 3 's multiplayer were widely disseminated in the sixteen months leading up to the release , the single @-@ player aspect of the storyline was kept relatively secret throughout much of the development to build up interest . The first campaign screenshots did not appear until a year after the announcement trailer , on July 5 , 2007 , as a " tease " for the planned pace of marketing . A public beta test of the game 's online multiplayer features , as well as saved films and file share , took place four months before the full release . Players required a Crackdown disc to play the beta . AI behavior was enhanced and improved ; the behavior of enemy Brutes the player faces was modified , giving them a " pack mentality " that causes the aliens to perform similar actions at the same time and altering gameplay . = = = Graphics = = = Halo 3 utilizes a proprietary , in @-@ house graphics engine . As detailed on the Bungie website , it employs advanced graphics technologies such as high dynamic range , global lighting and depth of field effects within cutscenes . Motion blurring was absent from the beta , but was added to the final game . Most of the dynamic objects in the game cast real @-@ time shadows on themselves and the environment around them , including the game 's plant life . Halo 3 uses normal , bump , and parallax mapping to give surfaces more detail without dramatically increasing the number of polygons . Players can see distances of up to ten miles ( 16 km ) away , all fully three @-@ dimensional . Real time reflections were written into the engine ; however , they are often unused as Bungie considered it a waste of resources . Halo 3 does not natively render at true HD resolution ( at least 720 lines of vertical resolution ) . In a Bungie Weekly Update , it was confirmed that the game renders at 1152 × 640 resolution instead of the usual 1280 × 720 ( HD ) resolution that most Xbox 360 games use . This is because Halo 3 uses two frame buffers instead of the usual one , so the lower resolution allowed Bungie to preserve as much of the dynamic range as possible for the game 's lighting without adversely affecting the frame rate . The image can be upscaled to 1080p by the Xbox 360 . = = = Audio = = = As with all titles on the Xbox 360 , Halo 3 fully supports 5 @.@ 1 surround sound audio . In the game , there are over 50 @,@ 000 pieces of audio , with nearly 40 @,@ 000 of those being NPC dialogue . This is far more than in either of the preceding Halo titles ; Halo 2 had over 15 @,@ 000 pieces of dialogue . The AI controlling this dialogue is designed to ensure the exchanges flow naturally and convincingly . Separate recordings were made for nearby and distant gunfire to make for a more believable sound experience in the public beta , and the finished game uses Waves Audio plugins to modify dialog and other audio in @-@ game depending on conditions . Distant gunfire sounds , which may first seem like prerecorded ambient sound , may often be the result of an actual firefight happening elsewhere in the game . Marty O 'Donnell again composed the original score for the game . Some pieces of the game 's music are produced with a much larger real orchestra than any pieces in the prior two games . For example , the music for the announcement trailer was recorded with a 60 @-@ piece orchestra and a 24 @-@ piece choir . Halo 3 is the first game in the series to feature custom soundtracks , allowing players to replace in @-@ game music with their own choices . The Halo 3 Original Soundtrack was released on November 20 , 2007 . Included on the soundtrack is an original composition submitted by fans and judged by Nile Rodgers , Michael Ostin , and Marty O 'Donnell . = = = Voice cast = = = Voice actors returning to reprise their roles in Halo 3 include Jen Taylor as Cortana , David Scully as Sergeant Johnson and the Elites , Keith David as the Arbiter , Tim Dadabo as 343 Guilty Spark , Ron Perlman as Lord Hood , Robert Davi as Rtas ' Vadum , and Steve Downes as the voice of Master Chief . The game also features new voices , with Terence Stamp and Justis Bolding replacing Halo 2 voice actors Michael Wincott and Julie Benz as the Prophet of Truth and Miranda Keyes respectively . Additional voices include celebrity presenter Jonathan Ross , Nathan Fillion , Adam Baldwin , Alan Tudyk , Katee Sackhoff , and John DiMaggio . Members of the Halo machinima Red vs. Blue ( Burnie Burns , Gus Sorola , Matt Hullum , Jason Saldaña , Geoff Ramsey , and Joel Heyman ) have a cameo role . = = = Leaks = = = Months before the release of Halo 3 , the game 's final testing copy before its gold release — codenamed Epsilon and confirmed by Bungie to be almost complete — was leaked to the Internet . Microsoft reacted to this leak by having the Xbox Live accounts of gamers caught playing the Epsilon copy banned until the year 9999 . Two weeks before Halo 3 was due to be released , full retail copies of the game complete with photographs of the open game box started to appear on the internet auction site eBay . A week before Halo 3 was due for release , major UK catalog retailer Argos accidentally released some of their final retail copies of Halo 3 . Microsoft 's Entertainment and Devices division were quoted as being " disappointed that it happened " but that " it was just an honest mistake " and that Microsoft had no intention of punishing Argos for the error . Halo 3 's final retail copy was leaked online over a week before its official release . The 6 @.@ 14 gigabyte file of the game was ripped and downloaded by " thousands " of people within 24 hours of the leak . Videos of the ending of Halo 3 , obtained from the leaked copy , were captured and posted on video sharing sites . = = Release = = Microsoft spent more than $ 40 million marketing Halo 3 . The goal of the campaign was to sell more Xbox 360 consoles and widen the appeal of the game beyond the " Halo faithful " to casual as well as hardcore gamers . Marketing took the form of stages , including trailers of the game , real @-@ time cinematics , recorded gameplay sequences , pre @-@ rendered CGI , and live action film . On September 12 , 2007 , the " Believe " Halo 3 ad campaign , focused on the epic nature of the story and heroism told through dioramas and third party accounts of Master Chief 's service , began with the video " Museum " and continued on past the game 's release . Throughout the course of development Bungie released four " developer documentaries " that explained the processes behind creating parts of the game . A large @-@ scale multiplayer beta test was played on Xbox Live with more than 800 000 members of the public being able to take part and experience the game for themselves . Beginning in June 2007 , an alternate reality game called Iris involved players in slowly revealing background information for the game . The actual release was met with worldwide launch parties . Halo 3 also had marketing tie @-@ ins and promotions . PepsiCo announced a new line of soft drink , a variant of Mountain Dew named Game Fuel , branded with the Halo 3 logo and the Master Chief . Much of the advertising focused on appealing to the general public , rather than just hardcore fans of the game ; for example , some 7 @-@ Eleven stores advertised Halo 3 and sold specialty cups and copies of the game . Halo 3 was released in three separate retail versions , branded as " Standard " , " Limited " and " Legendary " editions . The Standard Edition contains the game disc , manual , and a small poster with the game 's control @-@ map and artwork . The Limited Edition , contained in a metal case , contains the game disc , manual , poster , Xbox 360 bonus disc with featurettes , and a hardcover @-@ bound " Bestiarum " , a collection of information and art covering the species , cultures , and civilizations of Halo 3 . The Legendary Edition contains the game disc , manual , poster , interactive bonus disc , the Bestiarum on a DVD , Legendary DVD containing exclusive content , and a scale replica of the Master Chief 's helmet as a case for the three discs . The slip @-@ cover packaging unfolds into a large heavy @-@ stock poster of Master Chief . Gamestation stores in the UK offered a limited edition Master Chief figurine to the first 1000 preorders . Upon release , some of the Limited Edition versions of Halo 3 were found to have a defect in the hub that kept the discs in place , which could lead to scratched discs . Microsoft confirmed the problem and offered to replace scratched Halo 3 Limited Edition discs free of charge until the end of January 2008 . This was not a problem in either the Legendary Edition or the Standard Edition . During October 16 – 31 , 2013 , Halo 3 was available as a free download for Xbox Live Gold subscribers . = = Downloadable content = = Halo 3 supports multiplayer map downloadable content as well as game updates via Xbox Live . The first three post @-@ release multiplayer maps , " Standoff " , " Rat 's Nest " , and " Foundry " , were released as a pack on December 11 , 2007 , collectively known as the " Heroic Map Pack " . A second group of three maps including a remake of Halo 2 map " Lockout " , titled " Blackout " , a new map " Ghost Town " and a remake of Halo : Combat Evolved map " Sidewinder " , titled " Avalanche " were bundled as the " Legendary Map Pack " , on April 15 , 2008 . These maps introduced visual filters to the Forge pallet , which change the way the maps look . A remake of the Halo : Combat Evolved map " Chill Out " , titled " Cold Storage " , was released as a free download on " Bungie Day " , July 7 , 2008 . The third multiplayer map pack , titled the " Mythic Map Pack " and consisting of the maps " Orbital " , " Assembly " , and " Sandbox " , was included with the Limited Collectors Edition of Halo Wars . The map pack was released over the Xbox Live Marketplace on April 9 , 2009 . The fourth and final multiplayer map pack , " Mythic II Map Pack " , was released on February 2 , 2010 . The map pack includes the three new maps from Halo 3 : ODST : " Citadel " , " Longshore " , and a remake of Halo 2 map " Midship " , titled " Heretic " . The first version update for Halo 3 was released on February 19 , 2008 , and addressed various bugs such as melee contest resolution and saved @-@ film theater errors . The next update ( called a Title Update ) was released September 23 , 2008 , and includes new Achievements , a new XP ranking system , and various new ways to detect and stop cheating in the game . No further Halo 3 updates were planned . = = Reception = = = = = Critical reception = = = Halo 3 received critical acclaim upon its release . It holds an average of 93 @.@ 53 % and 94 / 100 on aggregate web sites GameRankings and Metacritic . Pro @-@ G 's Wesley Yin @-@ Poole assured readers that Halo 3 lived up to the enormous hype surrounding it , writing that the game was " everything we hoped it would be , and much , much , more " . Reviewers including Eurogamer 's Rob Fahey , Games Radar 's Charlie Barrett , and GameSpot 's Jeff Gerstmann felt that the underlying formula of previous Halo games was unchanged , but that this was not a detriment . " Every type of Halo fan , from the hardcore to the casual to the brand new , will find something to satisfy them in Master Chief 's third adventure , " Barrett asserted , while IGN 's Hilary Goldstein referred to Halo 3 as " the most complete game available on any console " , specifically stating " the Forge and the replay functionality raise the bar for console shooters so high , it may never be surpassed this generation . " The gameplay additions to the game , such as equipment and new vehicles , were praised ; Gerstmann and Goldstein noted that equipment had much more relevance in multiplayer matches than the campaign . Reception of the single @-@ player aspect varied . Yin @-@ Poole wrote that while the cliffhanger ending of Halo 2 was disappointing , the campaign of Halo 3 was much more satisfying . Gerstmann , GameSpy 's Gabe Graziani , and Goldstein maintained that the campaign was too short , especially on easier difficulty levels or with three additional players in co @-@ op . Goldstein was highly critical of the eighth level , stating " the penultimate chapter is so bad , just thinking about it puts a rotten taste in my mouth . " The New York Times ' Charles Herold said the game had a " throwaway " plot and Total Video Games judged the single @-@ player aspect ultimately disappointing . Goldstein and Steve West of Cinema Blend thought a part of the game 's story was lost by not having the Arbiter featuring as prominently as the character was in Halo 2 . Most publications agreed that multiplayer was by far one of the best features ; IGN said that the multiplayer map lineup was the strongest of the series , and Gamespy added that " each [ multiplayer ] map is extremely well @-@ tuned " . The Forge level editor and saved films features were singled out as particularly strong features , in addition to superb voice acting and Martin O 'Donnell 's rich score . Other complaints focused on the artificial intelligence ; critics praised the enemy AI but complained that the intelligence of the player 's allies was far poorer . Bryan Vore of Game Informer said that human faces and some textures were just " embarrassing " . Halo 3 was nominated for seven awards from the Spike TV Awards , of which it won " Best Multiplayer Game " and " Most Addictive Video Game Fueled by Dew " . It won Time 's " Game of the Year " and IGN chose it as the Best Xbox 360 Online Multiplayer Game and Innovative Design of 2007 . The Visual Effects Society awarded Bungie the " Best Real Time Visuals in a Video Game " for Halo 3 . Halo 3 took the Calvin Award for " Best Videogame " as selected by Box Office Prophets . Halo 3 also took the award for Xbox 360 Game of the Year 2007 from GameTrailers , and was voted by fans as Game of the Year on G @-@ Phoria . Halo 3 won the Edge Award For Interactive Innovation in August 2008 . In 2010 , the game was included as one of the titles in the book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die . = = = Sales = = = First @-@ day sales of Halo 3 reached $ 170 million in the U.S. , setting a record for highest gross of an entertainment product within 24 hours of its release . The performance beat the previous record setter — Halo 2 — which earned $ 125 million within 24 hours after its launch . The game was preordered by more than one million people in North America . Worldwide more than US $ 300 million worth were sold in the first week , helping to more than double the sales of the Xbox 360 when compared with the weekly average before the Halo 3 launch . In the U.S. , Halo 3 sold 3 @.@ 3 million copies in its first 12 days on sale , increasing to 3 @.@ 7 million copies by November 15 , 2007 . Reuters UK estimated that Halo 3 may have sold up to 5 @.@ 2 million copies worldwide in the first two weeks after launch . By November 30 , 2007 , Halo 3 had sold 5 million copies worldwide , and as of that point , was the best @-@ selling video game of 2007 in the U.S. , even though the game is only available on one console . On January 3 , 2008 , Microsoft announced that Halo 3 has sold 8 @.@ 1 million copies . The game drew over a million Xbox Live members to play online in the first 20 hours , making it the biggest day for Xbox Live gaming in history . The game returned to the top 20 sales charts more than a year after its release in February 2009 ; Gamasutra reported that the boost might have been due to the release of Halo Wars . By January 2008 , 8 @.@ 1 million copies had been sold . According to Microsoft , Halo 3 had sold 14 @.@ 5 million copies as of 2012 . Advertising Age reported that movie studio executives were convinced the release of Halo 3 harmed box office receipts ; the week 's take was 27 % less than the previous year 's yield . While some executives decided the disparity in estimated and actual gross for films like The Heartbreak Kid was due more to the film 's poor reception , other analysts believed that " the audience on [ Halo 3 ] is the 18 @-@ to @-@ 34 demographic , similar to what you 'd see in cinemas " and that this led to a decrease in receipts . Later research suggested that the Halo 3 players still watched the same amount of television and movies , regardless of the time they spent playing the game .
= No Gun Ri Massacre = The No Gun Ri Massacre ( Hangul : 노근리 민간인 학살 사건 ; hanja : 老斤里良民虐殺事件 ; RR : Nogeulli Mingan @-@ in Hagsal Sageon ) occurred on July 26 – 29 , 1950 , early in the Korean War , when an undetermined number of South Korean refugees were killed by a U.S. air attack and the actions of the 2nd Battalion , 7th U.S. Cavalry , at a railroad bridge near the village of No Gun Ri ( Korean : 노근리 ) , 100 miles ( 160 km ) southeast of Seoul . In 2005 , a South Korean government inquest certified the names of 163 dead or missing , and 55 wounded , and added that many other victims ' names were not reported . The South Korean government @-@ funded No Gun Ri Peace Foundation estimated in 2011 that 250 – 300 were killed , mostly women and children . The massacre allegations were little @-@ known outside Korea until publication of an Associated Press ( AP ) story in 1999 , in which 7th Cavalry veterans corroborated Korean survivors ' accounts . The AP also uncovered U.S. Army orders to fire on approaching civilians because of reports of North Korean infiltration of refugee groups . Some details were disputed , but the massacre account was found to be essentially correct . In 2001 , the U.S. Army conducted an investigation and , after previously rejecting survivors ' claims , acknowledged the killings , but described the three @-@ day event as " an unfortunate tragedy inherent to war and not a deliberate killing " . The army rejected survivors ' demands for an apology and compensation . United States President Bill Clinton issued a statement of regret , adding the next day that " things happened which were wrong " . South Korean investigators disagreed with the U.S. report , saying that they believed that 7th Cavalry troops were ordered to fire on the refugees . The survivors ' group called the U.S. report a " whitewash " . The AP later discovered additional archival documents , showing that U.S. commanders had ordered troops to " shoot " and " fire on " civilians at the war front during this period ; these declassified documents had been found , but had not been disclosed by the Pentagon investigators . American historian Sahr Conway @-@ Lanz reported that among the undisclosed documents was a letter from the U.S. ambassador in South Korea , stating that the U.S. military had adopted a theater @-@ wide policy of firing on approaching refugee groups . Despite demands , the U.S. investigation was not reopened . Prompted by the exposure of No Gun Ri , survivors of similar alleged incidents in 1950 @-@ 1951 filed reports with the Seoul government . In 2008 an investigative commission said more than 200 cases of alleged large @-@ scale killings by the U.S. military had been registered , mostly air attacks . = = Background = = The division of Japan 's former Korean colony into two zones at the end of World War II led to years of border skirmishing between U.S.-allied South Korea and Soviet @-@ allied North Korea . On June 25 , 1950 , the North Korean Army invaded the south to try to reunify the peninsula , beginning the Korean War . The invasion caught South Korea and its American ally by surprise , and sent the defending South Korean forces into retreat . The U.S. moved troops from Japan to fight alongside the South Koreans . The first troops landed on July 1 , and by July 22 , three U.S. Army divisions were in Korea , including the 1st Cavalry Division . These American troops were insufficiently trained , poorly equipped , and often led by inexperienced officers . In particular , they lacked training in how to deal with war @-@ displaced civilians . The combined U.S. and South Korean forces were initially unable to stop the North Korean advance , and continued to retreat throughout July . In the two weeks following the first significant U.S. ground troop engagement on July 5 , the U.S. Army estimated that 380 @,@ 000 South Korean civilians fled south , passing through the retreating U.S. and South Korean lines . With gaps in their lines , U.S. forces were attacked from the rear , and reports spread that disguised North Korean soldiers were infiltrating refugee columns . Because of these concerns , orders were issued to fire on Korean civilians in front @-@ line areas , orders discovered decades later in declassified military archives . Among those issuing the orders was 1st Cavalry Division commander Maj. Gen. Hobart R. Gay , who deemed Koreans left in the war zone to be " enemy agents , " according to U.S. war correspondent O.H.P. King and U.S. diplomat Harold Joyce Noble . On the night of July 25 , that division 's 2nd Battalion , 7th Cavalry Regiment , hearing of an enemy breakthrough , fled rearward from its forward positions , to be reorganized the next morning , digging in near the central South Korean village of No Gun Ri . Later that day , on July 26 , 1950 , these troops saw hundreds of refugees approaching , many from the nearby villages of Chu Gok Ri and Im Ke Ri . = = Killings = = = = = Events of July 25 – 29 , 1950 = = = On July 25 , as North Korean forces seized the town of Yongdong , 7 miles ( 11 km ) west of No Gun Ri , U.S. troops were evacuating nearby villages , including hundreds of residents of Chu Gok Ri and Im Ke Ri . These villagers were joined by others as they walked down the main road south , and the estimated 600 refugees spent the night by a riverbank near Ha Ga Ri village , 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 5 km ) west of No Gun Ri . Seven refugees were killed by U.S. soldiers when they strayed from the group during the night . In the morning of July 26 , the villagers found that the escorting soldiers had left . They continued down the road , were stopped by American troops at a roadblock near No Gun Ri , and were ordered onto the parallel railroad tracks , where U.S. soldiers searched them and their belongings , confiscating knives and other items . The refugees were resting , spread out along the railroad embankment around midday , when military aircraft strafed and bombed them . Recalling the air strike , Yang Hae @-@ chan , a 10 @-@ year @-@ old boy in 1950 , said that the attacking planes returned repeatedly , and " chaos broke out among the refugees . We ran around wildly trying to get away . " He and another survivor said that soldiers reappeared and began shooting the wounded on the tracks . Survivors first sought shelter in a small culvert beneath the tracks , but soldiers and U.S. ground fire drove them from there into a double tunnel beneath a concrete railroad bridge . Inside the bridge underpasses ( each 80 feet long , 22 feet wide and 40 feet high ) , they came under heavy machine gun and rifle fire from 7th Cavalry troops from both sides of the bridge . " Children were screaming in fear and adults were praying for their lives , and the whole time they never stopped shooting , " said survivor Park Sun @-@ yong , whose 4 @-@ year @-@ old son and 2 @-@ year @-@ old daughter were killed , while she was badly wounded . Two communications specialists , Larry Levine and James Crume , said that they remembered orders to fire on the refugees , coming to the 2nd Battalion command post from a higher level , probably from 1st Cavalry Division . They recalled the ground fire beginning with a mortar round landing among the refugee families , followed by what Levine called a " frenzy " of small @-@ arms fire . Some battalion veterans recalled front @-@ line company officers ordering them to open fire . " It was assumed there were enemy in these people , " said ex @-@ rifleman Herman Patterson . " They were dying down there . I could hear the people screaming , " recalled Thomas H. Hacha of the sister 1st Battalion , observing nearby . Others said that some soldiers held their fire . Trapped refugees began piling up bodies as barricades and tried to dig into the ground to hide . Some managed to escape that first night , while U.S. troops turned searchlights on the tunnels and continued firing , said Chung Koo @-@ ho , whose mother died shielding him and his sister . By the second day , the gunfire was reduced to potshots and occasional fusillades when a trapped refugee moved or tried to escape . Some also recall planes returning that second day to fire rockets or drop bombs . Racked with thirst , survivors resorted to drinking blood @-@ filled water from a small stream running under the bridge . During the killings , the 2nd Battalion came under sporadic artillery and mortar fire from the North Koreans , who advanced cautiously from Yongdong . Declassified Army intelligence reports showed that the enemy front line was two miles or more from No Gun Ri late on July 28 , the third day of the massacre . That night , the 7th Cavalry messaged division headquarters , " No important contact has been reported by our 2nd Battalion . " Unit documents never reported the refugee killings . In the predawn hours of July 29 , the 7th Cavalry Regiment withdrew from No Gun Ri . That afternoon , North Korean soldiers arrived outside the tunnels and helped those still alive , about two dozen , mostly children , feeding them and sending them back toward their villages . = = = Casualties = = = In the earliest published accounts of the killings , in August and September 1950 , two North Korean journalists with the advancing northern troops reported finding an estimated 400 bodies in the No Gun Ri area , and seeing some 200 bodies in one tunnel . The survivors generally put the death toll at 400 , including 100 in the initial air attack , with scores more wounded . In Pentagon interviews in 2000 , 7th Cavalry veterans ' estimates of No Gun Ri dead ranged from dozens to 300 . One who had a close look , career soldier Homer Garza , who led a patrol through one No Gun Ri tunnel , said that he saw 200 to 300 bodies piled up there . In 2005 , the South Korean government 's Committee for the Review and Restoration of Honor for the No Gun Ri Victims , after a yearlong process of verifying claims through family registers , medical reports and other documents and testimony , certified the names of 150 No Gun Ri dead , 13 missing , and 55 wounded , including some who later died of their wounds . It said that reports were not filed on many other victims because of the passage of time and other factors . Of the certified victims , 41 percent were children under 15 , and 70 percent were women , children or men over age 61 . The South Korean government @-@ funded No Gun Ri Peace Foundation , which operates a memorial park and museum at the site , estimated in 2011 that 250 – 300 were killed . = = Aftermath = = Information about the refugee killings reached the U.S. command in Korea , and the Pentagon , by late August 1950 , in the form of a captured and translated North Korean military document , which reported the discovery of the massacre . A South Korean agent for the U.S. counterintelligence command confirmed that account with local villagers weeks later , when U.S. troops moved back through the area , the ex @-@ agent told U.S. investigators in 2000 . Evidence of high @-@ level knowledge also appeared in late September 1950 in a New York Times article from Korea , which reported , without further detail , that an unnamed high @-@ ranking U.S. officer told the reporter of the " panicky " shooting of " many civilians " by a U.S. Army regiment that July . No evidence has emerged , however , that the U.S. military investigated the incident at the time . = = = Petitions = = = During the U.S.-supported postwar autocracy of President Syngman Rhee , survivors of No Gun Ri were too fearful of official retaliation to file public complaints . Survivor Yang Hae @-@ chan said that he was warned by South Korean police to stop telling others about the massacre . Following the April Revolution in 1960 , which briefly established democracy in South Korea , former policeman Chung Eun @-@ yong filed the first petition to the South Korean and U.S. governments . His two small children had been killed and his wife , Park Sun @-@ yong , badly wounded at No Gun Ri . Over 30 petitions , calling for an investigation , apology , and compensation , were filed over the next decades , by Chung and later by a survivors ' committee . Almost all were ignored , as was a petition to the U.S. and South Korean governments by the local Yongdong County Assembly . In 1994 , Seoul newspapers reported on a book Chung published about the events of 1950 , raising awareness of the allegations inside South Korea . In that same year , the U.S. Armed Forces Claims Service in Korea dismissed one No Gun Ri petition by asserting that any killings took place during combat . The survivors ' committee retorted that there was no battle at No Gun Ri , but U.S. officials refused to reconsider . In 1997 , the survivors filed a claim with a South Korean compensation committee under the binational Status of Forces Agreement . This time , the U.S. claims service responded by again citing what it claimed was a combat situation , and by asserting that there was no evidence the 1st Cavalry Division was in the No Gun Ri area , as the survivors ' research and the 1961 official Army history of the war indicated . On April 28 , 1998 , the Seoul government committee made a final ruling against the No Gun Ri survivors , citing the long @-@ ago expiration of a five @-@ year statute of limitations . In June 1998 , South Korea 's National Council of Churches , on behalf of the No Gun Ri survivors , sought help from the U.S. National Council of Churches , which asked the Pentagon to investigate . In March 1999 , the Army told the U.S. council that it had looked into the No Gun Ri allegations , and " found no information to substantiate the claim " in the operational records of the 1st Cavalry Division and other frontline units . = = = Associated Press story = = = Months before the Army 's private correspondence with the church group , Associated Press reporters , researching those same 1950 operational records , found orders to shoot South Korean civilians . The U.S.-based news agency , which reported the rejection of the survivors ' claim in April 1998 , had begun investigating the No Gun Ri allegations earlier that year , trying to identify Army units possibly involved , and to track down their ex @-@ soldiers . On Sept . 29 , 1999 , after a year of internal struggle over releasing the article , the AP published its investigative report on the massacre , based on the accounts of 24 No Gun Ri survivors , corroborated by a dozen 7th Cavalry Regiment veterans . " We just annihilated them , " it quoted former 7th Cavalry machine gunner Norman Tinkler as saying . The journalists ' research into declassified military documents at the U.S. National Archives uncovered recorded instructions in late July 1950 that front @-@ line units shoot South Korean refugees approaching their positions . A liaison officer of the sister 8th Cavalry Regiment had relayed word to his unit from 1st Cavalry Division headquarters to fire on refugees trying to cross U.S. front lines . Major General William B. Kean of the neighboring 25th Infantry Division advised that any civilians found in areas supposed to be cleared by police should be considered enemies and " treated accordingly , " an order relayed by his staff as " considered as unfriendly and shot . " On the day the No Gun Ri killings began , the Eighth Army ordered all units to stop refugees from crossing their lines . In subsequent articles , the AP reported that many more South Korean civilians were killed when the U.S. military blew up two Naktong River bridges packed with refugees on Aug. 4 , 1950 , and when other refugee columns were strafed by U.S. aircraft in the war 's first months . The AP team ( Sang @-@ hun Choe , Charles J. Hanley , Martha Mendoza and Randy Herschaft ) was awarded the 2000 Pulitzer Prize for Investigative Reporting for their reporting on No Gun Ri , along with receiving 10 other major national and international journalism awards . Expanding on the AP 's work , in June 2000 , CBS News reported the existence of a U.S. Air Force memo from July 1950 , in which the operations chief in Korea said that the Air Force was strafing refugee columns approaching U.S. positions . The memo , dated July 25 , the day before the No Gun Ri killings began with such a strafing , said that the U.S. Army had requested the attacks on civilians , and " to date , we have complied with the army 's request " . A U.S. Navy document later emerged , in which pilots from the aircraft carrier USS Valley Forge reported that the Army had told them to attack any groups of more than eight people in South Korea . " Most fighter @-@ bomber pilots regarded Korean civilians in white clothes as enemy troops , " South Korean scholar Taewoo Kim would later conclude after reviewing Air Force mission reports from 1950 . In May 2000 , challenged by a skeptical U.S. News & World Report magazine article , the AP team did additional archival research , and reported that one of nine ex @-@ soldiers quoted in the original No Gun Ri article , Edward L. Daily , had incorrectly identified himself as an eyewitness , and instead had been passing on second @-@ hand information . A Pentagon spokesman said that this would not affect the Army 's No Gun Ri investigation , noting Daily was " just one guy of many we 've been talking to " . Army officer Robert Bateman , a 7th Cavalry veteran , who collaborated on the U.S. News & World Report article with a fellow 7th Cavalry association member , also published a book , No Gun Ri : A Military History of the Korean War Incident , repeating his contentions that the AP reporting was flawed . The AP 's methods and conclusions were defended by the AP in a lengthy , detailed refutation and by others . The Pulitzer committee reaffirmed its award and the credibility of the AP reporting . = = = U.S. and South Korean military investigations = = = On Sept . 30 , 1999 , within hours of publication of the AP report , Defense Secretary William Cohen ordered Army Secretary Louis Caldera to initiate an investigation . The Seoul government also ordered an investigation , proposing that the two inquiries conduct joint document searches and joint witness interviews . The Americans refused . In the ensuing 15 @-@ month probes , conducted by the U.S. Army inspector general 's office and Seoul 's Defense Ministry , interrogators interviewed or obtained statements from some 200 U.S. veterans and 75 Koreans . The Army researchers reviewed 1 million pages of U.S. archival documents . The final weeks were marked by press reports from Seoul of sharp disputes between the U.S. and Korean teams . On January 11 , 2001 , the two governments issued their separate reports . = = = = U.S. report = = = = After years of dismissing the allegations , in its report , the Army acknowledged that the U.S. military had killed " an unknown number " of South Korean refugees at No Gun Ri with " small @-@ arms fire , artillery and mortar fire , and strafing . " But it held that no orders were issued to fire on the civilians , and that the shootings were the result of hostile fire from among the refugees , or was firing meant to control them . At another point , it suggested that soldiers may have " misunderstood " the Eighth Army 's stop @-@ refugees order to mean they could be shot . At the same time , it described the deaths as " an unfortunate tragedy inherent to war and not a deliberate killing . " The Army report dismissed the testimony of soldiers who spoke of orders to shoot at No Gun Ri because , it said , none could remember the wording , the originating officer 's name , or having received the order directly himself . The report questioned an early , unverified South Korean government estimate of 248 killed , missing , and wounded at No Gun Ri , citing an aerial reconnaissance photograph of the area , said to have been taken eight days after the killings ended , that it said showed " no indication of human remains or mass graves . " Four years after this 2001 report , the Seoul government 's inquest committee certified the identities of a minimum 218 casualties . = = = = South Korean report = = = = In their report , South Korean investigators acknowledged that no documents showed specific orders at No Gun Ri to shoot refugees . But they pointed to gaps in the U.S.-supplied documents dealing with 7th Cavalry and U.S. Air Force operations . Missing documents included the 7th Cavalry 's journal , or communications log , for July 1950 , the record that would have carried No Gun Ri orders . It was missing without explanation from its place at the National Archives . The South Korean report said that five former Air Force pilots told U.S. interrogators that they were directed to strafe civilians during this period , and 17 veterans of the 7th Cavalry testified that they believed there were orders to shoot the No Gun Ri refugees . The Koreans noted that two of the veterans were battalion communications specialists ( Levine and Crume ) and , as such , were in an especially good position to know which orders had been relayed . Citing the Eighth Army order of July 26 to stop refugees , the Korean report concluded that the 7th Cavalry was " likely to have used all possible means to stop the approaching refugees . " Said South Korea 's national security director , Oh Young @-@ ho , " We believe there was an order to fire . " A joint U.S.-Korean " Statement of Mutual Understandings " issued with the reports did not repeat the U.S. report 's flat assertion that no orders to shoot were issued at No Gun Ri . The Korean investigators cast doubt on the U.S. report 's suggestion of possible gunfire from among the refugees . Surviving documents said nothing about infiltrators at No Gun Ri , even though they would have been the 7th Cavalry 's first enemy killed @-@ in @-@ action in Korea . The No Gun Ri survivors denied it emphatically , and only three of 52 battalion veterans interviewed by the U.S. team spoke of hostile fire , and then inconsistently . Regarding the aerial imagery that the U.S. report said suggested a lower death toll , the South Korean investigators , drawing on accounts from survivors and area residents , said that at least 62 bodies had been taken away by relatives , or buried in soldiers ' abandoned foxholes , in the first days after the killings , and others remained inside one underpass tunnel , under thin layers of dirt , out of sight of airborne cameras , and awaiting later burial in mass graves . In addition , South Korean military specialists questioned the U.S. reconnaissance photos , pointing out irregularities , including the fact that the No Gun Ri frames had been spliced into the roll of film , raising the possibility that they were not , as claimed , from August 6 , 1950 , eight days after the killings . = = = = Clinton statement , U.S. offer = = = = On the day the U.S. report was issued , then @-@ President Bill Clinton issued a statement declaring , " I deeply regret that Korean civilians lost their lives at No Gun Ri in late July , 1950 " . The next day , he told reporters that " things happened which were wrong " . But the U.S. did not offer the apology and individual compensation sought by the survivors and the South Korean government . Instead , the U.S. offered a $ 4 million plan for a memorial at No Gun Ri , and a scholarship fund . The survivors later rejected the plan , because the memorial would be dedicated to all the war 's South Korean civilian dead , rather than just the No Gun Ri victims . = = = Reaction to U.S. report ; further evidence emerges = = = The No Gun Ri survivors ' committee called the U.S. Army report a " whitewash " of command responsibility . " This is not enough for the massacre of over 60 hours , of 400 innocent people who were hunted like animals , " said committee head Chung Eun @-@ yong . The survivors rejected the notion that the killings were " not deliberate , " pointing to accounts from veterans and to documents attesting to front @-@ line orders to shoot civilians . Lawmakers of both the ruling and opposition party in South Korea criticized the U.S. position . Former U.S. congressman Pete McCloskey of California , the only one of eight outside advisers to the U.S. inquiry to write a detailed analysis afterward , agreed with the Koreans , saying , " I thought the Army report was a whitewash . " In a letter to Defense Secretary Cohen , another U.S. adviser , retired Marine general Bernard E. Trainor , expressed sympathy with the hard @-@ pressed U.S. troops of 1950 , but said the killings were unjustified , and that " the American command was responsible for the loss of innocent civilian life in or around No @-@ Gun @-@ Ri . " Journalists and scholars subsequently noted that the U.S. report either did not address , or presented incomplete versions , of key declassified documents , some previously reported in the news media . News reports pointed out that the U.S. review , in describing the July 1950 Air Force memo , did not acknowledge that it said refugees were being strafed at the Army 's request . Researchers found that the U.S. review had not disclosed the existence of U.S. Air Force mission reports during this period , documenting the strafing of apparent refugee groups , and air strikes in the No Gun Ri vicinity . The report did not address the commanders ' July 26 – 27 , 1950 , instructions in the 25th Infantry Division , saying that civilians in the war zone would be considered unfriendly and shot . In saying that no such orders were issued at No Gun Ri , the Army did not disclose that the 7th Cavalry log , which would have held such orders , was missing from the National Archives . After the Army issued its report , it was learned that it also had not disclosed its researchers ' discovery of at least 14 additional declassified documents , showing high @-@ ranking commanders ordering or authorizing the shooting of refugees in the Korean War 's early months , such as communications from 1st Cavalry Division commander Gay , and a top division officer , to consider refugees north of the front line " fair game " and to " shoot all refugees coming across river " . In addition , interview transcripts obtained through Freedom of Information Act requests showed that the Army had not reported repeated testimony from ex @-@ soldiers that , as one put it , " the word I heard was ' Kill everybody from 6 to 60 ' " during their early days in Korea . In 2005 , American historian Sahr Conway @-@ Lanz reported his discovery of a declassified document at the National Archives , in which the United States Ambassador to Korea in 1950 , John J. Muccio , notified the State Department , on the day the No Gun Ri killings began , that the U.S. military , fearing infiltrators , had adopted a policy of shooting South Korean refugee groups that approached U.S. lines , after firing warning shots . Pressed by the South Korean government , the Pentagon eventually acknowledged that it deliberately omitted the Muccio letter from its 2001 report . = = = Law of war and No Gun Ri = = = In disclaiming U.S. culpability in January 2001 , then @-@ President Clinton told reporters , " The evidence was not clear that there was responsibility for wrongdoing high enough in the chain of command in the Army to say that , in effect , the government was responsible . " American lawyers for the No Gun Ri survivors rejected that rationale , saying that whether 7th Cavalry troops acted under formal orders or not , " the massacre of civilian refugees , mainly the elderly , women and children , was in and of itself a clear violation of international law for which the United States is liable under the doctrine of command responsibility and must pay compensation " . Writing to the Army inspector general 's office in May 2001 , the lawyers also pointed out that numerous orders were issued at the war front to shoot civilians , and said that the U.S. military 's self @-@ investigation – " allowing enforcement to be subject to the unbridled discretion of the alleged perpetrator " – was an ultimate violation of victims ' rights . In its 2005 report , the South Korean government 's inquest panel , the Committee for the Review and Restoration of Honor for the No Gun Ri Victims , cited six South Korean legal studies as saying that No Gun Ri constituted a crime against humanity . " The No Gun Ri Massacre overtly violates the basic principles of the law of war and customary international law , " legal scholar Tae @-@ Ung Baik wrote in one study . The committee itself concluded , " The United States of America should take responsibility for the No Gun Ri incident . " American experts in military law agreed that the 1950 events violated the laws of war prohibiting targeting of noncombatants , but said that prosecuting ex @-@ soldiers a half @-@ century later was a practical impossibility . Nevertheless , Army Secretary Caldera said early in the investigation that he couldn 't rule out prosecutions , a statement that survivors later complained may have deterred some 7th Cavalry veterans from testifying . = = Later developments = = = = = Continuing appeals = = = Although often supported by South Korean politicians and newspaper editorials , the No Gun Ri survivors ' repeated demands for a reopened U.S. investigation and compensation went unheeded . Meeting with South Korean officials in 2001 , the survivors asked that their government seek action at the International Court of Justice at The Hague , and in U.N. human rights forums , but were rebuffed . In 2002 , a spokesman for South Korea 's then @-@ governing party called for a new U.S. inquiry , but the Defense Ministry later warned the National Assembly that a reopened probe might damage U.S.-South Korean relations . The disclosure in 2006 that Pentagon investigators had omitted the Muccio letter from their final report , along with other incriminating documents and testimony , prompted more calls for action . Two leaders of the National Assembly appealed to the U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee for a joint investigation , but no U.S. congressional body ever took up the No Gun Ri issue . In a 2015 book , David Straub , U.S. Embassy political chief during the No Gun Ri investigation , wrote that meeting the survivors ' demands would have set an undesirable precedent for similar cases from 1950 Korea . After a delegation 's visit to No Gun Ri , the annual General Assembly of the US Presbyterian Church adopted a resolution in June 2016 calling on church leadership to urge the U.S. president and Congress to issue an apology and appropriate compensation for the No Gun Ri killings . = = = Graves , memorial park = = = No Gun Ri villagers said that in later decades , two mass graves holding some victims ' remains were disturbed , and bones were removed during a reforestation project , and by farming activity . In 2007 , excavations at several places near the bridge turned up little . The forensics team said that it hadn 't found more , because so much time had passed , and any remains had been exposed to the elements and soil erosion , railway work , cultivation , and highly acidic soil . After the United States refused to offer compensation , and the survivors rejected the plan for a war memorial and scholarship fund , South Korea 's National Assembly , on February 9 , 2004 , adopted a " Special Act on the Review and Restoration of Honor for the No Gun Ri Victims . " It established the committee that examined and certified the identities of the dead and wounded , and it provided medical subsidies for surviving wounded . The act also envisioned a memorial park at the No Gun Ri site , which had begun attracting 20 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 visitors a year . The 33 @-@ acre ( 13 @-@ ha . ) No Gun Ri Memorial Peace Park , built with $ 17 million in government funds , and featuring a memorial , museum , and peace education center , opened in October 2011 . In 2009 , Yongdong County established a nearby cemetery , to which some victims ' remains were moved from family plots . A publicly financed No Gun Ri International Peace Foundation also sponsored an annual peace conference , a No Gun Ri Peace Prize , and a summer peace camp at the park for international university students . = = = No Gun Ri in culture = = = In South Korea , the No Gun Ri story inspired works of nonfiction , fiction , theater , and other arts . In 2010 , a major Korean studio , Myung Films , released a No Gun Ri feature film , A Little Pond , written and directed by Lee Saang @-@ woo and featuring Song Kang @-@ ho , Moon So @-@ ri and other Korean stars who donated their work . Besides commercial release in South Korea , the movie was screened at international film festivals , including in New York and London . In 2006 – 2010 , artist Park Kun @-@ woong and Chung Eun @-@ yong published Nogunri Story , a two @-@ volume graphic narrative that told the story of the massacre , and the half @-@ century struggle for the truth , through thousands of drawings , based on Chung 's 1994 book . The Korean @-@ language work was also published in translation in Europe . In the United States and Britain , No Gun Ri was a central or secondary theme in five English @-@ language novels , including the U.S. National Book Award finalist Lark & Termite of 2009 , by Jayne Anne Phillips , and the James Bond thriller Trigger Mortis of 2015 , by British author Anthony Horowitz . = = = Truth and Reconciliation Commission = = = The 1999 No Gun Ri articles prompted hundreds of South Koreans to come forward to report other alleged incidents of large @-@ scale civilian killings by the U.S. military in 1950 – 1951 , mostly in the form of air attacks . In 2005 , the National Assembly created the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of the Republic of Korea to investigate these allegations , as well as other human rights violations in southern Korea during the 20th century . The commission 's docket eventually held more than 200 cases of what it described as " civilian massacre committed by U.S. soldiers " . By 2009 , the commission 's work of collating declassified U.S. military documents with survivors ' accounts confirmed eight representative cases of what it found were wrongful U.S. killings of hundreds of South Korean civilians , including refugees crowded into a cave attacked with napalm bombs , and those at a shoreline refugee encampment deliberately shelled by a U.S. warship . The commission alleged that the U.S. military repeatedly conducted indiscriminate attacks , failing to distinguish between combatants and non @-@ combatants . In its most significant finding , the commission also confirmed that South Korean authorities had summarily executed thousands of suspected leftists in South Korea – possibly 100 @,@ 000 to 200 @,@ 000 – at the outbreak of the war , sometimes with U.S. Army officers present and taking photographs . Of all American wars , the Korean conflict is believed to have been the deadliest for civilians as a proportion of those killed , including North and South Korean non @-@ combatants killed in extensive U.S. Air Force bombing of North Korea , and South Korean civilians summarily executed by the invading North Korean military . The commission also recommended that the Seoul government negotiate with the United States for reparations for large @-@ scale civilian killings by the U.S. military . This did not occur . Assistant U.S. Secretary of State Stanley Roth was quoted as saying in Seoul at the outset of the No Gun Ri investigation in 1999 that the United States would consider investigating any similar Korean War killings that came to light . The 1999 – 2001 investigation was the last conducted by the United States .
= Appian Way Productions = Appian Way Productions is a film production company in West Hollywood , California , established by actor and producer Leonardo DiCaprio . The company 's first film was The Assassination of Richard Nixon ( 2004 ) . It then released the 2004 biopic The Aviator , starring DiCaprio as Howard Hughes . The film was a critical and commercial success , and earned several Academy Award nominations , including Best Picture . Its following productions were released three years later — the comedy drama Gardener of Eden ( 2007 ) and the documentary The 11th Hour ( 2007 ) . This was followed by the commercial successes of the psychological horror Orphan ( 2009 ) , the psychological thriller Shutter Island ( 2010 ) and the dark fantasy film Red Riding Hood ( 2011 ) . The company had three releases in 2013 , including the crime thriller Runner Runner and the thriller film Out of the Furnace ( 2013 ) , both of which performed poorly at the box @-@ office . Appian Way released the biopic The Wolf of Wall Street ( 2013 ) , a critical and commercial success , which was nominated for several Academy Awards , including Best Picture . = = History = = Appian Way Productions was founded by Leonardo DiCaprio . Its first film was The Assassination of Richard Nixon ( 2004 ) , starring Sean Penn as Samuel Byck who attempted to assassinate president Richard Nixon in 1974 . It was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival . The company 's next film was the 2004 biopic The Aviator , produced in association with Forward Pass , Intermedia , and Initial Entertainment Group . Based on the 1993 non @-@ fiction book Howard Hughes : The Secret Life by Charles Higham , the film depicted the life of Howard Hughes ( DiCaprio ) , an aviation pioneer who became a successful film producer between the late 1920s and late 1940s while simultaneously growing more unstable due to severe obsessive – compulsive disorder . Writing for The Daily Telegraph , Sukhdev Sandhu described the film as " a gorgeous tribute to the Golden Age of Hollywood " even though it " tips the balance of spectacle versus substance in favour of the former . " He praised Martin Scorsese 's direction , DiCaprio and the supporting cast but panned Kate Beckinsale 's performance . With a worldwide gross of $ 213 @.@ 7 million against a budget of $ 110 million , the film proved to be a commercial success . The film earned a total of eleven nominations at the 77th Academy Awards , including Best Picture , Best Director ( Scorsese ) and Best Actor ( DiCaprio ) , and won five of them , including a Best Supporting Actress award for Cate Blanchett . Appian Way 's next film was released three years later — the comedy drama Gardener of Eden which , according to The Hollywood Reporter 's Frank Scheck , " lacks the necessary dramatic urgency or black humor to connect with audiences " . A few months later , it released The 11th Hour , a documentary about global warming . The film featured 50 experts on environmental issues and the solutions , and won the Earthwatch Environmental Film Award through the National Geographic Channel in March 2008 . DiCaprio wrote a three @-@ season television series Greensburg ( 2008 – 10 ) which was produced by the company . The company , along with Dark Castle Entertainment , released the 2009 psychological horror film Orphan , which told the story of a couple who , after the death of their unborn child , adopt a mysterious 9 @-@ year @-@ old girl . The film 's content , depicting a murderous adoptee , created controversy among the adoption community , which stated that it promotes negative stereotypes about orphans . Although the film received mixed reviews , it was a commercial success . Scorsese reunited with the company to make the film Shutter Island ( 2010 ) , a psychological thriller based on the 2003 novel of same name by Dennis Lehane . DiCaprio played U.S. Marshal Edward " Teddy " Daniels , who investigates a psychiatric facility located on an island but eventually comes to question his own sanity . A commercial success , the film received generally positive reviews ; Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian praised the film 's direction and performances but criticized its " silly twist ending " , calling it " supremely exasperating " . Red Riding Hood , directed by Catherine Hardwicke , was Appian Way 's first release in 2011 . In the film , which is set in a village haunted by werewolves , a young girl falls in love with an orphan woodcutter , much to her family 's displeasure . Earlier in production , the film was titled The Girl with the Red Riding Hood . Although it was poorly received by critics — Mary Pols of Time named it one of the Top 10 Worst Movies of 2011 — it performed modestly at the box @-@ office . The company 's final release in 2011 was Detachment , a Tony Kaye @-@ directed drama on high school education system . Three films were produced by the company in 2013 ; the first was Runner Runner , an ensemble crime thriller , which The Guardian 's Xan Brooks described as " a lazy , trashy film that barely goes through the motions " . The thriller Out of the Furnace , the company 's second release , was also negatively received by critics and was a box office bomb . Scorsese directed the company 's final film in 2013 — The Wolf of Wall Street , a biopic on the life of Jordan Belfort ( DiCaprio ) , a New York stockbroker who runs a firm that engages in securities fraud and money laundering on Wall Street in the 1990s . The screenplay was adapted by Terence Winter from Belfort 's memoir of the same name . The film was banned in Kenya , Malaysia and Nepal for its controversial depiction of events , explicit sexual content , profanity , and hard drug use . Nonetheless , it was a major commercial success and it went on to be the 17th @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2013 . According to copyright infringement tracking site Excipio , the film was the most widely infringed of 2014 , as it was downloaded illegally over 30 million times via torrent sites . The film was nominated for several Academy Awards , including Best Picture and Best Actor , although it failed to win in any category . In 2015 , DiCaprio produced and starred in the biographical western thriller The Revenant , which is based on in part on Michael Punke 's 2002 novel of the same name , which itself is inspired by the life of frontiersman Hugh Glass . The film was well received by critics , with Justin Change of Variety reviewing : " Bleak as hell but considerably more beautiful , this nightmarish plunge into a frigid , forbidding American outback is a movie of pitiless violence , grueling intensity and continually breathtaking imagery " . As of October 2015 , the company is filming Live by Night , a crime film based on the 2012 novel of same name . In May 2016 , Appian Way Productions signed a three @-@ year , first @-@ look production deal with Paramount Pictures . = = Films = = = = Television = = Greensburg ( 2008 – 10 )
= 2005 UEFA Champions League Final = The 2005 UEFA Champions League Final was the final match of the 2004 – 05 UEFA Champions League , Europe 's primary club football competition . The showpiece event was contested between Liverpool of England and Milan of Italy at the Atatürk Stadium in Istanbul , Turkey on 25 May 2005 . Liverpool , who had won the competition four times , were appearing in their sixth final , and their first since 1985 . Milan , who had won the competition six times , were appearing in their second final in three years and tenth overall . Each club needed to progress through the group stage and knockout rounds to reach the final , playing 12 matches in total . Liverpool finished second in their group behind 2004 runners @-@ up AS Monaco and subsequently beat Bayer Leverkusen , Juventus and Chelsea to progress to the final . Milan won their group ahead of Barcelona and faced Manchester United , Internazionale and PSV Eindhoven before reaching the final . Milan were regarded as favourites before the match and took the lead within the first minute through captain Paolo Maldini . Milan striker Hernán Crespo added two more goals before half @-@ time to make it 3 – 0 . In the second half Liverpool launched a comeback and scored three goals in a dramatic six @-@ minute spell to level the scores at 3 – 3 , with goals from Steven Gerrard , Vladimír Šmicer and Xabi Alonso . The scores remained the same during extra time , and a penalty shoot @-@ out was required to decide the champions . The score was 3 – 2 to Liverpool when Andriy Shevchenko 's penalty was saved by Liverpool goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek . Thus Liverpool won their fifth European Cup , were awarded the trophy permanently , and claimed a multiple @-@ winner badge . Liverpool 's comeback gave rise to the final being known as the Miracle of Istanbul , and is regarded as one of the finest moments of the club 's history . = = Route to the final = = Teams qualified for the Champions League group stage , either directly or through three preliminary rounds , based on both their position in the preceding domestic league and the strength of that league . Each club needed to progress through the group stage and knockout rounds to reach the final , playing 12 matches in total . Liverpool finished second in their group behind 2004 Champions League runners @-@ up AS Monaco and subsequently beat Bayer Leverkusen , Juventus and Chelsea to progress to the final . Milan won their group ahead of Barcelona and faced Manchester United , Internazionale and PSV Eindhoven before reaching the final . Liverpool entered the competition in the third qualifying round after finishing fourth in the 2003 – 04 FA Premier League . They faced Austrian side Grazer AK and won the first leg 2 – 0 at Grazer after two goals from captain Steven Gerrard . They lost the second leg 1 – 0 at Anfield but progressed to the group stage by virtue of winning the tie 2 – 1 on aggregate . Milan entered the competition in the group stage after winning Serie A. The group stages were contested as eight double round @-@ robin groups of four teams , the top two qualifying for the knockout stages . Knockout ties were decided based on home and away matches . = = Build @-@ up = = The 2005 final was the sixth time Liverpool had reached the final and it was their first appearance since the 1985 European Cup Final , when they lost 1 – 0 to Juventus and were subsequently banned from European competition for an indefinite period due to the Heysel Stadium disaster . They had previously won the European Cup on four occasions in 1977 , 1978 , 1981 and 1984 . The match was Milan 's tenth appearance in the final . They had won on six occasions ( 1963 , 1969 , 1989 , 1990 , 1994 , 2003 ) , and lost three times ( 1958 , 1993 , 1995 ) . In total the teams had participated in 14 finals between them . Prior to the game , Milan were assured of entering the Champions League next season after finishing second in Serie A. Liverpool meanwhile had failed to finish in the top four in the Premier League , and had to win the final to enter the competition the following season . Even if they did win the match , they were not assured of a place after UEFA failed to confirm whether they would allow Liverpool to defend the championship . The Football Association supported Liverpool , stating , " We have already submitted a written request to have an additional place , should they win the Champions League " . Milan manager Carlo Ancelotti had his own view on the situation : " I think a team that wins should have the right to defend it but we may just do the English federation a favour and solve this " . Each team was allocated 20 @,@ 000 tickets for the final , out of a total of 69 @,@ 500 . UEFA auctioned 7 @,@ 500 tickets for the final through its website , while another 14 @,@ 500 were distributed to its " football family " . The Turkish Football Federation also had 7 @,@ 500 tickets available for fans from their country , but there were concerns these tickets would be sold on the black market . Hotel rooms in the city were scarce , with the 100 @,@ 000 available quickly booked by travel agents and fans . 30 @,@ 000 Liverpool fans made the trip to Istanbul , but only 20 @,@ 000 were expected to have tickets . The BBC reported early arrivals were lively but there was no violence and the mood between the two fans was friendly . Milan were regarded as favourites and their team included many players who had experienced success in the competition . The most notable was captain Paolo Maldini , who had won the competition four times previously , all with Milan , and Clarence Seedorf who had won the competition three times with three different clubs . Liverpool had been considered underdogs throughout the competition , but had beaten more favoured opposition , including Juventus and Chelsea , to reach the final . Liverpool manager Rafael Benítez acknowledged this : " Maybe Milan are favourites , but we have confidence , and we can win " . Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger felt Liverpool would win the match : " I fancy Liverpool as Milan look jaded physically and certainly mentally , by losing the [ Serie A ] title , I think they have never had a better chance than now to beat Milan " . Liverpool defender Jamie Carragher was not so optimistic , stating that the Liverpool side were not as good as the one that had won the 2001 UEFA Cup Final : " No disrespect to the squad we have got now but it is obvious we are not as strong as we were when we won the UEFA Cup in 2001 . Back then we had a settled team and that season when we went into games against Barcelona and Roma , we always felt we were as good as them " . Milan were expected to field a 4 – 4 – 2 formation , and there was much speculation about who would partner Andriy Shevchenko in attack . Filippo Inzaghi and Jon Dahl Tomasson were touted , but it was expected that on @-@ loan striker Hernán Crespo would be chosen . This was echoed by Milan manager Ancelotti : " I will not say if he will play from the start , but he will definitely play " . Liverpool were also expected to adopt a 4 – 4 – 2 formation . Dietmar Hamann was expected to start ahead of Igor Bišćan , and when questioned over whether Djibril Cissé or Milan Baroš would start as main striker , Benítez replied , " Both are good enough , maybe both can play , why not ? " = = Match = = = = = First half = = = Liverpool fielded a 4 – 4 – 1 – 1 formation , with the surprise inclusion in the squad being Harry Kewell , who played just behind Milan Baroš , who himself had been picked ahead of Djibril Cissé . The inclusion of Kewell meant Dietmar Hamann was left on the substitutes ' bench and Xabi Alonso and Steven Gerrard started in the centre of midfield . Milan fielded a 4 – 4 – 2 diamond formation , with Hernán Crespo preferred to Jon Dahl Tomasson and Filippo Inzaghi , who was not included in the match day squad . Liverpool lined up in their red home kit , whilst Milan wore a changed strip of all white . Liverpool won the toss and kicked off . Milan scored within the first minute of the match after captain Paolo Maldini volleyed in an Andrea Pirlo free kick that had been conceded by Djimi Traoré . The goal made Maldini the oldest scorer in the history of the competition . Liverpool responded almost immediately ; John Arne Riise , who was picked out by a corner kick from Steven Gerrard , hit a volley from the edge of the penalty box . His shot was cleared only for Gerrard to cross in from the right wing , which Sami Hyypiä headed towards goal producing a save out of Dida . Milan almost extended their lead in the 13th minute , after Crespo 's header was cleared off the goal line by Luis García . A few minutes later , Liverpool made a substitution after Harry Kewell picked up a groin injury ; he was replaced by Vladimír Šmicer . Soon after , Kaká passed through to Andriy Shevchenko who put his shot past Liverpool goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek , but Shevchenko was adjudged to have been in an offside position and the goal did not stand . Shevchenko had another chance to score a few minutes later ; after being played onside by Traore , his shot was saved by Dudek after he came under pressure from the Liverpool defence . Luis García had two chances to score following Shevchenko 's shot ; the first shot from the edge of the penalty area went well over the crossbar and after he was headed through by Baroš his next shot went wide . Straight after this attack , Crespo went through on goal only to be flagged for offside . Almost immediately after this , Liverpool had a penalty claim turned down after Alessandro Nesta allegedly handballed . Milan countered and scored ; Kaka dribbled the ball into the Liverpool half and passed to Shevchenko , who passed to Crespo at the far post to score and make it 2 – 0 . Minutes later , Crespo extended Milan 's lead with a chip over Dudek after Kaka provided the assist to make it 3 – 0 . = = = Second half = = = At the start of the second half , Liverpool made a substitution with Dietmar Hamann replacing Steve Finnan and also changed to a 3 @-@ 5 @-@ 2 formation to reduce the deficit , with Riise and Smicer on the flanks , Alonso and Hamann as holding midfielders and Gerrard playing as an attacking midfielder . Liverpool had the best chance early on with Xabi Alonso sending an effort from 35 yards ( 32 m ) narrowly past Milan 's right hand post . Two minutes later , Shevchenko forced a save from Dudek with a strong free kick from just outside the Liverpool box . A minute after this , Liverpool scored through captain Gerrard , who connected with Riise 's cross and lofted a header past Dida . Soon afterwards , Liverpool scored again as Šmicer beat Dida with a long @-@ range shot into the bottom left @-@ hand corner to leave Liverpool a goal behind . Three minutes after Šmicer 's goal , Liverpool were awarded a penalty , after Gerrard made a run into the Milan box for Baros ' lay @-@ off and was brought down by Gennaro Gattuso . Xabi Alonso 's penalty was saved , but he scored from the rebound to equalise for Liverpool . Milan and Liverpool had chances to take the lead after this , but Clarence Seedorf and Riise failed to score . Milan almost took the lead in the 70th minute , after Dudek dropped a low cross towards Shevchenko , whose effort was cleared off the line by Traore . Gerrard then had a chance to score but he sent his shot over the crossbar . About ten minutes later García could not control a pass from Gerrard which led to a Milan attack , Crespo played the ball back to Kaka , whose subsequent shot was blocked by Jamie Carragher . A number of substitutions were made before the end of full @-@ time with Liverpool replacing Milan Baroš with Djibril Cissé , while Milan replaced Hernán Crespo and Clarence Seedorf with Jon Dahl Tomasson and Serginho respectively . Milan had the last chance before full @-@ time but Kaka failed to direct Jaap Stam 's header towards goal , meaning the final would go to extra time for the 13th time in the competition 's history . = = = Extra time = = = Liverpool kicked off the first half of extra time . Pirlo had a chance in the early stages , but he put his shot over the crossbar . Tomasson came close in the later stages of the first period of extra time , but he could not make contact with the ball . Vladimir Šmicer required treatment for cramp towards the end of the first period , as a number of Liverpool players felt fatigued . Liverpool had the most of the early exchanges after winning two corners , but could not score . Shortly afterwards , Milan make their final substitution replacing Gennaro Gattuso with Rui Costa . The best chance of the second half came near the end when Shevchenko shot at goal . Dudek saved only for it to rebound back out to Shevchenko , who again shot from under 6 yards ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) , which Dudek again saved by pushing the shot over the bar . Liverpool had one last chance at the end of extra time , but John Arne Riise 's free kick shot was blocked and following this the referee signalled the end of extra time , which meant a penalty shoot @-@ out would decide the championship . = = = Penalties = = = Liverpool and Milan had each won their last European Cups after winning penalty shoot @-@ outs , and it was also the second time in three years that the final would be decided this way - previously , in the 2003 all @-@ Italian final at Old Trafford , Milan had defeated Juventus 3 @-@ 2 . Milan were first to take a penalty , but Serginho - who had taken Milan 's first penalty in 2003 and scored - shot over the crossbar after attempts from Jerzy Dudek to distract him , which mimicked Bruce Grobbelaar 's " spaghetti legs " antics during the shootout in the 1984 final against AS Roma . Dietmar Hamann took Liverpool 's first penalty and , despite having a broken toe , he scored to put Liverpool 1 – 0 up . Andrea Pirlo was next for Milan , and his penalty was saved by Dudek who dove to his right . Cisse then scored his penalty to put Liverpool 2 – 0 up . Tomasson scored Milan 's next penalty to make the score 2 – 1 in Liverpool 's favour . Riise was next for Liverpool , but his penalty was saved by Dida . Kaka then scored the subsequent penalty to level the scores at 2 – 2 . Vladimír Šmicer took the next Liverpool penalty , and he scored to give them a one @-@ goal advantage . Shevchenko , who had scored the decisive penalty against Juventus ' Gianluigi Buffon in 2003 , then had to score or Liverpool would win . He hit his penalty straight down the middle of the goal . Dudek went down to his right , but blocked the shot with his left hand . Liverpool thus won the penalty shootout by a score of 3 – 2 . = = = Details = = = = = = Statistics = = = = = Post @-@ match events = = Liverpool 's triumph marked their fifth European Cup and the first by an English team since Manchester United had defeated Bayern Munich in the 1999 final in Barcelona . By winning the European Cup for a fifth time , Liverpool earned the privilege of wearing a multiple @-@ winner badge and the right to keep the trophy ( under normal competition rules , the winning club can keep the trophy for only 10 months , as they must deliver it to UEFA two months before the next year 's final ) . The 2005 – 06 participants competed for a new identical trophy . The rule to keep the trophy , which had been in effect since the 1968 – 69 season , was changed for the 2009 – 10 season , so that the actual trophy remained with UEFA at all times , thus Liverpool was the fifth and last club to accomplish the feat . Liverpool celebrated their victory by parading the trophy around Liverpool in an open @-@ top double @-@ decker bus the day after the final . They were cheered by approximately 1 million supporters , with an estimated 300 @,@ 000 fans located around St George 's Hall – the final destination of the parade . Business experts estimated that one in five workers took time off following the victory . It was also estimated that Liverpudlians drank around 10 @,@ 000 bottles of champagne after the match , with supermarket chain Sainsbury 's stating : " We 've never seen anything like it . We would usually expect to sell this much champagne at Christmas " . Liverpool manager Rafael Benítez admitted after the match that the manner of his side 's victory had stunned him and he stated : " My problem is that I don 't have words to express the things that I feel at this moment " . Praise for Liverpool also came from outside England , including from Argentine legend Diego Maradona , who said , " Even the Brazil team that won the 1970 World Cup could not have staged a comeback with Milan leading 3 @-@ 0 ... The English club proved that miracles really do exist . I 've now made Liverpool my English team . They showed that football is the most beautiful sport of all . You knew they could defend , but the team showed they could play too and wrote a page in the history books . The match will last forever . The Liverpool supporters didn 't let me go to sleep the night before . There were 10 of them to every three Milan supporters . They showed their unconditional support at half @-@ time when they were losing 3 @-@ 0 and still they didn 't stop singing . " Benítez was also prepared to break up his winning side after the final with a number of players expected to leave the club to make way for new arrivals . One of those leaving was Vladimír Šmicer , who had scored Liverpool 's second goal in Istanbul , and whose contract was known not to be renewed before the final , meaning he entered knowing the final was his last game for the club . Milan were similarly astonished at the manner in which they had lost the final . Manager Carlo Ancelotti said , " We had six minutes of madness in which we threw away the position we had reached until then " . The result compounded Milan 's failure to win Serie A a week before the match . Milan 's vice @-@ president , Adriano Galliani , played down the loss , asserting : " Even if we come second in the league , and second in the Champions League , this is not a disastrous season for us " . Captain Paolo Maldini was less optimistic , stating that the reverse was a " huge disappointment " , but he added that Milan would accept the defeat and " go out with their heads high " . Much discussion after the final centered on the future of Liverpool captain Steven Gerrard who had been linked with a move to rivals Chelsea . Gerrard stated in the immediate aftermath of the victory , " How can I think of leaving Liverpool after a night like this ? " Media reports then quoted Gerrard as saying he wished to leave Liverpool , citing events that had occurred in the month after the Champions League victory as the reason . On 6 July , however , Liverpool chief executive Rick Parry released a statement confirming that Gerrard would remain at the club , and Gerrard signed a new four @-@ year contract on 8 July . Despite winning the competition , Liverpool 's place in next season 's Champions League was still in doubt . Prior to the 2005 Champions League Final , The Football Association had decided on 5 May that only the top four finishers in the Premier League would qualify and Liverpool ended their domestic season in fifth place behind Everton . UEFA initially maintained that each country could only have four Champions League spots and suggested that the FA could nominate Liverpool instead of Everton . Liverpool faced a three @-@ week wait to discover if they would be allowed to defend their title . UEFA came to a decision on 10 June , confirming that both Everton and Liverpool would be able to compete in the Champions League ; however , Liverpool were entered into the first qualifying round , and were given no " country protection " ; meaning they could face another English club at any stage of the competition . The UEFA Executive Committee also amended the regulations for future competitions so that the holders would have the right to defend their title and therefore qualify automatically , though at the expense of the lowest placed team in those countries that had more than one qualifier . As champions , Liverpool faced CSKA Moscow ( winners of the 2005 UEFA Cup Final ) in the 2005 UEFA Super Cup , held on 26 August . Liverpool won the match 3 – 1 after extra time . Liverpool 's victory in Istanbul also meant they qualified for the 2005 FIFA Club World Championship . Liverpool beat Deportivo Saprissa 3 – 0 in the semi @-@ final , and played Copa Libertadores champions São Paulo in the final , losing 1 – 0 .
= North West Coastal Highway = North West Coastal Highway is a generally north @-@ south Western Australian highway which links the coastal city of Geraldton with the town of Port Hedland . The 1 @,@ 300 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 808 mi ) road , constructed as a sealed two @-@ lane single carriageway , travels through remote and largely arid landscapes . Carnarvon is the only large settlement on the highway , and is an oasis within the harsh surrounding environment . The entire highway is allocated National Route 1 , part of Australia 's Highway 1 , and parts of the highway are included in tourist routes Batavia Coast Tourist Way and Cossack Tourist Way . Economically , North West Coastal Highway is an important link to the Mid West , Gascoyne and Pilbara regions , supporting the agricultural , pastoral , fishing , and tourism industries , as well as mining and offshore oil and gas production . In Geraldton , the highway begins at a grade separated interchange with Brand Highway and roads providing access to the port and town centre . Two major roads link the North West Coastal Highway to the inland Great Northern Highway : Geraldton – Mount Magnet Road in Geraldton , and Nanutarra Munjina Road at Nanutarra , 845 kilometres ( 525 mi ) further north . Several roads link provide access to coastal towns and attractions , including Shark Bay Road , Onslow Road and Karratha Road . With few towns on the highway , roadhouses are the only settlements for long stretches . North West Coastal Highway ends at Great Northern Highway , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) out from Port Hedland . North West Coastal Highway was created in 1944 from existing roads and tracks through remote pastoral areas . However , it was a hazardous route that could be dusty in the dry season , and boggy or washed away in the wet season . Economic growth and development in northern Western Australia prompted initial improvement efforts in the late 1940s , and a sealed road was constructed from Geraldton to Carnarvon by 1962 . The impact of cyclones and seasonal flooding resulted in a realignment inland of the Carnarvon to Port Hedland section , which was constructed and sealed between 1966 and 1973 , and required thirty new bridges . Various upgrades have been carried out in sections across the length of the highway , including the Geraldton Southern Transport Corridor project which grade @-@ separated the highway 's junction with Brand Highway . = = Route description = = North West Coastal Highway is the coastal route through Western Australia 's remote north @-@ west . From the Mid West city of Geraldton , the highway heads north 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) to the small town of Northampton , and another 425 kilometres ( 264 mi ) to Carnarvon , the only large settlement along the route . It continues north @-@ east for 660 kilometres ( 410 mi ) to Roebourne , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) beyond the turnoff to Karratha , and ends 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) further east at Great Northern Highway , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) out from Port Hedland . Apart from Whim Creek , between Roeburn and Port Hedland , roadhouses serving the highway are the only settlements on the long stretches of rangeland expanses between these towns . The highway provides access to tourist destinations including Shark Bay , Coral Bay , and Exmouth . North West Coastal Highway supports the diversified economies of the Mid West and Gascoyne regions , including mining , agriculture , fishing and tourism , transitioning to primarily mining , pastoral stations and offshore oil and gas production in the Pilbara . The entire highway is allocated National Route 1 , part of Australia 's Highway 1 , and parts of the highway are included in the tourist routes Batavia Coast Tourist Way ( Tourist Drive 354 ) and Cossack Tourist Way ( Tourist Drive 351 ) . The vast majority of the highway is a two @-@ lane single carriageway with a speed limit of 110 kilometres per hour ( 70 mph ) , except in and around built up areas where it drops down to 50 , 60 , or 70 kilometres per hour ( 30 , 35 , or 45 mph ) . Main Roads Western Australia monitors traffic volume across the state 's road network , including various locations along North West Coastal Highway . In the 2012 / 13 financial year , the recorded traffic volumes ranged from 13 @,@ 350 vehicles per day west of Geraldton – Mount Magnet Road down to 370 north of Minilya – Exmouth Road . The highest percentage of heavy vehicles was 45 @.@ 5 % , west of Karratha Road . Reports commissioned by the Royal Automobile Club of Western Australia ( RAC ) in 2006 and 2008 gave most of the highway a four @-@ star safety rating out of five , but with a significant proportion rated at a three @-@ star level . The overall highway network was generally rated as three @-@ star or four @-@ star , with around 10 % in 2006 and 5 % in 2008 receiving a two @-@ star rating . = = = Geraldton to Carnarvon = = = North West Coastal Highway commences at a diamond interchange at the northern end of Brand Highway . It heads east from the interchange and curves round to the north , past a traffic @-@ light intersection with Geraldton – Mount Magnet Road . The highway continues north through the Geraldton 's outer suburbs for eight kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) before the landscape transitions to scrubland . Between Geraldton to Carnarvon , the highway passes through remote and dry semi @-@ desert areas . Apart from Northampton , 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) out from Geraldton , the only settlements over this 475 kilometres ( 295 mi ) stretch are four roadhouses . Binnu Roadhouse is 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) south of Kalbari Road , the turnoff Kalbarri ; Billabong Roadhouse is 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) south of the Shark Bay turnoff , where the Overlander Roadhouse is located ; and the Wooramel Roadhouse is near the Wooramel River crossing . Carnarvon , at the mouth of the Gascoyne River , is the only large town between Geraldton and Karratha , and is an oasis within an arid region . East of the town , the landscape near the river features banana and other horticultural plantations , while the vegetation in the surrounding region is primarily shrublands . The highway skirts east of Carnarvon , and crosses the Gascoyne River nine kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) north @-@ east of Robinson Street , the main road into the town . = = = Carnarvon to Port Hedland = = = North of Carnovon , the highway passes through desert and becomes very flat . Bridges span many ephemeral rivers and creeks , with strands of eucalyptus along their floodplains . The next roadhouse , 135 kilometres ( 84 mi ) beyond Carnovon , is the Minilya Roadhouse adjacent to the Minilya River . Seven kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) further on is the turnoff to the North West Cape area , including Cape Range National Park , Coral Bay and Exmouth . North West Coastal Highway reaches the Pilbara after 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) , where it deviates further inland . The highway continues north @-@ east for 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) , crossing the Ashburton River close to Nanutarra Roadhouse . Nearby it intersects Nanutarra Munjina Road , an access road to the mining towns of Tom Price and Paraburdoo , and the ghost town of Wittenoom . Over the next 260 kilometres ( 160 mi ) , the road crosses the Robe River , near the turnoff to Pannawonica , the Fortescue River , adjacent to the Fortescue River Roadhouse , and Maitland River , before it reaches Karratha Roadhouse . The roadhouse is located at the turnoff to Karratha , the nearby town of Dampier , and the Burrup Peninsula . Forty kilometres ( 25 mi ) east , Roebourne is the gateway to Wickham , Point Samson , and the ghost town of Cossack . The highway continues east 125 kilometres ( 78 mi ) to the locality of Whim Creek , crosses the Yule River after a further 55 kilometres ( 34 mi ) , and finishes 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) beyond at Great Northern Highway , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) south @-@ west of Port Hedland and South Hedland . = = History = = = = = Origins = = = Prior to the mid 1920 's , travelling north from Geraldton necessitated going through Mullewa , Dairy Creek and Gascoyne Junction . In 1926 , a direct route joining Geraldton and Carnarvon was constructed , shortening the trip by 160 km ( 100 mi ) . At first , this was little more than a rough bush track , at least partly used for extracting sandalwood . As there was often little water along this route , tanks with catchment roofs were built at eight locations along the track . The tanks were named for their distance from Carnarvon , at 40 , 55 , 85 , 110 , 125 , 150 , 180 , 200 miles . These tanks provided a life @-@ saving function but when the road was later sealed , they became less important and were gradually removed except for Number 8 tank . Number 8 tank is still used by travellers and marks a point 100 mi ( 200 km ) from Geraldton , 200 mi ( 300 km ) from Carnarvon . Western Australia 's Nomenclature Advisory Committee proposed in October 1940 that a highway name be used to describe the main route from Midland to Geraldton , and extending to areas further north . The suggested name was Great Northern Highway , following on from the naming of the Great Eastern and Great Southern highways . By July 1941 , the committee 's proposal had expanded to three highway names for the roads in the state 's northern areas : Great Northern Highway for the Midland Junction to Wyndham road , Geraldton Highway for Walebing – Mingenew – Geraldton route , and North West Coastal Highway for " the road from Geraldton to De Grey , via Northampton , Galena , Carnarvon , Boolaganoo , Winning Pool , Giralia , Yanrey , Onslow , Peedamullah , Mardie , Karratha , Roebourne , Whim Creek , Mundabullangana and Port Hedland " . The proposal was well received by the local municipal councils and road boards . The name North West Coastal Highway was gazetted on 21 April 1944 , under section 10 of the Land Act , 1933 – 1939 . However , the highway was mostly a series of tracks through remote pastoral areas , with the sealed road ending just past Northampton , approximately 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) north of Geraldton . Driving was difficult and hazardous all year round . The road was very dusty in the dry season , and some sections of the road were effectively impassable sand , while other sections contained limestone outcrops that damaged tyres . During the wet season , when rivers flooded , sections of road were essentially bogs , or worse still , were completely washed away . Economic growth and development in Western Australia 's northern regions in the 1940s prompted the state to quadruple road funding between 1946 and 1952 . Two " gangs " of workers were allocated to a 900 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) length of North West Coastal Highway . Given the vast distance the highway travelled , and destructive cyclones in the Pilbara and Gascoyne that could destroy multiple weeks worth of work , the overall improvement was relatively insignificant . Over time , though , the road was improved . = = = Sealing = = = In the late 1950s a significant project was undertaken to seal the highway between Geraldton and Carnarvon . The sealed road had progressed northwards in the preceding years , but only by approximately eight to ten miles ( 13 to 16 km ) each year . The rate of work increased rapidly , and by 1960 , a 100 @-@ mile ( 160 km ) stretch extending south from Carnarvon had been sealed . By the middle of that year , the sealing reached 135 miles ( 217 km ) beyond Geraldton and came 114 miles ( 183 km ) south of Carnarvon , with a 76 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 122 km ) gap . The project was completed in 1962 when the two sections converged at the 455 @-@ mile peg , and was officially opened on 1 September . Completion of the sealed road resulted in increased tourist traffic , and a longer tourist season . A large cyclone swept through the Carnarvon area February 1961 , causing much devastation to the road network . Many floodways were completely washed away , and North West Coastal Highway was immersed in flood water for 60 miles ( 97 km ) either side of Onslow . Carnarvon was cut off from general traffic for two weeks , and the damage to the roads in the region took months to repair . Approval was given to realign the road further inland , where it would be less susceptible to flooding . By the 1960s North West Coastal Highway had become a crucial connection for development in the Pilbara – including the pastoral industry , tourism , and the emergence of iron ore mining . In 1966 the traffic volume was up to 125 vehicles per day , and the unsealed road needed constant maintenance to cope with this demand . There were also frequent delays due to flooding . In 1966 the state government announced that the sealed road would be extended to Port Hedland , over a nine @-@ year period . Substantial portions of the highway would also be relocated above the flood plain . The new alignment on higher ground would be 50 miles ( 80 km ) shorter , and would make bridging rivers easier . Work started at Carnarvon , and 190 miles ( 310 km ) had been completed by 1969 . Locally available material was used to great extent during construction , with techniques adjusted based on what was available ; however , some resources were transported across vast distances . Water , scarce in the dry climate of the North West , was conveyed up to 15 miles ( 24 km ) , aggregate up to 100 miles ( 160 km ) , and bitumen up to 850 miles ( 1 @,@ 370 km ) . The project required thirty bridges , over riverbeds that could be dry all year , but might receive as much as 1 @,@ 300 millimetres ( 51 in ) of rainfall in three months , as had been the case at Onslow in 1961 . The bridges were designed to withstand twenty @-@ year floods , but more severe possibilities were anticipated – the approaches were built lower than the bridge decks , so that excess water would flow around the bridges , rather than over them . The sealing of North West Coastal Highway was nearing completion in 1973 ; additional resources provided to complete the work resulted in the final section , Port Hedland to Roeburn , being finished in only five months . An official opening ceremony was held at South Hedland on 6 December 1974 , with the road pronounced open by Premier Charles Court . The final cost of the project was approximately $ 31 million , substantially more than the initial estimate of $ 17 million . This was mainly due to two factors : increased construction standards , and inflation , which rose from 4 % to 13 % between 1970 and 1974 . = = = Further improvements = = = In the 1980s the highway 's flood resistance was improved with the construction of new , higher @-@ level bridges to replace lower crossing . Galena Bridge over the Murchison River opened on 9 December 1983 , and a new bridge over the Harding River near Roeburn was opened on 22 March 1985 . In the late 1980s the various sections of road across Western Australia 's road network were upgraded or reconstructed , with the worst segments prioritised . In August 1988 , work on upgrading five and a half kilometres ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) of North West Coastal Highway was completed , the final section between Geraldton and Carnarvon to have been brought up to standard . In the following two years , segments with a combined length of 241 kilometres ( 150 mi ) were resealed , and 45 kilometres ( 28 mi ) was widened from 6 @.@ 2 to 7 metres ( 20 to 23 ft ) , with a one @-@ metre @-@ wide ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) sealed shoulder on each side . The northernmost section of highway , from Great Northern Highway to Port Hedland , was made part of Great Northern Highway in early 1996 . Over a ten @-@ year period from 1996 to 2006 , numerous improvements were made to the highway , with sections widened , reconstructed , and realigned . Intersections and stretches through townsites were also redesigned , existing bridges were strengthened , and new bridges replaced older bridges or floodways . Additional work was necessary to repair damage from natural events . Sections washed away by floods in January 2003 were rebuilt , and opened in October of that year , and repairs to the damage from Cyclone Monty in March 2004 were completed that November . The biggest individual project in this period , across all of rural Western Australia , was Stage 1 of the Geraldton Southern Transport Corridor . The project , constructed between March 2004 and December 2005 at a cost of $ 92 @.@ 5 million , involved the relocation of railway tracks , five kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) worth of road works , and grade separation of roads . North West Coastal Highway 's southern terminus at Brand Highway was upgraded from a roundabout to an interchange , and an overpass was built for Durlacher Street to cross North West Coastal Highway . The highway was also made into a dual carriageway in the vicinity of the interchange . Stage 2 of the project , constructed between December 2008 and December 2009 , provided a single carriageway connection from a traffic light @-@ controlled intersection on the highway to Geraldton – Mount Magnet Road , with access to Geraldton Airport . In 2013 work began on a project to seal the highway 's shoulders from Yannarie River at Barradale to the Onslow turn @-@ off ; it is expected to be completed by mid @-@ 2015 . Further work to widen the highway between Minilya and Barradale , including replacing two floodways with bridges , is expected to be completed by the end of 2017 . = = Major intersections = = = = = Coordinates = = =
= Hunyadi family = The Hunyadi family was one of the most powerful noble families in the Kingdom of Hungary during the 15th century . A member of the family , Matthias Corvinus , was King of Hungary from 1458 until 1490 , King of Bohemia ( ruling in Moravia , Lower Lusatia , Upper Lusatia , and Silesia ) from 1469 until 1490 , and Duke of Austria from 1487 until 1490 . His illegitimate son , John Corvinus , ruled the Duchy of Troppau from 1485 until 1501 , and five further Silesian duchies , including Bytom , Głubczyce , Loslau , Racibórz , and Tost , from 1485 until 1490 . The Hunyadi coat @-@ of @-@ arms depicted a raven with a golden ring in its beak . The founder of the family , Voyk , received the eponymous Hunyad Castle ( in present @-@ day Hunedoara , Romania ) from Sigismund , King of Hungary , in 1409 . His ethnicity is the subject of scholarly debate . Some modern historians describe him as a Vlach , or Romanian , knez or boyar , from either Wallachia or Transylvania . Others describe him as a Cuman or Slav nobleman . According to contemporaneous accounts , Voyk moved from Wallachia to Transylvania . Voyk 's oldest son , John Hunyadi , was often mentioned as a " Vlach " by his contemporaries . John Hunyadi , a talented military commander , became the first member of the family to acquire the status of " true baron of the realm " . He was appointed Ban of Severin in 1439 , and Voivode of Transylvania in 1441 . He was also granted the title Perpetual Count of Beszterce in 1452 , thus receiving the first hereditary title created in the Kingdom of Hungary . At his death , John Hunyadi held many lands throughout the Kingdom . John Hunyadi 's fame and fortune led the election of his son , Matthias Corvinus , as King of Hungary in 1458 . Matthias ruled Moravia , Silesia , Austria , and other neighbouring regions . He attempted to secure hereditary line of succession for his son , John Corvinus . This did not happen , however , and John was only able to retain the Duchy of Glogau , along with some other family domains in Hungary , after Matthias died in 1490 . The last male member of the family , Christopher Corvinus , the only son of John , died at the age of six in 1505 . His sister Elisabeth died during childhood . = = Origins = = The family was given its land by Sigismund , King of Hungary , on 18 October 1409 . On that day , Sigismund granted Hunyad Castle and its demesne to Voyk and four of his kinsmen . In addition to Voyk , the grant lists his two brothers , Magos and Radol , their cousin or uncle also named Radol , and Voyk 's son , John , the future Regent of Hungary . The granted said that Voyk 's father was named " Serbe " , but did not say anything further about the origins of the family . Voyk 's son , John Hunyadi , bore the nickname " Olah " , meaning " Vlach " , in his youth , which implied that he was of Romanian stock . The court historian of Voyk 's grandson King Matthias Corvinus , Antonio Bonfini , explicitly stated that John had been " born to a Vlach father " . Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III likewise knew that King Matthias had been " born to a Vlach father " , and a Venetian man , Sebastiano Baduario , referred to the Romanians as King Matthias 's people . Historians of the 15th and 16th centuries , with perspectives that were either against or in favour of the family , wrote differing reports of the family 's status before King Sigismund 's grant . Jan Długosz described John Hunyadi as " a man of unknown origin " , and he is likewise mentioned as " a Vlach by birth , not highly born " by Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini . On the other hand , Johannes de Thurocz said that John Hunyadi " was descended from a noble and renowned race of Wallachia " . Johannes de Thurocz also wrote that King Sigismund , fascinated by Voyk 's fame , " took him away from Wallachia to his own realm and settled him there " , suggesting that Voyk moved from his Wallachian homeland to the Kingdom of Hungary . The late 15th century historian Philippe de Commines referred to Voyk 's son John as the " White Knight of Wallachia " . In accordance with these sources , Pál Engel , András Kubinyi , and other contemporary historians have written that the Hunyadi family descended from Wallachian boyars ( noblemen ) . According to another view on the family 's origins , which is championed by historians Camil Mureşanu and Ion @-@ Aurel Pop , Voyk did not migrate from Wallachia , but was born in a family of Romanian noble knezes from the region of Hátszeg , or Hunyad . They say that Voyk 's grandfather could have been a man named " Costea " , mentioned in a royal charter from 1360 , and who fathered a son named Serbe ( the name of Voyk 's father ) . According to the charter , Costea and Serbe together established two villages in the region of Hátszeg . Historian Dezső Dümmerth offers a third view of the Hunyadis ' ancestry . He said that Voyk was of Romanianized Cuman stock , one of the Wallachian boyars . He attributes Cuman and Tatar ancestry to the Wallachian boyars . Another historian , Miklós Molnár , accepts the Wallachian origin of the family , but also represents a fourth perspective on the origins of the family . He said that they may well have been of Slavic descent . Neither Paul Lendvai nor András Boros @-@ Kazai excluded the possibility of the Hunyadis being of Slavic origin . John Hunyadi 's rapid advance , which astonished his contemporaries , and gave rise to legends about his origins . According to one of these stories , recorded in detail by the 16th @-@ century historian Gáspár Heltai , John Hunyadi was the illegitimate son of King Sigismund with a woman named Elizabeth , who was the daughter of a " rich boyar " from Morzsina in Hunyad County . Antonio Bonfini , on the other hand , wrote that John Hunyadi 's mother was an unnamed Greek woman who was related to the Byzantine Emperors . Further legends emerged about the purported Romanian origin of the family . Antonio Bonfini wrote that John Hunyadi " traced his kin to the Roman family of the Corvini " . This story is connected to the Hunyadis ' coat @-@ of @-@ arms , which depicts a raven , corvus in Latin , with a golden ring in its beak . Coins minted for Prince Vladislav I of Wallachia in 1365 depict a raven @-@ like bird . Based on this similarity , Zsuzsa Teke and some other historians did not exclude the possibility that the Hunyadis were related to the Basarabs , the ruling dynasty of Wallachia . Another historian , Péter E. Kovács , wrote that that theory needed further verification . = = Notable members = = = = = Voyk Hunyadi = = = Voyk was born in Wallachia , according to the nearly contemporaneous historians Johannes de Thurocz and Gáspár Heltai . Voyk had been serving as a " court knight " in the royal court when he received the demesne of Hunyad from King Sigismund , suggesting that he was descended from a prominent Wallachian family . Modern historian , Kubinyi , wrote that Voyk most probably joined Sigismund in 1395 . In this year , Sigismund invaded Wallachia and restored his vassal , Mircea the Old to the princely throne . He was last mentioned in a royal charter in 1414 . Voyk died before 12 February 1419 . On this day , a charter confirming the grant of 1409 was issued for Voyk 's brother , Radol , and for Voyk 's three sons : John the Elder , John the Younger , and Voyk . = = = John Hunyadi , Sr. = = = Voyk 's oldest son , John Hunyadi was born between about 1405 and 1407 . In his youth , he served in the court of George Csáky , Filippo Scolari , and King Sigismund 's other warlike barons . He married Elizabeth Szilágyi around 1429 . Her father owned properties in Bodrog County . John Hunyadi developed his military skills during his journeys in Italy and Bohemia in Sigismund 's entourage in the early 1430s . He and his younger brother ( who was his namesake ) were jointly appointed Ban of Szörény ( present @-@ day Dobreta @-@ Turnu Severin , Romania ) in 1439 by Sigismund 's successor , King Albert . With this appointment , they acquired the status of " true barons " . The senior John Hunyadi became Voivode of Transylvania and Count of the Székelys in 1441 , with responsibility for the defense of the southern borders of Hungary against Ottoman raids . He defeated the Ottomans in several battles during his " long campaign " in the Balkan Peninsula in 1443 . The Estates of the realm elected him governor for the period of King Ladislaus V of Hungary 's minority in 1446 . King Ladislaus bestowed the title of Perpetual Count of Beszterce ( present @-@ day Bistrița , Romania ) upon John Hunyadi after he resigned of the governorship in 1452 . This was the first example of a grant of a hereditary title in the Kingdom of Hungary . John Hunyadi had by that time become the richest landowner in the Kingdom of Hungary , who held about 25 fortresses , 30 towns and more than 1 @,@ 000 villages . He died on 11 August 1456 , shortly after his greatest victory over the Ottomans at the Siege of Belgrade . = = = John Hunyadi , Jr . = = = John the Younger was the youngest of Voyk 's two sons that shared the name John , and was first mentioned in a charter issued to four members of his family on 12 February 1419 . King Albert of Hungary appointed him Ban of Szörény together with his brother , John the Elder , in 1439 . He died fighting against the Ottomans in 1441 . His brother wrote of him as " the valiant of the valiant " , showing that John the Younger was regarded a brave soldier . = = = Ladislaus Hunyadi = = = Ladislaus Hunyadi was the older of the two sons of John Hunyadi the elder by Elizabeth Szilágyi . He was born around 1432 . At the age of 20 , he was appointed ispán , or count , of Pozsony County , which made him a " true baron " . He became Ban of Croatia in 1453 and master of the horse in 1456 . With his father 's death , Ladislaus inherited an enormous domain in 1456 . The ambitious Ladislaus had his father 's main opponent , Ulrich II , Count of Celje , captured and murdered on 9 November . The King , who promised amnesty to Ladislaus under duress , had him arrested in next year . Ladislaus was sentenced to death for high treason . He was executed on 16 March 1457 . = = = Matthias Corvinus = = = Matthias , the younger son of John Hunyadi the elder and Elizabeth Szilágyi , was born on 23 February 1443 . He was arrested upon the orders of King Ladislaus V of Hungary on 14 March 1457 , together with his elder brother Ladislaus . Matthias 's brother was executed two days after having been arrested . Fearing a revolt , the King fled to Prague and took Matthias with him . The childless Ladislaus V died on 23 November 1457 . A Diet was convened to elect the new monarch . Matthias ' maternal uncle , Michael Szilágyi , arrived with more than 10 @,@ 000 armed noblemen under his command , and the Diet proclaimed Matthias king on 24 January 1458 . Matthias returned from Prague , but was only crowned with the Holy Crown of Hungary on 29 March 1464 , because he had spent the previous years with fighting against his opponents . Urged by Pope Paul II , Matthias led a crusade against the Czech Hussites and occupied great parts of Moravia and Silesia in 1468 . The Catholic Estates of Moravia proclaimed him King of Bohemia on 3 May 1469 . Matthias ' reign was also recognized in Lusatia and Silesia , but Bohemia proper remained under the rule of his opponents , Kings George of Poděbrady ( till 1471 ) and Vladislaus II Jagiellon . Through a series of wars , Matthias occupied Lower Austria and Styria between 1480 and 1487 . He officially adopted the title of Duke of Austria in 1487 . Matthias married his first wife , Catherine of Poděbrady , in 1461 . She died in childbirth in 1464 . His second wife , Beatrice of Naples , whom he married in 1476 , was infertile . In the last decade of his life , Matthias ensured the succession of his illegitimate son , John Corvinus , to the throne of Hungary . Matthias died on 6 April 1490 . = = = John Corvinus = = = John Corvinus was the illegitimate son of King Matthias and his mistress , Barbara Edelpöck . John Corvinus was born on 2 April 1473 . Matthias recognized in public that John is his son and granted him the title of Duke of Liptó ( present @-@ day Liptov , Slovakia ) in 1481 . John Corvinus received a number of land grants from his father in the subsequent years . King Matthias granted him the Duchy of Troppau and five further Silesian duchies — Beuthen , Leobschütz , Loslau , Ratibor , and Tost — in 1485 . King Matthias ' all attempts to secure his son 's succession to the throne proved to be useless shortly after his death . The prelates and the barons elected Vladislaus II Jagiellon king on 15 July 1490 . He retained his domains and the Duchy of Troppau . The new monarch bestowed the title of Duke of Slavonia upon him , but he renounced of it in 1495 . He also renounced of the Duchy of Troppau in 1501 . John Corvinus married Beatrice de Frangepan in 1496 . She gave birth to two children , Elizabeth and Christopher . John Corvinus died on 12 October 1504 . His son died at the age of six , his daughter at the age of twelve . = = Family tree = = The following family tree depicts the known members of the Hunyadi family : ( *
= born ; † = died ; ∞
= wife or husband ; b . = before ; c .
= in about ; m . = mentioned )
= Literary Hall = Literary Hall is a mid @-@ 19th @-@ century brick library building and museum in Romney , West Virginia . It is located at the intersection of North High Street ( West Virginia Route 28 ) and West Main Street ( U.S. Route 50 ) . Literary Hall was constructed between 1869 and 1870 by the Romney Literary Society . Founded in 1819 , the Romney Literary Society was the first literary organization of its kind in the present @-@ day state of West Virginia , and one of the first in the United States . In 1846 , the society constructed a building which housed the Romney Classical Institute and its library . The Romney Literary Society and the Romney Classical Institute both flourished and continued to grow in importance and influence until the onset of the American Civil War in 1861 . During the war , the contents of the society 's library were plundered by Union Army forces , and many of its 3 @,@ 000 volumes were either scattered or destroyed . After a reorganization in 1869 , the society commenced construction of the present Literary Hall in downtown Romney . It transferred ownership of its Romney Classical Institute campus to the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind in 1870 and in that year completed Literary Hall , where the society reconstituted its library collection and revived its literary activities . The Romney Literary Society 's last meeting was held at Literary Hall in 1886 . From 1886 to 1973 the building was used as a meeting space by the Clinton Lodge of Ancient Free and Accepted Masons and the Order of the Eastern Star . In 1973 , the building was purchased by prominent Romney lawyer Ralph Haines , who used it as a law office and museum . From 1937 to the early 1940s the building also housed a community library . Literary Hall was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 29 , 1979 . Literary Hall 's basic design incorporates Federal and Greek Revival styles along with Victorian details . Architectural historian Michael J. Pauley described Literary Hall as " one of Romney 's and Hampshire County 's most notable landmarks , and one in which this community is justifiably proud " . = = Geography and setting = = Literary Hall is located in the center of downtown Romney , West Virginia , at the intersection of North High Street ( West Virginia Route 28 ) and West Main Street ( U.S. Route 50 ) on a city lot less than one acre ( 0 @.@ 40 ha ) in size . The Hampshire County Courthouse is immediately to its east across North High Street and the Romney First United Methodist Church is situated immediately to the building 's north . The Old National Building is located to the immediate south of Literary Hall across West Main Street . Literary Hall stands at an elevation of 820 @.@ 3 feet ( 250 @.@ 0 m ) above sea level . = = History = = = = = Location = = = The land upon which Literary Hall was established was originally part of the Northern Neck Proprietary , a 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 20 @,@ 000 km2 ) land grant that Charles II of England awarded to seven of his supporters in 1649 and renewed by an official patent in 1688 . One of these seven supporters , Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper , acquired the entire area in 1681 ; his grandson , Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , inherited it in 1719 . Literary Hall was built upon a land lot designated " Lot 56 " to the immediate west of the public square of Romney . In 1790 , the trustees of the Town of Romney commissioned John Mitchel to draft a cadastral survey map of Romney . Prior to this survey , Lord Fairfax had commissioned a similar cadastral survey of Romney sometime before the town 's incorporation on December 23 , 1762 . On June 30 , 1790 , Mitchel submitted to the trustees a " Plan of the Town of Romney " , which divided the town into 100 land lots of equal size , with four lots adjacent to the courthouse comprising the public square . = = = Romney Literary Society = = = The Romney Literary Society , which built Literary Hall between 1869 and 1870 , was organized by nine prominent men in Romney on January 30 , 1819 . With its establishment in 1819 , the Romney Literary Society became the first literary organization of its kind in the present @-@ day state of West Virginia , and one of the first in the United States . On February 4 , 1819 , the constitution of the society was adopted , which provided that the organization should be known as the " Polemic Society of Romney " . The society founded its library in 1819 with the acquisition of two books , and by 1861 the society 's humble library had grown to contain approximately 3 @,@ 000 volumes , consisting of books on literature , science , history and art . The Romney Literary Society commenced a movement to establish an institution for " the higher education of the youth of the community " . As a result of this initiative , the teaching of the classics was introduced into the curriculum of Romney Academy in 1820 , thus making the institution the first school of higher education in the Eastern Panhandle . In 1846 , the society constructed a new building to house the Romney Classical Institute and its library , both of which fell under the society 's supervision . The Romney Literary Society and the Romney Classical Institute both flourished and continued to grow in importance and influence until the onset of the American Civil War in 1861 . During the war , many members fought for the Confederate States Army forces and were killed during the conflict . The contents of the society 's library were plundered by Union Army forces and many of its 3 @,@ 000 volumes were either scattered or destroyed . Following the war 's end , only 400 of those volumes could be recovered , with just 200 remaining on the library 's shelves . The Romney Literary Society reorganized on May 15 , 1869 . Following the reorganization , the society built Literary Hall between 1869 and 1870 while also undertaking an initiative to bring the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind to its old Romney Classical Institute campus . The construction of Literary Hall was part of the society 's effort to revive the organization and reassemble its original library . The society set about recovering original volumes and purchasing new ones , and the library reopened with 700 volumes . For a period of ten years between 1870 and 1880 , much of Romney 's intellectual life centered on Literary Hall . As older members died , interest in the society began to dwindle . The society 's meetings were held less frequently , and its last recorded meeting was held on February 15 , 1886 . = = = Clinton Lodge = = = The Clinton Lodge of Ancient Free and Accepted Masons was the second organization to utilize Literary Hall as a meeting place . The Clinton Lodge was the first Masonic lodge to be chartered in Hampshire County and is among the earliest Masonic lodges to be established in present @-@ day West Virginia . It was chartered by the Grand Lodge of Virginia on December 13 , 1825 . The lodge underwent four periods of hiatus : first , between 1838 and December 15 , 1846 ; a second time between 1855 and its rechartering on July 3 , 1857 ; a third time between 1861 and December 11 , 1867 , during the American Civil War and Reconstruction ; and a fourth time between November 29 , 1881 , and November 12 , 1890 , when it was again reactivated . Following the completion of Literary Hall in 1870 , the Clinton Lodge Masons regularly utilized the first floor of the building as a meeting space , while the Romney Literary Society maintained its use of the second floor as a library . Between its various periods of dormancy , the Clinton Lodge and the associated Order of the Eastern Star , which was organized in July 1919 , utilized Literary Hall as a meeting space , and following the Romney Literary Society 's disestablishment , the Masons and Eastern Star continued their use of the building . In 1973 , prominent Romney lawyer Ralph Haines purchased Literary Hall from the Clinton Lodge Masons and provided the lodge with a land lot for the construction of a new Masonic Temple at the corner of Washington and Center Streets in Romney . Following his purchase of Literary Hall , Haines used the historic building as a law office building and private museum . Literary Hall was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 29 , 1979 . = = = Hampshire County Public Library = = = The building again served as a library in March 1937 , when Romney 's community library was relocated to the first floor of Literary Hall from its previous facility in the basement of the Hampshire County Courthouse . The library had been established on April 11 , 1935 , as a project by the American Legion Auxiliary and was housed in a room of the courthouse basement where it was staffed by volunteers and open from 14 : 00 to 16 : 00 on Saturday afternoons . When the library 's collection of both purchased and donated books outgrew its space in the courthouse basement , the Clinton Lodge Masons granted permission to the library to house its collection at Literary Hall in 1937 . Following its move to Literary Hall , the library expanded its hours , and expanded them again , to five afternoons a week , through the assistance of the National Youth Administration and the Works Progress Administration . In January 1942 , a meeting was held for the purpose of establishing a more extensive library service . Later that month , on January 29 , a charter was issued by West Virginia Secretary of State William Smith O 'Brien for the creation of the non @-@ profit Hampshire County Library Association . Following its incorporation , the library was relocated from Literary Hall to two rear adjoining rooms on the second story of the Hampshire County Courthouse . The association continued to house its library collection in the courthouse until 1967 , when the new Hampshire County Public Library building at 153 West Main Street was formally dedicated on September 28 , 1967 . The library had been built on land donated by sisters Kate and Mary Davis , who had been engaged in the restoration of Literary Hall and whose father , Charles Maurice Davis , had been a member of both the Romney Literary Society and the Clinton Lodge Masons , which had both held meetings in the building . = = Architecture = = The interior and exterior of Literary Hall remain largely intact . At two stories , the building is tall in its proportion and incorporates elements from both early American and Victorian styles , which were common in academic buildings built during this period . Architectural historian S. Allen Chambers described Literary Hall as an anomaly because the basic design and fenestration patterns , which invoke early Federal and Greek Revival design elements , are adorned with details more characteristic of the Victorian era . According to architectural historian Michael J. Pauley of the West Virginia Department of Culture and History 's Historic Preservation Unit , Literary Hall 's unique structural features make the building " one of Romney 's and Hampshire County 's most notable landmarks , and one in which this community is justifiably proud " . Pauley further averred that the building is " highly representative of the development of education and literature in the early United States " . In describing its impact on Romney 's streetscape , Chambers described Literary Hall as " adding distinction to Romney 's major street intersection " . Chambers also noted the building 's resemblance and " strong architectural kinship " to the Romney Presbyterian Church . Literary Hall is a two @-@ story red brick structure , rectangular in plan , and topped with a gable roof . The first floor of Literary Hall consists of four rooms , and the second story is a single large ballroom . Fused with symmetrical elements evoking Federal and Greek Revival architectural styles are exterior decorative moldings and brick corbeling in the Victorian style . The main façade ( south elevation ) of Literary Hall is divided into three bays , and its west and east elevations are divided into five bays . Each of the building 's bays consists of a double @-@ hung sash wooden window , with nine panes of glass within each sash . The windows are symmetrically placed within recessed brick panels that are defined at the first and second stories of the building with elementary brick ribs , or pseudo @-@ pilasters , that form the outer surface of the building 's exterior walls and provide separation of the three bays of the main façade and the five bays of the west and east elevations . The windows are framed by white wooden louvered window shutters . The building 's brick is laid in an American bond pattern , with five courses of stretchers between every course of headers . The main façade is topped by a simple wooden raking cornice that surmounts an ornamental corbel brick pendant . A semicircular fanlight , or lunette , is located in the center of the gable of the building 's main façade , providing lighting to the building 's attic . Chambers described this window as the most antiquated of the building 's architectural elements and may have been based on the fanlight of the county 's earlier courthouse built in 1833 , which was located to the building 's east . Each of the main façade 's first- and second @-@ story windows and the entrance are adorned with white wooden label moldings . The main entrance is composed of a tall double wooden entrance door , with its original handle and locks . Each door consists of four vertical wooden panels . A rectangular transom light of four vertical glass panels tops the main entryway 's double wooden doors . Outside the entryway is a spacious brick stoop that is accessed by a cement walkway from West Main Street . Its brick steps leading up to the stoop were last restored in the late 1970s . Literary Hall is flanked by two interior side chimneys , between the second and third bays of the west and east elevations of the building . The building rests on a sandstone , ashlar block foundation . Its gable roof is sheathed with standing seam tin sheeting .
= Raid on Saint @-@ Paul = The Raid on Saint @-@ Paul was an amphibious operation conducted by a combined British Army , Royal Navy and Royal Marines force against the fortified French port of Saint Paul on Île Bonaparte ( now known as Réunion ) during the Napoleonic Wars . The operation was launched on 20 September 1809 as both a precursor to a future full @-@ scale invasion of Île Bonaparte and in order to capture the French frigate Caroline and the East Indiamen she had seized in the Action of 31 May 1809 which were sheltering in the harbour . The operation was a complete success , with British storming parties capturing the batteries overlooking the port , which allowed a naval squadron under Commodore Josias Rowley to enter the bay and capture the shipping in the harbour . The French defenders of the town , despite initially resisting the attack , were unable to prevent the seizure of the port 's defensive fortifications . The British force later withdrew under pressure from the main garrison of the island , burning warehouses containing over £ 500 @,@ 000 worth of silk captured from British merchant ships . Ultimately the French were unable to effectively oppose the invasion , the island 's governor General Des Bruslys retreating to Saint @-@ Denis rather than engage the British and later committing suicide . The transportation of forces from the recently captured island of Rodriguez , the co @-@ ordination of land and naval forces and the failure of the French defenders to co @-@ ordinate an effective response were all features of the subsequent invasion and capture of Île Bonaparte in July 1810 . = = Background = = The French Indian Ocean territories of Île de France and Île Bonaparte were heavily fortified island bases from which French frigates were able to launch raids against British trade routes across the Indian Ocean during the Napoleonic Wars . In late 1808 , a squadron of four frigates departed France for the region under Commodore Jacques Hamelin with orders to prey on the convoys of East Indiamen that regularly crossed the Indian Ocean . During the late spring of 1809 , these frigates dispersed into the Bay of Bengal , attacking British shipping and coastal harbours around the rim of the Eastern Indian Ocean . The Royal Navy was also preparing an operation in the region , a staggered campaign intended to blockade , isolate and subsequently capture both Île de France and Île Bonaparte , eliminating the final French territories and bases east of Africa . To conduct the British operation , Admiral Albemarle Bertie at the Cape of Good Hope organised a squadron under Commodore Josias Rowley to blockade the islands , capture any French shipping that presented itself and begin preparations for the invasions . Rowley was equipped with the antiquated ship of the line HMS Raisonnable and a small squadron of frigates and smaller ships , later reinforced with a force of soldiers from Madras in British India , with which he seized the nearby island of Rodriguez to use as a raiding base . On 14 August , one of Rowley 's ships , the 18 @-@ gun sloop HMS Otter , attacked a French brig at Rivière Noire District on Île de France . Although the attack was ultimately unsuccessful , Otter 's captain Nesbit Willoughby and his landing party were able to break into and out of the harbour without severe difficulties . This prompted Rowley to consider a larger scale operation against a more heavily fortified French position . Two months earlier , in the Action of 31 May 1809 , the French frigate Caroline had captured two East Indiamen , the Streatham and Europe in the Bay of Bengal . The French captain , Jean @-@ Baptiste @-@ Henri Feretier , led his prizes back to the French @-@ held islands , arriving off Île de France on 22 July . Feretier was prevented from attempting to reach Port Louis by Rowley 's blockading squadron and instead put his ships into Saint @-@ Paul on Île Bonaparte to unload his captured vessels and replenish his supplies . = = Preparation = = Rowley became aware of Feretier 's presence at Saint @-@ Paul during the following month and determined to attack the port and recapture the valuable ships in the harbour . The operation was also to be a prelude to an eventual invasion attempt , giving the squadron experience of an amphibious landing operation . Conferring with Lieutenant Colonel Henry Keating on Rodriguez , Rowley determined that Keating 's men would land behind the gun batteries that defended the town and storm them . This would allow Rowley to bring his squadron directly into the harbour , capture the shipping anchored there and possibly seize the town as well . Rowley 's planning was directly affected by a failed attack on Saint @-@ Paul on 11 November 1806 , when HMS Sceptre and HMS Cornwallis had attacked the harbour without infantry support . Their target was the frigate Sémillante , but neither ship had been able to pass the heavy batteries that protected the port and the British ships were forced to withdraw . On 16 September 1809 , the troops were prepared , and 368 British Army soldiers were embarked on the British frigate HMS Nereide under Captain Robert Corbett , Willoughby 's Otter and the Honourable East India Company schooner Wasp . This troop convoy was joined off Saint @-@ Paul on 18 September by the rest of Rowley 's squadron , the flagship Raisonnable and the frigates HMS Sirius under Captain Samuel Pym and HMS Boadicea under Captain John Hatley . These ships mustered an additional 236 seaman volunteers and Royal Marines who would join the assault . The entire invasion force was then embarked on Nereide , as Corbett had experience with the Île Bonaparte coastline , with the assault designated for the early morning of 21 September . = = Assault = = At 05 : 00 on 21 September 1809 , Nereide entered the bay of Saint @-@ Paul under the cover of darkness and successfully landed the British force , without any sign they had been sighted from the shore , at the Pointe des Galets . The Pointe des Galets was 7 miles ( 11 km ) north of Saint @-@ Paul , the distance allowing the force , divided into Keating 's soldiers from Rodriguez and the naval force led by Nesbit Willoughby , to approach the heavy gun batteries that guarded the port unobserved . Storming the strongest batteries , Lambousière and la Centière , at 07 : 00 , the British force surprised the garrisons , captured the fortifications and turned their cannon onto the shipping moored in the harbour , firing grape shot at the decks of the frigate Caroline . A detachment of the British landing force then separated from the main body and seized a third battery named la Neuf , routing a force of local militia that attempted to block their advance with artillery assistance from the British squadron in the bay . The militia had come down from their garrisons in the surrounding hills and been joined by 110 French soldiers who had disembarked from Caroline , but the small French force was easily brushed aside by the British landing party . Keating and Willoughby then destroyed the guns in the first two captured batteries and stormed the remaining two fortifications , once again capturing them and using their own cannon to fire on the shipping in the harbour . While the landing force drove off the defenders and captured the fortifications , the naval squadron entered the harbour and opened up an overwhelming fire on the outnumbered Caroline . Shot was also fired at the captured East Indiamen , various other vessels in the harbour and any small batteries or shore positions that remained in French hands . Feretier and the other French naval officers , recognising that their position was hopeless , cut the anchor cables of their ships and allowed them to drift ashore , where they abandoned ship to escape capture . The British squadron then anchored in the harbour as their crews set about refloating the grounded French ships on the beach . In addition to Caroline and the East Indiamen , Rowley 's squadron successfully captured a 14 @-@ gun privateer brig named Grappler and five or six smaller ships . With the harbour and fortifications in British hands , Keating and Willoughby entered the town of Saint @-@ Paul without further combat . = = Withdrawal = = On the night of 21 September , the landing party embarked on the British ships in the bay having destroyed all of the fortified positions that surrounded the harbour . During 22 September , French forces were seen gathering in the hills around the town , brought from outlying garrisons to join the main garrison from the capital Saint @-@ Denis by the island 's governor General Des Bruslys . Rowley and Keating anticipated that this force , which outnumbered their own , would recapture the town on 23 September and accordingly ordered Willoughby to land with his marines and sailors to burn French government property along the waterfront . The most obvious and significant target of Willoughby 's force was a warehouse on the docks that was stocked with the captured silk from the East Indiamen captured by Caroline . Willoughby ordered this building to be burned , destroying over £ 500 @,@ 000 worth of captured textiles , ( the equivalent of £ 33 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) . Other nearby warehouses were not destroyed as it was not possible to rapidly determine their ownership . Although the French force had reached the outskirts of the town , Willoughby was able to land and rembark his troops without a single shot being fired . On 22 September , Rowley received a petition from a body of slaves in the town who had escaped during the fighting and demanded arms with which to attack the French . They also offered to burn the town to the ground . Rowley , who sought to cultivate good relations with the populace with a view to capturing the island in the near future , refused their demands and had the slaves returned to their owners , where eight were executed for plotting rebellion . There was however a noted example of a slave displaying loyalty to his owner : The painter Jean @-@ Joseph Patu de Rosemont had served in the militia forces with the journalist Nicole Robinet de La Serve and was captured when Keating 's troops entered Saint @-@ Paul . Taken aboard the British squadron , Rosemont 's son Amédée applied to exchange himself for his father as a prisoner but was refused . Shortly before the squadron departed , Rosemont 's personal slave Félix swam to the squadron to serve his owner in captivity . For his loyalty , Félix was manumitted when Rosemont was freed in 1810 . On 23 September , Rowley and Keating planned another landing under cover of the guns of the Nereide to drive off the French reinforcements . On landing , however , it was discovered that the French force had disappeared . Lacking support for a counterattack from the local landowners , who favoured a return to the monarchy , Des Bruslys was unwilling to order an assault which he deemed would have inevitably led to an unnecessary bloodbath . Instead , he ordered his forces to abandon Saint @-@ Paul and retire to Saint @-@ Denis during the night . Without support from his commanding officer , Captain St @-@ Michel , commandant of Saint @-@ Paul , agreed to surrender the town entirely , withdrawing his remaining forces under a flag of truce . The agreed truce lasted five days , during which the British force loaded their ships with French government provisions , equipment , military and naval stores and those cargoes from captured British ships that had not been burnt by Willoughby . The French made no effort to prevent this , Des Bruslys having committed suicide some days before , torn between his refusal to surrender the island to the British and his reluctance to order a bloody battle for what he regarded to be an " open island " . Rowley also seized the East Indiamen Streatham and Europe and restored their previous captains and crews , who had been released as part of the truce . A number of smaller merchant ships were captured and all were refitted for the journey to Britain , to be convoyed there by the newly captured Caroline . This 40 @-@ gun frigate , only three years old and very large and powerfully built , was given to Corbett in recognition of his services in the operation and renamed HMS Bourbonaise , reflecting the British name for Île Bonaparte , Île Bourbon . Willoughby was promoted to post captain and immediately took command of Corbett 's former ship Nereide . Late on 28 September , Rowley led his force to sea from Saint @-@ Paul having burnt or seized all government shipping , stores and buildings in the town and surrounding areas . = = Aftermath = = Casualties of the operation were not high on either side . British losses in the landing party amounted to 15 killed and 58 wounded , with an additional three missing . The naval squadron suffered no known casualties in the engagement , principally because they did not come under heavy fire . French losses have not been calculated , but apart from General Des Bruslys were probably a similar figure to the British . In contrast , the damage to the morale of the French defenders of Île Bonaparte was severe : the death of Des Bruslys and the failure to properly defend the town undermined their efforts to such a degree that the eventual invasion of the island in 1810 was carried out without significant fighting or loss . This invasion force was similar in size to the raiding party and was once again led by Rowley and Keating . Caroline was a " tolerably fine frigate " and her capture was a blow to the French squadron based on Île de France under Hamelin . The recapture of the East Indiamen was also an important success , reducing the impact of French operations in the region during 1809 . The raid also provided the British forces with vital experience in conducting amphibious landings staged from Rodriguez and gave an indication of the quality of French shore defences and defensive formations throughout the islands , which would have an important effect on future operations , especially the Invasion of Île Bonaparte in 1810 .
= Cold Case Love = " Cold Case Love " is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna for her fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) . It was written and produced by The Y 's ( Justin Timberlake , Robin Tadross and James Fauntleroy II ) . Following Chris Brown 's assault on Rihanna , she started working on the sound of her new album . Timberlake who co @-@ wrote " Cold Case Love " labeled the sound of Rihanna 's new project as a step forward for the singer . In February 2010 , Rihanna admitted that the song 's lyrics are about her complicated relationship with Brown . An R & B song , " Cold Case Love " has an instrumentation infused with a simple piano pattern , thumping bassline , violin and viola strings and electric guitar licks . Lyrically , it is a " melancholic and mature farewell " to a failed relationship . " Cold Case Love " received acclaim from contemporary music critics who labeled the song as a highlight on Rated R and additionally praised Rihanna 's vocals . The singer performed the song on her 2013 worldwide concert tour , Diamonds World Tour , in a medley with " Take a Bow " and " Hate That I Love You " . = = Background and production = = Following the assault of Rihanna 's boyfriend Chris Brown on her , there was much speculation as to whether any song featured on the upcoming album would be about him . Producer Chuck Harmony mused that no matter what song Rihanna released as the lead single from the record , it would immediately be looked at as referring to Brown . During an interview with Marc Malkin at the MTV Video Music Awards , American singer @-@ songwriter Ne @-@ Yo stated that listeners should expect an " edgier " and " angrier " Rihanna on the album . He later told In Touch Weekly that the album is definitely more menacing than Rihanna 's prior work , describing the album as " liberated " . The album was released under the title Rated R in November 2009 . " Cold Case Love " was written and produced by The Y 's ( Justin Timberlake , Robin Tadross and James Fauntleroy II ) . At the " Justin Timberlake & Friends Concert in Las Vegas " , Timberlake told MTV News that Rated R is a whole new sound and that the new songs are not just a rehash of what fans heard on her last album . " She broke onto the scene so hard with the last record — to have that many songs on the charts is impressive . I think that the smartest thing she 's doing is not trying to emulate what she did but move forward " , Timberlake explained . In February 2010 , Rihanna admitted that " Cold Case Love " was inspired by her difficult relationship with ex @-@ boyfriend Chris Brown , " It 's a song that everybody wanted to hear , everything that I didn 't say for the past eight months , exactly how I felt about that relationship and how I feel about it now – that song says it all . " When asked what the most important song from the album to her was , she stated that she doesn 't have one , however , Rihanna cited " Cold Case Love " together with " Fire Bomb " as her favorites . Makeba Riddick provided the vocal production of the song . " Cold Case Love " was recorded by Marcos Tovar and Paul Foley at the German Studios and Roc the Mic Studios in New York City and Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles . Bobby Campbell and Kevin Porter served as Tovar 's assistant recording engineers , while Antonio Resendiz and Peter Martinez helped Foley . Jean Marie Horvat mixed the song at the Palms Studio in Las Vegas , with Foley serving as a mixing assistant . The engineering was completed by Jeff Chestek , with Montez Roberts and Rick Friedrich serving as assistant engineer . The cello was played by Glenn Fischbach and James J. Cooper III , while the viola was provided by Davis Barnett and Peter Nocella . The violins were played by Charles Parker , Emma Kummrow , Gregory Teperman , Igor Szwec , Luigi Mazzocchi and Olga Konopelsky . John Epcar provided the drums , while Mike Elizondo played the guitar . Larry Gold was the strings arranger and conductor . = = Composition and lyrical interpretation = = " Cold Case Love " is an R & B ballad that lasts for a duration of six minutes and four seconds . It contains an instrumentation infused with a simple piano pattern , thumping bassline , violin and viola strings and electric guitar licks . According to Kitty Empire of The Observer , " Cold Case Love " takes six minutes to " arc from a riveting short story for vocal , organ and life @-@ support machine " into a " denouement laden with an actual living string section " . It has a fluid melody and easier production which according to Jim Farber of Daily News , allows Rihanna " to fully emote , to show the feeling behind the stance " . " Cold Case Love " starts with a sparse melody and gradually builds through each verse before it culminates with a full production flourish . The Boston Globe 's Sarah Rodman wrote that Timberlake manages to build a wall of sound , from simple voice and quavering organ to full " strings @-@ beatbox @-@ kitchen @-@ sink melodrama " . According to Will Welch of GQ " Cold Case Love " is a combination of the works by Phil Collins and Lionel Richie and Timberlake 's song " Losing My Way " ( FutureSex / LoveSounds , 2006 ) . Sean Fennessey wrote that on the song Rihanna seems to discover the " flip " side of her 2007 single " Umbrella " . Lyrically , the song is a " melancholic and mature farewell " to a failed relationship . Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone wrote Rihanna " slow @-@ boiling " interprets the line " What you did to me was a crime " . According to Jude Rogers of BBC Music the lyrics of the song hint towards her failed relationship with Brown . A reviewer of Plugged In wrote that the lyrics that allude to this are " And I let you reach me one more time / But that ’ s enough . " According to the reviewer , she later admits that the she was blind by her emotional confusion , " your love ain ’ t the kind you can keep . " Jon Pareless of The New York Times wrote that Rihanna compares her love to a crime scene in the " elegiac " " Cold Case Love " which features the couplet " Prints , pictures and white outlines / Are all that 's left at the scene of a cold case love " . = = Reception and live performances = = The song received critical acclaim from contemporary music critics . Kitty Empire of The Observer wrote that while most R & B ballads are woeful , " Cold Case Love " " at least has the wit to sustain a plot " . About.com 's Bill Lamb declared Rihanna 's vocals to be among the " most beautiful " she has recorded and noted that " they are in the service of a very dark , bleak statement " . HitFix reviewer Melinda Newman wrote that it is impossible to listen to the song and not filter it through " that horrific context whether that is how they are meant to be heard or not " . Both Newman and Benjamin Boles of Now cited " Cold Case Love " as a highlight of Rated R. Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly stated , " A genuine moment of vulnerability plays stunningly on the meticulously layered ' Cold Case Love ' " . Writing for GQ , Will Welch declared the song as a " sweeping , grandiose , almost ludicrously over @-@ stuffed and endless album closer " . He wrote that the song is " epic , evocative , on @-@ message ( eat shit , Chris Brown ) and just plain catchy " . Welch cited " Cold Case Love " as his favorite song on the album , while a reviewer for Rap @-@ Up declared it , alongside " Wait Your Turn " , " Hard " and " Rude Boy " , as their favorite song from the album . Writing for Complex magazine , out of 26 Rihanna songs , Claire Lobenfeld placed the song at number 24 and compared it to the material present on Timberlake 's 2006 studio album , FutureSex / LoveSounds . Rihanna performed " Cold Case Love " at her 2013 worldwide concert tour , Diamonds World Tour , in a medley with " Take a Bow " and " Hate That I Love You " . Natasha of HipHopCanada in a review of the concert in Toronto , wrote that during the set she " let out her softer side " and that her vocals were " exceptionally clear and strong " . Reviewing the concert in Los Angeles , Rick Florino of Artistdirect wrote , " Scaling everything back momentarily , she emerged from the center of the stage in a stunning red dress for soaring renditions of ' Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) ' , ' Take a Bow ' , and ' Cold Case Love ' flowing within a perfect melody of hits . " In a review of the Ottawa concert on May 2 , 2013 , Aedan Helmer of Ottawa Sun wrote that " diva RiRi " was " crooning " during the set consisted of songs such as " Loveeeeeee Song " , " Take a Bow " and " Cold Case Love " ; according to Helmer those were the tracks describing her " tumultuous " relationship with Brown . = = Credits and personnel = = Locations Vocals recorded at German Studios and Roc the Mic Studios , New York City , New York ; Westlake Studios , Los Angeles , California . Mixed at the Palm Studios , Las Vegas , Nevada . Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Rated R.
= Two @-@ level utilitarianism = Two @-@ level utilitarianism is a utilitarian theory of ethics developed by R. M. Hare . According to the theory , a person 's moral decisions should be based on a set of ' intuitive ' moral rules , except in certain rare situations where it is more appropriate to engage in a ' critical ' level of moral reasoning . Utilitarians believe that an action is right if it produces the best possible state of affairs . Traditional utilitarianism treats this as a claim that people should try to ensure that their actions maximise overall happiness or pleasure . Two @-@ level utilitarianism is virtually a synthesis of the opposing doctrines of act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism . Act utilitarianism states that in all cases the morally right action is the one which produces the most pleasure , whereas rule utilitarianism states that the morally right action is the one that is in accordance with a moral rule whose general observance would create the most happiness . In terms of two @-@ level utilitarianism , act utilitarianism can be likened to the ' critical ' level of moral thinking , and rule utilitarianism to the ' intuitive ' level . = = Utilitarianism = = Utilitarianism is a type of consequentialist ethical theory . According to such theories , only the outcome of an action is morally relevant ( this contrasts with deontology , according to which moral actions flow from duties or motives ) . Utilitarianism is a combination of consequentialism and the philosophical position hedonism , which states that pleasure , or happiness , is the only good worth pursuing . Therefore , since only the consequences of an action matter , and only happiness matters , only happiness that is the consequence of an action is morally relevant . There are similarities with preference utilitarianism , where utility is defined as individual preference rather than pleasure . The two predecessor theories to two @-@ level utilitarianism , act and rule utilitarianism , were beset by various objections . For example , rule utilitarianism was criticized for implying that in some cases an individual should pursue a course of action that would obviously not maximise utility . Conversely , act utilitarianism was criticized for not allowing for a ' human element ' in its calculations , i.e. it is sometimes too difficult ( or impossible ) for an ordinary person . As a descriptive model of the two levels , Hare posited two extreme cases of people , one of whom would only use critical moral thinking and the other of whom would only use intuitive moral thinking . The former he called the ' archangel ' and the latter the ' prole ' . It is worth noting that it is not Hare 's intention to divide up the entire human race into either archangels or proles ; according to his theory each person shares the traits of both to limited and varying extents at different times . The archangel has superhuman powers of thought , superhuman knowledge and no weaknesses . This unbiased ' ideal observer ' , when presented with an unfamiliar situation , would be able to immediately scan all potential consequences of all possible actions in order to frame a universal principle from which he / she could decide an appropriate action for the situation . Such a person would not need a set of intuitive moral rules , as he / she would be able to decide the correct response to any possible situation by reason alone . By contrast , the prole has these human weaknesses to an extreme degree . He / she must rely upon intuitions and sound prima facie principles all of the time , as he is incapable of critical thought . The set of intuitive moral rules that the prole follows must be simple and general enough that they can be easily understood and memorised , and also quick and easy to use . Once one has identified the different types of moral thinking , the next step is to identify when one ought to think like an archangel , and when like a prole . Hare identifies three types of situation where critical thinking is necessary . The first is when the intuitive general principles conflict in particular cases . The second is when , " though there is no conflict between principles , there is something highly unusual about the case which prompts the question whether the general principles are really fitted to deal with it . " Thirdly , and most importantly , critical thinking is necessary in order to select the intuitive prima facie principles that will be used . = = Criticisms = = Apart from the criticisms that are commonly made of utilitarianism in general , there are several criticisms made specifically against two @-@ level utilitarianism . One objection is that two @-@ level utilitarianism undermines an agent 's commitment to act in accordance with his or her moral principles . For example , a theist will comply with his / her moral code because he / she sees it as based upon God 's will . However , a two @-@ level utilitarian knows that his everyday set of moral rules is merely a guideline , and as such any breach of these rules is unlikely to accompany the same degree of guilt as would someone who believed that it was wrong in principle to act in that way . In reply to this objection , some utilitarians have put forward a " radical proposal " ; although they accept utilitarianism as the correct moral theory , it would be more beneficial if we do not proclaim this fact , and keep it a well @-@ guarded secret . " Utilitarianism would then become an esoteric doctrine , accepted by only a few philosophers who would , if challenged , deny its existence in public . " . This form of Utilitarianism ( commonly named as Government House utilitarianism ) , whilst having historically held traction ( Mill 's publications being in the 18th century ) , no longer presents such a convincing case in light of modern education levels and opportunities . David McNaughton argues that , even if the agent 's commitment to his / her principles is not undermined , two @-@ level utilitarianism does not succeed in its goal of showing , " how , on utilitarian principles , it is a good idea to think and reason in a pluralist and non @-@ consequentialist manner . " It is impossible , he claims , to compartmentalise one 's thinking in the way the two @-@ level account requires — to simultaneously think like a utilitarian and act in a non @-@ utilitarian way . Hare 's response to this type of criticism is that he does his own moral thinking in this way , therefore the challenge that this type of moral thinking is impossible must be false . A third variety of objection somewhat related to the problem of ' weakness of will ' is that difficulties arise when we try to keep critical thinking separate from intuitive thinking .
= Hurricane Fausto ( 2008 ) = Hurricane Fausto was a strong Category 1 hurricane that had only minor effects on land during its life over the eastern Pacific basin . The seventh tropical depression , sixth named storm , and third hurricane of the 2008 Pacific hurricane season , Fausto formed out of a tropical wave on July 16 . The storm gradually strengthened as it moved towards the west @-@ northwest , becoming a minimal hurricane two days later . On July 19 , Fausto turned towards the northwest as it continued to strengthen . The next day , while passing between the Mexican islands of Clarion and Socorro , the hurricane reached its peak intensity with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 977 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 85 inHg ) . Fausto steadily weakened throughout the following two days as it moved over progressively cooler waters . By July 21 , the storm was downgraded to a tropical storm and a tropical depression the next day . Early on July 23 , the depression lacked deep convection and degenerated into a remnant low pressure area . The low persisted for another day before dissipating over open waters . Hurricane Fausto had little effect on land , despite passing close to the islands of Clarion and Socorro where high winds , reaching hurricane @-@ force on Socorro , were recorded . Moderate rainfall from the outer bands of the storm amounted to 1 @.@ 9 in ( 50 mm ) in the Mexican state of Sinaloa . = = Meteorological history = = The origins of Hurricane Fausto were in a westward @-@ traveling tropical wave that moved off the eastern coast of Africa on July 4 . Little development occurred as the wave traversed the Atlantic basin . It entered the eastern Pacific basin on July 12 after crossing Central America and began to show signs of development the next day . The system westward movement became slightly erratic on July 14 as development slowed . The following day , the system became increasingly organized and a tropical depression , which was designated 07 @-@ E , formed about 550 mi ( 890 km ) southeast of Acapulco , Mexico . The depression maintained an area of deep convection around the center of circulation and was located within an area of moderate wind shear . An area of high pressure located over the southwestern United States was forecast to steer the system towards the northwest for most of its existence . A mid @-@ level ridge located to the north of the depression caused it to rapidly travel towards the west at 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) for most of July 16 . Shortly after being designated as a depression , 17 @-@ E was upgraded to a tropical storm and given the name Fausto . Despite being partially exposed from convection , the system featured several banding features which supported a wind intensity of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . As a large cyclone , Fausto slowly intensified , with convection consolidating around the center the next day . The combination of relaxing wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures allowed the storm to intensify . Later that day , the center of Fausto became exposed but a large band of deep convection surrounded the exposed low . Early on July 18 , a banding eye feature began to develop in the southern portion of the storm . Around this time , forward motion slowed as it began to turn towards the northeast . Later that day , a partial eyewall began to develop , indicating that Fausto had strengthened into a hurricane with winds reaching 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Shortly after being declared a hurricane , the eye started to appear on visible satellite imagery . With low wind shear and warm waters , further intensification was anticipated . Very cold cloud tops with temperatures as low as – 112 ° F ( – 80 ° C ) surrounded the developing eye allowing the storm to intensify . Strengthening stopped for most of July 19 and the first half of July 20 . That day , Fausto strengthened slightly as a ragged eye formed while the storm passed between the islands of Clarion and Socorro . At this time , the hurricane reached its peak intensity with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 977 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 85 inHg ) . Operationally , Fausto was assessed to have reached its peak intensity several hours later as a minimal Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) as the eye became better defined . However , the storm was located over 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) waters , causing it to gradually weaken along with diminishing convective activity . Later that day , Fausto was downgraded to a tropical storm and further weakened to a tropical depression the next day . With little or no remaining convection , the system degenerated into a remnant low pressure area as it traveled towards the west @-@ northwest . The remnants of Fausto dissipated on July 24 , while located about 1 @,@ 065 mi ( 1 @,@ 715 km ) west of Cabo San Lucas . = = Preparations and impact = = The National Hurricane Center did not forecast Fausto to affect any major land areas during its existence . As such , no tropical cyclone advisories were issued . The outer bands of Fausto produced moderate rainfall over portions of Sinaloa , Mexico , peaking at 1 @.@ 9 in ( 50 mm ) . Several hours before the center of Fausto passed between Clarion Island and Socorro Island , sustained winds on Clarion were recorded at 64 mph ( 103 km / h ) with gusts to 94 mph ( 151 km / h ) . Nearby Socorro recorded sustained winds of 79 mph ( 129 km / h ) with gusts to 109 mph ( 175 km / h ) . Little or no damage was recorded on the islands . The hurricane @-@ force winds reported on Socorro was recorded as Fausto made its closest approach to the island about 115 mi ( 185 km ) to the southwest . However , due to the distance from the center of Fausto , these winds are suspected to be overestimated . Along the coastline of Mexico , waves up to 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) were recorded in relation to Fausto .
= Action of 9 February 1799 ( South Africa ) = The Action of 9 February 1799 was a minor naval engagement of the French Revolutionary Wars between a British Royal Navy frigate and a French privateer frigate fought 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ) west of the southeastern coast of what is now Natal in South Africa . The 32 @-@ gun French frigate Prudente had since the start of the war been part of a squadron operating from Île de France ( now Mauritius ) . This squadron had dispersed during 1798 , with the ships sent on independent commerce raiding operations across the British trade routes in the Indian Ocean . Prudente had subsequently been seized in the autumn of that year by Anne Joseph Hippolyte de Maurès , Comte de Malartic , the Governor of Île de France , and sold to a private raiding company . In early 1799 Prudente was operating off South Africa , attacking British trade passing to or from the Cape Colony when the ship was discovered by British frigate HMS Daedalus under Captain Henry Lidgbird Ball . Prudente turned away and Ball gave chase , following the French ship closely . After five hours Daedalus caught Prudente and fired a raking broadside into the stern , disabling the French ship . For another hour the action continued at close range until Prudente was forced to surrender . = = Background = = By 1799 British forces dominated the Indian Ocean , controlling the economically vital trade routes from China , the Dutch East Indies and British India to Europe . The French Navy had originally deployed only two frigates in the region , Prudente and Cybèle , operating from Port Louis on Île de France . This force was subsequently augmented in the summer of 1796 by a large squadron of frigates under Contre @-@ amiral Pierre César Charles de Sercey , which cruised in the East Indies during 1796 and 1797 , suffering setbacks at Action of 9 September 1796 and the Bali Strait Incident . During 1798 the squadron dispersed , as his crews became increasingly mutinous and the Colonial Assembly of Île de France grew openly disdainful of his efforts , refusing to provide reinforcements or supplies to his ships . To mitigate this disaffection , Sercey ordered two of his frigates , Prudente and Forte to cruise in the Bay of Bengal against British trade during the autumn of 1798 . When these ships returned , Sercey had already sailed for the east , leaving instructions for the frigates to follow . These orders were however countermanded by the Governor of Île de France , Malartic , who ordered the frigates seized while they were in harbour . Although Sercey protested Malartic 's actions , the governor issued new orders to the ships : Forte was sent northeast to operate in the Bay of Bengal off Calcutta while Prudente was partially disarmed and sold to a privateering concern to operate against trade as a commercial investment . = = Battle = = Command of Prudente was given to Captain Emanuel @-@ Hippolite Le Jolliff , who sailed to the region to the east of the British held Cape Colony to prey on transoceanic merchant shipping sailing to and from Cape Town . The cruise achieved some success , including the seizure of an American merchant ship from Canton , which had been given a prize crew of 17 and armed with 6 @-@ pounder guns from Prudente 's quarterdeck , leaving the French frigate with only 30 guns including its main battery of 12 @-@ pounder long guns . At dawn on 9 February 1799 , while sailing approximately 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ) southwest of the coast of Natal a sail was seen to the southeast , approaching rapidly . Recognising a British frigate , La Joliff ordered his ships to separate at 07 : 00 , the American ship sailing south while he took Prudente northwards , hoping to draw off the British ship so that the prize could escape . The new arrival was HMS Daedalus , a 32 @-@ gun 12 @-@ pounder Royal Navy frigate under the command of Captain Henry Lidgbird Ball . Ball maintained pursuit of Prudente , running 6 nautical miles ( 11 km ) behind his opponent until 10 : 00 when La Joliff swung his frigate to starboard with the wind , Ball following close behind . With the British frigate closing , la Joliff ordered his men to begin firing their stern @-@ chasers at Daedalus and at 12 : 10 hauled up to engage , firing a broadside into the British ship . Ball shortened sail and brought his ship across the stern of Prudente , firing a devastating raking broadside into the French frigate at 12 : 25 . Ball then drew Daedalus alongside Prudente and the ships fought a close range broadside duel , fire from Ball 's ship bringing down the mizenmast on Prudente after 15 minutes . It was only at 13 : 21 , more than an hour after the battle had begun , that La Joliff acknowledged the damage to his ship and struck his colours . = = Aftermath = = Prudente was badly damaged in the engagement and had lost heavy casualties , including 27 killed and 22 wounded . Losses and damage on Daedalus were much lighter , with only one sailor and one Royal Marine killed and eleven wounded . Ball conducted hasty repairs and then brought the captured Prudente into Table Bay on 15 February . There the captured ship was condemned by the port commander Captain George Losack : although Prudente was a high @-@ quality ship the naval facilities at the Cape Colony were insufficient to conduct the necessary repairs and the French frigate was not subsequently commissioned into the Royal Navy . As a result , there were few rewards for the action , unusually the junior officers of Daedalus were not promoted in the aftermath of the battle . Among the prisoners taken from Prudente was a deserter from the Royal Navy named Thomas Tring , who was subsequently court martialed and hanged . In the Indian Ocean theatre the loss of Prudente was compounded a few weeks later by the capture of Forte at the Action of 28 February 1799 , which left Sercey with a shortage of available warships . At the Action of 11 December 1799 his last frigate , Preneuse , was intercepted and destroyed off Île de France . A commander without a command , the French admiral returned to France and subsequently retired .
= Thrombophilia = Thrombophilia ( sometimes hypercoagulability or a prothrombotic state ) is an abnormality of blood coagulation that increases the risk of thrombosis ( blood clots in blood vessels ) . Such abnormalities can be identified in 50 % of people who have an episode of thrombosis ( such as deep vein thrombosis in the leg ) that was not provoked by other causes . A significant proportion of the population has a detectable abnormality , but most of these only develop thrombosis in the presence of an additional risk factor . There is no specific treatment for most thrombophilias , but recurrent episodes of thrombosis may be an indication for long @-@ term preventative anticoagulation . The first major form of thrombophilia , antithrombin deficiency , was identified in 1965 , while the most common abnormalities ( including factor V Leiden ) were described in the 1990s . = = Signs and symptoms = = The most common conditions associated with thrombophilia are deep vein thrombosis ( DVT ) and pulmonary embolism ( PE ) , which are referred to collectively as venous thromboembolism ( VTE ) . DVT usually occurs in the legs , and is characterized by pain , swelling and redness of the limb . It may lead to long @-@ term swelling and heaviness due to damage to valves in the veins . The clot may also break off and migrate ( embolize ) to arteries in the lungs . Depending on the size and the location of the clot , this may lead to sudden @-@ onset shortness of breath , chest pain , palpitations and may be complicated by collapse , shock and cardiac arrest . Venous thrombosis may also occur in more unusual places : in the veins of the brain , liver ( portal vein thrombosis and hepatic vein thrombosis ) , mesenteric vein , kidney ( renal vein thrombosis ) and the veins of the arms . Whether thrombophilia also increases the risk of arterial thrombosis ( which is the underlying cause of heart attacks and strokes ) is less well established . Thrombophilia has been linked to recurrent miscarriage , and possibly various complications of pregnancy such as intrauterine growth restriction , stillbirth , severe pre @-@ eclampsia and abruptio placentae . Protein C deficiency may cause purpura fulminans , a severe clotting disorder in the newborn that leads to both tissue death and bleeding into the skin and other organs . The condition has also been described in adults . Protein C and protein S deficiency have also been associated with an increased risk of skin necrosis on commencing anticoagulant treatment with warfarin or related drugs . = = Causes = = Thrombophilia can be congenital or acquired . Congenital thrombophilia refers to inborn conditions ( and usually hereditary , in which case " hereditary thrombophilia " may be used ) that increase the tendency to develop thrombosis , while , on the other hand , acquired thrombophilia refers to conditions that arise later in life . = = = Congenital = = = The most common types of congenital thrombophilia are those that arise as a result of overactivity of coagulation factors . They are relatively mild , and are therefore classified as " type II " defects . The most common ones are factor V Leiden ( a mutation in the F5 gene at position 1691 ) and prothrombin G20210A , a mutation in prothrombin ( at position 20210 in the 3 ' untranslated region of the gene ) . The rare forms of congenital thrombophilia are typically caused by a deficiency of natural anticoagulants . They are classified as " type I " and are more severe in their propensity to cause thrombosis . The main ones are antithrombin III deficiency , protein C deficiency and protein S deficiency . Milder rare congenital thrombophilias are factor XIII mutation and familial dysfibrinogenemia ( an abnormal fibrinogen ) . It is unclear whether congenital disorders of fibrinolysis ( the system that destroys clots ) are major contributors to thrombosis risk . Congenital deficiency of plasminogen , for instance , mainly causes eye symptoms and sometimes problems in other organs , but the link with thrombosis has been more uncertain . Blood group determines thrombosis risk to a significant extent . Those with blood groups other than type O are at a two- to fourfold relative risk . O blood group is associated with reduced levels of von Willebrand factor – because of increased clearance – and factor VIII , which is related to thrombotic risk . = = = Acquired = = = A number of acquired conditions augment the risk of thrombosis . A prominent example is antiphospholipid syndrome , which is caused by antibodies against constituents of the cell membrane , particularly lupus anticoagulant ( first found in people with the disease systemic lupus erythematosus but often detected in people without the disease ) , anti @-@ cardiolipin antibodies , and anti @-@ β2 @-@ glycoprotein 1 antibodies ; it is therefore regarded as an autoimmune disease . In some cases antiphospholipid syndrome can cause arterial as well as venous thrombosis . It is also more strongly associated with miscarriage , and can cause a number of other symptoms ( such as livedo reticularis of the skin and migraine ) . Heparin @-@ induced thrombocytopenia ( HIT ) is due to an immune system reaction against the anticoagulant drug heparin ( or its derivatives ) . Though it is named for associated low platelet counts , HIT is strongly associated with risk of venous and arterial thrombosis . Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria ( PNH ) is a rare condition resulting from acquired alterations in the PIGA gene , which plays a role in the protection of blood cells from the complement system . PNH increases the risk of venous thrombosis but is also associated with hemolytic anemia ( anemia resulting from destruction of red blood cells ) . Both HIT and PNH require particular treatment . Hematologic conditions associated with sluggish blood flow can increase risk for thrombosis . For example , sickle @-@ cell disease ( caused by mutations of hemoglobin ) is regarded as a mild prothrombotic state induced by impaired flow . Similarly , myeloproliferative disorders , in which the bone marrow produces too many blood cells , predispose to thrombosis , particularly in polycythemia vera ( excess red blood cells ) and essential thrombocytosis ( excess platelets ) . Again , these conditions usually warrant specific treatment when identified . Cancer , particularly when metastatic ( spread to other places in the body ) , is a recognised risk factor for thrombosis . A number of mechanisms have been proposed , such as activation of the coagulation system by cancer cells or secretion of procoagulant substances . Furthermore , particular cancer treatments ( such as the use of central venous catheters for chemotherapy ) may increase the risk of thrombosis further . Nephrotic syndrome , in which protein from the bloodstream is released into the urine due to kidney diseases , can predispose to thrombosis ; this is particularly the case in more severe cases ( as indicated by blood levels of albumin below 25 g / l ) and if the syndrome is caused by the condition membranous nephropathy . Inflammatory bowel disease ( ulcerative colitis and Crohn 's disease ) predispose to thrombosis , particularly when the disease is active . Various mechanisms have been proposed . Pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of thrombosis . This probably results from a physiological hypercoagulability in pregnancy that protects against postpartum hemorrhage . The female hormone estrogen , when used in the combined oral contraceptive pill and in perimenopausal hormone replacement therapy , has been associated with a two- to sixfold increased risk of venous thrombosis . The risk depends on the type of hormones used , the dose of estrogen , and the presence of other thrombophilic risk factors . Various mechanisms , such as deficiency of protein S and tissue factor pathway inhibitor , are said to be responsible . Obesity has long been regarded as a risk factor for venous thrombosis . It more than doubles the risk in numerous studies , particularly in combination with the use of oral contraceptives or in the period after surgery . Various coagulation abnormalities have been described in the obese . Plasminogen activator inhibitor @-@ 1 , an inhibitor of fibrinolysis , is present in higher levels in people with obesity . Obese people also have larger numbers of circulating microvesicles ( fragments of damaged cells ) that bear tissue factor . Platelet aggregation may be increased , and there are higher levels of coagulation proteins such as von Willebrand factor , fibrinogen , factor VII and factor VIII . Obesity also increases the risk of recurrence after an initial episode of thrombosis . = = = Unclear = = = A number of conditions that have been linked with venous thrombosis are possibly genetic and possibly acquired . These include : elevated levels of factor VIII , factor IX , factor XI , fibrinogen and thrombin @-@ activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor , and decreased levels of tissue factor pathway inhibitor . Activated protein C resistance that is not attributable to factor V mutations is probably caused by other factors and remains a risk factor for thrombosis . There is an association between the blood levels of homocysteine and thrombosis , although this has not been reported consistently in all studies . Homocysteine levels are determined by mutations in the MTHFR and CBS genes , but also by levels of folic acid , vitamin B6 and vitamin B12 , which depend on diet . = = Mechanism = = Thrombosis is a multifactorial problem because there are often multiple reasons why a person might develop thrombosis . These risk factors may include any combination of abnormalities in the blood vessel wall , abnormalities in the blood flow ( as in immobilization ) , and abnormalities in the consistency of the blood . Thrombophilia is caused by abnormalities in blood consistency , which is determined by the levels of coagulation factors and other circulating blood proteins that participate in the " coagulation cascade " . Normal coagulation is initiated by the release of tissue factor from damaged tissue . Tissue factor binds to circulating factor VIIa . The combination activates factor X to factor Xa and factor IX to factor IXa . Factor Xa ( in the presence of factor V ) activates prothrombin into thrombin . Thrombin is a central enzyme in the coagulation process : it generates fibrin from fibrinogen , and activates a number of other enzymes and cofactors ( factor XIII , factor XI , factor V and factor VIII , TAFI ) that enhance the fibrin clot . The process is inhibited by TFPI ( which inactivates the first step catalyzed by factor VIIa / tissue factor ) , antithrombin ( which inactivates thrombin , factor IXa , Xa and XIa ) , protein C ( which inhibits factors Va and VIIIa in the presence of protein S ) , and protein Z ( which inhibits factor Xa ) . In thrombophilia , the balance between " procoagulant " and " anticoagulant " activity is disturbed . The severity of the imbalance determines the likelihood that someone develops thrombosis . Even small perturbances of proteins , such as the reduction of antithrombin to only 70 – 80 % of the normal level , can increase the thrombosis risk ; this is in contrast with hemophilia , which only arises if levels of coagulation factors are markedly decreased . In addition to its effects on thrombosis , hypercoagulable states may accelerate the development of atherosclerosis , the arterial disease that underlies myocardial infarction and other forms of cardiovascular disease . = = Diagnosis = = Tests for thrombophilia include complete blood count ( with examination of the blood film ) , prothrombin time , partial thromboplastin time , thrombodynamics test , thrombin time and reptilase time , lupus anticoagulant , anti @-@ cardiolipin antibody , anti @-@ β2 glycoprotein 1 antibody , activated protein C resistance , fibrinogen tests , factor V Leiden and prothrombin mutation , and basal homocysteine levels . Testing may be more or less extensive depending on clinical judgement and abnormalities detected on initial evaluation . = = Screening = = There are divergent views as to whether everyone with an unprovoked episode of thrombosis should be investigated for thrombophilia . Even those with a form of thrombophilia may not necessarily be at risk of further thrombosis , while recurrent thrombosis is more likely in those who have had previous thrombosis even in those who have no detectable thrombophilic abnormalities . Recurrent thromboembolism , or thrombosis in unusual sites ( e.g. the hepatic vein in Budd @-@ Chiari syndrome ) , is a generally accepted indication for screening . It is more likely to be cost @-@ effective in people with a strong personal or family history of thrombosis . In contrast , the combination of thrombophilia with other risk factors may provide an indication for preventative treatment , which is why thrombophilia testing may be performed even in those who would not meet the strict criteria for these tests . Searching for a coagulation abnormality is not normally undertaken in patients in whom thrombosis has an obvious trigger . For example , if the thrombosis is due to immobilization after recent orthopedic surgery , it is regarded as " provoked " by the immobilization and the surgery and it is less likely that investigations will yield clinically important results . When venous thromboembolism occurs when a patient is experiencing transient major risk factors such as prolonged immobility , surgery , or trauma , testing for thrombophilia is not appropriate because the outcome of the test would not change a patient 's indicated treatment . In 2013 , the American Society of Hematology , as part of recommendations in the Choosing Wisely campaign , cautioned against overuse of thrombophilia screening ; false positive results of testing would lead to people inappropriately being labeled as having thrombophilia , and being treated with anticoagulants without clinical need In the United Kingdom , professional guidelines give specific indications for thrombophilia testing . It is recommended that testing be done only after appropriate counseling , and hence the investigations are usually not performed at the time when thrombosis is diagnosed but at a later time . In particular situations , such as retinal vein thrombosis , testing is discouraged altogether because thrombophilia is not regarded as a major risk factor . In other rare conditions generally linked with hypercoagulability , such as cerebral venous thrombosis and portal vein thrombosis , there is insufficient data to state for certain whether thrombophilia screening is helpful , and decisions on thrombophilia screening in these conditions are therefore not regarded as evidence @-@ based . If cost @-@ effectiveness ( quality @-@ adjusted life years in return for expenditure ) is taken as a guide , it is generally unclear whether thrombophilia investigations justify the often high cost , unless the testing is restricted to selected situations . Recurrent miscarriage is an indication for thrombophilia screening , particularly antiphospholipid antibodies ( anti @-@ cardiolipin IgG and IgM , as well as lupus anticoagulant ) , factor V Leiden and prothrombin mutation , activated protein C resistance and a general assessment of coagulation through an investigation known as thromboelastography . Women who are planning to use oral contraceptives do not benefit from routine screening for thrombophilias , as the absolute risk of thrombotic events is low . If either the woman or a first @-@ degree relative has suffered from thrombosis , the risk of developing thrombosis is increased . Screening this selected group may be beneficial , but even when negative may still indicate residual risk . Professional guidelines therefore suggest that alternative forms of contraception be used rather than relying on screening . Thrombophilia screening in people with arterial thrombosis is generally regarded unrewarding and is generally discouraged , except possibly for unusually young patients ( especially when precipitated by smoking or use of estrogen @-@ containing hormonal contraceptives ) and those in whom revascularization , such as coronary arterial bypass , fails because of rapid occlusion of the graft . = = Treatment = = There is no specific treatment for thrombophilia , unless it is caused by an underlying medical illness ( such as nephrotic syndrome ) , where the treatment of the underlying disease is needed . In those with unprovoked and / or recurrent thrombosis , or those with a high @-@ risk form of thrombophilia , the most important decision is whether to use anticoagulation medications , such as warfarin , on a long @-@ term basis to reduce the risk of further episodes . This risk needs to weighed against the risk that the treatment will cause significant bleeding , as the reported risk of major bleeding is over 3 % per year , and 11 % of those with major bleeding may die as a result . Apart from the abovementioned forms of thrombophilia , the risk of recurrence after an episode of thrombosis is determined by factors such as the extent and severity of the original thrombosis , whether it was provoked ( such as by immobilization or pregnancy ) , the number of previous thrombotic events , male sex , the presence of an inferior vena cava filter , the presence of cancer , symptoms of post @-@ thrombotic syndrome , and obesity . These factors tend to be more important in the decision than the presence or absence of a detectable thrombophilia . Those with antiphospholipid syndrome may be offered long @-@ term anticoagulation after a first unprovoked episode of thrombosis . The risk is determined by the subtype of antibody detected , by the antibody titer ( amount of antibodies ) , whether multiple antibodies are detected , and whether it is detected repeatedly or only on a single occasion . Women with a thrombophilia who are contemplating pregnancy or are pregnant usually require alternatives to warfarin during pregnancy , especially in the first 13 weeks , when it may produce abnormalities in the unborn child . Low molecular weight heparin ( LMWH , such as enoxaparin ) is generally used as an alternative . Warfarin and LMWH may safely be used in breastfeeding . When women experience recurrent pregnancy loss secondary to thrombophilia , some studies have suggested that low molecular weight heparin reduces the risk of miscarriage . When the results of all studies are analysed together , no statistically signifiant benefit could be demonstrated . = = Prognosis = = In people without a detectable thrombophilia , the cumulative risk of developing thrombosis by the age of 60 is about 12 % . About 60 % of people who are deficient in antithrombin will have experienced thrombosis at least once by age 60 , as will about 50 % of people with protein C deficiency and about a third of those with protein S deficiency . People with activated protein C resistance ( usually resulting from factor V Leiden ) , in contrast , have a slightly raised absolute risk of thrombosis , with 15 % having had at least one thrombotic event by the age of sixty . In general , men are more likely than women to experience repeated episodes of venous thrombosis . People with factor V Leiden are at a relatively low risk of thrombosis , but may develop thrombosis in the presence of an additional risk factor , such as immobilization . Most people with the prothrombin mutation ( G20210A ) never develop thrombosis . = = Epidemiology = = The major ( " type 1 " ) thrombophilias are rare . Antithrombin deficiency is present in 0 @.@ 2 % of the general population and 0 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 % of people with venous thrombosis . Protein C deficiency , too , is present in 0 @.@ 2 % of the population , and can be found in 2 @.@ 5 – 6 % of people with thrombosis . The exact prevalence of protein S deficiency in the population is unknown ; it is found 1 @.@ 3 – 5 % of people with thrombosis . The minor ( " type 2 " ) thrombophilias are much more common . Factor V Leiden is present in 5 % of the population of Northern European descent , but much rarer in those of Asian or African extraction . In people with thrombosis , 10 % have factor V Leiden . In those who are referred for thrombophilia testing , 30 – 50 % have the defect . The prothrombin mutation occurs at rates of 1 – 4 % in the general population , 5 – 10 % of people with thrombosis , and 15 % of people referred for thrombophilia testing . Like factor V Leiden , this abnormality is uncommon in Africans and Asians . The exact prevalence of antiphospholipid syndrome is not well known , as different studies employ different definitions of the condition . Antiphospholipid antibodies are detected in 24 % of those referred to thrombophilia testing . = = History = = German physician Rudolf Virchow categorized abnormalities in the consistency of the blood as a factor in the development of thrombosis in 1856 . The exact nature of these abnormalities remained elusive until the first form of thrombophilia , antithrombin deficiency , was recognized in 1965 by the Norwegian hematologist Olav Egeberg . Protein C deficiency followed in 1981 , when described by researchers from the Scripps Research Institute and the U.S. Centers of Disease Control . Protein S deficiency followed in 1984 , described by researchers at the University of Oklahoma . Antiphospholipid syndrome was described in full in the 1980s , after various previous reports of specific antibodies in people with systemic lupus erythematosus and thrombosis . The syndrome is often attributed to the British rheumatologist Graham R.V. Hughes , and is often referred to as Hughes syndrome for that reason . The more common genetic thrombophilias were described in the 1990s . Many studies had previously indicated that many people with thrombosis showed resistance activated protein C. In 1994 a group in Leiden , The Netherlands , identified the most common underlying defect — a mutation in factor V that made it resistant to the action of activated protein C. The defect was called factor V Leiden , as genetic abnormalities are typically named after the place where they are discovered . Two years later , the same group described a common mutation in the prothrombin gene that caused elevation of prothrombin levels and a mild increase in thrombosis risk . It is suspected that other genetic abnormalities underlying familial thrombosis will in future be discovered through studies of the entire genetic code , looking for small alternations in genes .
= M @-@ 149 ( Michigan highway ) = M @-@ 149 is a 10 @.@ 605 @-@ mile ( 17 @.@ 07 km ) north – south state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It connects US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) in Thompson with the Palms Book and Indian Lake state parks . The highway was originally designed in the 1930s and extended a few years later . The last major changes to the highway were made in the 1960s when it was completely paved for the first time . = = Route description = = M @-@ 149 is a rural two @-@ lane highway that starts in the community of Thompson southwest of Manistique on Lake Michigan . It runs west @-@ northwesterly through woodlands away from a junction with US 2 along a small pond in the area . The road curves to the north and passes the cemetery and some small farms south of a crossing with a line of the Canadian National Railway . North of the tracks , the road meets County Road 442 ( CR 442 ) near Indian Lake . M @-@ 149 turns to the west at that junction while CR 442 runs easterly to connect to the main unit of the Indian Lake State Park . The highway continues to a junction with CR 455 , which connects to the western unit of the state part , after which the trunkline turns to the northwest through forested terrain . The highway turns back to the west before intersecting another CR 442 in the area . At this junction , M @-@ 149 turns to the north where it continues for several miles until curving eastward . M @-@ 149 intersects the northern end of CR 455 and turns north once again until it terminates at the main gate to the Palms Book State Park , home of Kitch @-@ iti @-@ kipi ( the Big Spring ) . No part of M @-@ 189 is listed on the National Highway System . In 2009 , the Michigan Department of Transportation conducted a survey to determine the traffic volume along the highway , reported using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . The department determined that 421 vehicles a day used the highway south of the junction with CR 442 near Indian Lake State Park while 245 vehicles used remainder of the highway on average . = = History = = The Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) designated M @-@ 149 along a gravel road in late 1930 ; the highway provided access from US 2 northerly to Palms Book State Park . A second highway , the first creation of M @-@ 125 , was formed later in 1931 along another gravel road to connect US 2 southerly with the Thompson State Fish Hatchery . When US 2 was rerouted in the Manistique area in 1936 , that highway was moved further south closer to Lake Michigan ; M @-@ 149 was extended eastward along a section of the paved highway formerly a part of US 2 to connect with M @-@ 125 at the Indian Lake State Park . From that point south , M @-@ 149 replaced M @-@ 125 to Thompson . The former routing of US 2 became CR 442 except for the section used to extend M @-@ 149 . In the latter half of 1960 or the beginning of 1961 , the MSHD paved the sections of M @-@ 149 north and south of the former US 2 segment , completely hard @-@ surfacing the roadway for the first time . = = Major intersections = = The entire highway is in Schoolcraft County .
= 2011 Virginia earthquake = The 2011 Virginia earthquake occurred on August 23 at 1 : 51 : 04 p.m. local time in the Piedmont region of the US state of Virginia . The epicenter , in Louisa County , was 61 km ( 38 mi ) northwest of Richmond and 8 km ( 5 mi ) south @-@ southwest of the town of Mineral . It was an intraplate earthquake with a magnitude of 5 @.@ 8 and a maximum perceived intensity of VII ( Very strong ) on the Mercalli intensity scale . Several aftershocks , ranging up to 4 @.@ 5 Mw in magnitude , occurred after the main tremor . The earthquake , along with a magnitude – 5 @.@ 8 quake on the New York – Ontario border in 1944 , is the largest to have occurred in the U.S. east of the Rocky Mountains since an earthquake centered in Giles County in western Virginia occurred during 1897 , with an estimated magnitude of 5 @.@ 8 . The quake was felt across more than a dozen U.S. states and in several Canadian provinces , and was felt by more people than any other quake in U.S. history . No deaths and only minor injuries were reported . Minor and moderate damage to buildings was widespread and was estimated by one risk @-@ modeling company at $ 200 million to $ 300 million , of which about $ 100 million was insured . The earthquake prompted research that revealed that the farthest landslide from the epicenter was 150 miles ( 240 km ) , by far the greatest landslide distance recorded from any other earthquake of similar magnitude . Previous studies of worldwide earthquakes indicated that landslides occurred no farther than 36 miles ( 58 km ) from the epicenter of a magnitude 5 @.@ 8 earthquake . The Virginia earthquake study suggested that the added information about East Coast earthquakes may prompt a revision of equations that predict ground shaking . = = Geology = = The earthquake occurred in the Virginia Seismic Zone , located in the Piedmont region . The Virginia Piedmont area was formed originally as part of a zone of repeated continental collision that created the ancestral Appalachian Mountains , a process that started during the Ordovician period with the Taconic orogeny and finished during the Carboniferous Period with the Alleghenian orogeny . The reverse faults formed during the various orogenies were partly reactivated as normal faults in extension during the Mesozoic Era as the supercontinent Pangaea broke apart . During the Cenozoic Era , compression from the opening and spreading of the Atlantic has caused some of these structures to be reactivated in a reverse sense . The earthquake 's epicenter and most of the aftershocks lie between the surface traces of two structures , the Spotsylvania Fault , a southeast dipping zone of high ductile strain , and the Chopawamsic Fault , a thrust fault . The earthquake 's focal mechanism shows reverse slip faulting on a north to northeast striking fault plane . The spatial distribution of aftershocks show that the causative fault dips to the southeast at 50 – 55 ° . There was no surface faulting associated with the earthquake . The size of the rupture is as yet uncalculated , but similar quakes have been caused by slippage along fault segments that are 5 to 15 km ( 3 to 9 mi ) long . After the earthquake , several websites speculated about whether hydraulic fracturing ( fracking ) for natural gas production could have caused or contributed to the quake . There were not any fracking operations in Virginia at the time of the quake . The nearest fracking was occurring in the Marcellus shale in West Virginia . = = Aftershocks = = Numerous aftershocks occurred after the main tremor . The first four ( of magnitude 2 @.@ 8 , 2 @.@ 2 , 4 @.@ 2 and 3 @.@ 4 ) occurred within 12 hours of the main shock . A 2 @.@ 5 @-@ magnitude shock occurred just after midnight on August 25 , followed at 05 : 07 UTC by the strongest , a magnitude 4 @.@ 5 aftershock that woke many residents in Northern Virginia and Washington , D.C. , and was felt as far away as New England , Georgia , and Illinois . = = Research = = Scientists have known that the difference between seismic shaking in the East versus the West is due in part to the geologic structure and rock properties that allow seismic waves in the East to travel farther without weakening , but during November 2012 , the USGS announced that recent research showed that earthquake shaking in the eastern United States can travel much farther and cause damage over larger areas than previously thought . USGS scientists found that the Virginia earthquake caused landslides at distances four times farther — and over an area 20 times larger — than previous research had shown . USGS Director Marcia McNutt said , " Scientists are confirming with empirical data what more than 50 million people in the eastern U.S. experienced firsthand : this was one powerful earthquake . Calibrating the distance over which landslides occur may also help us reach back into the geologic record to look for evidence of past major earthquakes from the Virginia seismic zone . " The USGS found that the farthest landslide from the 2011 Virginia earthquake was 150 miles ( 240 km ) from the epicenter . This is by far the greatest landslide distance recorded from any other earthquake of similar magnitude . Previous studies of worldwide earthquakes indicated that landslides occurred no farther than 36 miles ( 58 km ) from the epicenter of a magnitude 5 @.@ 8 earthquake . The study suggested that the added information about East Coast earthquakes may prompt a revision of equations that predict ground shaking . " What makes this new study so unique is that it provides direct observational evidence from the largest earthquake to occur in more than 100 years in the eastern U.S. Now that we know more about the power of East Coast earthquakes , equations that predict ground shaking might need to be revised . " In addition to the great landslide distances recorded , the landslides from the 2011 Virginia earthquake occurred in an area 20 times larger than expected from studies of worldwide earthquakes . Scientists plotted the landslide locations that were farthest out and then calculated the area enclosed by those landslides . The observed landslides from the Virginia earthquake enclose an area of about 33 @,@ 400 km2 , while previous studies indicated an expected area of about 1 @,@ 500 km2 from an earthquake of similar magnitude . = = Effect = = It is estimated that approximately one @-@ third of the U.S. population might have felt the earthquake , more than any other earthquake in U.S. history . People in certain areas of Pennsylvania , however , did not feel the earthquake at all despite being relatively close to the epicenter . About 148 @,@ 000 people reported their ground @-@ shaking experiences caused by the earthquake on the USGS " Did You Feel It ? " website . Tremors from the Virginia earthquake were felt as far south as Atlanta , Georgia ; as far north as Quebec City , Quebec ; as far west as Illinois and as far east as Fredericton , New Brunswick , with damage reported as far away as Brooklyn , New York . Although earthquakes in the central and eastern U.S. are tens of times less frequent than in the western U.S. , they are typically felt over a much broader region . East of the Rocky Mountains , an earthquake can be felt over an area as much as ten times larger than a similar magnitude earthquake on the west coast . Western rock is relatively young , therefore it absorbs much of the shaking caused by earthquakes . Hence , western earthquakes result in intense shaking close to the epicenter , but fade more quickly the further the earthquakes travel . In the eastern United States , the rock is much older , and earthquake energy can therefore spread further and have a greater impact . A magnitude 5 @.@ 5 eastern U.S. earthquake can usually be felt as far as 300 mi ( 483 km ) from its origin , and sometimes causes damage as far away as 25 mi ( 40 km ) . The relatively shallow depth of this earthquake also contributed to its widespread effects . = = = United States = = = Soon after the earthquake , the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration ordered a ground stop along the East Coast , causing some flight delays . The Air Traffic Control tower at John F. Kennedy International Airport was evacuated . Flights were delayed at several airports , including John F. Kennedy International Airport , Newark Liberty International Airport , Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport , Dulles International Airport , and Philadelphia International Airport . At Ronald Reagan National Airport , ceiling tiles fell in one terminal , and flights were halted . A huge increase of cell @-@ phone calls immediately after the event congested the AT & T , Verizon Wireless , Sprint Nextel , T @-@ Mobile USA , and Frontier Communications networks in the Mid @-@ Atlantic region , causing disruptions and loss of service for as much as an hour after the earthquake . = = = = Virginia = = = = The epicenter of the earthquake was in Louisa County , Virginia , where damage was greatest and several minor injuries occurred . The town of Mineral , located 5 mi ( 8 km ) north @-@ northeast from the earthquake 's epicenter , reported the collapse of two buildings , as well as minor damage to several other structures , including the collapse of the ceiling in its Town Hall . Only minor injuries were reported , including the hospitalization of several people reporting chest pains related to the stress of the experience . Fallen chimneys and other structural damage to buildings was also reported in Louisa , the county seat . The Gilboa Christian Church , in Cuckoo , was heavily damaged and rendered unusable . At Louisa County High School , cinderblocks fell in classrooms , and cracks were seen in walls . Six students had minor injuries . Louisa County schools were closed on August 24 while engineers assessed damage to school buildings . The high school and Thomas Jefferson Elementary were closed for the remainder of the school year . Inspections revealed that 65 homes sustained major or severe damage and 125 homes experienced mild to moderate damage . Damage in Louisa County was estimated at $ 80 @.@ 6 million , of which $ 63 @.@ 8 million was from damage to public school buildings and $ 14 @.@ 7 million was from damage to residences . On August 25 , county officials declared a state of local emergency in order to allow them to request state aid . Multiple reactor sensors at the North Anna Nuclear Generating Station , located 10 mi ( 16 km ) northeast of the epicenter , detected a slight power reduction as a result of vibrations in the reactor or monitoring devices . This caused the two nuclear reactors to shut down automatically seconds before off @-@ site power was lost . The Nuclear Regulatory Commission sent additional inspectors to the Virginia plant after preliminary measurements suggested that the ground shook more than the two reactors were designed to handle . The damage was minimal and the NRC advised that further inspections should not be interpreted to mean that the plant was not safe . After a $ 21 million inspection , engineers stated that they only found cosmetic damage . On November 11 , 2011 , the NRC gave its approval for restarting the reactors . In Charlottesville , about 27 mi ( 43 km ) west of the epicenter , a gas leak closed several streets , including West Main Street . In Spotsylvania County , the August 24 opening of public schools was delayed while damage to buildings was assessed . Six patients were treated at the Spotsylvania Regional Medical Center for minor injuries resulting from the earthquake . Several buildings in Culpeper , about 37 mi ( 60 km ) north of the epicenter , sustained structural damage . The brick façade of the Levy Building , built during 1848 , collapsed and the building was condemned and demolished . The walls of St. Stephen 's Episcopal Church , constructed during 1821 , buckled and were deemed unstable by town officials . Another church , Culpeper Baptist Church , built during 1894 , lost its chimney . Schools in Culpeper County delayed their scheduled August 24 opening to assess damage to buildings . Two minor earthquake injuries were reported by the Culpeper Regional Hospital . Damage in Culpeper was estimated at $ 10 million . In Fredericksburg , about 37 mi ( 60 km ) northeast of the epicenter , the Dickinson Building on the campus of Germanna Community College was deemed unusable for the rest of the semester , and the whole college was closed until alternative classrooms could be found , re @-@ opening on September 6 . Also in Fredericksburg , a gas leak led to the evacuation of homes and businesses in a two @-@ block radius . Officials estimated the damage total at around $ 711 @,@ 000 . In Arlington County , a burst pipe flooded two corridors at the Pentagon . Employees , many of whom left the building when the earthquake was felt , were alerted to the flooding by an alarm system that was installed after the September 11 attacks . Arlington County 's Thomas Jefferson Theater — home to a middle school auditorium , a church , and several community theatre groups — closed for several months due to damage to its fly rack and proscenium . Nearby Alexandria also reported structural damages , though not any injuries . In Prince William County , approximately 59 miles ( 95 km ) north of the epicenter , damage to the dam for Lake Jackson was documented by officials in May 2012 though local residents had noticed lower water levels in the lake in 2011 . Most of the water in the lake was released to relieve pressure . The dam will be rehabilitated at a cost of approximately $ 900 @,@ 000 . = = = = Washington , D.C. = = = = The White House , the Capitol , and various other buildings were evacuated . The afternoon traffic rush hour was affected , with some traffic lights inoperative , and the Washington Metro system 's trains operated at reduced speeds while tracks and tunnels were inspected . A National Park Service spokesperson reported that surveys revealed cracks near the top of the Washington Monument , the world 's tallest stone structure , which was closed indefinitely . The earthquake damaged three of the four pinnacles ( corner spires ) on the central tower of the Washington National Cathedral , cracked some of its flying buttresses , and caused additional damage . As the cathedral 's insurance policy did not cover earthquake damage , cathedral officials stated that they would need to raise millions of dollars to fully evaluate the damage and to stabilize and repair its limestone exterior . The Smithsonian Castle incurred damage to five decorative turrets , and fifty jars of preserved specimens fell from shelves at the Smithsonian 's National Museum of Natural History . The Embassy of Ecuador suffered structural damage , including three collapsed chimneys and cracked internal walls . The Treasury Building suffered minor damage to exterior railings , some of which fell to the ground and caused closure of a sidewalk . Fire department officials in Washington reported numerous minor injuries as a result of the earthquake . = = = = Other parts of the Mid @-@ Atlantic region = = = = In Wilmington , Delaware , blocks fell to the street from the steeple of St. Thomas the Apostle Church , and the New Castle County Courthouse was evacuated , as was the air traffic control tower of the New Castle County Airport in nearby Wilmington Manor . Fire marshals and building inspectors were called to assess structures throughout Dover , the capital city , where the city hall was evacuated . Numerous buildings in Georgetown , the Sussex County seat , were evacuated while crews checked for damage ; the Emergency Operations Center there reported 200 calls to 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 . Delaware Department of Transportation crews were dispatched statewide to inspect interstate highways , the under @-@ construction replacement Indian River Inlet Bridge , the Delaware Memorial Bridge on I @-@ 295 , and other bridges and roads . In Temple Hills , Maryland , residents were evacuated from two damaged apartment buildings . In Kensington , the tops of four spires on the Washington D.C. Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints fell to the ground along with several pieces of marble from the façade . Near Brunswick , the earthquake caused " significant discoloration and a reduction in the quality of the water " of a spring , leading officials to warn against using the water until further notice . In the Fells Point neighborhood of Baltimore , St. Patrick Catholic Church was deemed unsafe and was scheduled to be closed for weeks for repairs . In Salisbury , the City Police station endured damage above doorways and in concrete block walls , and there was also minor cracking in classroom walls at Salisbury University . In Annapolis , several buildings at the United States Naval Academy were damaged . In Suitland , eight jars of preserved fish specimens fell from shelves at a Smithsonian Institution storage facility . The 1740 Mt . Calvert Mansion , a historic site and museum located on the Patuxent River in Upper Marlboro , received substantial structural damage and was closed indefinitely to the public . In Martinsburg , West Virginia , several government buildings were evacuated , and multiple citizens reported feeling their homes shaking violently enough to rattle picture frames off the walls . In Charleston , the Kanawha County Courthouse , the West Virginia State Capitol campus , and several other downtown buildings were evacuated ; Kanawha County dispatchers received more than 350 telephone calls in 45 minutes , but there were not any reports of damage to buildings and infrastructure other than minor plaster cracking in the old courthouse . In Philippi , part of a chimney collapsed at the Barbour County courthouse . The West Virginia Office of Miners ' Health , Safety and Training stated that West Virginia coal mines were safe following the tremors . A roof collapse in Patriot Coal Company 's Big Mountain Complex forced the closure of the mine . Trembling was felt in buildings in Philadelphia , Pittsburgh , Altoona , Hollidaysburg , York , State College , Erie , Allentown , Reading , Harrisburg and elsewhere in Pennsylvania . Just before 2 : 00 p.m. , in the midst of an opening game between New England and Europe in the Little League Baseball World Series , many people in South Williamsport experienced a ground shaking LLBWS first . Staffers at the Altoona Mirror evacuated their building after it shook for about 10 seconds from the tremor . They returned about 2 : 25 p.m. The third floor of the Blair County Courthouse in Hollidaysburg was evacuated but court sessions continued on the second floor . A house reportedly was moved off its foundation and its roof buckled in the Three Springs area , Huntingdon County Emergency Management Director Adam Miller said . A minor rockslide occurred on Route 453 near The Grier School in Birmingham . In Center City Philadelphia , a window shattered on a lower floor at the Independence Blue Cross building , and the company sent its 3 @,@ 000 employees home for the day . Other office buildings in Center City Philadelphia were also evacuated soon after the earthquake . Workers at the PPL Corporation in Allentown evacuated the building . However , the Three Mile Island nuclear plant south of Harrisburg continued to operate during the earthquake . The Bucks County Courthouse in Doylestown was evacuated after the earthquake . In Philadelphia , SEPTA Regional Rail trains were restricted to a speed of 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) while tracks were inspected for damage , and PATCO Speedline trains were briefly suspended , with no damage reported . The Pennsylvania Department of Transportation inspected bridges across the state for damage . The Delaware River Port Authority reported no damage to its four bridges across the Delaware River . Minor damage was also reported in the Pittsburgh area . Damage in New Jersey was minor . The state Emergency Management office reported two gas leaks in Gloucester County . In Burlington , Temple B 'nai Israel 's synagogue building , built during 1801 , sustained some water damage when tremor @-@ caused openings in the roof allowed standing water to leak in , and about 20 bricks fell , damaging a congregant 's car . In Camden , a vacant house partially collapsed , and government buildings were evacuated , with city workers given the option of returning home for the day . Due to damage done by the quake , the municipal government of Woodbury reported that the historic Colonel George Gill Green Opera House , which was built during 1880 , would be razed , but instead it was renovated to provide housing for senior citizens . No other infrastructure damage was reported in the state . Tremors were felt to varying degrees throughout New York State , including by people in some buildings in Manhattan . Physical damage occurred in Brooklyn , where a chimney in Red Hook was toppled . There were some disruptions , including building evacuations and delays at airports . Amtrak train service at Penn Station was also delayed . = = = = New England = = = = The earthquake was felt throughout much of the six New England states . In New Haven , Connecticut , play at the 2011 New Haven Open at Yale tennis tournament was stopped for two hours and the main stadium was evacuated while the fire department checked it for damage . No damage or injuries were reported . In Boston , Massachusetts , the Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency reported tremors and swaying buildings but no damage . The U.S. District Court in South Boston was evacuated and the University of Massachusetts Boston closed early . In Maine , the earthquake was felt as far north as Augusta and Portland , but no damage was reported in the state . = = = = Midwestern states = = = = In Columbus , Ohio the Huntington Center was briefly evacuated , and occupants on the upper floors of the Rhodes State Office Tower and the Vern Riffe State Office Tower reported feeling strong shaking . Evacuations also occurred in Canton and Akron . In Cleveland , the press box at Progressive Field shook during the third inning of a Cleveland Indians baseball game . Tremors from the earthquake were felt as far north as Saginaw , Michigan , and as far west as communities on Lake Michigan . There were no reports of damage . USGS also listed reports of tremors from as far west as Illinois , Indiana , Wisconsin , and Minnesota . = = = = Southern states = = = = The earthquake was felt in several southern states as far from the epicenter as Alabama , Georgia , and Florida , but no damage was reported . = = = Canada = = = Tremors from the earthquake were also felt in eastern Canada , mostly in Southern Ontario , as well as in parts of southern Quebec and the Maritime provinces . In Ontario , a few buildings in Toronto were evacuated , and roads were closed as a precautionary measure in case of building collapse in Sudbury and Windsor . The year 2011 is the second consecutive year in which an earthquake was widely felt in Southern Ontario and Quebec , the previous being the June 2010 Central Canada earthquake that also affected that region . = = Internet activity and social media = = The USGS " Did you feel it ? " citizen @-@ based earthquake intensity website received about 60 @,@ 000 reports in the first two hours after the quake , and over 100 @,@ 000 responses within four hours . According to Facebook , the word " earthquake " appeared in the status updates of 3 million users within four minutes of the quake . Twitter said users were sending as many as 5 @,@ 500 messages ( " tweets " ) per second , which exceeds the maximum rate immediately after the death of Osama bin Laden and was " on par with " the rate after the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . Due to the significantly slower propagation of seismic waves compared to the near @-@ speed @-@ of @-@ light transmission of internet traffic , some Twitter users read about the earthquake seconds before feeling the tremors . For example , Twitter users in such cities as New York City and Boston reported reading tweets about the earthquake from users in Washington , D.C. , or Richmond , Virginia , 15 to 30 seconds before feeling the quake itself . The English version of Wikipedia had an encyclopedia article dedicated to the earthquake by 2 : 03 PM , 12 minutes after the event , and it was mentioned in two other Wikipedia articles even earlier . = = Zoo animal reactions = = Staff at the Smithsonian National Zoological Park in Washington , D.C. , reported that some of the animals in the park appeared to show behavior suggesting that they anticipated the earthquake from seconds to minutes before it was felt in the area . The earthquake was felt at the great ape exhibits during afternoon feeding time . About three to ten seconds before the quake , many of the apes abandoned their food and climbed to the top of a tree @-@ like structure in the exhibit . The red @-@ ruffed lemurs sounded an alarm call about 15 minutes before the quake , and the flock of 64 flamingos rushed about and grouped themselves together just before the quake . During the quake , some animals vocalized , some ran or dove for cover , and some stood up and stared at the walls of their enclosures . Some of the animals remained agitated for the rest of the day , while others calmed quickly .
= Chesham branch = The Chesham branch is a short single @-@ track railway branch line in Buckinghamshire , England . Although no part of it is within London and it runs entirely above ground , it is owned and operated by the London Underground . It runs from a junction at Chalfont & Latimer with the Metropolitan line and the Chiltern Railways route to Aylesbury , and runs for 3 @.@ 89 miles ( 6 @.@ 26 km ) northwest to its only other station at Chesham . Its terminus at Chesham has since 1961 been the westernmost and since 1994 the northernmost point on the London Underground network . The line was built as part of Edward Watkin 's scheme to turn his Metropolitan Railway ( MR ) into a direct rail route between London and Manchester , and it was envisaged that a station outside Chesham would be an intermediate stop on a through route running north to connect with the London and North Western Railway ( LNWR ) . Deteriorating relations between the MR and LNWR led to the MR instead expanding to the northwest via Aylesbury , and the scheme to connect with the LNWR was abandoned . By this time much of the land needed for the section of line as far as Chesham had been bought . As Chesham was at the time the only significant town near the MR 's new route , it was decided to build the route as far as Chesham , and to complete the connection with the LNWR at a future date if it proved desirable . Local residents were unhappy at the proposed station site outside Chesham , and a public subscription raised the necessary additional funds to extend the railway into the centre of the town . The Chesham branch opened in 1889 and Chesham became the terminus of the MR. While construction of the Chesham line was underway , the Metropolitan Railway was also expanding to the northwest , and in 1892 the extension to Aylesbury and on to Verney Junction opened . The Chesham line became a branch line , with most trains operating as a shuttle service connecting to the main line rather than as through trains to London . The opening in 1899 of the Great Central Railway , Edward Watkin 's connection between London and Manchester , as well as the highly successful Metro @-@ land campaign encouraging Londoners to move to the rural areas served by the railway , led to an increase in traffic in the area , although the Chesham branch was less affected by development than most other areas served by the railway . In 1933 the Metropolitan Railway was taken into public ownership and became the Metropolitan line of the London Underground . London Underground aimed to concentrate on their core business of passenger transport in London , and saw the rural and freight lines in Buckinghamshire as an expensive anomaly . The day @-@ to @-@ day operation of the Chesham branch was transferred to the London and North Eastern Railway , although London Transport retained control . In 1960 the line was electrified , and from then 1962 on was operated by London Underground A Stock trains . In the 1970s and 1980s decaying infrastructure and the withdrawal of subsidies brought the future of the line into doubt . As one of its last acts the Greater London Council paid for the replacement of two bridges on the line , allowing operations to continue . The centenary of the line in 1989 saw a renewal of interest and an upgrading of the trains between Chalfont & Latimer and London Marylebone station made commuting more practical , and usage of the line stabilised . The introduction of London Underground S Stock in 2010 led to the replacement of the shuttle service with half @-@ hourly through trains to and from London . = = Background = = The English county of Buckinghamshire is bisected by the Chiltern Hills , which rise sharply and cross the county from northeast to southwest . Although the fertile soil and good drainage of the Chilterns provides ideal conditions for farming , the steep hills historically made travelling difficult . Few sizeable settlements developed in Buckinghamshire , and what roads existed were of poor quality . The county town of Aylesbury , immediately north of the Chilterns and 37 miles ( 60 km ) from the City of London , was an important agricultural centre . As London grew , the significance of Buckinghamshire as a provider of food increased , particularly following the development of the Aylesbury duck in the 18th century . Large numbers of horses , cattle and Aylesbury ducks were herded along the roads to London 's huge livestock market at Smithfield . The strain placed on the roads by bulk livestock movements led to the introduction of a network of high quality toll roads in the area in the 18th century . The roads crossing the Chilterns followed the valley of the River Misbourne through Amersham or the River Bulbourne through Berkhamsted . These roads greatly improved travel in the area , reducing the journey time from Aylesbury to Oxford or London to a single day . Between 1793 and 1800 the Grand Junction Canal canal was built , connecting London to the Midlands . The canal followed the course of the River Bulbourne through the Chilterns , and included a branch to Aylesbury . For the first time the coal and industrial products of northern England and London could be cheaply supplied to Buckinghamshire , and grain and timber from Buckinghamshire 's farms could easily be shipped to market . The route taken by the Grand Junction Canal ran through the east of the county , leaving the Chiltern towns of southern Buckinghamshire isolated . When Robert Stephenson 's London and Birmingham Railway opened in 1838 it paralleled the route of the canal through Buckinghamshire . Although the short 1839 Aylesbury Railway linked Aylesbury to the London and Birmingham Railway , the rest of central Buckinghamshire remained unconnected to the railway and canal networks . = = Early Chesham railway schemes = = The Chiltern market town of Chesham / ˈtʃɛsəm / had historically been an important manufacturing centre . In 1853 the town held three flour mills , three sawmills , three breweries , two paper mills and a silk mill , while of the town 's 6 @,@ 000 inhabitants 30 were recognised as master manufacturers . However , the local economy suffered badly from a lack of connections to the new transport networks . In the 1840s coal cost almost three times more to buy in Chesham than to buy in Berkhamsted , and it took over 21 ⁄ 2 hours for passengers to travel by road from Chesham to the most convenient railway station at Watford . Between 1845 , the height of the railway bubble , and the 1880s numerous schemes were put forward for railways to Chesham . The most significant was an 1845 scheme for an orbital railway bypassing London to connect the railways entering London from the north , west and south ; this route was to pass through Chesham . The scheme was abandoned , as was an 1853 proposal by railway entrepreneur and former Member of Parliament for Buckingham Harry Verney for a railway line from Watford to Wendover via Rickmansworth and Amersham ( around two miles ( 3 km ) from Chesham ) . Robert Grosvenor , 1st Baron Ebury , whose Watford and Rickmansworth Railway had opened in 1862 , proposed extensions from Rickmansworth to Chesham and Aylesbury , but failed to attract funding and abandoned the scheme . To the north of Chesham , the London and North Western Railway ( LNWR ) promoted a railway link between the Great Northern Railway station at Harpenden and the LNWR 's station at Boxmoor , which would run on to terminate at Chesham . The LNWR baulked at the cost of the earthworks necessary to reach Chesham and the southern stage of the proposal was abandoned ; the line between Harpenden and Boxmoor eventually opened in 1877 . ( The Harpenden – Boxmoor section was never completed ; trains to Boxmoor terminated nearby at Heath Park Halt , and passengers to and from Boxmoor had to complete their journey by horse or horse @-@ drawn bus . ) In 1887 a 3 ft 6 in ( 1 @,@ 067 mm ) tramway was proposed , which was to run through the streets of Chesham and on to Boxmoor , but the proposal was abandoned owing to a lack of funds and opposition from the operators of toll roads around Boxmoor . = = Metropolitan Railway Chiltern schemes = = In 1837 Euston railway station opened , the first railway station connecting London with the industrial heartlands of the West Midlands and Lancashire . Railways were banned by a Parliamentary commission from operating in London itself , and thus the station was built on what was then the northern boundary of the city . Other main line termini north of London soon followed at Paddington ( 1838 ) , Bishopsgate ( 1840 ) , Fenchurch Street ( 1841 ) , King 's Cross ( 1852 ) and St Pancras ( 1868 ) . All were built outside the built @-@ up area of the city , making them inconvenient to reach . Charles Pearson ( 1793 – 1862 ) had proposed the idea of an underground railway connecting the City of London with the relatively distant London main line rail termini in around 1840 . In 1854 to promote the scheme he commissioned the first ever traffic survey , determining that each day 200 @,@ 000 walked into the City of London , 44 @,@ 000 travelled by omnibus , and 26 @,@ 000 travelled in private carriages . A Parliamentary Commission backed Pearson 's proposal over other schemes . Despite concerns about vibrations causing subsidence of nearby buildings , the problems of compensating the many thousands of people whose homes were destroyed during the digging of the tunnel , and fears that the tunnelling might accidentally break through into Hell , construction began in 1860 . The new railway was built beneath the existing New Road , running from the Great Western Railway 's terminus at Paddington to Farringdon and the meat market of Smithfield . On 9 January 1863 the line opened as the Metropolitan Railway ( MR ) , the world 's first underground passenger railway . The MR was successful and grew steadily , extending its own services and acquiring other local railways in the areas north and west of London . In 1872 Edward Watkin ( 1819 – 1901 ) was appointed as the Metropolitan Railway 's Chairman . A director of many railway companies , he had a vision of unifying a string of railway companies to create a single route running from Manchester via London to an intended Channel Tunnel and on to France . In 1873 Watkin entered negotiations to take control of the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway and a section of the former Buckinghamshire Railway running north from Verney Junction to Buckingham . He planned to extend the MR north from London to Aylesbury to join the existing lines and create a direct route from London to the north of England . He also proposed to extend a short rail branch which ran from the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway to the small town of Brill , known as the Brill Tramway , southwest to Oxford , and thus create a through route from London to Oxford . Rail services between Oxford and London at this time were poor , and although still an extremely roundabout route , had the scheme been completed it would have formed the shortest route from London to Oxford , Aylesbury , Buckingham and Stratford upon Avon . The Duke of Buckingham , chairman of the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway and owner of the Brill Tramway , was enthusiastic , and authorisation for the scheme was sought from Parliament . Parliament did not share the enthusiasm of Watkin and the Duke , and in 1875 the Buckinghamshire and Northamptonshire Union Railway Bill was rejected . Watkin did , however , obtain consent to extend the MR to Harrow , roughly 12 miles ( 19 km ) northwest of London , an extension which opened in 1880 . The Harrow line was further extended to Rickmansworth in 1887 . Rickmansworth at this time was a small town with a population of only 1 @,@ 800 ; to generate passenger traffic for the new station , a horse bus service between Chesham and Rickmansworth opened on 1 September 1887 . = = = 1885 LNWR junction scheme = = = Watkin continued to harbour ambitions of linking his railway companies in the north and south of England , and while the construction of the Rickmansworth extension was underway planned two possible routes north from Rickmansworth across the Chilterns . One proposal envisaged the MR taking over or reaching agreement with the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway , building a link between Rickmansworth and Aylesbury , and running over the A & B 's line to the north . The A & B had close relations with the Great Western Railway , with whom they shared a station at Aylesbury . Watkin felt it possible that the A & B would reach agreement with the GWR instead and not cooperate with the MR. In anticipation of the A & B refusing to cooperate , a tentative agreement was reached with the London and North Western Railway , with whom Watkin was on good terms , for the MR to build a route via Chesham to connect to LNWR mainline . This scheme would provide the LNWR with an alternative route into London when necessary , while providing Watkin with his long @-@ sought connection to the north . The land required for an intermediate station near Chalfont St Giles and a line between there and a site outside Chesham was purchased . Agreement was reached with the LNWR that the costs of building the line would be shared equally by the MR and LNWR in return for the LNWR having running rights to Rickmansworth , and an Act of Parliament authorising the extension was obtained in 1885 . After the Act of Parliament had been granted , membership of the board of the LNWR changed , and they abandoned their support for the extension . By this time , the MR had bought most of the land between Rickmansworth and Chesham required for that section of the route . = = = 1888 Aylesbury extension scheme = = = With relations between the MR and the LNWR deteriorating , Watkin turned his attention to the proposal to link to Aylesbury . Negotiations between the A & B and the GWR had broken down , and Watkin seized an opportunity to agree running rights over the A & B 's route north from Aylesbury , taking over the line completely in 1891 . In 1888 work began on the extension to Aylesbury . While the route to the LNWR via Chesham had been abandoned , much of the land needed for the section south of Chesham had already been bought . As Chesham , with a population in 1882 of 6 @,@ 500 , was the most significant town in the area through which the MR was building , the MR decided to build the section of line between Chalfont and Chesham as a branch line despite Chesham no longer being on the proposed through route to the north . The planned route to the LNWR would have passed to the east of Chesham , and the proposed site of the station was in Millfields , southwest of the town . ( Although the extension to the LNWR was abandoned , the MR continued to buy land between Chesham and Tring for some years afterwards , in anticipation of the scheme being revived . ) Although work had begun on the Millfields station , including the completion of the station hotel ( now the Unicorn pub ) , the population of Chesham were unhappy at the station being built such a distance from the town . With the extension to meet the LNWR abandoned the railway no longer needed to curve away from the town , and a public subscription raised £ 2 @,@ 000 fund a 71 @-@ chain ( 1 @,@ 562 @-@ yd ; 1 @,@ 428 m ) extension to a site near the town centre . Construction of the branch to Chesham began in late 1887 . = = Construction and opening = = The extensions from Rickmansworth to Aylesbury and Chesham were designed by Charles Liddell and built by contractor James Firbank . Rather than follow the valley of the River Chess , which would have been the most convenient route to Chesham , the route out of Rickmansworth was intentionally built on higher ground to reduce the steep climb over the Chilterns towards Aylesbury , and thus rose steadily from Rickmansworth to a hilltop station at Amersham . At Chalfont Road station ( renamed Chalfont & Latimer in 1915 ) , near Chalfont St Giles , the line to Chesham split from the line to Aylesbury . With a total length of 3 miles 56 chains ( 3 mi 1 @,@ 232 yd ; 5 @,@ 955 m ) , the single @-@ track Chesham branch ran alongside the Aylesbury line for a short distance , before curving down the slope of the Chess Valley at a gradient of around 1 in 66 . Chalk from the railway 's cutting along the Chess Valley was used to build an embankment to bring the railway into the town centre . Bridging the watercress beds of the Chess Valley proved problematic , and the cost of the line exceeded its estimate . Additional costs were incurred by the laying of temporary track in early 1889 to allow the directors of the MR a trial trip along the route . On 15 May 1889 a demonstration train comprising two carriages and two locomotives ran along the newly completed line from Chesham to Rickmansworth , carrying the subscribers who had funded the extension and representatives of the local authorities and School Boards covering the areas through which the new line ran . ( As no Metropolitan Railway train had yet run through to Chesham on the finished line , the train from Chesham to Rickmansworth was drawn by two locomotives belonging to the contractors who had built the line , rather than by MR engines . A third engine ran ahead of the demonstration train to act as a pilot . ) A second train carried the directors of the Metropolitan Railway from London to Rickmansworth , collected those passengers who had ridden the demonstration train from Chesham to Rickmansworth , and continued to Chesham . As the line had not yet formally been approved for opening by the Railway Inspectorate , the MR requested that the local authorities not celebrate the event . However , public interest was high and schools closed for the day . Large crowds gathered around the station and along the line , and a banner reading " Long looked for , come at last " was hung across Chesham station . As the train pulled into Chesham , it was greeted by celebratory gunfire as it drew into the town , and a band at the station played See the Conquering Hero Comes . The party alighted at the newly built Chesham goods depot , which had been decorated as a banqueting hall for the occasion , and an opening ceremony was conducted outside by Edward Watkin and local dignitary and railway financier Ferdinand de Rothschild before the group entered the goods depot for a celebratory meal . Watkin gave a speech recollecting George Stephenson 's desire , fifty years earlier , to see the first mainline railway built along the route now being taken by the Metropolitan Railway , joked that he hoped the easy access to London would not lead to the rural nature of the area being displaced by " a sudden influx of cockneys " , and spoke of his desire to see the connection northwards to the LNWR completed . The line was formally inspected by the Railway Inspectorate on 1 July 1889 , and the first official service on the line left Chesham for London 's Baker Street at 6 @.@ 55 am on 8 July 1889 . Throughout the day large crowds flocked to Chesham station to watch the trains , and the arrival and departure of each train at Chesham was greeted with peals of the bells of St. Mary 's Church . Over the course of the day 1 @,@ 500 passengers travelled on the line , and 4 @,@ 300 used the line in its first week of operations . Following the opening of the line , 17 trains per weekday ran in each direction at intervals of one hour from around 7 am to around 11 pm . The initial trains were drawn by Metropolitan Railway A and B Class locomotives . Most trains stopped at all stations , but a fast trains each morning ran between Chesham and Baker Street , taking 50 minutes from start to finish . On Sundays , trains again ran at hourly intervals , but only 12 trains per day ran and there was a three @-@ hour gap in services in the morning to allow the railway 's staff to attend church . The opening of the railway dramatically ended Chesham 's isolation . Commuting to London became possible for the first time , as did affordable excursions to the seaside resorts on the south and east coasts . The products of the area 's industries and farms could for the first time be shipped cheaply to the markets of London , and London newspapers arrived each morning at 7 @.@ 28 am , in time for delivery . = = = Stations = = = The station at Chalfont Road was built with almost all facilities on the up side ( the London @-@ bound platform ) . As Chalfont St Giles , the largest nearby settlement , was on the other side of the tracks , most passengers travelling to and from the station were obliged to take a lengthy detour from the single exit . A footpath across the tracks was added in 1925 , but an approach road giving access to the station from the southern side of the railway line was not built until 1933 . The station had three platforms ; one platform in each direction on the London – Aylesbury line , and a bay platform alongside the up platform for trains to Chesham . A run @-@ around loop was built to allow locomotives reversing in the bay platform always to be at the front of their trains . It was built outside the station , meaning locomotives reversing on the Chesham line were obliged to push their trains out of the station before performing the manoeuvre . The station was renamed " Chalfont & Latimer " in 1915 , although station signage was inconsistent and on absorption by London Transport in 1933 its roundel signs read simply " Chalfont " . Increased passenger numbers strained the station 's minimal facilities , and it was eventually redeveloped with extended shelters and improved waiting rooms in 1927 . The platforms were extended during the electrification works of 1957 – 60 . The Metropolitan Railway Act 1885 had given Watkin permission to extend the line from Chesham to connect with the LNWR at Tring . Thus , although it was the terminus of the line , Chesham station was designed with a revival of the LNWR extension scheme in mind . The small station building was set to one side of the tracks to allow for a possible extension onwards . The station had a single platform , with a run @-@ around loop and turntable alongside , together with a coaling station and water tank . The station was lit by gas light until 1925 ; the local gas works , which consumed around 5 @,@ 000 tons of coal each year , threatened to withdraw their coal traffic from the line if the station were fitted with electric lighting . While Chalfont Road station initially served a sparsely populated rural area ( the village of Little Chalfont had not yet grown around the station ) , Chesham station was busy , and at the time of its opening had a full staff of a stationmaster , two ticket inspectors , two clerks , two porters and two collectors . Chesham also had extensive goods facilities , particularly for coal ; the goods yard was initially equipped with a mobile 5 @-@ ton crane , replaced by a fixed 8 @-@ ton crane between 1898 – 1900 . The outward transport of watercress , a major local industry , also generated significant traffic . During the electrification of the line in 1957 – 60 the station was equipped with a bay platform for passenger trains , to allow it to accommodate both through services to and from Baker Street and the Chalfont & Latimer – Chesham shuttle simultaneously . This bay platform was closed on 29 November 1970 and is now a garden . The Metropolitan Railway 's passenger coaches , dating from 1870 and designed for underground use within London , were not fitted with heating until 1895 . Consequently , both stations were also equipped with equipment for heating footwarmers , which would be distributed to passengers during cold weather . = = Opening of the Aylesbury line = = As developments on the line from Chalfont Road to Chesham took place , progress continued on the 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) cross @-@ Chiltern link between Chalfont and Aylesbury . On 1 September 1892 work was completed as far as a temporary station south of Aylesbury . ( The connection with the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway — absorbed by the Metropolitan Railway in 1891 — was completed in late 1893 . From 1 January 1894 MR trains used the A & BR 's Aylesbury station , and the temporary station was abandoned . ) The line to Chesham became a branch line , generally operated by a shuttle service between Chalfont Road and Chesham , although some trains at peak periods continued to run between London and Chesham . The MR had bought a number of Metropolitan Railway C Class locomotives to replace the ageing A and B class engines , but these performed poorly on the London @-@ Aylesbury line and were soon replaced by the Metropolitan Railway D Class . As a consequence , the C class engines were often used on the Chesham shuttle services . While construction of the Chesham and Aylesbury lines was underway Watkin continued to press for the extension from Chesham to the LNWR , as did prominent manufacturers in Chesham . However , construction of the extensions had left the MR seriously exposed financially , forcing the board to cut dividends in July 1889 . At a Special General Meeting on 12 February 1890 matters came to a head . Shareholders endorsed the decision to acquire the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway and authorised the MR to acquire the moribund Brill Tramway , which connected with the A & BR at Quainton Road station , but blocked the expensive extension beyond Chesham , as well as Watkin 's proposed extension to Moreton Pinkney to the north . ( Watkin 's Manchester , Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway was refused consent at the time to build south to connect with the MR at Moreton Pinkney , which would have rendered the Moreton Pinkney branch an inevitably loss @-@ making branch line serving a very lightly populated area . Watkin was determined to build this section as a vital segment in his vision of a London – Manchester railway , and proposed that if the MR would not build this section , the Manchester , Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway would build the line themselves and lease it to the MR. The MR board refused to have anything to do with the scheme . Moreton Pinkney was eventually served by Watkin 's railway network in 1899 as Culworth railway station on the Great Central Railway . ) In 1894 Edward Watkin suffered a stroke . Although he nominally remained a director of his railway companies , he resigned all his railway chairmanships and his influence was effectively ended . With the connection at Aylesbury complete , the Metropolitan Railway reached 50 miles ( 80 km ) northwest of London , and his planned route between London and northern England was almost complete . Watkin 's Manchester , Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway continued to build southwards from its southernmost point at Annesley , reaching Quainton Road station on the former A & BR in 1899 and completing the north @-@ south link , the Great Central Railway ( GCR ) , in time for Watkin to see his vision completed before his death in 1901 . = = Relations with the Great Central Railway = = After Watkin 's retirement from management , relations between the MR and GCR deteriorated rapidly over shared use of Baker Street station and the congested route into London , and soon broke down completely . On 30 July 1898 John Bell , General Manager of the Metropolitan Railway , took control of the Quainton Road signal box himself and refused to allow a GCR train onto MR @-@ owned tracks on the grounds that it was scheduled to take the Great Western rather than the Metropolitan route south of Aylesbury , while on one occasion in 1901 King Edward VII was travelling home after visiting a friend in Wendover ; the MR signalman allowed a slow goods train to run in front of the royal train , causing the King to arrive late back in London . The MR management also refused the GCR permission to install points to connect their engine shed at Aylesbury to the railway line , on the grounds that the land for the shed had been bought clandestinely . Eventually a parallel set of tracks was built for the GCR between Harrow and London , running alongside the MR to a separate terminus at Marylebone , a short distance from Baker Street . The GCR continued to share the less @-@ congested section between Quainton Road and Harrow — including Chalfont Road station — with the MR. With the hostile Metropolitan Railway controlling the GCR 's only approach to London through Quainton Road and Aylesbury , GCR General Manager William Pollitt decided to create a link with the Great Western Railway to create a second route into London which bypassed all MR property . In 1899 the Great Western and Great Central Joint Railway began construction of a new line , commonly known as the Alternative Route , to link the GWR 's existing station at Princes Risborough to the new Great Central line . The line ran from Princes Risborough north to meet the Great Central at Grendon Underwood , about three miles ( 5 km ) north of Quainton Road , thus bypassing Quainton Road altogether . Although formally an independent company , in practice the new line was operated as a part of the Great Central Railway . The new route opened in 1906 , and a substantial part of the GCR 's traffic to and from London was diverted onto the Alternative Route , damaging the profitability of the MR 's railway operations . The MR management were horrified at the potential loss of income and restarted negotiations with the GCR , and a 1906 agreement meant that GCR traffic was shared between the old and new routes . Management of the shared route north of Harrow alternated every five years between the MR and GCR . ( A proposed link between Marylebone and the sub @-@ surface section of the Metropolitan Railway , which would have allowed GCR trains to run across London via the MR @-@ controlled Thames Tunnel and on to the south coast , was abandoned . ) The sharing arrangement meant through trains running from Chesham to Marylebone , as well as the MR terminus at Baker Street , and that the branch was worked by GCR trains as well as the ageing MR rolling stock . = = Chesham and Metro @-@ land = = In 1903 Robert Selbie was appointed Secretary of the Metropolitan Railway , working on the electrification of the London sections of the line ; by 1905 the route was electrified as far as Harrow , although the sections north of Harrow , including the Chesham branch , continued to be worked by steam power . In 1908 he was appointed General Manager , a position he was to hold until 1930 . Selbie realised that Watkin 's schemes and the expensive electrification project had left the company with major financial liabilities , and that the MR 's core business in central London would come under significant pressure as the use of automobiles increased and as the new Underground Electric Railways of London tube lines improved their services . Selbie set out to reshape the MR as a feeder route for goods and passengers into London . New branches to Uxbridge , Watford and Stanmore were built , and from 1915 the extremely effective Metro @-@ land advertising campaign began , promoting the lightly developed areas along the MR 's routes as ideal for commuting to London . Watkin 's expansionist schemes had led to the acquisition of huge tracts of near @-@ worthless land in the Buckinghamshire countryside around the MR 's routes , as the MR had tried to take control of as much land as possible along every possible route between London and Manchester . With the GCR complete it was no longer necessary for the MR to keep these lands clear for potential railway use , and Selbie began development on a massive scale . By 1939 over 4 @,@ 600 houses had been built by the MR alone , and entire new towns had grown around the MR 's stations between Harrow and Aylesbury . This development not only generated huge amounts of money from property development , but vastly increased use of the railway for passenger and goods traffic . The MR 's Baker Street terminus was also redeveloped and a block of 180 luxury apartments known as Chiltern Court was built above the station . With the profits generated , the line was further electrified as far as Rickmansworth . Again , the Chesham branch was not electrified and remained operated by steam locomotives ; the electric locomotives would be uncoupled from their trains at Rickmansworth and a steam locomotive would haul the train to Chesham . By this time , the steam sections of the route were generally worked by the powerful Metropolitan Railway H Class engines , capable of speeds of up to 75 miles per hour ( 121 km / h ) . Selbie also made a conscious effort to attract the wealthy classes to the railway . Stations such as Sandy Lodge ( now Moor Park ) were built to serve golf courses and hunts along the route , and horse @-@ vans were provided at stations serving hunts and point to points . Two Pullman cars were introduced in 1909 on selected services between the City of London and Chesham , Aylesbury and Verney Junction for the benefit of businessmen travelling to work and theatregoers returning from London . Despite the huge population growth in southern Buckinghamshire caused by the railway , Chesham remained relatively unaffected by development . Although there was extensive development in Chesham Bois , roughly halfway between Chesham and Amersham , between 1889 and 1925 the population of Chesham itself grew by less than 2 @,@ 000 , and between 1925 and 1935 — the peak of the Metro @-@ land boom — by only 225 . Between 1921 and 1928 the season ticket revenue from Amersham and Chalfont & Latimer stations rose by 134 % ; that from Chesham by only 6 @.@ 7 % . Although the MR owned large tracts of land around Chesham , bought in anticipation of a revival of the LNWR connection scheme , Selbie chose not to build a housing estate on the site , instead selling much of it to the local council . By this time , service on the Chesham branch was of a relatively poor quality . Improvements to the central London section and the prioritisation of the Aylesbury line had led to ageing surplus stock often being used on the Chesham branch , and the partial electrification caused delays at Harrow ( and later Rickmansworth ) as steam locomotives were coupled and uncoupled . As the branch was mainly operated as a shuttle service passengers to and from Chesham were obliged to wait at Chalfont & Latimer station . This had been built to serve a lightly populated area , but the Metro @-@ land development had caused a much larger number of users than it had been designed for , and it had few waiting facilities , poor lighting , inadequate shelter , and dirty toilets . As Amersham grew , more and more of the trains which had previously run direct from London to Chesham instead ran to Amersham , causing further crowding as passengers waited for the shuttle service at Chalfont & Latimer . Improving road transport caused an increasing number of commuters to abandon the Chesham line , which in turn prompted the MR to further reduce passenger services . = = = 1909 accidents = = = Although the short line to Chesham generally had a good safety record , despite its sharp curves and relatively steep gradient , it suffered two significant accidents in this period . On 19 August 1909 the A class engine hauling the 7 @.@ 53 am train from Chesham broke an axle and derailed outside Chesham . There were no injuries but the track was blocked ; a passenger service was maintained by operating shuttle services from each end of the branch to the crash site , where passengers were obliged to walk around the derailed engine to change trains . On 6 November 1909 a backdraught from a locomotive firebox enveloped Robert Prior , the train 's driver , in flames . ( The type of locomotive is not recorded , but it is likely to have been a Metropolitan Railway D Class , which are known to have had a problem with backdraughts . ) The locomotive 's fireman managed to drive the train to Chesham , where Prior died from his injuries two days later . An inquest found that Prior had failed to turn on the blower , and a verdict of accidental death was recorded . = = London Transport = = Robert Selbie had fought vigorously for the independence of the Metropolitan Railway , and had successfully preserved the MR 's independence during the grouping of 1923 , which had merged almost all of Britain 's railways into four companies . However , on 17 May 1930 he died suddenly , and his successors acceded to pressure from the Ministry of Transport to merge with London 's other underground railways . On 1 July 1933 the merger brought all of London 's underground railways aside from the short Waterloo & City Railway , under public ownership as part of the newly formed London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) . The Metropolitan Railway became the Metropolitan line of the London Underground . Frank Pick , Managing Director of the Underground Group from 1928 and the Chief Executive of the LPTB , aimed to move the network away from freight services , and to concentrate on the electrification and improvement of the core routes in London . In particular , he saw the lines beyond Aylesbury via Quainton Road to Brill and Verney Junction as having little future as financially viable passenger routes . On 30 November 1935 the last train ran on the Brill Tramway between Brill and Quainton Road , and at the stroke of midnight , the rails connecting the Tramway to the main line were ceremonially severed . The former Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway between Quainton Road and Verney Junction was closed to passengers on 6 July 1936 , and London Transport services north of Aylesbury were withdrawn . = = = London and North Eastern Railway operation = = = The route to Aylesbury and the Chesham branch survived Pick 's cutbacks to the Metropolitan line , but the former Metropolitan Railway 's routes in Buckinghamshire , and in particular the Chesham line , were increasingly regarded as an expensive anomaly by London Transport . After 1937 the operation of all steam services north of Rickmansworth was passed to the London & North Eastern Railway ( LNER ) . The LNER retained Metropolitan Railway E Class locomotives to work the Chesham branch , but other steam services on the former MR were operated by LNER N5 Class locomotives . The LNER did not want to take full responsibility for the line , and although they provided the services , ownership remained with the LPTB . In 1935 the LPTB , seeking to abandon steam power as much as possible , drew up a scheme to include electrification of the Amersham line as part of the New Works Programme . It was not planned to electrify the Chesham branch ; instead , a diesel @-@ powered GWR railcar was borrowed from the GWR for trials on the branch . Although the railcar performed well on the curves and slopes of the branch , the railcar had a capacity for only 70 passengers and was only able to haul light amounts of goods . The LPTB commissioned its own , larger , railcar design , but by the end of 1936 , it decided instead to electrify the Chesham branch , and the railcar schemes were abandoned . The LPTB 's plan envisaged electric trains splitting at Chalfont & Latimer , with half of each train continuing to Amersham and half to Chesham . Although some preparatory work was carried out , the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 brought the electrification north of Rickmansworth to a halt . First class travel was abandoned by the LPTB , along with the Pullman cars , and the line was operated entirely as a shuttle service . In 1940 the Chesham branch was converted to autotrain working , in which the trains could be driven from each end , thus avoiding the time @-@ consuming repositioning of the locomotive . LNER C13 Class locomotives were used for this push @-@ pull working , along with two three @-@ car sets of antiquated Ashbury passenger cars dating from 1898 . = = = Nationalisation = = = On 1 January 1948 , almost all railways in Britain — including the London Transport Passenger Board and the London and North Eastern Railway — were nationalised under the Transport Act 1947 . The LPTB became the London Transport Executive ( LT ) , and the LNER became a part of British Railways . In the Greater London Plan of 1944 Sir Patrick Abercrombie had strongly recommended a halt to further modern development in Chesham and along the Chess Valley to preserve the sensitive local environment , and there was thus little prospect for growth in passenger numbers on the branch . For the first decade after nationalisation services to Chesham continued much as before , although the unification of the mainline companies meant a wider variety of locomotives operating services on the branch . For two weeks from 13 October 1952 LT experimented with a three @-@ car lightweight diesel train on the route , but the train used had difficulty negotiating the line 's sharp bends and the branch reverted to steam operations . By the mid @-@ 1950s , British Railways had begun to operate in regional units , and responsibility for services on the former Great Central routes in the Chilterns was transferred to the London Midland Region . Services on the branch were generally hauled by LMS Ivatt Class locomotives , although passenger trains continued to use the 1898 Ashbury cars . British Railways continued to operate goods services on the branch , although these declined steadily owing to competition from road haulage to the point at which coal deliveries were the only significant business . By now the pre @-@ war electrification scheme had been revived . In 1957 electrification between Rickmansworth and Amersham and Chesham began . Chalfont & Latimer 's platforms were extended and a second platform was opened at Chesham on 3 July 1960 to prevent through operations to and from Baker Street from interfering with the Chesham – Chalfont & Latimer shuttle . An electric service using London Underground T Stock began operations between Chesham and Chalfont & Latimer on 16 August 1960 , with former MR electric locomotives hauling the through trains to and from London . A steam locomotive was kept on standby in the new second platform at Chesham , in case of a failure of the electric trains . From June 1962 both the T Stock and the locomotive @-@ hauled trains were replaced by the newly introduced London Underground A Stock . The last scheduled London Transport steam passenger train on the branch left Chesham at 12 @.@ 11 am on 12 September 1960 . 1 @,@ 917 passengers used the line that day , in comparison with a typical Sunday usage of around 100 . Earlier on 11 September descendants of the Chesham residents who had attended Watkin 's original meeting to promote the railway , along with 86 @-@ year @-@ old Albert Wilcox who had been present at the opening of the line , rode the steam shuttle to Chalfont & Latimer and back , and attended a ceremony in Chesham 's Council Chamber . ( Although the 12 @.@ 11 am service from Chesham on 12 September 1960 was the last scheduled London Transport steam service to use the line , a steam train left Marylebone for Chesham each morning at 3 @.@ 55 am to deliver newspapers , returning as the first passenger train from Chesham at 5 @.@ 58 am . This journey to Marylebone was open to the public but was unadvertised and did not appear in published timetables . This arrangement continued to be operated by steam locomotive until 18 June 1962 . ) The Ashbury passenger cars , which by now had each covered around 800 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 km ) , were retired from service . The last steam @-@ powered passenger services on the remaining non @-@ electrified section between Amersham and Aylesbury ran on 9 September 1961 . The line between Amersham and Aylesbury was handed over to British Rail , leaving Chesham as the westernmost point of the London Underground network . The goods yard at Chesham was closed in 1966 , and a train hauled by a former GWR 5700 Class locomotive removed the track from the goods yard , the last steam service to use the line . On 17 October 1967 the newspaper train service and its return journey to Marylebone , by this time worked by a British Rail diesel multiple unit , was abandoned , leaving the branch exclusively operated by London Transport trains . = = = Closure proposals = = = Although LT had hoped that the electrification would boost revenue , the Chesham branch generated little income . In a period of recession LT was reluctant to continue subsidising a little @-@ used branch line some distance outside its core area . Fares were drastically increased in 1970 , leaving a monthly season ticket from Chesham to Baker Street costing £ 43 ( about £ 600 in 2016 ) . London Transport considered closing the branch , but it survived thanks to subsidies from the Ministry of Transport , Buckinghamshire County Council and the Greater London Council . Sunday services on the branch were abolished as a cost @-@ cutting measure , although this decision was reversed following protests . In 1982 the future of the Chesham line came into serious question , as it became clear that the two bridges carrying the line into Chesham were deteriorating badly and that , unless the bridges were replaced , the branch could not continue to operate after 1986 . By this time rail services in Buckinghamshire had been drastically cut back under the Beeching Axe mass rail closure programme of the 1960s . The last passenger trains north of Aylesbury had run on 5 September 1966 , and since then the future of the Amersham – Aylesbury route itself had been in serious doubt . The Greater London Council was scheduled for abolition , bringing their subsidy of the Chesham branch to an end . Buckinghamshire County Council was unwilling to pay for replacing the bridges , proposing instead that the station be relocated to the original proposed station site of the 1880s on the south side of the bridges . Safety concerns had led to a speed limit of 15 miles per hour ( 24 km / h ) over the bridges , and the line appeared certain to be closed . = = = Revival = = = Although no part of the Chesham branch was in Greater London , the Greater London Council , as one of its last acts , granted £ 1 @,@ 180 @,@ 000 to replace the bridges . New bridges were built alongside the existing bridges to minimise disruption , and were rolled into place on 24 March 1986 and 14 April 1986 . In 1989 the centenary of the branch saw a revival of interest in the line . Over the weekends of 1 – 2 and 8 – 9 July special services were run between Watford and Chesham , using two preserved Metropolitan Railway steam locomotives and a former MR electric locomotive . The service was a great success , with over 9 @,@ 000 people travelling on the trains and large numbers of people travelling to the area to watch the trains . The success prompted LT to repeat the Steam on the Met event annually until 2000 , although often running to Amersham rather than Chesham . In the early 1990s the number of passengers using the branch stabilised at about 800 people each weekday . In 2009 the Chesham branch saw 427 @,@ 000 journeys each year . The proposal to close the Aylesbury – Marylebone route was dropped , and instead the line was upgraded and equipped with fast British Rail Class 165 trains in the early 1990s . These reduced the travel time between Chalfont & Latimer and Marylebone to 33 minutes , increasing usage of the line as a commuter route . The Chesham branch was proposed as a terminus for the original Crossrail scheme , which would have seen Crossrail trains running from Paddington to serve the stations between Rickmansworth and Aylesbury and the Chesham branch , allowing London Transport to withdraw from Buckinghamshire and cut the Metropolitan line back to serve only the branches to Watford and Uxbridge . The bill proposing the scheme was defeated in Parliament and abandoned in 1995 , and the revived scheme authorised by the Crossrail Act 2008 did not include the branches to Aylesbury and Chesham . By this time the little @-@ used Central line branch from Epping to Ongar had closed , with the last services running on 30 September 1994 , leaving Chesham — already the westernmost point of the London Underground network since 1961 's withdrawal from Aylesbury — as the northernmost point on the London Underground . By the time London Underground operations were transferred to the newly created Transport for London ( TfL ) in 2000 , the A Stock trains were already 40 years old . The C Stock trains used on the Circle line , Hammersmith & City line and sections of the District line and the D Stock used on the remainder of the District line were also ageing , and no plans were in place for their replacement . Following lengthy and expensive negotiations , an order was placed in 2003 with Bombardier Transportation for a fleet of new trains to take over all operations on the Metropolitan , Hammersmith & City and District lines . = = = Restoration of full through service = = = The eight @-@ car configuration of the S Stock design includes open connections between the passenger cars , and thus cannot be split into shorter four @-@ car trains capable of fitting into the bay platform at Chalfont & Latimer station . Consequently , in 2008 TfL announced that the shuttle service was to be abandoned . Instead , the long @-@ standing Metropolitan line service of four trains per hour to and from Amersham was to be reduced to two , with the other two services running as through trains between London and Chesham . After 118 years of service on 11 December 2010 at 12 @.@ 37 pm the last Chesham shuttle service left Chesham station . A Stock trains continued to run on the line , providing through services to London , until 29 September 2012 when they were retired and replaced by S8 Stock trains .
= Lockheed AH @-@ 56 Cheyenne = The Lockheed AH @-@ 56 Cheyenne was an attack helicopter developed by Lockheed for the United States Army . It rose from the Army 's Advanced Aerial Fire Support System ( AAFSS ) program to field the service 's first dedicated attack helicopter . Lockheed designed the Cheyenne using a four @-@ blade rigid @-@ rotor system and configured the aircraft as a compound helicopter with low @-@ mounted wings and a tail @-@ mounted thrusting propeller driven by a General Electric T64 turboshaft engine . The Cheyenne was to have a high @-@ speed dash capability to provide armed escort for the Army 's transport helicopters , such as the Bell UH @-@ 1 Iroquois . In 1966 , the Army awarded Lockheed a contract for ten AH @-@ 56 prototypes , but as a stopgap also ordered the simpler AH @-@ 1G Cobra as an interim attack aircraft for combat in Vietnam . The AH @-@ 56 's maiden flight took place on 21 September 1967 . In January 1968 , the Army awarded Lockheed a production contract , based on flight testing progress . A fatal crash and technical problems affecting performance put Cheyenne development behind schedule , resulting in the cancellation of the production contract on 19 May 1969 . Development of the Cheyenne continued in the hope that the helicopter would eventually enter service . But as American involvement in Vietnam was winding down , the Army canceled the Cheyenne program on 9 August 1972 . By this time , the AH @-@ 1 Cobra was widely deployed by the Army during the Vietnam War . Controversy with the United States Air Force over the Cheyenne 's role in combat as well as the political climate regarding military acquisition programs had caused the Army to amend the service 's attack helicopter requirements in favor of a twin @-@ engine conventional helicopter , viewed as less technical and more survivable . The Army announced a new program for an Advanced Attack Helicopter ( AAH ) on 17 August 1972 , which led to the development of the AH @-@ 64 Apache . = = Development = = = = = Background = = = Prior to the development of the AH @-@ 56 , all armed helicopters had been modifications to existing aircraft designed for unarmed uses . In 1962 , then U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara convened the Howze Board to review Army aviation requirements . The board recommended an airmobile division supported by 90 armed helicopters . The recommendation of the Howze Board came at the same time the Army was preparing to deploy its first armed escort helicopters to Vietnam ; 15 UH @-@ 1A Iroquois were modified with systems for mounting machine guns , grenade launchers , and rocket pods . In June 1962 , Bell Helicopter presented a new helicopter design to Army officials , in the hopes of soliciting funding for further development . The D @-@ 255 Iroquois Warrior was envisioned as a purpose @-@ built attack aircraft based on the UH @-@ 1B airframe and dynamic components , with a nose @-@ mounted ball turret , a belly @-@ mounted gun pod , and stub wings for mounting rockets or SS.10 anti @-@ tank missiles . = = = Attack helicopter requirements = = = In December 1962 , Combat Development Command ( CDC ) drafted a Qualitative Material Requirement ( QMR ) for an interim , commercial off @-@ the @-@ shelf ( COTS ) aircraft , with a 140 @-@ knot ( 161 mph , 259 km / h ) cruise speed and a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ pound ( 680 kg ) payload . This was seen as an attempt by Army officials , anticipating the potential of the D @-@ 255 , to acquire an interim aircraft to fill the escort role until the Army could determine the requirements for a dedicated armed helicopter . However , the Secretary of the Army disapproved the interim approach and directed that the Army look for a more advanced system that would dramatically improve over current helicopter designs . Based on the guidance from the Secretary of the Army , CDC established Qualitative Material Development Objectives ( QMDO ) for a rotary @-@ wing aircraft with 195 @-@ knot ( 224 mph , 361 km / h ) cruise speed , 220 @-@ knot ( 253 mph , 407 km / h ) dash speed , and the capability to hover out @-@ of @-@ ground @-@ effect ( OGE ) at 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 830 m ) on a 95 ° F ( 35 ° C ) day . The speed requirements were derived from the speed of aircraft the helicopter would escort . The Director of Defense Research and Engineering ( DDRE ) conditionally approved the changes to the development objectives , pending his review of the proposed program . He also directed the Army to determine whether or not any other helicopter could offer an improvement in performance over the UH @-@ 1B in the meantime . As a result , the Army Material Command ( AMC ) conducted a study to determine if the development objectives were feasible and also established a program office for the Fire @-@ support Aerial System ( FAS ) . AMC recommended to narrow the competition to compound helicopters , as they were considered the only helicopter configuration at the time capable of being developed to meet the objectives . In March 1964 , the Secretary of the Army advised DDRE that modification of existing aircraft would not approach the required performance of the FAS program ; the Army would continue using the armed UH @-@ 1B until development of the FAS could proceed . = = = AAFSS competition = = = On 26 March 1964 , the Army Chief of Staff redesignated the FAS program as the Advanced Aerial Fire Support System ( AAFSS ) . The development objectives document ( QMDO ) for the AAFSS was approved in April 1964 , and on 1 August 1964 , the Transportation Research and Engineering Command contacted 148 prospective contractors with a request for proposals ( RFP ) . Bell submitted the D @-@ 262 , a modification of the D @-@ 255 , but still a conventional helicopter design . Sikorsky submitted the S @-@ 66 , which featured a " Rotorprop " that would serve as a tail rotor but as speeds increased would rotate 90 ° to act as pusher propeller . Lockheed submitted the CL @-@ 840 design , a rigid @-@ rotor compound helicopter with both a pushing propeller and a conventional tail rotor mounted at the end of the tail . The Army announced Lockheed and Sikorsky as winners of Project Definition Phase contracts on 19 February 1965 . Meanwhile , the Army also continued to pursue an interim aircraft for combat in Vietnam until the AAFSS could be fielded , resulting in development of the Bell AH @-@ 1 Cobra which would become the backbone of the Army 's attack helicopter fleet during and after the Vietnam War . Lockheed and Sikorsky developed proposals for their respective designs , establishing three configurations to satisfy both the development objectives and a revised RFP based on a draft requirements document . An evaluation board studied each company 's proposal and then submitted its recommendation to a selection authority council on 6 October 1965 . On 3 November 1965 , the Army announced Lockheed as the winner of the AAFSS program . The Army perceived Lockheed 's design as less expensive , able to be delivered sooner , and a lower technical risk than Sikorsky 's Rotorprop . On 17 December 1965 , the Army released the final requirements document . The document added fourteen requirements that were not previously addressed by Lockheed 's proposal , including the addition of an aerial rocket armament subsystem . On 23 March 1966 , the Army awarded Lockheed an engineering and development contract for 10 prototypes , designating the aircraft AH @-@ 56A . Initial operating capability was planned for 1972 with an optimistic target of late 1970 . Lockheed began construction of the aircraft at its Van Nuys , California facility , and on 3 May 1967 , Lockheed held a roll @-@ out ceremony for the AH @-@ 56A . The aircraft was christened Cheyenne by the Army . The first flight of the AH @-@ 56 occurred on 21 September 1967 . The Secretary of Defense approved pre @-@ production funding to support an initial production order for 375 aircraft on 8 January 1968 . Manufacture of the 10 Cheyenne prototypes was completed by 1969 . = = Design = = Lockheed designed the Cheyenne as a compound helicopter , which combines a helicopter with fixed @-@ wing features for increased performance , usually speed . The design included features such as a rigid main rotor , low @-@ mounted wings , and a pusher propeller . The Cheyenne was powered by a General Electric T64 turboshaft engine . Thrust was provided by a pusher propeller at the rear of the aircraft . At high speeds , the amount of lift provided by the wings , along with thrust from the pusher prop , reduced the aerodynamic loading of the rotor . At such speeds , the rotor produced 20 % of the lift and could be adjusted by collective pitch control changes . Rotor tilt was controlled through gyroscopic precession . The Cheyenne achieved speeds over 200 knots ( 230 mph , 370 km / h ) , but as a compound helicopter was unable to qualify for speed records in helicopter categories . The Cheyenne had a two @-@ seat tandem cockpit featuring an advanced navigation and fire control suite . The tandem seating placed the pilot in the rear seat , and the gunner in the front seat . An unusual feature of the gunner 's station was that the entire seat , sighting system , and firing controls rotated to keep the gunner facing the same direction as the gun turret being controlled . The gun @-@ sight afforded the gunner direct viewing from the turret by way of a periscope sight . The pilot had a helmet mounted sight system for aiming weapons . Weapon turrets were mounted at the nose and the middle of aircraft underbelly . The nose turret could rotate + / - 100 ° from the aircraft 's centerline and could mount either a 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 57 in ) grenade launcher , or a 7 @.@ 62 mm ( 0 @.@ 308 in ) minigun . The belly turret included a 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 in ) automatic cannon with 360 ° of rotation . Mechanical stops prevented the belly turret from aiming at any part of the helicopter . Six external hardpoints were located along the bottom of the helicopter , with two under each wing and two on the fuselage under the sponsons . The two inner wing hardpoints could carry pods of three TOW missiles . 2 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 70 mm ) rockets in 7 @-@ rocket or 19 @-@ rocket launchers could be carried on the four wing hardpoints . The two fuselage mounts were dedicated to carrying external fuel tanks . The wing hardpoints were also plumbed to allow the carriage of additional fuel tanks if required . = = Operational history = = = = = Flight testing = = = Flight testing began with the first flight of the second AH @-@ 56 ( s / n 66 @-@ 8827 ) in September 1967 . During early flight tests , a rotor instability issue was discovered when the aircraft was flying at low altitude in ground effect . As the flight envelope was expanded , this instability and other minor problems were discovered and quickly addressed . Lockheed and the Army held a 13 @-@ minute demonstration " first flight " for the public at the Van Nuys Airport on 12 December 1967 . During the flight , the Cheyenne demonstrated some of the new capabilities brought about by the thrusting propeller ; the helicopter could slow down or accelerate without pitching the nose up or down , as well as being able to pitch the nose down or up at a hover , without causing the aircraft to accelerate forwards or backwards . The Cheyenne demonstrated a stationary hover in a 30 @-@ knot ( 35 mph , 56 km / h ) crosswind , and at the end of the flight landed on its two forward landing gear , " bowed " to the audience and then gently set the tail landing gear down as it taxied to parking . By March 1968 , the AH @-@ 56 had established a flight envelope of 170 knots ( 196 mph , 315 km / h ) in forward flight , 25 knots ( 29 mph , 46 km / h ) sidewards , and 20 knots ( 23 mph , 37 km / h ) rearwards . The project suffered a setback on 12 March 1969 , when the rotor on prototype # 3 ( s / n 66 @-@ 8828 ) struck the fuselage and caused the aircraft to crash , killing the pilot , David A. Beil . The accident occurred on a test flight where the pilot was to manipulate the controls to excite 0.5P oscillations ( or half @-@ P hop ) in the rotor ; 0.5P is a vibration that happens once per two main rotor revolutions , where P is the rotor 's rotational speed . The accident investigation noted that safety mechanisms on the controls had apparently been disabled for the flight . The investigation concluded that the pilot @-@ induced oscillations had set up a resonant vibration that exceeded the rotor system 's ability to compensate . After the investigation , the rotor and control systems were modified to prevent the same problem from occurring again . = = = Production contract canceled = = = The Army issued a cure @-@ notice to Lockheed on 10 April 1969 , citing 11 technical problems , and unsatisfactory progress on the program . The main issues were the half @-@ P hop vibration issue , and the aircraft gross weight exceeding program requirements . In response , Lockheed proposed an " improved flight control system " ( ICS ) to reduce rotor oscillations , and steps for removing excess weight and addressing other minor issues in production helicopters . The Army felt Lockheed 's solutions to the cure @-@ notice issues would delay the program and increase costs . Citing Lockheed 's inability to meet the production timeline , the Army canceled the AH @-@ 56 production contract on 19 May 1969 , but retained the development contract in hopes that the issues could be resolved . In September 1969 , Cheyenne prototype # 10 ( s / n 66 @-@ 8835 ) underwent wind tunnel testing at NASA Ames Research Center , to research the half @-@ P hop and drag issues . The engineers did not realize that the fixed mounts used to secure the aircraft in the wind tunnel would not allow the helicopter to move relative to the rotor , as it did in flight . As a result , there was no natural damping of the rotor pitching motion . The remote controllers ' lack of sensory feedback from helicopter compounded the situation . During high speed testing to replicate the half @-@ P hop vibration , the rotor oscillations quickly accelerated out of control and struck the tail boom , resulting in the destructive breakup of the helicopter . Lockheed worked on modifying the AH @-@ 56 design to address the vibration and other issues . As a precaution , Cheyenne # 9 ( s / n 66 @-@ 8834 ) was fitted with an ejection seat for the pilot after the March accident . The downward firing ejection seat was placed in the forward seat in place of the gunner 's station . This prototype would be used for all remaining envelope expansion flights . Prototype # 9 also received an upgraded transmission and drivetrain , and a hinged rear canopy in place of the original sliding canopy around 1970 . The new transmission allowed the T64 @-@ GE @-@ 16 turboshaft engine output to be increased from a derated 3 @,@ 435 horsepower ( 2 @,@ 561 kW ) to 3 @,@ 925 horsepower ( 2 @,@ 927 kW ) , and the new canopy eliminated the canopy vibrations . Cheyenne prototype # 6 ( s / n 66 @-@ 8831 ) began conducting weapons testing at Yuma Proving Ground , Arizona , demonstrating the ability for the gunner and pilot to accurately fire on separate targets on each side on the helicopter . Towards the end of 1970 , the Army funded work on TOW missile guidance and night sighting systems . Prototypes # 6 and # 9 were also tested and evaluated at Yuma Proving Ground from 30 January to 23 December 1971 , to determine if stability and control systems were sufficient . Deficiencies were identified in lateral directional stability , uncommanded motion during maneuvering , high vibration , and poor directional control during sidewards flying . Following the testing at Yuma , prototype # 9 received the improved T64 @-@ GE @-@ 716 engine producing 4 @,@ 275 shp ( 3 @,@ 188 kW ) and the planned production version of the ICS system . With these upgrades , the helicopter surpassed its performance requirements . However , under certain conditions stability and control did not completely satisfy the test pilots . Lockheed had studied ways to prevent unstable feedback from the gyro . The solution was to relocate the gyro from the top of the rotor head to below the transmission with flexible connections to the rotor . The pilot 's controls were connected to hydraulic servomotors then connected through springs to the gyro . This system prevented rotor vibration forces from transmitting back into the flight controls . It was called the " advanced mechanical control system " ( AMCS ) and was installed on Cheyenne # 7 in 1972 to improve handling and rotor stability . = = = Program demise = = = In 1971 , political friction increased between the Army and the Air Force over the close air support ( CAS ) mission . The Air Force asserted that the Cheyenne would infringe on the Air Force 's CAS mission in support of the Army , which had been mandated with the Key West Agreement of 1948 . The Department of Defense ( DOD ) conducted a study that concluded that the Air Force 's A @-@ X program , the Marine Corps ' Harrier , and the Cheyenne were significantly different that they did not constitute a duplication of capabilities . On 22 October 1971 , the Senate Armed Services subcommittee on Tactical Air Power conducted hearings to evaluate the CAS mission and the pending programs . The most damaging testimony for the Army 's program came from the commander of the Air Force 's Tactical Air Command , General William W. Momyer , who cited helicopter casualty statistics of Operation Lam Son 719 . The Army convened a special task force under General Marks in January 1972 , to reevaluate the requirements for an attack helicopter . The purpose of the Marks Board was to develop an " updated and defensible " material needs document . The task force conducted flight evaluations of the AH @-@ 56 , along with two industry alternatives for comparison : the Bell 309 King Cobra and Sikorsky S @-@ 67 Blackhawk . Analysis of the three helicopters determined that the Bell and Sikorsky helicopters could not fulfill the Army 's requirements . The Army also conducted a weapons demonstration for the Senate Armed Services Committee in early 1972 , to show off the Cheyenne 's firepower and garner support for attack helicopter development . The first TOW missile that was fired in the demonstration failed and went into the ground . The second missile was fired and hit the target . Previously , 130 TOW missiles had been fired without failure , but the failure of the first missile was now linked to perception of the aircraft . In April 1972 , the Senate published its report on CAS . The report recommended funding of the Air Force 's A @-@ X program , which would become the A @-@ 10 Thunderbolt II , and limited procurement of the Harrier for the Marine Corps . The report never referred to the Cheyenne by name and only offered a lukewarm recommendation for the Army to continue procurement of attack helicopters , so long as their survivability could be improved . The Cheyenne program was canceled by the Secretary of the Army on 9 August 1972 . The helicopter 's large size and inadequate night / all @-@ weather capability were reasons stated by the Army for the cancellation . The Cheyenne 's analog and mechanical weapons systems were becoming out of date as new digital systems that were more accurate , faster , and lighter were being developed . The Cheyenne 's unit cost had increased and was likely to increase further if new avionics were incorporated . On 17 August 1972 , the Army initiated the Advanced Attack Helicopter ( AAH ) program . AAH sought an attack helicopter based on combat experience in Vietnam , with a lower top speed of 145 kn ( 167 mph , 269 km / h ) and twin engines for improved survivability . Lockheed offered the CL @-@ 1700 , a modified version of the Cheyenne with two engines and omitted the pusher propeller , without success . The AAH program led to the AH @-@ 64 Apache , which entered service in the mid @-@ 1980s . After the cancellation , the Army conducted an evaluation of the seventh Cheyenne equipped with the AMCS flight control system . The testing showed the AMCS removed most of the remaining control problems , improved stability , improved handling , and decreased the pilot workload . With the AMCS , the Cheyenne reached a speed of 215 kn ( 247 mph , 398 km / h ) in level flight and in a dive achieved 245 kn ( 282 mph , 454 km / h ) ; it also demonstrated improved maneuverability at high speeds . Prototype # 7 was the last Cheyenne to fly . Lockheed had counted on the Cheyenne to establish itself in the helicopter market with its rigid rotor technology , but the ambitious project was unsuccessful . The firm did not pursue development of another helicopter . = = Survivors = = No. 2 66 @-@ 8827 is on display at Fort Polk , Louisiana . No. 5 66 @-@ 8830 is stored at the Army Aviation Museum , Fort Rucker , Alabama . No. 6 66 @-@ 8831 is on display at Fort Campbell . No. 7 66 @-@ 8832 is on display at the Army Aviation Museum , Fort Rucker . = = Specifications ( AH @-@ 56A ) = = Data from Jane 's Aircraft WarbirdTech AH @-@ 56A General characteristics Crew : Two ; one pilot , one copilot / gunner ( front seat ) Length : 54 ft 8 in ( 16 @.@ 66 m ) Rotor diameter : 51 ft 3 in ( 15 @.@ 62 m ) Height : 13 ft 8 @.@ 5 in ( 4 @.@ 18 m ) Empty weight : 12 @,@ 215 lb ( 5 @,@ 540 kg ) Loaded weight : 18 @,@ 300 lb ( 8 @,@ 300 kg ) Max. takeoff weight : 25 @,@ 880 lb ( 11 @,@ 740 kg ) Powerplant : 1 × General Electric T64 @-@ GE @-@ 16 turboshaft , 3 @,@ 925 shp ( 2 @,@ 930 kW ) Rotor systems : 4 blades on main rotor , 4 blades on tail rotor , 3 blades on pusher propeller Performance Maximum speed : 212 knots ( 244 mph , 393 km / h ) Cruise speed : 195 knots ( 225 mph , 362 km / h ) Range : 1 @,@ 063 nmi ( 1 @,@ 225 mi , 1 @,@ 971 km ) Service ceiling : 20 @,@ 000 ft ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) Rate of climb : 3 @,@ 000 ft / min ( 15 @.@ 23 m / s ) Armament Guns : 1 × nose turret with either an M129 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 57 in ) grenade launcher or an XM196 7 @.@ 62 × 51mm machine gun and 1 × belly turret with an XM140 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 in ) cannon Hardpoints : 6 Rockets : 2 @.@ 75 in ( 70 mm ) FFA rockets Missiles : BGM @-@ 71 TOW missiles
= Not One Less = Not One Less ( Chinese : 一个都不能少 ; pinyin : yíge dōu bùnéng shǎo ) is a 1999 drama film by Chinese director Zhang Yimou , adapted from Shi Xiangsheng 's 1997 story " A Sun in the Sky " ( Chinese : 天上有个太阳 ; pinyin : tiān shàng yǒu ge tàiyáng ) . It was produced by Guangxi Film Studio and released by China Film Group Corporation in mainland China , and distributed by Sony Pictures Classics and Columbia TriStar internationally . Set in the People 's Republic of China during the 1990s , the film centers on a 13 @-@ year @-@ old substitute teacher , Wei Minzhi , in the Chinese countryside . Called in to substitute for a village teacher for one month , Wei is told not to lose any students . When one of the boys takes off in search of work in the big city , she goes looking for him . The film addresses education reform in China , the economic gap between urban and rural populations , and the prevalence of bureaucracy and authority figures in everyday life . It is filmed in a neorealist / documentary style with a troupe of non @-@ professional actors who play characters with the same names and occupations as the actors have in real life , blurring the boundaries between drama and reality . The domestic release of Not One Less was accompanied by a Chinese government campaign aimed at promoting the film and cracking down on piracy . Internationally , the film was generally well @-@ received , but it also attracted criticism for its ostensibly political message ; foreign critics are divided on whether the film should be read as praising or criticizing the Chinese government . When the film was excluded from the 1999 Cannes Film Festival 's competition section , Zhang withdrew it and another film from the festival , and published a letter rebuking Cannes for politicization of and " discrimination " against Chinese cinema . The film went on to win the Venice Film Festival 's Golden Lion and several other awards , and Zhang won the award for best director at the Golden Rooster Awards . = = Background = = In the 1990s , primary education reform had become one of the top priorities in the People 's Republic of China . About 160 million Chinese people had missed all or part of their education because of the Cultural Revolution in the late 1960s and early 1970s , and in 1986 the National People 's Congress enacted a law calling for nine years of compulsory education . By 1993 , it was clear that much of the country was making little progress on implementing nine @-@ year compulsory education , so the 1993 – 2000 seven @-@ year plan focused on this goal . One of the major challenges educators faced was the large number of rural schoolchildren dropping out to pursue work . Another issue was a large urban – rural divide : funding and teacher quality were far better in urban schools than rural , and urban students stayed in school longer . = = Production and cast = = Not One Less was Zhang Yimou 's ninth film , but only the second not to star long @-@ time collaborator Gong Li ( the first was his 1997 Keep Cool ) . For this film , he cast only amateur actors whose real @-@ life names and occupations resembled those of characters they played in the film — as The Philadelphia Inquirer 's Steven Rea described the performances , the actors are just " people playing variations of themselves in front of the camera " . For instance , Tian Zhenda , who played the mayor , was the real @-@ life mayor of a small village , and the primary actors Wei Minzhi and Zhang Huike were selected from among thousands of students in rural schools . ( The names and occupations of the film 's main actors are listed in the table below . ) The movie was filmed on location at Chicheng County 's Shuiquan Primary School , and in the city of Zhangjiakou ; both locations are in Hebei province . The movie was filmed in a documentary @-@ like , " neorealist " style involving hidden cameras and natural lighting . There are also , however , elements of heavy editing — for example , Shelly Kraicer noted that many scenes have frequent , rapid cuts , partially as a result of filming with inexperienced actors . Zhang had to work closely with government censors during production of the film . He related how the censors " kept reminding [ me ] not to show China as too backward and too poor " , and said that on the title cards at the end of the movie he had to write that the number of rural children dropping out of school each year was one million , although he believed the number was actually three times that . Not One Less was Zhang 's first film to enjoy government support and resources . = = = Cast = = = = = Plot = = Thirteen @-@ year @-@ old Wei Minzhi arrives in Shuiquan village to substitute for the village 's only teacher ( Gao Enman ) while he is away on family business . When Gao discovers that Wei does not have a high school education and has no special talents , he instructs her to teach by copying his texts onto the board and then making the students copy them into their notebooks ; he also tells her not to use more than one piece of chalk per day , because the village is too poor to afford more . Before leaving , he explains to her that many students have recently left school to find work in the cities , and he offers her a 10 yuan bonus if all the students are still there when he returns . When Wei begins teaching , she has little rapport with the students : they shout and run around instead of copying their work , and the class troublemaker , Zhang Huike , insists that " she 's not a teacher , she 's Wei Chunzhi 's big sister ! " After putting the lesson on the board , Wei usually sits outside , guarding the door to make sure no students leave until they have finished their work . Early in the month , a sports recruiter comes to take one athletic girl , Ming Xinhong , to a special training school ; unwilling to let any students leave , Wei hides Ming , and when the village mayor ( Tian Zhenda ) finds her , Wei chases after their car in a futile attempt to stop them . One day , after trying to make the troublemaker Zhang apologize for bothering another student , Wei discovers that Zhang has left to go find work in the nearby city of Zhangjiakou . The village mayor is unwilling to give her money for a bus ticket to the city , so she resolves to earn the money herself , and recruits the remaining students to help . One girl suggests that they can make money by moving bricks in a nearby brickyard , and Wei begins giving the students mathematical exercises centered on finding out how much money they need to earn for the bus tickets , how many bricks they need to move , and how much time it will take . Through these exercises and working to earn money , her rapport with the class improves . After earning the money , she reaches the bus station but learns that the price is higher than she thought , and she cannot afford a ticket . Wei ends up walking most of the way to Zhangjiakou . In the city , Wei finds the people that Zhang was supposed to be working with , only to discover that they had lost him at the train station days before . She forces another girl her age , Sun Zhimei , to help her look for Zhang at the train station , but they do not find him . Wei has no success finding Zhang through the public address system and " missing person " posters , so she goes to the local television station to broadcast a missing person notice . The receptionist ( Feng Yuying ) will not let her in without valid identification , though , and says the only way she can enter is with permission from the station manager , whom she describes as " a man with glasses " . For the rest of the day , Wei stands by the station 's only gate , stopping every man with glasses , but she does not find the station manager , and spends the night asleep on the street . The next day the station manager ( Wu Wanlu ) sees her at the gate again , through his window , and lets her in , scolding the receptionist for making her wait outside . Although Wei has no money to run an ad on TV , the station manager is interested in her story and decides to feature Wei in a talk show special about rural education . On the talk show , Wei is nervous and hardly says a word when the host ( Li Fanfan ) addresses her , but Zhang — who has been wandering the streets begging for food — sees the show . After Wei and Zhang are reunited , the station manager arranges to have them driven back to Shuiquan village , along with a truckload of school supplies and donations that viewers had sent in . Upon their return , they are greeted by the whole village . In the final scene , Wei presents the students with several boxes of colored chalk that were donated , and allows each student to write one character on the board . The film ends with a series of title cards that recount the actions of the characters after the film ends , and describe the problem of poverty in rural education in China . = = Themes = = While most of Zhang 's early films had been historical epics , Not One Less was one of the first to focus on contemporary China . The film 's main theme involves the difficulties faced in providing rural education in China . When Wei Minzhi arrives in Shuiquan village , the teacher Gao has not been paid in six months and the school building is in disrepair , and chalk is in such short supply that Gao gives Wei specific instructions limiting how large her written characters should be . Wei sleeps in the school building , sharing a bed with several female students . The version of the film released overseas ends with a series of title cards in English , the last of which reads , " Each year , poverty forces one million children in China to leave school . Through the help of donations , about 15 % of these children return to school . " Because the people and locations used in the film are real but are carefully selected and edited , the film creates a " friction " between documentary reality and narrative fiction . This balancing act between the real and the imaginary has drawn comparisons to neorealist works such as those of Iranian directors Abbas Kiarostami and Mohsen Makhmalbaf , and Zhang has openly acknowledged the influence of Kiarostami in this film . Zhang Xiaoling of the University of Nottingham argues that Zhang Yimou used the documentary perspective in order to suggest that the story is an accurate reflection of most rural areas in China , while Shelly Kraicer believes that his " simultaneous presentation of seemingly opposing messages " is a powerful artistic method in of itself , and that it allows Zhang to circumvent censors by guaranteeing that the movie will include at least one message that they like . Jean @-@ Michel Frodon of Le Monde maintains that the film was produced " in the shadow of two superpowers " and needed to make compromises with each . The film addresses the prominent place that bureaucracy , and verbal negotiation and struggle , occupy in everyday life in China . Many scenes pit Wei against authority figures such as the village mayor , the announcer in the train station , and the TV station receptionist who also acts as a " gatekeeper " . Aside from Wei , many characters in the film show a " blind faith " in authority figures . While she lacks money and power , Wei overcomes her obstacles through sheer obstinacy and ignorant persistence , suggesting that speech and perseverance can overcome barriers . Wei becomes an example of " heroic obstinacy " and a model of using determination to face " overwhelming odds " . For this reason , the film has been frequently compared to Zhang 's 1993 The Story of Qiu Ju , whose heroine is also a determined , stubborn woman ; likewise , Qiu Ju is also filmed in a neo @-@ realistic style , set partially in contemporary rural China and partially in the city , and employs mostly amateur actors . Not One Less portrays the mass media as a locus of power : Wei discovers that only someone with money or connections can gain access to a television station , but once someone is on camera she or he becomes part of an " invisible media hegemony " with the power to " manipulate social behavior " , catching people 's attention where paper advertisements could not and moving cityfolk to donate money to a country school . The power of television within the film 's story , according to Laikwan Pang of the Chinese University of Hong Kong , reflects its prominent place in Chinese society of the late 1990s , when domestic cinema was floundering but television was developing quickly ; Pang argues that television @-@ watching forms a " collective consciousness " for Chinese citizens , and that the way television unifies people in Not One Less is an illustration of this . Money is important throughout the film . Concerns about money dominate much of the film — for example , a large portion is devoted to Wei and her students ' attempt to earn enough money for bus tickets — as well as motivating them . Most major characters , including Wei , demand payment for their actions , and it is left unclear whether Wei 's search for Zhang Huike is motivated by altruism or by the promise of a 10 @-@ yuan bonus . Zhu Ying points out the prominence of money in the film creates a conflict between traditional Confucian values ( such as the implication that the solutions to Wei 's problems can be found through the help of authority figures ) and modern , capitalist and individualistic society . Finally , the film illustrates the growing urban – rural divide in China . When Wei reaches Zhangjiakou , the film creates a clear contrast between urban and rural life , and the two locations are physically separated by a dark tunnel . The city is not portrayed as idyllic ; rather , Zhang shows that rural people are faced with difficulties and discrimination in the cities . While Wei 's first view of the city exposes her to well @-@ dressed people and modern buildings , the living quarters she goes to while searching for Zhang Huike are cramped and squalid . Likewise , the iron gate where Wei waits all day for the TV station director reflects the barriers poor people face to survival in the city , and the necessity of connections to avoid becoming an " outsider " in the city . Frequent cuts show Wei and Zhang wandering aimlessly in the streets , Zhang begging for food , and Wei sleeping on the sidewalk ; when an enthusiastic TV host later asks Zhang what part of the city left the biggest impression , Zhang replies that the one thing he will never forget is having to beg for food . A.O. Scott of The New York Times compared the " unbearable " despair of the film 's second half to that of Vittorio De Sica 's 1948 Bicycle Thieves . = = Reception = = = = = Cannes withdrawal = = = Neither Not One Less nor Zhang 's other 1999 film The Road Home was selected for the 1999 Cannes Film Festival 's Official Selection , the most prestigious competition in the festival , where several of Zhang 's earlier films had won awards . The rationale is uncertain ; Shelly Kraicer and Zhang Xiaoling claim that Cannes officials viewed the Not One Less ' happy ending , with the main characters ' conflicts resolved by the generosity of city dwellers and higher @-@ up officials , as pro @-@ China propaganda , while Zhu Ying claims that the officials saw it and The Road Home as too anti @-@ government . Rather than have his films shown in a less competitive portion of the festival , Zhang withdrew them both in protest , stating that the movies were apolitical . In an open letter published in the Beijing Youth Daily , Zhang accused the festival of being motivated by other than artistic concerns , and criticized the Western perception that all Chinese films must be either " pro @-@ government " or " anti @-@ government " , referring to it as a " discrimination against Chinese films " . = = = Critical response = = = Rotten Tomatoes gave it a " fresh " 95 % approval rating , based on 43 reviews and Metacritic gave it a 73 , signifying " generally favorable reviews " . Many focused on the film 's ending title cards : several compared them to a public service announcement , and Philip Kemp of Sight & Sound wrote , " All that 's missing is the address we should send donations to . " Zhang Xiaoling , on the other hand , considered the titles to be an implicit criticism of the state of rural education in China , saying , " the news that voluntary contributions have helped 15 percent of the pupils to return to school is aimed to give rise to a question : what about the remaining 85 percent ? " The disagreement about the title cards is also reflected in the critical reaction to the rest of the film 's resolution . Kemp described the ending as " feelgood " and criticized the film for portraying officials and generous cityfolk as coming to the rescue , The Washington Post 's Desson Howe called the ending " flag @-@ waving " , and The Independent 's Gilbert Adair called it " sugary " . Alberto Barbera of the Venice Film Festival , on the other hand , said that while the end of the film may have been like propaganda , the rest was a " strong denunciation of a regime that is unable to assure proper education for the country children " . Likewise , Zhang Xiaoling argued that although the film superficially appears to praise the city people and officials , its subtext is harshly critical of them : he pointed out that the apparently benevolent TV station manager seems to be motivated more by audience ratings than by altruism , that the receptionist 's callous manner towards Wei is a result of Chinese " bureaucratism and nepotism " , and that for all the good things about the city , Zhang Huike 's clearest memory of city life is having to beg for food . Zhang and Kraicer both argued that critics who see the film as pro @-@ government propaganda are missing the point and , as Kraicer put it , " mistaking [ one ] layer as the message of the film ... mistaking the part for the whole " . David Ansen of Newsweek and Leigh Paatsch of the Herald Sun each pointed out that , while the film is " deceptive [ ly ] " positive at face value , it has harsh criticism " bubbling under the surface " . Chinese critics Liu Xinyi and Xu Su of Movie Review recognized the dispute abroad over whether the film was pro- or anti @-@ government , but made no comment ; they praised the film for its realistic portrayal of hardships facing rural people , without speculating about whether Zhang intended to criticize or praise the government 's handling of those hardships . Hao Jian of Film Appreciation , on the other hand , was more critical , claiming that the movie was organized around a political message and was intended to be pro @-@ government . Hao said that Not One Less marked the beginning of Zhang 's transformation from an outspoken independent director to one of the government 's favorites . Overall , critics were impressed with the performances of the amateur actors , and Jean @-@ Michel Frodon of Le Monde called that the film 's greatest success . Peter Rainer of New York Magazine praised the scene of Wei 's interview on TV as " one of the most improbably satisfying love scenes on film " . The film also received praise for its artistic merits and Hou Yong 's cinematography , even though its visuals were simplistic compared to Zhang 's previous films ; for example , A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised the " richness " displayed by the film despite its deliberate scarcity of color . Reviewers also pointed out that Zhang had succeeded in breaking away from the " commercial entertainment wave " of popular film . Noel Vera of BusinessWorld writes that the film concerns itself mainly with emotional impact , at the expense of visual extravagance , making it the opposite of earlier Zhang Yimou films such as Red Sorghum . Other critics noted the strength of the film 's storytelling ; for instance , Rainer called the film an " uncommon , and uncommonly moving , love story " , and Film Journal International 's Kevin Lally described it as " a poignant story of poverty and spirit reminiscent of the great Italian neo @-@ realists . " Another well @-@ received part of the film was the segment in which Wei teaches math by creating practical examples out of her attempt to raise money for the bus to Zhangjiakou ; in the Chinese journal Teacher Doctrines , Mao Wen wrote that teachers should learn from Wei 's example and provide students with practical exercises . Wei Minzhi 's character received mixed reactions : Scott described her as a " heroic " character who demonstrates how obstinacy can be a virtue , whereas Richard Corliss of Time says she is " no brighter or more resourceful than [ her students ] " . Reactions to the city portion of the movie were also mixed : while Zhang describes the second half of the film as an eloquent commentary on China 's urban @-@ rural divide and Kevin Lally calls it " startling " , Kemp criticizes it for being a predictable " Victorian cliché " . = = = Box office and release = = = Rights to distribute the film were purchased by the China Film Group Corporation , a state @-@ sponsored organization , and the government actively promoted the film . It was officially released in mainland China in April 1999 , although there were showings as early as mid @-@ February . Sheldon H. Lu reports that the film grossed ¥ 18 million , an average amount , in its first three months of showing ; by the end of its run in November , it sold ¥ 40 million at the box office . ( In comparison , Zhang 's 2002 film Hero would earn ¥ 270 million three years later . ) Nevertheless , Not One Less was the highest @-@ grossing domestic film of 1999 , and Laikwan Pang has called it a " box office success " . In the United States , the film was released in theaters on 18 February 2000 , and grossed $ 50 @,@ 256 in its first weekend and $ 592 @,@ 586 overall ; The release was handled by Sony Pictures Classics , and home video distribution by Columbia TriStar ; Not One Less was Columbia 's first Chinese film . Lu warns that domestic box office sales are not reliable indicators of a film 's popularity in mainland China , because of piracy and because of state or social group sponsorship ; many workers were given free tickets to promote the film , and a 1999 report claimed that more tickets were purchased by the government than by individuals . The film was more popular than most government @-@ promoted films touting the party line and Lu claims that it had " tremendous social support " , but Pang points out that its success was " not purely egalitarian , but partly constructed . " At the time of Not One Less ' release , DVD and VCD piracy was a growing concern in mainland China , and the China Copyright Office issued a notice forbidding unauthorized production or distribution of the film . This was the first time China had enacted special copyright protections for a domestic film . On 21 April 1999 , Hubei province 's Culture Office issued an " Urgent Notice for Immediate Confiscation of Pirated Not One Less VCDs " , and two days later the Culture Office and movie company joined forces to conduct raids on ten audio @-@ video stores , seizing pirated discs from six of them . = = = Awards = = = Although it was withdrawn from Cannes , Not One Less went on to win the Golden Lion , the top award at the Venice Film Festival . Zhang also received a best director award at the Golden Rooster , mainland China 's most prestigious award ceremony , and the film was voted one of the top three of the year in the Hundred Flowers Awards . Awards the film won or was nominated for are listed below .
= Shōkaku @-@ class aircraft carrier = The two Shōkaku @-@ class ( 翔鶴型 , Shōkaku @-@ gata ) aircraft carriers were built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the late 1930s . Completed shortly before the start of the Pacific War in 1941 , they have been called " arguably the best aircraft carriers in the world " when built . With the exception of the Battle of Midway , they participated in every major naval action of the Pacific War , including the attack on Pearl Harbor , the Indian Ocean Raid , the Battle of the Coral Sea , and the Guadalcanal Campaign . Their inexperienced air groups were relegated to airfield attacks during the attack on Pearl Harbor , but they later sank two of the four fleet carriers lost by the United States Navy during the war in addition to one elderly British light carrier . The sister ships returned to Japan after the Battle of the Coral Sea , one to repair damage and the other to replace aircraft lost during the battle , so neither ship participated in the Battle of Midway in June 1942 . After the catastrophic losses of four carriers during that battle , they formed the bulk of the IJN 's carrier force for the rest of the war . As such they were the primary counterattack force deployed against the American invasion of Guadalcanal in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons in August . Two months later , they attempted to support a major offensive by the Imperial Japanese Army to push the United States Marines off Guadalcanal . This resulted in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands where they crippled one American carrier and damaged another in exchange for damage to Shōkaku and a light carrier . Neither attempt succeeded and the Japanese withdrew their remaining forces from Guadalcanal in early 1943 using the air group from Zuikaku to provide cover . For the next year , the sisters trained before moving south to defend against any American attempt to retake the Mariana Islands or the Philippines . Shōkaku was sunk by an American submarine during the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944 as the Americans invaded the Marianas and Zuikaku was sacrificed as a decoy four months later during the Battle of Cape Engano . = = Background and description = = The two Shōkaku @-@ class carriers were ordered in 1937 as part of the 3rd Naval Armaments Supplement Program . No longer restricted by the provisions of the Washington Naval Treaty , which had expired in December 1936 , and with relaxed budgetary limitations , the IJN sought qualitative superiority over their foreign counterparts . Drawing on experience with their existing carriers , the Navy General Staff laid out an ambitious requirement for a ship that equaled the 96 @-@ aircraft capacity of the Akagi and Kaga , the speed of Hiryū and the defensive armament of Kaga . The new ship was also to have superior protection and range over any of the existing carriers . The Basic Design Section of the Navy Technical Department decided upon an enlarged and improved Hiryū design with the island on the port side , amidships . After construction of the ships began , the Naval Air Technical Department ( NATD ) began having second thoughts about the location of the island because it thought that the portside location of the island on Hiryū and Akagi had an adverse impact on airflow over the flight deck . Another issue identified was that the amidships position shortened the available landing area , which had the potential to be problematic in the future as aircraft landing speeds increased with their growing weight . To verify these assumptions , the NATD filmed hundreds of takeoffs and landings aboard Akagi in October – November 1938 and decided to move the island over to the starboard side and further forward , about one @-@ third of the length from the bow . Shōkaku was the furthest advanced by this point and the supporting structure for the bridge had already been built ; rebuilding it would have delayed construction so it was left in place . The changes that had to be made consisted of a 1 @-@ meter ( 3 ft 3 in ) widening of the flight deck opposite the island and a corresponding 50 @-@ centimeter ( 20 in ) narrowing on the starboard side and the addition of 100 metric tons ( 98 long tons ) of ballast on the port side to re @-@ balance the ship . The ships had a length of 257 @.@ 5 meters ( 844 ft 10 in ) overall , a beam of 29 meters ( 95 ft 2 in ) , a draft of 9 @.@ 32 meters ( 30 ft 7 in ) at deep load , and a moulded depth of 23 m ( 75 ft 6 in ) . They displaced 32 @,@ 105 metric tons ( 31 @,@ 598 long tons ) at deep load . Based on hydrodynamic research conducted for the Yamato @-@ class battleships , the Shōkaku class received a bulbous bow and twin rudders , both of which were positioned on the centerline abaft the propellers . Their crew consisted of 1 @,@ 660 men : 75 commissioned officers , 56 special duty officers , 71 warrant officers and 1 @,@ 458 petty officers and crewmen , excluding the air group . The Shōkaku @-@ class ships were fitted with four Kampon geared steam turbine sets , each driving one 4 @.@ 2 @-@ meter ( 13 ft 9 in ) propeller , using steam provided by eight Kampon Type Model B water @-@ tube boilers . With a working pressure of 30 kg / cm2 ( 2 @,@ 942 kPa ; 427 psi ) , the boilers gave the turbines enough steam to generate a total of 160 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 120 @,@ 000 kW ) and a designed speed of 34 @.@ 5 knots ( 63 @.@ 9 km / h ; 39 @.@ 7 mph ) . This was the most powerful propulsion system in IJN service , 10 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 and 6 @,@ 000 kW ) more than the Yamato class and the Mogami @-@ class cruiser , respectively . During their sea trials , the sister ships achieved 34 @.@ 37 – 34 @.@ 58 knots ( 63 @.@ 65 – 64 @.@ 04 km / h ; 39 @.@ 55 – 39 @.@ 79 mph ) from 161 @,@ 290 – 168 @,@ 100 shaft horsepower ( 120 @,@ 270 – 125 @,@ 350 kW ) . They carried 5 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 900 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave them a range of 9 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 18 @,@ 000 km ; 11 @,@ 200 mi ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . The boiler uptakes were trunked to the ships ' starboard side amidships and exhausted just below flight deck level through two funnels that curved downward . The Shōkaku class was fitted with three 600 @-@ kilowatt ( 800 hp ) turbo generators and two 350 @-@ kilowatt ( 470 hp ) diesel generators , all operating at 225 volts . = = = Flight deck and hangars = = = The carriers ' 242 @.@ 2 @-@ meter ( 794 ft 7 in ) flight deck had a maximum width of 29 meters and overhung the superstructure at both ends , supported by pillars . Ten transverse arrestor wires were installed on the flight deck that could stop a 4 @,@ 000 @-@ kilogram ( 8 @,@ 800 lb ) aircraft . If the aircraft missed those , it could be stopped by one of three crash barricades . Although space and weight were allocated for two aircraft catapults , their development was not completed before the Shōkaku @-@ class ships were sunk . The ships were designed with two superimposed hangars ; the upper hangar was about 200 meters ( 656 ft 2 in ) long and had a width that varied between 18 @.@ 5 and 24 meters ( 60 ft 8 in and 78 ft 9 in ) . It had a height of 4 @.@ 85 meters ( 15 ft 11 in ) while the lower hangar was 4 @.@ 7 meters ( 15 ft 5 in ) high and only usable by fighters . The lower hangar was about 20 meters ( 65 ft 7 in ) shorter than the upper one and its width ranged from 17 @.@ 5 to 20 meters ( 57 ft 5 in to 65 ft 7 in ) . Together they had a total area of 5 @,@ 545 square meters ( 59 @,@ 690 sq ft ) . Each hangar could be subdivided by five or six fire curtains and they were fitted with fire fighting foam dispensers on each side . The lower hangar was also fitted with a carbon dioxide fire suppression system . Each subdivision was provided with a pair of enclosed and armored stations to control the fire curtains and fire fighting equipment . Aircraft were transported between the hangars and the flight deck by three elevators that took 15 seconds to go from the lower hangar to the flight deck . The forward elevator was larger than the others to allow aircraft that had just landed to be moved below without folding their wings and measured 13 by 16 meters ( 42 ft 8 in × 52 ft 6 in ) . The other elevators were narrower , 13 by 12 meters ( 42 ft 8 in × 39 ft 4 in ) . The ships mounted a crane on the starboard side of the flight deck , abreast the rear elevator . When collapsed , it was flush with the flight deck . The Shōkaku @-@ class carriers were initially intended to have an air group of 96 , including 24 aircraft in reserve . These were envisioned as 12 Mitsubishi A5M ( " Claude " ) monoplane fighters , 24 Aichi D1A2 ( " Susie " ) Type 96 dive bombers , 24 Mitsubishi B5M ( " Mabel " ) Type 97 No. 2 torpedo bombers , and 12 Nakajima C3N Type 97 reconnaissance aircraft . All of these aircraft were either superseded by larger , more modern aircraft or cancelled while the ships were being built , so the air group was revised to consist of 18 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters , 27 Aichi D3A ( " Val " ) dive bombers , and 27 Nakajima B5N ( " Kate " ) torpedo bombers . In addition , the ship carried 2 Zeros , 5 " Vals " , and 5 " Kates " as spares for a total of 84 aircraft . = = = Armament and sensors = = = The carriers ' primary anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) armament consisted of eight twin @-@ gun mounts equipped with 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 5 in ) Type 89 dual @-@ purpose guns mounted on projecting sponsons , grouped into pairs fore and aft on each side of the hull . The guns had a range of 14 @,@ 700 meters ( 16 @,@ 100 yd ) , and a ceiling of 9 @,@ 440 meters ( 30 @,@ 970 ft ) at an elevation of + 90 degrees . Their maximum rate of fire was fourteen rounds a minute , but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute . The ship was equipped with four Type 94 fire @-@ control directors to control the 12 @.@ 7 cm guns , one for each pair of guns , although the director on the island could control all of the Type 89 guns . Their light AA armament consisted of a dozen triple @-@ gun mounts for license @-@ built Hotchkiss 25 mm ( 1 in ) Type 96 AA guns , six mounts on each side of the flight deck . The gun was the standard Japanese light AA weapon during World War II , but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it largely ineffective . According to historian Mark Stille , the weapon had many faults including an inability to " handle high @-@ speed targets because it could not be trained or elevated fast enough by either hand or power , its sights were inadequate for high @-@ speed targets , it possessed excessive vibration and muzzle blast " . These guns had an effective range of 1 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 300 yd ) , and a ceiling of 5 @,@ 500 meters ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) at an elevation of + 85 degrees . The effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the 15 @-@ round magazines . The Type 96 guns were controlled by six Type 95 directors , one for every pair of mounts . In June 1942 , Shōkaku and Zuikaku had their anti @-@ aircraft armament augmented with six more triple 25 mm mounts , two each at the bow and stern , and one each fore and aft of the island . The bow and stern groups each received a Type 95 director . In October another triple 25 mm mount was added at the bow and stern and 10 single mounts were added before the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944 . After the battle , Zuikaku 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was reinforced with 26 single mounts for the 25 mm Type 96 gun , bringing the total of 25 mm barrels to 96 , 60 in 20 triple mounts and 36 single mounts . These guns were supplemented by eight 28 @-@ round AA rocket launchers . Each 12 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) rocket weighed 22 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 50 lb ) and had a maximum velocity of 200 m / s ( 660 ft / s ) . Their maximum range was 4 @,@ 800 meters ( 5 @,@ 200 yd ) . Shōkaku was the first carrier in the IJN to be fitted with radar , a Type 21 early @-@ warning radar , mounted on the top of the island around September 1942 . The date of Zuikaku 's installation is unknown , but both ships received a second Type 21 radar in a retractable installation adjacent to the flight deck after October . Before June 1944 , a Type 13 air @-@ search radar was installed on the light tripod mast abaft the island . The Shōkaku @-@ class carriers were also fitted with a Type 91 hydrophone in the bow that was only useful when anchored or moving very slowly . = = = Protection = = = The Shōkaku class had a waterline belt that consisted of 46 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) of Copper @-@ alloy Non @-@ Cemented armor ( CNC ) that covered most of the length of the ship . The belt was 4 @.@ 1 meters ( 13 ft 5 in ) high , of which 2 meters ( 6 ft 7 in ) was below the waterline . The lower strake of the armor was backed by 50 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of Ducol steel . The magazines were protected by 165 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) of New Vickers Non @-@ Cemented ( NVNC ) armor , sloped at an inclination up to 25 ° and tapered to thicknesses of 55 – 75 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 0 in ) . The flight and both hangar decks were unprotected and the ships ' propulsion machinery was protected by a 65 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) deck of CNC armor . The NVNC armor over the magazines was 132 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) thick and 105 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) thick over the aviation gasoline storage tanks . All of the deck armor was overlaid on a 25 @-@ millimeter deck of Ducol steel . The Shōkakus were the first Japanese carriers to incorporate a torpedo belt system . Based on model experiments that began in 1935 , it consisted of a liquid @-@ loaded " sandwich " of compartments outboard of the torpedo bulkhead . The experiments showed that a narrow liquid @-@ loaded compartment was necessary to distribute the force of a torpedo or mine 's detonation along the torpedo bulkhead by spreading it across the full width of the bulkhead and to stop the splinters created by the detonation . Outboard of this were two compartments intended to dissipate the force of the gases of the detonation , including the watertight compartment of the double bottom . The two innermost compartments were intended to be filled with fuel oil that would be replaced by water as it was consumed . The torpedo bulkhead itself consisted of an outer Ducol plate 18 – 30 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 71 – 1 @.@ 18 in ) thick that was riveted to a 12 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) plate . The IJN expected the torpedo bulkhead to be damaged in an attack and placed a thin holding bulkhead slightly inboard to prevent any leaks from reaching the ships ' vitals . = = Ships = = = = Careers = = Shortly after completion in 1941 , Shōkaku and Zuikaku were assigned to the newly formed Fifth Carrier Division , which was itself assigned to the 1st Air Fleet ( Kidō Butai ) , and began working up to prepare for the Pearl Harbor attack . Due to their inexperience , their air groups were tasked with the less demanding airfield attack role rather than the anti @-@ ship mission allocated to the veteran air groups of the older carriers . Each carrier 's aircraft complement consisted of 18 Zero fighters , 27 D3A dive bombers , and 27 B5N torpedo bombers . The two carriers contributed a total of 12 Zeros and 54 D3As to the first wave on the morning of 8 December 1941 ( Japan time ) ; these latter aircraft struck Wheeler Army Airfield , Hickam Field , and Naval Air Station Ford Island while the fighters strafed Marine Corps Air Station Kaneohe Bay . Only the 54 B5Ns participated in the second wave , striking Ford Island , Hickam Field and Kaneohe Bay again . The Fifth Carrier Division 's aircraft conducted the majority of the attack against the airfields , supplemented only by fighters from the other four carriers . Only one of Shōkaku 's dive bombers was lost during the attack ; in exchange 314 American aircraft were damaged or destroyed . Historian Alan Zimm said the young aviators delivered " a sterling performance , greatly exceeding expectations and outshining the dive bombers from the more experienced carriers . " In January 1942 , together with Akagi and Kaga of the First Carrier Division , the sisters supported the invasion of Rabaul in the Bismarck Archipelago , as the Japanese moved to secure their southern defensive perimeter against attacks from Australia . Aircraft from all four carriers attacked the Australian base at Rabaul on 20 January ; the First Carrier Division continued to attack the town while the Fifth Carrier Division moved westwards and attacked Lae and Salamaua in New Guinea . They covered the landings at Rabaul and Kavieng on 23 January before returning to Truk before the end of the month . After the Marshalls – Gilberts raids on 1 February , the Fifth Carrier Division was retained in home waters until mid @-@ March to defend against any American carrier raids on the Home Islands . = = = Indian Ocean raid = = = The sister ships then rejoined the Kido Butai at Staring Bay on Celebes Island in preparation for the Indian Ocean raid . By this time the air groups had been reorganized to consist of 21 each of the A6Ms , D3As and B5Ns . The Japanese intent was to defeat the British Eastern Fleet and destroy British airpower in the region in order to secure the flank of their operations in Burma . Shōkaku and Zuikaku contributed aircraft to the 5 April Easter Sunday Raid on Colombo , Ceylon . Although the civilian shipping had been evacuated from Colombo harbor , the Japanese sank an armed merchant cruiser and a destroyer and severely damaged some of the support facilities . The Kido Butai returned to Ceylon four days later and attacked Trincomalee ; the sisters ' aircraft sank a large cargo ship and damaged the monitor HMS Erebus . In the meantime , the Japanese spotted the light carrier HMS Hermes , escorted by the destroyer HMAS Vampire , and every available D3A was launched to attack the ships . Aircraft from Shōkaku and Zuikaku were the first to attack the Allied ships , both of which were sunk . = = = Battle of the Coral Sea = = = En route to Japan , the Fifth Carrier Division was diverted to Truk to support Operation Mo ( the planned capture of Port Moresby in New Guinea ) . While they were preparing for the mission , the Americans intercepted and decrypted Japanese naval messages discussing the operation and dispatched the carriers Yorktown and Lexington to stop the invasion . The Japanese opened Operation Mo by occupying Tulagi , in the Solomon Islands , on 3 May . American land @-@ based aircraft had spotted the light carrier Shōhō escorting the transports of the main invasion force on 6 May , and the American carriers moved west to place themselves in a position to attack it the following morning . Shōhō was quickly located again that morning and sunk . In turn , the Japanese spotted the oiler , Neosho , and her escorting destroyer , which were misidentified as a carrier and a light cruiser . A single dive bomber was lost during the consequent airstrike that sank the destroyer and damaged Neosho badly enough that she had to be scuttled a few days later . Late in the afternoon , the Japanese launched a small airstrike , without any escorting fighters , based on an erroneous spot report . The American carriers were far closer to the Japanese than they realized and roughly in line with their intended target . Alerted by radar , some of the American Combat Air Patrol ( CAP ) was vectored to intercept the Japanese aircraft , the rest being retained near the carriers because of bad weather and fading daylight . The American fighters mauled the Japanese attackers who were forced to call off the attack , but some of the surviving Japanese pilots became confused in the darkness and attempted to verify if the American carriers were their own before being driven off . On the morning of 8 May , both sides located each other at about the same time and began launching their aircraft about 09 : 00 . The American dive bombers disabled Shōkaku 's flight deck with three hits , but the carrier was able to evade all of the torpedoes . Hidden by a rain squall , Zuikaku escaped detection and was not attacked . In return , the Japanese aircraft badly damaged Lexington with two torpedo and two bomb hits and scored a single bomb hit on Yorktown . The torpedo hits on Lexington cracked one of her avgas tanks , and leaking vapor caused a series of large explosions that caused her to be scuttled . The air groups of the sisters were decimated in the battle , which forced Zuikaku to return to Japan with Shōkaku for resupply and aircrew training , and neither carrier was able to take part in the Battle of Midway in June . En route to Japan , Shōkaku was caught in a severe storm and nearly capsized as the weight of the water used to put out the fires had compromised her stability . Repairs took three months and she was not ready for action until late August . = = = Battle of the Eastern Solomons = = = The American landings on Guadalcanal and Tulagi on 7 August 1942 caught the Japanese by surprise . The next day , the light carrier Ryūjō joined the sister ships in the First Carrier Division , which departed for Truk on 16 August . Having learned the lesson taught at Midway , the IJN strengthened the fighter contingent at the expense of the torpedo bombers assigned to its carriers ; the Shōkaku @-@ class carriers mustered 53 Zeros , 51 D3As , 36 B5Ns and 2 Yokosuka D4Y1 @-@ C " Judy " reconnaissance aircraft between them . After an American carrier was spotted near the Solomon Islands on 21 August , the division was ordered to bypass Truk and continue to the south . Ryūjō was detached early on 24 August to move in advance of the troop convoy bound for Guadalcanal and to attack the American air base at Henderson Field if no carriers were located . The two fleet carriers were to stand off , prepared to attack the Americans if found . Ryūjō and her escorts were the first Japanese ships spotted and sunk by the Americans later that morning , but Zuikaku and Shōkaku were not spotted until the afternoon . Shortly before an unsuccessful attack by the pair of Douglas SBD Dauntlesses conducting the search , the sisters launched half of their dive bombers to attack the American carriers Enterprise and Saratoga . Most of the American carrier aircraft were already airborne by this time , either on CAP , returning from search missions , or from sinking Ryūjō , so only a small airstrike was launched in response to the spot report . About an hour after the first Japanese airstrike took off , a second airstrike that included the rest of the dive bombers was launched , but their target location was mistaken and they failed to find the Americans . The first airstrike attacked the two American carriers , scoring one hit on the battleship USS North Carolina and three hits on Enterprise , but they were mauled by the large number of airborne American aircraft and heavy anti @-@ aircraft fire . Uncertain of the damage inflicted on each other , both sides disengaged later that evening . = = = Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands = = = The First Carrier Division , now including the light carrier Zuihō , departed Truk on 11 October to support the Japanese Army operation to capture Henderson Field on Guadalcanal . At this time , the sisters mustered 54 A6Ms , 45 D3As , and 36 B5Ns between them . Four days later , the Japanese spotted a small American convoy that consisted of a fleet tug towing a gasoline barge and escorted by the destroyer Meredith . Aircraft from Shōkaku and Zuikaku sank the latter , but did not attack the tug . The Japanese and American carrier forces discovered each other in the early morning of 26 October and each side launched air strikes . Shōkaku was badly damaged by six hits from USS Hornet 's dive bombers ; Zuikaku was not spotted or attacked as she was hidden by the overcast conditions , just like at the Battle of the Coral Sea . In exchange , the Japanese crippled Hornet with two torpedoes and three bombs . In addition , two aircraft crashed into the American carrier and inflicted serious damage . Enterprise was also damaged by two bomb hits and a near miss and a destroyer was damaged when it was struck by a B5N . Attacks later in the day further damaged Hornet , which was abandoned and later sunk by Japanese destroyers Makigumo and Akigumo . The Japanese lost nearly half their aircraft that participated in the battle , together with their irreplaceable experienced aircrew . On 2 November , the First Carrier Division was ordered home for repairs and training . Shōkaku 's repairs continued until March 1943 and Zuikaku , together with the recently repaired Zuihō , sailed for Truk on 17 January to support the impending evacuation of Japanese ground forces from Guadalcanal ( Operation Ke ) . On 29 January , the two carriers flew off 47 Zeros to Rabaul and Kahili Airfield , contributing some of their own aircraft and pilots . Zuihō was then used to cover the evacuation , while Zuikaku remained at Truk , together with the two Yamato @-@ class battleships , acting as a fleet in being threatening to sortie at any time . In May , Shōkaku and Zuikaku were assigned to a mission to counterattack the American offensive in the Aleutian Islands , but this operation was cancelled after the Allied victory on Attu on 29 May 1943 . The sister ships were transferred to Truk in July . In response to the carrier raid on Tarawa on 18 September , the carriers and much of the fleet sortied for Eniwetok to search for the American forces before they returned to Truk on 23 September , having failed to locate them . The Japanese had intercepted some American radio traffic that suggested another attack on Wake Island , and on 17 October , Shōkaku and Zuikaku and the bulk of the 1st Fleet sailed for Eniwetok to be in a position to intercept any such attack , but no attack occurred and the fleet returned to Truk . At the beginning of November , the bulk of their air groups were transferred to Rabaul to bolster the defenses there , just in time to help defend the port against the Allied attack a few days later . They accomplished little there , for the loss of over half their number , before returning to Truk on the 13th . The sisters returned to Japan in December . In February 1944 , Shōkaku and Zuikaku were transferred to Singapore . On 1 March the carrier divisions were reorganized with the new fleet carrier Taihō replacing Zuihō in the division . The First Carrier Division sailed in mid @-@ May for Tawi @-@ Tawi in the Philippines . The new base was closer to the oil wells in Borneo on which the IJN relied and also to the Palau and western Caroline Islands where the Japanese expected the next American attack ; the location lacked an airfield on which to train the inexperienced pilots and American submarine activity restricted the ships to the anchorage . = = = Battle of the Philippine Sea = = = The 1st Mobile Fleet was en route to Guimares Island in the central Philippines on 13 June , where they intended to practice carrier operations in an area better protected from submarines , when Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa learned of the American attack on the Mariana Islands the previous day . Upon reaching Guimares , the fleet refueled and sortied into the Philippine Sea where they spotted Task Force 58 on 18 June . At this time , the sister ships mustered 54 Zeros , 60 D4Ys and 36 Nakajima B6N " Jill " torpedo bombers . As the carriers were launching their first airstrike the following morning , Taihō was torpedoed by an American submarine and later sank . Later that morning , Shōkaku was torpedoed by a different submarine , USS Cavalla . The three or four torpedoes started multiple fires in the hangar , which ignited fueling aircraft , in addition to causing heavy flooding . As the bow continued to sink , aircraft and munitions began to slide forward and a bomb in the hangar detonated . This ignited gas and oil fumes which caused a series of four explosions that gutted the ship . Shōkaku sank several minutes later with the loss of 1 @,@ 263 of her crew . 570 men were rescued by a light cruiser and a destroyer . The loss of Taihō and Shōkaku left Zuikaku to recover the Division 's few remaining aircraft after their heavy losses ( only 102 aircraft remained aboard the seven surviving carriers by the evening ) and the 1st Mobile Fleet continued its withdrawal towards Okinawa . The Americans did not spot the Japanese carriers until the afternoon of the following day and launched a large airstrike that only succeeded in hitting Zuikaku with a single bomb that started a fire in the hangar . = = = Battle of Leyte Gulf = = = In October 1944 , Zuikaku was the flagship of Admiral Jisaburo Ozawa 's decoy Northern Force in Operation Shō @-@ Gō 1 , the Japanese counterattack against the Allied landings on Leyte . At this time , the ship had 28 A6M5 Zero fighters , 16 A6M2 Zero fighter @-@ bombers , 7 D4Y reconnaissance aircraft and 15 B6Ns . On the morning of 24 October , she launched 10 fighters , 11 fighter @-@ bombers , 6 torpedo bombers , and 2 reconnaissance aircraft as her contribution to the airstrike intended to attract the attention of the American carriers away from the other task groups that were to destroy the landing forces . This accomplished little else as the Japanese aircraft failed to penetrate past the defending fighters ; the survivors landed at airfields on Luzon . The Americans were preoccupied dealing with the other Japanese naval forces and defending themselves from air attacks and finally found the Northern Force late that afternoon , but Admiral William Halsey , Jr . , commander of Task Force 38 , decided that it was too late in the day to mount an effective strike . He turned all of his ships north to position himself for an attack . The American carriers launched an airstrike shortly after dawn ; Zuikaku was struck by three bombs and one torpedo that started fires in both hangars , damaged one propeller shaft , and gave her a 29 @.@ 5 ° list to port . Fifteen minutes later , the fires were extinguished and the list was reduced to 6 ° by counterflooding . She was mostly ignored by the second wave of attacking aircraft , but was a focus of the third wave that hit her with six more torpedoes and four bombs . The bombs started fires in the hangars , the torpedoes caused major flooding that increased her list , and the order to abandon ship was issued before Zuikaku sank by the stern . Lost with the ship were 49 officers and 794 crewmen , but 47 officers and 815 crewmen were rescued by her escorting destroyers . = = See Also = = List of ships of the Second World War List of ship classes of the Second World War
= Maserati MC12 = The Maserati MC12 is a limited production two @-@ seater sports car produced by Italian car maker Maserati to allow a racing variant to compete in the FIA GT Championship . The car entered production in 2004 , with 25 cars produced . A further 25 were produced in 2005 , making a total of 50 cars available for customers , each of which was pre @-@ sold for € 600 @,@ 000 . Maserati designed and built the car on the chassis of the Enzo Ferrari , but the final car is much larger and has a lower drag coefficient . The MC12 is longer , wider and taller and has a sharper nose and smoother curves than the Enzo Ferrari , which has faster acceleration , better braking performance ( shorter braking distance ) and a higher top speed . The top speed of the Maserati MC12 is 330 kilometres per hour ( 205 mph ) whereas the top speed of the Enzo Ferrari is 350 kilometres per hour ( 217 @.@ 5 mph ) . The MC12 was developed to signal Maserati 's return to racing after 37 years . The road version was produced to homologate the race version . One requirement for participation in the FIA GT is the production of at least 25 road cars . Three GT1 race cars were entered into the FIA GT with great success . Maserati began racing the MC12 in the FIA GT toward the end of the 2004 season , winning the race held at the Zhuhai International Circuit . The racing MC12s were entered into the American Le Mans Series races in 2005 but exceeded the size restrictions and consequently paid weight penalties due to excess range . = = Development = = Under the direction of Giorgio Ascanelli , Maserati began development of an FIA GT @-@ eligible race car . This car , which would eventually be named the MC12 , was initially called the " MCC " ( " Maserati Corse Competizione " ) and it was to be developed simultaneously with a road @-@ going version , the " MCS " ( " Maserati Corse Stradale " ) . Frank Stephenson did the majority of the body styling , but the initial shape was developed during wind tunnel testing from an idea had by Giorgetto Giugiaro . The MCC has a very similar body shape to the MC12 , but there are several key differences , most notably the rear spoiler . Andrea Bertolini served as the chief test driver throughout development , although some testing was done by Michael Schumacher , who frequently tested the MCC at the Fiorano Circuit . During the development process , the MCC name was set aside after Maserati established the car 's official name , MC12 . The car is based heavily on the Enzo Ferrari , using a slightly modified version of the Ferrari Dino V12 , the same gearbox ( but given the unique name of " Maserati Cambiocorsa " ) and the same chassis and track ( length of axle between the wheels ) . The windshield is the only externally visible component shared with the Enzo ; the MC12 has a unique body which is wider , longer and slightly taller . The increased size creates greater downforce across the MC12 's body in addition to the downforce created by the two @-@ metre spoiler . = = Overview = = The MC12 is a two @-@ door coupe with a targa top roof , although the detached roof cannot be stored in the car . The mid @-@ rear layout ( engine between the axles but behind the cabin ) keeps the centre of gravity in the middle of the car , which increases stability and improves the car 's cornering ability . The standing weight distribution is 41 % front and 59 % rear . At speed , however , the downforce provided by the rear spoiler affects this to the extent that at 200 kilometres per hour ( 125 mph ) the downforce is 34 % front and 66 % rear . = = = Interior = = = Even though the car is designed as a homologation vehicle and is a modification of a racing car , the interior is intended to be luxurious . The interior is a mix of gel @-@ coated carbon fibre , blue leather and silver " Brightex " , a synthetic material which was found to be " too expensive for the fashion industry " . The centre console features the characteristic Maserati oval analogue clock and a blue ignition button , but it has been criticised for lacking a radio , car stereo or a place to install an aftermarket sound system . = = = Exterior = = = The body of the car , made entirely of carbon fibre , underwent extensive wind tunnel testing to achieve maximum downforce across all surfaces . As a result , the rear spoiler is two metres ( 79 in ) wide but only 30 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick , the underside of the car is smooth , and the rear bumper has diffusers to take advantage of ground effect . Air is sucked into the engine compartment through the air scoop ; its positioning on top of the cabin makes the car taller than the Enzo . The exterior is available only in the white @-@ and @-@ blue colour scheme , a tribute to the America Camoradi racing team that drove the Maserati Tipo Birdcages in the early 1960s . The car is noted for the awkwardness that results from its size ; very long and wider than a Hummer H2 . This , combined with the lack of a rear window , can make parking the MC12 challenging . = = = Engine = = = The MC12 sports a 232 @-@ kilogram ( 511 lb ) , 5 @,@ 998 cc ( 366 cu in ) Enzo Ferrari @-@ derived V12 engine , mounted at 65 ° . Each cylinder has four valves , lubricated via a dry sump system , and a compression ratio of 11 @.@ 2 : 1 . These combine to provide a maximum torque of 652 newton metres ( 481 lbf · ft ) at 5500 rpm and a maximum power of 630 PS ( 460 kW ; 620 hp ) at 7500 rpm . The redline rpm is indicated at 7500 — despite being safe up to 7700 — whereas the Enzo has its redline at 8200 rpm . The Maserati MC12 can accelerate from 0 to 100 kilometres per hour ( 62 mph ) in 3 @.@ 8 seconds ( though Motor Trend Magazine managed 3 @.@ 7 seconds ) and on to 200 kilometres per hour ( 125 mph ) in 9 @.@ 9 seconds . It can complete a standing ( from stationary ) quarter mile in 11 @.@ 3 seconds with a terminal speed of 200 kilometres per hour ( 125 mph ) or a standing kilometre in 20 @.@ 1 seconds . The maximum speed of the Maserati MC12 is 330 kilometres per hour ( 205 mph ) . Power is fed to the wheels through a rear @-@ mounted , six @-@ speed semi @-@ automatic transmission . The gearbox is the same as the Enzo 's transmission ( tuned to different gear ratios ) but renamed " Maserati Cambiocorsa " . It provides a shift time of just 150 milliseconds , and is mechanical with a 215 @-@ millimetre ( 8 @.@ 5 in ) twin @-@ plate dry clutch . = = = Chassis = = = The MC12 's chassis is a monocoque made of carbon and nomex , with an aluminium sub @-@ chassis at the front and rear . It has a roll bar to provide additional strength , comfort and safety . Double wishbone suspension with push @-@ rod @-@ operated coil springs provide stability and dampers smooth the ride for the passengers . The front of the car can be raised for speed bumps and hills by pressing a button that extends the front suspension . There are two modes for the chassis ' tuning which can also be changed with a button in the cabin : " sport " , the standard setting , and " race " , which features less of the " Bosch ASR " ( anti @-@ slip regulation ) traction control , faster shifts and stiffer suspension . = = = Wheels = = = The MC12 has 480 @-@ millimetre ( 19 in ) wheels with a width of 230 millimetres ( 9 in ) at the front and 330 millimetres ( 13 in ) at the rear . The tyres are " Pirelli P Zero Corsas " with codes of 245 / 35 ZR 19 for the front tyres and 345 / 35 ZR 19 for the rear . The brakes are Brembo disc brakes with a Bosch anti @-@ lock braking system ( ABS ) . The front brakes have a diameter of 380 millimetres ( 15 in ) with six @-@ piston calipers and the rear brakes have a diameter of 335 millimetres ( 13 @.@ 2 in ) with four @-@ piston calipers . The centre @-@ lock wheel nuts that hold the wheels to the chassis are colour @-@ coded ; red on the left of the car , blue on the right . = = Reception = = The car has generally received mixed reviews , with critics saying it is hard to drive , overpriced and too large . Other criticisms include the lack of a trunk , rear window , spare tire and radio , and the way the car 's engine was limited or " drugged " . Current driver for Vitaphone Racing Team , Andrea Bertolini , the chief test driver throughout the development , said the car , " reacts well and is very reliable in its reactions . " The Top Gear television series acquired an MC12 , and test driver The Stig achieved a lap time of 1 : 18 @.@ 9 around the Top Gear track — 0 @.@ 1 seconds faster than his lap in the Enzo Ferrari . Host Jeremy Clarkson also drove it , comparing it to the Maserati Biturbo , a car he disliked . Clarkson criticised the car greatly , pointing out that , unlike the Enzo , it lacks a rear window . He also commented that it is " difficult " due to its size , and , " one of the twitchiest cars " , he has ever driven , meaning a small action by the driver results in an exaggerated reaction from the car . For these reasons , he promptly renamed the car " The MC Hammer " . Regarding the design of a racing car and modification to road standards he said , " is it a racer ? Is it a GT car ? Is it a de @-@ tuned Enzo in a fat suit ? You can 't really tell . " Despite his criticisms he did compliment the smooth ride : This car glides over bumps , the suspension absorbing the roadworker Johnnies ' laziness without transferring a single ripple to the cool blue interior with its Milanese fashion house upholstery . Motor Trend Magazine reviewer Frank Markus had a more positive opinion . Despite initial skepticism he said , " It turns out that the Enzo makes a more comfortable and attractive road car when made over as a butch Maserati racer in street couture " . Markus complimented the stability of braking and the handling ability of the MC12 , especially the drifting allowed by the traction control when cornering , commenting that " There 's none of the knife @-@ edged limit handling we criticised in the more extreme Enzo . It 's even more forgiving at the limit than an Acura NSX . " When Automobile Magazine tested an MC12 , reviewer Preston Lerner called it " user @-@ friendly " , praising the responsiveness and simplicity of driving . Lerner approved of Frank Stephenson 's work with the styling of both the car 's exterior and interior , calling the trim " Speed @-@ Racer @-@ ish " but " without looking as though it belongs in a Nitrous @-@ ized Civic " . He also complimented the ASR 's level of intervention , commenting that it " lets the fun factor get reasonably high before kicking in " . In 2008 Evo Magazine ran the MC12 at Nordschleife and obtained a 7 : 24 @.@ 29 @-@ second lap time . This was also the second time an MC12 recorded a faster lap time than its Ferrari counterpart , with the Enzo lapping the track 1 second slower . = = Racing = = = = = FIA GT = = = In 2004 Maserati completed three MC12 GT1 race cars intended for the FIA GT GT1 class . The AF Corse factory @-@ backed squad debuted the race at Imola , yet the FIA did not allow the MC12 to score points due to its debated homologation . Even with this setback , the team managed to take second and third places . At the next round at Oschersleben , the MC12 of Andrea Bertolini and Mika Salo won for the first time . At the final round of the year at Zhuhai , the FIA finally agreed to homologate the MC12s and allow them to score points towards the championship . With this , the MC12 again took victory , allowing it to score enough points to finish 7th in the teams championship . In 2005 Maserati won the FIA GT Manufacturers Cup with 239 points : almost double the score of next team ( Ferrari with 125 points ) . The two teams that entered MC12s into the FIA GT , Vitaphone Racing and JMB Racing , finished first and second respectively in the Team Cup , with Vitaphone winning by a considerable margin . Four of the MC12 drivers were in the running to win the FIA GT Drivers ' Title at the Bahrain International Circuit at the start of the final race of 2005 : Karl Wendlinger and Andrea Bertolini each on 71 points and Timo Scheider and Michael Bartels on 70 . Gabriele Gardel of Ferrari was also on 70 points , however , and in the crucial race he placed ahead of all of the Maseratis , driving an older Ferrari 550 Maranello . Gardel took the title , leaving all of the Maserati drivers within four points of first place ( Scheider and Wendlinger receiving four points for the race ) . In 2006 the only team representing Maserati was Vitaphone Racing . On September 30 , 2006 , Vitaphone secured the Teams ' Championship for the 2006 season despite their drivers placing 5th and 7th in the Budapest 500 km race with weight penalties of 85 kilograms and 105 kilograms respectively . Bertolini and Bartels also shared first place in the Drivers ' Championship on 71 points but the manufacturers cup went to Aston Martin . Vitaphone Racing again won the GT1 Teams ' Championship in the 2007 season on 115 points , followed by fellow MC12 team Scuderia Playteam Sarafree on 63 points . JMB Racing also entered two MC12s , but they were used by amateur drivers competing in the Citation Cup , which was won by JMB 's driver Ben Aucott . Maserati also won the Manufacturers ' Cup by a significant margin while Thomas Biagi won the Drivers ' Championship . Fellow Vitaphone drivers Miguel Ramos and Christian Montanari tied for sixth , while Playteam 's Andrea Bertolini and Andrea Piccini were just behind . For 2008 , Vitaphone Racing returned with a pair of MC12s for drivers Andrea Bertolini , Michael Bartels , and Miguel Ramos , as well as newcomer Alexandre Negrão . The season ended with another Teams ' Championship for Vitaphone Racing ( 122 @.@ 5 points ) and Drivers ' Championship for Bertolini and Bartels . In the ninth round , the team fielded a third car under the name of Team Vitasystem , driven by Pedro Lamy and Matteo Bobbi which scored one point . JMB Racing retained a single MC12 for 2007 Citation Cup winner Ben Aucott and drivers Peter Kutemann and Alain Ferté , competing in the first five events of the championship . In the 2009 season the Vitaphone Racing won the fifth consecutive Team Championship , while Bertolini and Bartels gained their third Drivers ' Championship . The other two drivers were Miguel Ramos and Alex Müller , who ended in sixth position . Starting from the fourth round , the team entered a third car under the name of Vitaphone Racing Team DHL , driven by Matteo Bobbi and Alessandro Pier Guidi , achieving good results : despite being only a one @-@ car team , with a partial season involvement , they ended the Teams ' Championship in fourth position ( 32 points ) , scoring a victory in the last round . = = = FIA GT1 World Championship = = = With the inauguration of the FIA GT1 World Championship in 2010 , Maserati continued their commitment to the series with two teams entering . Vitaphone Racing Team , the defending FIA GT Champions , won five races en route to the Drivers ' and Teams ' World Championships , but Maserati lost to Aston Martin in the Manufacturers ' Trophy . The second team representing Maserati was Alfrid Heger 's Triple H Team Hegersport . = = = Italian GT = = = MC12s have had great success racing in Italy , and have replaced the GT3 " Maserati Trofeo Light " as Maserati 's representative in the Italian GT Championship . In 2005 Maserati introduced two MC12s to the GT1 division under Scuderia Playteam and Racing Box , with the teams placing first and third overall respectively . The cars were re @-@ entered in 2006 , with Scuderia Playteam again securing overall victory and Racing Box coming second . From 2007 , GT1 cars are not permitted in the championship , and Scuderia Playteam moved to the FIA GT Championship . Racing Box also participated in the non @-@ championship 6 Hours of Vallelunga twice , winning in 2005 with Michele Rugolo , Leonardo Maddelena , and Davide Mastracci , then again in 2006 with Pedro Lamy , Marco Cioci , and Piergiuseppe Perazzini . = = = Super GT = = = In 2006 , the Le Mans winning outfit Team Goh was intending to race a Maserati MC12 in the Super GT series in Japan . However , the team was forced to withdraw because of driver problems ( Jan Magnussen falling ill suddenly and returning to Denmark ) and disappointing lap times at the Suzuka Circuit during testing . While the car was faster than its Super GT rivals down the straights , it was losing more than a second per lap in the corners due to its poorer aerodynamics . = = = American Le Mans Series = = = In 2004 the Maserati MC12s were unable to compete in series backed by the ACO , such as the Le Mans Endurance Series ( LMES ) in Europe and the American Le Mans Series ( ALMS ) because they exceeded both the length and width restrictions for their class . The car 's nose was shortened by 200 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) to attempt to comply with regulations , but was still 66 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) too wide . In 2005 the governing body of the ALMS , the International Motor Sports Association ( IMSA ) , allowed the MC12s to compete as a guest with the agreement that they were not allowed to score championship points and were forced to run a weight penalty . Some ALMS teams initially objected to the participation of the MC12 due to the possibility that an accident could eliminate their chances at the 24 Hours of Le Mans , but the MC12 was finally allowed to race . The ACO stood by their ruling on the car by forbidding it from entering other Le Mans series . The lone MC12 would be campaigned under the Maserati Corse banner , but run by the American Risi Competizione team . The 2005 American Le Mans Series season was not as successful for the team , with the team scoring no wins . In the final race at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca , the MC12 was clipped by a competitor , causing damage that resulted in a lengthy pit stop . After resuming the race , a loss of traction caused by cold tires made the car hit a curb , which broke the radiator and took the MC12 out of the race . In August 2007 , Fredy Lienhard and Didier Theys announced their preparation of a former FIA GT MC12 for use in the American Le Mans Series . The car made its debut at Road America , finishing 3rd in the GT1 class after qualifying competitively . The only other race entered was Round 11 at Road Atlanta for the Petit Le Mans where the team failed to finish following an accident , but were still classified second in class . Doran 's Maserati however had qualified on the class pole . The team selected Michelin tires instead of the Pirellis originally used by Maserati Corse in 2005 , and was also allowed to race with a full @-@ width rear wing instead of the smaller wing used by Maserati Corse and teams in FIA GT , although the wing was not as tall . IMSA also allowed Doran to score points in the American Le Mans Series championships . = = MC12 Versione Corse = = The Corse is a variant of the MC12 intended for racetrack use . In contrast to the race version of the MC12 , of which street @-@ legal versions were produced for homologation purposes , the MC12 Corse is intended for private use , albeit restricted to the track , as the Corse 's modifications make it illegal to drive on the road . The Corse was developed directly from the MC12 GT1 , which won the 2005 FIA GT Manufacturers Cup . The car was released in mid @-@ 2006 , " in response to the customer demand to own the MC12 racing car and fueled by the growth in track days , where owners can drive their cars at high speeds in the safety of a race track " , as stated by Edward Butler , General Manager for Maserati in Australia and New Zealand . In similar fashion to the Ferrari FXX , although the owners are private individuals , Maserati is responsible for the storage , upkeep , and maintenance of the cars , and they are only driven on specially organized track days . Unlike the FXX , Corsas are not used for research and development , and are used only for entertainment . A single MC12 Corsa has been modified by its owner to make it street @-@ legal . Only twelve MC12 Corsas were sold to selected customers , each of whom paid € 1 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 47 million ) for the privilege . Another three vehicles were produced for testing and publicity purposes . The Corsa shares its engine with the MC12 GT1 ; the powerplant produces 755 PS ( 555 kW ; 745 hp ) at 8000 rpm , 122 PS ( 90 kW ; 120 hp ) more than the original MC12 . The MC12 Corse shares the GT1 's shortened nose , which was a requirement for entry into the American Le Mans Series . The car was available in a single standard color , named " Blue Victory " , though the car 's paint could be customized upon request . The MC12 Corse possesses steel / carbon racing brakes , but is not fitted with an anti @-@ lock braking system . = = Birdcage 75th = = The Birdcage 75th is a concept car created by automobile manufacturer Maserati and designed by Pininfarina . It was first introduced at the 2005 Geneva Auto Show . It draws inspiration from the Maserati Tipo 61 Birdcage of the 1960s and was made as a celebration of Pininfarina 's 75th anniversary . It was said that Maserati originally planned to produce this car under the name Maserati MC13 in 2008 , but due to problems with Pininfarina , the plans were never carried out .
= Leonard Harrison State Park = Leonard Harrison State Park is a 585 @-@ acre ( 237 ha ) Pennsylvania state park in Tioga County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is on the east rim of the Pine Creek Gorge , also known as the Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania , which is 800 feet ( 240 m ) deep and nearly 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) across here . It also serves as headquarters for the adjoining Colton Point State Park , its sister park on the west rim of the gorge . Leonard Harrison State Park is known for its views of the Pine Creek Gorge , and offers hiking , fishing and hunting , whitewater boating , and camping . The park is in Shippen and Delmar Townships , 10 miles ( 16 km ) west of Wellsboro at the western terminus of Pennsylvania Route 660 . Pine Creek flows through the park and has carved the gorge through five major rock formations from the Devonian and Carboniferous periods . Native Americans once used the Pine Creek Path along the creek . The path was later used by lumbermen , and then became the course of a railroad from 1883 to 1988 . Since 1996 , the 63 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 102 @.@ 0 km ) Pine Creek Rail Trail has followed the creek through the park . The Pine Creek Gorge was named a National Natural Landmark in 1968 and is also protected as a Pennsylvania State Natural Area and Important Bird Area , while Pine Creek is a Pennsylvania Scenic and Wild River . The gorge is home to many species of plants and animals , some of which have been reintroduced to the area . Although the Pine Creek Gorge was clearcut in the 19th and early 20th centuries , it is now covered by second growth forest , thanks in part to the conservation efforts of the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) in the 1930s . The park is named for Leonard Harrison , a Wellsboro lumberman who cut the timber there , then established the park , which he donated to the state in 1922 . The CCC improved the park and built many of its original facilities . Since a successful publicity campaign in 1936 , the park has been a popular tourist destination and attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors each year . Leonard Harrison State Park was chosen by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources ( DCNR ) Bureau of Parks for its " 25 Must @-@ See Pennsylvania State Parks " list , which praised its " spectacular vistas and a fabulous view of Pine Creek Gorge , also known as Pennsylvania 's Grand Canyon " . = = History = = = = = Native Americans = = = Humans have lived in what is now Pennsylvania since at least 10 @,@ 000 BC . The first settlers were Paleo @-@ Indian nomadic hunters known from their stone tools . The hunter @-@ gatherers of the Archaic period , which lasted locally from 7000 to 1000 BC , used a greater variety of more sophisticated stone artifacts . The Woodland period marked the gradual transition to semi @-@ permanent villages and horticulture , between 1000 BC and 1500 AD . Archeological evidence found in the state from this time includes a range of pottery types and styles , burial mounds , pipes , bows and arrows , and ornaments . Leonard Harrison State Park is in the West Branch Susquehanna River drainage basin , the earliest recorded inhabitants of which were the Iroquoian @-@ speaking Susquehannocks . They were a matriarchal society that lived in stockaded villages of large long houses , and " occasionally inhabited " the mountains surrounding the Pine Creek Gorge . Their numbers were greatly reduced by disease and warfare with the Five Nations of the Iroquois , and by 1675 they had died out , moved away , or been assimilated into other tribes . After this , the lands of the West Branch Susquehanna River valley were under the nominal control of the Iroquois . The Iroquois lived in long houses , primarily in what is now New York , and had a strong confederacy which gave them power beyond their numbers . They and other tribes used the Pine Creek Path through the gorge , traveling between a path on the Genesee River in modern New York in the north , and the Great Shamokin Path along the West Branch Susquehanna River in the south . The Seneca tribe of the Iroquois believed that Pine Creek Gorge was sacred land and never established a permanent settlement there . They used the path through the gorge and had seasonal hunting camps along it , including one just north of the park near what is now the village of Ansonia . To fill the void left by the demise of the Susquehannocks , the Iroquois encouraged displaced tribes from the east to settle in the West Branch watershed , including the Shawnee and Lenape ( or Delaware ) . The French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1763 ) led to the migration of many Native Americans westward to the Ohio River basin . On November 5 , 1768 , the British acquired the New Purchase from the Iroquois in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix , including what is now Leonard Harrison State Park . The Purchase line established by this treaty was disputed , as it was unclear whether the border along " Tiadaghton Creek " referred to present @-@ day Pine Creek or to Lycoming Creek , further to the east . As a result , the land between them was disputed territory until 1784 and the Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix . After the American Revolutionary War , Native Americans almost entirely left Pennsylvania , although some isolated bands of Natives remained in Pine Creek Gorge until the War of 1812 . = = = Lumber era = = = Prior to the arrival of William Penn and his Quaker colonists in 1682 , up to 90 percent of what is now Pennsylvania was covered with woods : more than 31 @,@ 000 square miles ( 80 @,@ 000 km2 ) of eastern white pine , eastern hemlock , and a mix of hardwoods . The forests near the three original counties , Philadelphia , Bucks , and Chester , were the first to be harvested , as the early settlers used the readily available timber to build homes , barns , and ships , and cleared the land for agriculture . The demand for wood products slowly increased and by the time of the American Revolution the lumber industry had reached the interior and mountainous regions of Pennsylvania . Lumber thus became one of the leading industries in Pennsylvania . Trees were used to furnish fuel to heat homes , tannin for the many tanneries that were spread throughout the state , and wood for construction , furniture , and barrel making . Large areas of forest were harvested by colliers to fire iron furnaces . Rifle stocks and shingles were made from Pennsylvania timber , as were a wide variety of household utensils , and the first Conestoga wagons . By the early 19th century the demand for lumber reached the Pine Creek Gorge , where the surrounding mountainsides were covered with eastern white pine 3 to 6 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 to 1 @.@ 8 m ) in diameter and 150 feet ( 46 m ) or more tall , eastern hemlock 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) in circumference , and huge hardwoods . Each acre ( 0 @.@ 4 ha ) of these virgin forests produced 100 @,@ 000 board feet ( 236 m3 ) of white pine and 200 @,@ 000 board feet ( 472 m3 ) of hemlock and hardwoods . For comparison , the same area of forest today produces a total of only 5 @,@ 000 board feet ( 11 @.@ 8 m3 ) on average . According to Steven E. Owlett , environmental lawyer and author , shipbuilders considered pine from Pine Creek the " best timber in the world for making fine ship masts " , so it was the first lumber to be harvested on a large scale . Pine Creek was declared a public highway by the Pennsylvania General Assembly on March 16 , 1798 , and rafts of spars were floated down the creek to the Susquehanna River , then to the Chesapeake Bay and the shipbuilders at Baltimore . The lumbermen would then walk home , following the old Pine Creek Path at the end of their journey . A spar sold for one dollar and three spars up to 90 feet ( 27 m ) long were lashed together to make a ship 's mast . The largest spar produced on Pine Creek was 43 inches ( 110 cm ) in diameter 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) above the base , 93 feet ( 28 m ) long , and 33 inches ( 84 cm ) in diameter at the top . By 1840 , Tioga County alone produced over 452 such spar rafts with more than 22 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 board feet ( 52 @,@ 000 m3 ) of lumber . As the 19th century progressed , fewer pines were left and more hemlocks and hardwoods were cut and processed locally . By 1810 there were 11 sawmills in the Pine Creek watershed , and by 1840 there were 145 , despite a flood in 1832 which wiped out nearly all the mills along the creek . Selective harvesting of pines was replaced by clearcutting of all lumber in a tract . The first lumbering activity to take place close to what is now Leonard Harrison State Park occurred in 1838 when William Dodge and some partners built a settlement at Big Meadows and formed the Pennsylvania Joint Land and Lumber Company . Dodge 's company purchased thousands of acres of land in the area , including what is now Colton Point State Park . In 1865 the last pine spar raft floated down the creek , and on March 28 , 1871 the General Assembly passed a law allowing splash dam construction and clearing of creeks to allow loose logs to float better . The earliest spring log drives floated up to 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 board feet ( 47 @,@ 000 m3 ) of logs in Pine Creek at one time . These logs floated to the West Branch Susquehanna River and to sawmills near the Susquehanna Boom at Williamsport . Hemlock wood was not widely used until the advent of wire nails , but the bark was used to tan leather . After 1870 the largest tanneries in the world were in the Pine Creek watershed , and required 2 @,@ 000 pounds ( 910 kg ) of bark to produce 150 pounds ( 68 kg ) of quality sole leather . In 1883 the Jersey Shore , Pine Creek and Buffalo Railway opened , following the creek through the gorge . The new railroad used the relatively level route along Pine Creek to link the New York Central Railroad with the Clearfield Coalfield . In the surrounding forests , log drives gave way to logging railroads , which transported lumber to local sawmills . There were 13 companies operating logging railroads along Pine Creek and its tributaries between 1886 and 1921 , while the last log drive in the Pine Creek watershed started on Little Pine Creek in 1905 . The west rim , which became Colton Point State Park , had a logging railroad by 1903 , which was able to harvest lumber on Fourmile Run that had been previously inaccessible . The old @-@ growth forests were clearcut by the early 20th century and the gorge was stripped bare . Nothing was left except the dried @-@ out tree tops , which became a fire hazard , so much of the land burned and was left barren . On May 6 , 1903 the Wellsboro newspaper had the headline " Wild Lands Aflame " and reported landslides through the gorge . The soil was depleted of nutrients , fires baked the ground hard , and jungles of blueberries , blackberries , and mountain laurel covered the clearcut land , which became known as the " Pennsylvania Desert " . Disastrous floods swept the area periodically and much of the wildlife was wiped out . = = = Nessmuk and Leonard Harrison = = = George Washington Sears , an early conservationist who wrote under the pen name " Nessmuk " , was one of the first to criticize Pennsylvania lumbering and its destruction of forests and creeks . In his 1884 book Woodcraft he wrote of the Pine Creek watershed where A huge tannery ... poisons and blackens the stream with chemicals , bark and ooze . ... The once fine covers and thickets are converted into fields thickly dotted with blackened stumps . And , to crown the desolation , heavy laden trains of ' The Pine Creek and Jersey Shore R.R. ' go thundering [ by ] almost hourly ... Of course , this is progress ; but , whether backward or forward , had better be decided sixty years hence . Nessmuk 's words went mostly unheeded in his lifetime and did not prevent the clearcutting of almost all of the virgin forests in Pennsylvania . Sears lived in Wellsboro from 1844 until his death in 1890 , and was the first to describe the Pine Creek Gorge . He also described a trip to what became Leonard Harrison State Park : after a 6 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) buggy ride , he then had to hike 7 miles ( 11 km ) through tangles of fallen trees and branches , down ravines , and over banks for five hours . At least he reached " The Point " , which he wrote was " the jutting terminus of a high ridge which not only commands a capital view of the opposite mountain , but also of the Pine Creek Valley , up and down for miles " . A Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission ( PHMC ) state historical marker commemorating Nessmuk was dedicated in the park in 1972 . The creation of the park was the work of Leonard Harrison , a former lumberman and businessman from Wellsboro who owned a substantial amount of land in the Pine Creek Gorge . In the 1890s Harrison operated a sawmill at Tiadaghton in the middle of the gorge , which was supplied with logs , not by train as was most common in that era , but by a log slide built into the side of the gorge . The log slide was used on a year @-@ round basis : during the winter the logs slid down on ice ; following the snowmelt the slide was greased to ease the descent of the logs . After the village and the mill were destroyed by a fire , Harrison turned his attention to tourism . He purchased 121 acres ( 49 ha ) of land at the site of the current park in 1906 , then developed this land , known as " The Lookout " , and invited the public to enjoy the beauty of Pine Creek Gorge . Harrison donated the picnic grounds to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in 1922 . Although the park was donated to the state , the Wellsboro Chamber of Commerce made initial improvements there and operated it for the first two decades . Elsewhere in the gorge the state bought land abandoned by lumber companies , sometimes for less than $ 2 per acre ( $ 5 per ha ) . Except for the adjoining Colton Point State Park , this land became the Tioga State Forest , which was officially established in 1925 and lies just north and south of the park . As of 2008 the state forest encompasses 160 @,@ 000 acres ( 65 @,@ 000 ha ) , mostly in Tioga County . = = = Modern era = = = Despite its status as Leonard Harrison State Forest Park , it took time for the park to become more well known . Access to the park over small roads was still difficult . An elderly woman who had lived nearby all her life visited the park for the first time in 1932 and asked , on seeing the gorge , " How long has this been here ? " The Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) improved access and constructed many of the amenities at Leonard Harrison park from 1933 to 1936 , during the Great Depression . Leonard Harrison State Park is one of many examples of the work of the CCC throughout north @-@ central Pennsylvania . The CCC built picnic and comfort facilities , made roads and trails ( often following old logging roads ) , and planted stands of white pine , spruce and larch . Some of the CCC @-@ constructed facilities remain and are still used , and the park has hosted a reunion of former CCC workers each summer since 1990 . In 1936 Larry Woodin of Wellsboro and other Tioga County business owners began a tourism campaign to promote the Pine Creek Gorge as " The Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania " . Greyhound Bus Lines featured a view of the canyon from a Leonard Harrison lookout on the back cover of its Atlantic Coast timetable . The bus line 's Chicago to New York City tour had an overnight stay in Wellsboro and a morning visit to the canyon for $ 3 . More than 300 @,@ 000 tourists visited the canyon by the autumn of 1936 , and 15 @,@ 000 visited Leonard Harrison over Memorial Day weekend in 1937 . That year more visitors came to the Pine Creek Gorge than to Yellowstone National Park . In response to the heavy use of the local roads , the CCC widened the highways in the area , and guides from the CCC gave tours of the canyon . A PHMC state historical marker honoring the CCC 's work in the park and county was dedicated on June 3 , 1995 . Near the lookout over the gorge there is a bronze statue of a " Tioga County CCC Worker " , unveiled on August 14 , 1999 , as a monument to the achievements of the CCC . After the Second World War the state took over operation of the park , and expanded its size beyond the original land donated by Harrison : six purchases between 1946 and 1949 increased the park 's area from 128 acres ( 52 ha ) to 585 acres ( 237 ha ) at a cost of $ 26 @,@ 328 . The Pennsylvania Geographic Board dropped the word Forest and officially named it Leonard Harrison State Park on November 11 , 1954 . The park was improved in the following decade with the completion of new latrines ( 1963 ) and a new concession stand and visitor center ( 1968 ) . Pine Creek was named a state scenic river on December 4 , 1992 , which ensured further protection of Pine Creek Gorge in its natural state . In 1997 the park 's Important Bird Area ( IBA ) was one of the first 73 IBAs established in Pennsylvania . In 2000 the park became part of the Hills Creek State Park complex , an administrative grouping of eight state parks in Potter and Tioga counties . In 2005 the state began a $ 1 @.@ 2 million upgrade of park facilities , including a new maintenance building , the replacement of three pit latrines at the overlook and campground , the addition of showers at the campground , and the conversion of all restrooms to flush toilets . The second half of the 20th century saw great changes in the rail line through the park . Regular passenger service on the canyon line ended after the Second World War , and in 1960 the second set of train tracks was removed . Conrail abandoned the section of the railroad passing through the gorge on September 21 , 1988 . The right @-@ of @-@ way eventually became the Pine Creek Rail Trail , which follows the path of the former Pine Creek Path . The first section of the rail trail opened in 1996 and included the 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) section in the park : as of 2008 the Pine Creek Rail Trail is 63 @.@ 5 miles ( 102 @.@ 2 km ) long . Leonard Harrison State Park continued to attract national attention in the post @-@ war era . The New York Times featured the park and its " breath @-@ taking views of the gorge " as well as its trails and picnic groves in a 1950 article , and in 1966 praised the whitewater boating on Pine Creek and the park 's " outstanding look @-@ out points " . The Pine Creek Gorge , including Leonard Harrison and Colton Point State Parks and a 12 @-@ mile ( 19 km ) section of Tioga State Forest , was named a National Natural Landmark ( NNL ) in April 1968 . The plaque for the entire NNL is on the lookout terrace of Leonard Harrison State Park . Another New York Times article on whitewater canoeing in 1973 noted the damage along the creek done by Hurricane Agnes the year before , and Leonard Harrison 's waterfalls . In the new millennium , the two state parks on either side of the Pine Creek Gorge are frequently treated as one . A 2002 New York Times article called Leonard Harrison and Colton Point state parks " Two State Parks , Divided by a Canyon " and noted their " overlooks offer the most spectacular views " . Leonard Harrison and Colton Point were each included in the list of state parks chosen by the DCNR Pennsylvania Bureau of Parks for its " 25 Must @-@ See Pennsylvania State Parks " list . The DCNR describes how they " offer spectacular vistas and a fabulous view of Pine Creek Gorge , also known as Pennsylvania 's Grand Canyon " . It goes on to praise their inclusion in a National Natural Landmark and State Park Natural Area , hiking and trails , and the Pine Creek Rail Trail and bicycling . = = Pine Creek Gorge = = Leonard Harrison State Park lies on the east side of the Pine Creek Gorge , also known as the Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania . A sister park , Colton Point State Park , is on the west side , and the two parks combined form essentially one large park that includes parts of the gorge and creek and parts of the plateau dissected by the gorge . Pine Creek has carved the gorge nearly 47 miles ( 76 km ) through the dissected Allegheny Plateau in northcentral Pennsylvania . The canyon begins in southwestern Tioga County , just south of the village of Ansonia , and continues south to near the village of Waterville in Lycoming County . The depth of the gorge in Colton Point State Park is about 800 feet ( 240 m ) and it measures nearly 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) across . The Pine Creek Gorge National Natural Landmark includes Colton Point and Leonard Harrison State Parks and parts of the Tioga State Forest along 12 miles ( 19 km ) of Pine Creek between Ansonia and Blackwell . This federal program does not provide any extra protection beyond that offered by the land owner . The National Park Service 's designation of the gorge as a National Natural Landmark notes that it " contains superlative scenery , geological and ecological value , and is one of the finest examples of a deep gorge in the eastern United States . " The gorge is also protected by the state of Pennsylvania as the 12 @,@ 163 @-@ acre ( 4 @,@ 922 ha ) Pine Creek Gorge Natural Area , which is the second largest State Natural Area in Pennsylvania . Within this area , 699 acres ( 283 ha ) of Colton Point and Leonard Harrison State Parks are designated a State Park Natural Area . The state Natural Area runs along Pine Creek from Darling Run in the north ( just below Ansonia ) to Jerry Run in the south ( just above Blackwell ) . It is approximately 12 miles ( 19 km ) long and 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) wide , with state forest roads providing all of the western border and part of the eastern border . Within the park , Pine Creek and the walls of the gorge " visible from the opposite shoreline " are also protected by the state as a Pennsylvania Scenic River . In 1968 Pine Creek was one of only 27 rivers originally designated as eligible to be included in the National Wild and Scenic River system , and one of only eight specifically mentioned in the law establishing the program . Before Pine Creek could be included in the federal program , the state enacted its State Scenic Rivers Act , then asked that Pine Creek be withdrawn from the national designation . However , there was much local opposition to its inclusion on the state 's list , based at least partly on mistaken fears that protection would involve seizure of private property and restricted access . Eventually this opposition was overcome , but Pennsylvania did not officially include it as one of its own state Scenic and Wild Rivers until November 25 , 1992 . The state treated Pine Creek as if it were a state scenic river between 1968 and 1992 . It protected the creek from dam @-@ building and water withdrawals for power plants , and added public access points to reduce abuse of private property . = = Geology and climate = = Although the rock formations exposed in Leonard Harrison State Park and the Pine Creek Gorge are at least 300 million years old , the gorge itself formed only about 20 @,@ 000 years ago , in the last ice age . Pine Creek had flowed northeasterly until then , but was dammed by rocks , soil , ice , and other debris deposited by the receding Laurentide Continental Glacier . The dammed creek formed a lake near the present village of Ansonia , and the lake 's glacial meltwater overflowed the debris dam , which caused a reversal of the flow of Pine Creek . The creek flooded to the south and quickly carved a deep channel on its way to the West Branch Susquehanna River . The park is at an elevation of 1 @,@ 821 feet ( 555 m ) on the Allegheny Plateau , which formed in the Alleghenian orogeny some 300 million years ago , when Gondwana ( specifically what became Africa ) and what became North America collided , forming Pangaea . While the gorge and its surroundings appear mountainous , these are not true mountains : instead years of erosion have made this a dissected plateau , causing the " mountainous " terrain seen today . The hardest of the ancient rocks are on top of the ridges , while the softer rocks eroded away forming the valleys . The land on which Leonard Harrison State Park sits has undergone tremendous change over the last 400 million years . It was once part of the coastline of a shallow sea that covered a great portion of what is now North America . The high mountains to the east of the sea gradually eroded , causing a buildup of sediment made up primarily of clay , sand and gravel . Tremendous pressure on the sediment caused the formation of the rocks that are found today in the Pine Creek drainage basin : sandstone , shale , conglomerates , limestone , and coal . Five major rock formations are present in Leonard Harrison State Park , from the Devonian and Carboniferous periods . The youngest of these , which forms the highest points in the park and along the gorge , is the early Pennsylvanian Pottsville Formation , a gray conglomerate that may contain sandstone , siltstone , and shale , as well as anthracite coal . Low @-@ sulfur coal was once mined at three locations within the Pine Creek watershed . Below this is the late Mississippian Mauch Chunk Formation , which is formed with grayish @-@ red shale , siltstone , sandstone , and conglomerate . Millstones were once carved from the exposed sections of this conglomerate . Together the Pottsville and Mauch Chunk formations are some 300 feet ( 91 m ) thick . Next below these is the late Devonian and early Mississippian Huntley Mountain Formation , which is made of grayish @-@ red shale and olive @-@ gray sandstone . This is relatively hard rock and forms many of the ridges . Below this is the red shale and siltstone of the Catskill Formation , about 760 feet ( 230 m ) thick and some 375 million years old . This layer is relatively soft and easily eroded , which helped to form the Pine Creek Gorge . Cliffs formed by the Huntley Mountain and Catskill formations are visible north of the park at Barbour Rock . The lowest and oldest layer is the Lock Haven Formation , which is gray to green @-@ brown siltstone and shale over 400 million years old . It forms the base of the gorge , contains marine fossils , and is up to 600 feet ( 180 m ) thick . The dominant soil in Leonard Harrison State Park is somewhat excessively drained Oquaga channery loam , which is often associated with well drained Lordstown channery loam . Much of the campground near the eastern boundary is supported by Morris gravelly silt loam , which is somewhat poorly drained due to a subsoil fragipan . The Oquaga tends to be very strongly acidic ( pH 4 @.@ 8 ) , Morris is strongly acidic ( pH 5 @.@ 3 ) and Lordstown is moderately acidic ( pH 5 @.@ 5 ) . All of these soils belong to the Inceptisol soil order . The Allegheny Plateau has a continental climate , with occasional severe low temperatures in winter and average daily temperature ranges of 20 ° F ( 11 ° C ) in winter and 26 ° F ( 14 ° C ) in summer . The mean annual precipitation for the Pine Creek watershed is 36 to 42 inches ( 914 to 1 @,@ 070 mm ) . The highest recorded temperature at the park was 104 ° F ( 40 ° C ) in 1936 , and the record low was − 30 ° F ( − 34 ° C ) in 1934 . On average , July is the hottest month at Leonard Harrison , January is the coldest , and June the wettest . = = Ecology = = Descriptions from early explorers and settlers give some idea of what the Pine Creek Gorge was like before it was clearcut . The forest was up to 85 percent hemlock and white pine , with the rest hardwoods . Many animal species that are now vanished inhabited the area . A herd of 12 @,@ 000 American bison migrated along the West Branch Susquehanna River in 1773 . Pine Creek was home to large predators such as wolves , lynx , wolverines , panthers , fishers , foxes and bobcats , all save the last three now locally extinct . The area had herds of elk and deer , and large numbers of black bears , river otters , and beavers . In 1794 , two of the earliest white explorers to travel up Pine Creek found so many rattlesnakes on its banks that they had to sleep in their canoe . Further upstream , insects forced them to do the same . The virgin forests cooled the land and streams . Centuries of accumulated organic matter in the forest soil caused slow percolation of rainfall into the creeks and runs , so they flowed more evenly year @-@ round . Pine Creek was home to large numbers of fish , including trout , but dams downstream on the Susquehanna River have eliminated the shad , salmon , and eels once found in the creek . The clearcutting of forests destroyed habitat for animals , but there was also a great deal of hunting , with bounties paid for large predators . = = = State Natural Area and wildlife = = = While Leonard Harrison and Colton Point State Parks and parts of the surrounding Tioga State Forest are now the Pine Creek Gorge National Natural Landmark , it is their status as part of a Pennsylvania State Natural Area that provides the strongest protection for them . Within this Natural Area , all logging , mining , and oil and gas drilling are prohibited , and only foot trail access is allowed . In 1988 the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources , precursor to the DCNR , described it as about 95 % State owned , unroaded , and designated the Pine Creek Gorge Natural Area . It is a place of unique geologic history and contains some rare plant communities , an old growth hemlock stand , ... active bald eagle nest [ s ] ... and is a major site of river otter reintroduction . Departmental policy is protection of the natural values of the Canyon from development and overuse , and restoration of the area to as near a natural condition as possible . The gorge has over 225 species of wildflowers , plants and trees , with scattered stands of old growth forest on some of its steepest walls . The rest of the gorge is covered with thriving second growth forest that can be over one hundred years old . However , since clearcutting , nearly 90 percent of the forest land has burnt at least once . Typical south @-@ facing slopes here have mountain laurel below oak and hickory trees , while north @-@ facing slopes tend to have ferns below hemlocks and hardwoods . Large chestnuts and black cherry can also be found . The Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania is known for its fall foliage , and Leonard Harrison State Park is a popular place to observe the colors , with the first three weeks of October as the best time to see the leaves in their full color . Red leaves are found on red maple , red oak , and black cherry , while orange and yellow leaves are on black walnut , sugar maple , aspen , birch , tulip poplar and chestnut oak , and brown leaves are from beech , white oak , and eastern black oak trees . Plants of " special concern " in Pennsylvania that are found in the gorge include Jacob 's ladder , wild pea , and hemlock parsley . There are over 40 species of mammals in the Pine Creek Gorge . Leonard Harrison State Park 's extensive forest cover makes it a habitat for " big woods " wildlife , including white @-@ tailed deer , black bear , wild turkey , red and gray squirrels . Less common creatures include bobcats , coyote , fishers , river otters , and timber rattlesnakes . There are over 26 species of fish in Pine Creek , including trout , suckers , fallfish , and rock bass . Other aquatic species include crayfish and frogs . Several species have been reintroduced to the gorge . White @-@ tailed deer were imported from Michigan and released throughout Pennsylvania to reestablish what had once been a thriving population . The current population of deer in Pennsylvania are descended from the original stock introduced beginning in 1906 , after the lumberman had moved out of the area . The deer population has grown so much that today they exceed their carrying capacity in many areas . River otters were successfully reintroduced in 1983 and now breed in the gorge . Despite the fears of anglers , their diet is only 5 percent trout . Fishers , medium @-@ sized weasels , were reintroduced to Pine Creek Gorge as part of an effort to establish a healthy population of fishers in Pennsylvania . Prior to the lumber era , fishers were numerous throughout the forests of Pennsylvania . They are generalized predators and will hunt any smaller creatures in their territory , including porcupines . Elk have been reintroduced west of the gorge in Clinton County and occasionally wander near the west rim of the canyon . Coyotes have come back on their own . Invasive insect species in the gorge include gypsy moths , which eat all the leaves off trees , especially oaks , and hemlock woolly adelgids , which weaken and kill hemlocks . Invasive plant species include purple loosestrife and Japanese knotweed . = = = Important Bird Area = = = Leonard Harrison State Park is part of Important Bird Area # 28 , which encompasses 31 @,@ 790 acres ( 12 @,@ 860 ha ) of both publicly and private held land . State managed acreage accounts for 68 percent of the total area and includes Leonard Harrison and Colton Point State Parks and the surrounding Tioga State Forest lands . The Pennsylvania Audubon Society has designated all 585 acres ( 237 ha ) of Leonard Harrison State Park as part of the IBA , which is an area designated as a globally important habitat for the conservation of bird populations . Ornithologists and bird watchers have recorded a total of 128 species of birds in the IBA . Several factors contribute to the high total of bird species observed : there is a large area of forest in the IBA , as well as great habitat diversity , with 343 acres ( 139 ha ) of open water that is used by many of the birds , especially bald eagles . The location of the IBA along the Pine Creek Gorge also contributes to the diverse bird populations . In addition to bald eagles , which live in the IBA year round and have successfully established a breeding population there , the IBA is home to belted kingfishers , scarlet tanagers , black @-@ throated blue warblers , common mergansers , blue and green heron , hermit thrushes , and wood ducks . Large numbers of ospreys use the gorge during spring and fall migration periods . The woodlands are inhabited by the ruffed grouse , Pennsylvania 's state bird , and wild turkeys . Swainson 's thrush breeds in the IBA and the northern harrier breeds and overwinters in Pine Creek Gorge . A variety of warblers is found in Leonard Harrison State Park . The Pennsylvania Audubon Society states that Pine Creek Gorge is " especially rich in warbler species , including Pine , Black @-@ throated Blue , Black @-@ throated Green , Blackburnian , and Black @-@ and @-@ white . " Many of these smaller birds are more often heard than seen as they keep away from the trails and overlooks . = = Recreation = = = = = Trails = = = Leonard Harrison State Park is a destination for avid hikers , with some challenging hikes in and around the Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania . The park has 4 @.@ 6 miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) of trails that feature very rugged terrain , pass close to steep cliffs , and can be slick in some areas . In 2003 , the DCNR reported that 37 @,@ 775 people used the trails in the park , and another 24 @,@ 407 bicycled in it . Overlook Trail is a 0 @.@ 6 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 97 km ) path to Otter View , a vista looking to the south . This moderately difficult loop passes reminders of the CCC 's work in the park , including a plantation of red pines and an old incinerator . Turkey Path is a difficult trail , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) long ( down and back ) , that follows Little Fourmile Run down the side of the canyon , descending over 800 feet ( 240 m ) to Pine Creek and the rail trail at the bottom of the gorge . It was originally a mule drag used to haul timber to the creek . There are several waterfalls on the trail , which passes through an environmentally sensitive area and is on a steep slope . Hikers are encouraged to remain on the path to reduce erosion and protect fragile plant life along the trail . In 2006 a hiker who had left the path slipped near a waterfall and fell to his death . A vista at the halfway point on Turkey Path was constructed in 1978 by the Youth Conservation Corps . Hand rails , steps and observation decks were added to the path in 1993 by the Pennsylvania Conservation Corps . The park website classifies it as a " down and back trail " since there is no bridge across Pine Creek . However , there is also a Turkey Path from Colton Point State Park on the west rim of the gorge down to a point on Pine Creek just upstream of the end of this trail . According to Owlett and the DCNR Pine Creek Rail Trail map , the creek can be forded with care when the water is low , and the Turkey Path connects the two parks . Pine Creek Rail Trail is a 63 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 102 @.@ 0 km ) rail trail from Wellsboro Junction , just north of Wellsboro , south through the Pine Creek Gorge to Jersey Shore : 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of this trail is in Leonard Harrison and Colton Point State Parks . A 2001 article in USA Today said the scenic beauty of the Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania made the trail one of " 10 great places to take a bike tour " in the world . = = = Camping and picnics = = = Camping is a popular pastime at Leonard Harrison State Park , with 3 @,@ 511 persons using the rustic camping facilities in 2003 . The DCNR classifies camping facilities as " rustic " if they do not have flush toilets or showers . The state has renovated the park camping area since 2003 , building modern bathrooms with flush toilets and hot showers , and no longer considers it " rustic " . The park has updated electric sites for RV campers as well . The campground has picnic tables and fire rings . The park has almost 100 picnic tables for use ; seven of these tables are in shelters . The park hosted some 29 @,@ 150 picnickers in 2003 . = = = Hunting , fishing , and whitewater = = = Hunting is permitted on about 250 acres ( 100 ha ) of Leonard Harrison State Park : hunters are expected to follow the rules and regulations of the Pennsylvania State Game Commission . The common game species are ruffed grouse , eastern gray squirrel , wild turkey , white @-@ tailed deer , and black bear ; however , hunting groundhog is prohibited . Additional acres of forested woodlands are available for hunting on the grounds of the adjacent Tioga State Forest . Fishing is permitted at the state park , though anglers must descend the Turkey Path to reach Pine Creek . This has been designated as approved trout waters by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission , which means the waters will be stocked with trout and may be fished during trout season . Other species of fish found in Pine Creek include smallmouth bass and some panfish . Several small trout streams are accessible from within the park , which had 2 @,@ 597 anglers in 2003 . Historically , fishermen of note on the stretch of Pine Creek in the park include President Theodore Roosevelt and Pennsylvania Governor William A. Stone . Edward Gertler writes in Keystone Canoeing that Pine Creek " is possibly Pennsylvania 's most famous canoe stream " and attributes this partly to the thousands who decide to boat on it after they " peer into Pine Creek 's spectacular abyss from the overlooks of Leonard Harrison and Colton Point state parks " . The park contains 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of Pine Creek , which is Class 1 to Class 2 whitewater here . Boaters do not normally start or end their run in the park , which has no launches : it is part of the 16 @.@ 8 @-@ mile ( 27 @.@ 0 km ) trip from Ansonia ( Marsh Creek ) south to Blackwell ( Babb Creek ) . = = Nearby state parks = = Leonard Harrison State Park is mostly in Shippen Township , with a small portion in Delmar Township north of Stowell Run . It is 10 miles ( 16 km ) west of Wellsboro at the western terminus of Pennsylvania Route 660 . The following state parks are within 30 miles ( 48 km ) of the park :
= Zero Sum ( The X @-@ Files ) = " Zero Sum " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on April 27 , 1997 . It was directed by Kim Manners , and written by Frank Spotnitz and Howard Gordon . " Zero Sum " included appearances by William B. Davis , Laurie Holden and Morris Panych . The episode helped to explore the overarching mythology , or fictional history of The X @-@ Files . " Zero Sum " earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 7 , being watched by 18 @.@ 6 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode has received mixed to positive responses from critics . The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , a case Mulder is asked to investigate is covertly covered up by the agents ' boss Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) , who has made a sinister bargain with The Smoking Man ( Davis ) . The decision to center another episode around Skinner — following the third season episode " Avatar " — was made when Gillian Anderson took a week off to shoot the film The Mighty . Rather than have Duchovny carry the additional workload , the writing staff decided to focus the episode on supporting cast members . " Zero Sum " was the final appearance in the series by Morris Panych . In addition , the episode saw the return of the virus @-@ carrying bees from the season @-@ opener " Herrenvolk " and would later return in the 1998 feature film . = = Plot = = At a postal routing center in Vienna , Virginia a woman is killed by a swarm of bees in the bathroom while taking a cigarette break . Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) , working for The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) , covers up the death by deleting the file on the case from agent Fox Mulder 's ( David Duchovny ) computer , cleaning up all the evidence at the scene , burning the woman 's body in an incinerator and replacing the police 's blood sample for the case by posing as Mulder . As he leaves the police station , Skinner is chased down by Detective Ray Thomas , who believes he is Mulder . Skinner tells him there is nothing on the case warranting his involvement , and leaves . Shortly after Skinner arrives home he is met by Mulder , who tells him about the case and the fact that someone is going to great lengths to cover it up . Mulder reveals that Detective Thomas was killed , which shocks Skinner . Mulder tells Skinner that Scully is undergoing tests regarding her cancer . Later that night Skinner meets with The Smoking Man , who is accompanied by Thomas ' murderer , the Gray Haired Man ( Morris Panych ) . Skinner is angry that Thomas was killed and wants to end their arrangement , which The Smoking Man refuses to allow . Mulder calls Skinner , telling him about the woman 's body being burned and the blood evidence being tampered with . Mulder tells Skinner that he is trying to match the bullet that killed Thomas to a gun issued to a federal agent or local officer . Skinner searches his drawer and realizes that his gun was missing and must have been the one used for the murder . Skinner , realizing he has been set up , calls The Smoking Man , who confirms that Thomas was killed with Skinner 's gun and that by going to the police Skinner would end up implicating himself in the murder . The Smoking Man refuses to provide any details on what he is covering up . Skinner returns to the routing center where he tears a hole in the bathroom wall and finds a large honeycomb of dead bees . He visits an entomologist to look at one of the bees and is told that Mulder visited him six months ago about a similar subject . Skinner finds Mulder 's file on the matter , copying down the contact information for Marita Covarrubias ( Laurie Holden ) . Mulder tells Skinner that a bank near the police station took a picture of the detective , which shows him with Skinner , but the picture is too obscured for Mulder to identify him . Skinner calls Covarrubias , who does not have any evidence to provide him at this time . The entomologist is killed by a swarm of bees . The next day , Mulder and Skinner look at his body , which is infected with smallpox transmitted by the bees . Skinner visits the co @-@ worker of the postal worker who died , who tells him she was pressured to not say anything about what happened by men who demanded a damaged package . At the photo lab Mulder analyzes the photo , which reveals Skinner 's identity . The Smoking Man meets with the Syndicate , who are responsible for the bees . Soon afterward a swarm of bees attacks a school in Columbia , South Carolina , and one of the teachers dies as a result . Skinner heads to the hospital , where he is met by Covarrubias . She demands to know what he knows about the matter . He tells her he believes that the bees are being used as a carrier for some sort of experiment . Skinner returns home where he is confronted by Mulder , who now suspects that Skinner has been working against him all this time . Skinner is able to convince Mulder that he would not have forced his own drawer lock open and hence could not have been the murderer . Convinced of Skinner 's evidence , Mulder turns in the gun with the serial number filed off so Skinner is not blamed for the murder . That night Skinner confronts The Smoking Man in his apartment , angry that nothing has been done for Scully . The Smoking Man convinces him that Scully will die if he kills him and Skinner leaves without killing him , but not before firing warning shots . Shortly afterwards Covarrubias calls The Smoking Man , who tells her to tell Mulder what he wants to hear while an unknown man is shown behind her listening on another phone . = = Production = = Co @-@ writer Frank Spotnitz described the episode as a " fortunate accident " . Late in the fourth season of the show Gillian Anderson left the show for a week to film her part in the film The Mighty . The producers , knowing that they would have to write an episode without Dana Scully , decided it was not fair to have David Duchovny carry the same workload as in a normal episode considering her absence . As such , a story was devised in which his involvement would be light . This resulted in the decision to write , for the second year in a row , an episode focused on Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) . Howard Gordon , having written the previous Skinner @-@ centric episode , " Avatar " joined Spotnitz and the two wrote the episode over a weekend while another Gordon written episode , " Synchrony " was in production . The writers felt that this was the perfect time to bring in Skinner 's deal with The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) to cure Scully 's cancer , made in the episode " Memento Mori " . Frank Spotnitz said of Skinner 's deal , " The hard thing for Skinner was that we had to keep him in the middle . We had him tell Mulder not to bargain with The Smoking Man in order to save Scully 's life . And then he himself struck a Faustian bargain with the Cigarette Smoking Man and was in his debt for some kind . " The writing staff felt that " Zero Sum " was a logical place to bring back the bees that were used in the season premiere , " Herrenvolk " , feeling it was important to not have something paranormal happen to Skinner in this episode considering that had been done in the previous season . Live bees were used for filming , but showed up poorly in the footage ; visual effects technician Laurie Kallsen @-@ George then spent nine days digitally enhancing the footage to improve upon this . The virus @-@ carrying bees would later form a central plot point in the series ' 1998 feature film adaptation . Director Kim Manners noted that the episode " was a really good show for me , because I had not got a chance to work with Mitch . And they wrote a great script , you know ? It was really something he could sink his teeth into and he just did a great job . Bill Davis was fabulous in that show too " . This was the second episode of the series to not feature Scully , the first being the second season episode " 3 " . Guest actor Morris Panych , portraying the Syndicate assassin The Grey @-@ Haired Man , makes his last appearance in the series in this episode . Panych had previously appeared in " Piper Maru " , " Avatar " , " Herrenvolk " and " Memento Mori " . = = Broadcast and reception = = " Zero Sum " premiered on the Fox network on April 27 , 1997 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on February 11 , 1998 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 7 with a 17 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 7 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 17 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 18 @.@ 6 million viewers watched this episode during its original airing . The episode has received mixed to positive responses from critics . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , rated the episode an A , calling it " utterly bad @-@ ass " . Handlen felt that the episode effectively toyed with the series ' usual narrative structure , making lead character Fox Mulder seem " nearly as much of an antagonist " as The Smoking Man ; Handlen also felt that " Zero Sum " gave significant insight into the character of Walter Skinner . Paula Vitaris , writing for Cinefantastique , rated " Zero Sum " one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four , noting that its " pacing and tone are off " . Vitaris felt that " Duchovny and Pileggi give good performances " , despite Pileggi seeming " unintentionally comic " at times ; though she noted that " an episode without Scully feels pretty empty " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five , noting that " Pileggi looks much more comfortable here than he did in last year 's showcase [ ' Avatar ' ] " . Shearman and Pearson felt that the episode 's attempts to tie into the wider storylines — the appearance of Marita Covarrubias in particular — are where it " really stumbles " ; noting that its success lies " in the shock value of seeing a deliberately familiar story through the fractured view of another character " .
= Edward Hollamby = Edward " Ted " Ernest Hollamby OBE ( 8 January 1921 – 29 December 1999 ) was an English architect , town planner , and architectural conservationist . Known for designing a number of modernist housing estates in London , he also achieved notability for his work in restoring Red House , the Arts and Crafts building in Bexleyheath , Southeast London which was designed by William Morris and Philip Webb in 1859 . Born in Hammersmith , West London , Hollamby served in the Royal Marines during the Second World War before embarking on a career in architecture . Involved with the Communist Party of Great Britain and other leftist groups , his socialist beliefs led him to work in the public sector , first for the Miners ' Welfare Commission and then for London County Council ( LCC ) , where he was involved in the design and construction of such modernist post @-@ war housing estates as Bethnal Green 's Avebury Estate , Kennington 's Brandon Estate , and Deptford 's Pepys Estate . In 1952 , Hollamby and his family moved into the Red House , embarking on projects to renovate and restore it . A great fan of the house 's original inhabitant , he also involved himself in the early activities of the William Morris Society , which held a number of meetings at the property . Awarded an OBE for his career in 1970 , from 1969 to 1981 Hollamby worked as Director of Architecture , Planning and Development for the London Borough of Lambeth , before moving to work for the London Docklands Development Corporation from 1981 to 1985 . He continued restoring Red House in later life , opening it up to visitors and establishing the Friends of Red House charity in 1998 . The Guardian described Hollamby as " very much an architect of the 20th century , a public servant who believed not just in high quality architecture but in the existence and nurturing of the public realm , of public architecture and civic design . " = = Biography = = = = = Early life = = = Hollamby was born in his parental home of 6 Wellesley Avenue in Hammersmith , West London . He was the oldest of two sons born to Ethel May Hollamby , née Kingdom ( 1899 / 1900 – 1966 ) , and Edward Thomas Hollamby ( 1893 – 1978 ) , a police constable . His primary education took place at St. Peter 's Church School , before he won a scholarship to study at a junior technical school . From there , he gained a higher education by training in architecture at the nearby Hammersmith School of Arts and Crafts during the 1930s . At the college , he was inspired by the Arts and Crafts aesthetic propounded by one of his lecturers , Alwyn Waters , and through him came to take an interest in William Morris , who had been a pioneer of the Arts and Crafts movement in the latter part of the 19th century . At the same time , Hollamby was influenced by the modernist movement in architecture to which two of his favourite lecturers , Arthur Ling and Alex Lowe , belonged , and joined the Modern Architectural Research Group ( MARS ) . Following the completion of his studies , he moved to Lancashire to assist a project building the Royal Ordnance factory number 7 in Kirby , before returning to London to work in housing design for the Metropolitan Borough of Hammersmith . On 18 May 1941 , he married Doris Isabel Parker ( 1920 – 2003 ) , an old friend who worked as a clerk and who , like Hollamby , was a member of the Communist Party of Great Britain ( CPGB ) . Their wedding took place at St Michael 's Church at Tokyngton , Middlesex , after which they moved to St. Peter 's Square , Hammersmith . They went on to have two daughters and a son . In August 1941 , during Britain 's involvement in World War II , Hollamby was called up to serve in the British armed forces . Assigned to the Royal Marine Engineers , he served most of the conflict in Trincomalee , Ceylon . = = = Architectural career = = = Much like many architects of his generation , following the British victory Hollamby pursued a career in local authority offices . He first worked as an architect for the Miners ' Welfare Commission from 1947 to 1949 , in this position designing pithead baths and a colliery extension at Lofthouse , Yorkshire . After gaining further qualifications from the Royal Institute of British Architects , he proceeded with a three @-@ year evening course in town planning , run by William Holford and Arthur Ling at the Bartlett School of Architecture , London . He meanwhile worked under Leslie Martin as a senior architect at the Architects ' Department of the London County Council ( LCC ) from 1949 to 1962 . During this period , he oversaw the design of two neighbouring schools in North Hammersmith , now known as the Phoenix School ; he unsuccessfully tried to have the school named after Morris . He was also involved in the design and construction of several modernist , high @-@ rise post @-@ war housing estates , namely Bethnal Green 's Avebury Estate and Kennington 's Brandon Estate , personally securing a sculpture by Henry Moore for the latter . In his final years in this position he focused on estates in south London , working on Deptford 's Pepys Estate and the first designs for what became Thamesmead . From there becoming the borough architect for the Metropolitan Borough of Hammersmith , in January 1963 , he moved to become borough architect for the Metropolitan Borough of Lambeth , and following the reorganisation of Greater London he remained in that position for its successor , the London Borough of Lambeth . Here he rose to the position of the borough 's director of architecture , planning and development , which he held from 1969 to 1981 . In this position he oversaw the construction of several high @-@ rise housing towers alongside an innovative low @-@ rise development at Cressingham Gardens , high @-@ density scheme for Central Hill , as well as a project that combined the construction of new housing with the conservation of old , particularly around Clapham Manor Street . In 1970 , Hollamby was awarded an Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) for his work in architecture . However , in the early 1980s , he became increasingly unhappy in the position as a result of conflict with certain local Labour Party politicians and sought different employment . Amid the growing neo @-@ liberal , Thatcherite economic changes brought about under the Premiership of Margaret Thatcher , he moved into the private sector to work for the London Docklands Development Corporation from 1981 to 1985 , when he retired . As part of this he took a role in Europe 's largest urban regeneration project , proposing a mix of redevelopment and conservation of existing buildings , using this mixed method to create a design guide for the regeneration of the Isle of Dogs . In this position he also campaigned for the Docklands Light Railway and oversaw the exterior refurbishment of St George in the East . Over the course of his career he also served on the boards of such professional bodies as English Heritage ( 1986 – 90 ) , the Historic Buildings Council ( 1972 – 82 ) , and the Royal Institute of British Architects ( 1961 – 5 and 1966 – 72 ) . = = = Red House = = = In the early 1950s , Hollamby and Doris were living in St. Peter 's Square , Hammersmith with two friends , Dick and Mary Toms . Born in London , Richard " Dick " Toms ( 1914 – 2005 ) was largely self @-@ taught as an architect , and had met and befriended Edward during the war before gaining employment alongside him at the LCC . Toms ' wife Mary ( née Lehner , 1920 – 2010 ) was Austrian but had been born in Berlin , Germany . Because her grandfather was Jewish , she fled Austria after it was annexed by Nazi Germany in 1938 . Both couples were involved in left @-@ wing political activism , being members of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and the British @-@ Soviet Friendship Society ; they were thus sympathetic to the far left political causes to which Morris had devoted much of his later life . In 1952 , the two couples discovered that Red House was up for sale , and as architects with an interest in Morris , they recognised its historic value . By this point , the Red House had been empty for 18 months , after Thomas Hills and his family had left in 1951 , and had fallen into a state of dilapidation . Deciding to share the property between themselves , they were able to afford a mortgage with the aid of a loan from Toms ' father @-@ in @-@ law ; he only agreed to provide the loan if the house was owned in Toms ' name , and thus the Hollambys became Toms ' tenants . The two families then moved in with their six children , and a seventh was born soon after . They camped in the house 's grounds while carrying out a project of renovation . After being made habitable , the two families divided the house between them , with separate living rooms , bedrooms , bathrooms , and kitchens . Corridors , stairs , and the old kitchen ( which they termed the " Eating Room " ) were shared communally . As a result of their leftist activism , they allowed meetings of both the British @-@ Soviet Friendship Society , and the CPGB to take place in the house . They also permitted members of the Woodcraft Folk to camp in its grounds . In 1953 , the inaugural meeting of the William Morris Society took place at the house , at which 45 people were present . In 1954 , a third architect , David Gregory Jones , moved in to the two rooms adjoining the downstairs gallery . In 1957 , the Toms left Red House and moved to Blackheath , desiring to live closer to central London . They were replaced by Jean and David Macdonald ; Jean was an architect colleague of Edward 's who shared his socialist values , while David was an accountant and woodworker . Rearranging the former ownership arrangements , the Macdonalds and Hollambys agreed to legally own half of the property each , while Jones remained as a lodger . Together , the two couples made repairs and restorations to the house ; they repaired the leaking roof and added Morris & Co. wallpapers along with furniture from Heal 's and Ercol . In 1960 , the William Morris Society held a garden party there to commemorate the building 's centenary . However , in 1964 the Macdonalds left and the Hollambys assumed sole ownership of the House . Hollamby himself left the Communist Party following the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 . He remained committed to leftist ideals and involved himself in a number of local socio @-@ political groups , including the local branch of the Labour Party and with his wife was a founding member of Bexley Civic Society . After his retirement in 1985 , Hollamby decided to open the Red House up to visitors , offering guided tours on one Sunday per month . As the number of those attending such tours grew , especially in the 1996 centenary of Morris ' death , Hollamby began to search for a way of securing future public access . In 1998 , he helped to establish the Friends of Red House , a group of individuals who were largely members of the Bexley Civic Society , and who helped to maintain the House and its gardens as well as give tours to visitors . Hollamby also authored two books on Red House ; the first , Red House , Bexleyheath : The Home Of William Morris , was published by Phaidon Press in 1991 as part of its series on " Architecture in Detail " , and the second was a short guide book for visitors co @-@ written with Doris and published by the William Morris Society in 1993 . = = = Death = = = Hollamby died suddenly as a result of heart disease at Red House on 29 December 1999 ; he was the third owner to die while in residence . His funeral was held on 21 January 2000 in Eltham , with a secular humanist service conducted by Barbara Smoker . The Friends of Red House took over the public openings at this point . Amid ill health , Doris left Red House and moved into a care home in 2002 ; she died in April 2003 . With the aid of an anonymous benefactor , the house was purchased and gifted to The National Trust in 2003 , who turned it into a visitor 's attraction , with tours continuing to be organised by the Friends of Red House .
= Aubrey ( The X @-@ Files ) = " Aubrey " is the twelfth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files , and the thirty @-@ sixth episode overall . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on January 6 , 1995 . It was written by Sara B. Charno and directed by Rob Bowman . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Aubrey " received a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 2 and was watched by 9 @.@ 7 million households . The episode received mixed to positive reviews from television critics . The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In the episode , Mulder and Scully believe that a serial killer from the 1940s passed his genetic trait of violence to his grandchild after a detective , BJ Morrow ( Deborah Strang ) mysteriously uncovers the remains of an FBI agent who disappeared almost fifty years before while investigating a modern @-@ day murder case similar to the older cold case . Although " Aubrey " was written by Charno , Glen Morgan and James Wong , who had written for The X @-@ Files before , provided additional contributions to the story . The story for the episode developed around the concept of 50 @-@ year @-@ old murders and the transfer of genetic memory . This was later combined with a separate concept about a female serial killer . Terry O 'Quinn , who guest stars in the episode , would later play roles in the 1998 feature film , the ninth season episode " Trust No 1 " , become a recurring character as Peter Watts on Millennium , and appear on the short @-@ lived series Harsh Realm . Strang 's work on the episode was submitted for Emmy consideration . = = Plot = = In the town of Aubrey , Missouri , local detective B.J. Morrow tells Lt. Brian Tillman ( Terry O 'Quinn ) that she has gotten pregnant from their affair . He requests her to meet him at a motel later that night . While waiting for him , B.J. has a vision that leads her to a field where she digs up the skeletal remains of an FBI agent . Agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) head to Aubrey , where the remains are identified as belonging to Agent Sam Chaney , who disappeared in the area with his partner , Tim Ledbetter , in 1942 . The agents find discrepancies in B.J. ' s story , but Tillman comes to her defense . Mulder tells Scully of the case Chaney and Ledbetter were investigating , which involved the rapes and murders of three women with the word " Sister " slashed on their chest . Discovering similar cuts on Chaney 's chest during the autopsy , B.J. instinctively realizes that the cuts spell the word " Brother . " B.J. admits her affair and pregnancy to Scully . Tillman reveals that a new murder has occurred where a woman had the word " Sister " slashed on her chest . B.J. claims to have seen the victim in her dreams , which involve a man with a rash on his face and a monument , which after a quick sketch by B.J. , Mulder recognizes as the Trylon and Perisphere from the 1939 New York World 's Fair . Searching old mugshot photos , B.J. recognizes the man from her dream as Harry Cokely , who was arrested in 1945 for raping a woman named Linda Thibedeaux and slashing " Sister " on her chest . Scully believes that B.J. unconsciously recalled the case since her father was a cop and may have discussed it . The agents visit the now @-@ elderly Cokely , who now lives alone after being released from prison in 1993 . Cokely insists he was at home when the latest murder occurred . B.J. awakens from a nightmare covered in blood , finding the word " Sister " slashed into her chest . She also sees a young Cokely reflected in the mirror behind her . She heads to a stranger 's basement and tears away the floorboards , revealing the skeletal remains within that is found to be of the missing Ledbetter 's . Cokely is arrested , but denies attacking B.J. , insisting he 's too old to even leave his residence without his large oxygen flask . Scully tells Mulder that blood on the latest victim matches Cokely 's . The agents visit Thibedeaux , who describes her encounter with Cokely in the 1940s . Mulder notices a photo of her at the 1939 World 's Fair featuring the Trylon and Perisphere . When pressed , she reveals that the rape resulted in a child , which she put up for adoption . The FBI tracks down the child , who turns out to have been B.J. ' s father , causing Mulder to surmise that B.J. is the killer and may be operating on genetic memories which tend to skip a generation . As the agents are on their way to intercept her , B.J. attacks Thibedeaux , but stops when she sees the " Sister " scars on her chest . The agents find Thibedeaux after B.J. has left , and head to Cokely 's house , believing him to be her next target . B.J. , who has already arrived , cuts Cokely 's respirator tubes and attacks him with a razor . When the agents arrive B.J. attacks Mulder but when Cokely finally dies she stops . B.J. is placed in Shamrock Women 's Prison Psychiatric Ward where she is put on suicide watch after attempting to self @-@ abort . = = Production = = The episode was written by Sara B. Charno , making it her first writing contribution to the series . The episode was directed by Rob Bowman . Charno initially developed a story revolving around the concept of 50 year old murders and the transfer of genetic memory . This was later combined with a separate concept about a female serial killer . Glen Morgan and James Wong , who had written for The X @-@ Files before , provided additional contributions to the story . The script was revised shortly before shooting , resulting in newer scenes being added , such as the scene where BJ attacks Mulder . Morgan and Wong suggested casting Woodward as Harry Cokely , who had previously performed work for them on their series 21 Jump Street . Actor Terry O 'Quinn , who appears in this episode as Lt. Brian Tillman , later appeared as different characters in the 1998 feature film and the ninth season episode " Trust No 1 " . He later had a recurring role as Peter Watts on Millennium , the sister series to The X @-@ Files , and appeared in the short @-@ lived series Harsh Realm . O 'Quinn later earned the nickname " Mr. Ten Thirteen " , due to his appearance in multiple shows and movies affiliated with Ten Thirteen Productions , the company that produced The X @-@ Files . Series creator Chris Carter was happy with the finished episode , later noting , " I think it came out great " . He further elaborated : " Morgan Woodward was excellent as well . Rob Bowman came through for us and gave us an excellent job . " Director Rob Bowman later declared that he was proud of the sequence where BJ wakes up with blood on her chest . Many members of the cast and crew were pleased with the casting . Carter called it " terrific " . He said Deborah Strang 's performance was " top notch " . Furthermore , Strang 's performance was submitted for an Emmy nomination , although she didn 't make the final list . = = Reception = = " Aubrey " premiered on the Fox network in the United States on January 6 , 1995 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 2 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 9 @.@ 7 million households . The episode received mixed to positive reviews from television critics . Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a B , describing it as " a well @-@ paced murder mystery with an inventive wrap @-@ up " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two positively critiqued the episode 's " character study " of BJ Morrow , noting that it " makes this episode stand out " . Shearman and Pearson also complimented Strang 's performance , writing that she " seizes the part and gives it dignity . " However , the two were critical of the genetic defect , arguing that , because Strang 's character is fleshed out , the reveal turns her into " a puppet of the paranormal " . Critical Myth reviewer John Keegan gave the episode a 7 out 10 rating and wrote that , " Overall , this episode opens some interesting doors , adding the concept of genetic memory to the list of phenomena that cannot be explained in fully material terms . While the plot makes a certain amount of sense , there are a number of convenient moments that take away from the whole . But the end result is a strong episode . " Other reviews were more mixed . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club said that most of " Aubrey " was " fun " , although Tillman was not " particularly interesting " . He stated that things got " dicey " for him around the revelation about Thibedeaux 's child and that he did not buy Mulder 's genetic impulse theories . He criticised the ending , writing that it " [ sacrificed ] whatever mood and character development the previous thirty had spent establishing for cheesy theatrics , and the whole thing lands with a resounding thud . There are too many problems with the concept ; the nature / nurture debate has been going on for decades , and this ep throws the whole thing out the window in about two minutes . No other cause for BJ 's actions is ever given ... That 's some lazy writing right there . " Meghan Deans from Tor.com gave the episode a mixed review and wrote that it was " sort of good [ but ] sort of a terrible idea " . She cited the theme of " breaking the cycle of abuse " as a plus for the entry , noting that it was a " revenge story [ of ] a woman righting the wrongs of her male ancestors and breaking the cycle of violence outside the family " . However , Deans was critical of various elements of the episode , most notably , the genetic theory conceit and the idea of a " activator baby " that caused Morrow 's past ancestors to work through her .
= 1979 Imperial Valley earthquake = The 1979 Imperial Valley earthquake occurred at 16 : 16 Pacific Daylight Time ( 23 : 16 UTC ) on October 15 just south of the Mexico – United States border . It affected Imperial Valley in Southern California and Mexicali Valley in northern Baja California . The earthquake had a relatively shallow hypocenter and caused property damage in the United States estimated at $ 30 million USD . The irrigation systems in the Imperial Valley were badly affected , but no deaths occurred . It was the largest earthquake to occur in the contiguous United States since the 1971 San Fernando earthquake eight years earlier . The earthquake was 6 @.@ 4 on the moment magnitude scale , with a maximum perceived intensity of IX ( Violent ) on the Mercalli intensity scale . However , most of the intensity measurements were consistent with an overall maximum intensity of VII ( Very strong ) , and only the damage to a single structure , the Imperial County Services building in El Centro , was judged to be of intensity IX . Several comprehensive studies on the total structural failure of this building were conducted with a focus on how the building responded to the earthquake 's vibration . It was one of the first heavily instrumented office buildings to be severely damaged by seismic forces . The Imperial Valley is surrounded by a number of interconnected fault systems and is vulnerable to both moderate and strong earthquakes as well as earthquake swarms . The area was equipped with an array of strong motion seismographs for analyzing the fault mechanisms of nearby earthquakes and seismic characteristics of the sediments in the valley . The earthquake was significant in the scientific community for studies of both fault mechanics and repeat events . Four of the region 's known strike @-@ slip faults and one additional newly discovered normal fault all broke the surface during the earthquake . = = Tectonic setting = = The Salton Trough is part of the complex plate boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate where it undergoes a transition from the continental transform of the San Andreas Fault system to the series of short spreading centers of the East Pacific Rise linked by oceanic transforms in the Gulf of California . The two main right – lateral strike @-@ slip fault strands that extend across the southern part of the trough are the Elsinore Fault Zone / Laguna Salada Fault to the western side of the trough and the Imperial Fault to the east . The Imperial Fault is linked to the San Andreas Fault through the Brawley Seismic Zone , which is a spreading center beneath the southern end of the Salton Sea . With the San Jacinto Fault Zone to the northwest , the Elsinore fault to the south @-@ southwest , and the Imperial fault centered directly under the Imperial Valley , the area frequently encounters seismic activity , including moderate and damaging earthquakes . Other events in 1852 , 1892 , 1915 , 1940 , 1942 , and 1987 have impacted the region . More small to moderate events of less than 6 @.@ 0 ( local magnitude ) have occurred in this area than any other section of the San Andreas fault system . = = Earthquake = = The earthquake was caused by rupture along parts of the Imperial Fault , the Brawley fault zone and the Rico Fault , a previously unknown normal fault near Holtville , though slip was also observed on the Superstition Hills Fault and the San Andreas Fault . The maximum observed right lateral displacement on the Imperial fault — measured within the first day of the event to the northwest of the epicenter — was 55 – 60 cm ( 22 – 24 in ) , but measurements taken five months following the earthquake closer to the southeast end of the rupture showed there was an additional 29 cm ( 11 in ) of postseismic slip ( for a total slip of 78 cm ( 31 in ) . Several strands of the Brawley fault zone , to the east of the Imperial fault , ruptured intermittently along a length of 11 @.@ 1 km ( 6 @.@ 9 mi ) , and just one kilometer of the Rico fault slipped with a maximum vertical displacement of 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) ( no horizontal slip was observed on that fault ) . The pattern of displacement along the Imperial Fault was very similar to that observed for the northern part of the rupture during the 1940 El Centro earthquake , although on this occasion the rupture did not extend across the border into Mexico . This had been explained as the behavior of individual slip patches along the Imperial Fault with two patches rupturing in 1940 and only the northern one in 1979 . The faulting that gave rise to the earthquake has been modeled by comparing synthetic seismograms with near @-@ source strong motion recordings . This analysis showed that the rupture speed had at times exceeded the shear wave velocity , making this the first earthquake for which supershear rupture was inferred . The United States Geological Survey operates a series of strong motion stations in the Imperial Valley and while the majority of stations in the array recorded ground accelerations that were not unexpected , station number six registered an unusually high vertical component reading of 1.74g which , at the time , was the highest yet recorded as the result of an earthquake . One explanation of the anomaly attributed the amplification to path effects and a separate theory put forth described supershear effects that generated a focused pulse directly at the station . A later proposal stated that both multipath and focusing effects due to a " lens like effect " produced by a sedimentary wedge at the junction of the Imperial and Brawley faults ( under the station ) may have been the cause of the high reading . = = Damage = = The earthquake caused damage to the Californian towns of El Centro and Brawley , and in the Mexican town of Mexicali Mexico . There were injuries from the quake on both sides of the border . The state Office of Emergency Preparedness declared 61 injuries on the American side and police claimed that 30 were injured in Mexico . The Red Cross stated that cuts from broken glass , bruises form falling objects , and a few broken bones were reported . California 's Interstate 8 developed cracks in it , but vehicles were still able to traverse the highway . The California Highway Patrol warned drivers that use of the road would be at their own risk . Damage to the roadways was heavier farther north on California State Route 86 where settling of the road by as much as four to six inches occurred , and a bridge separation closed the highway west of Brawley . Governor Jerry Brown ended a presidential campaign trip through New England early in order to return to the Imperial Valley and declare a state of emergency there . Two fires occurred in El Centro with the loss of a trailer being reported , though fire was avoided near the Imperial County Airport when a 60 @,@ 000 barrel gasoline tank farm was seriously damaged and was losing 50 US gallons ( 190 l ; 42 imp gal ) a minute . Firefighters drained the tanks and replaced the fuel with water to avoid the gasoline vapor from causing a hazard . The earthquake shaking also led to extensive damage to the irrigation systems of the Imperial Valley , leading to breaches in some canals , particularly the All @-@ American Canal that brings water to the valley from the Colorado River . A 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) section of the unlined canal between the Ash and East Highline canals experienced settling . The Imperial Irrigation District estimated damage to be $ 982 @,@ 000 for the three canals . Water flow was immediately reduced to prevent further damage and to allow assessments to be made , and within four days the repairs had been completed and full capacity restored . A hydraulic gate and a concrete facility that were damaged during the May 1940 earthquake needed repair again . The 1940 event caused significant destruction to canals on both sides of the international border , with 108 km ( 67 mi ) of damage along eight canals on the US side alone . = = Imperial County Services building = = The Imperial County Services building , a six @-@ story reinforced concrete building located 29 km ( 18 mi ) northwest of the epicenter in El Centro , was built in 1971 when there were few other tall buildings in the area . The decision to equip the building with nine strong motion sensors in May 1976 was based on its size , structural attributes , and location in a seismically active area . Unusually detailed structural analysis was possible as a result of the building having been outfitted with the instrumentation . The initial configuration was tested shortly after its installation when a relatively small ( 4 @.@ 9 local magnitude ) earthquake occurred 32 km ( 20 mi ) northwest of the building on November 4 , 1976 . The accelerations recorded on the equipment during the event proved to be of very low amplitude and , as a result , the instrumentation was upgraded to include a 13 channel configuration in the building along with a Kinemetrics triaxial ( 3 channel ) accelerograph located 340 ft ( 100 m ) east of the building at ground level . The full 16 channel system was managed by the California Division of Mines and Geology Office of Ground Motion Studies and provided almost 60 seconds worth of high resolution data during the 1979 event . In an interview with the Los Angeles Times following the earthquake , Fritz Matthiesen , a scientist with the United States Geological Survey , said that the instruments captured " about the third or fourth most significant recording of building damage we 've made in 40 years " and that they " have only three other cases in which damage has occurred in an instrumented building " . Several types of irregular construction styles were incorporated into the building that contributed to its mass and strength not being uniform throughout the structure . These differences in strength allowed damage to be concentrated in one or more areas rather than being distributed equally and reduced the building 's ability to sustain the tremors . Two of the irregularities of the building were the end shear walls that stopped below the second floor and the first floor carrying its load via square support columns . The result of the design was that the first floor was less stiff than the upper floors , and during the earthquake the building sustained uneven damage distribution , a condition that may have led to the complete collapse of the building in a larger earthquake . Because of its failure at the foundation and first floor level , the building was considered a total loss and was ultimately demolished . = = Aftershocks = = An early study of the event encompassed more than 2 @,@ 000 aftershocks ( and included four of magnitude 5 @.@ 0 or greater ) that were recorded within 20 days of the mainshock , with the area south of the border near the epicenter remaining relatively quiet . Most of the aftershock activity was within 15 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) of Brawley ( especially the first eight hours after the mainshock ) , although they occurred from the Salton Sea in the north to the Cerro Prieto Geothermal Power Station to the south , a distance of 110 kilometers ( 68 mi ) . The first strong aftershock ( 5 @.@ 0 ) occurred at 23 : 19 GMT just 2 @.@ 5 minutes after the mainshock and the strongest aftershock ( 5 @.@ 8 ) occurred at 6 : 58 GMT on October 16 west of Brawley . While the focal mechanism of the mainshock was right @-@ lateral fault slip on the northwest trending Imperial fault , a marked change in the distribution of aftershocks occurred with the onset of the Brawley aftershock , which exhibited left @-@ lateral slip . A distinct zone of aftershocks formed a belt from west of Brawley to near Wiest Lake , where sinistral motion on a northeast trending conjugate fault responded to an increase in tension at the northwest end of the Imperial fault . Another line of aftershocks along the projection of the southern San Andreas fault extended south into the valley up to 50 km ( 31 mi ) . Activity in that area of the valley had been aseismic through 1978 , and a few events occurred just prior to the event , and a significant increase in the amount of activity followed the mainshock . = = Ground disturbances = = During two outings in late 1979 and early 1980 several researchers ( including Thomas H. Heaton and John G. Anderson ) examined the region near the New River and discovered ground disturbances that were related to the Brawley aftershock . Along the banks of the river the seismologists discovered sand boils , a newly formed pond , and an extension crack that was found to run 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) near the south bank in an irregular and disconnected fashion from Brawley to Wiest lake . It was later discovered that the Brawley earthquake had an aftershock zone that matched the area of the disturbances . Accelerograms recorded from the nearby Del Rio Country Club also showed " clear and impressive evidence " of near field ground motions , which may have indicated nearby primary faulting . Numerous sites running along the New River were examined including the twin reinforced concrete bridges in Brawley . Slumping of the foundations there resulted in severe damage , and occurred as a result of the October 15 main shock , though the Brawley earthquake 's epicenter was nearby . At the Imperial County Dump , several instances of ground failure were observed in sedimentary deposits near the top of and parallel to the river bank , and other cracks were found in that area that were determined to be the result of differential settling . Farther north at the entrance to the Del Rio Country Club , 30 cm ( 12 in ) scarplets were located west of Route 111 , but undisturbed Pleistocene sedimentary layers likely indicated that the scarps were the result of local slumping in the roadcut and not the result of surface faulting . A large pond had apparently formed near the KROP radio station 's antenna site where profound liquefaction and subsidence occurred in the river valley . Two weeks following the earthquake sand boils at the same location were still discharging water .
= Up All Night ( One Direction album ) = Up All Night is the debut studio album by English @-@ Irish group One Direction , released by Syco Records in November 2011 in Ireland and the United Kingdom , followed by a worldwide release during 2012 . Four months after finishing third in the seventh series of British reality singing contest The X Factor in December 2010 , One Direction began recording the album in Sweden , UK and the United States , working with a variety of writers and producers . The album is predominantly a pop music album which orientates into pop rock , dance @-@ pop , teen pop and power pop . The album 's lyrical content regards being young , relationships , heartbreak and empowerment . Staged in support of the album , One Direction performed the album 's songs live on televised shows , at awards ceremonies , and during their worldwide Up All Night Tour . The album received generally favourable reviews from contemporary music critics , many of whom appreciated the album 's combination of melodic song craft and catchy , pop @-@ oriented material that , while slickly produced , avoided the commercial cynicism and adult contemporary posturing of some of their ' 80s and ' 90s forebears . An international success , the album topped the charts in sixteen countries and , by December 2012 , has sold over 4 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide . The album bowed at number two on the UK Albums Chart and ultimately became the UK 's fastest @-@ selling debut album of 2011 . Up All Night debuted to number one on the United States Billboard 200 , selling 176 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , Up All Night was the third global best @-@ selling album of 2012 with sales of 4 @.@ 5 million copies . One Direction finished 2012 with two of that year 's top five best @-@ selling albums in the United States ; Up All Night at number three and their second studio album , Take Me Home , at number five , making the boy band the first act to place two albums in the year @-@ end top five in the Nielsen SoundScan era . In addition , Up All Night became the best @-@ selling album by a group and the third best @-@ selling debut album of 2012 . Four singles were released from the album , including the UK Singles Chart top ten hits " What Makes You Beautiful " , " Gotta Be You " , and " One Thing " . = = Background and development = = After being formed and finishing third in the seventh series of The X Factor in 2010 , One Direction were signed by Simon Cowell to a £ 2 million Syco Records record contract . Recording for their debut album began in January 2011 , as they flew to Los Angeles to work with Moroccan @-@ Swedish producer RedOne . In February 2011 , One Direction and nine other contestants from the series participated in the X Factor Live Tour . After the tour concluded in April 2011 , the group continued working on their debut album . Recording took place in Sweden , the United States , and the United Kingdom , as One Direction worked with producers Carl Falk , Savan Kotecha , Steve Mac , RedOne , Toby Gad and Rami Yacoub , among others . The album also features songs written by Ed Sheeran , Kelly Clarkson , and Tom Fletcher . In May 2011 , Kotecha spoke to Digital Spy , and he elaborated that One Direction were " experimenting " with sounds on their debut album . Kotecha said that he was involved in the " early stages " of producing the record . " The stuff I 've heard has been really catchy and everyone loves the guys , so it 's just about capturing that in the music , which I think is what they 're going to be doing . " Sonny Takhar , the chief executive officer of Syco Records , in an August 2011 issue of Music Week , described the recording process as a " very intensive period " for the group . Takhar added the resulting album was one of the best pop records made by Syco Records in the past few years , and that he was confident it would be successful . In November 2011 , they signed a record deal with Columbia Records in North America . Steve Barnett , the co @-@ chairman of Columbia Records , said it was not a difficult decision to sign with One Direction . " Other artists in that category had gotten a little older , " he said . " I just thought there was a void , and maybe they could seize and hold it . " = = Composition = = Up All Night is predominately a pop music album which orientates into elements of the dance @-@ pop , teen pop , pop rock and power pop genres , with electropop and rock music influences . Instrumentation throughout the record is provided by guitar strings , drums and a piano . The album opens with lead single " What Makes You Beautiful " , an uptempo teen pop and power pop song . The opening guitar riff has been noted as similar to that of Grease single " Summer Nights " . " What Makes You Beautiful " has a guitar @-@ based chorus ; Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey likened it to a cross between Pink 's " Raise Your Glass " and McFly 's " All About You " . It also contains cowbell instrumentation , and the middle eight consists of an " oh na na na " hook . The second song on the album , as well as the second single , " Gotta Be You " , is a mid @-@ tempo pop rock ballad . Set in an orchestral arrangement , its instrumentation includes a guitar , piano lines , and abundant strings . The chorus of the song opens with falsettos that are followed by vocal harmonies . The third single from the album , " One Thing " , is an upbeat pop rock song . The song has a " plucky " guitar riff and a " forceful " chorus with Lewis Corner of Digital Spy dubbing it " arena @-@ ready " . The song 's melody has been noted for similarities between Backstreet Boys song " I Want It That Way " . The fourth song on the album and fourth single , " More than This " , is a pop ballad . " More than This " contains sounds of synthesizers . The fifth song on the album , title track " Up All Night " , is an uptempo electropop and dance @-@ pop song . Lyrically , the song is a party @-@ anthem , with the Katy Perry name @-@ check in the chorus being noted by various publications . The sixth cut , " I Wish " , is a mid @-@ tempo pop ballad . The song 's lyrical tone has been compared to Robyn 's " Dancing On My Own " . The seventh song , " Tell Me a Lie " , is an uptempo pop rock song which features prominent guitar instrumentation and pulsating beats . The song was originally intended for Kelly Clarkson 's album Stronger ( 2011 ) . Clarkson spoke to Capital FM on how she was proud of the end result . " It 's a really cute song , I love it . I loved that they liked it . They sound really great on it . I already have it – I 'm so VIP with my copy on my computer ! It does sound really good . " The eighth track , " Taken " , is a guitar @-@ driven pop ballad . Lyrically , the song is about heartbreak and relationships . The ninth cut , " I Want " , is an uptempo pop rock song which features a prominent piano line . This song was co written by The Vaccines . The tenth song on the album , " Everything About You " , is an uptempo teen pop and electro pop song . The eleventh song on the album , " Same Mistakes " , is a mid @-@ tempo pop song , which utilizes piano lines , synthesizers and percussions . The twelfth track , " Save You Tonight " , is an uptempo synthpop song , and has a retro sound and arrangement . The thirteenth song , final song on the standard edition , " Stole My Heart " , is an uptempo dance @-@ pop track which has been noted for similarities between Taio Cruz 's hit 2010 single " Dynamite " . The first cut on the deluxe edition and overall fourteenth song on the album , " Stand Up " , is an uptempo electropop and pop rock song . The second song on the deluxe edition , " Moments " , is a mid @-@ tempo pop ballad . Instrumentation includes a gently strummed guitar and intermediate piano lines . The song 's lyrics revolve around an unrequited love . During the album 's UK launch in late 2011 , Tomlinson referred to the song as his favourite track on the album . = = Promotion and release = = Up All Night was made available on CD and digital download in two editions : the deluxe edition , in hard form shape of a yearbook , features a book @-@ sized collection of photos , quotes , and lyrics from the five members of One Direction , and two extra songs : " Stand Up " and " Moments " . The album was released by Syco Records in Ireland and the UK on 18 November 2011 and 21 November 2011 respectively . The album was released on 25 November 2011 and 28 November 2011 in Australia and New Zealand respectively . The album was fully released in Europe in early 2012 . The album was initially set for release in North America on 23 March 2012 through Columbia Records ; however , it was rescheduled for a one @-@ week earlier release on 13 March 2012 with Columbia Records releasing a statement : " due to overwhelming fan demand , their debut album will be released one week early on 13 March 2012 . " For the North American release on 13 March 2012 , Columbia Records executives used social media to shape its marketing campaign . Columbia Records co @-@ chairman Steve Barnett and his team decided to reverse the usual pattern of releasing a single on radio . Instead the label mounted a four @-@ month marketing campaign aimed at building a fan base through social media before a single was ever released or played on the radio . The social media campaign asked fans to sign petitions and to enter video competitions to win a concert in their town . The campaign was a success as One Direction 's Facebook followers in the United States rose from 40 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 . " What Makes You Beautiful " sold more than 131 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , even though it had yet to be played on the radio . Radio programmers were flooded with calls from fans . Johnny Wright , who managed New Kids on the Block , Backstreet Boys and ' N Sync , said : " Now they are calling the radio station , and the radio station is scratching its head , saying , ‘ We don 't even have that record yet , ’ . It 's almost like the return of The Beatles . I call it hype , but it 's positive hype because it 's all real . It 's not manufactured . No one paid these kids . " = = = Live performances = = = One Direction performed " What Makes You Beautiful " on Red or Black ? on 10 September 2011 . The performance started with hosts Ant & Dec announcing that the band was supposedly running late for their appearance , and cut to a video of One Direction boarding a London Tube carriage full of fans , as the studio version of the song began playing . Each fan on the tube was given a numbered ticket . The band and fans disembarked the tube and made their way to the television studio , where the remainder of the song was sung live . After the song , Styles caught a numbered ticket raining onstage . The number corresponded to a ticket held by a fan from the tube ; the colour of the fan 's shirt was the correct answer for the Red or Black ? challenge . The band performed " What Makes You Beautiful " and its B @-@ side , " Na Na Na " , at the BBC Radio 1 Teen Awards on 9 October 2011 . The band also performed the song to open telethon Children in Need 2011 on 19 November 2011 . One Direction performed " Gotta Be You " , " One Thing " , and " What Makes You Beautiful " at Capital FM 's Jingle Bell Ball on 4 December 2011 , at The O2 Arena . They performed a medley of " She Makes Me Wanna " and " What Makes You Beautiful " with JLS on the The X Factor 's eighth series final on 10 December 2011 . The group performed " One Thing " and " What Makes You Beautiful " on Dancing on Ice on 5 February 2012 . In Italy , the group performed " What Makes You Beautiful " at the 2012 Sanremo Music Festival on 14 February 2012 . In France , they performed " What Makes You Beautiful " and " One Thing " on Le Grand Journal on 22 February 2012 . In the United States , One Direction performed " What Makes You Beautiful " , " More than This " and " One Thing " on The Today Show at the Rockefeller Center on 12 March 2012 . An estimated 15 @,@ 000 fans descended on the plaza . They also performed " What Makes You Beautiful " at the 2012 Kids ' Choice Awards on 31 March 2012 . One Direction performed " What Makes You Beautiful " and " One Thing " on comedy television show Saturday Night Live and also appeared in a comedy sketch with Sofía Vergara on 7 April 2012 . In Australia , they performed " One Thing " and " What Makes You Beautiful " at the 54th Logie Awards , where they also presented an award for " Most Popular New Female Talent " on 15 April 2012 . On 12 August 2012 , One Direction performed " What Makes You Beautiful " at the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony in London , which represented the handover to Rio de Janeiro as the host of the 2016 Summer Olympics . = = = Tour = = = One Direction 's debut headline UK concert tour , the Up All Night Tour , was officially announced on 27 September 2011 . The tour began on 18 December 2011 in Watford , England and ended 26 January 2012 in Belfast , Northern Ireland . Shows in the UK and Ireland were an instant success — many rumored to have sold out in under 10 seconds . In February 2012 , One Direction announced an Australasia leg , the tour dates set for April 2012 , set to visit cities Sydney , Brisbane , Melbourne , Auckland and Wellington . Once the first leg of the tour was complete , the band joined Big Time Rush as an opening act on the Better With U Tour . On 21 March 2012 , One Direction announced an extended North American leg of the tour . The North American leg was set to start on 24 May 2012 and comprise 26 shows . Shortly after the announcement , British recording artist Olly Murs was confirmed to be the opening act for select dates on tour . On the tour , One Direction covered Kings of Leon 's " Use Somebody " , Gym Class Heroes ' " Stereo Hearts " , The Zutons ' " Valerie " , Ednaswap 's " Torn " and The Black Eyed Peas ' " I Gotta Feeling " . A recording of their tour , entitled Up All Night : The Live Tour , was released in late May 2012 . = = Singles = = Up All Night yielded four singles . The lead single , " What Makes You Beautiful " , was released in September 2011 and debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart , after becoming the most pre @-@ ordered Sony Music Entertainment single in history and selling 153 @,@ 965 copies in its first week . The single also topped the Irish and Scottish Singles Charts , and reached the top ten on the Australian and New Zealand Singles Charts , Flemish Ultratop 50 , Canadian Hot 100 , Japan Hot 100 and the United States Billboard Hot 100 . " What Makes You Beautiful " was released by Columbia Records in the United States on 14 February 2012 . In the US , the single became the highest Billboard Hot 100 debut for a British act since 1998 , when it debuted at number 28 . It peaked at number 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 and also became a chart success on other Billboard charts , reaching the top five on the Pop Songs , Adult Pop Songs , and Hot 100 Airplay charts , whilst topping the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . The track sold 3 @,@ 881 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in 2012 , becoming the best @-@ selling song by a boy band in digital history . With over 5 million copies sold worldwide , it is among the best @-@ selling singles of all time . At the 2012 BRIT Awards , the song won the BRIT Award for Best British Single . " Gotta Be You " was released as the album 's second single in Ireland and the United Kingdom in November 2011 . The second single peaked on both the Irish and UK Singles Charts at number three . " One Thing " was released on 6 January 2012 as the second single in various European countries and in the UK as the third single on 13 February 2012 . The song also served as the album 's second single in the United States being sent to US contemporary hit radio ( CHR ) playlists on 22 May 2012 . The single peaked at number six and nine on the Irish and UK Singles Charts respectively , becoming the third consecutive top ten single for One Direction in Ireland and the UK . " One Thing " was One Direction 's second best @-@ selling song in the UK by August 2012 , denoting sales of 154 @,@ 000 copies . In Australia , One Direction became the second act of 2012 to have two singles in the top ten simultaneously with " One Thing " at number 3 and " What Makes You Beautiful " at number 10 . " One Thing " peaked at number 39 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The track was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on 21 September 2012 , denoting sales of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies . " More than This " was confirmed to be released as the fourth single by Sony Music Australia in early May 2012 . Released digitally on 25 May 2012 , the final single failed to replicate the success of its predecessors , charting in lower regions on the singles charts in Australia , Ireland , and the United Kingdom . = = Critical reception = = Up All Night received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 64 , which indicates " generally favourable reviews " . AllMusic 's Matthew Chisling commended the album for its appeal to the teenage audience , " limitless potential for the time being , this is a perfectly sized , and targeted , collection . " PopMatters ' Zachary Houle called the album a " laudable addition to the boy band pantheon " and a " well @-@ crafted slice of pop you can pop bubbles to " . Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey commended the album for " a collection of pg pop rock with killer choruses " and summarised it as " an adorable as expected debut with a surprising amount of bite " . Cosmopolitan 's Sophie Goddard lauded the album for a collection of " toe @-@ tappers that are just impossible to dislike " . The Independent editor Simon Price gave the album two out of five stars , and in an assessment wrote : " the album consists of fifteen instalments of inoffensive daytime radio pop , of which half the songs sound like " I Want It That Way " by the Backstreet Boys , the other half like " Free Fallin ' " by Tom Petty , it will sell by the zillion . " Daily Star 's John Earls complimented the group for creating an album " that doesn 't take the easy route " , quipping that the album has " big personalities " and " belting fun pop anthems " , whilst Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone criticised the album for lacking personality . Adam Markovitz of Entertainment Weekly perceived that the album " won 't help the group earn much respect in music circles . But if a tween @-@ pop empire is what these boys are after , they 're definitely headed in the right direction " . In a detailed review , Jason Lipshutz from Billboard wrote , [ Up All Night ] demonstrates an originality in sound that was necessary for the revitalization of the boy band movement . The electropop currently dominating Top 40 radio is seamlessly weaved into the pop harmonies made standards by ' N Sync , Backstreet Boys and 98 Degrees -- for instance , the title track sounds like a hybrid of Backstreet Boys ' " Larger than Life " and an LMFAO song , and even includes a Katy Perry name @-@ check . Up All Night has its ups and downs , but One Direction complete two important tasks on their debut album : the boy band notches a long @-@ lasting hit with " What Makes You Beautiful , " and they look forward instead of back . Get ready to hear a lot more of One Direction . Matthew Horton of Virgin Media opined that the album brims with " punchy pop rock " , and considered the dance @-@ orientated " Stole My Heart " : " the only misstep , which only reinforces their decision to go pop rock . " MSN Music 's Ben Chalk called the album : " manufactured , calculated and commercial " , assessing that the resulting album " is a corking pop album " . In his review , he also complimented the album for its collection of singles : " ' [ Up All Night ] is a collection of highly polished pop gems , which knows its market and gives it what it wants " . = = Commercial performance = = The album topped the charts in sixteen countries . Up All Night became the third best selling album of 2012 globally , selling 4 @.@ 5 million units . It entered the UK Albums Chart at number two on 27 November 2011 , selling 138 @,@ 631 copies , becoming the UK 's fastest @-@ selling debut album of 2011 and also the fastest selling album of 2011 to miss out on the top spot . The album was kept off the top spot by the first week sales of Rihanna 's Talk That Talk , which sold 163 @,@ 819 copies . The album became the sixteenth biggest @-@ selling album in the UK of 2011 , with 468 @,@ 000 copies sold . As of 8 December 2012 , the album had sold 777 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . The record became the fifteenth best @-@ selling album in the UK of 2012 , with sales of 372 @,@ 000 copies . It was certified double platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on 15 February 2013 , denoting shipments of 600 @,@ 000 copies . As of November 2014 , the album has sold 1 @,@ 086 @,@ 434 copies in the UK . The record held the runner @-@ up position for four non @-@ consecutive weeks on the Irish Albums Chart , and was the tenth biggest selling album in 2011 in Ireland . After six months in the Irish Albums Chart top twenty , the album peaked at number one in its twenty @-@ seventh week . The album topped the Australian ARIA Chart for five consecutive weeks , and was certified quintuple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 350 @,@ 000 units . In New Zealand , the album topped New Zealand Albums Chart for three non @-@ consecutive weeks , and was certified triple platinum by Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , denoting shipments of 45 @,@ 000 units . The album debuted atop the Italian Albums Chart on the issue dated 16 February 2012 . It was certified platinum by Federation of the Italian Music Industry ( FIMI ) , denoting sales of 60 @,@ 000 units . In Mexico , the album topped the Mexican Albums Chart for twelve non @-@ consecutive weeks , and was certified four times platinum by the Mexican Recording Industry Association ( AMPROFON ) , denoting shipments of 240 @,@ 000 units . In Canada , the album bowed atop the Canadian Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 35 @,@ 000 copies , which made One Direction the first UK group in Canadian chart history to enter at number one with their debut album , and the first international act to debut at number one in the Nielsen SoundScan era ( post 1991 ) with their debut album . The album has been certified double platinum by Music Canada , denoting shipments of 160 @,@ 000 units . The album went straight to number one on the United States Billboard 200 chart , selling 176 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , which made One Direction the first UK group in US chart history to debut at number one with their first album . They were inducted into the Guinness World Records as a result . The album was certified two times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on 26 July 2012 , denoting shipments of 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies . Up All Night also became the first album by a boy band to sell 500 @,@ 000 digital copies in the US by October 2012 . The album has sold over 2 @.@ 05 million copies in the United States as of August 2015 . = = Track listing = = Credits adapted from album liner notes . = = Credits and personnel = = ( Credits taken from AllMusic and Up All Night 's liner notes . ) = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = =
= Cullompton = Cullompton ( / ˈkʌləmptən / ) is a town and civil parish in the district of Mid Devon and the county of Devon , England , locally known as Cully . It is 13 miles ( 21 km ) miles north @-@ east of Exeter and lies on the River Culm . In 2011 the parish as a whole had a population of 8 @,@ 499 while the built @-@ up area of the town had a population of 7 @,@ 439 The earliest evidence of occupation is from the Roman period – there was a fort on the hill above the town and occupation in the current town centre . Columtune was mentioned in Alfred the Great 's will . In the past the town 's economy had a large component of wool and cloth manufacture , then later leather working and paper manufacture . A large proportion of town 's inhabitants are commuters but there is some local manufacturing , including flour and paper mills . It has a monthly farmers ' market held on the second Saturday of every month which is the oldest event of its kind in the South West . It is home to two grade I listed buildings : the fifteenth @-@ century St Andrew 's parish church and the seventeenth @-@ century house known as The Walronds . The centre of the town is the only conservation area in Mid Devon and there are seven grade II * listed buildings and ninety grade II listed buildings in the parish . = = History = = = = = Toponymy and orthography = = = The derivation of the name Cullompton is disputed . One derivation is that the town 's name means " Farmstead on the River Culm " with Culm probably meaning knot or tie ( referring to the river 's twists and loops ) . The other theory is that it is named after Saint Columba of Tir @-@ de @-@ Glas , who preached to West Saxons in 549 AD . The Revd Grubb also states that the parish church was probably formerly dedicated to St Columba ( although for the last 500 years it has been dedicated to St Andrew ) and that tradition records there was an ancient figure or image of Columba . There are 40 recorded spellings of Cullompton between the first recorded use of the name and the present day , and even as late as the mid @-@ nineteenth century three spellings were in use : the post office spelled it Cullompton ; in their 1809 first edition the Ordnance Survey map used Cullumpton and the railway station sign said Collumpton . The railway station sign was changed to Cullompton in 1874 and the Ordnance Survey used Cullompton in the edition of their map published in 1889 . It is affectionately known as Cully . = = = Roman period = = = On St Andrew 's Hill , to the north @-@ west of Cullompton town centre , two Roman forts were discovered in 1984 by aerial photography carried out for Devon County Council . The earlier , smaller fort ( the boundary ditches of which showed up in cropmarks ) was later replaced by a second , larger fort . The ramparts of this second fort are preserved on two sides as modern field boundaries with substantial earthen banks with hedges on top . The banks on the other two sides were removed shortly before the site was recognised as Roman . The site was made a scheduled monument in 1986 . The aerial photography also revealed two subsidiary military enclosures or annexes to each fort . In 1992 a geophysical survey was made of the fort and areas to the east and west and this was followed by a trial excavation to the west of the site . These confirmed the existence of two forts , and the ditch of the second fort was excavated . Pottery from the site was dated from around 50 – 70 AD , which is consistent with a previous date of before 75 AD based on finds from fieldwalking . A Roman settlement near Shortlands Lane was excavated in 2009 . A large quantity of Roman pottery , burial remains and fragments of hypocaust tile from the second and third century was found . = = = Saxon period to the eighteenth century = = = Saxon settlers moved into the Culm Valley in the seventh century and Cullompton was made the site of a minster . In 872 Alfred the Great bequeathed Columtune and its lands to his son Æthelweard . At the time of the Norman Conquest , it was held by the Lady Gytha , the widow of Godwin , Earl of Wessex . In 1067 William the Conqueror passed through the villa of Colitona on his way to besiege Exeter where Gytha was living . In 1087 William the Conqueror gave the manor to Baldwin , his wife 's favourite nephew . It was subsequently held by the Earl of Devon for many years until in 1278 Amicia Countess of Devon willed it to the Abbot and Convent of Buckland Monachorum . With the Dissolution of the Monasteries it was sold to Sir John St Ledger . The five prebends of Cullompton ( Colebrook , Hineland , Wiever , Esse , Upton ) were presented by William the Conqueror to Battle Abbey in Sussex and were later held by St Nicholas Priory , Exeter . In 1536 St Nicholas Priory was dissolved and the last Prior gained appointment as the Vicar of Cullompton . Patronage then passed to the More family of Moorehays . In 1278 the town was granted its first market to be held on a Thursday . In 1356 the town gained its first water supply by a deed of gift of the Abbot of Buckland . The water ( known as the Town Lake or watercourse ) came from a stream rising at Coombe Farm and flowed into a pond near Shortlands . From there it flowed in several open channels to all parts of the town . Water bailiffs were employed to protect the interests of the town and a tradition of " possessioning " took place . This was a ceremony which took place every seven years where a group of townsfolk would inspect the channel and ensure that it was not being abused . The first recorded possessioning was in 1716 . In the mid nineteenth century the water courses were used for boiling vegetables , surface drainage and emptying cesspools . A Board of Health Inspector in 1854 concluded that " typhus and other epidemic diseases are so prevalent here more so than in any other parish in the Union " . They were eventually only used to keep the streets clean and continued to flow until 1962 when the town council decided that they were not willing to pay for their upkeep . During the English Civil War the Royalist Earl of Bath tried to raise troops in Cullompton but met resistance from local people . Troops passed through Cullompton on several occasions during the civil war : Sir Ralph Hopton rode with a small troop though the town on his way to Cornwall ; Cornish Royalist forces marched through Cullompton on their way to join Prince Maurice at Chard as did The Earl of Essex and Thomas Fairfax . There were also troops on the streets of Cullompton again in 1655 during Penruddock 's Uprising . In 1678 a local innkeeper , John Barnes was hanged after being found guilty of highway robbery . He had waylaid , with the help of accomplices , a coach travelling from Exeter to London and made off with about £ 600 but he was recognised by the guards from Exeter , where he had been a taverner . Another local man called Tom Austin was hanged in August 1694 . Although he had been wealthy , he spent all his money and turned to highway robbery . He killed Sir Zachary Wilmott during a robbery . Then , in a single day in 1694 , he killed his aunt , her five children , his own wife and his two children . The Cullompton Company of Volunteers ( a voluntary body of soldiers ) was first raised in 1794 and continued until 1810 . The volunteer companies were formed following Britain 's entry into the French Revolutionary Wars and continued to exist during the Napoleonic Wars . Cullompton was the first inland town to offer to raise a volunteer company ( on 16 May 1794 ) and on 24 June the volunteers were accepted . The first commander , Captain Jarmin , was a former Marine officer . The company was formed into a battalion with 11 other volunteer companies called the Hayridge ( later Highbridge ) regiment . It had 1 @,@ 200 men and three companies were based in Cullompton with a barracks in New Cut . Jarmin died in 1794 and was succeeded by Henry Skinner Esq . In 1801 the company became a cavalry troop and was then disbanded only to be reformed in 1805 when hostilities with France resumed . Many Cullompton men fought in the Peninsular War and at the Battle of Waterloo . The first Nonconformist congregation began in 1662 when the vicar of Cullompton , Revd William Crompton , was ejected from the established church . He continued to preach and a Protestant Dissenters meeting house was built in 1698 which became the Unitarian Chapel . In the eighteenth century there was a prevalence of Dissent with the local vicar recording in 1736 that of a population of 3358 there were 508 Presbyterians , 133 Anabaptists and 87 Quakers . By 1743 the first Baptist Chapel had been built . John Wesley 's journal records preaching near the town in 1748 . = = = Nineteenth century to present = = = In 1805 or 1806 the last bull @-@ baiting in the town took place . On 7 July 1839 , a severe fire destroyed many houses in Cullompton . About two thirds of the town burnt with 145 houses and other buildings being destroyed . A subscription for rebuilding was set and donations of £ 5 were made by Barne and Son , tanners of Tiverton , and Cullompton tanners Mortimore and Selwood . In 1847 a riot occurred in the town due to the high price of wheat . Three houses were attacked , including one in Pound Square belonging to Mr Selwood , the owner of a local tannery and also a maltster . He was accused of speculatively buying 2000 bushels of corn and when his house was attacked , almost all the windows were broken and his furniture was also damaged . There have been police stations in the town since 1857 , when the first Police Station was rented . It had three cells and a petty session courtroom . A new police station was built in 1974 , which underwent a major refurbishment in 2011 , to become a police force hub for Mid Devon , with 72 staff members . The town acquired its first steam driven fire engine in 1914 which cost £ 100 and was paid for by voluntary subscription . In April 1903 a petition objecting to the renewal of alcohol licences for local inns , signed by 450 people , was presented to the Brewsters sessions ( magistrates court meetings in England where pub licences were renewed or granted ) . A deputation sent to the session explained that the number of licensed houses was too large in proportion to the population . In 1917 , the cattle market moved from the Higher Bullring to a field near the station . The first cinema was opened in the Victoria Hall in 1918 by Bill Terry and in 1977 the town was twinned with Ploudalmézeau in Brittany , France . In 1920 , a public company was formed to provide an electricity supply for Cullompton which merged with the Bradninch Electricity Company in 1927 to form the Culm Valley Electricity Supply Co . Ltd . A gasworks was set up in Cullompton in 1865 for the Cullompton Gas Light and Coke Co . This was taken over by the Devon Gas Association and nationalised in 1949 . The gasworks was closed in 1956 and Cullompton was then supplied from Exeter . Another serious fire occurred on 17 October 1958 , when Selwood 's tannery in Exeter Street was gutted by fire ; the site was subsequently used by a series of supermarkets . It was run as a Gateway store and then as a Somerfield before closing in 2010 . Aldi re @-@ opened on the site in April 2014 following a major refurbishment of the store . The town saw a major expansion in the 1970s as the construction of a bypass in 1969 , and its conversion into part of the M5 in 1974 , made it a popular commuter town , and it continued to expand during the closing years of the 20th century and the first few years of the 21st century . The Mid Devon Local Development Framework Proposals include plans to erect 95 new dwellings a year , and to build 4 @,@ 000 square metres ( 43 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of new employment floorspace a year between the start of the plan and 2026 . The first Cullompton town website was set up in 1998 and a new website was created in 2011 . CCTV was installed in the main street in 2000 . In March 2010 , it was announced that the town 's magistrates ' court was to be closed due its poor facilities and lack of rooms . It had been suggested that the site might be developed as a town hall or the site used as a car park. but this plan was prevented when a group formed to oppose the proposal to purchase the site for a new town hall were elected to two thirds of the council seats in May 2011 . In June 2011 , it was announced that two local businesspeople had purchased the site and the building was demolished in March 2012 to make space for a car park . The town got its first permanent library in 1938 in a building on Exeter Hill . In September 2011 , a new library opened on a new site , which was four times the size of the old one and cost three million pounds . This was followed shortly afterwards , in December 2011 , by the opening of the Cullompton Community Centre , costing 1 @.@ 5 million pounds . The Tiverton Dramatic Society used the new venue to stage the first pantomime to be performed in Cullompton for 20 years . = = = Economic history = = = Cullompton has a long history of manufacturing , first with wool and cloth manufacture , and then later with leather working and light industry . = = = = Cloth trade = = = = In the 15th century the weaving of fine kersies and later serges was introduced to the area by weavers from the continent . This was largely a cottage industry and merchants would have premises where the fleeces would be combed and sorted . John Lane was one of the best known local cloth merchants ( see Lane 's Aisle in the section on St Andrew 's church below ) . In the seventeenth century , Higher and Lower King 's Mills were fulling mills for the local industry . In 1816 Mr Upcott employed 60 weavers and ' many spinners ' . The Wellington based firm Fox Brothers had a branch factory built in 1890 and made high quality woolen and worsted cloth until 1977 . During World War I , their entire output was of khaki cloth , employing over 200 people . In 1910 Mrs Gidley , wife of Dr Gustavus Gidley , set up a hand @-@ weaving enterprise in the stables of Heyford House with the aim of giving employment to ex @-@ servicemen and disabled people . To manage it she appointed two women , one a granddaughter of Bishop Phillpotts . Later the business evolved into machine knitted garments . = = = = Mills powered by the town leat = = = = A leat runs to the east of the town 's main street but it is uncertain when it was first constructed . By the early seventeenth @-@ century the southern end of the leat and one mill are shown on a map . There were three main mills : Higher Mill , Lower Mill and Middle Mill . Higher Mill appears to have always been a corn mill and it continued to produce animal feed until 1974 . It has since been converted to housing but a water turbine remains . Middle Mill was used as a woollen mill in the nineteenth century and was also associated with Bilbie ’ s bell foundry ( see below ) . Around 1900 , the mill was steam powered and had a boiler delivered . It is labelled as an axle works on the 1904 Second Edition Ordnance Survey map . The only remains of Middle Mill are some walls and a chimney base . Lower Mill ceased working in 1968 . The building is now in residential use but the sluices ( made by Stenner and Gunn of the Lowman Ironworks , Tiverton ) can still be seen , as can the water wheel and gearing . = = = = Tanning = = = = Tanning in Cullompton goes back to at least the sixteenth century and in the nineteenth century there were three tanneries : Crow Green , Lower King 's Mill and Court Tannery . The tannery at Higher King 's Mill was active between about 1830 and 1875 and employed 12 labourers in 1851 and 9 a decade later . Court Tannery was established by 1871 and had closed by 1906 . It was located at the north end of the town behind Court House , which was the residence of the owners of the tannery . In 1871 it employed 21 men and was probably steam @-@ powered . A local tanner , James Whitby , along with George Bodley and John Davis patented an improved bark mill ( used to grind bark for producing tanbark used in the tanning process ) . The Crow Green tannery was situated at the south @-@ west end of the town and was already in existence in 1816 . It had a water @-@ powered bark mill and 47 tan pits at that date . It was owned by the Selwood family for much of the 19th and 20th centuries , who probably purchased it from James Whitby around 1830 , and it was often referred to as Selwood 's tannery . It suffered from fires in 1831 , 1867 and 1958 . In 1881 it employed 48 people and over 100 in 1958 ( 8 % of the local workforce at the time ) . One of the major products of the factory in the nineteenth century was high @-@ quality sole leather , but during the Second World War , only poor @-@ quality hides , such as buffalo , were allocated to the firm . The business was badly damaged by the invention of rubber stick @-@ on shoe soles which reduced the demand for sole leather from shoe repairers . It finally finished operation in 1967 when the leather side of the business was sold to a Yorkshire firm . The building to the north @-@ west of Exeter Hill , which formerly housed the water @-@ powered bark mill , is now an antiques warehouse and the remains of the leat and tail race can still be seen . This side of the site was also the location of the lime yard . The other half of the site , to the south @-@ east of Exeter Hill , which was the location of the tan yard , is now the site of an Aldi supermarket . In addition to tanning , the leather industry included a leather dressing works ( founded in 1921 and which closed in 1982 ) and a glove maker , Drevon and Brown . = = = = Paper making = = = = The first paper mill in Cullompton dates from 1729 , with mills being set up near by at Hele and Higher Kensham in 1767 , at Lower Kensahm c1788 and Langford c 1788 . These would have been small water @-@ powered vat mills , where paper was made by hand , generally by women and children . Records show that the mill in Cullompton was owned by a Mr Simon Mills in 1757 and was taken over by a Mr Theodore Dart in 1799 . There followed a number of different owners of whom one of the most significant was Albert Reed who purchased the mill in 1883 . His brother , William Reed , established a partnership with a Mr C King Smith . The Reed & Smith group ( which acquired New Taplow Mill in 1950 ) became one of the biggest papermakers in the UK . A Fourdrinier machine was installed in 1892 and continued to make paper at Higher Kings until about 1972 . A new machine was built in 1956 to make blue sugar bags and other products , and has been modified over the years to make different grades of paper and card . St Regis acquired Higher Kings in the early 1980s and since then the mill has diversified into making a wide range of recycled coloured papers and boards . It is now owned by Asia File Corporation . = = = = Cabinet making = = = = Luxtons cabinet makers was founded in 1800 and grew until it employed 50 people , with workshops at Cockpit Hill and Duke Street . After World War I a retail shop was opened by the firm in Fore Street and it kept going doing retailing and repairs until the mid @-@ 1960s . A former employee of Luxtons , William Broom , started his own cabinet making business in 1920 and employed 7 or 8 workmen until the 1930s when the Great Depression meant that by the start of the Second World War , William Broom was the only worker in the firm . After the war , the firm concentrated on repair work and antiques restoration . The firm closed in 1990 with the retirement of Sid Russ who had taken the firm over after William Broom retired . = = = = Haulage = = = = Mark Whitton founded Whitton 's in the early 1900s carrying timber with a horse and cart . After World War I the company carried coal to the gas works and local paper mills . In 1923 they bought their first Sentinel steam lorry and carried paper to Bristol , returning with animal feed . During the Second World War they were run by the Ministry of Transport and after the war were nationalised to become part of British Road Services . The brothers who had owned the company moved back into haulage , setting up a new firm which went into receivership in the 1970s and was then bought by Wild Transport of Exeter in 1973 . = = = = Bell foundry and clock making = = = = A Cullompton man called Chubb travelled widely to repair bells during the reign of James I. In 1745 a vestry meeting determined that in order to reduce the cost of having the church bells repaired , the bells should be cast in some part of the almshouses , and a bell founder be found to work there . In 1746 Thomas Bilbie , from Chew Stoke in Somerset , created a new bell foundry ( The West of England Church Bellfoundry ) in the town , paying an annual rent of £ 1 / 13 / 4 ( £ 1 @.@ 67 ) for premises in the Almshouse building . He recast the six bells of Cullompton church as eight new ones . In 1754 Thomas 's eldest son also called Thomas moved to Cullompton to take over the bell foundry . Over a period of 26 years he cast 239 bells , the majority for churches in Devon . When he died , aged 53 in 1780 , his son Thomas Castleman Bilbie took over the business and cast 197 bells from 1780 to 1813 . The business was then sold to Pannel and co. who moved it to Exeter in 1850 . St Michael 's and All Angel 's in Alphington has a peal of 8 bells cast by Bilbie in Cullompton , at a cost of £ 108 12 shillings and 8 pence ( £ 1 @.@ 63 ) in 1749 . The Bilbie family were also involved in clock making . In 1749 Thomas Biblie ( senior ) was asked to make a set of chimes for Cullompton church . Thomas II worked on clock mechanisms to play tunes on church bells at East Coker and also at Beaminster . Thomas Castleman is recorded as having made a clock for Cullompton Church in 1811 at a cost of £ 55 . = = = = Other industries = = = = There was also a jam factory , ' Devon Dale Jam ' in the 1930s and a foundry . = = Government = = The town and civil parish of Cullompton has three wards : North ( 6 councillors ) , South ( 7 councillors ) and Outer ( 2 councillors ) . The town council first met on 1 December 1894 when it took over from the Parochial Committee , and since 1995 the town has had a mayor elected by the councillors . It is part of Mid Devon District Council and there are three Cullompton wards in the district council North ( 2 councillors ) , South ( 2 councillors ) and Outer ( 1 councillor ) . The total population of the wards at the 2011 Census was 9 @,@ 835 . It is also part of Devon County Council and is represented through the Cullompton Rural ward . From Saxon times it was part of the hundred of Hayridge . From 1894 to 1935 it was part of Tiverton Rural District and prior to that it was part of Tiverton Sanitary District and Tiverton Poor Law Union . It may have been a borough in the 17th century but this status was not sustained . It is part of the Tiverton and Honiton constituency and its MP in 2012 was Neil Parish . It was formerly part of the Northern Parliamentary Division of Devon ( 1831 – 67 ) , the North Division ( 1867 – 85 ) , the North Eastern Division ( 1885 – 1918 ) and the Honiton Division . = = Geography = = Cullompton is 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south @-@ east of Tiverton , 13 miles ( 21 km ) north @-@ north @-@ east of Exeter and 149 miles ( 240 km ) west @-@ south @-@ west of London . It is at about 70 m above sea level . The parish covers nearly 8 @,@ 000 acres ( 32 km2 ) and stretches for 7 miles ( 11 km ) along the Culm valley . = = Demography = = At the 2011 Census the parish of Cullompton had a population of 8 @,@ 499 . The wards of Cullompton North and Cullompton South contain the urban area and had a combined population of 7 @,@ 643 . In 2001 there were 5 @,@ 464 people aged 16 to 74 of whom 3 @,@ 665 were economically active and employed , 1 @,@ 556 were economically inactive and 131 economically inactive but unemployed . Figures in 2001 on ethnic composition for Mid Devon as a whole were : White British 97 @.@ 57 % , White other 1 @.@ 24 % and White Irish 0 @.@ 4 % and for religious composition 75 @.@ 40 % Christian , 15 @.@ 98 % no religion . The population of the parish changed little from the start of the 19th century until the 1970s , remaining at around 3 @,@ 000 ( see chart ) . However it increased rapidly in the last part of the 20th century and the start of the 21st . Cullompton 's population growth looks set to continue as Mid Devon 's core strategy foresees 95 new dwellings being built per year in the period to 2026 . In 1660 the population of the town ( only including the urban parts of the parish ) has been estimated at 1 @,@ 800 , which made it the 10th largest town in Devon and Cornwall . The town 's population grew to 2 @,@ 750 by 1750 ( meaning it was the 8th largest town ) but it then fell rapidly so that it was only 2 @,@ 275 by 1805 - only the 23rd largest town in Devon and Cornwall . This fall in population , in a period when many other towns grew rapidly , was probably due to the decline in the importance of the cloth trade in this period . = = Economy = = In 2001 the proportion of people living and working in Cullompton was 43 % with 19 % of the town 's working population employed in Exeter . = = = Retail = = = In 2001 the retail sector in Cullompton met fairly local needs only . The town currently has two supermarkets , Tesco , which opened in September 2008 and Aldi which opened in April 2014 . Mole Valley Farmers has a store in the town which sells a wide range of goods including farm requirements , garden supplies and hardware . The Cullompton street market came to an end in the late 1950s but it was revived for a trial period of seven weeks starting on Saturday 28 June 2008 . Although in the initial few weeks trading was good , overall takings for the traders were disappointing . The town also has an indoor market in the town hall every Wednesday A farmers ' market held in Cullompton is the oldest event of its kind in the South West . It was Tracey Frankpitt 's idea , and after much work , the first market was held on 13 June 1998 . She was later consulted by the producers of the long running radio soap opera The Archers and the Cullompton farmers ' market was mentioned in one of the episodes . It is held monthly on the second Saturday of the month . There is an active traders group ( Cullompton Traders Association ) which holds a range of events . The Bullring Market has been relaunched since Dec 2012 and continues into 2013 every Wednesday and Saturday . = = = Kingsmill industrial estate = = = Mid Devon District Council owns 11 industrial units at the Kingsmill industrial estate which are let by a variety of businesses . Business based on the estate include Gregory Distribution , who have 27 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 500 m2 ) of temperature controlled storage which they use for a contract to deliver chilled and frozen goods to Spar stores in the southwest . There is also a flour mill , milk depot , marketing and advertising agency and an industrial clothing shop as well as Higher Kings Mill . = = Culture and community = = The town has an annual Christmas parade to celebrate the switching on of the town 's Christmas lights and a festival week in the summer which includes the annual town fayre ( formerly known as the Cullompton Town Picnic and Classic Car Show ) . Community facilities improved during 2011 , with the completion of two projects . The first was a ' community hub ' called ' The Hayridge ' , which opened in September . The facility , which is open six days a week , has a public lending library and cafe with free Wi @-@ Fi access , IT suites and conference facilities . The office space is used by Cullompton Adult Community Learning which was previously based at the local secondary school . Cullompton Adult Community Learning is run by Devon County Council and offers a range of courses for adult learners ranging from Indian Head Massage to French for Beginners . Courses are run in the Hayridge 's learning suites on the first floor . The second major project completed in 2011 was the Cullompton Community centre , which opened in December . This is a 9 @,@ 250 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 859 m2 ) building created for community use with sponsorship from St Andrew 's church and with grants from Devon County Council and Uffculme Environmental Fund , donations from church members , and money from the South West of England Regional Development Agency . The main meeting area has seating capacity for 180 people , and there are five further meeting rooms as well as offices , kitchens and toilets . A major recreational area for the town is the Cullompton Community Association 's fields which cover 32 acres ( 13 ha ) in the centre of the town . The fields are used for a variety of events , which include a circus , whippet racing and a firework display . The Association is a registered charity which was formed in 1970 to provide a recreation area for the town . It purchased the fields , which are next to the riverside walk along the leat , for £ 11 @,@ 500 . The site was chosen as the water meadows needed to be maintained to help prevent flooding and it was also close to the cricket and bowling clubs . Youth activities have been provided by a youth centre called the John Tallack Centre since it opened in 1988 . In February 2008 the Culm Valley Integrated Centre for Health opened in Cullompton . The services provided at the site include : the College Surgery Partnership which is a large general practice with ten doctors ; complementary therapies provided by Culm Valley Natural Health ; self care groups a health food café , a physic garden and a pharmacy run by Alliance Boots . Health care is also provided by the Brain Injury Rehabilitation Trust , which has run a residential centre called ' The Woodmill ' since May 1998 . It is the most southerly residential assessment and rehabilitation centre run by the Trust in the United Kingdom , and provides rehabilitation for up to 23 adults with acquired brain injury . Cullompton United Charities provides a number of Charitable services to residents of Cullompton . The majority of the funds come from bequests made to the parish from the seventeenth century onwards . Thirteen separate charities were combined in 1921 and then in 1953 further amalgamation went on with the Trott 's almshouses , John Lanes Charity and the Charity of George Spicer combining to form the current United Charities . There are nine local almshouses which are available to local residents over the age of 55 . They also offer Alpha Piperline emergency call services for the elderly , can refund up to £ 100 to school leavers under 25 who have spent money equipping themselves with tools , books , vocational training or further education and offer financial help needy individuals resident in the parish to help them purchase specific items . They also own a building called Community House in the town centre , where local organisations can hire meeting rooms . = = Landmarks = = The street plan of the town still reflects the medieval layout of the town . Most shops lie along Fore Street with courts behind them linked by alleyways . The length of the high street reflects the prosperity of the town from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century when it was a centre of the cloth trade . The street plan is still fundamentally the same as shown on a map of 1663 , with a wider area at the North end where markets were held , roads to Tiverton and Ponsford and a small lane leading down to a mill ( now known as Lower Mill ) . This map has only two buildings with roofs coloured blue ( conventionally meaning they were of slate ) – St Andrew 's church and the Walronds . There are two grade I listed buildings in Cullompton : the fifteenth century parish church ( St Andrew 's ) and the Walronds at 6 Fore Street . There are also seven grade II * listed buildings and ninety grade II listed buildings . The centre of the town is a conservation area – the only one in the Mid Devon area . Hillersdon House , a Victorian manor house is near to the town centre and within the parish . = = = The Walronds = = = The Walronds was probably built in 1605 which is the date over the hall fireplace . John Peter , a lawyer , acquired the property by marriage into the Paris family and his initials are over the fireplace . The plan is a traditional one with the ground floor hall divided from the entrance passage by a screen . The main range has three storeys and there are two wings which are both two storeys high . In the upper south @-@ east room is a barrel shaped ceiling and a second fireplace with the date 1605 . The association with the Walrond family only dates from the eighteenth century . It is now owned by Cullompton Walronds Preservation Trust which was registered as a charity and as a private company limited by guarantee in the spring of 1997 . It inherited half the building in 2005 from Miss June Severn and bought the other half . In 2008 the building became the only building in Mid Devon to be put on English Heritage 's Buildings at Risk Register and received £ 250 @,@ 000 from Devon County Council and £ 100 @,@ 000 from Mid Devon District Council for restoration work . Emergency repairs costing £ 15 @,@ 000 were carried out during 2008 . In July 2010 the Heritage Lottery Fund announced that it would provide a grant of £ 1 @.@ 75 million to help complete the restoration . Work began with the erection of scaffolding in August 2011 . Restoration including restoring the rendering on the house . This had been removed in 1898 causing water to penetrate the fabric of the building . The house re @-@ opened to the public following the restoration on 29 March 2014 with a display of kersey cloth and costumes made by the Walronds Costume making group . The upper floors of the house , the inner garden and car park will be leased to the Vivat Trust for holiday lettings . The trust will retain the three rooms adjoining the path from Fore Street for public use . These comprise a meeting room , a kitchen and a lavatory . Additionally , the Trust plans to convert the garden which stretches back to Shortlands Lane into a park for the people of the town . = = = St Andrew 's Church = = = St Andrew 's church dates from the fifteenth century and is set back from the main street but despite this its tower is a landmark which is highly visible from the surrounding area . The tower is 100 feet ( 30 m ) tall with pinnacles on top which add a further 20 feet ( 6 m ) to its height . On the west face are the badly damaged remains of a Crucifixion scene with figures of Edward VI and St George to either side . The tower also has a large clock face by Norman of Ilfracombe dating from about 1874 . Despite being the first part of the church to be seen when approaching from the main street , it is however the most recent part of the church , being built 1545 – 1549 . The tower is built in the local red sandstone with carved parts in Beer and Ham Hill stone . The nave and chancel are carried on five pairs of piers and the interior has a boarded wagon roof coloured in blue , crimson and gold which stretches the whole length of the church . At the time of the construction of the Bristol and Exeter Railway , William Froude – the engineer given responsibility for this section of the line by Isambard Kingdom Brunel – inserted iron stringers to prevent the walls from spreading as a result of vibrations from the trains . A screen runs across the whole width of the church . At the end of the nave is a Jacobean gallery with four oak pillars about 9 feet ( 3 m ) tall . It dates from 1637 and there are sixteen figures carved on it . These figures are typical of the Stuart period and represent the twelve apostles and the Four Evangelists ( meaning that Matthew and Mark appear twice ) . At the centre are Saint Andrew ( with an X cross ) , Saint Peter ( with a key ) and Saint John ( with the chalice ) . The central window of the North Aisle is a World War II memorial and a World War I memorial is on the other side . Moores Chantry ( the last bay of the North Aisle ) contains some original box pews and at the rear of the church are two large pieces of oak which make up a Golgotha which once rested on top of the Rood Screen . They are carved with rocks , skulls and bones . They were probably removed from the church in 1549 and cut into 2 pieces . For many years they remained in the graveyard . On the south side of the church is the first major addition to the church : Lane 's Aisle . This was built 1526 – 1529 by a local cloth merchant , John Lane . It is fan vaulted in a style inspired by the Dorset aisle at Ottery St Mary and some of the carvings are similar to John Greenway 's Chapel at Tiverton . John Lane and wife are buried at the east end of the aisle . = = = Cullompton Manor House = = = Cullompton Manor House is a grade II * listed building with sections built in 1603 ( dated panel and initials TT for Thomas Trock on the top corner of the front of the house ) and 1718 ( on a lead cistern head of a drainpipe , are the letters ( L ) S / WT ( R ) and the date 1718 ) . It was originally a private residence and now forms part of the Manor House Hotel . It has a jettied half timbered front with four gables and stone end walls with upper windows on carved brackets . It was probably built in the sixteenth century but was refurbished in 1603 for Thomas Trock , a clothier . The original structure consisted only of the front part , in which there were three rooms and a passage on the ground floor , three rooms opening into each other on the floor above , and above again . The front room on the left was the former hall with large oak panels of the Queen Anne period , and a moulded and beamed ceiling . Part of an earlier newel stair which descended to the hall or kitchen survives above a back staircase . The house was remodelled in 1718 for William Sellock . At the front of the building is a hooded shell porch of the early 18th century supported on pilasters and the back of house is also early 18th century of red and blue brick , with windows with thick glazing bars beneath a hipped slate roof with coved eaves . It was given the name of The Manor House in 1850 by J. S. Upcott who owned the property at that time . During World War II it was requisitioned by the army and used to billet officers . The adjacent house , Veryards , was originally a separate residence but was bought by the owners of the Manor House Hotel and incorporated into the hotel in the 1980s . The building is currently on the Heritage at Risk Register following a serious deterioration in its condition which led to concerns for public safety , and the issuing of a repairs notice under section 48 of Planning ( Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas ) Act 1990 by Mid Devon District Council . = = = Cullompton Leat = = = Running parallel to the main high street is a leat with a public footpath running along it . The leat runs from Head Weir , north of Cullompton , and takes its water from the Spratford Stream . It flows past three former watermills ( Upper , Middle and Lower Mill ) and then empties into the Culm near First Bridge . It is uncertain when the leat was first made but the south end of the leat and Lower Mill are shown on an early seventeenth @-@ century map . The leat is no longer in use for powering mills and the Environment Agency is not interested in managing the leat nor keeping it flowing so the Cullompton Leat Conservancy Board was formed to restore and maintain the Leat in 2005 . = = Transport = = Junction 28 of the M5 lies within the parish of Cullompton and a short distance from the town centre . Other major road links are the A373 to Honiton and the former A38 to Exeter which runs through the town , and is now the B3181 . In 2001 61 @.@ 6 % of people living in Cullompton travelled to work by car or van and 83 % of households had at least one car . In October 1969 a bypass was completed but after only five years this was upgraded to form part of the M5 . Since this time traffic coming from the south of Cullompton to the M5 junction has had to pass through the centre of the town . There are now problems with air quality in the town and Mid Devon District Council have made the whole of the built up area in Cullompton an Air quality management area . Traffic on the exit slip road leaving the M5 northbound often backed up onto the motorway , so the Highways Agency and Devon County Council made junction improvements by widening roads , introducing traffic lights and reopening the left hand lane of the northbound slip road , at a cost of £ 1.3m. This cost was covered by businesses moving to Cullompton . There are two routes for relief roads being considered by Mid Devon District Council – a western route and an eastern route . If a lower growth option is chosen it is proposed that only the western route would be constructed . An alternative Outer Eastern Relief Road crossing the M5 at Old Hill was rejected as the existing bridges would need rebuilding , making the cost prohibitive . There is some opposition to both routes – a group called Cullompton Against Western Relief Road has been formed to oppose one route and there is also opposition to the eastern route which passes through the Cullompton Community Fields . The Bristol and Exeter Railway opened a station at Cullompton when the railway opened on 1 May 1844 . Around 1931 the lines were widened to provide two passing loops and a new goods shed and waiting room were constructed . It closed to passengers on 5 October 1964 , the site now being used for the M5 motorway Cullompton services . The nearest railway station is now Tiverton Parkway . Devon County Council 's Travel Transport Plan includes the re @-@ opening of Cullompton Railway Station and in July 2 @-@ 16 Mid Devon District Council announced that it would spend £ 40k on engineering design work to test the viability of their concept for a new station . This matched a previous commitment by Taunton Deane Borough Council of £ 40k and £ 10k contributions from the Town Councils of Cullompton and Wellington . The 1 , 1A and 1B buses run by Stagecoach provide regular bus services to Tiverton and Exeter . There is also a town circular bus run by Dartline , and an express bus run by First Somerset & Avon which runs from Exeter to Taunton and stops at Cullompton . = = Education = = Cullompton has two primary schools : St Andrews Primary School which is a medium @-@ sized primary school with approximately 230 pupils in Key Stages 1 & 2 , and nine classes and Willowbank Primary School . The secondary school is Cullompton Community College . It opened in 1964 on the present site and became fully comprehensive in 1979 . It is now a co @-@ educational comprehensive school for students aged between 11 and 16 with approximately 650 students on roll and in December 2003 it secured sponsorship of £ 50 @,@ 000 from The Co @-@ operative Group to enable it to become a Business and Enterprise college . = = Religious sites = = As well as the Parish church , St Andrew ( see # Landmarks ) , there are several other religious sites . The Roman Catholic church , Saint Boniface , was built in 1929 by Manuel de las Casas who was descended from the uncle of Bartolomé de las Casas . The Methodist church in New Cut is the third chapel on the site . The first was started in 1764 and the current building was built following a fire in 1872 which did serious damage to the chapel built in 1806 . The Unitarian chapel on Pound Square dates from 1913 following the collapse of the previous building in 1911 . It is the oldest nonconformist congregation in Cullompton . Hebron Evangelical Church was built in 1962 . The Baptist Church is the site of a meeting house erected in 1743 on High Street . = = Sports and leisure = = = = = Local teams and clubs = = = Cullompton Rugby Club was formed in 1892 and played on thirteen different grounds in and around the town before their current ground – Stafford Park – was purchased in 1980 . In 2008 @-@ 9 the senior 1st XV team won the Western Counties West League finishing the season unbeaten . On Saturday 9 May 2009 they won the EDF Energy Senior Vase by beating Tyldesley 8 @-@ 7 at Twickenham . Exeter Chiefs prop Ben Moon formerly played for Cullompton and has now played for the England unders 20s . Ladies rugby started at Cullompton in 1997 and by 2009 the team had two qualified coaches . They currently play in the National Challenge South West South 2 league . Former Cullompton flanker Izzy Noel Smith , currently playing for Bristol has been capped for England . The local football team is Cullompton Rangers who were formed in 1945 and play in Premier Division of the South West Peninsula League . Their ground is called Speeds Meadow . There was also a women 's football team – Cullompton Rangers L.F.C. who were formed when Exeter City L.F.C. amalgamated with Cullompton Rangers AFC but in 2011 the women 's team folded when the manager was forced to leave and a replacement could not be found . Cullompton cricket club was established in 1892 and they play at Landspeed Meadow , by the Cullompton Community Association Fields . There are also a variety of other clubs including several bowls clubs and badminton , running , squash , and Taekwondo martial arts clubs . = = = Sports and leisure facilities = = = The town has a sports centre , Culm Valley Sports Centre , which is currently run by Mid Devon District Council . It was opened in 1985 and facilities include a fitness studio , an all weather pitch , a sports hall , squash courts and a sauna . The town is also home to Padbrook Park – a golf course and sporting and recreational centre which first opened in March 1992 . The facilities include a Parkland Golf Course , a Golf School , a 40 bedroom hotel , conference suites , health & fitness centre , indoor bowls , fishing lake , beauty salon , restaurants and a sports bar = = Notable people = = Painter and architect John Shute was born in Cullompton . Architect Charles Fowler was born in Cullompton . Richard Crosse , painter , was born in Knowle , a hamlet in the parish . The puritan clergyman Thomas Manton was town lecturer around 1644 . The engineer William Froude lived in Cullompton and was churchwarden from 1842 – 44 . WG Hoskins died in the town on 11 January 1992 . The singer Joss Stone lives near Cullompton .
= 2005 Texas Longhorns football team = The 2005 Texas Longhorn football team represented the University of Texas at Austin during the 2005 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season , winning the Big 12 Conference championship and the national championship . The team was coached by Mack Brown , led on offense by quarterback Vince Young , and played its home games at Darrell K. Royal – Texas Memorial Stadium . The team 's penultimate victory of the season , the Big 12 Championship Game , featured the biggest margin of victory in the history of that contest . They finished the season by winning the 2006 Rose Bowl against the USC Trojans for the national championship . Numerous publications have cited this victory as standing among the greatest performances in college football history , and ESPN awarded the 2006 ESPY Award for the " Best Game " in any sport to the Longhorns and the Trojans . The Longhorns finished as the only unbeaten team in NCAA Division I @-@ A football that year , with thirteen wins and zero losses . Texas earned its second Big 12 Conference football championship to make 27 conference championships total , including 25 in the Southwest Conference . It was their fourth national championship in football and the ninth perfect season in the history of Longhorn football . The team set numerous school and NCAA records , including their 652 points which set an NCAA record for points scored in a season . After the season ended , six Longhorns from this championship team joined professional football teams through the 2006 NFL Draft . Seven more Longhorns followed suit in the 2007 NFL Draft and they were joined by two free agents . Another nine followed through the 2008 Draft and free @-@ agency to make a total of twenty @-@ four players who entered into the National Football League ( NFL ) . = = Before the season = = Media and fans of college football consider the UT program one of the great powerhouses of the game because of the school 's winning record as well as their previous national championships in 1963 , 1969 and 1970 . From 1936 to 2004 , the team finished the season in the top ten team of the Associated Press Poll 23 times , or one @-@ third of the time . At the start of the 2005 season , the Longhorns were one of the most victorious programs in college football history ; they were third in total victories and fourth if measured by winning percentage . In the 2004 season Vince Young led the team to the 2005 Rose Bowl , the school 's first Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) game , and a top 5 finish in the major polls . It should also be noted that Vince Young predicted that the Longhorns would return to the Rose Bowl next season in a post game interview where he proclaimed , " We 'll be back ! " Young returned for the 2005 – 2006 season , as did most of the other key players from 2004 – 2005 , with the exception of Cedric Benson , Derrick Johnson , and Bo Scaife . Texas was given a pre @-@ season No. 2 ranking ( behind the defending National Champions , the University of Southern California ) by Sports Illustrated magazine , the Associated Press Poll and the USA Today Coaches Poll . During the summer of 2005 , a period free of official team practices , Young and his receivers spent extra practice time working on their timing and team @-@ work . The fall Orange and White intra @-@ team scrimmage was held on August 21 , 2005 , as an event open to the public . Running back Ramonce Taylor returned the opening kickoff 94 yards for a touchdown . Young completed five of seven passing attempts for 68 yards and one touchdown . Senior Richmond McGee made two 33 @-@ yard field goals and emerged as the top candidate to handle field goals , kickoffs and punts . Brown said of McGee , " We 've never had one person do all three , so it 's a concern , but right now , he would be the guy . " The success of the 2004 team and the efforts during the off @-@ season fueled anticipation by sports writers that Texas would play for the national championship if they could win their away game against Ohio State University and end their five @-@ game losing streak against Oklahoma . The BCS system required any team competing in the championship game to be ranked either number one or number two in the BCS Standings at the end of the season . = = Schedule = = = = Roster = = The final roster of the season : Texas had very few problems affecting the roster . Only one defensive starter missed a game due to injury . On offense , starting running back Selvin Young injured his ankle in the game against Louisiana @-@ Lafayette and re @-@ injured it the following week against Ohio State . He did not play in the games against Rice or Baylor . Receiver Jordan Shipley missed the entire season due to a pulled hamstring . The Austin Police Department charged UT receiver Myron Hardy with a Class A misdemeanor for carrying a prohibited weapon , a " ' butterfly style knife ' that operates like a switchblade , making it a prohibited weapon . " Hardy appeared in four games for the 2004 team , catching one pass for four yards . He redshirted in 2005 and returned to the roster for 2006 . The police investigated assault allegations against Cedric Griffin and Ramonce Taylor but no charges were filed . The incident allegedly occurred December 10 , 2005 , near the Sixth Street entertainment district . The UT athletics department found no reason to discipline the players and they both played in the final game of the season . Also in December , the police announced they were investigating a Longhorn player in a separate incident that occurred in September . This incident allegedly involved armed robbery with a handgun . The police did not name the target of the investigation . Three Longhorns , freshman running backs Michael Houston and Jerrell Wilkerson and sophomore defensive back Bobby Tatum , elected to transfer prior to UT 's bowl game . All three were reserve players . = = Game notes = = = = = Louisiana Lafayette = = = This game marked the second meeting of the Texas Longhorns and the Louisiana Lafayette Ragin ' Cajuns . In their first meeting in 2000 , UT fell behind 10 – 0 before quarterback Major Applewhite entered the game late in the first quarter and threw for 315 yards and 4 touchdowns as the Longhorns scored 52 unanswered points in a 52 – 10 victory . Prior to kickoff of the 2005 game , the stadium announcer made an appeal for donations to help those suffering in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina , which devastated parts of Louisiana five days previously . Donations were not accepted at the game because of a policy against official fund @-@ raising . As the Longhorns entered the field , special teams player Karim Meijer carried a United States flag that was given to the team on Thursday by former Longhorn Nathan Kaspar who flew the flag during missions in southeastern Iraq . For this game only , the Longhorns wore throwback uniforms furnished by Nike as a way of honoring the past . The throwback jerseys were similar to jerseys worn during their 1963 National Championship season under Coach Darrell K. Royal . Football 's origins in the Northeastern United States have created an expectation that it is a cold @-@ weather sport , but the temperature at kickoff was 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) which is also the average temperature in Austin for the month of September . Texas scored first when Selvin Young ran the ball in for a touchdown . The extra point attempt by Richmond McGee was no good . The Cajuns were able to score three points on a field goal by Sean Comiskey making the score Texas 6 , Louisiana Lafayette 3 . Texas replied with 54 unanswered points to win the game 60 – 3 . With the win , Texas improved its record in season @-@ opening games to 93 – 17 – 3 and 72 – 2 – 2 when they open the year at home . That figure includes 11 straight wins and victories in 30 of their last 31 games at home . Their home record under Mack Brown improved to 39 wins and 3 losses . Several new Longhorn players entered the game . True freshman running back Jamaal Charles set the UT rushing record for a debut game with 135 yards and a rushing touchdown alongside one reception for 18 yards , after taking over during the game for injured running back Selvin Young . True freshman running back Henry Melton also saw his first action and scored his first touchdown at the college level . True freshman Quan Cosby got his first college start , and two other true freshmen ( Roy Miller and Aaron Lewis ) saw action . = = = Ohio State = = = According to USA Today , the match @-@ up between the Longhorns and the Ohio State Buckeyes ( OSU ) was one of the most @-@ anticipated games of the 2005 season . Teams have become increasingly conservative in scheduling highly ranked non @-@ conference opponents , so a meeting of the number 2 and number 4 teams in the country was unusual this early in the season . Because of the significance of the game in the national championship race , ESPN College GameDay chose the game as the site of its weekly broadcast . The American Football Coaches Association brought the national championship trophy to the game and displayed it on the field near Bevo , the UT mascot ( photo below ) . Texas and Ohio State are two of the oldest and " most storied " programs in college football , but this game was the first meeting between the two teams . For Texas , it meant playing a second Big Ten Conference " powerhouse " less than one year after winning the first meeting between Texas and the University of Michigan at the end of the 2004 season . The game was played in Ohio Stadium , also known as " The Horseshoe " or " the Shoe " . This stadium is notoriously tough for visiting teams , as its large capacity and structural design focus a tremendous amount of crowd noise that can make it difficult for the visiting team to call audibles at the line of scrimmage . The game 's 105 @,@ 565 attendance set a record for Ohio Stadium . Texas scored first with a 42 yard field goal , which was a career @-@ long for Longhorn kicker David Pino . A five yard touchdown pass from Vince Young to Billy Pittman gave the Longhorns a 10 – 0 lead at the end of the first quarter . The Buckeyes controlled most of the second quarter . Their first score was a 45 yd field goal by Josh Huston followed by a 36 yard touchdown pass from Troy Smith to Santonio Holmes to tie the score at 10 – 10 . They took the lead with two more field goals from Josh Huston . Texas made a field goal to trim Ohio State 's lead to 16 – 13 at the half . In the third quarter , Texas made one field goal and OSU made two , extending Ohio State 's lead to 22 – 16 . In the fourth quarter , Texas regained the lead with a touchdown pass from Young to Limas Sweed . UT 's Aaron Harris sacked OSU 's Troy Smith for a safety and Texas took a three point lead , which they held when time expired . Texas ' win , by a score of 25 – 22 , was the lowest scoring game Texas would experience all season , both in terms of points scored by Texas and total points . Fourth @-@ ranked OSU became the highest @-@ ranked non @-@ conference opponent the Longhorns had ever beaten at an opponent 's home stadium . The previous high came in 1983 when third @-@ ranked Texas pulled off a 20 – 7 upset versus fifth @-@ ranked Auburn . Texas became the first non @-@ conference opponent to beat the Buckeyes in Ohio Stadium since 1990 , putting an end to a 36 @-@ game home victory string over non @-@ conference opponents . The Longhorns also were the first team to beat the Buckeyes in a night game at The Horseshoe and it was UT 's 10th straight victory in a night @-@ game road contest . ESPN and College Football Rivals each named the game one of the best football games of the season . = = = Rice = = = The Rice Owls and Texas met in 2005 for the 88th time . Texas held a 65 – 21 – 1 lead in the series , which began in 1914 . For the Longhorns this series ranks fourth in number of games played , behind Texas A & M , Oklahoma , and Baylor . The two schools were once conference foes in the Southwest Conference and have maintained a rivalry despite the fact that Texas enjoys a sizable lead in the series . President John F. Kennedy alluded to the lopsidedness of the rivalry in his 1962 speech on America 's space program : " But why , some say , the moon ? ... And they may well ask why climb the highest mountain . Why , 35 years ago , fly the Atlantic ? Why does Rice play Texas ? ... We choose to go to the moon ... and do the other things , not because they are easy , but because they are hard . " In addition to continuing a traditional rivalry , playing Rice in a home and away series allows for Texas to play games in Houston , Texas , an important recruiting base for UT , which has a significant Texas Exes alumni population . The Horns took possession of the ball to start the game and used less than two minutes in scoring on a 25 @-@ yard carry by Jamaal Charles . Rice advanced to the Texas 43 @-@ yard line before punting the ball to Texas ' one @-@ yard line , forcing the Longhorns to start from inside their own end zone . UT drove the ball 99 yards in seven plays for a second touchdown . With four seconds left in the first quarter , Vince Young threw a pass that was intercepted by Ja 'Corey Shepherd at the UT 20 @-@ yard line . Rice lost yardage on their possession and failed to convert on fourth down so they turned the ball over on downs . The rest of the first @-@ half scoring was dominated by the Longhorns as they scored four more touchdowns to take a 42 – 0 lead . The Owls had four – more possessions in the second – quarter but never advanced the ball past their own 30 @-@ yard line . In the second half , each team scored one field goal and one touchdown , although Texas missed their extra point so they won the game 51 – 10 . UT 's Jamaal Charles ran for 189 yards and three touchdowns on 16 carries in his first start for the Longhorns . After the game , Charles said that his goal was to rush for 200 yards each game but that he was not disappointed to fall short of 200 yards rushing because he hit his goal of rushing for three touchdowns . = = = Missouri = = = Sportscasters touted the contest with the Missouri Tigers as a showcase between of the two best dual @-@ threat quarterbacks playing in college football , pitting Missouri quarterback Brad Smith against Vince Young of Texas . The two players combined for 582 yards total offense . Both Young and Smith led their respective team in rushing yards . Young had 108 rushing yards while Smith had 57 . Young had 236 passing yards compared to Smith 's 181 . The Longhorns and the Tigers each scored two touchdowns in the first quarter , though Missouri missed an extra point to let Texas take a 14 – 13 lead . Texas scored another touchdown and a field goal to make a 24 – 13 lead at halftime . In the second half , Texas scored four more touchdowns , missing one extra point to increase their lead to 51 – 13 . Missouri was scoreless for 40 minutes of play until they scored a touchdown with 3 : 54 left to play ; it was their only score of the second half . Texas won the game 51 – 20 to extend its series lead over Missouri to 15 – 5 . = = = Oklahoma = = = Football fans consider the annual game between Texas and the Oklahoma Sooners ( OU ) one of the greatest rivalries games in all of college sports . Though officially called the Red River Rivalry , it remains better known by its traditional name , the Red River Shootout ; the 2005 match @-@ up was the 100th in the series . Since 1912 the teams have played the game at the Cotton Bowl stadium in Dallas , Texas , amid the atmosphere of the adjacent Texas State Fair . This is unusual because most college football games alternate between the opponents home stadiums . Dallas was chosen as the neutral site because it is approximately halfway between the two schools . The stadium is divided down the 50 @-@ yard line , with half of the stadium predominantly clad in the crimson and cream colors of Oklahoma , and the other half mostly wearing the burnt orange and white of Texas . The game frequently has implications for the conference and national championship races . Since 1945 , at least one of the teams was ranked among the top 25 teams in the nation coming into 60 out of 65 games . Prior to the 2005 game , Texas held an advantage in the all @-@ time series 55 – 39 – 5 , which included a 43 – 35 – 4 edge in Dallas , but Oklahoma had won the 5 previous games , including the two worst losses ever for a Texas team in the series . Those losses had helped build a reputation that Mack Brown was not capable of winning in " Big Games " . Four times during those five years , Texas ' loss to Oklahoma prevented them from playing in the Big 12 Conference Championship Game . One of these two teams appeared in four of the nine BCS national championship games from 1999 to 2007 . The Longhorns scored first with a touchdown pass from Vince Young to Ramonce Taylor ; this was the first time for Texas to lead Oklahoma since 2002 and Texas ' first passing touchdown against Oklahoma since 2000 . The Sooners ' Garrett Hartley answered with a 52 @-@ yard field goal , the longest of his college career , and a 9 @-@ yard field goal . Longhorn Jamaal Charles scored next on an 80 @-@ yard touchdown run . UT then scored with a 38 @-@ yard field goal by Richmond McGee and a 64 @-@ yard long bomb from Young to Billy Pittman just before halftime , giving Texas a 24 – 6 lead at the half . UT made the only score of the third quarter : a 27 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Young to Pittman . In the fourth quarter UT scored two touchdowns while OU scored one . UT was favored by 14 points and won the game by 33 points , tying the biggest margin of victory for the Longhorns in the history of the rivalry , a 40 – 7 victory in 1941 . The game also marked the sixth time the Longhorns entered the contest ranked second nationally ; they have won all six . With the win , Texas started their season 5 – 0 for the first time since 1983 . = = = Colorado = = = Of all the teams on Texas regular season schedule , Colorado had the best historical record against Texas up to the start of the season . The all @-@ time record was tied at 7 – 7 , and the record since the formation of the Big 12 conference was tied at 3 – 3 . Texas established a lead early in the game and never lost it ; they led 35 – 10 at halftime and defeated the 2005 Colorado team by a final score of 42 – 17 . Texas scored touchdowns on all five of their first half possessions ; these included three rushing touchdowns by Vince Young , one rushing touchdown by Selvin Young , and one touchdown pass from Vince Young to Limas Sweed . Colorado was scoreless in the first quarter . In the second quarter they scored with a 48 yard field goal by Mason Crosby and a touchdown pass from Joel Klatt to Evan Judge . After neither team scored in the third quarter , each team completed one touchdown pass in the final period . Vince Young had the best statistical performance of his career to date , completing 25 of 29 passing attempts for 336 yards and two passing touchdowns in addition to 58 yards rushing and 3 rushing touchdowns . His 86 @.@ 2 % completion percentage set a new single @-@ game record for UT , breaking his previous record of 85 @.@ 7 % set against Oklahoma State in 2004 . After the game , Colorado Head Coach Gary Barnett said of Young 's passing performance , " We can 't do that in practice against air . " meaning that his team would not have been able to complete 86 @.@ 2 % of their passes even if playing unopposed . = = = Texas Tech = = = The Texas Tech Red Raiders came into the game undefeated and ranked number 10 in the nation with hopes of beating Texas , winning out the season , and playing for a national championship . The Longhorns scored a field goal on their first possession and Texas Tech answered with a touchdown pass by Cody Hodges . Texas regained the lead when Henry Melton rushed for a touchdown . In the second quarter , the Red Raiders tied up the game with a field goal before Texas regained the lead with two touchdown runs by Selvin Young and a touchdown pass to Billy Pittman . In the third quarter , the Longhorns extended their lead with two touchdowns to one by Texas Tech . Texas ' seventh touchdown came with 6 : 30 left in the game and it was the last points scored in the game . Texas won the game 52 – 17 and moved into first place in the Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) standings for the first time since they were implemented in 1998 . The BCS formula took into account strength of schedule so that teams received more credit for beating stronger opponents . This allowed Texas to advance in the rankings since they beat an unbeaten team while University of Southern California , who previously held the number one spot , beat Washington , a 1 – 6 team . The week following the Texas Tech game Vince Young said he still planned to return for his senior season in 2006 . Young , a candidate for the Heisman trophy , also apologized for striking the " Heisman pose " during the win over Texas Tech ; this had been viewed as an immodest indiscretion . = = = Oklahoma State = = = Texas place at the top of the BCS rankings lasted only one week . On October 29 , 2005 , Texas initially trailed but rallied to beat an Oklahoma State Cowboys team that had held a losing record through the season so far . Texas retained the top spot in the computer rankings , but not by enough to stay ahead of USC in the overall BCS standings . Oklahoma State scored first , with a surprising 49 yard pass from Al Pena to D 'Juan Woods . The Cowboys had lined up tight on 4th and 1 as if trying a short , power run , but faked that play and threw a deep pass instead , catching the Longhorn defense off @-@ guard . Texas replied with a touchdown pass from Young to Thomas , but David Pino missed the extra point , allowing the Cowboys to retain the lead . Oklahoma State scored another touchdown and Texas completed a field goal to make the score 21 – 9 at the end of the first quarter . The Cowboys scored one touchdown in the second quarter off of a pass that was deflected by Texas , and Texas made a field goal near the end to cut into the lead , leaving Oklahoma State ahead 28 – 12 at halftime . The second half was dominated by Texas as they scored five unanswered touchdowns to win the game . The scores consisted of two rushing touchdowns by Vince Young , two rushing touchdowns by Ramonce Taylor , and a 21 yard touchdown pass to Neale Tweedie . Despite Oklahoma State 's 0 – 4 start to conference play , they led Texas the entire first half , including a lead of as much as nineteen points . It was the third straight year that Texas trailed Oklahoma State at halftime and came from behind to win by a sizable margin ( 47 – 28 ) . Vince Young set a school record for total yards in one game with 506 yards ( 239 passing , 267 rushing ) . Young also became one of only seven players in NCAA history to have accumulated over 200 yards rushing and 200 yards passing in a single game . Over the past three meetings between the two schools ( 2003 – 2005 ) , the Longhorns outscored the Cowboys by a combined second @-@ half score of 118 – 0 . TBS announced that the Longhorns ' come @-@ from @-@ behind victory scored a record viewership rating of 1 @.@ 927 million viewers . This represented a 21 percent increase over the previous TBS network record for Southern California vs. Stanford in 2004 . = = = Baylor = = = The Longhorns first played the Baylor Bears in 1901 and have faced them annually since both were members of the Southwest Conference . In the 95 meetings through 2005 , Texas ' record was 69 wins , 22 losses , and 4 ties . Only Texas A & M and the University of Oklahoma had faced Texas more often on the football field . Texas was stopped on their first drive due to an unsuccessful fourth down conversion . Baylor 's first possession ended when UT 's Michael Huff intercepted a pass from Baylor 's Terrance Park . Longhorn Jamaal Charles scored a touchdown on the drive but the kick was blocked , giving Texas the only first @-@ quarter score and a 6 – 0 lead . Texas extended the lead in the second quarter with rushing touchdowns from Henry Melton , Jamaal Charles , and Ramonce Taylor . Taylor made two more touchdowns in the third quarter and Quan Cosby caught a touchdown pass from Young . In the fourth quarter , Taylor scored his fourth touchdown and backup quarterback Matt Nordgren scored on an odd play where he was hit and fumbled while scrambling for the goal line but the ball traveled forward at about the same speed he was running and bounced right back up into his hands . Texas won the 2005 game 62 – 0 making it the only shutout of the 2005 season for the Longhorns . The 2005 Baylor game was played in Waco , Texas , approximately 100 miles ( 161 km ) north on Interstate 35 from Austin . Since UT home games are usually sold out and Waco is relatively close to Austin , recent games against Baylor have attracted numerous Texas fans driving to Waco to see the game . The Baylor athletic department suspended ticket sales at one point in an effort to limit the number of Longhorn fans who purchased tickets . The average attendance for Baylor 's home games for the season was 38 @,@ 899 , but for the UT game the attendance was 44 @,@ 783 still short of the 50 @,@ 000 official capacity for Baylor 's Floyd Casey Stadium . = = = Kansas = = = In order to win the 2004 game against the Kansas Jayhawks , Texas had to convert a 4th @-@ and @-@ 18 situation and complete a touchdown pass with only eleven seconds remaining on the clock . The 2005 game provided much less on @-@ field drama , as Texas led 52 – 0 by halftime and defeated Kansas 66 – 14 . In the first quarter , Texas scored touchdowns on a pass to Limas Sweed , a run by Jamaal Charles , a pass to Quan Cosby , and a punt return by Aaron Ross . In the second quarter , the Longhorns had a touchdown run by Ramonce Taylor and touchdown catches from David Thomas and Peter Ullman . David Pino also kicked a field goal for the Horns . In the third quarter , Kansas opened the scoring with a 59 @-@ yard touchdown by Jon Cornish . Taylor scored another touchdown . UT had the only score of the fourth quarter , a touchdown by Selvin Young . UT fans were unhappy with ABC 's television coverage of the event . The network elected to stick with the Oklahoma vs. Texas A & M game instead of switching to the Kansas vs. Texas game . ABC stayed with the Oklahoma vs. A & M game through the final down and then ran three full minutes of commercials while the Texas vs. Kansas game continued . By the time they switched over Texas was already leading 14 – 0 . The ABC announcers started their coverage saying " And now , we 'll join the game you 've been waiting for all week , which has pretty much already been decided . " ABC then broke away from their coverage at halftime to broadcast other events . This left thousands of UT fans who assembled to watch the game in Darrell K. Royal – Texas Memorial Stadium stranded without coverage for much of the game . The lopsided victory allowed Texas to play several less @-@ experienced players . Back @-@ up quarterback Matt Nordgren entered the game in the third quarter , replacing Vince Young . Third @-@ string quarterback Matt McCoy replaced Nordgren just past the midpoint of the fourth quarter . Since Colt McCoy was listed third on the UT depth chart , television broadcasters referred to Matt McCoy ( no relation ) as Colt McCoy , a mistake they repeated over the season . The Longhorns did not play Colt in the 2005 season , choosing to redshirt him instead . After viewing this game as part of a recruiting visit to UT , Jevan Snead – ranked as one of the top high school quarterbacks in the nation , elected to switch his commitment from University of Florida to Texas . = = = Texas A & M = = = This game marked the 112th meeting between Texas and the Texas A & M Aggies and the game is part of a multi @-@ sport rivalry called the Lone Star Showdown . It is the longest @-@ running rivalry for both the Longhorns and the Aggies and the football series is the third most @-@ played rivalries in college football . Texas came into the 2005 contest with a 72 – 34 – 5 record . During the week before the game , the Longhorns conducted their traditional Hex Rally . As a result of a tragic accident in 1999 , the Aggies did not host a school @-@ sponsored version of their traditional Bonfire but an unofficial version called " Student Bonfire " was held November 19 , 2005 despite a county @-@ wide ban on bonfires . The game 's attendance was 86 @,@ 616 , which is 4 @,@ 016 more than the official stadium capacity for Kyle Field . Like the contest against Missouri , sportswriters touted the Texas A & M game as showcasing two of the best dual @-@ threat quarterbacks playing in college football . However , Texas A & M 's starting quarterback Reggie McNeal missed the game due to an ankle injury ; instead , freshman quarterback Stephen McGee made his first start . The game was a back @-@ and @-@ forth affair ultimately won by Texas , 40 – 29 . The eleven point win was their second slimmest margin of victory of the regular season to that point , and they lost points in all three major polls but still remained solidly in second place . The game was the poorest performance of the season by the Longhorns , both offensively and defensively . On offense , Vince Young had only 162 yards of offense , his lowest output of the season . The Associated Press remarked on the poor performance and said that Young , considered one of the nations best quarterbacks and a Heisman trophy candidate coming into the game , was " not even the best quarterback on the field that day " . The Daily Texan predicted that the game could hurt Young 's chances for the Heisman , but they also quoted UT head coach Mack Brown as saying " Looking at the numbers from what Reggie Bush did last week and Vince did today , Reggie probably leads , but next week , Vince plays at noon , and Reggie at 3 , so I think voters will wait and watch to see what happens . " UT running backs Henry Melton and Ramonce Taylor also received criticism . Taylor was criticized for running backwards and sideways in an effort to gain yards , instead of moving ahead and breaking tackles . The Daily Texan observed " Five of Taylor 's 15 carries resulted in a loss or no gain for a total of minus @-@ 17 yards . However , the other 10 carries totaled 119 yards for an average of 11 @.@ 9 yards per positive running play . The sophomore didn 't have a positive gain of fewer than 5 yards and accumulated three runs of 20 yards or longer . " Greg Davis , UT 's offensive coordinator , said " Ramonce is a darter . The only time that really concerned me was a third @-@ and @-@ two situation . We talked to him on the sideline about a little bit more down and distance awareness . " Melton was criticized for " tiptoeing indecisively " . and letting himself get tackled near the line of scrimmage . On defense , the Longhorns held A & M to only 118 yards passing but gave up 277 yards rushing ; the highest allowed by the Longhorns all season . Despite the poor outing , Texas finished the regular season undefeated . Gene Chizik , UT 's defensive coordinator , said " This really is an eye @-@ opening experience . Obviously , we 've got to get better . But I 'll tell you what , we 're all going to drive home 11 – 0 . " = = = Big 12 Championship = = = The Big 12 Championship Game is held by the Big 12 Conference each year . The championship game pits the Big 12 North Division champion against the South Division champion in a game held after the regular season has been completed . Despite losing the last two games of the regular season , Colorado retained the best record in the North Division of the Big 12 Conference . Prior to the game , Colorado head coach Gary Barnett said , " I do not think anybody expects us to come in here and beat Texas . " His team lost the game 70 – 3 , the most lopsided score in any college football conference championship to date . The Longhorns scored ten touchdowns in their first eleven possessions . They started with first @-@ quarter touchdowns by Henry Melton and Jamaal Charles . The Buffaloes got their only score of the game , a field goal , at the start of the second quarter . Vince Young , Limas Sweed , David Thomas , and Jamaal Charles scored touchdowns in the second quarter to give the Horns a 42 – 3 lead at halftime . In the third quarter , Selvin Young , Charles and Melton each scored rushing touchdowns . Brandon Foster scored a touchdown on defense due to Michael Griffin blocking a Colorado punt . Halfway through the third quarter , Texas already had 70 points , but went on cruise control from that point on and did not score again . Following the victory , the largely UT crowd stayed in the stands to celebrate the Longhorns ' return to the Rose Bowl — this time for a shot at a National Championship . As players circled the stadium giving high @-@ fives and handshakes to fans , a section of the railing collapsed and fans spilled onto the sideline . One person suffered injuries and was removed from the field on a stretcher . Texas earned its second Big 12 football championship to make 27 conference championships total , including 25 in the Southwest Conference . The week after the game , Barnett was fired as Colorado 's head coach and replaced by Dan Hawkins , the former head coach of Boise State . = = = Rose Bowl = = = For the 2005 season , the Rose Bowl also served as the BCS National Championship Game as a result of the Bowl Championship Series agreement . In the weeks leading up to the 2006 Rose Bowl , the game was described by numerous publications as one of the most @-@ anticipated match @-@ ups in college football history and even as the greatest college football game of all time . This was Texas ' second trip to the Rose Bowl in school history , alongside their trip the previous season . Less than three weeks before the game , USC Trojan Reggie Bush won the Heisman trophy — since vacated — ahead of second place finisher Vince Young . Bush had the second highest number of first place votes in Heisman history ( behind O.J. Simpson ) and the highest percentage of first place votes , while Young had a record number of second place votes . Bush 's 933 @-@ point margin of victory was the 17th highest in the history of the Heisman voting . The third finalist was USC 's Matt Leinart , who won the Heisman trophy in 2004 . This Rose Bowl would mark the first time two Heisman trophy winners would ever play in the same backfield . The game 's outcome was in doubt until the final minute of play . With 19 seconds left on the game clock , Vince Young ran for a touchdown and regained the lead for the Longhorns . He followed up by running the ball into the end zone for a two @-@ point conversion . Leinart had time to attempt one pass but his pass fell out of bounds as time expired ; UT beat USC by the score of 41 – 38 . Young completed 30 of 40 passes for 267 yards and carried the ball 19 times for 200 yards and 3 rushing touchdowns . His 467 total yards set a new Rose Bowl and BCS Championship Game record . He won the Rose Bowl " Most Valuable Player " ( MVP ) award for the second consecutive year , joining Ron Dayne , Bob Schloredt , and Charles White as the only two @-@ time winners but the only player from outside the Big Ten or Pac @-@ 10 . David Thomas ' ten receptions set a UT record for most receptions in a game by a tight end . Prior to the game , commentators had postulated that the 2005 USC team was one of or even the " greatest team of all @-@ time " . ESPN analysts were virtually unanimous in their declaration of the 2005 USC Trojans as the best offense in the history of college football , despite the fact that they were in second place behind Texas in terms of points scored during the season . ESPN analysts Mark May and Kirk Herbstreit declared , before the 2005 Rose Bowl had even been played , that the 2005 USC Trojans were the second best college football team of the past 50 years . May placed them behind only the 1995 Nebraska Cornhuskers ; Herbstreit behind only the 2001 Miami Hurricanes . This led to Texas fans at the Rose Bowl mockingly chanting " Best ... Team ... Ever " during the post @-@ game celebration . Stewart Mandell of Sports Illustrated observed , " ESPN spent the better part of Christmas season comparing that Trojans squad to some of the most acclaimed teams of all time only to find out that they weren 't even the best team that season . " Texas ' Rose Bowl win was the 800th victory in school history and it earned the Longhorns their fourth consensus national championship in football . Since the game , the media , coaches , and other commentators have heaped praise upon the Texas team , Young , and the Rose Bowl performance . Both the Rose Bowl win as well as the Longhorns ' overall season have both been cited as standing among the greatest performances in college football history by observers such as College Football News , the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution , Scout.com , Austin American @-@ Statesman , and Sports Illustrated . ESPN awarded the two teams the 2006 ESPY Award for the " Best Game " in any sport . Texas ' win over USC was their ninth consecutive victory when facing a ranked opponent . Texas broke USC 's winning streak ( then the longest in the nation ) at 34 and claimed the longest running winning streak for themselves at 20 wins in a row . Texas ' 20 @-@ game winning streak was the second @-@ longest winning streak in school history ; Texas had 30 wins in a row from 1968 to 1970 . Texas extended the winning streak to 21 before a September 9 , 2006 , loss to Ohio State University . In beating USC , Texas defeated a No. 1 ranked team for the first time since defeating Alabama in the Orange Bowl on January 1 , 1965 . The Longhorns ended the season ranked third in the all @-@ time list of both total wins and winning percentage ( .7143 ) . = = Rankings = = The pre @-@ season editions of the Associated Press Poll and USA Today Coaches Poll pre @-@ season polls both ranked Texas number two in the nation behind defending National Champion University of Southern California . The two teams maintained those rankings throughout the entire 2005 regular season . Texas was ranked second in each week of the BCS rankings , except for one week where Texas took the top spot with USC falling to number two . The BCS rankings during 2005 were based on a formula which factored in the votes of two human polls ( the USA Today coach 's poll and the Harris Interactive poll ) , combined with a variety of computer rankings . The computer rankings favored Texas as the No. 1 team throughout the entire season , due partly to Texas 's wins over ranked programs such as Ohio State University and Texas Tech University . On October 24 , 2005 , Texas passed USC in the BCS rankings due to a strong showing in the computer rankings , which favored the Longhorns because of the overall strength of their opponents as well as the October 22 , 2005 , win over previously unbeaten Texas Tech . The first @-@ place ranking was the first for UT in the BCS era , and the first top ranking in any major football poll since October 8 , 1984 , when they were atop both the Associated Press and Coaches polls . The 0 @.@ 0007 % margin separating Texas from USC was the slimmest margin between the top two teams since the inception of BCS rankings . The stay at the top was short @-@ lived . With the October 31 , 2005 , BCS rankings , Texas remained first in the computer rankings , with Virginia Tech pulling even with USC for number two in the computer rankings . However , USC remained atop both human polls and was able to reclaim the top overall ranking . Texas and USC won the rest of their games and faced each other in the National Championship , which Texas won 41 – 38 . This was only the 35th meeting of the two top @-@ ranked teams in the history of college football , including both regular season and bowl games . The BCS system now ensures that the two top teams in the BCS rankings face each other annually in a national championship game , but the methodology for ranking the teams remains controversial among fans and sportswriters . The 2005 season marks only the eighth time in 50 years that exactly two teams have gone into the bowl season undefeated . This has been a major criticism of the BCS format , which does not use a playoff to determine the national championship . Unless there are exactly two unbeaten teams , both from BCS conferences , the choice of the top two teams can generate controversy . If more than two undefeated teams remain , then one or more of those teams must be left out . If one or fewer undefeated teams remain , then an opponent must be chosen from among the one @-@ loss teams , meaning that other one @-@ loss teams will be left out . In the eight National Championship games through the 2006 Rose Bowl , the team ranked number one prior to the game has won five times , while the number two team has won three times . Up to the 2007 season , no school had won the BCS championship twice . In the final polls after the bowl games , Texas received all 62 first place votes in the Coaches Poll and all 65 first place votes in the AP Poll . = = After the season = = Analysts labeled the team , their season , and their championship victory as the greatest or among the greatest in the history of the sport . College Football News judged the 2005 Longhorns to have played the greatest college football season ever . Sports @-@ writers at College Football News also consider the 2006 Rose Bowl to be the best college football game ever played . Furman Bisher of the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution said " if there ever has been a greater game , I never saw it , and I 've been watching college football games since 1934 . " Scout.com called it " one of the best national title games ever " , while Kevin Hench of Fox Sports called it " perhaps the greatest college football game ever played . " ESPN declared the 2006 Rose Bowl Game an instant classic and re @-@ aired it within a week of the original broadcast . ESPN later awarded the 2006 ESPY Award to the Longhorns and Trojans for the 2006 " Best Game " in any sport . Vince Young and Matt Leinart accepted the award on behalf of their teams . ESPN columnist Mark Schlabach ranked the 2005 Texas Longhorns as fourth @-@ best among the first ten BCS @-@ era champions . The championship game drew attention from political figures . Head Coach Mack Brown took a congratulatory call from United States President George W. Bush , who told Brown , " Congratulations on a wonderful moment ... Tell the team congratulations , we 're proud of them . " White House Press Secretary Scott McClellan said Bush wished Brown and the Longhorns all the best , and said that he looked forward to having them visit the White House soon . Bush was formerly a Governor of Texas and his daughter Jenna is a UT graduate . On February 14 , 2006 , Bush did host the team and coaches at the White House . California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger lost a bet with Texas Governor Rick Perry on the outcome and had to send Perry a basket of " California wines , fruit and other goodies " . The food was donated to National Guard troops in Texas . Both governors also offered autographed , handmade cowboy boots that were auctioned to benefit survivors of Hurricane Rita and Hurricane Katrina . Los Angeles Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa lost a bet with Austin Mayor Will Wynn and had to send a basket of produce , such as avocados , from a local farmers ' market ; Wynn had bet Texas ' finest barbecue . Seconds after Texas beat Southern California 41 – 38 , the university lit the UT tower orange , the traditional signal of victory on the campus . Since this was a national championship , office lights were also left selectively lit in order to form a number " 1 " on all four sides of the tower ( pictured ) . Texas students and fans spilled onto the streets of Austin and made their way to campus for an impromptu celebration . Though police were out in force , there were no reports of problems . The school commissioned a painting titled The University of Texas National Championship 2005 by Opie Otterstad to commemorate the win in the Rose Bowl and the National Championship . Special editions of magazines and products featured the team . Dave Campbell 's Texas Football put out a 45 @,@ 000 @-@ copy special issue titled One for the Ages – Vince Young Leads Longhorns to the Fourth National Title . This issue included a column from Longhorn fan Matthew McConaughey as well as 15 pages of photos from the Rose Bowl . The cover featured Young kissing the " crystal football " national championship trophy . Sports Illustrated held up their regular weekly edition to await the results of the Rose Bowl . They finally went to press with a cover showing Young diving into the end zone with the label " Superman " . Analysis inside the issue gave Young a large part of the credit for the win . They also printed a special commemorative issue in the state of Texas with Young on the cover , shouting in triumph amidst a storm of multi @-@ colored confetti after winning the game . Features in the special edition included a story on Vince Young 's Glory Days by Tim Layden , as well as a story dissecting How the Rose Bowl was won by Austin Murphy . The issue was on sale alongside the regular edition of the magazine . General Mills produced a commemorative issue Wheaties box featuring Mack Brown and a Texas Longhorns football helmet on the front . The commemorative packaging was sold nationwide . Texas is the first national college football champion to be featured since Nebraska was on the box in 1997 . Individual players and coaches also received honors . " Vince Young Day " was proclaimed by Mayor Bill White in Houston on January 10 , 2006 , to honor the Houston native . White said that Young is " an inspiration to all Houstonians , both young and old . " On January 15 , 2006 , 51 @,@ 244 Texas fans gathered in Darrell K. Royal – Texas Memorial Stadium to celebrate the team and their victorious season . Mack Brown was named the Paul " Bear " Bryant College Football Coach of the Year , as voted on by the National Sportscasters and Sportswriters Association . Brown became the first winner of the award from UT since Darrell Royal in 1963 . The championship season lifted the reputation of Mack Brown and the offensive coordinator , Greg Davis . Davis was consistently criticized for over @-@ conservative play @-@ calling . After the championship win the criticism quieted down , but did not go away completely . As of 2007 sportswriters continue to debate whether Vince Young and the other talented UT players succeeded despite Davis or because of him . Despite previous statements that he would return for his senior season , redshirt junior quarterback Vince Young announced that he would forgo his final year of NCAA eligibility and made himself eligible for the 2006 National Football League draft . The Tennessee Titans chose him as the third overall draft pick . Besides Young , five other Longhorns from this championship team joined professional teams through the 2006 NFL Draft – Michael Huff ( number 7 overall ) , Cedric Griffin ( number 48 overall ) , David Thomas ( number 86 overall ) , Jonathan Scott ( number 141 overall ) and Rodrique Wright ( number 222 overall ) . As a result , fullback Ahmard Hall was re @-@ united with his former team @-@ mate Vince Young in the NFL , playing for Tennessee . One year later , seven more members of this team were selected in the 2007 NFL Draft – Michael Griffin ( number 19 overall ) , Aaron Ross ( number 20 overall ) , Justin Blalock ( number 39 overall ) , Tim Crowder ( number 56 overall ) , Brian Robison ( number 102 overall ) , Tarell Brown ( number 147 overall ) , Kasey Studdard ( number 183 overall ) . Lyle Sendlein and Selvin Young were not drafted but signed with NFL teams as free agents . In the 2008 NFL Draft , five more Longhorns from this team were selected : Limas Sweed ( number 53rd overall ) , Jamaal Charles ( number 73 overall ) , Jermichael Finley ( number 91 overall ) , Tony Hills ( number 130 overall ) , and Frank Okam ( number 151 overall ) . In addition , Brandon Foster , Marcus Griffin , Nate Jones and Derek Lokey agreed to sign free @-@ agent contracts with NFL teams . For the fiscal year which ended in August 2005 , just as the 2005 football season was starting , Texas was the nation 's richest and most profitable football program , with revenue of $ 53 @.@ 2 million , and a profit of $ 38 @.@ 7 million . Following the national championship , for the 2005 – 2006 fiscal year , UT also led the nation in royalties from merchandise sales , setting a new national record at $ 8 @.@ 2 million . These royalties went to the University as a whole , not specifically to the athletics programs . The team topped the merchandise rankings again for the 2006 – 2007 fiscal year . The official website of UT football posted a special logo ( pictured ) proclaiming the Longhorns as the national champions . The logo featured the script " National Champions " centered prominently in the center , with " MACKBROWN @-@ TEXASFOOTBALL.COM " in the lower left and " THE OFFICIAL SITE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS LONGHORNS " in the lower right . In the background was an image of a rose , with a small Longhorn symbol appearing in front of the rose and between the two sections of the smaller print . In the upper right @-@ hand side , the years " 1963 , 1969 , 1970 , 2005 " appear , with the " 2005 " given special emphasis . These years correspond to the four consensus national championships won by the UT football team . The special logo was removed from the website 's home page after a few months , but as of 2007 it is still found on certain portions of the site related to the 2005 season . = = List of accomplishments = = Longhorn players from both the offense and defense set records for their performance during the season or received national recognition and awards . Vince Young won the Davey O 'Brien Award , presented annually to the quarterback adjudged by the Davey O 'Brien Foundation to be the best of all National Collegiate Athletic Association quarterbacks . Young also won the Maxwell Award , presented annually to the nation 's top college football player as adjudged by a panel of sportscasters , sportswriters , and National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) head coaches and the membership of the Maxwell Football Club . Furthermore , he won the Manning Award , the only quarterback award which takes into account the athlete 's performance in the bowl season , as opposed to being awarded at the end of regular season play . Young had 1 @,@ 050 rushing yards and 3 @,@ 036 passing yards , making him the first player in NCAA Division I @-@ A or I @-@ AA history to rush for 1 @,@ 000 yards and throw for 2 @,@ 500 yards in a single season . In 2007 , ESPN compiled a list of the top 100 plays in college football history ; Vince Young 's game @-@ winning touchdown in the 2006 Rose Bowl ranked number 5 . Michael Huff , Jonathan Scott , Rodrique Wright , and Vince Young were named to first team of the 2005 Associated Press All @-@ American Team ; Justin Blalock and Aaron Harris were named to the third team . Michael Huff won the Jim Thorpe Award , presented annually to the top defensive back in college football as adjudged by the Jim Thorpe Association . The team also set school and NCAA records and received accolades . UT completed the ninth perfect season in the history of Longhorn football , and the first undefeated season since 1969 . This season marked the first football championship by any university in Texas since the 1970 UT championship season . The Longhorns finished the season as the only unbeaten team in the nation , going 13 – 0 overall . Texas won 13 games in a season for the first time in school history . Only five teams have ever won more games ( 14 ) and posted a perfect record in a single NCAA Division I @-@ A football season before the College Football Playoff : Ohio State in 2002 , Alabama and Boise State in 2009 , Auburn in 2010 , and Florida State in 2013 . Fourteen other teams have scored 13 wins in a season . With the conclusion of the 2005 season , UT posted five consecutive ten @-@ win seasons and eight consecutive nine @-@ win campaigns for the first time in school history ( though seasons are generally longer than in the past ) . Texas ' 652 points were a NCAA Division I record for points scored in a season ( broken by the 716 points scored by the 2008 Oklahoma Sooners ) . The previous record was 624 points scored by Nebraska in 1983 ( under NCAA rules , bowl game statistics count toward the total in 2005 . Thus , all thirteen of Texas 's games are counted in accumulating the 652 points . The 1983 Nebraska team scored 654 points , including its bowl game , but only its twelve regular season games are counted for statistics , thus the 624 total points ) . Their 50 @.@ 2 points per game set a new school record . The Horns set two new school records for total yardage . The first was a new single @-@ season total @-@ yardage record with 6 @,@ 657 , passing the previous record of 5 @,@ 709 set in 2003 . Of the 6 @,@ 657 yards , 556 yards were earned in the Rose Bowl . The second record was most total yards per game at 512 @.@ 1 . They also set a school single @-@ season record for yards per rushing play with 5 @.@ 9 . In total yards per play , 2005 stands second on the UT record list with 7 @.@ 07 . The record for most yards per play is held by the 1993 team with 7 @.@ 44 . With 5 rushing touchdowns scored in the Rose Bowl , Texas scored 55 for the season , setting a new single @-@ season school record . The old record of 52 touchdowns was set in 1969 and equaled in 1970 . On January 25 , 2006 , the United States Senate bestowed another honor on the team when Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison presented Senate Resolution 352 commending the team for winning their fourth national championship .
= Vermont Route 14 = Vermont Route 14 is a north – south state highway in northeastern Vermont , United States . It is 110 @.@ 2 miles ( 177 @.@ 3 km ) long and extends from U.S. Route 4 and U.S. Route 5 in White River Junction to Vermont Route 100 in Newport . Between White River Junction and the city of Barre , the route parallels Interstate 89 . Vermont Route 14 was originally designated in 1922 as part of the New England road marking system . Its north end was truncated in 1926 as a result of the designation of U.S. Route 2 but was extended north along an old alignment of Vermont Route 12 in the 1960s . = = Route description = = = = = White River Junction to East Montpelier = = = VT 14 begins at the intersection of US 4 and US 5 in White River Junction in the town of Hartford , at the confluence of the White River and the Connecticut River . VT 14 heads northwest as Maple Street , crossing under I @-@ 91 without an interchange , and continues through the town center of Hartford , along the north bank of the White River . 5 miles ( 8 km ) later it passes through the small village of West Hartford and soon enters the town of Sharon . After traveling another 5 miles ( 8 km ) along the river , VT 14 intersects with VT 132 in Sharon center and continues northwest into the town of Royalton , where it passes through the town 's three villages along the White River . VT 14 first goes through South Royalton , where it has a junction with VT 110 , then continues to follow the winding path of the river through Royalton center , finally reaching the village of North Royalton , where it meets with VT 107 . From here , VT 14 turns north , leaving the main White River to follow the Second Branch of the White River . VT 14 runs for about 3 miles ( 5 km ) in western Royalton town , then enters the village of East Bethel in the town of Bethel . Less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) later , VT 14 enters the town of Randolph , passing through the village of South Randolph . After traveling north for another 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) , VT 14 arrives in the village of East Randolph , where it has a junction with VT 66 , which is signed for the Randolph town center . VT 14 continues north for another 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) through the village of North Randolph before entering the town of Brookfield . Upon reaching the village of East Brookfield about 3 @.@ 6 miles ( 5 @.@ 8 km ) north of the town line , VT 14 intersects with VT 65 , the route to Brookfield center . Further north , VT 14 passes by Ainsworth State Park , which straddles the town line between Brookfield and Williamstown and also marks the upstream end of the Second Branch of the White River . VT 14 continues north through the narrow mountain pass of the state park and eventually arrives at the town center of Williamstown , where it intersects VT 64 . After another 2 @.@ 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) , VT 14 crosses into the town of Barre . It proceeds through the village of South Barre , intersecting with VT 63 , and continuing into the city of Barre . In Barre city , VT 14 runs along South Main Street for 1 @.@ 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) until the junction with U.S. Route 302 . US 302 and VT 14 overlap along North Main Street as they head into the city center . At the city center , the two overlapped routes split at a large four @-@ way intersection that also includes a junction with VT 62 , a short connector to I @-@ 89 . US 302 heads northwest directly towards the city of Montpelier , while VT 14 heads north along Maple Avenue towards the town of East Montpelier . VT 14 briefly re @-@ enters Barre town for about 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 1 @.@ 0 km ) before entering the town limits of East Montpelier . After 2 @.@ 4 miles ( 3 @.@ 9 km ) , VT 14 crosses the Winooski River into the town center , where it meets U.S. Route 2 . = = = East Montpelier to Newport = = = After overlapping with US 2 for 0 @.@ 2 miles ( 0 @.@ 32 km ) through East Montpelier center , VT 14 continues for 3 miles ( 5 km ) to an intersection with VT 214 , in North Montpelier village . It soon enters the town of Calais , running for nearly 7 miles ( 11 km ) through the eastern part of this mostly rural town , including the village of East Calais , plus another 8 miles ( 13 km ) through the next town , Woodbury . Within Woodbury , it passes through the small town center , then continues past Greenwood Lake to run for several miles along the narrow river valley at the eastern edge of the Woodbury Mountains . Upon entering the next town , Hardwick , the valley opens up as the road approaches the town center , where the Lamoille River crosses east to west . Here , northbound VT 14 is joined by westbound VT 15 , as they run concurrently to the northwest for about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , crossing the Lamoille River just north of the town center , after which VT 15 continues west as the two routes separate . VT 14 continues north along the west shore of Hardwick Lake , as the valley the road has been passing through narrows again . After 4 miles ( 6 km ) , VT 14 briefly enters the town of Greensboro , where it passes along the shore of Lake Eligo , then continues northwest into the town of Craftsbury . VT 14 bypasses the small villages of the town , running along a more westerly track . After traveling 8 miles ( 13 km ) through rural Craftsbury , VT 14 proceeds north into the town of Albany , where it runs for another 7 miles ( 11 km ) , passing through the village of Albany along the way . North of Albany , VT 14 continues into the town of Irasburg , where it intersects VT 58 at the town center . The two routes overlap to the north and west for 2 @.@ 1 miles ( 3 @.@ 4 km ) . After another 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) in northern Irasburg town , VT 14 enters Coventry , where it is immediately joined by U.S. Route 5 coming from the southeast . The two routes overlap for about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) through Coventry center then separate , with US 5 heading north to the city of Newport and VT 14 heading northwest towards the town of Newport , where it ends at VT 100 , less than 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) after crossing the town line . VT 100 and VT 105 continue into Newport Center . = = History = = = = = 19th century turnpikes = = = The roads of the southern half of modern VT 14 were improved at the beginning of the 19th century as various privately owned turnpikes . The oldest of these was the White River Turnpike , which was chartered on November 1 , 1800 . The road was to run 21 miles ( 34 km ) from the mouth of the White River to the point where it was joined by the Second Branch of the White River , and connected the settlements of White River Junction , Sharon , and Royalton . The toll road was in operation for 52 years . By the end of this period , receipts from the road had become very small due to the recent opening in 1850 , along the same path as the turnpike , of a new railway line of the Vermont Central Railroad . Another portion of modern VT 14 , between East Brookfield and Williamstown center , was to be improved by another turnpike corporation , the Williamstown Center Turnpike , which was chartered on November 14 , 1803 . The charter provided that the road be turned over to the state after having been in operation for 25 years ( later amended to 40 years ) . The company , however , did not do anything in its first two years of existence and only began laying out the road in 1805 . A third turnpike corporation , the Randolph Turnpike , was chartered on November 7 , 1805 , to build a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) northward continuation of the White River Turnpike . The road of the Randolph Turnpike was to run from North Royalton to East Randolph . The corporation was dissolved by the state legislature on November 6 , 1833 . = = = Route designation = = = In 1922 , the New England states adopted a region @-@ wide system for route numbering . New England Route 14 was initially designated as a north – south route beginning at White River Junction , through Montpelier , to the city of Burlington . The route used modern VT 14 to Barre , then US 302 to Montpelier , and US 2 to Burlington . By 1925 , an extension into New Hampshire had been designated continuing across the Connecticut River to Lebanon , New Hampshire and heading southeast to Franklin , along modern US 4 to Andover and New Hampshire Route 11 to Franklin . At the end of 1926 , the American Association of State Highway Officials formally established the U.S. Highway System and many of the New England inter @-@ state routes were redesignated as U.S. Routes . The portion of New England Route 14 from Barre to Burlington was assigned to U.S. Route 2 , while the portion in New Hampshire was assigned to U.S. Route 4 . This shortened Route 14 in the south to US 4 / US 5 in White River Junction , and in the north to US 2 in the city of Barre . In 1935 , the portion of US 2 between Montpelier and St. Johnsbury was relocated to a more northerly alignment using a section of then Vermont Route 18 . The old US 2 alignment was redesignated as US 302 . VT 14 was extended northward several miles to East Montpelier , ending at the junction of newly relocated US 2 and Vermont Route 12 . In the 1960s , the northern half of Vermont Route 12 ( north of Montpelier ) was relocated to the " Montpelier @-@ Morrisville State Highway " , which connected Montpelier with the village of Morrisville . Originally , VT 12 continued north from Montpelier via East Montpelier to Hardwick and Barton , then overlapped with U.S. Route 5 to the city of Newport via Coventry . Between Hardwick and Coventry , VT 12 had an alternate route , Vermont Route 12B , that took a more westerly alignment via Albany . The relocation of the northern half of VT 12 to a new alignment resulted in the redesignation of its original northern alignment . The portion between Hardwick and Barton became a new Vermont Route 16 . The portion between East Montpelier and Hardwick was assigned as an extension of VT 14 . At the same time , VT 12B was also redesignated as a further northward extension of VT 14 , including an additional 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) piece connecting to VT 100 in the town of Newport , resulting in the modern VT 14 alignment . = = Major intersections = =
= Chulip = Chulip ( チュウリップ ) , stylized as Chu ♥ lip , is an adventure / simulation video game developed by Punchline and released on October 3 , 2002 in Japan by Victor Interactive Software for the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) video game console . After numerous delays , the game was released in North America by Natsume on February 13 , 2007 as a GameStop @-@ exclusive title . Chulip was released on the PlayStation Network as a " PS2 Classic " on December 4 , 2012 . Chulip puts the player in the role of a young man who has just moved to a new town and next door to the girl of his dreams . Although she wants nothing to do with him due to his family 's poor economic status , he decides to write her a heartfelt love letter . When the letter is stolen , it is up to the protagonist to travel around the village and retrieve all of its pieces . The gameplay of Chulip revolves around improving the player 's reputation with the citizens in order to access all parts of the town . To do this , the player must impress each member of the community and then kiss them . Chulip was directed by Yoshirou Kimura , a former employee of Love @-@ de @-@ Lic . Kimura wanted the game 's focus to be on kissing in public , a more Western @-@ accepted custom , within a Japanese setting . Chulip suffered dismal sales , while its overall critical reception has been negative to average . Most reviews cited the game 's quirkiness and charm as its strong points yet criticized its tedious gameplay mechanics . = = Plot = = Chulip opens with a dream sequence in which the unnamed , male protagonist kisses the girl he loves under the talking " Lover 's Tree " on a green hill . The dream takes its course , the tree ends the sequence saying they lived happily ever after . However , once the protagonist wakes up , he and his father are just moving into Long Life Town , which appears very much like a small , Japanese village . Coincidentally , the girl of his dreams lives in this town , but she flatly rejects him due to his status as coming from a very poor family . Taking his father 's advice , the hero decides to kiss the odd citizens of the town in order to strengthen his heart and improve his reputation . En route to doing so , he also resolves to write a love letter to his crush . When this treasured set of papers is stolen , he must search Long Life Town for the missing pieces . The hero 's journey involves numerous bizarre incidents that lead him to cheating his way to the top of a major corporation , making contact with aliens , and acting as a defense lawyer in court . Once the three pieces of the love letter ( the ink , paper , and pen ) are collected , he writes and mails it to the girl . The game 's ending shows the two meeting and kissing beneath the Lover 's Tree , as the protagonist had dreamed . = = Gameplay = = Chulip is an adventure / simulation game in which the player must improve the hero 's reputation in the community of Long Life Town by kissing its various citizens . The player 's health is represented by a number of hearts . To gain more hearts the player has to find and kiss other characters in the game . Finding out how and when to kiss other characters is a puzzle in of itself . The game and each of its non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) follow a 24 @-@ hour day schedule . In the daytime , many of the NPCs of the game are walking around the streets . To succeed in kissing an NPC , the player is required to wait for the correct time where they will be happy and press the corresponding button . The player must sometimes complete a certain task for that NPC . Choosing the wrong time to kiss will often result in the player getting hit and losing health . Exploring Long Life Town presents the player with numerous environmental hazards discovered by trial and error . For instance , attempting to use the town 's playground equipment or being suddenly shot at by the night @-@ patrolling policeman will cause instant death . One mission ends in the player being struck by lightning , removing more than ten hearts and resulting in a game over if the player does not have sufficient health . Some denizens of Chulip only come out of their underground , living apartments through holes in the ground at certain times of the day . If the player looks through these holes , clues are given in regard to when they come out or when to kiss them . After an NPC comes out of the ground , the player has a very limited opportunity to give them a kiss . If the player successfully kisses enough NPCs and returns home to sleep , the hero 's father will recite his progress and the Lover 's Tree will give the player more hearts and an improved reputation if he advances . Secondary to improving his reputation , the player must track down all the pieces to the " Love Letter Set " by traveling throughout Long Life Town . As the story progresses , the player gains access to new areas of the game world via train , which include many more underground residents and hazards . Saving takes place in various bathrooms . = = Development = = Chulip was developed by a team of 12 to 14 people at Punchline . The game took two and a half years to complete after its initial planning ; one year and three months were devoted to programming . Director Yoshirou Kimura started work on the project as he helped his colleagues at Love @-@ de @-@ Lic finish that company 's final game , L.O.L. : Lack of Love . Production of Chulip began in the earliest days of the PS2 , making it a challenge for the development team who only had experience with the original PlayStation . Kimura valued his team members ' opinions and ideas while working on it . " It was challenging and interesting at the same time to program a game for a new console , " he stated . " We were definitely eager to see what we could do with it . " The original idea for Chulip came when Kimura visited Western countries and saw couples kissing in public , a custom not often performed among Japanese people . Kimura came up with game 's title after attending a party in Tokyo . As the intoxicated partygoers talked about video games , they began to humorously say " chu @-@ shite " ( lit . " kiss me " ) . The title Chulip is a play on words : a cross between chu ( the Japanese onomatopoeia for the sound of a kiss ) and the English word lip , as well as the Japanese rendering of the word tulip . Kimura eventually spoke with Marvelous Entertainment 's Yoshiro Wada about creating a game mixing a " flare of Moon and Japan a little while ago ( say about 40 years ago ) " . Kimura wanted Chulip to be localized to show the world certain aspects of Japanese culture and " all the kind of interesting stuff that you can see every day " . He also wanted to display a real , modern truancy problem for Japanese students with the game 's cast of underground dwellers . Norikazu Yasunaga designed many of the game 's mechanics . According to Kimura , " for efficient procedure , [ Yasunaga ] set it up so that the personality and the characteristics for each NPC had to be one @-@ by @-@ one " . The character designs were done by Ryuji Nouguchi , who used items from Kimura 's personal scrapbook and " made them funny " . The musical score to Chulip was composed by Hirofumi Taniguchi , another former member of Love @-@ de @-@ Lic . The soundtrack was released by King Records in Japan on a single disc on November 22 , 2002 . Songs 35 through 44 represent the " Tsurukame Movie Soundtrack " , consisting of music for each of the game 's short films , while songs 45 and 46 are bonus tracks . Publisher Natsume licensed the game for a projected North American release in early 2004 . The game was then shown at the Electronic Entertainment Expo that year . Natsume realized early on that it would be an extremely obscure title and thus planned on releasing it at a low retail price . The game was delayed , and Natsume assured that it would be released sometime in 2005 . After more delays , Chulip was ultimately released in North America on February 13 , 2007 , the day before Valentine 's Day , exclusively to GameStop stores . The North American version was supposed to feature updated graphics and an " accurately meticulous " translation of Japanese text . Natsume claimed that Punchline 's busy schedule resulted in such a long delay for the localization and that it also prevented them from making any graphical changes . = = Reception and legacy = = Chulip received mostly average critical scores upon its release in North America . The game currently holds a 57 % on the aggregate websites GameRankings and Metacritic . The ambitious gameplay of Chulip has been almost universally criticized . Ray Barnholt of 1UP.com , Ryan Davis of GameSpot , Micah Seff of IGN , and Gus Mastrapa of X @-@ Play all labeled the often @-@ unclear progression presented to the player as " frustrating " and " tedious " , requiring an excessive amount of patience . Mastrapa summarized , " Since the game is on 24 @-@ hour clock a missed opportunity means having to wait until the next day to take another crack . Add the fact that your inexperienced , young avatar can die from heartbreak , resulting in a ' game over ' screen and the loss of unsaved progress and you 've got a recipe for annoyance . " Barnholt , Davis , and Seff did positively credit Natsume for the inclusion of the mini @-@ strategy guide . Despite faulting the " indistinct objectives " , Davis found gratification in successful kisses . " The whole kissing thing is absolutely fantastic in concept , " Davis stated , " And there 's something unsettling about your character 's encouraged promiscuity . " However , Game Informer writer Ben Reeves described the game as one of the most poorly designed games he has ever played due to its lack of in @-@ game direction and frequency of game overs . In January 2008 , Game Informer listed Chulip one of the worst games of 2007 . Reviewers have praised Chulip for a charming presentation , quirky characters , and absurd , Japanese humor . Admitting that the game had some blurry or pixelated textures and cramped environments , both Seff and Davis noted the peculiar art style of Chulip to be aesthetically pleasing . Seff specifically found the game " surprisingly easy on the eyes " and to feature unique character designs , " wacky " dialogue , and an art style comparable to other titles like the Mother series and Katamari Damacy . Davis was amused by the script and the townsfolk 's gibberish speech , and was satisfied with largely a cappella soundtrack . Seff was unimpressed by the game 's audio , remarking the music as " entirely boring " . According to Media Create information , Chulip sold only 6 @,@ 645 units during its first week of release in Japan . Despite such low sales , Chulip was re @-@ released in Japan two separate times , first as part of the " Victor the Best " selection on April 24 , 2003 and second as part of the " Super Best Collection " on July 6 , 2006 . Many of Chulip 's key development members and their design philosophies were carried over to the 2009 Wii game Little King 's Story . That year , Kimura stated that he would like to make a sequel to Chulip . He was also contemplating creating a version set in an American location such as The Bronx with a protagonist that is African @-@ American , Caucasian , or other ethnicity .
= Sinistar : Unleashed = Sinistar : Unleashed is a 1999 action space shooter video game for Microsoft Windows . It was designed by Marc Michalik and Walter Wright and developed at GameFX , a small studio composed of former members of Looking Glass Studios . Originally titled Out of the Void , development of the project began in 1997 and had no relationship with the Sinistar franchise . After licensing the franchise from Midway Games that year , GameFX shifted the focus of the game and developed it as a sequel to the original Sinistar , which was released by Williams in 1982 . Like the previous installment , Sinistar : Unleashed focuses on the destruction of the Sinistar , a large bio @-@ mechanical machine , powered by machines called the Sporg . To achieve this goal , the player has a variety of starships , power @-@ ups and weapons . Unlike its predecessor , the game has full three @-@ dimensional graphics and a wider control scheme . Sinistar : Unleashed features 29 levels , five of which are hidden ; each level has a Sinistar . Sinistar : Unleashed received mixed reception when released . Critics lauded its audacity , as well as the addition of new features into the game . Several journalists felt that GameFX captured all the elements that represented a Sinistar game and stayed true to the franchise by feeling familiar to fans of the original game . However , critics faulted the boss designs and the repetitiveness of the gameplay . = = Gameplay = = Like its predecessor , Sinistar : Unleashed is an action space shooter video game . While the original Sinistar features graphics and gameplay in a two @-@ dimensional space , the sequel features three @-@ dimensional graphics and gameplay , giving the player the ability to maneuver and roam freely across six different axes . Sinistar : Unleashed features 29 levels , five of which are hidden as a bonus ; each level has a Sinistar . The bonus levels are timed missions that involve destroying or protecting a particular object . The player is given a starship , and the main mission is to fight an alien race called the Distilled Evil and their slaves , the Sporg . The Sporg are mining ships controlled by the Distilled Evil , tasked with powering the jumpgate , a portal through which the Sinistar ( a bio @-@ mechanical monster dedicated to destroying the player ) appears . The jumpgate is stationed at the center of the level , and the Sporg power it with energy crystals collected from the asteroids that appear sparsely along the sector . The player must prevent the Sporg from completely powering the jumpgate . While completing the task , the player encounters several warships that attempt to protect the jumpgate . These enemies are indicated on the radar with a dynamic set of coordinates that turn from white to red as they approach . If the player succeeds , the jumpgate breaks and the level is finished . Otherwise , the Sinistar will arrive through the activated jumpgate , and the player must defeat it to progress further . The player has six different starships to choose from , as well as eight power @-@ ups and nine weapons to destroy the mining ships and the Sinistar . The most powerful weapon is called the Sinibomb , which is designed to defeat the Sinistar , although it can also be used to destroy the jumpgate . The player obtains Sinibombs by harvesting crystals from asteroids in the same way Sporg do . = = Development = = Development of Sinistar : Unleashed , originally titled Out of the Void , began in 1997 . It was handled by GameFX , a small game developer consisting of former members of Looking Glass Studios . At first , the project had no connection , or gameplay similarities , to the Sinistar franchise . When the studio acquired the rights for the Sinistar franchise that year , it decided to refocus the development of the title to fit into the newly acquired property . It altered the game to introduce similarities to Sinistar , although the graphic structure remained unchanged . During development of the game , AGH noted that the final product was expected to be " a combination of Out of the Void 's graphical flash with Sinistar 's fast and frenzied action . " AGH also noted that " according to GameFX , Sinistar : Unleashed 's render @-@ on @-@ the @-@ fly 3D visual effects are said to tower above the [ then- ] current generation of games . Advanced texture @-@ mapping technology , plasma lighting effects , and particle systems make Sinistar : Unleashed much more than just a mere enhancement over the original . " Additionally , the technical capacity of the game allowed " more than 25 uniquely dynamic enemies ... controlled by advanced AI and their own arsenal of weapons , deadly attacks and evil personalities . " THQ revealed that the game was optimized for the then @-@ recently released Pentium III processors from Intel to allow the " lighting and geometry transformation engine to process more detail faster . " In the Computer Gamer 's Bible , Mark L. Chambers and Rob Smith noted the technical design of Sinistar : Unleashed , writing that " developers have added accurate collision physics , and mining the asteroid field will require precise timing and good trigger finger . " = = Release = = Sinistar : Unleashed was announced by THQ in February 1999 , two years after the company licensed the Sinistar franchise from Midway Games . Two demos for the game were produced . The second , released in September 1999 , included several gameplay and technical enhancements over the first , showcasing the initial two levels of the game . When announcing the game , C. Noah Davis , chief technology officer of THQ and general manager of GameFX , said " What made the original a classic is that it was easy to learn , yet difficult to master . " He elaborated : " We are focused on capturing that magic using many elements of the original , while showcasing the universe using our proprietary GameFX Technology . " IGN reported on September 3 , 1999 that the game had gone gold ( its development had concluded ) , and it was released worldwide on September 15 , 1999 . A patch was released on November 22 , 1999 . = = Reception = = Sinistar : Unleashed received mixed to positive reviews from media outlets , gaining an average score of 65 @.@ 75 % according to review aggregator GameRankings . Critics agreed that the developers stayed true to the original game and lauded the graphic enhancements as " unquestionably beautiful " and a " graphical powerhouse " . Erik Wolpaw , writing for GameSpot , noted that the game suffered mostly from gameplay issues , such as the control design , which he called " overly complex for a mindless shooter " . He added that although the developers succeeded in capturing the arcade essence of the previous game , this was " somewhat to the detriment of the final product . " AllGame 's reviewer was satisfied with the game 's graphics but criticized how its bosses were designed , elaborating that " the Sinistars ... simply don 't instill the same sense of sheer panic [ as in the previous game ] . " Vincent Lopez from IGN noted the game 's similarity to its predecessor and complimented its graphics and the addition of a wide variety of weapons as well as other technical features . However , he viewed the weapons as " more of a checklist than an actual asset . " He stated that Sinistar : Unleashed " feels immediately familiar to fans of the original , while adding just enough new features ( and a completely new graphic overhaul ) to make this feel now @-@ dated . " Nash Werner from GamePro shared Lopez 's views , explaining that GameFX , along with THQ , " have released a modern 3D version " of the original Sinistar that " sports some of the best graphics ever seen in a space shooter " , although he added that it had lost " some of the soul " that the original game had . Bob Mandel from The Adrenaline Vault was impressed with the game . Although he agreed that there would " certainly be both buyers and reviewers who will bash this title mercilessly , bemoaning the absence of complicated missions and tactical planning " , he stated that with Sinistar : Unleashed , GameFX and THQ managed to create a " true arcade classic " . He saw it as the only remake of a game from the 1980s to achieve that status . Caryn Law , writing for Computer Games Magazine , applauded THQ for including the original game 's elements and rendering them with " jazzing " graphics . She criticized the plot and gameplay design , stating that " players want games that involve more than simply blowing things up . " She also contended that Sinistar : Unleashed " hearkens back to the days when all you needed was keen hand – eye coordination and a pocket full of quarters . " Chris McMullen from Games Domain discussed the game 's technical aspects in his review , maintaining that it " not only sounds and looks good " but is also " fun to play and strangely addictive . " However , he cited the gameplay 's repetitiveness as a flaw that prevented Sinistar : Unleashed from " being a must @-@ buy game . " PC Zone praised the game , noting that " the rich , organic style lends the game a hypnotic atmosphere " and stating " with the Sinistars still taunting you as they did back in 1983 , and the gameplay essentially unchanged , those who enjoyed the ageing classic will find Sinistar : Unleashed a worthy successor . " John Lee , writing for Next Generation , gave a somewhat mediocre review of the game , casting it as " a lot like one of those Baywatch babes — luscious to look at , but not much between the ears . " He added that it was basically " another retro / nostalgia trip . " GameSpy 's Caryn Law concluded that Sinistar : Unleashed was " simply Sinistar dressed up in 3D graphics " and that it offered " nothing new in the way of a challenge . "
= J. T. White = John T. " J.T. " White ( July 10 , 1920 – November 21 , 2005 ) was a college football assistant coach , and a second @-@ team 1947 College Football All @-@ American center who played for national championship teams at both the University of Michigan and Ohio State University . White also played basketball for the Ohio State Buckeyes men 's basketball team . Although White was drafted to play professional football , he chose to pursue a career as an assistant football coach for both the Michigan Wolverines and Penn State Nittany Lions football teams . He served as an assistant coach for a national champion at Michigan and three undefeated and untied seasons at Penn State . White served in the United States Army during World War II causing a break in his collegiate education . = = Personal = = White was born in Wadley , Georgia and raised in River Rouge , Michigan . White earned his bachelor 's degree in education from Michigan in 1948 . He earned his master 's degree in education at Michigan . White married the former Verna McQueen , and they had one son , Brian . Verna and White were married for 53 years before she died at 75 in October 1997 of emphysema . = = Athletic career = = At River Rouge High School he played baseball , basketball and football before attending Ohio State . In 1942 , he lettered in both basketball and football at Ohio State as a sophomore . He was a player for national champions on both the 1942 Ohio State Buckeyes football team and the 1947 Michigan Wolverines football team . He is one of only three players ( along with Justin Boren and Howard Yerges ) to have played for the football teams of both Michigan and Ohio State ; this low number can be attributed to the strong rivalry between the two schools . White matriculated at The Ohio State University , where he earned a varsity letter playing for Paul Brown 's 1942 team . White played at Ohio State for two years . He served in the United States Army from 1943 to 1945 during World War II and lettered two years for Fritz Crisler 's Michigan teams . His younger brother , Paul was captain at Michigan when White transferred . J. T. was the starting center for the 1946 and 1947 teams . The Football Writers Association of America named him as their second @-@ team All @-@ American center for the 1947 college football season . White played in the 1948 College All @-@ Star Game , and he was drafted by two pro teams : the Detroit Lions with the first pick of the 21st round ( 186th overall ) in the 1947 NFL Draft and the Brooklyn Dodgers of the All @-@ America Football Conference . = = Coaching career = = He chose to join Bennie Oosterbaan 's Michigan coaching staff for six years ( 1948 – 53 ) , including the national champion 1948 Michigan Wolverines football team . Then , for 26 seasons , from 1954 through 1979 , J.T. was a defensive line coach at Penn State , first under Rip Engle and then under Joe Paterno , who took over in 1966 . When White moved to Penn State to work for Engle , the staff included Paterno , Earle Bruce , Sever Toretti , Jim O 'Hora and Jim Patrick . His tenure on the staff included three undefeated and untied seasons ( 1968 , 1969 and 1973 ) . Subsequently , from 1980 – 1982 , he served as assistant to the Penn State Athletic Director .
= Italian ironclad Sardegna = Sardegna was the third of three Re Umberto @-@ class ironclad battleships built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) . The ship , named for the island of Sardinia , was laid down in La Spezia in October 1885 , launched in September 1890 , and completed in February 1895 . She was armed with a main battery of four 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) guns and had a top speed of 20 @.@ 3 knots ( 37 @.@ 6 km / h ; 23 @.@ 4 mph ) — albeit at the cost of armor protection – and she was one of the first warships to be equipped with a wireless telegraph . Sardegna spent the first decade of her career in the Active Squadron of the Italian fleet . Thereafter , she was transferred to the Reserve Squadron , and by 1911 , she was part of the Training Division . She took part in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , where she escorted convoys to North Africa and supported Italian forces ashore by bombarding Ottoman troops . During World War I , Sardegna served as the flagship of the naval forces defending Venice against a possible attack from the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , which did not materialize . After the city became threatened following the Battle of Caporetto in November 1917 , the ship was withdrawn to Brindisi and later Taranto , where she continued to serve as a guard ship . She took part in Allied operations in Turkey in 1919 – 22 , and after returning to Italy in 1923 , she was broken up for scrap . = = Design = = Sardegna was 130 @.@ 73 meters ( 428 @.@ 9 ft ) long overall ; she had a beam of 23 @.@ 44 m ( 76 @.@ 9 ft ) and an average draft of 8 @.@ 84 m ( 29 @.@ 0 ft ) . She displaced 13 @,@ 641 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 426 long tons ; 15 @,@ 037 short tons ) normally and up to 15 @,@ 426 t ( 15 @,@ 182 long tons ; 17 @,@ 004 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by eighteen coal @-@ fired , cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers . She was the first Italian warship to be equipped with triple expansion engines . Her propulsion system produced a top speed of 20 @.@ 3 knots ( 37 @.@ 6 km / h ; 23 @.@ 4 mph ) at 22 @,@ 800 indicated horsepower ( 17 @,@ 000 kW ) . Specific figures for her cruising radius have not survived , but the ships of her class could steam for 4 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 to 11 @,@ 100 km ; 4 @,@ 600 to 6 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 794 officers and men . Sardegna was one of the first warships equipped with Marconi 's new wireless telegraph . Sardegna was armed with a main battery of four 13 @.@ 5 in ( 343 mm ) 30 @-@ caliber guns , mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one on either end of the ship . She carried a secondary battery of eight 6 in ( 152 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns placed singly in shielded mounts atop the upper deck , with four on each broadside . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of sixteen 4 @.@ 7 in ( 119 mm ) guns in casemates in the upper deck , eight on each broadside . These were supported by twenty 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 43 @-@ cal. guns and ten 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she carried five 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes in above @-@ water launchers . The ship was lightly armored for her size . She was protected by belt armor that was 4 in ( 102 mm ) thick , an armored deck that was 3 in ( 76 mm ) thick , and her conning tower was armored with 11 @.@ 8 in ( 300 mm ) of steel plate . The turrets had 4 in thick faces and the supporting barbettes had 13 @.@ 75 in ( 349 mm ) thick steel . = = Service history = = Sardegna was named after the island of Sardinia . She was built by the Arsenale di La Spezia in La Spezia , with her keel being laid down on 24 October 1885 . She was launched on 20 September 1890 , and completed on 16 February 1895 . After entering service , Sardegna was assigned to the 2nd Division of the Reserve Squadron as its flagship , along with the older ironclad Ruggiero di Lauria and the torpedo cruiser Aretusa . At the time , the ships of the Reserve Squadron were based in La Spezia . Sardegna joined the ironclads Re Umberto , Ruggiero di Lauria , and Andrea Doria and the cruisers Stromboli , Etruria , and Partenope for a visit to Spithead in the United Kingdom in July 1895 . Later that year , the squadron stopped in Germany for the celebration held to mark the opening of the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal . While there , Sardegna accidentally ran aground in front of the canal , blocking the entrance for several days . For 1903 , the Active Squadron was on active service for seven months , with the rest of the year spent with reduced crews . In 1904 – 05 , Sardegna and her sisters were in service with the Active Squadron , which was kept in service for nine months of the year , with three months in reduced commission . The following year , the ships were transferred to the Reserve Squadron , along with the three Ruggiero di Lauria @-@ class ironclads and the ironclad Enrico Dandolo , three cruisers , and sixteen torpedo boats . This squadron only entered active service for two months of the year for training maneuvers , and the rest of the year was spent with reduced crews . Sardegna was still in the Reserve Squadron in 1908 , along with her two sisters and the two Ammiraglio di Saint Bon @-@ class battleships . By this time , the Reserve Squadron was kept in service for seven months of the year . = = = Italo @-@ Turkish War = = = On 29 September 1911 , Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya . At the time , Sardegna and her two sisters were assigned to the Training Division , along with the old armored cruiser Carlo Alberto , under the command of Rear Admiral Raffaele Borea Ricci D 'Olmo . On 3 – 4 October , Sardegna and her sisters were tasked with bombarding Fort Sultanje , which was protecting the western approach to Tripoli . The ships used their 6 @-@ inch guns to attack the fort to preserve their stock of 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shells . By the morning of the 4th , the ships ' gunfire had silenced the guns in the fort , allowing landing forces to go ashore and capture the city . The ships of the Training Division thereafter alternated between Tripoli and Khoms to support the Italian garrisons in the two cities ; this included repulsing a major Ottoman attack on Tripoli over 23 – 26 October , where Sardegna and Sicilia supported the Italian left flank against concerted Ottoman assaults . During this engagement , Sardegna used a spotter aircraft to help direct the fire of her guns , the first time aircraft had been used in that role . By December , the three ships were stationed in Tripoli , where they were replaced by the old ironclads Italia and Lepanto . Sardenga and her sisters arrived back in La Spezia , where they had their ammunition and supplies replenished . In May 1912 , the Training Division patrolled the coast , but saw no action . The following month , Sardegna and her sisters , along with six torpedo boats , escorted a convoy carrying an infantry brigade to Buscheifa , one of the last ports in Libya still under Ottoman control . The Italian force arrived off the town on 14 June and made a landing ; after taking the city , the Italian forces then moved on to Misrata . Sardegna and the rest of the ships continued supporting the advance until the Italians had secured the city on 20 July . The Training Division then returned to Italy , where they joined the escort for another convoy on 3 August , this time to Zuara , the last port in Ottoman hands . The ships covered the landing two miles east of Zuara two days later , which was joined by supporting attacks from the west and south . With the capture of the city , Italy now controlled the entire Libyan coast . On 14 October the Ottomans agreed to sign a peace treaty to end the war . = = = Later career = = = Italy had declared neutrality at the start of World War I , but by July 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers . Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that the threat from Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and naval mines in the narrow waters of the Adriatic was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement a blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the main fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . For their part , the Austro @-@ Hungarians adopted a similar strategy , as they too were unwilling to risk the heavy units of their fleet . She was the flagship for the Northern Adriatic Naval Forces after Italy entered the war . The Northern Adriatic Naval Forces also included the two old Ammiraglio di Saint Bon @-@ class battleships , two cruisers , and several smaller craft . The ships were tasked with defending Venice from Austro @-@ Hungarian attacks ; this service lasted until 15 November 1917 . Since neither the Italians or Austro @-@ Hungarians were willing to risk the main units of their fleets , Sardegna had an uneventful career during the war . The ship was thereafter transferred to Brindisi for use as a harbor defense ship . The reason for her withdrawal was the major Italian defeat at the Battle of Caporetto ; the German and Austro @-@ Hungarian advance threatened to continue to Venice . Here , all of her secondary and light guns were removed , leaving her with only her main battery guns . She was equipped with a small battery of anti @-@ aircraft guns , consisting of four 3 in ( 76 mm ) / 40 guns and two machine guns . On 10 June 1918 , Sardegna was moved to Taranto , where she continued serving as a guard ship . She took part in Allied operations in Constantinople after the end of the war , from 7 November 1919 to 5 April 1922 . The ship did not remain in service long after returning to Italy . She was stricken on 4 January 1923 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
= Upper and Lower Table Rock = Upper Table Rock and Lower Table Rock are two prominent volcanic plateaus located just north of the Rogue River in Jackson County , Oregon , U.S. Created by an andesitic lava flow approximately seven million years ago and shaped by erosion , they now stand about 800 feet ( 240 m ) above the surrounding Rogue Valley . The Table Rocks are jointly owned ; The Nature Conservancy is responsible for 3 @,@ 591 acres ( 1 @,@ 453 ha ) , while the Bureau of Land Management is responsible for 1 @,@ 280 acres ( 520 ha ) . Native Americans have inhabited the Table Rocks area for at least 15 @,@ 000 years prior to European @-@ American settlement . Starting in the mid @-@ 19th century during a gold rush , the settlers forced the Takelma tribe away from the Table Rocks and into reservations . The surrounding area was quickly developed . The Table Rock post office was established in 1872 , an airstrip was built atop Lower Table Rock in 1948 , and a very high frequency omni @-@ directional range ( VOR ) aviation tower was constructed on Upper Table Rock in the 1960s . The Table Rocks were not protected until the 1970s . The rocks are home to over 70 species of animals and 340 species of plants , which includes over 200 species of wildflowers . Vernal pools atop the plateaus fill during the rainy season in winter and spring because the andesite is impermeable . The dwarf woolly meadowfoam , a species of wildflower , grows around these pools , and is endemic to the rocks . The pools are also one of only a few places where the federally threatened species of fairy shrimp , Branchinecta lynchi , can be found . To protect these and other threatened species , the Bureau of Land Management has listed the rocks as an Area of Critical Environmental Concern since 1984 . The Table Rocks are one of the most popular hiking locations in the Rogue Valley , with over 45 @,@ 000 visitors annually . Two trails , Lower Table Rock Trail and Upper Table Rock Trail , were cut across the plateaus ' slopes in the early 1980s by the Youth Conservation Corps , Boy Scouts , and the Oregon Department of Forestry . This effort was coordinated by John Ifft , a forester for the Medford Office of the BLM . The plateaus are named for their relatively flat tops . Upper and Lower refer to their location along the Rogue River , not their height . Upper Table Rock , 2 @,@ 091 feet ( 637 m ) above sea level at its highest point , is located upstream , while Lower Table Rock is farther downstream , with an elevation of 2 @,@ 049 feet ( 625 m ) . = = Geology and climate = = Starting approximately 40 million years ago in the middle Eocene , a braided river system called the " Ancestral Rogue River " flowed through the region where the Rogue Valley is now carved . For about 2 @.@ 1 million years , the river deposited what is now known as the Payne Cliffs Formation by laying down a thin conglomerate , followed by arkosic sandstone and siltstone . Between 10 and 20 million years ago , the uplift that created the nearby Klamath Mountains caused an incision that formed the Rogue River valley . Vertical erosion , or downcutting of the Rogue River continues to keep pace with the recent uplift , with about 690 feet ( 210 m ) of erosion occurring in the past seven million years . Approximately seven million years ago in the upper Miocene , a 44 @-@ mile ( 71 km ) long trachyandesitic lava flow that likely came from Olson Mountain near present @-@ day Lost Creek Lake flowed down the Ancestral Rogue River and its tributaries and spread throughout the valley . This lava formed a hard cap over the Payne Cliffs Formation . At Lost Creek Lake , the lava attained its maximum thickness of 730 feet ( 220 m ) and thinned to about 100 to 200 feet ( 30 to 61 m ) to the north of Medford . Since the Olson eruption , the Rogue River has eroded 90 percent of the solidified lava . Though the andesite prevented much erosion to the caps of the Table Rocks , the andesite @-@ capped cliffs eroded from the side as the softer sedimentary units of the Payne Cliffs Formation gave way . This erosion created expansive talus fields which surround the plateaus on all sides , creating slopes capable of supporting abundant plant and animal life . Upper and Lower Table Rock both stand 800 feet ( 240 m ) above the valley floor , and just over 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) above sea level . There are approximately 300 acres ( 120 ha ) of level ground on Lower Table Rock , and 500 acres ( 200 ha ) on Upper Table Rock . The Table Rocks offer an example of inverted relief , in which previous topographic lows are filled with a resistant rock and become new topographic highs after the erosion of the surrounding region . Each plateau is shaped roughly like a horseshoe because the lava followed the meanders of the Ancestral Rogue River . Two caves and two former gold mines are located at the base of the andesite cap on Upper Table Rock . The caves were created by natural fractures in the cap , and the gold mines were excavated by prospectors searching for gold in the 19th century . Three are large enough to walk into , with an average width of 8 feet ( 2 m ) , while one is a small pit , dropping 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) vertically into a pond of water . = = Human history = = Humans have lived in the Table Rock area for at least 15 @,@ 000 years , based on the age of Clovis points that were discovered nearby . The region surrounding the Table Rocks was home to the Takelma people . They gathered food such as acorns and tarweed seeds , and caught salmon in the nearby Rogue River . The Takelma also used deer hides for clothing . They had several names for the rocks , including Di 'tani ( " rock above " ) , Titanakh ( " little Indian plums " ) , and possibly Kwenphunkh . The first use of the names Upper Table Rock and Lower Table Rock is unknown , however the first recorded use was by mountain man James Clyman in 1845 . Some of the first European Americans to visit the area were fur trappers led by Peter Skene Ogden in 1827 . In 1841 the United States Exploring Expedition passed through the Rogue Valley . Neither Ogden nor the expedition mentioned the Table Rocks . The gold rush of the early 1850s brought many emigrants to the area , and Table Rock City ( later renamed Jacksonville ) was established several miles south of the rocks . The sudden increase of settlers created conflicts with the Rogue River Indians . These conflicts turned into warfare , and several treaties were signed in an attempt to end the hostilities . In June 1851 , soldiers of the United States Army led by Major Philip Kearny attacked the Takelma near Lower Table Rock , but the Takelma were prepared . One soldier died , and three others were injured . Major Kearny returned with volunteers from Yreka soon after , accompanied by Oregon Territory delegate Joseph Lane . The ensuing Battle of Table Rock lasted 10 days , and 30 Takelma were imprisoned . In September 1853 , the Native Americans signed a peace treaty with Joseph Lane , and the Treaty with the Rogue River with Joel Palmer , which resulted in their ceding 2 @,@ 500 square miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km2 ) of land in exchange for $ 60 @,@ 000 , $ 15 @,@ 000 of which was to be used to repay white settlers for losses sustained in the hostilities and $ 5 @,@ 000 of which was set aside to purchase agricultural implements and other improvements benefitting the Native Americans . The Takelma population underwent their first forced migration into the Table Rock Reservation , located between Upper Table Rock and nearby Evans Creek . This reservation remained open for three years , while the inhabitants were moved to other reservations . In January 1856 , 400 Native Americans were moved to the Grande Ronde Reservation , 263 miles ( 423 km ) to the north . Most of the rest were relocated to the Siletz Reservation in May . Development of the area commenced immediately and in 1872 the Table Rock Post Office was established just south of Upper Table Rock and east of Lower Table Rock . The Table Rock School District was created in 1879 . In 1895 the post office 's name was changed to Tablerock , and it was closed in 1906 . Telephones arrived in 1908 , and the Table Rock Mutual Telephone Company was established . The school district was merged with Central Point 's district in 1948 . In November 1948 , John Day , a local cattle rancher and developer , built a 3 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) airstrip on the surface of Lower Table Rock to impress visiting celebrities from Hollywood . Day funded residential lots near the landmark with the intent of marketing the lots to the celebrities who used the grassy runway . The runway was closed in the late 1980s , but small airplanes still occasionally attempt to land on it . The Federal Aviation Administration has operated a 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) tall very high frequency omnidirectional range ( VOR ) aviation tower on Upper Table Rock since the 1960s . The tower 's purpose is to broadcast precise coordinates to nearby aircraft to assist in navigation . The facility is closed to the public due to the threat to the safety of the occupants of the aircraft . However , the structure sustained $ 40 @,@ 000 damage in 1997 when vandals unsuccessfully attempted to steal aluminum antennas from the 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) tall fiberglass shell on the roof of the building . The Nature Conservancy became concerned about overdevelopment in 1978 and launched its largest fundraising project to that date . Collecting over $ 500 @,@ 000 they purchased 1 @,@ 881 acres ( 761 ha ) of Lower Table Rock , creating the Lower Table Rock Preserve . Projects include prescribed burning and invasive species removal . In 1981 , the Youth Conservation Corps constructed the Upper Table Rock Trail . A year later , through the efforts of John Ifft , the Lower Table Rock Trail was constructed ; the first 400 feet ( 120 m ) were built by a Central Point Boy Scout troop , and the rest was built by the Oregon Department of Forestry . In 1984 , the Table Rocks were designated an Area of Critical Environmental Concern by the Bureau of Land Management . In May 2009 , The Nature Conservancy bought another 1 @,@ 710 acres ( 690 ha ) of land on the Table Rocks for $ 3 @.@ 9 million , ending private ownership of the rocks . = = Ecological habitats = = Four overlapping ecological regions have been identified on the Table Rocks , with considerable differences in the variety of wildlife found in each . From the outermost base of the rocks , three regions consisting of oak savanna , chaparral , and mixed woodland surround the relatively flat tops . The andesite cap is covered by the fourth region , mounded prairie . This region formed when the caps were slowly eroded by the freezing and thawing of water that seeped into the ground ( ice erosion ) , which created layers of mounded soil . Vernal pools fill in from October to June in the mounded prairie area due to the andesite 's impermeability . The pools support species of plants and animals . Over 340 species of plants grow on the rocks , including approximately 200 species of wildflowers . Some of the most common wildflowers are western buttercups , desert parsley , bicolor lupine , and California goldfields . Camas and death camas also grow on the rocks . Camas produces an edible bulb , while death camas is poisonous and was used by the Takelma as an anesthetic . More than 70 species of animals are known to live on the Table Rocks . Lizards such as the western fence lizard , southern alligator lizard , and western skink have been seen in all four regions of the Table Rocks . Western rattlesnakes and two species of garter snakes also live in all regions . Black @-@ tailed deer , coyotes , and bobcats are some of the mammals that live on the Table Rocks . The rocks are also home to western black @-@ legged ticks , although they are mainly found in the chaparral region . Many species of birds live on the rocks . The Table Rocks experience a Mediterranean climate . The average wind speed in the area is less than 6 miles per hour ( 10 km / h ) , and the annual precipitation is approximately 18 inches ( 460 mm ) due to the rain shadow created by the Klamath Mountains . It rarely snows in the winter . = = = Oak savanna = = = Oak savanna is a type of grassland with scattered oak trees , found on the lowest slopes of the Table Rocks . The Takelma tribe often set fires in the oak savanna and chaparral regions to prevent brush overgrowth , creating foraging areas for animals such as deer and elk . It also prevented large wildfires . Oregon white oak and ponderosa pine are the most common trees found in the region . Buckbrush , sticky whiteleaf manzanita , Pacific madrone , deerbrush , birchleaf mountain mahogany , and Pacific poison oak are also common . Snakes such as the ringneck snake , western yellow @-@ bellied racer , striped whipsnake , and Pacific gopher snake live in the oak savanna region . Birds such as the oak titmouse , ash @-@ throated flycatcher , white @-@ breasted nuthatch , western bluebird , violet @-@ green swallow , acorn woodpecker , black @-@ headed grosbeak , and American kestrel have also been found in this region . The rocks are known to be the northernmost place blue @-@ gray gnatcatchers inhabit . Gall wasps live in this area , often creating galls in oak trees by injecting their larva into their leaves and branches . = = = Chaparral = = = Chaparral is a type of shrubland , receiving very little precipitation . Sclerophyllous plants such as manzanita and buckbrush grow in this area , both relying on fire to reproduce . The rare Gentner 's fritillary also grows in this region . American black bears have been spotted in the chaparral region , usually in the fall . The most common birds include titmice and the acorn woodpecker. blue @-@ gray gnatcatchers , lesser goldfinches , and Anna 's hummingbirds have also been seen . = = = Mixed woodland = = = The mixed woodland region is a dense forest with many species of trees , located near the tops of the plateaus . The forest canopy shades the ground , resulting in a cooler temperature . The canopy also reduces the amount of water evaporation . California black oak , Douglas fir , Pacific madrone , incense cedar , and other plants grow in the mixed woodland . Shrubs such as Oregon grape , honeysuckle , blue elderberry , and Pacific poison oak also grow here . The soil in this area is mostly loam . Rodents such as the California ground squirrel , western gray squirrel , and dusky @-@ footed woodrat live in this region . Birds such as grosbeaks , flycatchers , western tanagers , and lazuli buntings are common in the area . Nine species of warblers , three species of vireos , and two species of thrushes can also be found . The pileated woodpecker has been spotted rarely in large pine trees . = = = Mounded prairie and vernal pools = = = The mounded prairie region is located on top of the plateaus , characterized by many species grasses and wildflowers around the vernal pools , with mounds of soil created by erosion . The dwarf woolly meadowfoam , a plant endemic to the Table Rocks , grows near these pools . They bloom for about ten days in April . When filled in the winter and early spring , the pools are also a known habitat for the vernal pool fairy shrimp ( Branchinecta lynchi ) , a threatened species . Two types of amphibians are found in the mounded prairie region , typically around vernal pools . The Pacific tree frog lives in large numbers on the rocks , while tadpoles of the rarer western toad can be seen between March and May . Mammals such as California voles , Heermann 's kangaroo rats , raccoons , and long @-@ tailed weasels can also be found in this region . The western meadowlark and two species of sparrows are the most common types of birds that are seen in the area . Turkey vultures , rock wren , three species of hawks , and other birds patrol the cliffs on the sides of the plateaus . = = Trails = = The Table Rocks offer one of the most popular hiking locations in the Rogue Valley , with over 45 @,@ 000 visitors annually . Over 4 @,@ 600 people per year participate in guided hikes through the Table Rock Environmental Education Program , hosted by the Bureau of Land Management and The Nature Conservancy . Lower Table Rock features a walking trail , which climbs approximately 780 feet ( 240 m ) to the top of the plateau over a distance of 1 @.@ 75 miles ( 2 @.@ 8 km ) . It has eight interpretive panels along its length , explaining the history , flora , and fauna of the region . Upper Table Rock also has a walking trail , 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 @.@ 0 km ) long , ascending approximately 720 feet ( 220 m ) . The trails are the most popular with hikers between March and May , when the wildflowers are in bloom . Another peak occurs in September through October . Landmarks such as Mount McLoughlin , Mount Ashland , Roxy Ann Peak , and Pilot Rock are visible on clear days from the edge of the rocks . The Youth Conservation Corps , Boy Scouts , and the Oregon Department of Forestry built the trails leading to the tops of the Table Rocks in the early 1980s , around the same time the plateaus were being nominated as an Area of Critical Environmental Concern . In June 1999 , only two small trees were cut when Shady Cove contractor Randy Hodges rerouted a 3 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) section of the Lower Table Rock trail to accommodate the growing number of visitors . The project involved decommissioning the old section , expanding the parking lot , and installing 2 @,@ 200 feet ( 671 m ) of new trail . Measures to protect the trail were implemented , such as installing rock waterbars and a layer of shale gravel over the clay . In 2005 , a program to build an interpretive trail began on Lower Table Rock near the trailhead . Prior to construction , some persons with disabilities , children , or the elderly may have been prevented from using either of the Table Rocks due to the steep terrain and narrow paths . The finished project involved making a 500 @-@ foot ( 150 m ) section of trail accessible and adding a 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ mile ( 800 m ) long section of new trail for general public use . Both trails lead to spectacular views of the surrounding areas , but have inherent dangers as well . The thick andesite caps are heavily eroded , leaving tall crumbling columns near their edges . At least six people have fallen from the Table Rocks since 2006 , including a man from Central Point who tumbled through a rock shaft on Lower Table Rock to his death in May 2007 and was not found for over nineteen months . Another man from Murray , Utah fell 200 feet ( 61 m ) from Lower Table Rock and died in September 2009 .
= Washington State Route 7 = State Route 7 ( SR 7 ) is a state highway in Lewis and Pierce counties , located in the U.S. state of Washington . The 58 @.@ 60 @-@ mile ( 94 @.@ 31 km ) long roadway begins at U.S. Route 12 ( US 12 ) in Morton and continues north to intersect several other state highways to Tacoma , where it ends at an interchange with Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) and I @-@ 705 . The road has several names , such as Second Street in Morton , the Mountain Highway in rural areas , Pacific Avenue in Spanaway , Parkland and Tacoma and 38th Street in Tacoma . Near the end of the highway there is a short freeway that has been proposed to be extended south parallel to an already existing railroad , owned by Tacoma Rail , which serves as the median of the short freeway . The earliest road to use the current route of SR 7 first appeared in a 1900 map of the Tacoma area and has been part of the state highway system since 1909 , when the Alder @-@ Kosmos Road was added to the system as State Road 18 . State Road 18 became part of two branches of State Road 5 in 1923 and later branches of Primary State Highway 5 . During the 1964 highway renumbering , the branches became SR 7 . In 2002 , an auxiliary route that bypasses Tacoma , SR 704 , was established and construction started in 2008 to connect I @-@ 5 , Fort Lewis , McChord Air Force Base and SR 7 . = = Route description = = State Route 7 ( SR 7 ) begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 12 ( US 12 ) , a major east – west highway , in Morton . Traveling north as Second Street and paralleling the Morton – Tacoma ( Mountain Division ) route of Tacoma Rail , the street intersects Main Avenue , which continues west out of the city as SR 508 . After leaving Morton , the highway becomes the Mountain Highway and passes through a heavily forested canyon near Mount Rainier and parallel to the Tilton River and Roundrop Creek . Bridging the Nisqually River , the highway leaves Lewis County and enters Pierce County . In Elbe , the roadway intersects SR 706 , which goes east to Mount Rainier National Park . Following the Nisqually River , which has become Alder Lake , and Tacoma Rail line , SR 161 branches off towards Eatonville and SR 702 travels west from the plains to McKenna . Passing Elk Plain and suburban areas , the highway enters Spanaway near the Fort Lewis boundary where SR 7 intersects SR 507 , which continues southwest to Chehalis . The Mountain Highway becomes Pacific Avenue and enters Parkland . Shortly after 112th Street , the roadway has a partial cloverleaf interchange with SR 512 , which uses 108th Street South as two ramps . Leaving Parkland and entering Tacoma , Pacific Avenue turns east as 38th Street and then has another partial cloverleaf interchange with a short freeway and the proposed route of SR 7 , which is used by the roadway . The freeway was the busiest segment of the highway in 2007 , with an estimated daily average of 27 @,@ 000 motorists . The median of the freeway is the Tacoma Rail route and at the northern terminus is an interchange with Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) . SR 7 ends at the interchange , located near the Tacoma Dome , but continues north parallel to the railroad to a single @-@ point urban interchange with SR 509 as I @-@ 705 . = = History = = A 1900 map of the Tacoma area showed a roadway extending north from Spanaway to Tacoma that would later become SR 7 . In 1909 , the Alder @-@ Kosmos Road , numbered State Road 18 , was added to the state highway system and ran from Kosmos north through Morton and Elbe to Alder . The National Park Highway was created in 1913 and extended from the Pacific Ocean to Tacoma and south to Elbe , where it turned east into Mount Rainier National Park . Both highways were replaced by two branches of State Road 5 in 1923 , which traveled from Tacoma to Mount Rainier and Elbe to Chehalis . State Road 5 became Primary State Highway 5 ( PSH 5 ) during the creation of the Primary state highways in 1937 and the Tacoma – Mount Rainier branch remained the same , but the Elbe – Chehalis branch was shortened to Kosmos . The Chicago , Milwaukee , St. Paul and Pacific Railroad started to parallel the route by 1951 between Tacoma and Morton . During the 1964 highway renumbering the two branches of PSH 5 became SR 7 . Between 1968 and 2008 , the Chicago , Milwaukee , St. Paul and Pacific Railroad transferred the railroad parallel to the highway to Tacoma Rail . In 2002 , a new auxiliary route of SR 7 , SR 704 was established to provide a bypass of Tacoma to provide direct connections between Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) , Fort Lewis , McChord Air Force Base and SR 7 in Spanaway . On July 30 , 2008 , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) had a groundbreaking ceremony to start construction of SR 704 , which has been predicted to be finished after 2017 . The segment of the highway between SR 507 in Spanaway to SR 512 in Parkland had a very high accident rate , so WSDOT added safety improvements to the roadway in 2007 . Between Morton and Spanaway , WSDOT is currently ( as of 2009 ) developing a route development plan to improve the roadway . The project is divided into three phases , the first phase was completed in 2006 and focused between Morton and Elbe and the second phase will be focused between Elbe and SR 702 while the third will focus between SR 702 to Spanaway . = = Major intersections = =
= Walnuts & Rain = " Walnuts & Rain " is the thirty @-@ first episode of the sixth season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . The episode was written and storyboarded by Tom Herpich , from an outline by Herpich , Adam Muto , Kent Osborne , Jack Pendarvis , and Pendleton Ward . The episode debuted on March 5 , 2015 on Cartoon Network , and guest stars Chris Isaak as a bear named Seven and Matt L. Jones as King Huge . The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In this episode , Finn and Jake stumble into two different holes and meet two different fates : Finn becomes the guest of the unstable King Huge ( voiced by Jones ) , who insists that Finn remain with him and stare at his idiosyncratic cuckoo clock ; whereas Jake meets Seven ( voiced by Isaak ) , a bear whose makeshift air raft has been falling down the hole for years . Eventually , it turns out that the hole Jake and Seven are falling through is the chimney to the kitchen where Finn is being held captive . As such , Jake is eventually able to save Finn . " Walnuts & Rain " marked the first time that Herpich had solo @-@ storyboarded an episode since the third season episode " Thank You " . The episode was seen by 1 @.@ 68 million viewers , and received mixed reviews from critics ; while Andrew Tran of Overmental enjoyed the allegories in the episode , Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club somewhat critically compared " Walnuts & Rain " to episodes from the show 's first and second seasons . For his work on the episode , Herpich won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation ; this was the series 's third win in the category . For his work on this episode , Herpich was later nominated for an Annie Award for Outstanding Achievement , Storyboarding in an Animated TV / Broadcast Production in 2016 . = = Plot = = While wandering in the woods , Finn and Jake fall down two separate holes . Finn lands in the Kingdom of Huge , where he is greeted by its sovereign , King Huge . The king lavishes Finn with food and asks that he stay and watch the chiming of his cuckoo clock . However , it soon becomes apparent that King Huge is insane ; he demands that Finn remain and watch every time the clock chimes the hour . Meanwhile , Jake lands on the barge of a bear named Seven . According to Seven , the barge has been falling for years , and he warns Jake not to try and escape , lest he die . Eventually , Finn has enough , and knocks the king 's clock from the wall . It crashes into the kingdom 's huge stove , knocking over a pot of water . The water puts out the fire , which causes the warm updraft going into the chimney to cease ; this updraft was actually holding Seven 's barge in stasis all of this time . The barge comes crashing down into the kingdom , and Jake uses his stretching powers to save Finn . Thence , Finn , Jake , and Seven escape . = = Production = = " Walnuts & Rain " was written and Storyboarded by Tom Herpich , from an outline by head Adventure Time writer Kent Osborne , series creator Pendleton Ward , Jack Pendarvis , showrunner Adam Muto , and Herpich . Andres Salaff served as the episode 's supervising director , while the art direction was helmed by Nick Jennings . The episode marks Herpich 's first solo storyboard since season three 's ' Thank You " . Near the latter part of season six , Herpich and has storyboard partner Steve Wolfhard each had episode ideas that they wanted to work on . The two decided to temporarily dissolve their partnership and work on episodes individually ( Wolfhard would go on to create " Graybles 1000 + " ) . Herpich had been working on the outline for " Walnuts & Rain " on and off for several months before he finally storyboarded it , and he would later describe the episode as an " allegorical escape story " , similar to the season five episodes " Puhoy " and " Dungeon Train " . This episode guest stars musician Chris Isaak as Seven , and Matt L. Jones as King Huge . Jones had previously appeared in the first season episode " Memories of Boom Boom Mountain " voicing the crying Mountain . = = Reception = = " Walnuts & Rain " first aired on March 5 , 2015 on Cartoon Network . The episode was viewed by 1 @.@ 68 million viewers and scored a 0 @.@ 24 Nielsen rating in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States , which means that the episode was seen by 0 @.@ 24 percent of all households aged 18 to 49 years old were watching television at the time of the episode 's airing . Critical reception to the episode was largely mixed . Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C + " and called it " disappointing " . Despite noting that it is " a totally serviceable episode of Adventure Time " , he argued that the episode felt too much like an episode from the show 's first or second seasons , when installments were often lacking in depth and a bit more uneven across the board . He noted that , " Tonight ’ s episode is for the kids . It ’ s simple and easy to follow , and doesn ’ t contain any unsettling imagery … but that also prevents it from being especially memorable . " Ultimately , he felt that the show 's returned fixation on Finn and Jake proved that the expansion of the show 's universe was " the best thing that could have happened to it . " Andrew Tran of the website Overmental , on the other hand , reacted more positively to the episode . He felt that both King Huge and Seven were representative of a stagnation in mindset ; according to him , they are both stuck in their ways and unwilling to change . However , he notes that the two also differ substantially . Tran argues that King Huge has legions of slaves feeding him the richest of foods . He is comfortable , but unaccustomed to dealing with outsiders , which expresses itself as xenophobia . Seven , on the other hand , lives in abject poverty , and is much more welcoming of strangers . In the end , Seven escapes the episode unscathed , and according to Tran , the moral of the episode is that " the bright side of a crap situation is that [ the situation ] pushes rather than restricts , enriches rather than fattens . " For his work on this episode , Herpich won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation , making it the series 's third win in this category . Herpich was later nominated for an Annie Award for Outstanding Achievement , Storyboarding in an Animated TV / Broadcast Production in 2016 . = = Explanatory notes = =
= Queer ( song ) = " Queer " is a song written and produced by alternative rock band Garbage for the band 's self @-@ titled debut album . The song started as a demo during sessions between band members Butch Vig , Duke Erikson and Steve Marker , and had its composition finished after singer Shirley Manson joined the band . Manson rewrote the sexualized lyrics to be more ambiguous , and rearranged the song into a subdued trip hop and rock crossover structure . In 1995 , " Queer " was issued as the band 's fourth single in the United Kingdom and second internationally . The song quickly became a modern rock success for the fledgling band , with positive reviews from music journalists , and becoming their first top 20 hit in both the UK Singles Chart and Billboard 's Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart . It also earned attention with its music video by Stéphane Sednaoui , which featured Manson detaining , stripping and shaving a man from a first @-@ person perspective . The video earned much airplay on MTV and was nominated for Breakthrough Video at the 1996 MTV Video Music Awards . = = Composition = = " Queer " began as a rough demo around January 1994 , recorded during informal studio sessions between Butch Vig , Duke Erikson and Steve Marker in Marker 's home basement recording studio in Madison , Wisconsin . The band had been jamming using an ADAT eight @-@ track , AKAI samplers , and a small drum kit . The band had written around five songs that they felt were pretentious and lyrically simple and literal . They did not want Erikson to sing , even though he was a competent singer , because they wanted to avoid sounding like their previous band Spooner . Vig and Marker were uncomfortable with their vocals so tended to bury them deep in the mix or distort them with effects ; on " Queer " , Vig recorded a " scratch vocal " consisting of him screaming his way through . The recorded work was later discarded , which Vig explained was because the trio discovered that the musical experiments they were attempting " [ don 't ] work when you 're trying to write a song and put it in a context that works " . Vig 's inspiration for " Queer " came from a novel he had read about " about this woman who was hired to go and make this guy 's son a ' man ' . The kid is missing a few marbles . But then he realizes that the women [ sic ] who came to his room is also fucking his father . " After Marker saw Shirley Manson 's group Angelfish on 120 Minutes , the band invited her to Vig and Marker 's Smart Studios to sing on a couple of songs . One of the compositions was " Queer " , whose incomplete lyrics forced Manson to ad @-@ lib in an audition that was described as " dreadful " . The singer afterwards returned to Angelfish , which folded shortly later . Manson eventually returned to Smart for a successful second audition and then began working on the songs Vig , Marker and Erikson had created . Manson rewrote " Queer " into a trip hop arrangement and added ambiguous lyrics that allowed the listener to make up their own mind about what the song was about . She also re @-@ sang the " Queer " vocal in an understated style . It was then that the band knew that Garbage was going to work . Garbage incorporated a sample of the drumline from Australian band Single Gun Theory 's track " Man of Straw " on " Queer " ; this loop was layered with an additional drum part performed by Madison percussionist Clyde Stubblefield , who was known for being the most sampled drummer in history for his uncredited part on James Brown 's " Funky Drummer " . Vig opted to hire Stubblefield to play on the record rather than sample him as " you don 't use a sample when the genius who played the sample lives down the street from you " , and the drummer also contributed to album cut " Not My Idea " . Bass guitar parts were completed by Milwaukee session bassist Mike Kashou . The band wanted to sample a clarinet part from a Frank Sinatra record , but the licensing for the sample would have been prohibitively expensive . Mulling over some options , such as having a session musician interpolate the part themselves still led to having to pay a large royalties . The idea was dropped . The band still liked the idea of using a clarinet , and recorded a part by Les Thimming on the final mix . Manson later explained , " It 's not , as you might think , to do with being gay , but tolerance . My granny has the expression ' Or 's queer , except thee and me , and sometimes even thee 's queer ' , that is that you think you are normal and the rest of the world is freaky , but we 're all equally to blame " . Garbage did not write the song to particularly appeal to the gay community , however Erikson stated : " As musicians , we 're totally open to [ the song 's gay appeal ] . There 's been enough exposure to gay issues in the mainstream media that people are finally ready to deal with it . Even if it 's something controversial , people are still beginning to open up " . Erikson added : " The song isn 't about sex at all , it 's about the loss of innocence " . = = Single release = = Almo Sounds released " Queer " as the band 's second single to alternative radio in the United States at the end of August 1995 , upfront of August 15 North American release date of Garbage . The song debuted at the end of September on the Modern Rock Tracks chart at number 30 . The following week , Garbage debuted on the Billboard 200 at number 193 , having spent the previous four weeks as a rising Heatseekers title . At the beginning of October , " Queer " debuted at number 62 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart , peaking a week later at number 57 . In mid @-@ November , remixes of " Queer " were sent to clubs . " Queer " peaked at 12th on the Modern Rock chart in its ninth week , but did not earn enough airplay to chart in the Billboard Hot 100 . The song eventually finished its run on the Modern Rock chart in December 1995 , for a total of 14 weeks . On October 23 , 1995 , " Queer " was issued as the band 's second single in Australia and New Zealand . White issued a three @-@ track CD single and cassette single backed with two newly recorded tracks , " Girl Don 't Come " and " Sleep " , which had been recorded for the UK release of " Only Happy When It Rains " . " Queer " peaked at number 55 in Australia , spending twelve weeks on the ARIA top 100 singles chart . In New Zealand , " Queer " debuted on the RIANZ charts at number 45 at the start of November , rising to a number 37 peak three weeks later . Across Europe , " Queer " was issued by BMG in a similarly configured CD single ; a three @-@ track release backed with " Girl Don 't Come " and " Sleep " . In Belgium 's Wallonia @-@ region , " Queer " peaked at number 24 at the end of January 1996 . " Queer " debuted and peaked at 7th in Iceland the following month . In Spain , " Queer " peaked at number 33 on the airplay chart . In April 1996 , performed " Queer " live on French television show Nulle Part Ailleurs and headlined a show at the Élysée Montmartre in Paris ; BMG France released a three @-@ track CD single of " Queer " featuring " Trip My Wire " and the Rabbit in the Moon remix . Initially , Mushroom Records had scheduled " Queer " to be the lead single for the UK release of the debut album Garbage , matching the international single release strategy . At last minute , it was decided to release " Only Happy When It Rains " upfront of the album , with " Queer " rescheduled to later in 1995 to coincide with the band 's first UK live show . " Queer " was quickly picked up by radio , and was B @-@ listed by Radio One , whose breakfast slot DJ Chris Evans championed it as his " Single of the Week " , and playlisted by Virgin Radio . " Queer " reached number 35 on the airplay chart . Mushroom issued the single on a limited edition 7 " vinyl and a gold and silver CD single set on November 20 , 1995 . Each CD single was backed with a newly recorded track ; " Trip My Wire " on the first and a cover version of The Jam 's " Butterfly Collector " on the second ( the cover later featured in The Jam compilation album Fire and Skill ) . Four remixes of the title track were spread out across the CDs , with one also appearing on the flipside of the vinyl . Early indications showed that the single had a midweek position of 10 , however at the end of its first week on @-@ sale , " Queer " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 13 . That week , Garbage made a live appearance to perform the single on Top of The Pops , and performed both " Queer " and " Only Happy When it Rains " on MTV 's Most Wanted . = = = Collector 's format = = = As the band had received significant attention from the special packaging of their first three releases , " Queer " was also released in this manner . Mushroom 's product manager had a longer time to design the package than the other singles ; this was a result of " Queer " being held back three months so that " Only Happy When It Rains " could launch the album . Garbage 's original suggestion for " Queer " was to create a jade velvet box , but Mushroom vetoed the idea over the cost . The label sourced a plastics company to create the case , which was made from injection @-@ molded polystyrene , similar to the process of manufacturing jewel cases . The company charged Mushroom £ 10 @,@ 000 to have the mould created . The end product was finished with frosted effect for the " G " logo , which was stickered , and within placed the vinyl record in a card picture sleeve ; this cost Mushroom £ 2 @.@ 21 per unit ( a loss of 95p for each sale ) . This special single had only 5 @,@ 000 copies issued . = = Critical reception = = Upon both the release of Garbage and the release of " Queer " as a single , the song received a positive reception from music journalists . Leo Finlay , in a Music Week article highlighting the campaign for the debut album 's release wrote , " ' Queer ' is eerily reminiscent of Magazine 's stranger moments " . A reviewer for NME wrote that the single was " an ode to recognising and tolerating those mis @-@ shapen ones among us " , and when reviewing the album , their own Shannon O 'Connell wrote , " there is a bit of Pat Benatar in [ this songs ] back @-@ alley swagger " . A reviewer for VOX described " Queer " as " Voice of the Beehive roughing up L7 " , Jackie Hinden of Hot Press wrote that the song was " a slinky work @-@ out against a restrained work @-@ to @-@ rule industrial backing " , and the publication later made it their Single of the Fortnight , describing it as " Almost indecently brilliant . There 's an intelligence at work here in the lyrics and in the music which makes " Queer " a unique proposition , and Garbage utterly indispensable " . A writer for Melody Maker wrote that " Queer " was " sleek , cultivated perversion ... sinister and menacing " , while Raw 's review described it as " brilliant , Seductive and slow @-@ burning " , and the single reviewer for NME considered that Manson 's performance " elevates a sing @-@ song shuffle into a lullaby to sexual non @-@ conformity " . Rolling Stone described the song as a " more roundly shaped tune orchestrated with this same love of junk and command of finesse . " Kerrang ! rated " Queer " as their Single of the Week , stating " an incredible knee @-@ trembling fuck tune ... the dirtiest pop tune you 'll hear all year . [ You 'll be ] sucked into dark satin sexiness and you 'll never want to leave . Gorgeously decadent and utterly fabulous " ; = = Track listings and formats = = " Queer " was the first Garbage single to include remixes as a commercial b @-@ side ; Mushroom spread four across the UK formats . These were completed by producers Adrian Sherwood , Danny Saber , Depeche Mode 's Martin Gore and Florida @-@ based group Rabbit in the Moon . In 2007 , the Heftybag mix by Rabbit in the Moon was remastered and included on the limited edition of greatest hits collection Absolute Garbage . = = Music video = = The music video for " Queer " directed by Stéphane Sednaoui for Propaganda Films and was filmed in July 1995 in Los Angeles . Sedanoui 's video concept developed from his own personal experience of being " shredded into pieces " by a beautiful woman . Garbage loved his storyboard for " Queer " , feeling it matched the ambiguous nature of the song . Manson had chosen Sednaoui as director after she saw the " Big Time Sensuality " music video he directed for Björk , and later said that Sednaoui " doesn 't just take an idea and apply it to different artists , he seems to be able to figure out where the artist is coming from and make the photographs and the videos unique to that group . " The black and white storyline of the video saw a young male 's first person perspective of exiting an elevator onto a Los Angeles street and meeting Manson . She coyly entices him to follow her to her home where the men from Garbage are waiting . They detain him inside , forcing him up onto the second @-@ level of the house , where Manson throws him to the floor , strips him of his clothing and blinds him with gaffer tape . He recovers to find Manson shaving his head , before she drags him outside by his legs . He is then seen strangely happy , and in full colour , leaving the street . Sednaoui operated the camera for the whole shoot . To capture the victim 's struggle , Sednaoui positioned the camera at ground @-@ level facing upwards towards Garbage , who were standing on a rotating platform . To suggest the victim was almost hallucinating , strobe lighting was combined with the rotation of the platform , however the effect caused the band to suffer from vertigo after a number of takes . Manson later claimed that the video helped establish her group ; " He really defined for us who we were visually . Stéphane was able to look at the band and listen to the music and figure out what was the perfect visual partner for the band . People think we 're a very stylish band , and it 's all to do with him " . She added , " I 'm really proud of " Queer " , I think it 's one of our best videos . " The " Queer " video premiered on North American networks on August 14 , 1995 ; where it was given heavy support by MTV , who certified it a Buzz Clip . MTV requested an edit to obscure the shot of Manson blinding the video 's protagonist before playlisting it . The music video for " Queer " was nominated in the Breakthrough Video category at the 1996 MTV Video Music Awards , losing to Smashing Pumpkins ' " Tonight , Tonight " . The silver dress Manson wore in the video was later donated to the Hard Rock Hotel & Casino in Las Vegas , Nevada for indefinite display . The " Queer " video was first commercially released , accompanied with out @-@ take footage from the shoot , on 1996 's Garbage Video VHS and Video @-@ CD . A remastered version was included on Garbage 's 2007 greatest hits DVD Absolute Garbage and made available as a digital download via online music services the same year . = = Release history = = = = Comprehensive charts = =
= Adem Jashari = Adem Jashari ( 28 November 1955 – 7 March 1998 ) was one of the founders of the Kosovo Liberation Army ( KLA ) , a Kosovo Albanian separatist organization which fought for the secession of Kosovo from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the 1990s . Beginning in 1991 , Jashari participated in attacks against the Serbian police before travelling to Albania to receive military training . Arrested in 1993 , he was released at the behest of the Albanian Army and later returned to Kosovo , where he continued launching attacks against the Yugoslav establishment . In July 1997 , he was convicted of terrorism in absentia by a Yugoslav court . After several unsuccessful attempts to capture or kill him , Serbian police launched an attack against Jashari 's home in Prekaz in March 1998 . The battle that followed resulted in the deaths of 58 members of Jashari 's family , including that of Jashari and his wife and son . Seen as the " father of the KLA " , Jashari is considered a symbol of Kosovan independence by ethnic Albanians . He was posthumously awarded with the title " Hero of Kosovo " following the disputed territory 's declaration of independence in 2008 . The National Theatre in Prishtina and Prishtina International Airport have been named after him . = = Biography = = = = = Early life = = = Adem Shaban Jashari was born in the village of Prekaz , in the Drenica region of the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo , on 28 November 1955 . Descended from Kosovo Albanian guerrillas who had fought Yugoslav forces decades prior , he was raised on Albanian war stories and was rarely seen without a gun . According to the journalist Tim Judah , Jashari " hated the Serbs , and although he was one of the KLA ’ s early recruits , he was no ideological guerrilla . " Another source recounted : “ He liked to get drunk and go out and shoot Serbs . ” = = = Guerrilla activities = = = Drenica is a hilly region in central Kosovo inhabited almost exclusively by Kosovo Albanians . Prior to the Kosovo War , the government of Yugoslavia considered it " the hotbed of Albanian terrorism . " Jashari was an illiterate farmer . He participated in an armed uprising against Serbian authorities which had erupted in the region in 1991 ( while still all part of SFR Yugoslavia ) . During this period , an Albanian irredentist organization that came to be known as the Kosovo Liberation Army first emerged . From 1991 to 1992 , Jashari and about 100 other ethnic Albanians wishing to fight for the independence of Kosovo underwent military training in the municipality of Labinot @-@ Mal in Albania . Afterwards , Jashari and other ethnic Albanians committed several acts of sabotage aimed at the Serbian administrative apparatus in Kosovo . Attempting to capture or kill him , Serbian police surrounded Jashari and his older brother , Hamëz , at their home in Prekaz on 30 December 1991 . In the ensuing siege , large numbers of Kosovo Albanians flocked to Prekaz , pressuring the police to withdraw from the village . While in Albania , he was arrested in 1993 by the government of Sali Berisha and sent to jail in Tirana before being released alongside other Kosovo Albanian militants at the demand of the Albanian Army . With the Yugoslav forces now considering Prekaz a " no @-@ go " area , Jashari launched several attacks over the next several years . These targeted the Yugoslav Army ( VJ ) and Serbian police in Kosovo . Jashari was convicted of terrorism in absentia by a Yugoslav court on 11 July 1997 . Human Rights Watch subsequently described the trial , in which fourteen other Kosovo Albanians were also convicted , as " [ failing ] to conform to international standards . " Pursuing Jashari for the murder of a Serb policeman , Yugoslav forces again attempted to assault the Jashari compound in Prekaz on 22 January 1998 . With Jashari not present , thousands of Kosovo Albanians descended on Prekaz and again succeeded in pushing the Serbs out of the village and its surroundings . The next month , a small unit of the KLA ambushed Serbian policemen . Four Serbs were killed and two were injured in the ensuing clashes . At dawn on 5 March 1998 , the KLA launched an attack against a police patrol in Prekaz . = = = Death = = = In response to this attack , the Yugoslavs organized a " full @-@ scale revenge mission " involving tanks , APCs and helicopters . They were backed up by artillery from a nearby ammunition factory . With the intention of " eliminating the suspects and their families , " the police attacked villages that had been identified as KLA strongholds , including Likošane and Ćirez . Human Rights Watch noted that " special police forces attacked without warning , firing indiscriminately at women , children and other noncombatants . " KLA members and their families subsequently fled to Jashari 's compound . Here , the police invited Jashari to surrender , giving him a deadline of two hours in which to respond . During this period , a number of families left the compound . Jashari remained , ordering his family members to stay inside and telling his militants to resist to the last man . Once the two @-@ hour deadline had expired , the two sides began exchanging gunfire . In one of the houses , where most of Jashari 's extended family had gathered , a mortar shell fell in through the roof , causing many deaths . After a two or three @-@ day siege , the police captured the Jashari compound . Once inside , they discovered that Jashari and his brother Hamëz had been killed . Also killed were Jashari 's wife , Adilje , and his thirteen @-@ year @-@ old son , Kushtrim . Overall , approximately fifty @-@ eight Kosovo Albanians were killed in the attack , including eighteen women and ten children under the age of sixteen . Goran Radosavljević , a major in the Serbian Interior Ministry , said that " [ Jashari ] used women , children and the elderly as hostages . " Speaking of the attack , Yugoslav General Nebojša Pavković stated that it was " a normal policing action against a well @-@ known criminal . It was successful . The other details I don 't remember . " = = = Aftermath = = = The deaths of Jashari and his family resulted in an international backlash against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . As news of the killings spread , armed Kosovo Albanian militias emerged throughout Kosovo , seeking to avenge Jashari 's death as Albanians flocked to join the KLA . Soon after the attack against Prekaz , 46 bodies were taken to a hospital morgue in Prishtina on 7 March before being returned to Skenderaj the next day . There , they were placed inside a warehouse located on the outskirts of town . Photographs taken during this time revealed that Jashari had received a bullet wound to the neck . On 9 March , the police publicly stated that they would themselves bury the bodies of those killed if they were not quickly claimed and buried by family members . The next day , the police dug a large grave near Donji Prekaz and buried the bodies of fifty @-@ six people , ten of whom could not be identified . On 11 March , the bodies were disinterred by relatives and reburied in accordance with Islamic tradition on a field known as the " field of peace " . = = Legacy = = Dubbed the " Legendary Commander " ( Albanian : Komandanti Legjendar ) by Albanians , Jashari is regarded by many in Kosovo as being the " father of the KLA " . Portraits of him carrying an automatic weapon often adorn the walls of homes inhabited by ethnic Albanians . Considered a symbol of independence by Kosovo Albanians , the anniversary of Jashari 's death is annually commemorated in Kosovo and his home has since been transformed into a shrine . The field where he and his family were buried has since become a place of pilgrimage for Kosovo Albanians , and several authors have equated Jashari with Albanian national hero George Kastrioti Skanderbeg as well as Albanian kaçak rebels from the past . Following Kosovo 's declaration of independence in 2008 , Jashari was posthumously awarded the title " Hero of Kosovo " for his role in the Kosovo War . The football stadium in Mitrovica , the National Theatre in Prishtina and Prishtina International Airport have also been named after him . = = = Books = = = = = = Websites = = =
= Chelsea Bridge = Chelsea Bridge is a bridge over the River Thames in west London , connecting Chelsea on the north bank to Battersea on the south bank . There have been two Chelsea Bridges , on the site of what was an ancient ford . The first Chelsea Bridge was proposed in the 1840s as part of a major development of marshlands on the south bank of the Thames into the new Battersea Park . It was a suspension bridge intended to provide convenient access from the densely populated north bank to the new park . Although built and operated by the government , tolls were charged initially in an effort to recoup the cost of the bridge . Work on the nearby Chelsea Embankment delayed construction and so the bridge , initially called Victoria Bridge , did not open until 1858 . Although well @-@ received architecturally , as a toll bridge it was unpopular with the public , and Parliament felt obliged to make it toll @-@ free on Sundays . The bridge was less of a commercial success than had been anticipated , partly because of competition from the newly built Albert Bridge nearby . It was acquired by the Metropolitan Board of Works in 1877 , and the tolls were abolished in 1879 . The bridge was narrow and structurally unsound , leading the authorities to rename it Chelsea Bridge to avoid the Royal Family 's association with a potential collapse . In 1926 it was proposed that the old bridge be rebuilt or replaced , due to the increased volume of users from population growth , and the introduction of the automobile . It was demolished during 1934 – 1937 , and replaced by the current structure , which opened in 1937 . The new bridge was the first self @-@ anchored suspension bridge in Britain , and was built entirely with materials sourced from within the British Empire . During the early 1950s it became popular with motorcyclists , who staged regular races across the bridge . One such meeting in 1970 erupted into violence , resulting in the death of one man and the imprisonment of 20 others . Chelsea Bridge is floodlit from below during the hours of darkness , when the towers and cables are illuminated by 936 feet ( 285 m ) of light @-@ emitting diodes . In 2008 it achieved Grade II listed status . In 2004 a smaller bridge , Battersea Footbridge , was opened beneath the southern span , carrying the Thames Path beneath the main bridge . = = Background = = The Red House Inn was an isolated inn on the south bank of the River Thames in the marshlands by Battersea fields , about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of the developed street of the prosperous farming village of Battersea . Not on any major road , its isolation and lack of any police presence made it a popular destination for visitors from London and Westminster since the 16th century , who would travel to the Red House by wherry , attracted by Sunday dog fighting , bare @-@ knuckle boxing bouts and illegal horse racing . Because of its lawless nature , Battersea Fields was also a popular area for duelling , and was the venue for the 1829 duel between the then Prime Minister the Duke of Wellington and the Earl of Winchilsea . The town of Chelsea , on the north bank of the Thames about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) west of Westminster , was an important industrial centre . Although by the 19th century its role as the centre of the British porcelain industry had been overtaken by the West Midlands , its riverside location and good roads made it an important centre for the manufacture of goods to serve the nearby and rapidly growing London . The Chelsea Waterworks Company occupied a site on the north bank of the Thames opposite the Red House Inn . Founded in 1723 , the company pumped water from the Thames to reservoirs around Westminster through a network of hollow elm trunks . As London spread westwards , the former farmland to the west became increasingly populated , and the Thames became seriously polluted with sewage and animal carcasses . In 1852 Parliament banned water from being taken from the Thames downstream of Teddington , forcing the Chelsea Waterworks Company to move upstream to Seething Wells . Since 1771 , Battersea and Chelsea had been linked by the modest wooden Battersea Bridge . As London grew following the advent of the railways , Chelsea began to become congested , and in 1842 the Commission of Woods , Forests , and Land Revenues recommended the building of an embankment at Chelsea to free new land for development , and proposed the building of a new bridge downstream of Battersea Bridge and the replacement of Battersea Bridge with a more modern structure . = = = Battersea Park = = = In the early 1840s Thomas Cubitt and James Pennethorne had proposed a plan to use 150 @,@ 000 tons of rocks and earth from the excavation of the Royal Victoria Dock to infill the marshy Battersea Fields and create a large public park to serve the growing population of Chelsea . In 1846 the Commissioners of Woods and Forests purchased the Red House Inn and 200 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 km2 ) of surrounding land , and work began on the development that would become Battersea Park . It was expected that with the opening of the park the volume of cross river traffic would increase significantly , putting further strain on the dilapidated Battersea Bridge . Consequently , in 1846 an Act of Parliament authorised the building of a new toll bridge on the site of an ancient ford exactly one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) downstream of Battersea Bridge . The approach road on the southern side was to run along the side of the new park , while that on the northern side was to run from Sloane Square , through the former Chelsea Waterworks site , to the new bridge . Although previous toll bridges in the area had been built and operated by private companies , the new bridge was to be built and operated by the government , under the control of the Metropolitan Improvement Commission , despite protests in Parliament from Radicals objecting to the Government profiting from a toll @-@ paying bridge . It was intended that the bridge would be made toll @-@ free once the costs of building it had been recouped . = = Victoria Bridge ( Old Chelsea Bridge ) = = Engineer Thomas Page was appointed to build the bridge , and presented the Commission with several potential designs , including a seven @-@ span stone bridge , a five @-@ span cast iron arch bridge , and a suspension bridge . The Commission selected the suspension bridge design , and work began in 1851 on the new bridge , to be called the Victoria Bridge . = = = Design and construction = = = Page 's design was typical of suspension bridges of the period , and consisted of a wrought iron deck and four 97 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) cast iron towers supporting chains , which in turn supported the weight of the deck . The towers rested on a pair of timber and cast iron piers . The towers passed through the deck , meaning that between the towers the road was seven feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) narrower than on the rest of the bridge . Although work had begun in 1851 delays in the closure of the Chelsea Waterworks , which only completed its relocation to Seething Wells in 1856 , caused lengthy delays to the project , and the Edinburgh @-@ made ironwork was only transported to the site in 1856 . Victoria Bridge was 703 feet ( 214 m ) long with a central span of 333 feet ( 101 m ) , and the roadway was 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) wide with a 7 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 29 m ) footpath on either side , making a total width of 47 feet ( 14 m ) . Large lamps were set at the tops of the four towers , which were only to be lit when Queen Victoria was spending the night in London . The central span was inscribed with the date of construction and the words " Gloria Deo in Excelsis " ( " Glory to God in the Highest " ) . It took seven years to build , at a total cost of £ 90 @,@ 000 ( about £ 8 @.@ 17 million in 2016 ) . The controversial tolls were collected from octagonal stone tollhouses at each end of the bridge . As with the earlier construction of nearby Battersea Bridge , during excavations workers found large quantities of Roman and Celtic weapons and skeletons in the riverbed , leading many historians to conclude that the area was the site of Julius Caesar 's crossing of the Thames during the 54 BC invasion of Britain . The most significant item found was the Celtic La Tène style bronze and enamel Battersea Shield , one of the most important pieces of Celtic military equipment found in Britain , recovered from the riverbed during dredging for the piers . = = = Opening = = = On 31 March 1858 Queen Victoria , accompanied by two of her daughters and en route to the formal opening of Battersea Park , crossed the new bridge and declared it officially open , naming it the Victoria Bridge ; it was opened to the public three days later , on 3 April 1858 . The design met with great critical acclaim , particularly from the Illustrated London News . Shortly after its opening , concerns were raised about the bridge 's safety . Following an inspection by John Hawkshaw and Edwin Clark in 1861 , an additional support chain was added on each side . Despite the strengthening there were still concerns about its soundness , and a weight limit of 5 tons was imposed . At the same time , the name was changed from Victoria Bridge to Chelsea Bridge , as the government was concerned about the reliability of suspension bridges and did not want a potential collapse to be associated with the Queen . Although reasonably well used , it was unpopular with the public , who objected to being obliged to pay tolls to use it . On 4 July 1857 , almost a year before the bridge 's opening , a demonstration against the tolls attracted 6 @,@ 000 residents . Concerns were raised in Parliament that poorer industrial workers in Chelsea , which had no large parks of its own , would be unable to afford to use the new park in Battersea . Bowing to public pressure , shortly after the bridge opened Parliament declared it free to use for pedestrians on Sundays , and in 1875 it was also made toll @-@ free on public holidays . Additionally , because the main lights were only turned on when Queen Victoria was staying in London , it was poorly used at night . Despite this , the new Battersea Park was extremely popular , particularly the sporting facilities ; on 9 January 1864 the park staged the world 's first official game of association football . = = = Abolition of tolls = = = In 1873 the privately owned Albert Bridge , between Chelsea and Battersea bridges , opened . Although Albert Bridge was not as successful as intended at luring customers from Chelsea Bridge and soon found itself in serious financial difficulties , it nonetheless caused a sharp drop in usage of Chelsea Bridge . In 1877 the Metropolis Toll Bridges Act was passed , which allowed the Metropolitan Board of Works ( MBW ) to buy all London bridges between Hammersmith and Waterloo bridges and free them from tolls . Ownership of Chelsea Bridge was transferred to the MBW in 1877 at a cost of £ 75 @,@ 000 ( about £ 5 @.@ 99 million in 2016 ) , and on 24 May 1879 Chelsea Bridge , Battersea Bridge and Albert Bridge were declared toll free by the Prince of Wales in a brief ceremony , after which a parade of Chelsea Pensioners marched across the bridge to Battersea Park . By the early 20th century , Chelsea Bridge was in poor condition . It was unable to carry the increasing volume of traffic caused by the growth of London and the increasing popularity of the automobile ; between 1914 and 1929 use of the bridge almost doubled from 6 @,@ 500 to 12 @,@ 600 vehicles per day . In addition , parts of its structure were beginning to work loose , and in 1922 the gilded finials on the towers had to be removed because of concerns that they would fall off . Architectural opinion had turned heavily against Victorian styles and Chelsea Bridge was now deeply unpopular with architects ; former President of the Royal Institute of British Architects Reginald Blomfield spoke vehemently against its design in 1921 , and there were few people supporting the preservation of the old bridge . In 1926 the Royal Commission on Cross @-@ river Traffic recommended that Chelsea Bridge be rebuilt or replaced . = = New Chelsea Bridge = = In 1931 the London County Council ( LCC ) proposed demolishing Chelsea Bridge and replacing it with a modern six @-@ lane bridge at a cost of £ 695 @,@ 000 ( about £ 42 @.@ 6 million in 2016 ) . Because of the economic crisis of the Great Depression the Ministry of Transport refused to fund the project and the LCC was unable to raise the funds elsewhere . However , in an effort to boost employment in the Battersea area , which had suffered badly in the depression , the Ministry of Transport agreed to underwrite 60 % of the costs of a cheaper four @-@ lane bridge costing £ 365 @,@ 000 ( about £ 22 @.@ 4 million in 2016 ) , on condition that all materials used in the building of the bridge be sourced from within the British Empire . = = = Design and construction = = = In 1934 a temporary footbridge which had previously been used during rebuilding works on Lambeth Bridge was moved into place alongside Chelsea Bridge , and demolition began . The new bridge , also called Chelsea Bridge , was designed by LCC architects G. Topham Forrest and E. P. Wheeler and built by Holloway Brothers ( London ) . Much wider than the older bridge at 64 feet ( 20 m ) wide , it has a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) wide roadway and two 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide pavements cantilevered out from the sides of the bridge . Uniquely in London , Chelsea Bridge is a self @-@ anchored suspension bridge , the first of the type to be built in Britain . The horizontal stresses are absorbed by stiffening girders in the deck itself and the suspension cables are not anchored to the ground , relieving stress on the abutments which are built on soft and unstable London clay . The piers of the new bridge were built on the site of the old bridge 's piers , and are built of concrete , faced with granite above the low @-@ water point . Each side of the bridge has a single suspension cable , each made up of 37 17 ⁄ 8 @-@ inch ( 23mm ) diameter wire ropes bundled to form a hexagonal cable . As was agreed with the Ministry of Transport , all materials used in the bridge came from the British Empire ; the steel came from Scotland and Yorkshire , the granite of the piers from Aberdeen and Cornwall , the timbers of the deck from British Columbia and the asphalt of the roadway from Trinidad . Because the self @-@ anchored structure relies on the roadway itself to absorb stresses , the suspension cables could not be installed until the roadway was built ; however , until the cables were in place the roadway could not be supported . To resolve this problem , Topham had the roadway built in sections , supported on very tall barges . The barges were floated into place at low tide , and the rising tide was used to lift the sections above the height of the piers . As the tide ebbed , the roadway dropped into place . The recently built Battersea Power Station then dominated most views of the area , so it was decided that the bridge 's appearance was unimportant . Consequently , in contrast to the heavily ornamented 1858 bridge , the new bridge has a starkly utilitarian design and the only ornamentation consists of two ornamental lamp posts at each entrance . Each features a gilded galleon on top of a coat of arms . The outward facing sides of all four posts show the LCC coat of arms of the Lion of England , St George 's Cross and the barry wavy lines representing the Thames ; the inward faces on the south side show the dove of peace of the Metropolitan Borough of Battersea , that on the northwest corner shows the winged bull , lion , boars ' heads and stag of the Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea , and that on the northeast corner the portcullis and Tudor roses of the Metropolitan Borough of Westminster . The new bridge was completed five months ahead of schedule and within the £ 365 @,@ 000 budget . It was opened on 6 May 1937 by the Prime Minister of Canada , William Lyon Mackenzie King , who was in London for the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth . = = = Temporary wartime bridge = = = Two years after the bridge 's opening the Second World War broke out . Because of their close proximity to Chelsea Barracks it was expected that enemy bombers would target the three road bridges in the area , and a temporary bridge was built parallel to Chelsea Bridge . As with the four other temporary Thames bridges built in this period , it was built of steel girders supported by wooden stakes ; however , despite its flimsy appearance it was a sturdy structure , capable of supporting tanks and other heavy military equipment . As it turned out , no enemy action took place in the area , and all three bridges survived the war undamaged . The temporary bridge was dismantled in 1945 . = = = Motorcycle gangs = = = Beginning in the 1950s Chelsea Bridge became a favourite meeting place for motorcyclists , who would race across the bridge on Friday nights . On 17 October 1970 a serious confrontation took place on Chelsea Bridge between the Essex and Chelsea chapters of the Hells Angels , and rival motorcycle gangs the Road Rats , Nightingales , Windsor Angels and Jokers . Around 50 people took part in the fight ; weapons used included motorcycle chains , flick knives and at least one spiked flail . One member of the Jokers was shot with a sawn @-@ off shotgun and fatally wounded , and 20 of those present were sentenced to between one and twelve years imprisonment . = = Present @-@ day = = In the 1970s Chelsea Bridge was painted bright red and white , prompting a number of complaints from Chelsea F.C. fans that Chelsea Bridge had been painted in Arsenal colours . In 2007 it was redecorated in a less controversial red , blue and white colour scheme . Chelsea Bridge is now floodlit from beneath at night and 936 feet ( 285 m ) of light @-@ emitting diodes strung along the towers and suspension chains , intended to complement the illuminations of the nearby Albert Bridge . Although motorcyclists still meet on the bridge , following complaints from residents about the noise their racing has been curtailed . Chelsea Bridge was declared a Grade II listed structure in 2008 , providing protection to preserve its character from further alteration . Battersea Park still retains Cubitt and Pennethorne 's original layout and features , including a riverfront promenade , a formal avenue through the centre of the park and multiple animal enclosures . On the eastern side of the bridge at the southern end a major new residential development of 600 homes called Chelsea Bridge Wharf has been built , as part of long term plans to regenerate the long @-@ derelict former industrial sites around Battersea Power Station . = = = Battersea Footbridge = = = To link the new developments around Battersea Power Station to Battersea Park , in 2004 a new curved footbridge was built beneath the southern end of Chelsea Bridge . The footbridge was built offsite in four sections , transported by road to the King George V Dock where it was assembled , and the completed structure floated down the river and hoisted into position . It is planned that once the riverfront in the area has been opened to the public , following the completion of the rebuilding of Battersea Power Station into a commercial development , the new bridge will form part of the Thames Path . The new bridge curves out from the bank , overhanging the river bank by 33 feet ( 10 m ) , and cost £ 600 @,@ 000 to build . = = = CS8 Cycle Superhighway = = = Chelsea Bridge is now a major component of the CS8 Cycle Superhighway from Wandsworth to Westminster , with a mandatory blue cycle lane painted in both directions on the bridge . However , the cycle lanes do not cover the whole length of the bridge , forcing cyclists to ride in traffic when entering the bridge from Chelsea .
= Duino Elegies = The Duino Elegies ( German : Duineser Elegien ) are a collection of ten elegies written by the Bohemian @-@ Austrian poet Rainer Maria Rilke ( 1875 – 1926 ) . Rilke , who is " widely recognized as one of the most lyrically intense German @-@ language poets , " began writing the elegies in 1912 while a guest of Princess Marie von Thurn und Taxis ( 1855 – 1934 ) at Duino Castle , near Trieste on the Adriatic Sea . The poems , 859 lines long in total , were dedicated to the Princess upon their publication in 1923 . During this ten @-@ year period , the elegies languished incomplete for long stretches of time as Rilke suffered frequently from severe depression — some of which was caused by the events of World War I and being conscripted into military service . Aside from brief episodes of writing in 1913 and 1915 , Rilke did not return to the work until a few years after the war ended . With a sudden , renewed inspiration — writing in a frantic pace he described as a " boundless storm , a hurricane of the spirit " — he completed the collection in February 1922 while staying at Château de Muzot in Veyras , in Switzerland 's Rhone Valley . After their publication in 1923 and Rilke 's death in 1926 , the Duino Elegies were quickly recognized by critics and scholars as his most important work . The Duino Elegies are intensely religious , mystical poems that weigh beauty and existential suffering . The poems employ a rich symbolism of angels and salvation but not in keeping with typical Christian interpretations . Rilke begins the first elegy in an invocation of philosophical despair , asking : " Who , if I cried out , would hear me among the hierarchies of angels ? " ( Wer , wenn ich schriee , hörte mich denn aus der Engel Ordnungen ? ) and later declares that " every angel is terrifying " ( Jeder Engel ist schrecklich ) . While labelling of these poems as " elegies " would typically imply melancholy and lamentation , many passages are marked by their positive energy and " unrestrained enthusiasm . " Together , the Duino Elegies are described as a metamorphosis of Rilke 's " ontological torment " and an " impassioned monologue about coming to terms with human existence " discussing themes of " the limitations and insufficiency of the human condition and fractured human consciousness ... man 's loneliness , the perfection of the angels , life and death , love and lovers , and the task of the poet . " Rilke 's poetry , and the Duino Elegies in particular , influenced many of the poets and writers of the twentieth century . In popular culture , his work is frequently quoted on the subject of love or of angels and referenced in television programs , motion pictures , music and other artistic works , in New Age philosophy and theology , and in self @-@ help books . = = Writing and publication history = = = = = Duino Castle and the first elegies = = = In 1910 , Rilke had completed writing the loosely autobiographical novel , Die Aufzeichnungen des Malte Laurids Brigge ( The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge ) in which a young poet is terrified by the fragmentation and chaos of modern urban life . After completing the work , Rilke experienced a severe psychological crisis that lasted for two years . In 1912 , still facing this severe depression and despair , Rilke was invited to Duino Castle by Princess Marie von Thurn und Taxis ( 1855 – 1934 ) ( born Princess Marie zu Hohenlohe @-@ Waldenburg @-@ Schillingsfürst ) whom he had met a few years before . The princess ( who was twenty years older than Rilke ) and her husband Prince Alexander ( 1851 – 1939 ) enthusiastically supported artists and writers . While at Duino , Rilke and Princess Marie discussed the possibility of collaborating on a translation of Dante Alighieri 's La Vita Nuova ( 1295 ) . After the Princess left to join her husband at their Lautschin estate , Rilke spent the next few weeks at the castle preparing to focus on work . During these weeks , he was writing Marien @-@ Leben ( The Life of Mary ) . While walking along the cliffs overlooking the Adriatic Sea near the castle , Rilke claimed to hear a voice calling to him speaking the words of the first line , Wer , wenn ich schriee , hörte mich denn aus der Engel Ordnungen ? ( " Who , if I cried out , would hear me among the hierarchies of angels ? " ) which he quickly wrote in his notebook . Within days , he produced drafts of the first two elegies in the series and drafted passages and fragments that would later be incorporated into later elegies — including the opening passage of the tenth elegy . Rilke would only finish the third and fourth elegies before the onset of World War I. The third was finished in 1913 in Paris , the fourth in early 1915 in Munich . The effects of the war — particularly his traumatic experiences being conscripted into the Austro @-@ Hungarian army — triggered a severe renewal of his depression that rendered him unable to write for several years . = = = Château de Muzot and the creative hurricane = = = Because of his depression , Rilke was unable to return to writing for several years , and only in 1920 was he motivated to focus towards completing his work on the Duino Elegies . However , for the next two years , his mode of life was unstable and did not permit him the time or mental state he needed for his writing . In 1921 , Rilke journeyed to Switzerland , hoping to immerse himself in French culture near Geneva and to find a place to live permanently . At the time , he was romantically involved with Baladine Klossowska ( 1886 – 1969 ) . At the invitation of Werner Reinhart ( 1884 – 1951 ) , Rilke moved into the Château de Muzot , a thirteenth @-@ century manor house that lacked gas and electricity , near Veyras , Rhone Valley , Switzerland . Reinhart , a Swiss merchant and amateur clarinetist , used his wealth to be a patron to many twentieth @-@ century writers and composers . He bought Muzot to allow Rilke to live there rent @-@ free and focus on his work . Rilke and Klossowska moved there in July 1921 and later in the year Rilke translated writings by Paul Valéry and Michelangelo into German . With news of the death of his daughter 's friend , Wera Knoop ( 1900 – 1919 ) , Rilke set to work on Sonnets to Orpheus . The Sonnets frequently refer to Wera , both directly where he addresses her by name and indirectly in allusions to a " dancer " or the mythical Eurydice . Rilke wrote to the young girl 's mother stating that Wera 's ghost was " commanding and impelling " him to write . In a rush of inspiration , Rilke worked on the Sonnets and renewed his focus towards completing the remainder of Duino Elegies . In one week , Rilke completed the unfinished elegies , and from 2 February to 23 February 1922 he completed all the 55 sonnets of the two parts of Sonnets to Orpheus . Rilke considered both collections to be " of the same birth " . In a letter to Klossowska on 9 February 1922 , Rilke wrote : " what weighed me down and caused my anguish most is done ... I am still trembling from it . ... And I went out to caress old Muzot , just now , in the moonlight . " Two days later , completing the last of his work on the Elegies in the evening , he wrote to Lou Andreas @-@ Salomé that he had finished " everything in a few days ; it was a boundless storm , a hurricane of the spirit , and whatever inside me is like thread and webbing , framework , it all cracked and bent . No thought of food . " = = = Publication and reception = = = Duino Elegies was published by Insel @-@ Verlag in Leipzig , Germany in 1923 . Prominent critics praised the work and compared its merits to the works of Hölderlin and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe . In 1935 , critic Hans @-@ Rudolf Müller was the first to describe the collection as inherently " mystical " and promote Rilke as a " mystic " spiritual guide . In My Belief : Essays on Life and Art , German novelist Hermann Hesse ( 1877 – 1962 ) describes Rilke as evolving within the confines of exploring his existential problems , that " at each stage now and again the miracle occurs , his delicate , hesitant , anxiety @-@ prone person withdraws , and through him resounds the music of the universe ; like the basin of a fountain he becomes at once instrument and ear . " However , during the 1920s , many of the younger generation of German @-@ language poets and writers did not like Duino Elegies because of the poems ' obscure symbols and philosophy . The German poet Albrecht Schaeffer ( who is associated with the literary circle of German lyric poet Stefan George ) dismissed the poems as " mystical blather " and described their " secular theology " as " impotent gossip " . Theodor W. Adorno 's Jargon of Authenticity ( 1964 ) suggested that the poems are essentially evil : " The fact that the neoromantic lyric sometimes behaves like the jargon [ of authenticity ] , or at least timidly readies the way for it , should not lead us to look for the evil of the poetry simply in its form . It is not simply grounded , as a much too innocent view might maintain , in the mixture of poetry and prose . The evil , in the neoromantic lyric , consists in the fitting out of the words with a theological overtone , which is belied by the condition of the lonely and secular subject who is speaking there : religion as ornament . " Adorno further believed the poems reinforced the German value of commitment that supported a cultural attraction towards the principles of Nazism . = = Symbolism and themes = = Throughout the Duino Elegies , Rilke explores themes of " the limitations and insufficiency of the human condition and fractured human consciousness ... mankind 's loneliness , the perfection of the angels , life and death , love and lovers , and the task of the poet . " Philosopher Martin Heidegger remarked that " the long way leading to the poetry is itself one that inquires poetically , " and that Rilke " comes to realize the destitution of the time more clearly . The time remains destitute not only because God is dead , but because mortals are hardly aware and capable even of their own mortality . " Rilke explores the nature of mankind 's contact with beauty , and its transience , noting that humanity is forever only getting a brief , momentary glimpse of an inconceivable beauty and that it is terrifying . At the onset of the First Elegy , Rilke describes this frightened experience , defining beauty as Rilke depicted this infinite , transcendental beauty with the symbol of angels . However , he did not use the traditional Christian interpretation of angels . He sought to utilize a symbol of the angel that was secular , divorced from religious doctrine and embodied a tremendous transcendental beauty . In this , however , Rilke commented that he was greatly influenced by the depiction of angels found in Islam . For Rilke , the symbol of the angel represents a perfection that is " beyond human contradictions and limitations " in a " higher level of reality in the invisible . " Where there is incongruity that adds to mankind 's despair and anxiety is due to human nature keeping us clinging to the visible and the familiar . As mankind encounters the invisible and unknown higher levels represented by these angels , the experience of the invisible will be " terrifying " ( in German , schrecklich ) . As mankind comes in contact with this terrifying beauty represented by these angels , Rilke is concerned with the experience of existential angst in trying to come to terms with the coexistence of the spiritual and earthly . He portrays human beings as alone in a universe where God is abstract and possibly non @-@ existent , " where memory and patterns of intuition raise the sensitive consciousness to a realization of solitude . " Rilke depicts the alternative , a spiritually fulfilling possibility beyond human limitations in the form of angels . Beginning with the first line of the collection , Rilke 's despairing speaker calls upon the angels to notice human suffering and to intervene . There is a deeply felt despair and unresolvable tension in that no matter man 's striving , the limitation of human and earthly existence renders humanity unable to reach out to the angels . The narrative voice Rilke employs in the Duino Elegies strives " to achieve in human consciousness the angel 's presumed plenitude of being " ( i.e. being , or existence , in German : Dasein ) . Rilke uses the images of love and of lovers as a way of showing mankind 's potential and humanity 's failures in achieving the transcendent understanding embodied by the angels . In the Second Elegy , Rilke writes that " Lovers , if they knew how , might utter / wondrous things in the midnight air . " ( Liebende könnten , verstünden sie 's , in der Nachtluft / wunderlich reden . ) He depicts " the inadequacy of ordinary lovers " and contrasts a feminine form of " sublime love " and a masculine " blind animal passion . " At the time the first elegies were written , Rilke often " expressed a longing for human companionship and affection , and then , often immediately afterwards , asking whether he could really respond to such companionship if it were offered to him ... " He notices a " decline in the lives of lovers ... when they began to receive , they also began to lose the power of giving . " Later , during World War I , he would lament that " the world has fallen into the hands of men . " In the face of death , life and love is not cheap and meaningless and Rilke asserted that great lovers are able to recognize all three ( life , love , and death ) as part of a unity . Rilke asserted that the true meaning of love could be understood through death providing love a meaning in this unity — that " the nature of every ultimate love ... is only able to reach the loved one in the infinite . " In a 1923 letter to Nanny von Escher , Rilke confided : " Two inner experiences were necessary for the creation of these books ( The Sonnets to Orpheus and The Duino Elegies ) . One is the increasingly conscious decision to hold life open to death . The other is the spiritual imperative to present , in this wider context , the transformations of love that are not possible in a narrower circle where Death is simply excluded as The Other . The Fifth Elegy is largely inspired by Pablo Picasso 's 1905 Rose Period painting , Les Saltimbanques ( " The Acrobats " , also known as " The Family of Saltimbanques " ) in which Picasso depicts six figures pictured " in the middle of a desert landscape and it is impossible to say whether they are arriving or departing , beginning or ending their performance . " Rilke depicted the six artists about to begin their performance , and that they were used as a symbol of " human activity ... always travelling and with no fixed abode , they are even a shade more fleeting than the rest of us , whose fleetingness was lamented . " Further , Rilke in the poem described these figures as standing on a " threadbare carpet " to suggest " the ultimate loneliness and isolation of Man in this incomprehensible world , practicing their profession from childhood to death as playthings of an unknown will ... before their ' pure too @-@ little ' had passed into ' empty too @-@ much . ' " Because of the profound impact that the war had on him , Rilke expressed a hope in an 1919 letter that the task of the intellectual in a post @-@ war world would be to render the world right . It would be " to prepare in men 's hearts the way for those gentle , mysterious , trembling transformations from which alone the understandings and harmonies of a serener future will proceed . " Rilke envisioned his Duino Elegies and the Sonnets to Orpheus as part of his contribution . = = Influence = = Rilke 's reputation in the English @-@ speaking world rests largely on the popularity of Duino Elegies . The collection has been translated into English over twenty times since it was first published in 1931 by London 's Hogarth Press in England as Duineser Elegien : Elegies from the Castle of Duino in a translation by Edward and Vita Sackville @-@ West . It was first translated for the American market in 1939 in a translation by J. B. Leishman and Stephen Spender published by New York 's W. W. Norton & Company . Other translations have included those by poet David Young ( 1978 ) , Grateful Dead lyricist Robert Hunter ( 1989 ) , poet Galway Kinnell with Hannah Liebmann ( 1999 ) , Stephen Cohn ( 1989 ) , poet Alfred Poulin ( 1975 ) , and poet Gary Miranda ( 1981 ) . In the United States , Rilke is one of the more popular , best @-@ selling poets — along with thirteenth @-@ century Sufi mystic Rumi ( 1207 – 1273 ) , and 20th century Lebanese @-@ American poet Kahlil Gibran ( 1883 – 1931 ) . In popular culture , Rilke is frequently quoted or referenced in television programs , motion pictures , music and other works when these works discuss the subject of love or angels . Because of his work being described as " mystical , " Rilke 's works have also been appropriated for use by the New Age community and in self @-@ help books . Rilke has been reinterpreted " as a master who can lead us to a more fulfilled and less anxious life . " Rilke 's work , and specifically , the Duino Elegies have been claimed as a deep influence by several poets and writers , including Galway Kinnell , Sidney Keyes , Stephen Spender , Robert Bly , W. S. Merwin , John Ashbery , novelist Thomas Pynchon and philosophers Ludwig Wittgenstein and Hans @-@ Georg Gadamer . Critics and scholars have discussed Pynchon ’ s use of Rilke ’ s lyricism and concepts of transformation in his novel Gravity 's Rainbow . The first lines of Gravity 's Rainbow mirror the first lines of first elegy , portraying the screaming descent of a V @-@ 2 rocket in 1944 London , and the novel has been described as a " serio @-@ comic variation on Rilke 's Duino Elegies and their German Romantic echoes in Nazi culture . " The British poet W. H. Auden ( 1907 – 1973 ) has been described as " Rilke 's most influential English disciple " and he frequently " paid homage to him " or used the imagery of angels in his work . In the 1936 poem cycle Sonnets from China , Auden directly alluded to Rilke 's writing of the Duino Elegies . The reference here to stroking " that little tower " is derived from a series of letters written while Rilke was completing the Elegies including a letter he wrote to Klossowska , and one to his former lover , Lou Andreas @-@ Salomé . In the letter to Andreas @-@ Salomé , he writes " I went out and stroked the little Muzot , which protected it and me and finally granted it , like a large old animal . " In later years , Rilke ’ s Duino Elegies and the Sonnets to Orpheus influenced Hans @-@ Georg Gadamer ’ s theories of hermeneutics — understanding how an observer ( i.e. reader , listener , or viewer ) interprets cultural artifacts ( i.e. works of literature , music , or art ) as a series of distinct encounters . Gadamer , using examples of Rilke 's poetry in his writings , interprets these works as an experience of a divine " totality " that we must approach with a childlike innocence and ignorance — that only through interpreting and reinterpreting can we cope with or solve the existential problems of humanity ’ s significance and impermanence . Gadamer points out that man is in a condition influenced by an anonymous , alienated , and mechanical world that has evolved to stand as an obstacle to his ability to make sense of such experiences .
= Birnbeck Pier = Birnbeck Pier is a pier situated on the Bristol Channel in Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , North Somerset , England , approximately 18 miles ( 29 km ) south west of Bristol . It is the only pier in the country which links the mainland to an island , linking to Birnbeck Island , a 1 @.@ 2 hectares ( 3 @.@ 0 acres ) rocky island just to the west of Worlebury Hill . The grade II * listed pier was designed by Eugenius Birch and opened in 1867 . The gothic toll house and pierhead buildings were designed by local architect Hans Price . The pier has been closed to the public since 1994 and is now on the Buildings at Risk Register . During the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries the pier was popular both with locals and tourists to the town . As a boarding point for steamers plying their trade in the Bristol Channel , it underwent various extensions and modifications over the years . During World War II the pier was commissioned as HMS Birnbeck by the Admiralty as part of the Directorate of Miscellaneous Weapons Development ( DMWD ) for research into new weapons . The pier reopened after the war , but the number of visitors and steamer passengers declined . The final excursion visited the pier in 1979 . Today , the pier is still home to the Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare Lifeboat Station . Since its closure , ownership has passed hands many times and it has been subject to a series of proposals for its redevelopment which have all proved fruitless . The pier remains in a largely derelict state . Part of the pier collapsed during storms on 30 December 2015 . = = History = = The island was originally called Bearn Back , derived from the Old English words burn and bæc which means The spring brook island . It was pronounced by locals as Be @-@ arn Back which has since become corrupted into the current name Birnbeck . The rock is limestone , giving rise to the geological term " Birnbeck Limestone Formation " . Prior to the construction of the pier , Birnbeck Island could be accessed by a natural causeway at low tide . A proposal was made in 1845 to connect Birnbeck Island to the mainland at the western end of Worlebury Hill . Work commenced on a suspension bridge two years later under a design by James Dredge , architect of the Victoria Bridge in Bath . He patented the ' taper principle ' based on using chains rather than cables , as is more common in suspension bridges . Dredge 's bridge design was considered " a very significant yet relatively short @-@ lived phase in suspension bridge development " . During a strike by stonemasons , what little had been built was damaged during storm , bringing about the end to the suspension bridge scheme . = = = Construction = = = In 1864 , a new proposal was made to build a pier across to the island , funded by 2 @,@ 000 shares which raised £ 20 @,@ 000 . Cecil Hugh Smyth Pigott , the four @-@ year @-@ old son of the lord of the manor , laid the foundation stone on 28 October 1864 when a public holiday was declared in the town and a celebratory dinner was held in the Town Hall . The main pier was originally 1 @,@ 150 feet ( 351 m ) long , and it is 20 feet ( 6 m ) wide with a cantilever construction . However the low water jetty was damaged in a storm in 1903 , rebuilt in 1909 and finally dismantled in 1923 meaning that the pier is now 1 @,@ 040 feet ( 317 m ) long , Due to architectural features such as abutments at either end of the pier , the pier resembles a bridge more than other pleasure piers . Fifteen groups of piles support a continuous lattice girder , each set comprising four piles screwed into the river bed at an angle with an X @-@ brace between each adjacent pair . The fitting of screw blades to iron piles , as opposed to the then accepted wooden pile , created a deeper and far more resilient base support . This was one of the innovations brought by Eugenius Birch which have enabled many of the piers he designed to survive . There were problems with oscillations in the structure when bands marched on the pier , both on the opening day and again in 1886 . As a result , further horizontal cross braces were added to the piles , and a law was passed banning marching on the pier . The gothic toll house and pierhead buildings were designed by local architect Hans Price . To allow steamers to bring day trippers to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare from ports on both the English and Welsh side of the Bristol Channel , a landing jetty was extended on the west side of the island . The Severn Estuary has one of the highest tidal ranges in the world , up to 48 ft ( 15 m ) , second only to the Bay of Fundy in Eastern Canada . The estuary 's funnel shape , its tidal range , and the underlying geology of rock , gravel and sand , produce strong tidal streams and high turbidity , giving the water a notably brown colouration . The tidal range means that the legs of the pier are largely exposed at low tide and hidden at high tide . = = = Operation = = = When the pier opened on 5 June 1867 , again under Cecil Hugh Smyth Pigott , many of the people of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare were given a holiday and a banquet was held in the Town Hall . The toll to walk on the pier was 1d ( an old penny ) , but this was quickly raised to 2d , which was the maximum fee permitted by the General Pier and Harbour Act 1861 . 120 @,@ 000 people paid the toll in the first three months . A tramway system was installed to carry the luggage of passengers arriving at the pier . A new wooden northern jetty was added in 1872 which allowed the removal of the original western landing place . Another jetty was built on the south west corner in 1898 which reached deep water even at low tide , thus allowing steamers to use the pier at all states of the tide . This was damaged in a gale in 1903 , and although it was rebuilt in 1909 , it closed in 1916 and was dismantled in 1923 . The northern jetty had also been damaged in the 1903 storm but was replaced by the present steel structure in 1905 . A second pier , known as the " Grand Pier " , was opened in the centre of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare in 1904 . Although it had the capacity to accommodate for steamers , it was seldom used due to difficult currents around the structure . An electric tram along the seafront ran to and from the pier approach road at Birnbeck . Many visitors arriving on the steamers never left the pier and Birnbeck Island which between them housed the cafe , pavilion , amusements and funfair . These were destroyed by fire on 26 December 1897 and replaced by the present buildings , although these have been altered over the years . The attractions included Mutoscopes , a shooting gallery , merry @-@ go @-@ round , park swings , a theatre of wonders and a licensed bar . In 1891 a telephone was installed only six months after the first one was installed in the town . In 1909 , the amusement area was expanded by an extension on iron supports along the south side of the island . However , this was not built to the proper specifications so was demolished in 1912 ; a larger concrete platform was added in its place in 1932 . The pier was taken over by the Admiralty in 1941 as an outpost of the Directorate of Miscellaneous Weapons Development ( DMWD ) . It was commissioned as HMS Birnbeck and was used for secret weapons development and storage with testing . The " Bouncing bomb " was tested at the Brean Down Fort on the opposite side of Weston Bay . After the war , the pier resumed its role as a tourist attraction , but business declined due to competition from the Grand Pier which opened its amusement arcades in 1946 . In 1962 the Birnbeck Pier Company sold the pier to P & A Campbell , the steamer operators . After the withdrawal of their ships it was sold to John Critchley , who redeveloped it as a " Victorian pleasure centre " which even had special permission to issue its own currency to visitors . There have since been several proposals to make the pier a commercial success again , including converting it into a hotel , casino , residential use , or the centre of a marina . The most successful steamer company serving the Bristol Channel was P & A Campbell 's " White Funnel " fleet . Their operations were suspended during the Second World War , after which the number of passengers decreased with the availability of cheap foreign holidays and the opening of the Severn Bridge in the 1960s . Regular ferries ceased serving Birnbeck in 1971 and the final excursion was made 19 October 1979 . The pleasure " steamers " PS Waverley and MV Balmoral still operate in the Bristol Channel , but any calls at Weston are made by a connecting tender from Knightstone Harbour . = = = Dereliction = = = In 1984 , £ 1 million of damage was caused to the pier by drifting equipment during engineering work in Sand Bay , to the north of the pier . The damage was quickly repaired , despite fears that Birnbeck might become like nearby Clevedon Pier , which at the time was severed by a collapsed span . The pier was again badly damaged by storms in 1990 and was closed for safety reasons in 1994 . Daily trips during the summer months to and from Cardiff , Clevedon , and Penarth were suspended indefinitely . Due to the decline , English Heritage has placed it on the Heritage at Risk register . In 1999 , the lifeboat station installed a walkway across the pier to allow them safe access to the island , at a cost of £ 20 @,@ 000 . In 2006 the pier was sold to Manchester company Urban Splash . The new owners launched a competition in August 2007 , inviting people to submit ideas for the regeneration of the pier and island . At the time , the repair work required was estimated at £ 4 million . There were 95 entries for the competition from around the world , whittled down to a shortlist of six . The winner of the design competition , Levitate Architecture and Design Studio Ltd , was announced in March 2008 . The winning design included a dozen luxury apartments and a 50 @-@ room hotel . In August 2008 , the Royal Institute of British Architects ( Riba ) announced a campaign to redesign the buildings on the island , and six designs were submitted . One of the designs removed the existing buildings and piers to replace them with walking paths , and added a large curvilinear concrete building to the island . The design called for many windows in the building to create a large panorama of the surrounding seascape . In September 2010 Urban Splash placed the pier up for sale , citing a downfall in business caused by the recession as their reason . In September 2011 Wahid Samady and Michael Ross were reported to have bought Birnbeck Pier for an undisclosed sum ; Samady had also been awarded planning permission for a new development at the nearby Royal Pier Hotel site , just yards from the pier . In August 2012 further reports suggests the sale had not proceeded and that Urban Splash were still the owners . It was bought by CNM Estates of which Wahid Samady is Chairman and Michael Ross a Director in 2014 . In 2015 The Victorian Society included the pier on its list of the ten most endangered buildings . Part of the north pier collapsed during storms on 30 December 2015 . = = Weston Lifeboat Station = = Due to the extreme tidal range in the Bristol Channel , finding a suitable launching site for lifeboats proved an arduous task for the Royal National Lifeboat Institution ( RNLI ) . Davits were installed on the pier in 1882 , enabling a lifeboat to be lowered into the water below , even at low tide . A new , larger lifeboat was stationed here in 1889 and a boathouse was built for it on the north east side of the island with a 100 feet ( 30 m ) slipway beside the pier . This facility was replaced in 1902 when a new boathouse was built on the south east side of the island . This had a 368 feet ( 112 m ) slipway which enabled the lifeboat to be launched at most states of the tide and was the longest in England . The slipway was closed in 2007 due to its poor condition , since when the lifeboats have been launched from the north east side of the island . The crews continued to use the 1889 boathouse but the two inshore lifeboats were kept on their launch trolleys in the open air on Birnbeck Island . In April 2011 a new " temporary " boathouse was erected to give them cover . The structure cost £ 70 @,@ 000 but has been designed so that it can be dismantled once permanent facilities are built and transported to be reused elsewhere . In 2015 the RNLI announced that it would seek planning permission for a permanent lifeboat station at Knightstone Harbour along with deep @-@ water anchorage at Anchor Head and the facilities on Birnbeck Pier were closed . Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare is the busiest RNLI station on the south side of the Bristol Channel ; in 2011 its two lifeboats were called out 42 times . Historically , the largest number of people rescued at one time was on 22 September 1884 when 40 passengers were taken off the SS Welsh Prince which got into difficulties after leaving the pier .
= Governor of Maryland = The Governor of Maryland heads the executive branch of the government of Maryland , and is the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the state 's National Guard units . The Governor is the highest @-@ ranking official in the state and has a broad range of appointive powers in both the State and local governments , as specified by the Maryland Constitution . Because of the extent of these constitutional powers , the Governor of Maryland has been ranked as being among the most powerful Governors in the United States . The current Governor is Larry Hogan , a Republican who defeated Lt. Governor Anthony Brown on November 4 , 2014 . = = Selection and qualifications = = Like most state chief executives in the United States , the Governor is elected by the citizens of Maryland to serve a four @-@ year term . Under the Constitution of Maryland , the Governor can run any number of times , but not more than twice in a row . This makes it possible for a two @-@ term governor to run for the office again after remaining out of office for at least one term . An eligible candidate for Governor must be at least 30 years old , and also a resident of and a registered voter in Maryland for the five years preceding the election . If a candidate meets this minimum requirement , he or she must file his or her candidacy with the Maryland State Board of Elections , pay a filing fee , file a financial disclosure , and create a legal campaign financial body . The Governor , like all statewide officials in Maryland , is elected in the even @-@ numbered years in which the election for President of the United States does not occur . = = Functions and responsibilities = = As the Chief Executive of the State of Maryland , the Governor heads the executive branch of government , which includes all state executive departments and agencies , as well as advisory boards , commissions , committees , and task forces . The main constitutional responsibility of the Governor of Maryland , and any other State 's chief executive , is to carry out the business of the state and to enforce the laws passed by the Legislature . The Governor also has some say in these laws , since the Governor has the ability to veto any bill sent to his or her desk by the Maryland General Assembly , though the Assembly may override that veto . The Governor is also given a number of more specific powers as relates to appropriations of state funds , the appointment of state officials , and also a variety of less prominent and less commonly utilized powers . = = = Appropriations = = = Every year , the Governor must present a proposed budget to the Maryland General Assembly . After receiving the proposed budget , the Assembly is then allowed to decrease any portion of the budget for the executive branch , but it may never increase it or transfer funds between executive departments . The Assembly may , however , increase funds for the Legislative and Judicial branches of government . The Governor has the power to veto any law that is passed by the Assembly , including a line item veto , which can be used to strike certain portions of appropriations bills . The Legislature then has the power to override a Governor 's veto by vote of three @-@ fifths ( 60 % ) of the number of members in each house . The Governor also sits on the Board of Public Works , whose other two members are the Comptroller and the Treasurer . This Board has broad powers in overseeing and approving the spending of state funds . They must approve state expenditures of all general funds and capital improvement funds , excluding expenditures for the construction of state roads , bridges , and highways . It has the power to solicit loans on its own accord either to meet a deficit or in anticipation of other revenues , in addition to approving expenditures of funds from loans authorized by the General Assembly . = = = Appointment powers = = = The Governor appoints almost all military and civil officers of the State government , subject to advice and consent of the Maryland State Senate . The Governor also appoints certain boards and commissions in each of the 24 Counties and in Baltimore City , such as local Boards of Elections , commissions notaries public , and appoints officers to fill vacancies in the elected offices of Attorney General and Comptroller . Should a vacancy arise in the General Assembly , the Governor also fills that vacancy , though the Governor must choose from among the recommendations of the local party organization to which the person leaving the vacancy belonged . Any officer appointed by the Governor , except a member of the General Assembly , is removable by him or her , if there is a legitimate cause for removal . Among the most prominent of the Governor 's appointees are the 24 secretaries and heads of departments that make up the Governor 's Cabinet , also known as the Executive Council . = = = Executive Council = = = The Governor of Maryland is the Chairman of the Governor 's Executive Council ( or Cabinet ) which coordinates all state government functions . This is composed of the following members , all of whom , except the Lieutenant Governor , are appointed by the Governor with the advice and consent of the Maryland State Senate as heads of executive departments : Lieutenant Governor- Boyd Rutherford Secretary of State- John C. Wobensmith Secretary of Aging- Rona E. Kramer Secretary of Agriculture- Joe Bartenfelder Secretary of Budget and Management- David Brinkley Secretary of Business and Economic Development- R. Michael Gill Secretary of Disabilities @-@ Carol Beatty State Superintendent of Schools ( appointed by the State Board of Education to direct the Maryland State Department of Education ) - Lillian M. Lowery Secretary of Environment- Ben Grumbles Secretary of General Services- C. Gail Bassette Secretary of Health and Mental Hygiene- Van Mitchell Secretary of Housing and Community Development- Kenneth C. Holt Secretary of Human Resources- Sam Maholtra Secretary of Information Technology- David Garcia Secretary of Juvenile Services- Sam J. Abed Secretary of Labor , Licensing , and Regulation- Kelly Schulz Secretary of Natural Resources- Mark Belton Secretary of Planning- David R. Craig Secretary of Public Safety and Correctional Services- Stephen T. Moyer Secretary of State Police ( commanding officer of the Maryland State Police ) - Col. William Pallozzi Secretary of Transportation- Peter Rahn Secretary of Veterans Affairs- George W. Owings III Secretary of Higher Education ( head of the Maryland Higher Education Commission ) - Jennie C. Hunter @-@ Cevera Adjutant General ( head of the Maryland Military Department ) - Gen. Linda Singh Other members of the Governor 's Staff may be invited to Cabinet meetings as " attendees " . The Governor also oversees several sub @-@ cabinets that coordinate the activities of a certain function of state government that involves several state departments or agencies . Currently , these are the Base Realignment and Closure Subcabinet , BayStat Subcabinet , Chesapeake Bay cabinet , Children 's Cabinet , Governor 's Subcabinet for International Affairs , Smart Growth Subcabinet , and Workforce Creation Subcabinet . = = = Other powers and responsibilities = = = The Governor is the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the military forces of the State : the Maryland Army National Guard and Air National Guard and the Maryland Defense Force , except when these forces have been called into Federal service , which the Federal government has the authority to do . In times of public emergency , the Governor may exercise emergency powers , including the mobilization of these military forces . In the area of criminal justice , the Governor may grant pardons to criminals , commute the sentences of prisoners , or remit fines and forfeitures imposed on people who have been convicted , jailed , or fined for violations of state laws . In both these areas , and a variety of others , the Governor sits on state and interstate boards and commissions with varying powers . The Governor is also obligated to report on the condition of the state at any time during the year , though this traditionally happens in a State of the State Address each January . = = = The Governor 's Staff = = = In addition to the various departments and agencies under gubernatorial control , the Governor has an executive staff that assist in coordinating the executive duties . This staff is led by a Chief of Staff , and includes five offices : Intergovernmental Relations , Legal Counsel , Legislative and Policy , Press , and the Governor 's Office in Washington , DC . The Chief of Staff has a number of deputies to assist in running these departments . The Governor 's staff is appointed and therefore largely exempt from state civil service laws . = = History and evolution of the office = = = = = 1600s – 1800s = = = During the Colonial period , Maryland 's Proprietors , the Lords of Baltimore , who generally remained in England , chose who would serve as the Governor of Maryland on their behalf . Between 1692 , when the Baltimores lost control , and 1715 , Maryland was a direct Royal Colony , and the Governor was appointed by the British Monarch . The Lords of Baltimore regained their Royal Charter in 1715 , and then they resumed choosing the Governors until the beginning of the American Revolution . The first Governor chosen to break this chain of Colonial Governors was Thomas Johnson ( 1732 – 1819 ) , who took office on March 21 , 1777 . Under the Maryland Constitution of 1776 , the Governor was chosen for one @-@ year terms by both houses of the General Assembly . An 1838 constitutional amendment allowed voters to elect the Governor to three @-@ year terms from one of three rotating gubernatorial districts : eastern , southern , and western . At each election , only voters from a single gubernatorial election district selected the Governor . The Maryland Constitution of 1851 lengthened the Governor 's term of office from three to four years , which brought elections for Governor in line with elections for Federal offices that occur only in even years . Finally , the Constitution of 1864 eliminated the rotating gubernatorial election districts and , since the election of 1868 , the Governor has been elected by all the voters of the state . From 1777 to 1870 , the Governor resided in Jennings House in Annapolis . Since 1870 , the Governor has resided in the Government House , a Georgian mansion adjacent to the Maryland State House . In addition to being the residence for the Governor and his family , Government House has a number of public rooms that are used by the Governor on official occasions . = = = 1900s – present = = = Spiro T. Agnew , who was the Governor of Maryland from 1967 – 1969 , later served as the Vice @-@ President of the United States for a time under President Richard M. Nixon , and Agnew is , thus far , the highest @-@ ranking Marylander in the history of the United States . ( Marylander Roger B. Taney served as Chief Justice of the United States in the 19th century . ) Following his resignation due to charges of corruption , Agnew 's official gubernatorial portrait was removed Damnatio memoriae from the Maryland State House Governor 's Reception Room from 1979 until 1995 . Then @-@ Governor Parris Glendening stated that in re @-@ including Agnew 's portrait that it was not up to anyone to alter history , whether for good or bad , citing Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four . A potential factor leading to Agnew 's corruption was , at the time he took office , the governor 's salary was only $ 15 @,@ 000 per year , leading to the " need " to supplement his income through kickbacks . As of 2015 , Maryland has yet to have been served by a female Governor . However , women were the runners @-@ up in four gubernatorial elections ( in 1974 , 1994 , 1998 , and 2002 ) . In addition , one woman has served as the Lieutenant Governor , Kathleen Kennedy Townsend , under Gov. Parris Glendening from 1995 to 2003 . Another woman , Kristen Cox , who was the Secretary of Disabilities , unsuccessfully ran for Lieutenant Governor as the running mate of the incumbent Governor Robert Ehrlich , when the Lieutenant Governor at that time , Michael Steele , left office to run for the U.S. Senate . Cox was a unique person to run for that office , not only because she is a woman , but also because she is legally blind . = = Lieutenant Governor = = In 1971 , the office of Lieutenant Governor of Maryland , which had existed for only a few years in the 1860s , was re @-@ instituted by an amendment to the Maryland Constitution . The Lieutenant Governor is a weak office compared to other counterparts ( in other states including Texas , the Lieutenant Governor is the President of the State 's Senate , while in California the Lieutenant Governor assumes all of the Governor 's powers when the sitting Governor is out of the state ) , as it only possesses the powers and duties that the Governor assigns to him or her . The Lieutenant Governor is elected on the same ballot with the Governor , and to the same term @-@ of @-@ office as the Governor . The Lieutenant Governor succeeds to the Governorship only if there is a vacancy in that office . Despite the Governor and Lieutenant Governor being elected on the same party ticket , very often there have been public rifts between the two ; for instance Gov. Marvin Mandel and Lt. Gov. Blair Lee IV ; Gov. Harry R. Hughes and Lt. Gov. Samuel W. Bogley III ; Gov. Schaefer and Lt. Gov. Melvin A. Steinberg . , and Gov. Parris Glendening and Lt. Gov. Kathleen Kennedy Townsend . No Lieutenant Governor of Maryland has yet been elected as the Governor in future elections , or permanently succeeded to the Governor 's office due to a vacancy ( which would be created by the resignation , death , or removal of the sitting Governor ) , although Blair Lee III served as acting Governor from June 4 , 1977 until January 15 , 1979 while Governor Marvin Mandel was serving a sentence for mail fraud and racketeering ( consequently , in a modern example of Damnatio memoriae , Mandel 's official gubernatorial portrait was not hung in the Maryland State House Governor 's Reception Room until 1993 ) .
= SMS Königsberg ( 1905 ) = SMS Königsberg ( " His Majesty 's Ship Königsberg " ) was the lead ship of her class of light cruisers built by the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . Named after Königsberg , the capital of East Prussia , she was laid down in January 1905 , launched in December of that year , and completed by June 1906 . Her class included three other ships : Stettin , Stuttgart , and Nürnberg . Königsberg was armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and had a top speed of 24 @.@ 1 knots ( 44 @.@ 6 km / h ; 27 @.@ 7 mph ) . After her commissioning , Königsberg served with the High Seas Fleet 's reconnaissance force . During this period , she frequently escorted Kaiser Wilhelm II 's yacht on visits to foreign countries . In April 1914 , the ship was sent on what was to have been a two @-@ year deployment to German East Africa , but this was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I in August of that year . Königsberg initially attempted to raid British and French commercial traffic in the region , but only destroyed one merchant ship in the course of her career . Coal shortages hampered her ability to attack shipping . On 20 September 1914 , she surprised and sank the British protected cruiser HMS Pegasus in the Battle of Zanzibar . Königsberg then retreated into the Rufiji River to repair her engines . Before the repairs could be completed , British cruisers located Königsberg , and , unable to steam into the river to destroy her , set up a blockade . After several attempts to sink the ship during the Battle of Rufiji Delta , the British sent two monitors , Mersey and Severn , to destroy the German cruiser . On 11 July 1915 , the two monitors got close enough to severely damage Königsberg , forcing her crew to scuttle the ship . The surviving crew salvaged all ten of her main guns and joined Lieutenant Colonel Paul von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck 's guerrilla campaign in East Africa . Königsberg was partially broken up in 1963 – 65 for scrap , and the remains sank into the riverbed . = = Design = = Königsberg and her sisters were designed to serve both as fleet scouts in home waters and in Germany 's colonial empire . This was a result of budgetary constraints that prevented the Kaiserliche Marine from building more specialized cruisers suitable for both roles . Königsberg was 115 @.@ 3 meters ( 378 ft 3 in ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 2 m ( 43 ft 4 in ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 29 m ( 17 ft 4 in ) forward . She displaced 3 @,@ 814 t ( 3 @,@ 754 long tons ; 4 @,@ 204 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two 3 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines powered by eleven coal @-@ fired water @-@ tube boilers rated at 13 @,@ 020 indicated horsepower ( 9 @,@ 709 kW ) . These provided a top speed of 24 @.@ 1 knots ( 44 @.@ 6 km / h ; 27 @.@ 7 mph ) and a range of approximately 5 @,@ 750 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 650 km ; 6 @,@ 620 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Königsberg had a crew of 14 officers and 308 enlisted men . The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . There were two side by side forward on the forecastle , six amidships , three on either side , and two side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . Königsberg also carried ten 5 @.@ 2 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) SK guns in single mounts . She was also equipped with a pair of 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower sides were 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick . = = Service history = = Königsberg was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Meteor " and was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel on 12 January 1905 . She was launched on 12 December 1905 , when the Oberbürgermeister of Königsberg , Siegfried Körte , christened the ship , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet for sea trials on 6 April 1907 . Her trials were interrupted at the beginning of June when she was tasked with escorting Kaiser Wilhelm II 's yacht Hohenzollern during three sailing regattas including Kiel Week . The two ships then cruised the North Sea and stopped at Nordkapp , where from 3 to 6 August , Wilhelm II met Czar Nicholas II of Russia . After returning to Germany , Königsberg resumed her sea trials , which lasted from 9 August to 9 September . She visited her namesake city from 21 to 23 September and was later assigned to the fleet scouting forces to replace the cruiser Medusa on 5 November . At this time , Königsberg was again used to escort Wilhelm II 's yacht , this time in company with the new armored cruiser Scharnhorst and the dispatch boat Sleipner on a visit to Britain . The ships stopped in Portsmouth and the Thames , and were visited by Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands . On 17 December , Königsberg was tasked with another goodwill visit , this time escorting the Kaiser 's brother , Prince Heinrich , and a delegation of naval officers to Malmö , Sweden to meet King Oscar II . The visit lasted until 20 December . Königsberg participated in the normal peacetime routine of individual and squadron training for 1908 without incident . The year ended with a major training cruise , first in the Baltic and North Sea and later into the Atlantic , that ended in early December . The ship then went into drydock over the winter of 1908 – 09 for periodic maintenance , emerging for service again in early February 1909 . A typical training routine followed for the next two years , interrupted only by a collision with the new cruiser Dresden on 16 February 1910 in the Kiel Bay , and two trips escorting the Kaiser in 1910 ; the first to Helgoland on 9 – 13 March and the second to Britain from 8 to 27 May . The collision with Dresden caused significant damage to both ships , though no one on either vessel was injured . Both ships were repaired in Kiel . Dresden also won the Kaiser 's Schießpreis ( Shooting Prize ) for excellent gunnery in the reconnaissance force during this period . From December 1909 to September 1910 , Fregattenkapitän ( Frigate Captain ) Adolf von Trotha served as the ship 's commander . From 8 March to 22 May 1911 , Königsberg cruised in the Mediterranean Sea with Wilhelm II aboard Hohenzollern . On 10 June , Königsberg was replaced in the reconnaissance force by the new cruiser Kolberg ; Königsberg was transferred to Danzig , where she was placed out of service on 14 June for modernization work . On 22 January 1913 , the ship was recommissioned for service with the fleet , to replace the cruiser Mainz which was also being modernized . This service lasted until 19 June , when Königsberg was again placed in reserve in Kiel . During this period of active service , she was assigned to the training squadron from 1 to 18 April . In early 1914 , the high command decided to send Königsberg to German East Africa , where she would replace the current station ship , the old unprotected cruiser Geier . On 1 April 1914 , Fregattenkapitän Max Looff took command of the ship . Königsberg left Kiel on 25 April , stopped in Wilhelmshaven , and then left three days later for a two @-@ year deployment to German East Africa . She steamed into the Mediterranean Sea and stopped in Spanish and Italian ports before entering the Suez Canal . After passing through the canal , she stopped briefly in Aden before arriving in Dar es Salaam , the capital of German East Africa , on 5 June . Two days later , the Schutztruppe ( Protection Force ) celebrated their 25th anniversary in the colony ; the deputy commander of the Schutztruppe presented Looff with a model of the cruiser Schwalbe , which had been the longest serving warship with the unit . Königsberg surveyed the harbor at Bagamoyo later in the year . The African colonial subjects considered the ship to be quite impressive , particularly her three funnels , which were assumed to signify a warship more powerful than one with only two funnels . The ship acquired the nickname Manowari na bomba tatu , or " the man of war with three pipes " . As tensions in Europe rose in the aftermath of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , Looff decided to abandon the normal peacetime training schedule and returned to Dar es Salaam on 24 July to replenish his coal and other stores . He also made efforts to organize a coast watcher network to report enemy ships and to protect German shipping in the area . On 27 July , Looff received a message from the Admiralstab ( Admiralty Staff ) informing him of the worsening political situation in Europe . Concurrently , the cruisers of the British Cape Squadron , HMS Astraea , Hyacinth , and Pegasus , arrived with the intention of bottling up Königsberg at the colony 's capital Dar es Salaam . Looff got his ship ready to sail and left port on the afternoon of 31 July 1914 , with the three slower British ships shadowing him . Looff used a rain squall and his ship 's superior speed to break contact with his British pursuers the following day . Königsberg steamed off Aden until 5 August , when word of the outbreak of hostilities between Britain and Germany belatedly reached the ship . = = = World War I = = = At the outbreak of World War I , Königsberg was ordered to attack British commerce around the entrance to the Red Sea . A lack of coal hampered Looff 's efforts ; the British prevented his collier Koenig from leaving Dar es Salaam and purchased all the coal in Portuguese East Africa to deny it to Königsberg . Looff then radioed the German steamer Zieten to warn her against using the Suez Canal , where she would have been confiscated . Königsberg chased after the German freighter Goldenfels , whose officers mistook the ship for a British cruiser and refused to stop . Königsberg was forced to fire a warning shot across the bow of Goldenfels to force the ship to stop so that Looff could warn her captain of the state of war . On 6 August , Königsberg found a British ship off the coast of Oman , the freighter City of Winchester . A prize crew took the ship along with Königsberg , and the two vessels met Zieten four days later in the Khuriya Muriya Islands , where coal from City of Winchester was transferred to Königsberg . The freighter was thereafter sunk . The British crew was taken aboard Zieten , which departed the following day and stopped in Mozambique . Meanwhile , the steamer Somali , under the command of Korvettenkapitän ( Corvette Captain ) Zimmer , had left Dar es Salaam with a cargo of 1 @,@ 200 t ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ; 1 @,@ 300 short tons ) of coal on the night of 3 – 4 August to resupply Königsberg ; the two ships met ten days later . By the time Looff rendezvoused with Somali , his ship was down to a mere 14 t ( 14 long tons ; 15 short tons ) of coal . Somali transferred some 850 t ( 840 long tons ; 940 short tons ) of coal to the cruiser , which permitted a sweep to Madagascar . No British or French ships were found , however , and so Königsberg met Somali again on 23 August and took on coal for four days of cruising . In the meantime , British warships bombarded Dar es Salaam and destroyed the German wireless station there . By this time , Königsberg 's engines required a thorough overhaul , and Looff needed to find a secluded area where the work could be completed . He settled on the Rufiji Delta , which had recently been surveyed by the survey ship Möwe . On 3 September 1914 at high tide , Königsberg passed over the bar at the mouth of the Rufiji and slowly made her way up the river . Coast watchers were stationed at the mouth of the river and telegraph lines were run to ensure the Germans would not be surprised by British ships searching for them . Zimmer , who was sending small coastal steamers to resupply Königsberg , observed a British cruiser — Pegasus — patrolling the coast for two weeks . He deduced that the ship would likely have to coal at Zanzibar on Sundays , and so Looff decided to attack the ship in port before he began his overhaul . He considered the action justified , since Britain had rejected a German proposal to keep central Africa neutral according to the Congo Act of 1885 . On 19 September , Königsberg left the Rufiji and arrived off Zanzibar the following morning . She opened fire at a range of about 7 @,@ 000 meters ( 23 @,@ 000 ft ) at 05 : 10 , starting the Battle of Zanzibar ; within 45 minutes , Pegasus caught fire , rolled over to port , and sank . Crewmen aboard Pegasus had raised a white flag , but it could not be seen aboard Königsberg due to the heavy smoke . Pegasus 's crew suffered 38 dead and 55 wounded , while Königsberg was undamaged and had no casualties . After sinking Pegasus , Königsberg bombarded the wireless station and dumped barrels filled with sand into the harbor entrance to simulate mines . While leaving the harbor , Königsberg spotted the picket ship Helmut and sank her with three shells . The cruiser then returned to the Rufiji River so work could begin on overhauling her engines ; the parts would need to be transported overland to the shipyard in Dar es Salaam where they could be rebuilt . While moored in the town of Salale , the ship was heavily camouflaged and defensive arrangements were erected . These included positioning soldiers and field guns to defend the approaches to the cruiser and establishing a network of coast watchers and telegraph lines to watch for hostile ships . An improvised minefield was also laid in the delta to keep the British ships from entering the river . Concerned with the threat Königsberg posed to troop transports from India , the British reinforced the flotilla tasked with tracking down the elusive German raider , and placed the ships under the command of Captain Sidney R. Drury @-@ Lowe . The sinking of Pegasus convinced the British that Königsberg must still be in German East Africa . On 19 October , the cruiser Chatham found the German East Africa Line ship Präsident at Lindi . A boarding party searched the ship and discovered documents indicating she had supplied Königsberg with coal in the Rufiji the previous month . On 30 October , the cruiser Dartmouth located Königsberg and Somali in the delta . The cruisers Chatham , Dartmouth , and Weymouth blockaded the Rufiji Delta to ensure Königsberg could not escape . = = = = Battle of Rufiji Delta = = = = On 3 November , the British began a bombardment in an attempt to destroy or neutralize Königsberg and Somali . Königsberg was protected by the thick mangrove swamps , which concealed the ship and offered a degree of cover from British shellfire , especially while the British ships remained outside the river . A collier , Newbridge , was converted into a blockship to be sunk in the main channel of the delta to prevent Königsberg 's escape . Despite heavy German fire from both sides of the river , the British successfully sank Newbridge across one of the delta mouths on 10 November , though the German raider could still put to sea via other channels . Looff decided to move his ship further upriver , to make it more difficult for the British to destroy her . In doing so , his ship would occupy a disproportionate number of British vessels that could otherwise have been employed elsewhere . In the course of the campaign , the British reinforced the squadron blockading the Rufiji with additional cruisers , including Pyramus and the Australian HMAS Pioneer . A civilian pilot , Denis Cutler of Durban , South Africa , was commissioned into the Royal Marines and persuaded to make his private Curtiss seaplane available for the British Empire . The Royal Navy requisitioned the passenger ship Kinfauns Castle to serve as a makeshift tender for Cutler 's aircraft . On his first attempt to locate the cruiser , Cutler , who did not have a compass , got lost and was forced to land on a desert island . On his second flight , he successfully located Königsberg , and a third flight with a Royal Navy observer confirmed his observations . His aircraft 's radiator was damaged on the flight and he was grounded until replacement parts could be brought from Mombasa . A pair of Royal Naval Air Service Sopwiths were brought up with the intention of scouting and even bombing the ship . They soon fell apart in the tropical conditions . A trio of Short seaplanes fared a little better , though they too were quickly disabled by the conditions . Also in November , the British sought to use the 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns of the old battleship Goliath to sink the cruiser . The attempt was unsuccessful , once again because the shallow waters prevented the battleship from getting within range . In December , Oberstleutnant ( Lieutenant Colonel ) Paul von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck requested as many crew members from the ship as possible for the East Africa Campaign against the British ; a total of 220 men were left aboard to keep the ship in fighting condition . This was not enough , however , to permit the ship to go to sea . Königsberg moved further up the river on 18 December . On 23 December , the British used a pair of shallow @-@ draft ships to sail up the delta . They hit Somali once before German defensive fire forced them to retreat . In the meantime , conditions were deteriorating on Königsberg . There were shortages of coal , ammunition , food , and medical supplies . Although safe from the British , the crew was ravaged by malaria and other tropical ailments . Generally cut off from the outside world , the morale of the sailors fell . However , the situation was marginally improved with a scheme to resupply the ship and give her a fighting chance to return home . A captured British merchant ship , Rubens , was renamed Kronborg . It was given a Danish flag , papers , and a crew of German sailors selected for their ability to speak Danish . It was then packed with coal , field guns , ammunition , small arms , and various supplies . As the freighter approached East Africa , Königsberg prepared to sortie to meet the ship and attempt to break out and return to Germany . Instead , Königsberg was trapped in the river by two cruisers and several smaller vessels . Hyacinth intercepted Kronborg as she approached , and chased her to Manza Bay . The trapped ship was forced aground and set on fire , but the Germans salvaged much of her cargo and put it to use later in the East Africa Campaign . Finally , in April 1915 , the British Admiralty agreed to a plan submitted by Drury @-@ Lowe the previous November , which envisioned attacking the German cruiser with shallow @-@ draft monitors , capable of navigating the Rufiji River . Two of the warships , Mersey and Severn , armed with a pair of 6 in ( 152 mm ) guns each , were brought from Britain . Königsberg had in the meantime been moved a third time , even further upriver . On 6 July 1915 , the two monitors crossed the outer sandbar and steamed up the river , despite heavy fire from German positions on the river banks . They stopped at a point they thought to be 10 @,@ 000 yd ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) from Königsberg , which would be in range of their own guns but farther than the smaller German guns could reply . Aircraft were used to spot the fall of shot . The monitors ' navigation was faulty , however , and after opening fire , they found themselves to be within range of Königsberg 's guns . She hit Mersey twice in the engagement ; one shell disabled the forward 6 @-@ inch gun , and another holed the ship below the waterline . Königsberg was hit four times in return , one shell striking beneath the waterline and causing some flooding . In the span of three hours , Königsberg forced both British ships to withdraw . They returned again on 11 July , after having repaired the damage sustained in the first attempt . The two monitors conducted a five @-@ hour bombardment . Königsberg opened fire at 12 : 12 , initially with four guns , but only three guns remained in action after 12 : 42 , two guns after 12 : 44 , and one gun after 12 : 53 . The two monitors did not respond until 12 : 31 , once they had been anchored into their firing positions , and scored several serious hits that caused a major fire at the ship 's stern and inflicted heavy casualties . By 13 : 40 , Königsberg had run low on ammunition and her gun crews had suffered very heavy casualties , and so Looff ordered the crew to abandon ship and to drop the breech blocks for the guns overboard to disable them . Two torpedo warheads were detonated in the ship 's bow to scuttle her ; the ship rolled over slightly to starboard and sank up to the upper deck with her flags still flying . Nineteen men had been killed in the battle , with another forty @-@ five wounded , including Looff . Later that day , the crew returned to haul down the ship 's flag and gave three cheers for the Kaiser . The guns and other usable equipment were salvaged from the wreck starting the following day . The guns were converted into field artillery pieces and coastal guns ; together with the ship 's crew , they went on to see service in the East African land campaign under Lettow @-@ Vorbeck . All ten guns were repaired in Dar es Salaam over the next two months ; one was mounted on the converted ferry Götzen of the inland Lake Tanganyika fleet . The surviving sailors , organized as the Königsberg @-@ Abteilung ( Königsberg @-@ Detachment ) , eventually surrendered on 26 November 1917 and were interned in British Egypt . In 1919 , after the war , the men took part in a parade through the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin to celebrate their service and that of their ship . In 1924 , John Ingle , the former captain of Pegasus , was tasked with clearing wrecks from the harbor in Dar es Salaam . At that time , he bought the salvage rights to Königsberg for the price of £ 200 ; he sent divers to extract non @-@ ferrous scrap metal from the wreck and in turn sold the rights . Salvage work continued into the 1930s , and by the 1940s the hull had rolled over to her starboard side . As late as 1965 , salvage work continued , but in 1966 the wreck collapsed and finally sank into the riverbed . Three of the ship 's 10 @.@ 5 cm guns are preserved , one in Pretoria , South Africa , one in Jinja , Uganda , and one in Mombasa , along with a gun from Pegasus .
= Cory Booker = Cory Anthony Booker ( born April 27 , 1969 ) is an American politician and the junior United States Senator from New Jersey , in office since 2013 . Previously he served as mayor of Newark from 2006 to 2013 . He attended Stanford University , where he played college football and received a Bachelor of Arts in political science and a Master of Arts in sociology , before earning a Rhodes Scholarship to attend the University of Oxford . Upon returning home , he received his Juris Doctor from Yale Law School . Booker began his political career as a Newark city councilor from 1998 to 2002 . He ran for mayor in 2002 , but lost to incumbent Sharpe James ; he ran again in 2006 and won against deputy mayor Ronald Rice . During his tenure as mayor , Booker 's priorities were reducing crime and encouraging economic development projects . He gained a national reputation for his personal involvement in public service , particularly through his use of social media tools such as Twitter to connect with constituents . Considered one of the most prominent Democrats in New Jersey , he became a candidate for the United States Senate in the 2013 special election to succeed Frank Lautenberg , who died in office . He won the Senate Democratic primary on August 13 , 2013 , and then won the general election against Steve Lonegan on October 16 , 2013 , becoming the first black U.S. Senator from New Jersey . Booker subsequently won the next regular election for the Senate seat against Jeff Bell in 2014 . = = Early life , education , and early career = = Booker was born on April 27 , 1969 , in Washington , D.C. , and grew up in Harrington Park , New Jersey , 20 miles ( 32 km ) north of Newark , New Jersey . His parents , Carolyn Rose ( née Jordan ) and Cary Alfred Booker , were among the first black executives at IBM . Booker has stated that he was raised in a religious household , and that he and his family attended a small African Methodist Episcopal Church in New Jersey . One of Booker 's maternal great @-@ grandfathers was white , and Booker also has other European and Native American ancestry . Booker graduated from Northern Valley Regional High School at Old Tappan and was named to the 1986 USA Today All @-@ USA high school football team . Booker went on to Stanford University , receiving a Bachelor of Arts in political science in 1991 and a Master of Arts in sociology the following year . While at Stanford , he played football as a tight end and was teammates with Brad Muster and Ed McCaffrey , and also made the All – Pacific @-@ 10 Academic team and was elected senior class president . In addition , Booker ran The Bridge Peer Counseling Center , a student @-@ run crisis hotline , and organized help from Stanford students for youth in East Palo Alto , California . After Stanford , Booker was awarded a Rhodes Scholarship to study at the University of Oxford , where he earned an honors degree in United States history in 1994 as a member of The Queen 's College . He earned his Juris Doctor in 1997 from Yale Law School , where he operated free legal clinics for low @-@ income residents of New Haven , Connecticut . At Yale , Booker was a founding member of the Chai Society ( now the Eliezer Society ) , was a Big Brother with Big Brothers Big Sisters of America , and was active in the National Black Law Students Association . = = Newark City Council = = Contemplating advocacy work and a run for city council in Newark after graduation from law school , Booker lived in the city during his final year at Yale . After graduation , he served as staff attorney for the Urban Justice Center in New York and program coordinator of the Newark Youth Project . In 1998 , Booker won an upset victory for a seat on the Newark City Council , defeating four @-@ term incumbent George Branch . To draw attention to the problems of open @-@ air drug dealing and associated violence , he went on a 10 @-@ day hunger strike and lived in a tent and later in a motor home near drug @-@ dealing areas of the city . Booker proposed council initiatives that impacted housing , young people , law and order , and the efficiency and transparency of city hall , but was regularly outvoted by all of his fellow councilors . = = Mayor of Newark = = = = = Mayoral campaigns = = = = = = = 2002 election = = = = On January 9 , 2002 , Booker announced his campaign for mayor of Newark rather than running for re @-@ election as councilman ; this pitted him against longtime incumbent Sharpe James . James , who had easily won election four consecutive times , saw Booker as a real threat , and responded with mudslinging , at one campaign event calling him " a Republican who took money from the KKK [ and ] Taliban ... [ who 's ] collaborating with the Jews to take over Newark " . In the campaign , James ' supporters questioned Booker 's suburban background , calling him a carpetbagger who was " not black enough " to understand the city . Booker lost the election on May 14 , garnering 47 % of the vote to James ' 53 % . = = = = 2006 election = = = = Booker announced on February 11 , 2006 , that he would again run for mayor . Although incumbent Mayor Sharpe James filed paperwork to run for reelection , shortly thereafter he announced that he would instead cancel his bid to focus on his work as a State Senator , which he was originally elected to in 1999 . At James 's discretion , Deputy Mayor Ronald Rice decided to run as well . Booker 's campaign outspent Rice 's 25 to 1 , for which Rice attacked him . In addition to raising over $ 6 million for the race , Booker attacked Rice as a " political crony " of James . Booker won the May 9 election with 72 % of the vote . His slate of city council candidates , known as the " Booker Team " , swept the council elections , giving Booker firm leadership of the city government . = = = = 2010 election = = = = On April 3 , 2010 , Booker announced his campaign for reelection . At his announcement event , he remarked that a " united government " was crucial to progress , knowing his supporters in the city council faced tough reelections . Heavily favored to win , Booker faced former judge and Essex County prosecutor Clifford J. Minor , as well as two minor candidates . On May 11 , Booker won reelection with 59 % of the vote , but with only seven of his nine council supporters winning reelection . = = = Tenure = = = Before taking office as mayor , Booker sued the James administration , seeking to terminate cut @-@ rate land deals favoring two redevelopment agencies that had contributed to James 's campaigns and listed James as a member of their advisory boards . Booker argued that the state 's " pay @-@ to @-@ play " laws had been violated and that the land deals would cost the city more than $ 15 million in lost revenue . Specifically , Booker referenced a parcel at Broad and South Streets that would generate only $ 87 @,@ 000 under the proposed land deals yet was valued at $ 3 @.@ 7 million under then @-@ current market rates . On June 20 , 2006 , Superior Court Judge Patricia Costello ruled in favor of Booker . In late June 2006 , before Booker took office , New Jersey investigators foiled a plot to assassinate Booker led by Bloods gang leaders inside four New Jersey state prisons . The motive for the plot was unclear , but was described variously as a response to the acrimonious campaign and to Booker 's campaign promises to take a harder line on crime . = = = = First term = = = = Booker assumed office as mayor of Newark on July 1 , 2006 . After his first week in office , he announced a 100 @-@ day plan to implement reforms in Newark . The proposed changes included increasing police forces , ending background checks for many city jobs to help former offenders find employment in the city , refurbishing police stations , improving city services , and expanding summer youth programs . One of Booker 's first priorities was to reduce the city 's crime rate . In furtherance of this , he appointed Garry McCarthy , former deputy commissioner of operations of the New York City Police Department , as director of the Newark Police Department . Crime reduction was such a central concern to the Booker administration that Booker , along with his security team , was known to personally patrol the streets of Newark until as late as 4 a.m. Booker is a member of the Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition , a bipartisan group with a stated goal of " making the public safer by getting illegal guns off the streets " . Booker was honored in October 2009 by the Brady Center to Prevent Gun Violence with the Sarah Brady Visionary Award for his work in reducing gun violence . During his mayoralty , crime dropped significantly in Newark , which led the nation in violent crime reduction from 2006 to 2008 . March 2010 marked Newark 's first murder @-@ free month in over 44 years , although murder and overall crime rates began to rise again after 2008 . In addition to his crime @-@ lowering initiatives , Booker doubled the amount of affordable housing under development and quadrupled the amount under pre @-@ development , and reduced the city budget deficit from $ 180 million to $ 73 million . After taking office , Booker voluntarily reduced his own salary twice , reducing his salary by 8 % early in his first year as mayor . He also raised the salaries of many city workers . However , his administration imposed one @-@ day @-@ a @-@ month furloughs for all non @-@ uniformed employees from July through December 2010 , as well as 2 % pay cuts for managers and directors earning more than $ 100 @,@ 000 a year . In 2008 and 2009 the City of Newark received the Government Finance Officers Association 's Distinguished Budget Presentation Award . In an effort to make government more accessible , Booker has held regular open office hours during which city residents can meet with him personally to discuss their concerns . In 2010 , Booker was among the finalists for the World Mayor prize , ultimately placing seventh . He was an unsuccessful candidate for the 2012 award . = = = = Second term = = = = On October 10 , 2010 , Booker established Let 's Move ! Newark as part of First Lady Michelle Obama 's national Let 's Move ! initiative against childhood obesity . In October 2011 he expanded the program to include Let ’ s Move ! Newark : Our Power , a four @-@ month fitness challenge for Newark public school students run by public health advocate Jeff Halevy . Booker gained national attention when , on December 28 , 2010 , a constituent used Twitter to ask him to send someone to her father 's house to shovel his driveway because her elderly father was going to attempt to do it himself . Booker responded by tweeting , " I will do it myself ; where does he live ? " Other people volunteered , including one person who offered his help on Twitter , and 20 minutes later Booker and some volunteers showed up and shoveled the man 's driveway . On April 12 , 2012 , Booker saved a woman from a house fire , suffering smoke inhalation and second @-@ degree burns on his hands in the process . Newark Fire Chief John Centanni said that Booker 's actions possibly saved the woman 's life . After Hurricane Sandy destroyed much of the shoreline areas of New Jersey and New York in late October 2012 , Booker invited Newarkers without power to eat and sleep in his home . In February 2013 , responding to a Twitter post , Booker helped a nervous constituent propose to his girlfriend . Booker rescued a dog from freezing temperatures in January 2013 and another dog that had been abandoned in a cage in July 2013 . On November 20 , 2012 , a melee occurred at a Newark City Council meeting attended by Booker . The nine @-@ seat council was to vote on the successor to the seat vacated by newly elected U.S. Representative Donald M. Payne , Jr . Booker 's opponents on the council , including Ras Baraka , sought to appoint John Sharpe James , son of the former mayor , while Booker and his supporters favored Shanique Speight . Booker attended the meeting to deal with the eventuality of the lack of a quorum or a tie vote , in which state law would allow him to cast a deciding vote . After Baraka was refused an opportunity to address the council by acting Council President Anibal Ramos , Jr . , Baraka and two other council members walked away in protest . Booker cast the deciding vote for Speight . Supporters of James stormed the stage and were held back by riot police , who eventually used pepper spray on some members of the crowd . Baraka later blamed Booker for inciting the disturbance , while Booker refused comment to the media after the vote . In December 2012 , after discussions with a constituent about New Jersey 's Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program ( SNAP ) , Booker began a week @-@ long challenge attempting to live on a food budget of $ 30 per week — the amount SNAP recipients receive . When critics noted that the very name of the SNAP program shows that it is intended to " supplement " an individual 's food budget , not be its sole source , Booker replied that his aim was to spark a discussion about the reality that many Americans rely solely on food stamps to survive . = = = = Newark Watershed = = = = The Newark Watershed comprises 35 @,@ 000 acres of reservoirs and water treatment systems for more than 500 @,@ 000 customers in northern New Jersey , including Newark and neighboring Belleville , Elizabeth , Bloomfield , and Nutley . It is considered one of the city 's greatest assets . A New Jersey State Comptroller report issued in February 2014 revealed irregularities and corruption within the Newark Watershed and Development Corporation , which is in the process of being dismantled after being taken over by the city while on Booker 's watch . = = = Public opinion polling = = = Throughout Booker 's mayoralty , Fairleigh Dickinson University 's public opinion poll PublicMind asked New Jersey residents statewide whether or not they had heard of Mayor Booker and whether they had a favorable or unfavorable opinion of him . The results are as follows : March , 2014 Name recognition : 88 % Favorable opinion : 47 % Unfavorable opinion : 23 % = = = Legacy = = = Booker 's mayoralty and personal celebrity drew much media attention to Newark . While he enjoyed high ratings from city residents , his legacy has received mixed reviews . Since his election there has been millions of dollars of investment in downtown development , but persistent underemployment and high murder rates continue to characterize many of the city 's neighborhoods . Despite legal challenges initiated during his term , Newark Public Schools has remained under control of the state for nearly twenty years . Newark received $ 32 million in emergency state aid in 2011 and 2012 , requiring a memorandum of understanding between Newark and the state that obligates the city to request and the state to approve appointments to city hall administrative positions . While mayor of Newark , Booker claimed in an interview that Newark ’ s unemployment rate had fallen by two percentage points . This statement was rated " false " by Politifact because the actual rate was 0 @.@ 7 percentage points . = = U.S. Senate = = = = = 2013 election = = = On December 20 , 2012 , Booker announced that he would explore running for the U.S. Senate seat that was then occupied by Frank Lautenberg in the 2014 election , ending speculation that he would challenge Governor Chris Christie in the 2013 gubernatorial election . On January 11 , 2013 , Booker filed papers to form a campaign committee , without announcing whether or not he would run . Roughly one month after declaring his interest in running for the Senate , incumbent Lautenberg announced that he would not seek reelection . On June 3 , Lautenberg died of viral pneumonia ; five days later Booker announced his intention to run for Lautenberg 's seat in the 2013 special election . Booker announced his candidacy at two events : one in Newark and the other in Willingboro . On August 13 , 2013 , Booker was declared the winner of the Democratic primary , with approximately 59 % of the vote . On October 16 , 2013 , he defeated Republican Steve Lonegan in the general election 55 % to 44 % , making him the first African @-@ American U.S. Senator from New Jersey and the first African @-@ American to be elected to the Senate since Barack Obama in 2004 . The night before his victory , Booker visited the gravesite of Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson , where he offered his prayers and lit a vigil in memory of his father . = = = Tenure = = = On October 31 , 2013 , Booker was sworn into the Senate . In November 2013 , Booker co @-@ sponsored and voted for the Employment Non @-@ Discrimination Act . In December 2013 , he was one of the original cosponsors of Bob Menéndez 's Nuclear Weapon Free Iran Act of 2013 , which would toughen sanctions against Iran . He also voted for the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2014 and the Bipartisan Budget Act of 2013 . In January 2014 , he cosponsored the Respect for Marriage Act . In February 2014 , Booker voted against the Federal Agriculture Reform and Risk Management Act of 2013 Booker has pledged to meet with each of his Republican colleagues in the Senate in order to find common ground . In March , he was spotted having dinner with Senator Ted Cruz in Washington . Booker has faced criticism on the left . Salon called him an avatar of the wealthy elite , a camera hog , and a political cipher . Leading up to the 2016 presidential election , Booker endorsed Hillary Clinton for the Democratic nomination . He was speculated as a potential vice presidential candidate during the primary and as the general election began , though Booker stated on June 16 , 2016 that he was not being vetted . = = = Committee assignments = = = Committee on Commerce , Science , and Transportation Subcommittee on Aviation Operations , Safety , and Security Subcommittee on Communications , Technology , and the Internet Subcommittee on Consumer Protection , Product Safety , and Insurance Subcommittee on Space , Science , and Competitiveness Subcommittee on Surface Transportation and Merchant Marine Infrastructure , Safety , and Security ( Ranking Member ) Committee on Environment and Public Works Subcommittee on Oversight Subcommittee on Superfund , Toxics and Environmental Health Subcommittee on Water and Wildlife Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship = = = 2014 election = = = After being defeated in the 2013 special election , Steve Lonegan announced that he would not run again for the seat in the 2014 race . Presumed candidates for the Republican primary were Thomas Kean Jr . , Jay Webber , Jon Bramnick , and Michael J. Doherty . On January 9 , 2014 , Brian D. Goldberg , a West Orange resident and New Jersey businessman , announced that he would seek the Republican nomination . On February 4 , 2014 , conservative political consultant Jeff Bell announced his bid for the nomination . Bell won the Republican Primary and received significant support from the conservative American Principles Fund , which ran a direct mail operation costing over $ 80 @,@ 000 , and the National Organization for Marriage , an anti @-@ same @-@ sex marriage group , which paid for $ 6 @,@ 000 of automated calling . Booker defeated Bell , capturing 55 @.@ 8 % of the vote to Bell 's 42 @.@ 4 % . Brendan W. Gill was Booker 's campaign manager . = = Political positions = = Booker has been described by many as a liberal , a moderate , and a neoliberal . In a July 2013 Salon interview , Booker said that " there 's nothing in that realm of progressive politics where you won 't find me . " However , in a September 2013 interview with The Grio , when asked if he considered himself a progressive , he avoided the term , saying he is a Democrat and an American . George Norcross III described Booker as " a new Democrat — a Democrat that 's fiscally conservative yet socially progressive . " In May 2012 , Booker defended Bain Capital 's record and criticized Obama 's attack on private equity . In response , the Republican National Committee created a petition called I Stand With Cory Booker . Booker has also received criticism from both progressives and liberals , such as Ronald Rice and Rush Holt . On social issues , Booker supports abortion rights , affirmative action , and same @-@ sex marriage . He supports ending the War on Drugs . On economic issues , he supports long @-@ term deficit reduction efforts to ensure economic prosperity , Cap and Trade taxation to combat climate change , and increased funding for education . Booker is a supporter of the DREAM Act and the Patriot Act , stating the abolition of the latter would be " a little irresponsible " , although he does support some reform of it . On foreign policy , Booker supports scaling down U.S. involvement in Afghanistan and is against intervention in Syria . He supports a two @-@ state solution to the Israeli @-@ Palestinian conflict . On Iran , Booker has stated the country poses a direct threat to American and Israeli security and feels all options should be on the table for dealing with the conflict . However , his decision to back the Iran nuclear deal framework damaged his long @-@ term relationship with Jewish voters and supporters . In an attempt to reduce the damage , Booker initiated an emergency summit for Jewish leaders , which some of his longstanding supporters did not attend . = = Other activities = = = = = Obama association = = = In 2009 , after Barack Obama became President of the United States , Booker was offered the leadership of the new White House Office of Urban Affairs . He turned the offer down , citing a commitment to Newark . Booker generated controversy on May 12 , 2012 , when he appeared on Meet The Press as a surrogate for the reelection campaign of Barack Obama and made remarks that were critical of that campaign . Booker said that the attacks on Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney 's record at Bain Capital were " nauseating to me on both sides . It 's nauseating to the American public . Enough is enough . Stop attacking private equity . Stop attacking Jeremiah Wright . " The comments were subsequently used by the Romney campaign against Obama . Booker made follow @-@ up comments clarifying that he believed Obama 's attacks on Romney 's record at Bain were legitimate but did not retract his point about attacking private equity in general . Two weeks later , Booker 's communications director Anne Torres tendered her resignation , although she maintained it was unrelated to Meet the Press . = = = Affiliations and honors = = = Booker sits on the board of advisers of the political action committee Democrats for Education Reform . He is currently a member of the board of trustees at Teachers College , Columbia University , and was formerly a member of the Executive Committee at Yale Law School and the Board of Trustees at Stanford University . In 2010 , Booker received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for Greatest Public Service by an Elected or Appointed Official , an award given out annually by the Jefferson Awards . In May 2009 , Booker received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from the Newark @-@ based New Jersey Institute of Technology for " his outstanding career in public service as the Mayor of Newark " . In May 2009 , he received an honorary doctorate from Brandeis University , and was a commencement speaker that year as well . Booker received another honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree in December 2010 from Yeshiva University for " his bold vision for Newark and setting a national standard for urban transformation " . In June 2011 , Booker received an honorary Doctor of Laws degree and served as that year 's commencement speaker at Williams College for the urban transformation of Newark . In May 2012 , Booker received an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Bard College and gave the commencement speech at the graduation . In 2010 , Booker delivered the commencement addresses at Pitzer College in Claremont , California , on May 15 , Columbia University 's Teachers College in New York City on May 17 , and Suffolk University Law School in Boston , Massachusetts , a week later on May 23 , 2010 . Booker gave the commencement address to New York Law School graduates on May 13 , 2011 , at Avery Fisher Hall at Lincoln Center . Booker also gave the commencement address at the University of Rhode Island in May 2011 ; he also received an Honorary doctorate in Human Letters . He delivered a commencement address to Stanford University graduates on June 17 , 2012 , at Stanford Stadium . He also received an honorary degree at Fairleigh Dickinson 's 69th Commencement Ceremony in May 2012 . In May 2013 , Booker gave the commencement address at Washington University in St. Louis and received an honorary doctorate of law . On May 16 , 2014 , Booker gave the commencement speech for Ramapo College of New Jersey graduates at the IZOD Center . = = = Films = = = Booker 's 2002 mayoral campaign , which he lost , was chronicled by filmmaker Marshall Curry in his documentary Street Fight . The film was nominated in 2005 for the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature . Since 2009 , Booker has starred in the documentary series Brick City . The series focuses on Booker and his efforts to improve Newark by reducing crime and bringing about economic renewal . Brick City won a Peabody Award in 2009 and was nominated for a Primetime Emmy in 2010 . Booker contributed to the 2011 documentary Miss Representation and commented on the representations of women in politics within mass media . Booker appeared in a scene in the Parks and Recreation episode " Ms. Ludgate @-@ Dwyer Goes to Washington " alongside Orrin Hatch . = = = Mark Zuckerberg donation = = = In July 2010 , Booker attended a dinner at a conference in Sun Valley , Idaho , where he was seated with Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg . Zuckerberg , who had no known ties to Newark , announced in September 2010 that he was donating $ 100 million of his personal fortune to the Newark school system . According to an article in the New York Times , Booker and Zuckerberg continued their conversation about Booker 's plans for Newark . The initial gift was made to start a foundation for education . The gift was formally announced when Booker , New Jersey Governor Chris Christie , and Zuckerberg appeared together on The Oprah Winfrey Show . The timing of Zuckerberg 's donation was questioned by some as a move for damage control to his image , as it was announced on the opening day of the movie The Social Network , a film that painted an unflattering portrait of Zuckerberg . On her show , however , Winfrey told the audience that Zuckerberg and Booker had been in talks for months and had actually planned the announcement for the previous month , and that she and Booker had to force Zuckerberg to put his name to the donation , which he had wanted to make anonymously . = = = Conan O 'Brien " feud " = = = In the fall of 2009 , Tonight Show host Conan O 'Brien engaged in a satirical on @-@ air and YouTube feud with Booker , with O 'Brien jokingly insulting the City of Newark and Booker responding that he would ban O 'Brien from the Newark airport . Then @-@ Secretary of State Hillary Clinton called for the feud to end during a prepared comedy bit , telling Booker to chalk it up to a head injury suffered by O 'Brien less than two weeks earlier . Booker then appeared on O 'Brien 's show and assured viewers that the feud was over and that he was actually a big fan of O 'Brien , who agreed that every time he made a joke about Newark , he would donate $ 500 to the City of Newark , and also made a $ 50 @,@ 000 donation to the Newark Now charity , which was matched by NBC Universal . = = = Waywire = = = In 2012 , Booker and tech executives Sarah Ross and Nathan Richardson formed Waywire , a company focused on video sharing technology . Early investors included Oprah Winfrey , Eric Schmidt , Jeff Weiner , and Troy Carter . After Booker 's relationship to Waywire was discussed in a front @-@ page New York Times story , board member Andrew Zucker stepped down from his position . Shortly thereafter , Waywire CEO Nathan Richardson departed the business as the company shifted its focus from content creation to content curation . In August 2013 , Booker told NBC News he intended to resign from the Waywire board and put his holdings in a trust if elected to the Senate ; by September , he had resigned his place on the board and donated his share of the company to charity . Waywire was sold to another video curation business the following month . = = Personal life = = Booker regularly exercises and has been a vegetarian since 1992 , when he was a student at Oxford . He abstains from alcohol and " has no known vices or addictions " other than books and coffee . In 2014 , Booker began practicing a vegan diet and has expressed his vegan ethical philosophy and advocacy for animals . Booker has never been married , and in 2013 he was named one of Town & Country ’ ’ s " Top 40 Bachelors " . Although he has generally tried to keep his personal life private , Booker has in the past described himself as a " straight male " and has said that he is trying to date more in hopes of finding someone to settle down with . In a 1990 column in the Stanford Daily , Booker admitted regretfully that as a teenager he had " hated gays " . Booker has himself been the target of rumors about being gay and has generally refused to address these on principle , which he explained in 2013 : " Because I want to challenge people on their homophobia . I love seeing on Twitter when someone says I ’ m gay , and I say , ' So what does it matter if I am ? So be it . I hope you are not voting for me because you are making the presumption that I 'm straight . ' " From 1998 to 2006 , Booker lived in Brick Towers , a troubled housing complex in Newark 's Central Ward . In November 2006 , as one of the last remaining tenants in Brick Towers , Booker left his apartment for the top unit in a three @-@ story rental on Hawthorne Avenue in Newark 's South Ward , an area described as " a drug- and gang @-@ plagued neighborhood of boarded @-@ up houses and empty lots " . Brick Towers has since been demolished , and a new mixed @-@ income development was built there in 2010 . = = Electoral history = =
= Szczerbiec = Szczerbiec ( Polish pronunciation : [ ˈʂt ͡ ʂɛr.bʲɛt ͡ s ] ) is the coronation sword that was used in crowning ceremonies of most Polish monarchs from 1320 to 1764 . It is currently on display in the treasure vault of the Royal Wawel Castle in Kraków as the only preserved piece of the medieval Polish Crown Jewels . The sword is characterized by a hilt decorated with magical formulas , Christian symbols and floral patterns , as well as a narrow slit in the blade which holds a small shield with the coat of arms of Poland . Its name , derived from the Polish word szczerba meaning a gap , notch or chip , is sometimes rendered into English as " the Notched Sword " or " the Jagged Sword " , although its blade has straight and smooth edges . A legend links Szczerbiec with King Bolesław I the Brave who was said to have chipped the sword by hitting it against the Golden Gate , Kiev ( now in Ukraine ) during his intervention in the Kievan succession crisis in 1018 . However , the Golden Gate was only constructed in 1037 and the sword is actually dated to the late 12th or 13th century . It was first used as a coronation sword by Władysław I the Elbow @-@ high in 1320 . Looted by Prussian troops in 1795 , it changed hands several times during the 19th century until it was purchased in 1884 for the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg , Russia . The Soviet Union returned it to Poland in 1928 . During World War II , Szczerbiec was evacuated to Canada and did not return to Kraków until 1959 . In the 20th century , an image of the sword was adopted as a symbol by Polish nationalist and far @-@ right movements . = = Description = = Szczerbiec is a 98 cm @-@ long ( 39 in ) ceremonial sword bearing rich Gothic ornamentation , dated to the mid @-@ 13th century . It is classified as a type XII sword with a type I pommel and a type 6 crossguard according to the Oakeshott typology , although the blade may have changed its shape due to centuries of corrosion and intensive cleaning before every coronation . = = = Hilt = = = The hilt consists of a round pommel , a flat grip and an arched crossguard . The grip is 10 @.@ 1 cm ( 4 @.@ 0 in ) long , 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) thick , and from 2 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) wide . It is rectangular in cross @-@ section and its hard edges make it difficult to handle and impractical for fighting , which is indicative of the sword 's purely ceremonial usage . The pommel is 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter and 2 @.@ 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , with a chamfered outer ring that is 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) wide . The crossguard forms an arch that is 1 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 7 in ) wide in the middle and widens up to 3 @.@ 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) at both ends . It is 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) thick near the grip and measures 20 cm ( 8 in ) in length along its upper edge . The pommel and the crossguard are made of silver . The core of the grip is a brass chest encasing the tang of the blade . It was probably made in the 19th century to replace an original organic core , which had decomposed . At the same time the tang was riveted to the top of the pommel . The head of the rivet , which is 0 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter , rests atop a rectangular washer measuring 1 @.@ 1 cm × 1 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 43 in × 0 @.@ 55 in ) . All parts of the hilt are covered with golden plates , which are engraved with sharp or rounded styli and decorated with niello , or black metallic inlay that contrasts against the golden background . Each plate is 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 in ) thick and made of about 18 @-@ carat gold . The niello designs include inscriptions written in late Romanesque majuscule ( with some uncial additions ) , Christian symbols , and floral patterns . The floral ornaments are in negative , that is , golden against a black , nielloed background . On the obverse side of the hilt , the pommel bears a large stylized letter T on top of a letter C or G ( the latter could be just a decorative element of the letter T ) between the Greek letters Α and ω ( alpha and omega ) surmounted with little crosses . Below the letter T , there is another cross placed within a cloud or flower with twelve petals . On the chamfered edge around this design runs a circular Latin inscription in two rings which reads : Rec figura talet ad amorem regum / et principum iras iudicum ( " This sign rouses the love of kings and princes , the wrath of judges " ) . The grip bears the symbols of two of the Four Evangelists : the lion of Saint Mark and the ox of Saint Luke , as well as an Agnus Dei ( Lamb of God ) . The crossguard bears the following Latin inscription : Quicumque hec / nomina Deii secum tu / lerit nullum periculum / ei omnino nocebit ( " Whoever will carry these names of God with him , no danger will harm him " ) . The reverse side of the pommel is decorated with a vine bush surrounded by a wreath of vine leaves . On the reverse of the grip , there are the eagle of Saint John and the angel of Saint Matthew , and another Agnus Dei . The crossguard bears , above another pattern of vine leaves , an inscription in corrupted Hebrew in Latin script : Con citomon Eeve Sedalai Ebrebel ( " Fervent faith incite the names of God : Sedalai and Ebrehel " ) . On the opposite ends of the crossguard , there are again the symbols of Saints John and Matthew . The circumference of the pommel is decorated with a rhombic pattern , while the upper side of the crossguard – with a similar triangular pattern . The narrow sides of the grip used to be embellished with inscribed silver plates , which , however , were lost in the 19th century . These lost inscriptions are partly known from graphical documentation made by King Stanislaus Augustus 's court painter , Johann Christoph Werner , in 1764 and by Jacek Przybylski in 1792 . One of the plates had already been broken by that time with only part of the inscription preserved : Liste est glaud ... h Bolezlai Duc ... ( " This is a sword of ... Duke Boleslaus ... " ) ; the inscription on the other plate continued : Cum quo ei D [ omi ] n [ us ] SOS [ Salvator Omnipotens Salvator ] auxiletur ad [ ver ] sus partes amen ( " With whom is the Omnipotent Lord and Savior , to help him against his enemies . Amen " ) . The missing part of the first inscription is only known from an old replica of Szczerbiec which once belonged to the Radziwiłł family ( see Historical replicas below ) . The full inscription read : Iste est gladius Principis et haeredis Boleslai Ducis Poloniae et Masoviae , Lanciciae ( " This is a sword of Hereditary Prince Boleslaus , Duke of Poland , Masovia , and Łęczyca " ) . The identity of this Duke Boleslaus is uncertain . Use @-@ wear analysis indicates that the plates on the pommel and the crossguard were made by the same artist , while the plates on the grip were added later . The latter – obverse and reverse – were probably decorated in the same workshop and using the same tools , but by two different craftsmen . Moreover , a side plate with a rhombic pattern was added in the 19th century to replace one of the lost inscripted side plates . Preserved images of Szczerbiec from various points in time indicate that the decorative plates were several times dismounted and placed again on the hilt in variable configurations . The current composition , with the symbols of the Evangelists duplicated on each side of the hilt , matches that known from the earliest preserved depiction drafted by Johann Christoph Werner in 1794 . It is possible , though , that the original placement of the golden plates was different , with the symbols of Saints John and Matthew on the obverse of the grip , so that each side of the hilt displayed the symbols of all four of the Evangelists . = = = Blade = = = The blade is 82 cm ( 32 in ) long , up to 5 cm ( 2 in ) wide ( about 5 cm from the crossguard ) and 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The fuller is about 74 cm ( 29 in ) long and , on average , 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide . Metallographic analysis has shown that the blade was forged from unevenly carburized semi @-@ hard bloomery steel . Apart from iron , the material contains , by weight , 0 @.@ 6 percent of carbon , 0 @.@ 153 percent of silicon , 0 @.@ 092 percent of phosphorus , and other elements . Numerous slag inclusions found in the steel are typical for medieval iron smelting technology . Part of the blade was hardened by quenching . Unlike the hilt , the blade would have been fully functional as a weapon of war . The surface of the blade is covered with deep scratches along its length , a result of intensive cleaning from rust before every coronation , probably with sand or brick powder . Inactive spots of corrosion may be also found on the entire surface . Just below the hilt , there are three perforations in the fuller of the blade . The largest is a rectangular slot that is 64 mm ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) long and 8 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 33 in ) wide . This opening , known in Polish as szczyrba or szczerba , was originally caused by rust and , in the 19th century , polished into a regular shape . A small heraldic shield colored with oil paint is fastened to the slot . It is roughly triangular in shape , with the sides measuring from 4 to 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 8 in ) . The shield , bearing the White Eagle of Poland , was originally attached to the scabbard , or sheath . The Gothic scabbard , with a golden or silver locket and chape , was probably created in 1320 and lost between 1819 and 1874 . The shield is the only preserved element of the sheath . It was tilted to the left – from the onlooker 's point of view – while it was fastened to the scabbard 's locket , but today it is aligned with the blade . The eagle on the red field of the shield is white , with a golden crown , bands across the wings , ring on the tail , and talons . The two other perforations are round holes , 24 mm ( 0 @.@ 94 in ) apart . The upper one , just below the slot , is 28 mm ( 1 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter , while the other measures only 1 @.@ 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 055 in ) . They were probably punched in the 19th century to fasten the heraldic shield to the blade . = = Location = = Szczerbiec is owned by the Wawel Royal Castle National Art Collection ( inventory number 137 ) in Kraków , the former capital city of Poland . As the only preserved of Polish medieval coronation insignia , it is a prominent part of the museum 's Treasury and Armory permanent exhibition . The sword is suspended horizontally inside a glass case in the middle of the Jagiełło and Hedwig Vault located on the ground floor in the northeastern corner of the Wawel Castle . = = History = = = = = The Szczerbiec of Boleslaus the Brave = = = Historical accounts related to the early history of the Polish coronation sword are scant and often mixed with legend . The earliest known use of the name " Szczerbiec " appeared in the Chronicle of Greater Poland at the turn of the 14th century . According to this source , the sword was given to King Boleslaus the Brave ( reigned 992 – 1025 ) by an angel ; Polish kings were supposed to always carry it in battle to triumph over their enemies . During Boleslaus 's invasion of Kievan Rus ' , he hit it against the Golden Gate of Kiev while capturing the city . It was the notch that appeared on the edge of the blade which gave the sword its name . This account , written three centuries after the events it describes , is implausible not only because of the customary reference to the sword 's supernatural origin ( compare Excalibur ) , but also because Boleslaus 's intervention in the Kievan succession crisis took place in 1018 , or about 19 years before the actual construction of the Golden Gate in 1037 . It is plausible , though , that Boleslaus did chip his sword by striking it against an earlier gate in Kiev . His great @-@ grandson , Boleslaus the Bold ( r . 1058 – 1079 ) , hit the Golden Gate with a sword in 1069 , which would indicate that it was a customary gesture of gaining control over a city . It is also possible that this sword was preserved as a souvenir of past victories venerated by Boleslaus the Brave 's successors . According to Wincenty Kadłubek 's Chronicle , Boleslaus Wrymouth ( r . 1107 – 1138 ) had a favorite sword he called Żuraw or Grus ( " Crane " ) . A scribe who copied the chronicle in 1450 added the word Szczurbycz above the word Żuraw , but whether these two swords were one and the same is uncertain . According to the Chronicle of Greater Poland , the sword was kept in the treasury of the Wawel Cathedral . The ultimate fate of the original Szczerbiec is unknown . It may have been taken to Prague , together with other royal insignia , by King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia after his coronation as king of Poland in Gniezno in 1300 . What happened with these insignia thereafter remains a mystery . Although Boleslaus the Brave 's notched sword has not been preserved and even its very existence is doubtful , its legend had a great impact on Polish historical memory and the treatment of its successor , the modern Szczerbiec . = = = From a sword of justice to a coronation sword = = = The sword currently known as Szczerbiec was forged and decorated in a style characteristic of the late 12th and 13th centuries , so it could not have belonged to any of the three great Boleslauses of the 11th and early 12th centuries . Additionally , it is a purely ceremonial sword which , unlike the original Szczerbiec , was never used in combat . It was originally used as a sword of justice ( gladius iustitiae ) , or insignia of the sovereign 's judicial power , by one of the many local dukes during Poland 's Age of Fragmentation . A silver plate , now lost , on the sword 's grip bore an inscription which indicated a duke by the name Boleslaus as its original owner . An inscription on the Radziwiłłs ' replica of Szczerbiec , now also lost , could provide an additional hint as to the duke 's identity : " Boleslaus , Duke of Poland , Masovia , and Łęczyca " – except that no duke of this name and titles ever existed . Historians have variously identified the duke in question as Boleslaus the Curly ( r . 1146 – 1173 ) , Boleslaus the Chaste ( r . 1226 – 1279 ) , Boleslaus I of Masovia ( r . 1229 – 1248 ) or Boleslaus the Pious of Greater Poland ( r . 1239 – 1247 ) . As a coronation sword , Szczerbiec was first specifically mentioned by Jan Długosz in his account of the crowning of King Casimir IV ( r . 1447 – 1492 ) , but it was probably first used in a coronation ceremony by King Vladislaus the Elbow @-@ High ( r . 1288 – 1333 ) in 1320 , by which time he had reunited most of the core territories of Poland . If Szczerbiec had previously belonged to his uncle , Boleslaus I of Masovia , or his father @-@ in @-@ law , Boleslaus the Pious , then he could have inherited it . If it had belonged to any of the two Boleslauses who had ruled from Kraków as high dukes of all Poland , then Vladislaus could have simply found it in the Wawel Cathedral . Thereafter , Szczerbiec became an integral part of the Polish Crown Jewels , shared their fate , and was the principal ceremonial sword used in coronations of all Polish kings until 1764 , except Vladislaus II Jogaila ( 1386 ) , Stephen Báthory ( 1576 ) , Stanislaus I Leszczyński ( 1705 ) , and Augustus III Wettin ( 1734 ) . Szczerbiec , together with other crown jewels , was removed from the Wawel Hill on several occasions during that period . After his Polish coronation in 1370 , King Louis I of Hungary took the crown jewels with him to Buda ; his successor on the Hungarian throne , Emperor Sigismund , rendered them to Poland in 1412 . On two occasions , in mid @-@ 17th and early 18th centuries , they were evacuated across Poland 's southern border to protect them from invading Swedish armies . In 1733 , during the War of the Polish Succession , supporters of King Stanislaus I concealed the jewels in a Warsaw church for three years to prevent Augustus III from using them in his coronation . In 1764 , they were sent to Warsaw again , to be used in a coronation for the last time – that of Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski . They were returned to Kraków afterwards . During a typical Polish coronation ceremony in the times of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , the king @-@ elect received Szczerbiec after his anointment and before being crowned and enthroned . The primate of Poland , that is the archbishop of Gniezno , picked up the unsheathed sword from the altar and handed it to the kneeling king . At the same time , he recited a formula which asked the monarch to use the sword to rule justly , defend the Church , fight evil , protect widows and orphans , and to " rebuild what is damaged , maintain what is rebuilt , avenge what is unjust , reinforce what is well managed , " etc . Then , the king handed the sword to the Crown sword @-@ bearer ( miecznik koronny ) , who slid it into the scabbard and passed on to the primate . The primate , aided by the Crown and Lithuanian sword @-@ bearers , fastened the scabbard to the king 's belt . The king stood up and , facing onlookers , withdrew Szczerbiec , made three times the sign of the cross with it , and wiped it against his left arm before replacing it in the scabbard . The king 's sword @-@ wielding abilities were closely watched by his new subjects during this part of the ritual . When Augustus III betrayed his poor fencing skills at his coronation , nobles joked that they were going to have " a peaceful lord " . After Szczerbiec , a bishop handed the sovereign the Grunwald Swords symbolizing the monarch 's reign over the two constituent nations of the Commonwealth . Throughout the period from Casimir the Great ( r . 1333 – 1370 ) to Stanislaus Augustus , Polish crown jewels were commonly believed to date back to the times of Boleslaus the Brave . This conviction helped maintain a sense of continuity of Polish statehood and provide legitimacy for the nation 's kings , implicitly making each Polish monarch a successor of the ancient and glorious legacy of the first king of the House of Piast . Accordingly , the coronation sword took over the name and the legend of the original Szczerbiec . The corrosion @-@ induced slit in the blade became associated with the fabled szczerba , or notch that Boleslaus had purportedly made on his sword in Kiev . The power of tradition was so strong that when Stanislaus Augustus 's court painter , Marcello Bacciarelli , who had made detailed studies of Polish crown jewels , painted an imaginary portrait of Boleslaus the Brave , he chose to depict Szczerbiec so that its appearance agreed with legend rather than reality . The images of the coronation crown and sword are overall meticulously accurate , but Bacciarelli 's Szczerbiec lacks the slit and has a chipped edge instead . = = = In foreign hands = = = In 1794 , during the failed Kościuszko Uprising which led to the final partition of Poland a year later , Prussian troops captured Kraków . In the following year , on King Frederick William II 's orders , the treasure vault of the Wawel Castle was looted and the crown jewels taken to Breslau ( now Wrocław in Poland ) , then to Berlin , and finally to Königsberg ( now Kaliningrad in Russia ) . Between 1809 and 1811 most of the jewels were melted down , but some , including Szczerbiec , were put up for sale . The coronation sword was acquired by the future Russian minister of justice , Prince Dmitry Lobanov @-@ Rostovsky , who probably hoped to resell it to one of Polish aristocrats . In 1819 , he approached General Wincenty Krasiński , speaker of the Sejm ( parliament ) of the " Congress " Kingdom of Poland . The prince did not disclose the actual source of the sword and claimed to have bought it in Moscow from an Armenian merchant who had found the weapon somewhere between Belgrade and Rusçuk ( now Ruse in Bulgaria ) during the recent Russo – Turkish War . Krasiński , who was a known antique weapon collector , suspected it could be Szczerbiec , but asked Prof. Sebastiano Ciampi , a historian of the Warsaw University , for opinion . Ciampi examined the lithography Krasiński had had made of the sword , but was unsure whether it was the actual Szczerbiec . As a consequence , Krasiński declined Lobanov @-@ Rostovsky 's offer . Lobanov @-@ Rostovsky ultimately sold Szczerbiec to Prince Anatole Demidov who kept it together with the rest of the Demidov collection in his Villa San Donato near Florence . In 1870 , the sword was bought for 20 @,@ 000 French francs by Alexander Basilevsky , Russian ambassador to France and great art collector . In 1878 , he displayed Szczerbiec at the World 's Fair in Paris . By that time , the scabbard had been lost and the sword itself was presented as of Teutonic origin . It was seen by several Polish visitors who speculated whether it could be the Polish coronation sword . In 1884 , the entire Basilevsky collection was purchased by Emperor Alexander III of Russia for the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg . Both Polish and other experts at the time expressed doubts as to the authenticity of Szczerbiec held in Russia 's largest museum ( see Historical replicas below ) . An international museum congress held in Saint Petersburg in 1913 pronounced the sword a 17th @-@ century replica . In 1917 , as a result of the October Revolution , Russia became a communist state . In the aftermath of World War I , Poland reemerged as an independent country in the following year . From 1919 to 1921 , the two states fought the Polish – Soviet War which was concluded with the Peace of Riga . Article 11 of the peace treaty required that the Soviet side return all culturally significant collections and items that had been removed from Poland since the First Partition in 1772 . A special bilateral committee was set up to carry out the restitution of cultural goods . In 1928 , the committee 's efforts resulted in the return to Poland of , among other national treasures , Szczerbiec , which , after 133 years , was deposited back in the Wawel Castle . = = = Evacuation in World War II = = = On 3 September 1939 , two days after Germany invaded Poland triggering the Second World War , began the evacuation of the most precious national treasures , including Szczerbiec , from the Wawel Castle . The cargo was transported on barges , wagons , buses and trucks to Romania . From there , it was shipped by sea to France and later to Britain . On the way from Bordeaux to Falmouth , the ship carrying Polish national treasures came under fire from the Luftwaffe . Karol Estreicher , who oversaw the evacuation , decided then to remove Szczerbiec from a chest and sandwich it between two wooden planks , and to attach to them an explanatory message in a bottle – so that in the event that the ship was sunk , at least the coronation sword could be salvaged . When the German bombing of Britain began in July 1940 , the valuables were transported aboard the Polish ocean liner MS Batory to Canada and finally deposited at the Polish consulate and then other locations in Ottawa . After the war , one of the custodians of the national treasures , who remained loyal to the London @-@ based Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile , was reluctant to return them to Poland , which had fallen under communist rule and Soviet influence . After lengthy negotiations , the first batch of the most important objects , including Szczerbiec , was ultimately returned in 1959 ; the rest followed in 1961 . Since then , the Polish coronation sword has been on permanent display in the treasure vault of the Wawel Castle . = = Historical replicas = = A treasury inventory of the Radziwiłł family 's Nieśwież Castle ( now Nesvizh in Belarus ) made in 1740 includes a detailed description of a sword decorated with symbols of the Evangelists and inscriptions identical to those on Szczerbiec . According to the inventory , it was a gift from Crown Prince Jakub Sobieski to Prince Michał Radziwiłł , but the original source of the supposed replica was not given . An inventory made in 1738 of the treasure vault of the Sobieski family 's Żółkiew Castle ( now Zhovkva in Ukraine ) mentions " an estoc ( koncerz ) covered with golden plates bearing images of the Four Evangelists ; Skanderbek 's . " Based on this record , historian Aleksander Czołowski hypothesized that a replica of Szczerbiec was forged as early as 1457 and awarded to George Kastrioti Skanderbeg , the national leader of Albania , in recognition of his victory over the Ottoman forces ( see Battle of Ujëbardha ) . After King John III Sobieski defeated the Ottomans in the Battle of Vienna in 1683 , Albanians presumably returned the sword to him . His son , Jakub , possibly passed it on to Michał Radziwiłł as a present . There are doubts , however , whether the swords known to have been at Żółkiew in 1738 and at Nieśwież two years later , were in fact the same sword . The Radziwiłłs ' castle was plundered by the Russian army in 1812 and the subsequent fate of their replica of Szczerbiec is unknown . This fact cast doubts over the authenticity of Szczerbiec held in the Hermitage . Some experts suspected that the sword possessed by the Russian imperial museum was in fact the Nieśwież replica , not part of the original royal insignia . Another historically notable replica of Szczerbiec was produced probably in Dresden , Saxony , at the time when the original was in Prussian hands . It is modest and inexact ; the handle is carved in bovine bone and the niello is imitated with black paint . Designs on the handle are patterned on those of the genuine Szczerbiec , except that the crosses and letters on the pommel were replaced with the coat of arms of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . The blade was initially shorter than that of the original , actually typical for a stiletto . It was purchased in Dresden by art historian Edward Rastawiecki , who in 1869 donated it to the archeological collection of the Jagiellonian University of Kraków . The university lost it during the German occupation in World War II . After the war , the replica found itself in the hands of Tadeusz Janowski who smuggled it to the United States in 1947 . At around that time , the short stiletto blade was replaced with a long blade of a 16th @-@ century German sword . To imitate Szczerbiec , a slit was cut in the blade and small heraldic shields were attached to it on both sides . During the communist rule in Poland , the Polish American community of Chicago treated the replica as a symbol of Poland 's independence . In 1968 , it was demonstrated to U.S. Senator Robert F. Kennedy while he was meeting with Polish Americans during his presidential campaign . Janowski returned the sword to the Jagiellonian University in 2003 . = = Modern symbolism = = In the interwar period , a simplified image of Szczerbiec wrapped three times in a white @-@ and @-@ red ribbon was adopted as a symbol of Polish nationalist organizations led by Roman Dmowski – the Camp of Great Poland ( Obóz Wielkiej Polski ) , the National Party ( Stronnictwo Narodowe ) , and the All @-@ Polish Youth ( Młodzież Wszechpolska ) . Their members wore it as a badge called Mieczyk Chrobrego , or " Little Sword of [ Boleslaus ] the Brave " . The symbol was also sewn onto the left sleeve of the sand shirt which was part of the Camp of Great Poland uniform . Among the politicians who wore the badge before World War II were Roman Dmowski , Władysław Grabski , Wojciech Korfanty , Roman Rybarski , and Wojciech Jaruzelski . During World War II , the badge was used by right @-@ wing anti @-@ Nazi and anti @-@ Soviet military resistance groups , the National Armed Forces ( Narodowe Siły Zbrojne ) and the National Military Organization ( Narodowa Organizacja Wojskowa ) . After the fall of communism in Poland , the Mieczyk Chrobrego symbol was readopted by new or reactivated nationalist and far @-@ right organizations , including League of Polish Families ( Liga Polskich Rodzin ) , All @-@ Polish Youth and the Camp of Great Poland . Additionally , Szczerbiec is the title of a periodical published since 1991 by a minor radical nationalist party , the National Revival of Poland ( Narodowe Odrodzenie Polski ) . In 2005 , the Polish Football Association , in an attempt to fight racism among Polish football fans , prepared a blacklist of most common racist and fascist symbols to be banned from Polish football stadiums . The catalogue , co @-@ authored by independent anti @-@ fascist organization Never Again ( Nigdy Więcej ) , listed the Mieczyk Chrobrego as one of the extreme right symbols that are often displayed at the Polish stadiums . The catalogue listed other racist and fascist symbols like the Nazi swastika , the Celtic cross , and the Confederate Flag . After a protest by MEP Sylwester Chruszcz of the League of Polish Families , additional consultations were held with historians , academic researchers and other experts and as a result the symbol is still listed in the catalogue of extreme @-@ right symbols banned at Polish football stadiums . It was also banned by UEFA during Euro 2008 and 2012 . The symbolic use of Szczerbiec became a bone of contention again in 2009 . After a monument to the Ukrainian Insurgent Army ( Ukrayins 'ka Povstans 'ka Armiya ) on the Chryszczata Mountain in southeastern Poland was vandalized , authorities of the Ukrainian city of Lviv demanded the removal of an image of Szczerbiec from the local Polish military cemetery . The Ukrainians , recalling the legendary use of the original sword in a Polish invasion of Kiev , argued it was a Polish nationalist , militaristic and anti @-@ Ukrainian symbol .
= 1959 Atlantic hurricane season = The 1959 Atlantic hurricane season had a then record @-@ tying number of tropical cyclones – five – develop before August 1 . The season was officially to begin on June 15 , 1959 and last until November 15 , 1959 , the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin , however in actuality the season began early when Tropical Storm Arlene formed on May 28 . Tropical Storm Arlene struck Louisiana and brought minor flooding to the Gulf Coast of the United States . The next storm , Beulah , formed in the western Gulf of Mexico and brought negligible impact to Mexico and Texas . Later in June , an unnamed hurricane , nicknamed the Escuminac disaster , caused minor damage in Florida and devastated coastal Nova Scotia and New Brunswick , after becoming extratropical . Hurricane Cindy brought minor impact to The Carolinas . In late July , Hurricane Debra produced flooding in the state of Texas . Tropical Storm Edith in August and Hurricane Flora in September caused negligible impact on land . The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Gracie , which peaked as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . After weakening slightly , Gracie made landfall as a Category 3 hurricane in South Carolina on August 29 . It brought strong winds , rough seas , heavy rainfall , and tornadoes to the state , as well as North Carolina and Virginia . Overall , Gracie caused 22 fatalities and $ 14 million in damage . Following Hurricane Gracie was Hurricane Hannah , a long @-@ lived storm that did not cause any known impact on land . The last two tropical cyclones , Tropical Storm Irene and Hurricane Judith , both caused minor coastal and inland flooding in Florida . The storms of the 1959 Atlantic hurricane season were collectively attributed to $ 24 million ( 1959 USD ) and 64 fatalities . = = Season summary = = The 1959 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 15 , 1959 , and it ended on November 15 , 1959 . Eleven tropical depressions developed during the season . All eleven of the depressions attained tropical storm status , which was slightly above the 1950 – 2000 average of 9 @.@ 6 named storms . Of the eleven systems , seven of them attained hurricane status , which was also slightly above the average of 5 @.@ 9 . Furthermore , two storms reached major hurricane status – Category 3 or greater on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Five tropical storms and three hurricanes made landfall during the season and caused 64 fatalities and about $ 24 million ( 1959 USD ) in damage . Season activity began with the development of Tropical Storm Arlene on May 28 . In the month of June , Tropical Storm Beulah and an unnamed hurricane formed , the latter becoming a hurricane on June 19 . Another pair of hurricanes , Cindy and Debra , formed in the month of July . Collectively , the five tropical cyclones that formed in May , June , and July made the 1959 season the one of the most active seasons before August 1 , tied with 1887 , 1933 , 1936 , 1966 , 1995 and 1997 . The record was later surpassed in 2005 when seven tropical cyclones formed before August 1 . However , tropical cyclogenesis slowed down in August , with only Tropical Storm Edith forming during the month . Next , three tropical cyclones formed in September – Flora , Gracie , and Hannah – all of which attained hurricane status . Furthermore , in October , Tropical Storm Irene and Hurricane Judith , the 1959 season 's final storm , developed . The latter storm dissipated on October 21 , almost a month before the official end of the season on November 15 . The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 77 , which is slightly below the 1950 – 2000 average of 94 @.@ 7 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . = = Storms = = = = = Tropical Storm Arlene = = = A tropical wave developed into the first tropical depression of the season on May 28 , while located in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico . The depression strengthened and , early on the following day , was upgraded to Tropical Storm Arlene . The storm slowly intensified and reached its peak intensity of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) on May 29 . Rapid weakening took place as the storm approached land . By late on May 30 , Arlene made landfall near Lafayette , Louisiana with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Early on the following day the storm weakened to a tropical depression while barely inland . The system eventually curved east @-@ northeastward and meandered across the Southern United States until dissipating over South Carolina on June 2 . In Louisiana , a state maximum rainfall of 13 @.@ 13 in ( 334 mm ) fell in Houma . As a result , a few towns along the coast reported downed trees and electrical lines from high winds , which caused scattered power outages . In New Orleans , several roads were shut down due to inundation . Additionally , at least 100 homes within the city were flooded . In Baton Rouge , dozens of people were evacuated from a flooded home via ambulance and wagon to safer areas . Overall , damage was light , reaching $ 500 @,@ 000 . One death was related to Arlene ; a man drowned in rough surf off the coast of Galveston , Texas . After storm dissipated over the Southeastern United States , the extratropical remnants of Arlene brought moderate rainfall to parts of the Mid @-@ Atlantic States and New England . = = = Tropical Storm Beulah = = = A cold front became stationary as it began to move across the Gulf of Mexico on June 13 . After the SS Hondo reported winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , it is estimated that a tropical depression developed at 1800 UTC on June 15 , while located in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico . By June 16 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Beulah . Further deepening occurred and the storm peaked with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) on June 17 . As Beulah neared the Gulf Coast of Mexico , a building ridge of high pressure forced the storm southward . It then began to encounter stronger upper level winds and weakened to a tropical depression on June 18 . Shortly thereafter , the storm dissipated about 20 miles ( 32 km ) northeast of Tuxpan , Veracruz . Tides of 2 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal occurred along the Texas coast , though no impact was reported in Mexico . = = = Hurricane Three = = = A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression while situated in the central Gulf of Mexico on June 18 . It headed rapidly northeastward and made landfall near the Tampa Bay Area of Florida later that day . The storm dropped moderately heavy rainfall in Florida , which caused damage to crops . A tornado near Miami and high tides on the west coast of the state also resulted in damage . Losses in Florida were around $ 1 @.@ 7 million . Shortly thereafter , in entered the Atlantic Ocean and strengthened into a tropical storm later on June 18 . By the following day , it had strengthened into a hurricane ; the storm simultaneously peaked with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . The storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on June 19 . The remnants struck Atlantic Canada , once in Nova Scotia and again in Newfoundland before dissipating on June 21 . After becoming extratropical , the storm caused significant effects in Atlantic Canada . About 45 boats were in the Northumberland Strait between New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island , and they did not have radio to receive warning of the approaching storm . Rough seas of up to 49 ft ( 15 m ) in height damaged or destroyed many boats . At least 22 fishing boats capsized over water with their crew , causing 35 deaths . High winds also disrupted communications in some areas , and several houses were damaged , with losses reaching about $ 781 @,@ 000 . The New Brunswick Fishermen 's Disaster Fund was created to assist victims . The fund raised $ 400 @,@ 000 in a few months from donations from throughout Canada , as well as Pope John XXIII and Queen Elizabeth II , the latter who was on a tour of the country at the time . = = = Hurricane Cindy = = = An low @-@ pressure area associated with a cold front developed into a tropical depression on July 5 , while located east of Florida . Tracking north @-@ northeastward , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Cindy by the next day . Cindy turned westward because of a high @-@ pressure area positioned to its north , and further intensified into a hurricane offshore the Carolinas on July 8 . Cindy made landfall near McClellanville , South Carolina early on July 9 , and re @-@ curved to the northeast along the fall line as a tropical depression . It re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic on July 10 and quickly restrengthened into a tropical storm . On July 11 , Cindy passed over Cape Cod , while several other weather systems helped the storm maintain its intensity . Cindy transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on July 12 while approaching Atlantic Canada . Overall structural damage from Cindy was minimal . One driver was killed in Georgetown , South Carolina after colliding with a fallen tree , and five deaths were caused by poor road conditions wrought by the storm in New England . Many areas experienced heavy rains , and several thousand people evacuated . Damage was mainly confined to broken tree limbs , shattered windows and power outages . Cindy brought a total of eleven tornadoes with it , of which two caused minor damage in North Carolina . The heaviest rainfall occurred in northern South Carolina , where rainfall amounted to 9 @.@ 79 inches ( 249 mm ) . Tides ranged from 1 to 4 feet ( 0 @.@ 30 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) above normal along the coast . As drought @-@ like conditions were present in The Carolinas at the time , the rain that fell in the area was beneficial . After becoming extratropical over Atlantic Canada , the cyclone produced heavy rains and strong winds that sunk one ship . Damage caused by Cindy was estimated at $ 75 @,@ 000 . = = = Hurricane Debra = = = On July 23 , interaction of a cold @-@ core low and a tropical wave spawned a tropical depression located south of Louisiana . The depression meandered westward while steadily intensifying , becoming a Tropical Storm on July 24 . A turn towards the northwest became evident as it attained Category 1 hurricane status on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale on the following day . Strength was maintained as the hurricane curved northward at a slow forward speed , and it approached the coast of Texas as a minimal hurricane . Debra made landfall between Freeport and Galveston , Texas early on July 25 . Debra rapidly weakened into a tropical storm and later a depression as it moved inland , and it dissipated on July 28 . The remnant moisture later sparked upper @-@ level thunderstorms in late July and early August . Torrential rains were produced in southeastern Texas , peaking at 15 @.@ 89 inches ( 404 mm ) in Orange . This led to widespread flooding on highways , including portions of Farm Road 518 , Highway 6 , Highway 146 , and U.S. Route 75 . Sea vessels took the brunt of the storm , with many becoming stranded or damaged . Air , rail , and road transportation were significantly interrupted or even shut down . High winds from the storm caused expansive damage to buildings , windows , signs , and roofs . The hurricane resulted in 11 injuries but no human deaths , although approximately 90 cattle drowned . Damage in Brazoria , Galveston , and Harris counties surmounted $ 6 @.@ 685 million . Additionally , impact in other areas increased the total losses to $ 7 million . = = = Tropical Storm Six = = = = = = Tropical Storm Edith = = = A tropical wave was tracked east of the Lesser Antilles in mid @-@ August . At 1530 UTC on August 17 , a reconnaissance aircraft reported a weak center and winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Less than three hours later , a tropical depression developed while located east of the Windward Islands . The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Edith early on August 18 . The storm moved west @-@ northwestward at a relatively quick pace and passed through the Leeward Islands near Guadeloupe later that day . By 1800 UTC on August 18 , Edith peaked with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . It curved westward and accelerated on August 19 . Edith weakened to a tropical depression at 1200 UTC , hours before dissipating near the southern tip of Dominican Republic . There was " considerable doubt " if a circulation ever existed . Squally weather and gusty winds were reported in some areas , including Guadeloupe , the Virgin Islands , Puerto Rico , and Hispaniola . = = = Tropical Storm Eight = = = = = = Tropical Storm Nine = = = = = = Hurricane Flora = = = A tropical wave passed through the islands of Cape Verde on September 6 and tracked westward at about 19 mph ( 31 km / h ) . Early on September 9 , a tropical depression developed while located about midway between Cape Verde and the Lesser Antilles . The depression moved northeastward and by September 10 it strengthened into Tropical Storm Flora . A reconnaissance aircraft flight into the storm on September 11 recorded winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) ; thus , Flora became a hurricane . Around the time , the storm attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of the same velocity and a minimum barometric pressure of 994 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . Flora then accelerated northeastward toward the Azores . During another reconnaissance flight on September 12 , no evidence of a tropical cyclone was reported . Thus , Flora became extratropical at 1200 UTC that day . = = = Hurricane Gracie = = = A tropical wave spawned a tropical depression north of Hispaniola on September 20 . The depression remained offshore the island and moved west @-@ northwestward . By September 22 , it curved northeastward and became Tropical Storm Gracie . The storm then moved through The Bahamas , producing 8 @.@ 4 inches ( 210 mm ) on Mayaguana . Later on September 22 Gracie intensified into a hurricane . It deepened further to a Category 2 , on September 23 , before weakening later that day . Gracie then meandered slowly and erratically while northeast of The Bahamas , before curving northwestward on September 27 . It became a Category 2 hurricane again by September 28 . During the next 24 hours , Gracie deepened significantly and peaked as a 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) Category 4 hurricane . However , it weakened back to a Category 3 hurricane before making landfall on Edisto Island , South Carolina at 1625 UTC on September 29 . Gracie was the one of the strongest tropical cyclones to strike South Carolina until Hurricane Hugo in 1989 . It rapidly weakened inland , becoming extratropical on September 30 . Along the coast of South Carolina , the highest tide recorded was 9 @.@ 7 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) above mean low water at Charleston Harbor . On Folly Beach , all waterfront houses sustained some damage , while roads on the east side of the island were washed away . Gracie brought wind gusts as high as 138 mph ( 222 km / h ) to the Beaufort area . Inland , 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) winds lashed Walterboro . As much as 75 % of Charleston County was left without electricity . Farther north , a tornado damaged homes in Garden City . Throughout the South Carolina Lowcountry , 48 homes were destroyed , 349 homes suffered major damage , and 4 @,@ 115 homes suffered minor damage . The remnants dropped rainfall and spawned tornadoes in several other states as it headed northeastward across the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England regions . In Virginia , three tornadoes in Albemarle , Greene , and Fluvanna Counties collectively caused 11 fatalities . Precipitation from the storm peaked at 13 @.@ 2 inches ( 340 mm ) in Big Meadows . Overall , Gracie was attributed to 22 deaths and $ 14 million in damage . = = = Hurricane Hannah = = = After ships reported a low @-@ level circulation , it was estimated that a tropical depression developed at 26 @.@ 8 ° N , 49 @.@ 9 ° W on September 27 . Early on the following day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Hannah . Reconnaissance aircraft flew into the storm late on September 28 and indicated that Hannah intensified into a Category 1 hurricane . Hannah moved generally westward at about 16 mph ( 26 km / h ) . By September 30 , the storm became a Category 2 hurricane , and it curved northwestward later that day . Hannah deepened to a Category 3 hurricane on October 1 , hours before the storm reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 959 mbar ( 28 @.@ 3 inHg ) . The storm maintained this intensity for about 48 hours and curved northeastward on October 2 . Hannah began to a weaken late on October 3 . By the following day , the storm fell to Category 2 hurricane intensity . It accelerated eastward or east @-@ southeastward across the central Atlantic , starting on October 4 . Hannah re @-@ strengthened slightly to a 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) Category 2 hurricane on October 5 , but then slowly began weakening again . The final advisory on the storm was issued early on October 7 , while it was centered about 200 miles ( 320 km ) south @-@ southwest of the Azores , however Hannah remained a tropical cyclone and crossed through the Azores later that day . No impact was reported in the islands . It weakened to a Category 1 hurricane early on October 8 , and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over the far northeastern Atlantic several hours later . = = = Tropical Storm Irene = = = In early October , a cold front drifted through Texas and entered the Gulf of Mexico . On October 5 the front dissipated while a related trough persisted . Upper @-@ level air temperatures were generally warm , and a minimal anticyclone was situated over the Gulf . At this time , a Colorado low drew polar air into the Mississippi Valley , suggesting extratropical characteristics of the developing system . A tropical depression formed on October 6 ; it meandered in a north @-@ northeasterly direction for the next two days . The storm intensified into Tropical Storm Irene around 1800 UTC on October 7 . Around this time , a Hurricane Hunters flight indicated that the circulation was indistinct , although it was gradually evolving . On October 8 , Irene made landfall near Pensacola , Florida as a well @-@ organized tropical storm . The storm rapidly weakened to a tropical depression , before dissipating early on October 9 . The highest tides , 4 @.@ 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) above normal , were reported at Cedar Key , Florida , while the strongest gust recorded , 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) , was measured at Pensacola International Airport . Heavy rainfall from Irene spread across much of the Southern United States , peaking at 10 @.@ 96 inches ( 278 mm ) in Neels Gap , Georgia . In Florida , flooding from rainfall associated with Irene caused damage around the Lake Okeechobee area . Losses in Florida was limited to uncollected crops , mainly peanuts and corn , that were in bales in the process of being dried . Several floods were flooded along the coast at Shalimar near Fort Walton Beach . The winds downed trees and a telephone pole , causing a short power outage in Ocean City . Red tides were ongoing in western Florida ; winds from the storm 's precursor blew thousands of dead fish ashore . Local residents complained that the odor from the rotting fish were unbearable . = = = Hurricane Judith = = = A tropical wave developed into Tropical Storm Judith on October 17 , near the Yucatán Channel . It strengthened quickly , and by early on October 18 the storm was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane . However six hours later Judith had weakened back to a tropical storm . Around 1800 UTC on October 18 the storm made landfall near Boca Grande , Florida , with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . After emerging into the Atlantic Ocean on the following day , Judith began re @-@ strengthening while heading east @-@ northeastward , reaching hurricane status several hours later . It peaked with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) early on October 20 , before weakening back to a tropical storm again on October 21 . Judith weakened further , before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone later that day . Impact from Judith was generally minor and limited mostly to Southwest Florida . Wind gusts up to 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) toppled several trees on Sanibel Island and a few power poles ; a man was injured when his car struck a fallen pole . Rough seas caused erosion on Captiva Island and in Fort Myers , while also inundating several roads in the area . A combination of locally heavy rainfall and tides caused minor flooding in low @-@ lying areas . Precipitation from the storm peaked at 7 @.@ 90 inches ( 201 mm ) in Miles City . The Imperial River overflowed near Bonita Springs , flooding pasture lands and washing out crops , most of which were recently planted . A portion of U.S. Route 41 was inundated by up to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water in Bonita Springs . = = Storm names = = The following names were used for named storms ( tropical storms and hurricanes ) that formed in the North Atlantic in 1959 . All names in this list were first time in 1959 . Gracie was later removed from the list for unknown reasons .
= Madeira firecrest = The Madeira firecrest , Madeira kinglet , or Madeiracrest ( Regulus madeirensis ) is a very small passerine bird endemic to the island of Madeira . It is a member of the kinglet family . Before it was recognised as a separate species in 2003 , it was classified as a subspecies of the common firecrest . It differs in appearance and vocalisations from its relative , and genetic analysis has confirmed it as a different species . The Madeiran bird has green upperparts , whitish underparts and two white wingbars , and a distinctive head pattern with a black eye stripe , short white supercilium , and a crest that is mainly orange in the male and yellow in the female . The female Madeira firecrest builds a spherical nest from cobwebs , moss and small twigs , and she incubates the eggs and broods the chicks on her own . Both parents feed the young . This species forages for insects and other small invertebrates in tree heath , laurisilva and other woodland . It is common within its restricted range , and is not considered to be threatened . = = Description = = The Madeira firecrest is a small plump bird , of 9 – 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) length and weighing about 5 g ( 0 @.@ 18 oz ) . It has bright olive @-@ green upperparts with a bronze @-@ coloured patch on each shoulder , and whitish underparts washed with brownish grey on the breast and flanks . It has two white wingbars , a tiny black bill and brownish @-@ black legs . The head pattern is striking , with a black eye stripe , white supercilium and a crest which is yellow in the female and mainly orange in the male . Juveniles have a grey tinge to the duller upperparts , and lack the crown and eye stripes and supercilium ; by their first winter , only the flight and tail feathers remain unmoulted , and the young birds are virtually indistinguishable from the adults in the field . This kinglet usually hops with its body held horizontally , and its flight is weak and whirring , with occasional jinking . Compared to the common firecrest , the Madeiran firecrest has a longer bill and legs , a shorter white supercilium , more black on the wings and a deeper golden @-@ bronze shoulder patch ; the male 's crest is duller orange . Juveniles have plainer heads , lacking the dull supercilium shown by the young of the European species . The vocalisations of Madeiran and common firecrests both consist of high @-@ pitched notes , but the Madeiran bird has its song divided into three distinct parts , whereas that of the more widespread species just accelerates gradually and covers a much smaller frequency range . The calls of both species include high @-@ pitched fine vocalisations zuu zu @-@ zi @-@ zi , although the Madeiran firecrest also has a distinctive shrill wheez and a whistled peep . = = Taxonomy = = The kinglets are a small group of birds sometimes included in the Old World warblers , but frequently given family status , especially as recent research showed that , despite superficial similarities , the crests are taxonomically remote from the warblers . The names of the family , Regulidae , and its only genus , Regulus , are derived from the Latin regulus , a diminutive of rex , " a king " , and refer to the characteristic orange or yellow crests of adult kinglets . The species name madeirensis is derived from the island on which this bird is found . The Madeira firecrest was first described by English naturalist Edward Vernon Harcourt in 1851 . Until recently , it was considered to be a subspecies , R. i. madeirensis , of the common firecrest R. ignicapillus . A phylogenetic analysis based on the cytochrome b gene showed that the Madeiran form is distinct at the species level from the firecrest nominate subspecies R. i. ignicapillus . Cytochrome b gene divergence between the Madeira firecrest and the European bird is 8 @.@ 5 % , comparable with the divergence level between other recognised Regulus species , such as the 9 % between the goldcrest and the golden @-@ crowned kinglet . The split was accepted by the Association of European Rarities Committees ( AERC ) in 2003 , but some authorities , such as Clements , have not yet recognised the new species . The International Ornithological Congress ' recommended English name for this species was " Madeiracrest " , but this has been changed to " Madeira firecrest " . The songs of the four subspecies of common firecrest ( nominate R. i. ignicapillus , Mediterranean R. i. balearicus , southeastern R. i. caucasicus and North African R. i. laeneni ) show a number of different song forms , but in general are very similar to each other , whereas the Madeiran firecrest has only one song type , which is divided into three phrases , two of them consisting of modified display and anger calls . Its display calls use a larger frequency range and more harmonics than the continental subspecies . Male common firecrests do not show a territorial response to recordings of the songs or calls of the Madeiran taxon , although Madeiran firecrests do react strongly to playback of the calls of the mainland birds . The island form was recognized as a separate species on the basis of differences from the mainland form in morphology , vocalisations , and genetics . The Atlantic archipelagos of the Canaries , Azores , and Madeira have a volcanic origin and they have never been part of a continent . The formation of Madeira started in the Miocene and the island was substantially complete 700 @,@ 000 years ago . In the distant past the major islands of these archipelagos were all colonised by Regulus species , which evolved on their respective islands isolated from mainland populations . The firecrest descendant evolved in Madeira and goldcrest subspecies evolved on the other islands . Cytochrome b gene divergence between common firecrests from Europe and Madeira firecrests suggests an evolutionary separation roughly 4 million years ago , considerably earlier than the 2 @.@ 2 million years ago maximum estimate for the goldcrest radiations in the Canaries and Azores . = = Distribution and habitat = = The Madeira firecrest is endemic to the main island of Madeira . It occurs mainly at higher levels from 600 – 1 @,@ 550 m ( 1 @,@ 950 – 4 @,@ 900 ft ) in all types of forests and scrub , but with a preference for tree heaths . Although it is strongly adapted to endemic tree heaths , it also breeds in broom , relict laurel forest , oak @-@ dominated deciduous forest and stands of the introduced Japanese cedar , Cryptomeria japonica . It is absent from the alien eucalyptus and acacia plantations which have replaced much of the endemic Madeiran laurel forest . = = Behaviour = = = = = Breeding = = = The male Madeira firecrest sings during the breeding season , often with its crest raised , and has a display which involves pointing its bill at another bird , showing the crest and strong face pattern . This differs from the display of the plainer @-@ faced goldcrest , which bows its head to emphasize the crest . The Madeira firecrest is monogamous . As is typical for the family , the nest is a closed cup built in three layers with a small entrance hole near its top . The nest 's outer layer is made from moss , small twigs , cobwebs and lichen , the spider webs also being used to attach the nest to the thin branches that support it . The middle layer is moss , and this is lined with feathers ( up to 3 @,@ 000 ) and hair . It is constructed by the female alone , although the male will accompany the female while she builds the nest over a period of a few days to three weeks . The eggs are described as like those of a Phylloscopus warbler ( white with some brown speckles ) , unlike the eggs of the common firecrest , which are pink with very indistinct reddish markings at the broad end . The clutch size is unknown , but believed to be smaller than the 7 – 12 of the nominate race of common firecrest . The female incubates the eggs for 14 @.@ 5 to 16 @.@ 5 days to hatching , and broods the chicks , which fledge 19 to 20 days after hatching . Both parents feed the chicks and fledged young . = = = Feeding = = = All Regulus species are almost exclusively insectivorous , preying on small arthropods with soft cuticles , such as springtails , aphids and spiders . They also feed on the cocoons and eggs of spiders and insects , and occasionally take pollen . The Madeira firecrest feeds in trees , exploiting mainly the upper surface of branches in coniferous habitat and of leaves in deciduous trees . This is in contrast to the goldcrest , which frequently feeds on the undersides of branches and leaves . The Madeira firecrest also forages in the moss and lichen which often covers the branches and trunks of laurel and oak trees . = = Predators and parasites = = The limited species diversity of Madeira means that there are relatively few potential predators . Of the three birds of prey , the common buzzard and common kestrel take mainly mammalian prey ; however , the dark Macaronesian subspecies of the Eurasian sparrowhawk , Accipiter nisus granti , is a specialist predator of woodland birds . Other than bats , there are no native land mammals , although there are a number of introduced species , two of which will take birds or chicks . These are brown rats and feral domestic cats . Even the high mountain nest sites of the endangered Zino 's petrel are at risk from these predators . Data on specific parasites of the Madeira firecrest is lacking , but the widespread flea Dasypsyllus gallinulae has been recorded in a related Regulus species , and significant infection by non @-@ native pathogens such as avian pox and avian malaria has been detected in another Macaronesian bird , the Berthelot 's pipit . = = Status = = The Madeira firecrest 's range consists of a single island , on which it appears to be fairly common to very common , although its population has not been evaluated . It is therefore classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List . It may be declining because of fragmentation and loss of native forest habitat , but its ability to occupy plantations of some of the non @-@ native tree species has ameliorated this factor to some extent .
= University College , Durham = University College , informally known as Castle , is a college of the University of Durham in England . Centred on Durham Castle on Palace Green , it was founded in 1832 and is the oldest of Durham 's colleges . As a constituent college of Durham University , it is listed as a higher education institution under section 216 of the Education Reform Act 1988 . Almost all academic activities , such as research and tutoring , occur at a university level . University College moved into its current location in 1837 . Around 150 students are accommodated within Durham Castle . Other college buildings , including converted 18th century houses and purpose @-@ built accommodation from the 1950s , 1970s and 1980s , are within five minutes ' walk of the castle . The college has 700 undergraduates and is currently the most over @-@ subscribed college of the University . In 1987 it admitted women undergraduates for the first time , having previously had an all @-@ male student body . As of January 2012 the Master of the college is political theorist David Held . = = History = = = = = Early years = = = University College was formed upon the creation of University of Durham in 1832 . It was the first college of the university , and is therefore known as the " foundation college " , but the university was founded explicitly on the Oxbridge model , and the intention was already for the university to develop along collegiate lines in the manner of Oxford and Cambridge , as indeed it has . Durham Castle had been the home of the Prince Bishops of Durham , and William van Mildert , one of the founders of the university , had intended for the castle to be given to the college . Temporary accommodation for students was provided at the Archdeacon 's Inn ( part of Cosin 's Hall ) on Palace Green until University College moved into its permanent home . Castle moved to its current location at Durham Castle in 1837 after van Mildert 's successor , Edward Maltby , completed renovations of the building . The castle 's keep , formerly a ruin , was redeveloped for student accommodation ; in particular , the college 's chapels and Great Hall have been restored . Since then high levels of maintenance have been , and still are , necessary to preserve the buildings of the castle . The university 's second college , Hatfield Hall , was formed in 1846 as a response to the high costs of maintaining Castle . These costs arose from the students ' expectations of being provided with servants and room furnishings . The university struggled for the rest of the 19th century , held back by a lack of prestige and a distance from the centres of power in the UK . By 1882 , Castle contained some 79 undergraduates out of 205 at the university as a whole . Despite the university largely failing to gain recognition and prestige , a number of other colleges had opened by the end of the nineteenth century . Of these , Cosin 's Hall failed to become financially viable and was absorbed into University College in 1864 . Enrolment numbers continued to fluctuate . = = = 1919 – 38 = = = The inter @-@ war years were transformative for Castle . The college was the smallest in Durham university , with just 34 undergraduates in 1928 , and was struggling to meet maintenance costs . The Castle , situated on the banks of " The Peninsula " , was in danger of collapsing into the River Wear and many of its internal structures were weak . The combination of high costs and low undergraduate numbers meant that the college was often threatened with closure or merger with Hatfield . Castle was saved largely through charitable donations . A visit in the 1920s from Edward , Prince of Wales ( later Edward VIII ) , helped increase the profile of the cause . In the 1920s , the castle 's foundations were secured through reinforcement with concrete . Following these and other extensive building refurbishments of the 1920s and 1930s the college was now able to expand . = = = Post @-@ war = = = One of its most successful periods followed during the Second World War when personnel of the Durham University Air Squadron were posted in the castle , doing short courses before joining the Royal Air Force . Those from the college who died during World War II were commemorated by the redevelopment of the Norman Gallery area of the Castle in the 1950s . This period also saw the launch of Castellum , an annual journal of the Castle Society , created to keep former students in touch with college life . In order to continue this expansion , the college purchased Lumley Castle in 1946 to house students , and by 1948 seventy five students were housed there . This section of the college developed a spirit of its own and is still remembered today through activities such as the Lumley Run . During the 1950s and 1960s the college expanded through developments at Owengate and Bailey Court , both around Palace Green . In the 1970s , the college sold Lumley Castle . The proceeds were used to fund the development of Moatside Court , and meant that all the college 's students were now housed within five minutes of the main castle . During this period there was rapid change in the size and structure of the college , which expanded to over 300 undergraduates by 1979 . Female students were admitted to the college for the first time in 1987 ; until then it had been single sex . Since this time the college has become fully mixed , with undergraduate numbers expanding to nearly seven hundred . Expansion caused a strain on college numbers , however , and in 2004 the college was unable to provide accommodation for all of its fresher students for the first time in its history . Following the foundation of Josephine Butler , Durham 's first new college to be opened since 1972 , pressure from the university to take on additional students has lessened , and undergraduate numbers have been intentionally reduced in recent years . = = Buildings and architecture = = Construction of Durham Castle began in 1072 , which makes it the oldest building in use at any University in the world . The castle retains much of its original design and structure , and is part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site with Durham Cathedral . The castle 's northern wing originally contained a dining hall , but this was later divided up to make more luxurious quarters for the Prince Bishop . This area is also home to the two chapels of the college . The Norman Chapel dates from the 11th century and is the oldest accessible part of the castle , and retains its original Saxon architectural style . The Tunstal Chapel is the larger of the two ; it dates from the 15th century and is named after Cuthbert Tunstal . Both chapels are used for worship within the college . To the east of the courtyard lies the Keep . It was re @-@ built in the 1830s , having previously lain in ruins . This area has the largest concentration of students living in the castle . To the south of the courtyard is the Gatehouse , built originally by Hugh de Puiset in the 12th century and re @-@ developed in the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries . Around this are the college 's more modern offices . The college 's other buildings are at Moatside Court , Owengate and Bailey Court . The developments at Moatside Court and Bailey Court date from the 1960s and 1970s , whilst Owengate was formed from a series of old houses in the 1950s . Of these , Moatside Court 's rooms were of a notoriously poor quality , but have recently been renovated at the cost of over £ 1 million . = = = Great Hall = = = To the west of the courtyard is the medieval Great Hall , still used as a dining room by students and staff . It was built during the time of Anthony Bek in the 13th century . For two hundred years this was the largest Great Hall in Great Britain ; however , it was shortened by Richard Foxe . It still stands some 14 m ( 46 ft ) high and 30 m ( 98 ft ) long . The black staircase that leads from the Great Hall to the Senior Common Room dates from 1662 , and is another of the older sections of the college still in use . Underneath the Hall is the college bar , located in an 11th @-@ century undercroft . Around these are student accommodation , the Lowe Library , and kitchens . = = = Lowe Library = = = The Lowe Library is the college 's library . It was formed from a bequest from Colonel W.D.Lowe , an officer of the Durham University Officers ' Training Corps . He later became a Classics tutor at the university and rowing coach for University College , staying until his death in 1921 . The library was opened in 1925 , extended into the college 's wine cellar in 1997 , and now contains over 10 @,@ 000 books . It acts as a support to the central university library , providing access to core textbooks . = = Role and activities = = University College is the most over @-@ subscribed college at the university ; for entry in 2006 , there were 2 @,@ 858 applications for just 170 places ( approximately 17 applicants for every place ) . As with all colleges at Durham , students study for degrees with Durham University , not their college , and teaching takes place in academic departments . University College is a " listed body " under the Education Reform Act ( 1988 ) . Although colleges are largely concerned with welfare , leisure and accommodation , University College has been running the ' Durham Castle Lecture Series ' since 2012 . Past and forthcoming speakers include Saskia Sassen , Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak , Rowan Williams , Anthony Giddens , Justin Welby and Martin Wolf . Within Durham 's colleges , there is a strong competitive rivalry . Castle 's main rival is Hatfield College , which is Durham 's second oldest college , having separated from Castle in the 1850s . The rivalry is maintained by student pranks and tricks and in various intercollegiate sporting events . The college has a commercial arm , taking advantage of the attractive nature of the college 's buildings . It hosts corporate events , conferences and weddings during the university vacations . The Castle is open to tourists only via guided tours . These occur daily outside of term time , but are more restricted during the term due to potential conflicts with the running of the college . Furthermore , events in the university timetable may result in their cancellation . Tourists are not otherwise permitted entry to the college or any common areas . There is relatively little conflict between students and tourists , with many of the guided tours done by students themselves . = = Student body = = Some 700 undergraduates attend Castle , making it slightly smaller than the average Durham college . Of these students , around 100 live in the castle itself , while another 250 are housed in the college 's surrounding buildings . It remains the most popular college in Durham for applications , with around 23 students applying for every available place . The undergraduate student body ( Junior Common Room or JCR ) is governed by an elected Executive Committee headed by the Senior Man ( even when a female student holds the role ) and supported by several other officers . Regular JCR meetings are held to discuss and vote on important issues . There are several other elected non @-@ executive officers such as Returning Officer , Fresher Rep and Sports Captain who organise other important college functions . The Senior Man meets regularly with college and university authorities to represent the JCR . The JCR runs three balls every year for its students , with one held during each term . The largest is the end of year June Ball , which is the social highlight of the academic year . Tradition dictates that its theme remains closely hidden until the doors to the Castle open . The graduate community at Castle forms the Middle Common Room ( MCR ) , which is based in the Maurice Tucker ( previously William de St @-@ Calais ) Room . However , due to size restrictions , no members of the MCR are currently able to live in the college grounds . The MCR , like the JCR , organises a number of social events and activities , such as the college 's entry into the inter @-@ collegiate University Challenge competition , which acts as trials for the University 's team . The Senior Common Room ( SCR ) , is an organisation of academics and tutors connected to the college . The SCR also organises formal meals with guest speakers . The student bar of University College is called the Undercroft Bar ( known colloquially as The Undie ) , due to its location in an 11th @-@ century Undercroft . It developed from the original Junior Common Room , which opened in the early 1950s . It is currently run by the Food and Beverage Services Manager ( Jamie Short ) with the help of the JCR Bar Chairman ( Matthew Kemp ) and the Vice Bar Chairman ( Barnaby Hodgkins ) . = = = Societies = = = University College JCR also supports many societies run exclusively for Castle students . The most popular societies include University College Boat Club ( UCBC ) , Castle Theatre Company , Castle Football Club and Castle Hockey Club . There are a number of arts societies within the college . Most notable is Castle Theatre Company , which produces a play each term . These plays are usually performed on the college 's grounds , although they sometimes tour nationally . They have also appeared at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe . = = Castle Society = = The Castle Society was formed in 1947 by Castle Alumni . It was originally named the Durham Castleman 's Society . Membership is open to anyone with academic ties to the college , and its aim is create a wider Castle community beyond its immediate students . The society makes regular donations to the college library , chapel , student bursaries , and various college societies . It has helped fund a number of projects in the college , including the accommodation at Moatside Court and Fellows Garden , as well as the West Courtyard Common Room . The Castle Society produces the annual journal " Castellum " , which chronicles life at the Castle and reports on activities of Castle alumni . Since 1990 , it has contributed towards the University College Durham Trust , the college 's charitable fund . = = Notable alumni = = Castle alumni are active through organisations and events such as the two annual reunion dinners , which cater for the more than 7 @,@ 000 living alumni . A number of Castle alumni have made significant contributions in the fields of government , law , science , academia , business , arts , journalism , and athletics , among others . = = = List of masters = = = The college is run by a " Master " , the most senior position in the SCR . As the first master of University College , Archdeacon Charles Thorp , also held the post of university warden . Following Thorp 's death in 1862 the mastership was created as a separate position , and has been held by thirteen people : Charles Thorp 1832 – 1862 Joseph Waite 1865 – 1873 Herbert Booth 1873 – 1875 Alfred Plummer 1875 – 1902 Henry Gee 1902 – 1919 Henry Ellershaw 1919 – 1930 J. H. How 1930 – 1939 Angus Macfarlane @-@ Grieve 1939 – 1954 Len Slater 1954 – 1973 D. W. McDowall 1973 – 1978 Edward Salthouse 1979 – 1998 Maurice Tucker 1998 – 2011 Eva Schumacher @-@ Reid 2011 ( Acting Master ) David Held 2012 – present
= Taboo ( Kumi Koda song ) = " Taboo " ( capitalized as " TABOO " ) is a song by Japanese recording artist Kumi Koda , taken from her seventh studio album Trick ( 2009 ) . It was written by Koda , and co @-@ written and produced by Hiro . " Taboo " is a dance @-@ pop song that lyrically discusses several taboo subjects including sex and homosexuality . It contains numerous elements including electropop and hip @-@ hop , and employs use of vocoder . It was released as the second single from the album on October 8 , 2008 by Rhythm Zone . Critical reception towards " Taboo " has been positive , with a majority of the critics commending the catchy chorus and its production . Several critics have highlighted " Taboo " as the album 's and Koda 's career stand out track . In Japan , " Taboo " became Koda 's fifth number one single , and reached number six on the Asian – Taiwanese Singles Chart . It has sold over 88 @,@ 000 units in Japan , and " Taboo " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . " Taboo " has been professionally remixed twice , and included on her remix albums Koda Kumi Driving Hit 's ( 2009 ) and Beach Mix ( 2012 ) . A music video for " Taboo " was directed by Takashi Tadokoro , and features Koda in a mansion . Based on themes and exploration of homosexuality and sexual content , the video has Koda dancing in different rooms with female and male companions . Another video version was edited with longer bathroom and dancing scenes . " Taboo " was included on the set list of the singer 's 2009 Trick tour , and the Premium Night : Love & Songs tour . " Taboo " and its music video has been widely considered an emphasis of Koda 's self @-@ described style " Ero kawaii " , and has been notified as one of her " sexiest " and most well @-@ known videos . = = Background and composition = = " Taboo " was written by Koda , and co @-@ written , produced , and composed by Hiro . Hiro was in charge of arranging the song , which included instrumentation of synthesizers , keyboards , and a drum machine . " Taboo " was one of two songs from Koda 's album Trick ( 2009 ) to be co @-@ written , produced , and composed by Hiro ; the other song was " Your Love " . It was selected as the second single from Trick and was released in Japan on October 8 , 2008 by Rhythm Zone , a sub @-@ label from Avex Trax . The Maxi CD version of the single contains the B @-@ side " Awlays " , and includes the two songs instrumental versions . A bonus DVD format was released , featuring the music video , an alternative video , and making video to " Taboo " . A third format , entitled the " Playroom Edition " , was released with the radio and instrumental version of " Taboo " on a CD single . The Playroom Edition includes a special notebook and clear file designed by Koda . The CD versions feature Koda in a black dress with Koda and the song title placed on the side of the image ; the DVD version features Koda in a mini jumpsuit . " Taboo " is an R & B song that borrows influences from numerous genres including hip @-@ hop , Japanese pop , and dance @-@ pop . Tetsuo Hiraga from Hot Express noted elements of 80s pop and disco music . Koda 's vocals are heavily processed through vocoder pyrotechnics , and are delivered during the chorus and parts of the bridge section . The lyrics to " Taboo " emphasize the term with the same name , discussing taboo nature and exploring it . Regarding homosexuality , Koda commented to Oricon ; " Instead of trying stuff out and experiencing it , we put up a ' No ' sign , we never try to break the taboos " and " Sometimes we shouldn 't retreat into safety , we should have courage to do things . Those are the feelings kin the song . " In terms of musical depth and lyrical diversity , Koda found that " Taboo " was one of her most " widen " tracks throughout her entire music career . = = Critical response = = " Taboo " received favourable reviews from most music critics . Chris True , who had written her extended biography at AllMusic , highlighted the song as an album and career stand out track . Adam Greenburg from the same publication reviewed Trick , and was fairly positive ; he found the first half was complimented by the " thumping dance track " " Taboo " , and Trick album tracks " Show Girl " and " Stay With Me " . Hiraga praised the song 's production and Koda 's delivery in the track . He complimented how Koda delivered in " full force " , and created a " masterpiece " that was " violently and comfortably danceable " and " catchy " . Hiraga then praised Koda 's and Hiro 's song writing for portraying homosexuality in a " erotic " , " cool " , and " emotional " way . A reviewer from CD Journal was very positive , commended Koda 's and Hiro 's song writing . The reviewer went on to say that " Taboo " is a " classic party song " and of Koda 's most " exhibited works " to date . The reviewer also review the B @-@ side " Always " , labelling it a " pleasant eternal love song " and noted its " feminine " and " family " traits . Paige Lim from Strait Times labelled " Taboo " as a " hard @-@ hitting dance song " . Greg from Selective @-@ Hearing was favourable towards the quality and use of synthesizers , but criticized the House of Nation remix for being " crappy " and " disposable " . A staff reviewer from Amazon.co.jp was positive , comparing Koda 's " sexy and cool " single " But " and the " R & B dance tune " of " Freaky " to " Taboo " . The reviewer went on to commended Koda 's courage in writing a song about " forbidden acts " . Connie from Jame @-@ World.com was positive in her review , stating " The singles ( from Trick ) took her onto a new path in her niche in the Japanese music industry , particularly TABOO : it is sleek and edgy , while still maintaining her usual coy showmanship . " She concluded by stating that " Taboo " alongside " This Is Not a Love Song " and ' Driving " on Trick " bring Koda Kumi into the new territory previously mentioned . " = = Commercial performance = = In Japan , " Taboo " debuted at number one on the Japanese Oricon Daily Chart with an estimated 24 @,@ 000 units sold on its first day ; it then reached number one on the weekly Oricon Singles Chart with over 65 @,@ 569 units sold . " Taboo " became Koda 's fifth number single , and her first number single since her 2007 single " Freaky " . " Taboo " also became Koda 's lowest @-@ selling number one single , but was surpassed by her following single " Stay with Me " with 66 @,@ 000 units . " Taboo " lasted thirteen weeks in the chart , and sold nearly 90 @,@ 000 units . " Taboo " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . " Taboo " charted at number seven on the Billboard Japan Hot 100 chart , and peaked at number two . " Taboo " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for digital shipments of 250 @,@ 000 units . = = Music video = = The accompanying music video for " Taboo " was directed by Takashi Tadokoro . The video opens with Koda 's name and the song title superimposed on a dining table . It shows several guests inside a mansion dancing and drinking at the table , and then shows Koda singing in a maid outfit . Small inter cut scenes features Koda kissing two woman ; one on the cheek , and one on the lips . This emphasizes the homosexual themes that Koda explained to World Journal and Oricon . Koda starts to sing in a living room , surrounded by several guests . She walks into a bathroom , and her maid outfit transforms into a small black jumpsuit , similar to the look from the CD cover sleeve of " Taboo " . Several guests appear in the bathroom dancing and grinding each other , occasionally touching Koda until she runs away . The second chorus has Koda walking into a small room , transforming her black jumpsuit into a cadet uniform . Koda becomes seduced by two women on the couch , and inter cut scenes feature Koda and the women dance to the song . As Koda is about to kiss one of the woman , a man see her and walks out of the room . Koda goes to find him , only to see him seducing a man in a small room . Smiling , Koda returns to the dining room in her maids outfit and accompanies the guests . The final chorus features Koda dancing in the dining room with the guests . The final scenes feature guests in the bathroom dancing , and Koda sitting down on a toilet . An alternative version , under the title " Another Video " , was directed by Tadokoro . This version features longer scenes of Koda in the bathroom and her dancing . This version was included on the DVD version of " Taboo " . The original video has been included on the DVD version of Trick , released in Japan and China . The music video was also included on the DVD version of Koda 's greatest hits album , Best : Third Universe . = = Impact and legacy = = Several critics and publications online believed the music video and lyrics to " Taboo " was the reason for Koda 's transition to a more sexual image , respectively . Tony Sokol from KpopStarz.com listed " Taboo " alongside " Juicy " , " V.I.P. " , " Shake It Up " , and " Lollipop " as her sexiest videos to date . Regarding " Taboo " , Sokol felt that the music video emphasized Koda 's self @-@ described style " Ero kawaii " . Ero Kawaii was first established by Koda in her music video for " Cutie Honey " where she became the first Japanese musician to wear lingerie in a music video . J.R. Taylor from Coed said that " Freaky " and " Taboo " were " important contributions " to Koda 's sexual image and Japanese music . Regarding Japanese music , Taylor felt " Freaky " and " Taboo " help regain sexual imagery in music videos and the Japanese scene , and that " many would believe that Koda 's image is more important than her Urban tunes " . Despite this , " Taboo " left a controversial legacy towards Koda 's sexual image and use of homosexual themes in future years . Her single " Ko @-@ So @-@ Ko @-@ So " , which featured Koda in bed with a woman was banned in several Asian countries . In a review for Koda 's third greatest hits Best : Third Universe , which " Taboo " was included on , Ian Martin from AllMusic said in retrospect of the included tracks ; " Kumi Koda is a performer who divides opinion in her homeland , mocked and hated openly by many in Japan , and with many of her fans reluctant to admit to liking her . " The feat of Koda in lingerie and her sexual imagery in " Cutie Honey " , " Freaky " , and " Taboo " was inspired in other Japanese musicians ; in 2011 , Japanese band AKB48 released their single " Heavy Rotation " , which caused local and global controversy for its use of lingerie and other sexual content . In July 2015 , after Koda publicly announced that she had low self @-@ esteem , Tan Kee Yun from The New Paper stated that while " Taboo " and " Loaded " , from her 2014 album Bon Voyage , focus on a sexual image , many of her songs focus on inner beauty . In March – April 2012 , an online poll was hosted on Popjustice by fans ranking their favourite single by Koda . With over 70 singles from her back @-@ catalogue listed , " Taboo " topped the list with thirteen people rating it ten points , and two people rating it the lowest score at eight . = = Live performances and promotion = = On September 22 , 2008 , Koda performed " Taboo " for the first time at a special event called " Let 's Party " . The song has been included on several concert tours by Koda ; it was first performed on her 2009 Trick Tour , where it appeared in the opening segment of the concert . Since then , " Taboo " has been included in the medley sections for her 2009 Taiwan concert tour , the 2010 Universe tour , and Koda 's 10th Anniversary Tokyo concert . A remix version was included on Koda 's Premium Night : Love & Songs concert tour . The song was then included on Koda 's two concert tours ; her 2014 Bon Voyage tour , and her recent 2015 Walk of My Life concert tour . " Taboo " has been included on two of Koda 's remix albums : the KOZMR Lucas Valentine remix on Beach Mix ( 2012 ) , and the House Nation Sunset in Ibiza remix on the bonus track edition of Koda Kumi Driving Hit 's 5 ( 2013 ) . The song has appeared on one of Koda 's greatest hits , this being Best : Third Universe ( 2010 ) . " Taboo " was used as the theme song for the Nintendo DS Japanese video game , Saihai Yo Yukue . The video game was released on 23 October 2008 . The song was used as the theme song for the NTV broadcast of the 2008 FILA Wrestling World Championships . The use of the song was to celebrate the 2008 championships which includes only the female freestyle event . It was used as the theme song to Avex Trax 's Myu umo , MTI 's Music.jp website commercial , and Koei 's Future of Helm commercial . = = Track listings = = = = = Playroom Edition = = = Digital music video " Taboo " ( Music video ) = = Credits and personnel = = Kumi Koda – vocals , background vocals , song writing Hiro – composer , producer , arranger , song writing , programmer , engineer Daisuke " D.I " Imai – composer , producer , arranger , song writing , programmer , engineer Yuka Koizumi – mastering Sunset In Ibiza – remixing , arrangement , composing Takashi Tadokoro – director Rhythm Zone - management , label Avex Trax - parent label , management Source : = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Alternate Versions = = TABOO TABOO : Found on the single ( 2008 ) and corresponding album , TRICK ( 2009 ) TABOO [ HOUSE NATION Sunset In Ibiza Remix ] : Found on the single ( 2008 ) and Koda Kumi Driving Hit 's ( 2009 ) TABOO [ Instrumental ] : Found on the single ( 2008 ) TABOO [ KOZMR Remix スグル・ヤマモト ™ ] : Found on Beach Mix ( 2012 )
= Treehouse of Horror VII = " Treehouse of Horror VII " is the first episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 27 , 1996 . In this seventh annual " Treehouse of Horror " episode , Bart discovers his long @-@ lost twin , Lisa grows a colony of small beings , and Kang and Kodos impersonate Bill Clinton and Bob Dole in order to win the 1996 Presidential election . It was written by Ken Keeler , Dan Greaney , and David S. Cohen , and directed by Mike B. Anderson . Phil Hartman provided the voice of Clinton . = = Plot = = = = = " The Thing and I " = = = In a parody of the horror stories The Hunchback of Notre @-@ Dame ( 1831 ) and Basket Case ( 1982 ) , Bart and Lisa begin to hear strange noises , and think there is something in the attic . Homer claims not to know what they are talking about , although he is later seen grabbing a bucket of fish heads and heading into the attic . Bart and Lisa investigate , and discover there really is a monster . Homer and Marge go into the attic , and Homer says : " Oh no , it escaped " . Marge immediately calls Dr. Hibbert , who explains that Bart had a conjoined twin brother named Hugo . The two were separated at birth , but it was discovered that Hugo was too evil to live in society , so the Simpsons did the " only humane thing to do " : they kept Hugo chained in the attic , where Homer fed him a platter of fish heads once a week . The rest of the family leaves to find Hugo , leaving Bart behind , but he soon discovers that Hugo never left the house . Hugo takes Bart up to the attic and ties Bart up , so that he can reattach himself . Suddenly , Dr. Hibbert finds them and knocks out Hugo , commenting that the evil twin is always on the left side . But then he realizes that Hugo 's scar is on the wrong side , and Bart is the evil twin . In a failed attempt to correct their wrong , Dr. Hibbert and the Simpson family sit down to a turkey dinner with Hugo , leaving Bart locked up in the attic eating fish heads . = = = " The Genesis Tub " = = = In a parody of The Twilight Zone episode , " The Little People " , Lisa performs a science experiment to see if cola will dissolve a tooth , and Bart shocks Lisa as part of his project to prove that nerds conduct electricity . The tooth is also shocked ; it undergoes an unusual reaction and creates a race of miniature beings . Lisa discovers this the next day and marvels at how the people in her universe evolve at a rapid rate , going through the various ages humans have gone through into modern times and eventually , a society more advanced than current humanity . Bart destroys some of the ecosystem in Lisa 's tub universe , and the people respond , sending a squadron of space ships to attack Bart , who vows revenge on the small universe as Lisa wonders what to do . Suddenly , she is shrunk and beamed down into the tub , where the citizens explain that they regard her as God , and they want her to do something about Bart , whom they regard as the Devil . She says she can help them if they can unshrink her , but they tell her they have not figured out the technology to do that . This angers Lisa , since they should have had both technologies figured out before shrinking her . At the same time , Bart grabs the tub and submits it in the science fair , and Lisa is forced to watch from within as Bart wins first prize . Realizing that she is now stuck in the small universe forever and having somehow lost her slippers , the very bitter Lisa orders her citizens to grovel and bring her some shoes , with one of the citizens adding that he will get some socks for her , too . = = = " Citizen Kang " = = = While out fishing , Homer is abducted by the two aliens Kang and Kodos . When they demand that Homer point them towards Earth 's leader , Homer informs them of the then @-@ upcoming presidential election and says the winner could be either Bill Clinton or Bob Dole . Kang and Kodos kidnap both Dole and Clinton , placing them in suspended animation tubes and assuming their forms through " bio @-@ duplication " to ensure that one of them will become the next leader . Before returning Homer to Earth , the aliens soak him in rum , so nobody will believe him . As the election nears , the impostor candidates are seen to be acting strangely , holding hands in public and making bizarre declarations in unhumanlike monotone . Later on , Homer stumbles upon the badly hidden spaceship and tries to save the real Dole and Clinton , with both candidates agreeing they should join forces to defeat the aliens ; however , Homer accidentally ejects them into space , killing them . On the day before the election , Homer crashes the spaceship into the Capitol and successfully reveals the candidates ' real identities . However , despite being exposed , Kang and Kodos declare to the people that they have to choose between one of them because " it 's a two @-@ party system " , since it is too late to get new candidates . One man in the crowd announces that he will vote for a third @-@ party candidate , but Kang and Kodos mockingly encourage him to " go ahead [ and ] throw your vote away , " prompting a bout of displeasure from Ross Perot . As such , Kang is subsequently elected President and quickly enslaves all of humanity into building a giant ray gun to aim at an unknown planet , while Homer smugly states that at least he voted for Kodos . = = Production = = The episode does not feature any wraparound segments , which are normally used in Treehouse of Horror episodes . The wraparounds had been cut from the previous year 's episode , so the writers did not bother writing one for this episode . " The Thing and I " was written by Ken Keeler , " The Genesis Tub " was written by Dan Greaney and " Citizen Kang " was written by David X. Cohen . Despite the similarities , " The Thing and I " was not based on the plot of Basket Case . " The Genesis Tub " was originally pitched by Cohen and it was later referenced in the South Park episode " Simpsons Already Did It " , when they pointed out that The Simpsons had earlier gotten the idea from the 1962 Twilight Zone episode called " The Little People . " The sequence where tiny spaceships attack Bart in " The Genesis Tub " marks one of the first uses of computers in The Simpsons animation . The computer was used to build models for reference and the animators later retraced it . The 1996 Presidential election occurred a few days after the airing of this episode . According to Cohen , the " Citizen Kang " short violated every rule of The Simpsons as it locked the episode in one time and named specific candidates . = = Cultural references = = Homer sings " Fish Heads " , a 1980 novelty song by Barnes & Barnes , during " The Thing and I " . Homer 's crashing the flying saucer into Capitol dome is a nod to Earth vs. the Flying Saucers ( 1956 ) . = = Reception = = In its original broadcast , " Treehouse of Horror VII " finished 31st in ratings for the week of October 21 – 27 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 5 , equivalent to approximately 10 @.@ 2 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Millennium and The X @-@ Files . In 2006 , IGN.com voted " Citizen Kang " as the seventh best segment of the Treehouse of Horror episodes . A.V. Club named Kang / Bob Dole 's line , " Abortions for some , miniature American flags for others ! " , one of the best lines in the history of the show . The ska punk band named I Voted for Kodos takes its name from Homer 's line , " Don 't blame me , I voted for Kodos " , at the end of " Citizen Kang " . In a 2000 Entertainment Weekly article , Matt Groening ranked it as his seventh favorite in the history of the show . " We 've reached the limits of what rectal probing can teach us " is one of Matt Groening 's favorite lines .
= Psylliodes luridipennis = Psylliodes luridipennis , commonly known as the Lundy cabbage flea beetle or the bronze Lundy cabbage flea beetle , is a species of flea beetle endemic to the island of Lundy , where it lives and feeds upon the endemic Lundy cabbage ( Coincya wrightii ) . Along with the true weevil Ceutorhynchus contractus var. pallipes and an undescribed race of flea beetle Psylliodes napi , it is known only from the Lundy cabbage . The species was first recorded by Thomas Vernon Wollaston in the 1840s , and was named by the Austrian entomologist Franz Kutschera in 1864 . Adult Lundy cabbage flea beetle measure around 3 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 12 in ) in length . They have brassy @-@ green heads and bodies , with reddish @-@ brown elytra . The adults feed upon the leaves of the Lundy cabbage , while the larvae mine into the plants to feed . The species is threatened by fluctuating numbers of Lundy cabbages , particularly due to invasive common rhododendrons ( Rhododendron ponticum ) . = = Taxonomy and evolution = = The species was first collected by Thomas Vernon Wollaston , who visited Lundy in 1844 and 1845 . He collected specimens of 153 species of beetle , including a specimen of the species that later became known as P. luridipennis . Charles Owen Waterhouse listed the species in volume 2 of the Entomologist 's Monthly Magazine as " Psylliodes 6 sp . — ? " , and it was formally described and named by Austrian entomologist Franz Kutschera in the journal Wiener Entomologische Monatschrift in 1864 . The ancestors of the modern P. luridipennis population would have been unable to survive on Lundy during the ice age . As such , the species must either be a relict species ( a species once more widespread ) , a species which is not unique to Lundy with other undiscovered populations , or the result of comparatively recent speciation on or near Lundy . One climactic and geological study suggests " that the ancestors of Lundy cabbage and its beetles may have had the opportunity to colonise Lundy across land during a few hundred years around 10 @,@ 800 years ago or may subsequently have been aided by [ now gone ] ' stepping stone ' land to the north east " of the island . = = Description = = Psylliodes luridipennis adults are oblong @-@ ovate , and the same size and build as P. hyoscyami , but not as broad , measuring between 2 @.@ 8 and 3 @.@ 6 mm in length . They have a brassy @-@ green head and thorax , shining reddish @-@ brown elytra and brassy @-@ green legs . The hind femora are brassy in colour but paler at the base , and the antennae are brick @-@ red . The adults are fully winged , and are capable of flight . Its brassy colour , smaller size , and more finely and closely punctate @-@ striate elytra distinguish it from its ally , P. chrysocephala , which is also found on Lundy . P. luridipennis is sometimes called the " bronze Lundy cabbage flea beetle " to differentiate it from another beetle found on the Lundy cabbage . This latter beetle , the " blue Lundy cabbage flea beetle " , is a short @-@ winged form of the widespread P. napi . = = Ecology and distribution = = Adult Psylliodes luridipennis beetles are invariably found on the Lundy cabbage ( Coincya wrightii ) , a species endemic to the island of Lundy , where they feed on the leaves . They are not found on other locally occurring plants . However , researchers were also able to lure the beetles onto other crucifers taken from gardens . Two other taxa are known only from Lundy cabbages — the true weevil Ceutorhynchus contractus var. pallipes and an undescribed race of the flea beetle Psylliodes napi — making the plant unique to Britain as the only endemic species which is the exclusive host to endemic insect species . However , the Lundy cabbage is also host to a diverse variety of other invertebrate species . Psylliodes luridipennis is found throughout the highly limited range of the Lundy cabbage , including sheer sea cliffs and further inland at Millcombe House . The insects also found their way to Lundy cabbages artificially seeded within the cabbage 's range within a year . It had been hypothesised that P. luridipennis and Ceutorhynchus contractus var. pallipes may help pollinate the Lundy cabbage , but observations of the taxa indicate that neither visit flowers . While there are no honey bees on Lundy , other species of winged insects are present . The plant may rely primarily upon pollen beetles of the genus Meligethes and the wind for pollination . Psylliodes luridipennis females lay their eggs on Lundy cabbage leaf stalks . The white larvae are leaf miners , digging into the petioles and stems . After emerging in late summer , they pupate in soil . = = Conservation = = Along with the Lundy cabbage , Psylliodes luridipennis has been listed in the United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan , and an action plan for its conservation , along with the conservation of other endemic species , has been prepared . This plan revolves mostly around the control of Rhododendron ponticum , an alien species which threatens the Lundy cabbage . The beetle is threatened by fluctuating numbers of Lundy cabbages . Though it is quicker than P. napi to recolonise new growth after bad years for the cabbage , it is slower to recover than the cabbage itself . The Joint Nature Conservation Committee recognise Psylliodes luridipennis as a " priority species " for conservation purposes , due to the fluctuating numbers of Lundy cabbages . Though the committee notes that " [ h ] ost plant numbers have been low , but relatively stable since 2001 " , it claims that P. luridipennis " has been noticeably difficult to find in recent years " . Based on pre @-@ 1994 IUCN Red List guidelines , the species was informally deemed as " vulnerable " .
= Montana Highway 48 = Montana State Highway 48 ( MT 48 ) is a short state maintained highway located in Deer Lodge County , in the southwestern region of the U.S. state of Montana . The highway is 6 @.@ 839 miles ( 11 @.@ 006 km ) long , and connects MT 1 to Interstate 90 , passing mainly through rural mining areas . MT 48 was first designated in 1938 , although portions of a highway existed in the location of MT 48 by at least 1924 . = = Route description = = MT 48 begins at an intersection with MT 1 as a two @-@ lane , paved road . The highway proceeds northeastward through rural mining land for a short distance before intersecting S @-@ 273 . The roadway continues northeast , running parallel to Spring Creek . After a short distance , the highway passes Bowman Field and several small reservoirs that were created for mining . The road proceeds northeastward through more rural mining land before slightly bending eastward . The highway continues in a slight northeastward direction near the town of Warm Springs , crossing the Montana Western Railway . The highway proceeds to its eastern terminus at an intersection with Interstate 90 's frontage road near exit 201 . The Montana Department of Transportation 's average daily traffic count for MT 48 is 1445 vehicles , of which 113 are trucks . No portion of the highway is listed as part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . = = History = = A short stretch of MT 48 near what would become MT 1 existed by at least 1924 . By 1927 , a short , dirt , unimproved connector road existed near the location of MT 48 . By at least 1937 , that route had been paved , and connected U.S. Route 10 ( US 10 , now MT 1 ) to US 10S ( now I @-@ 90 ) . MT 48 was officially designated on May 16 , 1938 . By 1949 , all but 0 @.@ 046 miles ( 0 @.@ 074 km ) of MT 48 had been reconstructed along its current route . US 10 had been renumbered as US 10A by 1951 . Since then , both segments of US 10 have been redesignated and improved . In 1978 , the final 0 @.@ 046 miles ( 0 @.@ 074 km ) of the highway was reconstructed . MT 48 has not been worked on since . = = Major junctions = = The entire route is in Deer Lodge County .
= Izzy Westbury = Isabelle Mary Geraldine , " The " Westbury ( born 8 March 1990 ) is an international cricketer and former president of the Oxford Union . She is captain of Middlesex women 's first team , was a member of the England Women 's Academy until 2011 and represented the Netherlands in one One Day International ( ODI ) in 2005 . A right @-@ handed batsman and off break bowler , she played for Somerset until 2012 . She was President of the Oxford Union in Michaelmas term 2011 and has been described as " the most engaging president that the Oxford Union has had in years " . Beginning her career in the Netherlands , Westbury progressed quickly within the national side , appearing at both the 2004 and 2006 Women 's European Under @-@ 21 Championships , and made her senior international debut at the 2005 Women 's European Championship . During this tournament , she also made her only ODI appearance , playing for the Netherlands against Ireland . She moved to England in 2006 to study , and joined Somerset for the 2007 season , where played until joining Middlesex . In 2010 , she was selected as part of the England Women 's Academy , travelling to India for the High Performance Camp . = = Career = = = = = Early years : In the Netherlands = = = Born in Hammersmith , London , Isabelle Westbury experienced a nomadic childhood , living in Mongolia , Malaysia and Syria before arriving in the Netherlands . She attended The British School in the Netherlands from 2001 – 2006 . It was in the Netherlands that she first started playing cricket , as she was not allowed to play football at the " very traditional club " near her house . During her time in the country , she played domestic cricket for The Hague Cricket Club . She made her first international appearances at the 2004 Women 's European Under @-@ 21 Championships for the Netherlands Under @-@ 21s , making her debut for the side at the age of 14 . Playing as wicket @-@ keeper , she claimed one catch and then scored 15 not out batting from number nine as Ireland won by 98 runs . In the Netherlands ' second match of the competition , she moved down to number eleven , and remained unbeaten without scoring when England secured a 219 @-@ run victory with over 10 overs remaining . Another loss in the final match of the competition ensured that the Netherlands finished bottom of the table — Westbury scored five runs as no Dutch batsman managed to reach double figures against Scotland . In 2005 , aged 15 , Westbury represented the senior Netherlands side for the first time during the 2005 Women 's European Championship in Wales . Unlike her appearances for the Under @-@ 21s , which she made as wicket @-@ keeper , Westbury played as a bowler for the duration of the tournament , batting in the lower order . She claimed three wickets during the tournament at an average of 46 @.@ 66 . Only required to bat twice , she scored 1 and 0 * , made during losses against England Development Squad and Ireland respectively . Unlike the rest of the matches in the tournament , the match against Ireland was given One Day International ( ODI ) status , giving Westbury her first — and only — ODI cap . The 2006 Women 's European Under @-@ 21 Championships saw Westbury reprise her role as wicket @-@ keeper batsman for the youth side . The Netherlands were much improved from the 2004 tournament ; after a heavy loss to England in a warm @-@ up match , the Netherlands won their final match to finish runners @-@ up behind England . She scored 30 in the second match , a loss to Ireland , as only herself and Lotte Egging reached double figures for the Netherlands . She made her highest total for the Under @-@ 21s in the final match of the competition , scoring 75 before being run out as the Netherlands reached 180 off their 50 overs , and then bowled Scotland out , achieving a 95 run victory . She finished the competition as the leading run @-@ scorer and won the Player of the Tournament for her achievements . = = = Move to England = = = Westbury started at Millfield School in Street , Somerset in 2006 . She joined Somerset for the 2007 County Championship . After her first match , in which she batted at number nine , and was 19 not out at the close of the innings , she opened the innings for the county for the remainder of the season . She enjoyed mixed success in the role , and finished the season with a batting average of 19 @.@ 75 , the third @-@ best among Somerset batsmen behind Elwyn Campbell and Becky Williams . Remaining with Somerset in 2008 , she claimed her first wicket for the county during their first match of the season , having Surrey opener Ebony @-@ Jewel Rainford @-@ Brent caught . She appeared in the Super Fours — a competition in which the England selectors place the 48 leading players into four teams — for the first time in 2008 , representing the Diamonds in both the 50 @-@ over and 20 @-@ over forms of the game . She bowled economically in the Twenty20 semi @-@ final , helping to limit the Sapphires to 123 , which Diamonds chased down successfully with a ball to spare . She remained economical in the final , but despite restricting the Rubies to 110 , Diamonds could only reach 106 in their reply . In three 50 @-@ over Super Fours matches , she was less effective ; her only wicket coming in the first match . Returning to the County Championship , Westbury dropped down into the lower order batting , while at the same time seeing her workload with the ball increasing . Somerset were rewarded in the match against Lancashire when she claimed five @-@ wickets in the innings for the first time to set up a 132 run win . She continued her form in the following match , claiming four wickets against Warwickshire , conceding only four runs . She finished the season as Somerset 's leading wicket @-@ taker , claiming her twelve wickets at an average of 6 @.@ 41 . Westbury also competed in the Junior Super Fours — for 16- to 19 @-@ year @-@ old female cricketers — towards the end of the 2008 season . Appearing for Junior Emeralds , she improved as the tournament progressed , following up scores of 18 and 27 with the tournament 's highest score , 89 , in the final match . She finished as the competition 's second @-@ highest run @-@ scorer , her 134 runs trailing only Lauren Onojaife 's 138 . The 2009 County Championship campaign saw Westbury 's form dip from the previous season . Playing in five of Somerset 's ten matches , she scored 18 runs at an average under four , and her three wickets came at 38 @.@ 66 . Her performances in the Junior Super Fours , however , continued to improve with both bat and ball . Named as captain of the Junior Emeralds , Westbury led by example in the opening match , taking three wickets and limiting the Rubies to 21 runs off her eight overs , and then top @-@ scoring with 37 for her side in their successful chase . She bowled even more economically in the following match , conceding 12 runs off 10 overs , once again claiming three wickets . Opening the batting for the Emeralds in their reply — as she had done in the first match — she made 46 runs , sharing a partnership of 102 with fellow opener Beth MacGregor to help set up a seven wicket victory . The Emerald 's final match saw the Sapphires score more effectively off her bowling , totalling 30 runs from her 10 overs , but Westbury replied with an unbeaten century to propel her side to another seven wicket win . Her 187 runs and 7 wickets ensured she finished the tournament as the most prolific batsman and bowler , as the Emeralds won after remaining undefeated . In January 2010 , Westbury was named as part of the England Academy squad for the High Performance Camp in Bangalore , India . Despite her earlier appearances for the Netherlands , Westbury has indicated her desire to appear for England in the future . = = Personal life = = Westbury attended Hertford College , Oxford where she studied Physiology ( Natural Sciences ) . In addition to her cricket career , she also played hockey at Oxford , achieving her Blue by playing in the Varsity Hockey Match against Cambridge University in March 2010 . In Michaelmas term 2011 , she was President of the Oxford Union , having earlier served as Secretary .
= Cosmo Gordon Lang = William Cosmo Gordon Lang , 1st Baron Lang of Lambeth , GCVO , PC ( known as Cosmo Gordon Lang ; 31 October 1864 – 5 December 1945 ) was a Scottish Anglican prelate who served as Archbishop of York ( 1908 – 1928 ) and Archbishop of Canterbury ( 1928 – 1942 ) . His rapid elevation to Archbishop of York , within 18 years of his ordination , is unprecedented in modern Church of England history . As Archbishop of Canterbury during the abdication crisis of 1936 , he took a strong moral stance , his comments in a subsequent broadcast being widely condemned as uncharitable towards the departed king . The son of a Scots Presbyterian minister , Lang abandoned the prospect of a legal and political career to train for the Anglican priesthood . Beginning in 1890 , his early ministry was served in slum parishes in Leeds and Portsmouth , except for brief service as an Oxford college chaplain . In 1901 he was appointed suffragan Bishop of Stepney in London , where he continued his work among the poor . He also served as a canon of St Paul 's Cathedral , London . In 1908 Lang was nominated as Archbishop of York , despite his relatively junior status as a suffragan rather than a diocesan bishop . His religious stance was broadly Anglo @-@ Catholic , tempered by the liberal Anglo @-@ Catholicism advocated in the Lux Mundi essays . He consequently entered the House of Lords as a Lord Spiritual and caused consternation in traditionalist circles by speaking and voting against the Lords ' proposal to reject David Lloyd George 's 1909 " People 's Budget " . This radicalism was not , however , maintained in later years . At the start of the First World War , Lang was heavily criticised for a speech in which he spoke sympathetically of the German Emperor . This troubled him greatly and may have contributed to the rapid ageing which affected his appearance during the war years . After the war he began to promote church unity and at the 1920 Lambeth Conference was responsible for the Church 's Appeal to All Christian People . As Archbishop of York he supported controversial proposals for the revision of the Book of Common Prayer but , after acceding to Canterbury , he took no practical steps to resolve this issue . Lang became Archbishop of Canterbury in 1928 . He presided over the 1930 Lambeth Conference , which gave limited church approval to the use of contraception . After denouncing the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1935 and strongly condemning European anti @-@ semitism , Lang later supported the appeasement policies of the British government . In May 1937 he presided over the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth . On retirement in 1942 Lang was raised to the peerage as Baron Lang of Lambeth and continued to attend and speak in House of Lords debates until his death in 1945 . Lang himself believed that he had not lived up to his own high standards . Others , however , have praised his qualities of industry , his efficiency and his commitment to his calling . = = Early life = = = = = Childhood and family = = = Cosmo Gordon Lang was born in 1864 at the manse in Fyvie , Aberdeenshire , the third son of the local Church of Scotland minister , the Reverend John Marshall Lang , and his wife Hannah Agnes Lang . Cosmo was baptised at Fyvie church by a neighbouring minister , the name " William " being added inadvertently to his given names , perhaps because the local laird was called William Cosmo Gordon . The additional name was rarely used subsequently . In January 1865 the family moved to Glasgow on John Lang 's appointment as a minister in the Anderston district . Subsequent moves followed : in 1868 to Morningside , Edinburgh and , in 1873 , back to Glasgow when John Lang was appointed minister to the historic Barony Church . In Glasgow , Lang attended the Park School , a day establishment where he won a prize for an essay on English literature and played the occasional game of football ; otherwise , he recorded , " I was never greatly interested in [ the school 's ] proceedings . " Holidays were spent in different parts of Scotland , most notably in Argyll to which , later in life , Lang would frequently return . In 1878 , at the age of 14 , Lang sat and passed his matriculation examinations . Despite his youth , he began his studies at the University of Glasgow that autumn . Whilst Lang was Archbishop of Canterbury , his younger brother Marshall was elected Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1935 - the only case of two brothers both holding the leading offices in both the Church of England and the Church of Scotland . = = = University of Glasgow = = = At the university some of the leading academics in Scotland were among Lang 's tutors : the Greek scholar Richard Claverhouse Jebb , the physicist William Thomson ( who was later created Lord Kelvin ) and the philosopher Edward Caird . Long afterwards Lang commented on the inability of some of these eminent figures to handle " the Scottish boors who formed a large part of their classes " . Lang was most strongly influenced by Caird , who gave the boy 's mind " its first real awakening " . Lang recalled how , in a revelation as he was passing through Kelvingrove Park , he expressed aloud his sudden conviction that : " The Universe is one and its Unity and Ultimate Reality is God ! " He acknowledged that his greatest failure at the University was his inability to make any progress in his understanding of mathematics , " to me , then and always , unintelligible " . In 1881 Lang made his first trip outside Scotland , to London where he heard the theologian and orator Henry Parry Liddon preach in St Paul 's Cathedral . He also heard William Ewart Gladstone and Joseph Chamberlain debating in the House of Commons . Later that year he travelled to Cambridge to stay with a friend who was studying there . A visit to King 's College Chapel persuaded Lang that he should study at the College ; the following January he sat and passed the entrance examination . However , when he discovered that as part of his degree studies he would be examined in mathematics , his enthusiasm disappeared . Instead , he applied to Balliol College , Oxford , and was accepted . In the summer of 1882 he ended his studies at Glasgow with a Master of Arts degree , and was awarded prizes for essays on politics and church history . = = = Oxford = = = Lang started at Balliol in October 1882 . In his first term he successfully sat for the Brakenbury Scholarship , described by his biographer John Gilbert Lockhart as " the Blue Ribbon of history scholarship at any University of the British Isles " . In February 1883 his first speech at the Oxford Union , against the disestablishment of the Church of Scotland , was warmly received ; the chairman likened his oratory to that of the Ancient Greek statesman , Demosthenes . He became the Union 's president in the Trinity term of 1883 , and the following year was a co @-@ founder of the Oxford University Dramatic Society ( OUDS ) . Although Lang considered himself forward @-@ thinking , he joined and became secretary of the Canning Club , the university 's principal Conservative society . His contemporary Robert Cecil recorded that Lang 's " progressive " opinions were somewhat frowned upon by traditional Tories , who nevertheless respected his ability . Lang later assisted in the founding of the University settlement of Toynbee Hall , a mission to help the poor in the East End of London . He had been first drawn to this work in 1883 , after listening to a sermon in St Mary 's Church , Oxford , by Samuel Augustus Barnett , Vicar of St Jude 's , Whitechapel . Barnett became the settlement 's first leader , while Lang became one of its first undergraduate secretaries . He spent so much time on these duties that he was chided by the Master of Balliol , Benjamin Jowett , for neglecting his studies . In 1886 Lang graduated with first @-@ class honours in History ; in October of that year he failed to secure a Fellowship of All Souls College , blaming his poor early scholastic training in Glasgow . = = = Towards ordination = = = Lang 's career ambition from early in life was to practise law , enter politics and then take office in some future Conservative administration . In 1887 he began his studies for the English Bar , working in the London chambers of W.S. Robson , a future Attorney @-@ General , whose " vehement radicalism was an admirable stimulus and corrective to [ Lang 's ] liberal Conservatism " . During these years Lang was largely aloof from religion , but continued churchgoing out of what he termed " hereditary respect " . He attended services at the nonconformist City Temple church and sometimes went to St Paul 's Cathedral . Of his life at that time he said : " I must confess that I played sometimes with those external temptations that our Christian London flaunts in the face of its young men . " In October 1888 Lang was elected to an All Souls Fellowship and began to divide his time between London and Oxford . Some of his Oxford friends were training for ordination and Lang was often drawn into their discussions . Eventually the question entered Lang 's mind : " Why shouldn 't you be ordained ? " The thought persisted , and one Sunday evening in the spring of 1889 , after a visit to the theological college at Cuddesdon , Lang attended evening service at the Cuddesdon parish church . By his own account , during the sermon he was gripped by " a masterful inward voice " which told him " You are wanted . You are called . You must obey . " He immediately severed his connection with the Bar , renounced his political ambitions and applied for a place at Cuddesdon College . With the help of an All Souls contact , the essential step of his confirmation into the Church of England was supervised by the Bishop of Lincoln . Lang 's decision to become an Anglican and seek ordination disappointed his Presbyterian father , who nevertheless wrote to his son : " What you think , prayerfully and solemnly , you ought to do – you must do – we will accept . " = = Early ministry = = = = = Leeds = = = After a year 's study at Cuddesdon , Lang was ordained as deacon . He rejected an offer of the chaplaincy of All Souls as he wanted to be " up and doing " in a tough parish . Lang identified with the Anglo @-@ Catholic tradition of the Church of England , in part , he admitted , as a reaction against his evangelical upbringing in the Church of Scotland . His sympathies lay with the progressive wing of Anglo @-@ Catholicism represented by the Lux Mundi essays , published in 1888 by a group of forward @-@ looking Oxford theologians . Among these was Edward Stuart Talbot , Warden of Keble , who in 1888 had become Vicar of Leeds Parish Church . Talbot had contributed the essay entitled " The Preparation for History in Christ " in Lux Mundi . Lang jumped at the offer of a curacy under Talbot , and arrived in Leeds in the autumn of 1890 . Leeds Parish Church , rebuilt and reconsecrated in 1841 after an elaborate ceremony , was of almost cathedral size , the centre of a huge parish ministered by many curates . Lang 's district was the Kirkgate , one of the poorest areas , many of whose 2 @,@ 000 inhabitants were prostitutes . Lang and his fellow curates fashioned a clergy house from a derelict public house . He later moved next door , into a condemned property which became his home for his remaining service in Leeds . In addition to his normal parish duties , Lang acted temporarily as Principal of the Clergy School , was chaplain to Leeds Infirmary , and took charge of a men 's club of around a hundred members . On 24 May 1891 he was ordained to full priesthood . Lang continued to visit Oxford when time allowed and on a visit to All Souls in June 1893 he was offered the post of Dean of Divinity at Magdalen College . Other offers were open to him ; the Bishop of Newcastle wished to appoint him vicar of the cathedral church in Newcastle and Benjamin Jowett wished him to return to Balliol as a tutor in theology . Lang chose Magdalen ; the idea of being in charge of young men who might in the future achieve positions of responsibility was attractive to him and , in October 1893 , with many regrets , he left Leeds . = = = Magdalen College = = = As Magdalen 's Dean of Divinity ( " college chaplain " in ordinary parlance ) , Lang had pastoral duties with the college 's undergraduates and responsibility for the chapel and its choir . Lang was delighted with this latter obligation ; his concern for the purity of the choir 's sound led him to request that visitors " join in the service silently " . In 1894 Lang was asked to add to his workload by acting as Vicar of the University Church of St Mary the Virgin , where John Henry Newman had begun his Oxford ministry in 1828 . The church had almost ceased to function when Lang took it over , but he revived regular services , chose preachers with care and slowly rebuilt the congregation . In December 1895 he was offered the post of Vicar of Portsea , a large parish within Portsmouth on the south coast , but he was not ready to leave Oxford and refused . Some months later he had further thoughts ; the strain of his dual appointment in Oxford was beginning to tell and , he claimed , " the thought of this great parish [ of Portsea ] and work going a @-@ begging troubled my conscience . " After discovering that the Portsea offer was still open , he decided to accept , though with some misgiving . = = = Portsea = = = Portsea , covering much of the town of Portsmouth , was a dockside parish of around 40 @,@ 000 inhabitants with a mixture of housing ranging from neat terraces to squalid slums . The large , recently rebuilt church held more than 2 @,@ 000 people . Lang arrived in June 1896 to lead a team of more than a dozen curates serving the five districts of the parish . He quickly resumed the kind of urban parish work he had carried out in Leeds ; he founded a Sunday afternoon men 's conference with 300 men , and supervised the construction of a large conference hall as a centre for parish activities . He also pioneered the establishment of parochial church councils long before they were given legal status in 1919 . Outside his normal parish duties , Lang served as chaplain to the local prison , and became acting chaplain to the 2nd Hampshire Royal Artillery Volunteer Corps . Lang 's relationship with his curates was generally formal . They were aware of his ambition and felt that he sometimes spent too much time on his outside interests such as his All Souls Fellowship , but were nevertheless impressed by his efficiency and his powers of oratory . The Church historian Adrian Hastings singles out Portsea under Lang as an example of " extremely disciplined pastoral professionalism " . Lang may have realised that he was destined for high office ; he is reported to have practised the signature " Cosmo Cantuar " during a relaxed discussion with his curates ( " Cantuar " is part of the Archbishop of Canterbury 's formal signature ) . In January 1898 he was invited by Queen Victoria to preach at Osborne House , her Isle of Wight home . Afterwards he talked with the Queen who , Lang records , suggested that he should marry . Lang replied that he could not afford to as his curates cost too much . He added : " If a curate proves unsatisfactory I can get rid of him . A wife is a fixture . " He was summoned on several more occasions and in the following January was appointed an Honorary Chaplain to the Queen . These visits to Osborne were the start of a close association with the Royal Family which lasted for the rest of Lang 's life . As one of the Queen 's chaplains , he assisted in the funeral arrangements after her death in January 1901 . = = Bishop and canon = = In March 1901 Lang was appointed suffragan Bishop of Stepney and a canon of St Paul 's Cathedral . These appointments reflected his growing reputation and recognised his successful ministry in working @-@ class parishes . He was consecrated bishop by the Archbishop of Canterbury , Frederick Temple , in St Paul 's Cathedral , on 1 May ; his time would subsequently be divided between his work in the Stepney region and his duties at St Paul 's . The University of Oxford honoured him with the degree of Doctor of Divinity in late May 1901 . = = = Stepney = = = Lang 's region of Stepney within the Diocese of London extended over the whole area generally known as London 's East End , with two million people in more than 200 parishes . Almost all were poor , and housed in overcrowded and insanitary conditions . Lang knew something of the area from his undergraduate activities at Toynbee Hall , and his conscience was troubled by the squalor that he saw as he travelled around the district , usually by bus and tram . Lang 's liberal conservatism enabled him to associate easily with Socialist leaders such as Will Crooks and George Lansbury , successive mayors of Poplar ; he was responsible for bringing the latter back to regular communion in the Church . In 1905 he and Lansbury joined the Central London Unemployed Body , set up by the government to tackle the region 's unemployment problems . That same year Lang took as his personal assistant a young Cambridge graduate and clergyman 's son , Dick Sheppard , who became a close friend and confidante . Sheppard was eventually ordained , becoming a radical clergyman and founder of the Peace Pledge Union . Lang believed that socialism was a growing force in British life , and at a Church Congress in Great Yarmouth in 1907 he speculated on how the Church should respond to this . His remarks reached The New York Times , which warned that modern socialism was often equated with unrest , that " the cry of the demagogue is in the air " and that the Church should not heed this cry . Much of the work in the district was supported by the East London Church Fund , established in 1880 to fund additional clergy and lay workers in the poorest districts . Lang preached in wealthier parishes throughout Southern England , and urged his listeners to contribute to the Fund . He extended his ministry to the army when , in 1907 , was appointed Honorary Chaplain to the City of London Imperial Yeomanry ( Rough Riders ) . He became chairman of the Church of England Men 's Society ( CEMS ) , which had been founded in 1899 by the merger of numerous organisations doing the same work . Initially he found it " a very sickly infant " , but under his leadership it expanded rapidly , and soon had over 20 @,@ 000 members in 600 branches . Later he became critical of the Church 's failure to use this movement effectively , calling it one of the Church 's lost opportunities . = = = St Paul 's Cathedral = = = Lang 's appointment as a canon of St Paul 's Cathedral required him to spend three months annually as the canon in residence , with administrative and preaching duties . Following his appointment as canon , he was also appointed Treasurer of the Cathedral . His preaching on Sunday afternoons caught the attention of William Temple , Lang 's future successor at both York and Canterbury , who was then an undergraduate at Oxford . Temple observed that , in contrast to the Bishop of London 's sermons , listening to Lang brought on an intellectual rather than emotional pleasure : " I can remember all his points , just because their connexion is inevitable .... And for me , there is no doubt that this is the more edifying by far . " Lang was a member of the cathedral 's governing body , the Dean and Chapter , and was responsible for the organisation of special occasions , such as the service of thanksgiving for King Edward VII 's recovery from appendicitis in July 1902 . = = Archbishop of York = = = = = Appointment = = = In the autumn of 1908 Lang was informed of his election as Bishop of Montreal . Letters from the Governor General of Canada and the Canadian High Commissioner urged him to accept , but the Archbishop of Canterbury asked him to refuse . A few weeks later a letter from Herbert Asquith , the prime minister , informed Lang that he had been nominated Archbishop of York . Lang was only 44 years old , and had no experience as a diocesan bishop . On the issue of age , the Church Times believed that Asquith deliberately recommended the youngest bishop available , after strong political lobbying for the appointment of the aged Bishop of Hereford , John Percival . Such a promotion for a suffragan , and within so short a period after ordination , was without recent precedent in the Church of England . Lang 's friend Hensley Henson , a future Bishop of Durham , wrote : " I am , of course , surprised that you go straight to an archbishopric ... But you are too meteoric for precedent . " The appointment was generally well received , although the Protestant Truth Society sought in vain to prevent its confirmation . Strong opponents of Anglo @-@ Catholic practices , they maintained that as Bishop of Stepney Lang had " connived at and encouraged flagrant breaking of the law relating to church ritual " . = = = First years = = = Lang was enthroned at York Minster on 25 January 1909 . In 18 years since ordination he had risen to the second @-@ highest position in the Church of England . In addition to his diocesan responsibilities for York itself , he became head of the entire Northern Province , and a member of the House of Lords . Believing that the Diocese of York was too large , he proposed reducing it by forming a new Diocese of Sheffield , which after several years ' work was inaugurated in 1914 . In the years following his appointment , Lang spoke out on a range of social and economic issues , and in support of improved working conditions . After taking his seat in the House of Lords in February 1909 , he made his maiden speech in November in the debate on the controversial People 's Budget , advising the Lords against their intention to reject this measure . He cast his first Lords vote against rejection , because he was " deeply convinced of the unwisdom of the course the Lords proposed to take " . Although his speech was received with respect , Lang 's stance was politely reproved by the leading Conservative peer Lord Curzon . Despite this seemingly progressive approach , Lang 's instincts remained conservative . He voted against the 1914 Irish Home Rule Bill and opposed liberalisation of the divorce laws . After playing a prominent role in King George V 's coronation in 1911 , Lang became increasingly close to the Royal Family , an association which drew the comment that he was " more courtier than cleric " . His love of ceremony , and concern for how an archbishop should look and live , began to obscure other aspects of his ministry ; rather than assuming the role of the people 's prelate he began , in the words of his biographer Alan Wilkinson , to act as a " prince of the church " . = = = First World War = = = When war broke out in August 1914 , Lang concluded that the conflict was righteous . Younger clergy should be encouraged to serve as military chaplains , but it was not their duty to fight . He thereafter was active in recruiting campaigns throughout his province . At a meeting in York in November 1914 he caused offence when he spoke out against excessive anti @-@ German propaganda , and recalled a " sacred memory " of the Kaiser kneeling with King Edward VII at the bier of Queen Victoria . These remarks , perceived as pro @-@ German , produced what Lang termed " a perfect hail of denunciation " . The strain of this period , coupled with the onset of alopecia , drastically altered Lang 's relatively youthful appearance to that of a bald and elderly @-@ looking man . His friends were shocked ; the king , meeting him on the Royal train , apparently burst into guffaws of laughter . Public hostility against Lang was slow to subside , re @-@ emerging from time to time throughout the war . However , Lang continued his contribution to the war effort , paying visits to the Grand Fleet and to the Western Front . He applied all his organisational skills to the Archbishop of Canterbury 's National Mission of Repentance and Hope , an initiative designed to renew Christian faith nationwide , but it failed to make a significant impact . As a result of the Battle of Jerusalem of December 1917 , the British Empire 's Egyptian Expeditionary Force captured the Holy City , bringing it under Christian control for the first time since the Crusades . As Prelate of the Venerable Order of Saint John , Lang led a service of celebration on 11 January 1918 at the Order 's Grand Priory Church , Clerkenwell . He explained that it was 917 years since the Order 's hospital had been founded in Jerusalem , and 730 years since they were driven out by Saladin . " London is the city of the Empire 's commerce , but Jerusalem is the city of the soul , and it is particularly fitting that British Armies should have delivered it out of the hands of the infidel . " Early in 1918 , at the invitation of the Episcopal Church of the United States , he made a goodwill visit to America , praising the extent and willingness of America 's participation in the war . The Westminster Gazette called this " one of the most moving and memorable visits ever paid by an Englishman [ sic ] to the United States " . = = = Post @-@ war years = = = After the war , Lang 's primary cause was that of church unity . In 1920 , as chairman of the Reunion Committee at the Sixth Lambeth Conference , he promoted an " Appeal to all Christian People " , described by Hastings as " one of the rare historical documents that does not get forgotten with the years " . It was unanimously adopted as the Conference 's Resolution 9 , and ended : " We ... ask that all should unite in a new and great endeavour to recover and to manifest to the world the unity of the Body of Christ for which He prayed . " Despite initial warmth from the English Free Churches , little could be achieved in terms of practical union between episcopal and non @-@ episcopal churches , and the initiative was allowed to lapse . Historically , however , the Appeal is considered the starting @-@ point for the more successful ecumenical efforts of later generations . Lang was supportive of the Malines Conversations of 1921 – 26 , though not directly involved . These were informal meetings between leading British Anglo @-@ Catholics and reform @-@ minded European Roman Catholics , exploring the possibility of reuniting the Anglican and Roman communions . Although the discussions had the blessing of Randall Davidson , the Archbishop of Canterbury , many Anglican evangelicals were alarmed by them . Ultimately , the talks foundered on the entrenched opposition of the Catholic ultramontanes . A by @-@ product of these conversations may have been the awakening of opposition to the revision of the Anglican Prayer Book . The focus of this revision , which Lang supported , was to make concessions to Anglo @-@ Catholic rituals and practices in the Anglican service . The new Prayer Book was overwhelmingly approved by the Church 's main legislative body , the Church Assembly , and by the House of Lords . However , partly through the advocacy of the fervently evangelical Home Secretary , Sir William Joynson @-@ Hicks , the revision was twice defeated in the House of Commons , in December 1927 by 238 votes to 205 and , in June 1928 , by 266 – 220 . Lang was deeply disappointed , writing that " the gusts of Protestant convictions , suspicions , fears [ and ] prejudices swept through the House , and ultimately prevailed . " On 26 April 1923 King George V awarded Lang the Royal Victorian Chain , an honour in the personal gift of the Sovereign After the marriage of the Duke of York in 1923 , Lang formed a friendship with the Duchess which lasted for the rest of Lang 's life . In 1926 he baptised Princess Elizabeth , the future Elizabeth II , in the private chapel of Buckingham Palace . In January 1927 Lang took centre @-@ stage in the elaborate ceremonies which marked the 1,300th anniversary of the founding of York Minster . = = Archbishop of Canterbury = = = = = In office = = = Archbishop Davidson resigned in July 1928 ( he is believed to have been the first Archbishop of Canterbury ever to retire voluntarily ) . On 26 July Lang was notified by the Prime Minister , Stanley Baldwin , that he would be the successor ; William Temple would succeed Lang at York . Lang was enthroned as the new Archbishop of Canterbury on 4 December 1928 , the first bachelor to hold the appointment in 150 years . A contemporary Time magazine article described Lang as " forthright and voluble " and as looking " like George Washington " . Lang 's first three years at Canterbury were marked by intermittent illnesses , which required periods of convalescence away from his duties . After 1932 , however , he " had almost unbroken health " for the rest of his life . Lang avoided continuation of the Prayer Book controversy of 1928 by allowing the parliamentary process to lapse . He then authorised a statement permitting use of the rejected Book locally if the parochial church council gave approval . The issue remained dormant for the rest of Lang 's tenure at Canterbury . He led the 1930 Lambeth Conference , where further progress was made in improving relations with the Orthodox Churches and the Old Catholics , although again no agreement could be reached with the non @-@ episcopal Free Churches . On an issue of greater concern to ordinary people , the Conference gave limited approval , for the first time , to the use of contraceptive devices , an issue in which Lang had no interest . Through the 1930s Lang continued to work for Church unity . In 1933 the Church of England assembly formed a Council on Foreign Relations and , in the following years , numerous exchange visits with Orthodox delegations took place , a process only halted by the outbreak of war . Lang 's 1939 visit to the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople is regarded as the high point of his ecumenical record . George Bell , Bishop of Chichester , maintained that no one in the Anglican Communion did more than Lang to promote the unity movement . In 1937 the Oxford Conference on Church and Society , which later gave birth to the World Council of Churches , produced what was according to the church historian Adrian Hastings " the most serious approach to the problems of society that the Church had yet managed " , but without Lang 's close involvement . By this time Lang 's identification with the poor had largely vanished , as had his interest in social reform . In the Church Assembly his closest ally was the aristocratic Lord Hugh Cecil ; Hastings maintains that the Church of England in the 1930s was controlled " less by Lang and Temple in tandem than by Lang and Hugh Cecil " . However , Lang got on well with Hewlett Johnson , the pro @-@ communist priest who was appointed Dean of Canterbury in 1931 . = = = International and domestic politics = = = Lang often spoke in the House of Lords about the treatment of Russian Christians in the Soviet Union . He also denounced the anti @-@ semitic policies of the German government , and he took private steps to help European Jews . In 1933 , having commented on the " noble task " of assisting India towards independence , he was appointed to the Joint Committee on the Indian Constitution . He condemned the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1935 , appealing for medical supplies to be sent to the Abyssinian troops . However , as the threat of war increased later in the decade , Lang became a strong supporter of the government 's policy of appeasing the European dictators , declaring the Sunday after the Munich Agreement of September 1938 to be a day of thanksgivings for the " sudden lifting of this cloud " . Earlier that year , contrary to his former stance , he had supported the Anglo @-@ Italian agreement to recognise the conquest of Abyssinia , because he believed that " an increase of appeasement " was necessary to avoid the threat of war . Lang also backed the government 's non @-@ intervention policy in regard to the Spanish Civil War , saying that there were no clear issues that required the taking of sides . In October 1937 Lang 's condemnation of Imperial Japanese Army actions in China provoked hostile scrutiny by the Japanese authorities of the Anglican Church in Japan , and caused some in that church 's leadership to publicly disassociate themselves from the Church of England . On the domestic front , Lang supported campaigns for the abolition of the death penalty . He upheld the right of the Church to refuse the remarriage of divorced persons within its buildings , but he did not directly oppose A.P. Herbert 's Matrimonial Causes Bill of 1937 , which liberalised the divorce laws – Lang believed " it was no longer possible to impose the full Christian standard by law on a largely non @-@ Christian population . " He drew criticism for his opposition to the reform of the ancient tithe system , whereby many farmers paid a proportion of their income to the Church ; in the subsequent " Tithe Wars " , demonstrators at Ashford , Kent ceremonially burned his effigy . Near the end of his term in office Lang led a deputation from several church groups to the Ministry of Education , to present a five @-@ point plan for the teaching of religion in state schools . These points were eventually embodied in the 1944 Education Act . = = = Abdication crisis = = = Lang was responsible for drafting King George V 's silver jubilee broadcast message in 1935 , and the king 's last two Christmas messages . However , this closeness to the throne was not maintained when the king died in January 1936 and was succeeded by his son , Edward VIII . The new king was wary of Lang , whom he had once admired . He now found him " rather ... accustomed to the company of princes and statesmen , more interested in the pursuit of prestige and power than the abstractions of the human soul " . Lang believed that , as Prince of Wales , Edward had not always been wise in his choice of friends and acquaintances , whose standards Lang was later to condemn as " alien to all the best instincts and traditions of his people " . The archbishop had been aware for some time of the king 's relationship with the American Wallis Simpson , then married to her second husband Ernest Simpson . During the summer of 1936 it became clear that the king intended to marry Mrs Simpson either before or shortly after his impending coronation , depending on the timing of her divorce from Simpson . Lang agonised over whether he could , with good conscience , administer the Coronation Oath to the king in such circumstances , bearing in mind the Church 's teaching on marriage . He confided to his diary his hopes that circumstances might change , or that he might be able to persuade the king to reconsider his actions , but the king refused to meet him . Lang , however , kept close contact with the king 's mother , Queen Mary , the prime minister and the king 's private secretary . The king believed that Lang 's influence was strong , later recalling how from beginning to end he felt the archbishop 's " shadowy , hovering presence " in the background . The matter became public knowledge on 2 December 1936 when the Bishop of Bradford made an indirect comment on the king 's " need for Divine Grace " . By then the king had unalterably decided that he would abdicate rather than give up Wallis Simpson . All attempts to dissuade him failed , and on 11 December he gave up his throne in favour of his brother , George VI . Two days later Lang broadcast a speech , in which he said : " From God he received a high and sacred trust . Yet by his own will he has ... surrendered the trust . " The king 's motive had been " a craving for private happiness " that he had sought " in a manner inconsistent with the Christian principles of marriage " . The speech was widely condemned for its lack of charity towards the departed king and provoked the writer Gerald Bullett to publish a satirical rhyme : My Lord Archbishop , what a scold you are ! And when your man is down , how bold you are ! Of charity how oddly scant you are ! How Lang O Lord , how full of Cantuar ! According to the writer Compton Mackenzie , Lang 's broadcast " dealt a disastrous blow to religious feeling throughout the country " . Lang did not disguise his relief that the crisis was over . He wrote of George VI : " I was now sure that to the solemn words of the Coronation there would now be a sincere response . " On 12 May 1937 , Lang crowned George VI with full pomp in Westminster Abbey . It was the first coronation to be broadcast . Time magazine recorded : " All through the three @-@ hour ceremony , the most important person there was not the King , his nobles or his ministers , but a hawk @-@ nosed old gentleman with a cream- & -gold cope who stood on a dais as King George approached : The Rt. Hon. and Most Reverend Cosmo Gordon Lang , D.D .. Lord Archbishop of Canterbury , Primate of All England . " Supposedly the archbishop fumbled with the Crown but Lang himself was fully satisfied : " I can only be thankful to God 's over @-@ ruling Providence and trust that the Coronation may not be a mere dream of the past , but that its memories and lessons will not be forgotten . " = = = War = = = When the Second World War began in September 1939 , Lang saw his main duty as the preservation of spiritual values during what he deemed to be an honourable conflict . He opposed strategies such as indiscriminate bombing , and on 21 December 1940 , in a letter to The Times signed jointly with Temple and Cardinal Hinsley , Lang expressed support for the pope 's Five Peace Points initiative . Lang was sympathetic to the Sword of the Spirit campaign , founded by Cardinal Hinsley in 1940 to combat anti @-@ democratic tendencies among Catholics . In May 1941 Lambeth Palace , Lang 's London home , was hit by bombs and made uninhabitable . After Germany 's attack on Russia in June 1941 , Lang said that the Russians must now be regarded as allies , without forgetting or condoning the excesses of the past . His relations with Winston Churchill , prime minister since May 1940 , were difficult because " he [ Churchill ] knows nothing about the Church , its life , its needs or its personnel " . There was therefore " uncertainty as to what motives or how much knowledge may determine his decisions [ on Church matters ] " . = = Retirement and death = = Throughout the summer of 1941 Lang considered retirement . His main concern was that a Lambeth Conference – " perhaps the most fateful Lambeth Conference ever held " – would need to be called soon after the war . Lang felt that he would be too old to lead it and that he should make way for a younger man , preferably William Temple . On 27 November he informed the prime minister , Winston Churchill , of his decision to retire on 31 March 1942 . His last official act in office , on 28 March , was the confirmation of Princess Elizabeth . On his retirement Lang was raised to the peerage as Baron Lang of Lambeth in the County of Surrey . He was thus able to remain in the House of Lords , where he attended regularly and contributed to debates . He worried about money , despite a pension of £ 1 @,@ 500 per year ( approximately £ 63 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) , a large rent @-@ free house at Kew , and some generous cash gifts from well @-@ wishers . In 1943 he spoke in the House of Lords in support of the Beveridge Report on social insurance , and on 9 February 1944 he reiterated his earlier opposition to obliteration bombing . In October 1944 Lang was greatly distressed by the sudden death of William Temple , his successor at Canterbury , writing : " I don 't like to think of the loss to the Church and Nation ... But ' God knows and God reigns ' . " On 5 December 1945 Lang was due to speak in a Lords debate on conditions in Central Europe . On his way to Kew Gardens station to catch the London train , he collapsed and was taken to hospital , but was found to be dead on arrival . A post @-@ mortem attributed the death to heart failure . In paying tribute the following day , Lord Addison said that Lang was " not only a great cleric but a great man ... we have lost in him a Father in God . " His body was cremated and the ashes taken to the Chapel of St Stephen Martyr , a side chapel at Canterbury Cathedral , where they were buried under the altar table . The chapel was subsequently refurbished in 1950 , the work dedicated to Lang 's memory . The probate value of Lang 's estate was £ 29 @,@ 541 ( approximately £ 1 @,@ 150 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . = = Legacy = = Although Lang was a bishop in England for longer than anyone else in the twentieth century , Hastings says that " of no other is it so hard to address his true significance " . According to biographer Lockhart he was a complex character in whom " a jangle of warring personalities ... never reached agreement among themselves . " Lockhart writes that while Lang 's many years of high office saw progress in the cause of Christian reunion , the mark he left on the Church was relatively small ; many believed it could have been larger and deeper . While Lang 's oratorical and administrative gifts were beyond doubt , Hastings nevertheless claims that as Archbishop of Canterbury , Lang displayed no effective leadership or guidance , turning away from reform and content to be the " final sentinel to the ancien régime " . Wilkinson says that Lang dealt conscientiously with problems as they arose , but without any overall strategy . In Hastings 's view , Lang was probably more sympathetic to Rome than any other Church of England archbishop of modern times , responsible for a discreet catholicisation of the Church of England 's practices . A small outward indication of this was his decision to use a cassock as everyday dress and to wear a mitre on formal occasions , the first archbishop since the English Reformation to do so . However , Lang believed that in relation to the supreme truths of the church , rituals and dress were of small account , but that if people 's worship was assisted by such customs they should be allowed . Despite Lang 's long involvement with the poorest of society , after becoming Archbishop of York he increasingly detached himself from everyday life . The historian Tom Buchanan wrote that Lang 's sympathy with ordinary people was replaced by " an upper class affectation and a delight in the high society in which his office allowed him to move " . No archbishop has been as close as Lang to the Royal Family ; a Channel Four television history of the British monarchy maintained that Lang " held a view of Christianity in which the monarchy , rather than the cross , stood centre stage as the symbol of the nation 's faith " . Successive generations of the Royal Family considered him their friend and honoured him . King George V appointed him to the largely ceremonial post of Lord High Almoner , and after the 1937 Coronation George VI created him a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order ( GCVO ) , a rare honour which , like the Royal Victorian Chain , lay in the private gift of the Sovereign . A friend , commenting on the transformation of Lang 's perspective , said of him : " He might have been Cardinal Wolsey or St Francis of Assisi , and he chose to be Cardinal Wolsey . " Lang also received numerous honorary doctorates from British universities . His portrait was painted many times ; after sitting for Sir William Orpen in 1924 , Lang reportedly remarked to Bishop Hensley Henson of Durham that the portrait showed him as " proud , prelatical and pompous " . Henson 's recorded reply was " To which of these epithets does Your Grace take exception ? " At an early stage in his priesthood Lang decided to lead a celibate life . He had no objection to the institution of marriage , but felt that his own work would be hindered by domesticity . Years after Lang 's death , his sexual orientation was questioned , first by the historian A.L. Rowse in his 1989 autobiography , later by Lang 's ODNB biographer Alan Wilkinson and , finally , by the historian David Starkey who , in his 2001 television programme Reinventing the Royals , asserted that Lang was a repressed homosexual : " [ He ] paid the price for this repression with lifelong insomnia and an extraordinary episode of premature ageing . " Lang had close friendships with colleagues such as Dick Sheppard and Wilfrid Parker , his one @-@ time domestic chaplain to whom he wrote admitting his personal loneliness and of his need for " someone in daily nearness to love " . However , he clearly enjoyed the company of women and confessed in 1928 , after a visit to the Rowntree 's chocolate factory , that the sight of the girls there had " stirred up all the instincts of my youth ... very little subdued by the passage of years " . George Bell , the Bishop of Chichester who had earlier praised Lang 's work for church unity , said that Lang 's failure to take a lead after the Prayer Book rejection of 1928 meant that the Church of England had been unable to revise its forms of worship or take any effective control of its own affairs . Others , however , have argued that Lang 's laissez @-@ faire approach to the Prayer Book controversy helped to defuse a potentially explosive situation and contributed to an eventual solution . Lang himself was gloomy about his legacy ; he believed that since he had not led his country back into an Age of Faith , or marked his primacy with a great historical act , he had failed to live up to his own high standard . Others have judged him more charitably , praising his industry , his administrative ability and his devotion to duty . = = = = Books = = = = = = = = Newspapers and periodicals = = = = = = = = Online = = = =
= Hoylande Young = Hoylande Denune Young Failey ( June 26 , 1903 – January 12 , 1986 ) was an American chemist . During World War II she worked at the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory . After the war she became the first woman to be appointed as a division head at the Argonne National Laboratory , and the first female to chair the Chicago Section of the American Chemical Society . = = Biography = = Hoylande Denune Young was born in Columbus , Ohio , on June 26 , 1903 . She had a sister , Hilda . She became interested in chemistry when she was in high school , where there were separate boys ' and girls ' chemistry classes . Due to course scheduling conflicts she was permitted to take the more challenging boys ' course , although she had to sit up the back of the class . She entered Ohio State University , from which she received a Bachelor of Science degree in chemistry in 1924 . She then went on to earn a Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Chicago , writing her thesis on " Stereoisomeric Bromoimino Ketones " under the supervision of Julius Stieglitz . After graduating , Young became an industrial research chemist , working in the lacquer industry at Van Schaack Brothers Chemical Works in Chicago . In 1930 , she became an assistant professor of chemistry at the Texas State College for Women , where she taught nutrition and biochemistry . In 1934 , she resigned to take up an offer from Michael Reese Hospital in Chicago , but when she arrived the director found out that she was a woman , and refused to hire her . Jobs were hard to find during the Great Depression , and she was a consultant with no regular employment until 1938 , when she took a position with Pure Oil . There she worked with Cary R. Wagner , Jr . , on a book on petroleum refining . The project went on for six years , but it was interrupted by the outbreak of World War II , and the book was never published . With the United States at war , Young took a job in 1942 as a scientific librarian with the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) at the University of Chicago 's Toxicity Laboratory , compiling American , British and Canadian reports on chemical warfare , and preparing an index of toxic chemicals . In 1945 , she transferred to the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory as a chemist . There she edited papers that would later be published by the Atomic Energy Commission as part of its National Nuclear Energy Series . She later served on the editorial board of the National Nuclear Energy Series , representing the Argonne National Laboratory . In 1946 , Young joined the newly created Argonne National Laboratory in 1946 as Director of Technical Information , the first woman to be appointed a division head . She would remain at Argonne until she retired in 1964 . In 1956 , she became the first woman to be appointed chair of the Chicago Section of the American Chemical Society . She was involved in setting up its Distinguished Service Award , and later received it herself in 1975 . She was also a fellow of the American Institute of Chemists , the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the Atomic Scientists of Chicago . She was a charter member of the American Nuclear Society and the president of Iota Sigma Pi , a national honor society for women in chemistry . In 1959 , the Chicago Tribune named her as one of the city 's most distinguished women in business or the professions , and the Argonne National Laboratory established the Hoylande D. Young lecture series in her honor in 1963 . Young married Crawford Failey , whom she had known in the Toxicity Laboratory . She died at her home in Hyde Park , Chicago , on January 12 , 1986 , and was buried in the Riverside Cemetery , Columbus , Ohio . She was survived by her sister , Hilda Young .
= Amphibian = Amphibians are ectothermic , tetrapod vertebrates of the class Amphibia . Modern amphibians are all Lissamphibia . They inhabit a wide variety of habitats , with most species living within terrestrial , fossorial , arboreal or freshwater aquatic ecosystems . Amphibians typically start out as larvae living in water , but some species have developed behavioural adaptations to bypass this . The young generally undergo metamorphosis from larva with gills to an adult air @-@ breathing form with lungs . Amphibians use their skin as a secondary respiratory surface and some small terrestrial salamanders and frogs lack lungs and rely entirely on their skin . They are superficially similar to reptiles but , along with mammals and birds , reptiles are amniotes and do not require water bodies in which to breed . With their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins , amphibians are often ecological indicators ; in recent decades there has been a dramatic decline in amphibian populations for many species around the globe . The earliest amphibians evolved in the Devonian period from sarcopterygian fish with lungs and bony @-@ limbed fins , features that were helpful in adapting to dry land . They diversified and became dominant during the Carboniferous and Permian periods , but were later displaced by reptiles and other vertebrates . Over time , amphibians shrank in size and decreased in diversity , leaving only the modern subclass Lissamphibia . The three modern orders of amphibians are Anura ( the frogs and toads ) , Urodela ( the salamanders ) , and Apoda ( the caecilians ) . The number of known amphibian species is approximately 7 @,@ 000 , of which nearly 90 % are frogs . The smallest amphibian ( and vertebrate ) in the world is a frog from New Guinea ( Paedophryne amauensis ) with a length of just 7 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 30 in ) . The largest living amphibian is the 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 ft 11 in ) Chinese giant salamander ( Andrias davidianus ) , but this is dwarfed by the extinct 9 m ( 30 ft ) Prionosuchus from the middle Permian of Brazil . The study of amphibians is called batrachology , while the study of both reptiles and amphibians is called herpetology . = = Classification = = The word " amphibian " is derived from the Ancient Greek term ἀμφίβιος ( amphíbios ) , which means " both kinds of life " , ἀμφί meaning " of both kinds " and βιος meaning " life " . The term was initially used as a general adjective for animals that could live on land or in water , including seals and otters . Traditionally , the class Amphibia includes all tetrapod vertebrates that are not amniotes . Amphibia in its widest sense ( sensu lato ) was divided into three subclasses , two of which are extinct : Subclass Lepospondyli † ( small Paleozoic group , which may actually be more closely related to amniotes than Lissamphibia ) Subclass Temnospondyli † ( diverse Paleozoic and early Mesozoic grade ) Subclass Lissamphibia ( all modern amphibians , including frogs , toads , salamanders , newts and caecilians ) Salientia ( frogs , toads and relatives ) : Jurassic to present — 6 @,@ 200 current species in 53 families Caudata ( salamanders , newts and relatives ) : Jurassic to present — 652 current species in 9 families Gymnophiona ( caecilians and relatives ) : Jurassic to present — 192 current species in 10 families The actual number of species in each group depends on the taxonomic classification followed . The two most common systems are the classification adopted by the website AmphibiaWeb , University of California , Berkeley and the classification by herpetologist Darrel Frost and the American Museum of Natural History , available as the online reference database " Amphibian Species of the World " . The numbers of species cited above follows Frost and the total number of known amphibian species is over 7 @,@ 000 , of which nearly 90 % are frogs . With the phylogenetic classification , the taxon Labyrinthodontia has been discarded as it is a polyparaphyletic group without unique defining features apart from shared primitive characteristics . Classification varies according to the preferred phylogeny of the author and whether they use a stem @-@ based or a node @-@ based classification . Traditionally , amphibians as a class are defined as all tetrapods with a larval stage , while the group that includes the common ancestors of all living amphibians ( frogs , salamanders and caecilians ) and all their descendants is called Lissamphibia . The phylogeny of Paleozoic amphibians is uncertain , and Lissamphibia may possibly fall within extinct groups , like the Temnospondyli ( traditionally placed in the subclass Labyrinthodontia ) or the Lepospondyli , and in some analyses even in the amniotes . This means that advocates of phylogenetic nomenclature have removed a large number of basal Devonian and Carboniferous amphibian @-@ type tetrapod groups that were formerly placed in Amphibia in Linnaean taxonomy , and included them elsewhere under cladistic taxonomy . If the common ancestor of amphibians and amniotes is included in Amphibia , it becomes a paraphyletic group . All modern amphibians are included in the subclass Lissamphibia , which is usually considered a clade , a group of species that have evolved from a common ancestor . The three modern orders are Anura ( the frogs and toads ) , Caudata ( or Urodela , the salamanders ) , and Gymnophiona ( or Apoda , the caecilians ) . It has been suggested that salamanders arose separately from a Temnospondyl @-@ like ancestor , and even that caecilians are the sister group of the advanced reptiliomorph amphibians , and thus of amniotes . Although the fossils of several older proto @-@ frogs with primitive characteristics are known , the oldest " true frog " is Prosalirus bitis , from the Early Jurassic Kayenta Formation of Arizona . It is anatomically very similar to modern frogs . The oldest known caecilian is another Early Jurassic species , Eocaecilia micropodia , also from Arizona . The earliest salamander is Beiyanerpeton jianpingensis from the Late Jurassic of northeastern China . Authorities disagree as to whether Salientia is a superorder that includes the order Anura , or whether Anura is a sub @-@ order of the order Salientia . The Lissamphibia are traditionally divided into three orders , but an extinct salamander @-@ like family , the Albanerpetontidae , is now considered part of Lissamphibia alongside the superorder Salientia . Furthermore , Salientia includes all three recent orders plus the Triassic proto @-@ frog , Triadobatrachus . = = Evolutionary history = = The first major groups of amphibians developed in the Devonian period , around 370 million years ago , from lobe @-@ finned fish which were similar to the modern coelacanth and lungfish . These ancient lobe @-@ finned fish had evolved multi @-@ jointed leg @-@ like fins with digits that enabled them to crawl along the sea bottom . Some fish had developed primitive lungs to help them breathe air when the stagnant pools of the Devonian swamps were low in oxygen . They could also use their strong fins to hoist themselves out of the water and onto dry land if circumstances so required . Eventually , their bony fins would evolve into limbs and they would become the ancestors to all tetrapods , including modern amphibians , reptiles , birds , and mammals . Despite being able to crawl on land , many of these prehistoric tetrapodomorph fish still spent most of their time in the water . They had started to develop lungs , but still breathed predominantly with gills . Many examples of species showing transitional features have been discovered . Ichthyostega was one of the first primitive amphibians , with nostrils and more efficient lungs . It had four sturdy limbs , a neck , a tail with fins and a skull very similar to that of the lobe @-@ finned fish , Eusthenopteron . Amphibians evolved adaptations that allowed them to stay out of the water for longer periods . Their lungs improved and their skeletons became heavier and stronger , better able to support the weight of their bodies on land . They developed " hands " and " feet " with five or more digits ; the skin became more capable of retaining body fluids and resisting desiccation . The fish 's hyomandibula bone in the hyoid region behind the gills diminished in size and became the stapes of the amphibian ear , an adaptation necessary for hearing on dry land . An affinity between the amphibians and the teleost fish is the multi @-@ folded structure of the teeth and the paired supra @-@ occipital bones at the back of the head , neither of these features being found elsewhere in the animal kingdom . At the end of the Devonian period ( 360 million years ago ) , the seas , rivers and lakes were teeming with life while the land was the realm of early plants and devoid of vertebrates , though some , such as Ichthyostega , may have sometimes hauled themselves out of the water . It is thought they may have propelled themselves with their forelimbs , dragging their hindquarters in a similar manner to that used by the elephant seal . In the early Carboniferous ( 360 to 345 million years ago ) , the climate became wet and warm . Extensive swamps developed with mosses , ferns , horsetails and calamites . Air @-@ breathing arthropods evolved and invaded the land where they provided food for the carnivorous amphibians that began to adapt to the terrestrial environment . There were no other tetrapods on the land and the amphibians were at the top of the food chain , occupying the ecological position currently held by the crocodile . Though equipped with limbs and the ability to breathe air , most still had a long tapering body and strong tail . They were the top land predators , sometimes reaching several metres in length , preying on the large insects of the period and the many types of fish in the water . They still needed to return to water to lay their shell @-@ less eggs , and even most modern amphibians have a fully aquatic larval stage with gills like their fish ancestors . It was the development of the amniotic egg , which prevents the developing embryo from drying out , that enabled the reptiles to reproduce on land and which led to their dominance in the period that followed . After the Carboniferous rainforest collapse amphibian dominance gave way to reptiles , and amphibians were further devastated by the Permian – Triassic extinction event . During the Triassic Period ( 250 to 200 million years ago ) , the reptiles continued to out @-@ compete the amphibians , leading to a reduction in both the amphibians ' size and their importance in the biosphere . According to the fossil record , Lissamphibia , which includes all modern amphibians and is the only surviving lineage , may have branched off from the extinct groups Temnospondyli and Lepospondyli at some period between the Late Carboniferous and the Early Triassic . The relative scarcity of fossil evidence precludes precise dating , but the most recent molecular study , based on multilocus sequence typing , suggests a Late Carboniferous / Early Permian origin for extant amphibians . The origins and evolutionary relationships between the three main groups of amphibians is a matter of debate . A 2005 molecular phylogeny , based on rDNA analysis , suggests that salamanders and caecilians are more closely related to each other than they are to frogs . It also appears that the divergence of the three groups took place in the Paleozoic or early Mesozoic ( around 250 million years ago ) , before the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea and soon after their divergence from the lobe @-@ finned fish . The briefness of this period , and the swiftness with which radiation took place , would help account for the relative scarcity of primitive amphibian fossils . There are large gaps in the fossil record , but the discovery of a proto @-@ frog from the Early Permian in Texas in 2008 provided a missing link with many of the characteristics of modern frogs . Molecular analysis suggests that the frog – salamander divergence took place considerably earlier than the palaeontological evidence indicates . As they evolved from lunged fish , amphibians had to make certain adaptations for living on land , including the need to develop new means of locomotion . In the water , the sideways thrusts of their tails had propelled them forward , but on land , quite different mechanisms were required . Their vertebral columns , limbs , limb girdles and musculature needed to be strong enough to raise them off the ground for locomotion and feeding . Terrestrial adults discarded their lateral line systems and adapted their sensory systems to receive stimuli via the medium of the air . They needed to develop new methods to regulate their body heat to cope with fluctuations in ambient temperature . They developed behaviours suitable for reproduction in a terrestrial environment . Their skins were exposed to harmful ultraviolet rays that had previously been absorbed by the water . The skin changed to become more protective and prevent excessive water loss . = = Characteristics = = The superclass Tetrapoda is divided into four classes of vertebrate animals with four limbs . Reptiles , birds and mammals are amniotes , the eggs of which are either laid or carried by the female and are surrounded by several membranes , some of which are impervious . Lacking these membranes , amphibians require water bodies for reproduction , although some species have developed various strategies for protecting or bypassing the vulnerable aquatic larval stage . They are not found in the sea with the exception of one or two frogs that live in brackish water in mangrove swamps . On land , amphibians are restricted to moist habitats because of the need to keep their skin damp . The smallest amphibian ( and vertebrate ) in the world is a microhylid frog from New Guinea ( Paedophryne amauensis ) first discovered in 2012 . It has an average length of 7 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 30 in ) and is part of a genus that contains four of the world 's ten smallest frog species . The largest living amphibian is the 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 ft 11 in ) Chinese giant salamander ( Andrias davidianus ) but this is a great deal smaller than the largest amphibian that ever existed — the extinct 9 m ( 30 ft ) Prionosuchus , a crocodile @-@ like temnospondyl dating to 270 million years ago from the middle Permian of Brazil . The largest frog is the African Goliath frog ( Conraua goliath ) , which can reach 32 cm ( 13 in ) and weigh 3 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) . Amphibians are ectothermic ( cold @-@ blooded ) vertebrates that do not maintain their body temperature through internal physiological processes . Their metabolic rate is low and as a result , their food and energy requirements are limited . In the adult state , they have tear ducts and movable eyelids , and most species have ears that can detect airborne or ground vibrations . They have muscular tongues , which in many species can be protruded . Modern amphibians have fully ossified vertebrae with articular processes . Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae . Their skulls are mostly broad and short , and are often incompletely ossified . Their skin contains little keratin and lacks scales , apart from a few fish @-@ like scales in certain caecilians . The skin contains many mucous glands and in some species , poison glands . The hearts of amphibians have three chambers , two atria and one ventricle . They have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as urea . Most amphibians lay their eggs in water and have aquatic larvae that undergo metamorphosis to become terrestrial adults . Amphibians breathe by means of a pump action in which air is first drawn into the buccopharyngeal region through the nostrils . These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat . They supplement this with gas exchange through the skin . = = = Anura = = = The order Anura ( from the Ancient Greek a ( n ) - meaning " without " and oura meaning " tail " ) comprises the frogs and toads . They usually have long hind limbs that fold underneath them , shorter forelimbs , webbed toes with no claws , no tails , large eyes and glandular moist skin . Members of this order with smooth skins are commonly referred to as frogs , while those with warty skins are known as toads . The difference is not a formal one taxonomically and there are numerous exceptions to this rule . Members of the family Bufonidae are known as the " true toads " . Frogs range in size from the 30 @-@ centimetre ( 12 in ) Goliath frog ( Conraua goliath ) of West Africa to the 7 @.@ 7 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 30 in ) Paedophryne amauensis , first described in Papua New Guinea in 2012 , which is also the smallest known vertebrate . Although most species are associated with water and damp habitats , some are specialised to live in trees or in deserts . They are found worldwide except for polar areas . Anura is divided into three suborders that are broadly accepted by the scientific community , but the relationships between some families remain unclear . Future molecular studies should provide further insights into their evolutionary relationships . The suborder Archaeobatrachia contains four families of primitive frogs . These are Ascaphidae , Bombinatoridae , Discoglossidae and Leiopelmatidae which have few derived features and are probably paraphyletic with regard to other frog lineages . The six families in the more evolutionarily advanced suborder Mesobatrachia are the fossorial Megophryidae , Pelobatidae , Pelodytidae , Scaphiopodidae and Rhinophrynidae and the obligatorily aquatic Pipidae . These have certain characteristics that are intermediate between the two other suborders . Neobatrachia is by far the largest suborder and includes the remaining families of modern frogs , including most common species . 96 % of the over 5 @,@ 000 extant species of frog are neobatrachians . = = = Caudata = = = The order Caudata ( from the Latin cauda meaning " tail " ) consists of the salamanders — elongated , low @-@ slung animals that mostly resemble lizards in form . This is a symplesiomorphic trait and they are no more closely related to lizards than they are to mammals . Salamanders lack claws , have scale @-@ free skins , either smooth or covered with tubercles , and tails that are usually flattened from side to side and often finned . They range in size from the Chinese giant salamander ( Andrias davidianus ) , which has been reported to grow to a length of 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 ft 11 in ) , to the diminutive Thorius pennatulus from Mexico which seldom exceeds 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) in length . Salamanders have a mostly Laurasian distribution , being present in much of the Holarctic region of the northern hemisphere . The family Plethodontidae is also found in Central America and South America north of the Amazon basin ; South America was apparently invaded from Central America by about the start of the Miocene , 23 million years ago . Urodela is a name sometimes used for all the extant species of salamanders . Members of several salamander families have become paedomorphic and either fail to complete their metamorphosis or retain some larval characteristics as adults . Most salamanders are under 15 cm ( 6 in ) long . They may be terrestrial or aquatic and many spend part of the year in each habitat . When on land , they mostly spend the day hidden under stones or logs or in dense vegetation , emerging in the evening and night to forage for worms , insects and other invertebrates . The suborder Cryptobranchoidea contains the primitive salamanders . A number of fossil cryptobranchids have been found , but there are only three living species , the Chinese giant salamander ( Andrias davidianus ) , the Japanese giant salamander ( Andrias japonicus ) and the hellbender ( Cryptobranchus alleganiensis ) from North America . These large amphibians retain several larval characteristics in their adult state ; gills slits are present and the eyes are unlidded . A unique feature is their ability to feed by suction , depressing either the left side of their lower jaw or the right . The males excavate nests , persuade females to lay their egg strings inside them , and guard them . As well as breathing with lungs , they respire through the many folds in their thin skin , which has capillaries close to the surface . The suborder Salamandroidea contains the advanced salamanders . They differ from the cryptobranchids by having fused prearticular bones in the lower jaw , and by using internal fertilisation . In salamandrids , the male deposits a bundle of sperm , the spermatophore , and the female picks it up and inserts it into her cloaca where the sperm is stored until the eggs are laid . The largest family in this group is Plethodontidae , the lungless salamanders , which includes 60 % of all salamander species . The family Salamandridae includes the true salamanders and the name " newt " is given to members of its subfamily Pleurodelinae . The third suborder , Sirenoidea , contains the four species of sirens , which are in a single family , Sirenidae . Members of this order are eel @-@ like aquatic salamanders with much reduced forelimbs and no hind limbs . Some of their features are primitive while others are derived . Fertilisation is likely to be external as sirenids lack the cloacal glands used by male salamandrids to produce spermatophores and the females lack spermathecae for sperm storage . Despite this , the eggs are laid singly , a behaviour not conducive for external fertilisation . = = = Gymnophiona = = = The order Gymnophiona ( from the Greek gymnos meaning " naked " and ophis meaning " serpent " ) or Apoda ( from the Latin an- meaning " without " and the Greek poda meaning " legs " ) comprises the caecilians . These are long , cylindrical , limbless animals with a snake- or worm @-@ like form . The adults vary in length from 8 to 75 centimetres ( 3 to 30 inches ) with the exception of Thomson 's caecilian ( Caecilia thompsoni ) , which can reach 150 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 9 feet ) . A caecilian 's skin has a large number of transverse folds and in some species contains tiny embedded dermal scales . It has rudimentary eyes covered in skin , which are probably limited to discerning differences in light intensity . It also has a pair of short tentacles near the eye that can be extended and which have tactile and olfactory functions . Most caecilians live underground in burrows in damp soil , in rotten wood and under plant debris , but some are aquatic . Most species lay their eggs underground and when the larvae hatch , they make their way to adjacent bodies of water . Others brood their eggs and the larvae undergo metamorphosis before the eggs hatch . A few species give birth to live young , nourishing them with glandular secretions while they are in the oviduct . Caecilians have a mostly Gondwanan distribution , being found in tropical regions of Africa , Asia and Central and South America . = = Anatomy and physiology = = = = = Skin = = = The integumentary structure contains some typical characteristics common to terrestrial vertebrates , such as the presence of highly cornified outer layers , renewed periodically through a moulting process controlled by the pituitary and thyroid glands . Local thickenings ( often called warts ) are common , such as those found on toads . The outside of the skin is shed periodically more or less in one piece , in contrast to mammals and birds where it is shed in flakes . Amphibians often eat the sloughed skin . Caecilians are unique among amphibians in having mineralized dermal scales embedded in the dermis between the furrows in the skin . The similarity of these to the scales of bony fish is largely superficial . Lizards and some frogs have somewhat similar osteoderms forming bony deposits in the dermis , but this is an example of convergent evolution with similar structures having arisen independently in diverse vertebrate lineages . Amphibian skin is permeable to water . Gas exchange can take place through the skin ( cutaneous respiration ) and this allows adult amphibians to respire without rising to the surface of water and to hibernate at the bottom of ponds . To compensate for their thin and delicate skin , amphibians have evolved mucous glands , principally on their heads , backs and tails . The secretions produced by these help keep the skin moist . In addition , most species of amphibian have granular glands that secrete distasteful or poisonous substances . Some amphibian toxins can be lethal to humans while others have little effect . The main poison @-@ producing glands , the paratoids , produce the neurotoxin bufotoxin and are located behind the ears of toads , along the backs of frogs , behind the eyes of salamanders and on the upper surface of caecilians . The skin colour of amphibians is produced by three layers of pigment cells called chromatophores . These three cell layers consist of the melanophores ( occupying the deepest layer ) , the guanophores ( forming an intermediate layer and containing many granules , producing a blue @-@ green colour ) and the lipophores ( yellow , the most superficial layer ) . The colour change displayed by many species is initiated by hormones secreted by the pituitary gland . Unlike bony fish , there is no direct control of the pigment cells by the nervous system , and this results in the colour change taking place more slowly than happens in fish . A vividly coloured skin usually indicates that the species is toxic and is a warning sign to predators . = = = Skeletal system and locomotion = = = Amphibians have a skeletal system that is structurally homologous to other tetrapods , though with a number of variations . They all have four limbs except for the legless caecilians and a few species of salamander with reduced or no limbs . The bones are hollow and lightweight . The musculoskeletal system is strong to enable it to support the head and body . The bones are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other by means of overlapping processes . The pectoral girdle is supported by muscle , and the well @-@ developed pelvic girdle is attached to the backbone by a pair of sacral ribs . The ilium slopes forward and the body is held closer to the ground than is the case in mammals . In most amphibians , there are four digits on the fore foot and five on the hind foot , but no claws on either . Some salamanders have fewer digits and the amphiumas are eel @-@ like in appearance with tiny , stubby legs . The sirens are aquatic salamanders with stumpy forelimbs and no hind limbs . The caecilians are limbless . They burrow in the manner of earthworms with zones of muscle contractions moving along the body . On the surface of the ground or in water they move by undulating their body from side to side . In frogs , the hind legs are larger than the fore legs , especially so in those species that principally move by jumping or swimming . In the walkers and runners the hind limbs are not so large , and the burrowers mostly have short limbs and broad bodies . The feet have adaptations for the way of life , with webbing between the toes for swimming , broad adhesive toe pads for climbing , and keratinised tubercles on the hind feet for digging ( frogs usually dig backwards into the soil ) . In most salamanders , the limbs are short and more or less the same length and project at right angles from the body . Locomotion on land is by walking and the tail often swings from side to side or is used as a prop , particularly when climbing . In their normal gait , only one leg is advanced at a time in the manner adopted by their ancestors , the lobe @-@ finned fish . Some salamanders in the genus Aneides and certain plethodontids climb trees and have long limbs , large toepads and prehensile tails . In aquatic salamanders and in frog tadpoles , the tail has dorsal and ventral fins and is moved from side to side as a means of propulsion . Adult frogs do not have tails and caecilians have only very short ones . Salamanders use their tails in defence and some are prepared to jettison them to save their lives in a process known as autotomy . Certain species in the Plethodontidae have a weak zone at the base of the tail and use this strategy readily . The tail often continues to twitch after separation which may distract the attacker and allow the salamander to escape . Both tails and limbs can be regenerated . Adult frogs are unable to regrow limbs but tadpoles can do so . = = = Circulatory system = = = Amphibians have a juvenile stage and an adult stage , and the circulatory systems of the two are distinct . In the juvenile ( or tadpole ) stage , the circulation is similar to that of a fish ; the two @-@ chambered heart pumps the blood through the gills where it is oxygenated , and is spread around the body and back to the heart in a single loop . In the adult stage , amphibians ( especially frogs ) lose their gills and develop lungs . They have a heart that consists of a single ventricle and two atria . When the ventricle starts contracting , deoxygenated blood is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs . Continued contraction then pumps oxygenated blood around the rest of the body . Mixing of the two bloodstreams is minimized by the anatomy of the chambers . = = = Nervous and sensory systems = = = The nervous system is basically the same as in other vertebrates , with a central brain , a spinal cord , and nerves throughout the body . The amphibian brain is less well developed than that of reptiles , birds and mammals but is similar in morphology and function to that of a fish . It is believed amphibians are capable of perceiving pain . The brain consists of equal parts , cerebrum , midbrain and cerebellum . Various parts of the cerebrum process sensory input , such as smell in the olfactory lobe and sight in the optic lobe , and it is additionally the centre of behaviour and learning . The cerebellum is the center of muscular coordination and the medulla oblongata controls some organ functions including heartbeat and respiration . The brain sends signals through the spinal cord and nerves to regulate activity in the rest of the body . The pineal body , known to regulate sleep patterns in humans , is thought to produce the hormones involved in hibernation and aestivation in amphibians . Tadpoles retain the lateral line system of their ancestral fishes , but this is lost in terrestrial adult amphibians . Some caecilians possess electroreceptors that allow them to locate objects around them when submerged in water . The ears are well developed in frogs . There is no external ear , but the large circular eardrum lies on the surface of the head just behind the eye . This vibrates and sound is transmitted through a single bone , the stapes , to the inner ear . Only high @-@ frequency sounds like mating calls are heard in this way , but low @-@ frequency noises can be detected through another mechanism . There is a patch of specialized haircells , called papilla amphibiorum , in the inner ear capable of detecting deeper sounds . Another feature , unique to frogs and salamanders , is the columella @-@ operculum complex adjoining the auditory capsule which is involved in the transmission of both airborne and seismic signals . The ears of salamanders and caecilians are less highly developed than those of frogs as they do not normally communicate with each other through the medium of sound . The eyes of tadpoles lack lids , but at metamorphosis , the cornea becomes more dome @-@ shaped , the lens becomes flatter , and eyelids and associated glands and ducts develop . The adult eyes are an improvement on invertebrate eyes and were a first step in the development of more advanced vertebrate eyes . They allow colour vision and depth of focus . In the retinas are green rods , which are receptive to a wide range of wavelengths . = = = Digestive and excretory systems = = = Many amphibians catch their prey by flicking out an elongated tongue with a sticky tip and drawing it back into the mouth before seizing the item with their jaws . Some use inertial feeding to help them swallow the prey , repeatedly thrusting their head forward sharply causing the food to move backwards in their mouth by inertia . Most amphibians swallow their prey whole without much chewing so they possess voluminous stomachs . The short oesophagus is lined with cilia that help to move the food to the stomach and mucus produced by glands in the mouth and pharynx eases its passage . The enzyme chitinase produced in the stomach helps digest the chitinous cuticle of arthropod prey . Amphibians possess a pancreas , liver and gall bladder . The liver is usually large with two lobes . Its size is determined by its function as a glycogen and fat storage unit , and may change with the seasons as these reserves are built or used up . Adipose tissue is another important means of storing energy and this occurs in the abdomen , under the skin and , in some salamanders , in the tail . There are two kidneys located dorsally , near the roof of the body cavity . Their job is to filter the blood of metabolic waste and transport the urine via ureters to the urinary bladder where it is stored before being passed out periodically through the cloacal vent . Larvae and most aquatic adult amphibians excrete the nitrogen as ammonia in large quantities of dilute urine , while terrestrial species , with a greater need to conserve water , excrete the less toxic product urea . Some tree frogs with limited access to water excrete most of their metabolic waste as uric acid . = = = Respiratory system = = = The lungs in amphibians are primitive compared to those of amniotes , possessing few internal septa and large alveoli , and consequently having a comparatively slow diffusion rate for oxygen entering the blood . Ventilation is accomplished by buccal pumping . Most amphibians , however , are able to exchange gases with the water or air via their skin . To enable sufficient cutaneous respiration , the surface of their highly vascularised skin must remain moist to allow the oxygen to diffuse at a sufficiently high rate . Because oxygen concentration in the water increases at both low temperatures and high flow rates , aquatic amphibians in these situations can rely primarily on cutaneous respiration , as in the Titicaca water frog and the hellbender salamander . In air , where oxygen is more concentrated , some small species can rely solely on cutaneous gas exchange , most famously the plethodontid salamanders , which have neither lungs nor gills . Many aquatic salamanders and all tadpoles have gills in their larval stage , with some ( such as the axolotl ) retaining gills as aquatic adults . = = Reproduction = = For the purpose of reproduction most amphibians require fresh water although some lay their eggs on land and have developed various means of keeping them moist . A few ( e.g. Fejervarya raja ) can inhabit brackish water , but there are no true marine amphibians . There are reports , however , of particular amphibian populations unexpectedly invading marine waters . Such was the case with the Black Sea invasion of the natural hybrid Pelophylax esculentus reported in 2010 . Several hundred frog species in adaptive radiations ( e.g. , Eleutherodactylus , the Pacific Platymantis , the Australo @-@ Papuan microhylids , and many other tropical frogs ) , however , do not need any water for breeding in the wild . They reproduce via direct development , an ecological and evolutionary adaptation that has allowed them to be completely independent from free @-@ standing water . Almost all of these frogs live in wet tropical rainforests and their eggs hatch directly into miniature versions of the adult , passing through the tadpole stage within the egg . Reproductive success of many amphibians is dependent not only on the quantity of rainfall , but the seasonal timing . In the tropics , many amphibians breed continuously or at any time of year . In temperate regions , breeding is mostly seasonal , usually in the spring , and is triggered by increasing day length , rising temperatures or rainfall . Experiments have shown the importance of temperature , but the trigger event , especially in arid regions , is often a storm . In anurans , males usually arrive at the breeding sites before females and the vocal chorus they produce may stimulate ovulation in females and the endocrine activity of males that are not yet reproductively active . In caecilians , fertilisation is internal , the male extruding an intromittent organ , the phallodeum , and inserting it into the female cloaca . The paired Müllerian glands inside the male cloaca secrete a fluid which resembles that produced by mammalian prostate glands and which may transport and nourish the sperm . Fertilisation probably takes place in the oviduct . The majority of salamanders also engage in internal fertilisation . In most of these , the male deposits a spermatophore , a small packet of sperm on top of a gelatinous cone , on the substrate either on land or in the water . The female takes up the sperm packet by grasping it with the lips of the cloaca and pushing it into the vent . The spermatozoa move to the spermatheca in the roof of the cloaca where they remain until ovulation which may be many months later . Courtship rituals and methods of transfer of the spermatophore vary between species . In some , the spermatophore may be placed directly into the female cloaca while in others , the female may be guided to the spermatophore or restrained with an embrace called amplexus . Certain primitive salamanders in the families Sirenidae , Hynobiidae and Cryptobranchidae practice external fertilisation in a similar manner to frogs , with the female laying the eggs in water and the male releasing sperm onto the egg mass . With a few exceptions , frogs use external fertilisation . The male grasps the female tightly with his forelimbs either behind the arms or in front of the back legs , or in the case of Epipedobates tricolor , around the neck . They remain in amplexus with their cloacae positioned close together while the female lays the eggs and the male covers them with sperm . Roughened nuptial pads on the male 's hands aid in retaining grip . Often the male collects and retains the egg mass , forming a sort of basket with the hind feet . An exception is the granular poison frog ( Oophaga granulifera ) where the male and female place their cloacae in close proximity while facing in opposite directions and then release eggs and sperm simultaneously . The tailed frog ( Ascaphus truei ) exhibits internal fertilisation . The " tail " is only possessed by the male and is an extension of the cloaca and used to inseminate the female . This frog lives in fast @-@ flowing streams and internal fertilisation prevents the sperm from being washed away before fertilisation occurs . The sperm may be retained in storage tubes attached to the oviduct until the following spring . Most frogs can be classified as either prolonged or explosive breeders . Typically , prolonged breeders congregate at a breeding site , the males usually arriving first , calling and setting up territories . Other satellite males remain quietly nearby , waiting for their opportunity to take over a territory . The females arrive sporadically , mate selection takes place and eggs are laid . The females depart and territories may change hands . More females appear and in due course , the breeding season comes to an end . Explosive breeders on the other hand are found where temporary pools appear in dry regions after rainfall . These frogs are typically fossorial species that emerge after heavy rains and congregate at a breeding site . They are attracted there by the calling of the first male to find a suitable place , perhaps a pool that forms in the same place each rainy season . The assembled frogs may call in unison and frenzied activity ensues , the males scrambling to mate with the usually smaller number of females . There is a direct competition between males to win the attention of the females in salamanders and newts , with elaborate courtship displays to keep the female 's attention long enough to get her interested in choosing him to mate with . Some species store sperm through long breeding seasons , as the extra time may allow for interactions with rival sperm . = = Life cycle = = Most amphibians go through metamorphosis , a process of significant morphological change after birth . In typical amphibian development , eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle . Frogs , toads and salamanders all hatch from the egg as larvae with external gills . Metamorphosis in amphibians is regulated by thyroxine concentration in the blood , which stimulates metamorphosis , and prolactin , which counteracts thyroxine 's effect . Specific events are dependent on threshold values for different tissues . Because most embryonic development is outside the parental body , it is subject to many adaptations due to specific environmental circumstances . For this reason tadpoles can have horny ridges instead of teeth , whisker @-@ like skin extensions or fins . They also make use of a sensory lateral line organ similar to that of fish . After metamorphosis , these organs become redundant and will be reabsorbed by controlled cell death , called apoptosis . The variety of adaptations to specific environmental circumstances among amphibians is wide , with many discoveries still being made . = = = Eggs = = = The egg of an amphibian is typically surrounded by a transparent gelatinous covering secreted by the oviducts and containing mucoproteins and mucopolysaccharides . This capsule is permeable to water and gases , and swells considerably as it absorbs water . The ovum is at first rigidly held , but in fertilised eggs the innermost layer liquefies and allows the embryo to move freely . This also happens in salamander eggs , even when they are unfertilised . Eggs of some salamanders and frogs contain unicellular green algae . These penetrate the jelly envelope after the eggs are laid and may increase the supply of oxygen to the embryo through photosynthesis . They seem to both speed up the development of the larvae and reduce mortality . Most eggs contain the pigment melanin which raises their temperature through the absorption of light and also protects them against ultraviolet radiation . Caecilians , some plethodontid salamanders and certain frogs lay eggs underground that are unpigmented . In the wood frog ( Rana sylvatica ) , the interior of the globular egg cluster has been found to be up to 6 ° C ( 11 ° F ) warmer than its surroundings , which is an advantage in its cool northern habitat . The eggs may be deposited singly or in small groups , or may take the form of spherical egg masses , rafts or long strings . In terrestrial caecilians , the eggs are laid in grape @-@ like clusters in burrows near streams . The amphibious salamander Ensatina attaches its similar clusters by stalks to underwater stems and roots . The greenhouse frog ( Eleutherodactylus planirostris ) lays eggs in small groups in the soil where they develop in about two weeks directly into juvenile frogs without an intervening larval stage . The tungara frog ( Physalaemus pustulosus ) builds a floating nest from foam to protect its eggs . First a raft is built , then eggs are laid in the centre , and finally a foam cap is overlaid . The foam has anti @-@ microbial properties . It contains no detergents but is created by whipping up proteins and lectins secreted by the female . = = = Larvae = = = The eggs of amphibians are typically laid in water and hatch into free @-@ living larvae that complete their development in water and later transform into either aquatic or terrestrial adults . In many species of frog and in most lungless salamanders ( Plethodontidae ) , direct development takes place , the larvae growing within the eggs and emerging as miniature adults . Many caecilians and some other amphibians lay their eggs on land , and the newly hatched larvae wriggle or are transported to water bodies . Some caecilians , the alpine salamander ( Salamandra atra ) and some of the African live @-@ bearing toads ( Nectophrynoides spp . ) are viviparous . Their larvae feed on glandular secretions and develop within the female 's oviduct , often for long periods . Other amphibians , but not caecilians , are ovoviviparous . The eggs are retained in or on the parent 's body , but the larvae subsist on the yolks of their eggs and receive no nourishment from the adult . The larvae emerge at varying stages of their growth , either before or after metamorphosis , according to their species . The toad genus Nectophrynoides exhibits all of these developmental patterns among its dozen or so members . = = = = Frogs = = = = Frog larvae are known as tadpoles and typically have oval bodies and long , vertically flattened tails with fins . The free @-@ living larvae are normally fully aquatic , but the tadpoles of some species ( such as Nannophrys ceylonensis ) are semi @-@ terrestrial and live among wet rocks . Tadpoles have cartilaginous skeletons , gills for respiration ( external gills at first , internal gills later ) , lateral line systems and large tails that they use for swimming . Newly hatched tadpoles soon develop gill pouches that cover the gills . The lungs develop early and are used as accessory breathing organs , the tadpoles rising to the water surface to gulp air . Some species complete their development inside the egg and hatch directly into small frogs . These larvae do not have gills but instead have specialised areas of skin through which respiration takes place . While tadpoles do not have true teeth , in most species , the jaws have long , parallel rows of small keratinized structures called keradonts surrounded by a horny beak . Front legs are formed under the gill sac and hind legs become visible a few days later . Iodine and T4 ( over stimulate the spectacular apoptosis [ programmed cell death ] of the cells of the larval gills , tail and fins ) also stimulate the evolution of nervous systems transforming the aquatic , vegetarian tadpole into the terrestrial , carnivorous frog with better neurological , visuospatial , olfactory and cognitive abilities for hunting . In fact , tadpoles developing in ponds and streams are typically herbivorous . Pond tadpoles tend to have deep bodies , large caudal fins and small mouths ; they swim in the quiet waters feeding on growing or loose fragments of vegetation . Stream dwellers mostly have larger mouths , shallow bodies and caudal fins ; they attach themselves to plants and stones and feed on the surface films of algae and bacteria . They also feed on diatoms , filtered from the water through the gills , and stir up the sediment at bottom of the pond , ingesting edible fragments . They have a relatively long , spiral @-@ shaped gut to enable them to digest this diet . Some species are carnivorous at the tadpole stage , eating insects , smaller tadpoles and fish . Young of the Cuban tree frog ( Osteopilus septentrionalis ) can occasionally be cannibalistic , the younger tadpoles attacking a larger , more developed tadpole when it is undergoing metamorphosis . At metamorphosis , rapid changes in the body take place as the lifestyle of the frog changes completely . The spiral ‐ shaped mouth with horny tooth ridges is reabsorbed together with the spiral gut . The animal develops a large jaw , and its gills disappear along with its gill sac . Eyes and legs grow quickly , and a tongue is formed . There are associated changes in the neural networks such as development of stereoscopic vision and loss of the lateral line system . All this can happen in about a day . A few days later , the tail is reabsorbed , due to the higher thyroxine concentration required for this to take place . = = = = Salamanders = = = = At hatching , a typical salamander larva has eyes without lids , teeth in both upper and lower jaws , three pairs of feathery external gills , a somewhat laterally flattened body and a long tail with dorsal and ventral fins . The forelimbs may be partially developed and the hind limbs are rudimentary in pond @-@ living species but may be rather more developed in species that reproduce in moving water . Pond @-@ type larvae often have a pair of balancers , rod @-@ like structures on either side of the head that may prevent the gills from becoming clogged up with sediment . Some members of the genera Ambystoma and Dicamptodon have larvae that never fully develop into the adult form , but this varies with species and with populations . The northwestern salamander ( Ambystoma gracile ) is one of these and , depending on environmental factors , either remains permanently in the larval state , a condition known as neoteny , or transforms into an adult . Both of these are able to breed . Neoteny occurs when the animal 's growth rate is very low and is usually linked to adverse conditions such as low water temperatures that may change the response of the tissues to the hormone thyroxine . Other factors that may inhibit metamorphosis include lack of food , lack of trace elements and competition from conspecifics . The tiger salamander ( Ambystoma tigrinum ) also sometimes behaves in this way and may grow particularly large in the process . The adult tiger salamander is terrestrial , but the larva is aquatic and able to breed while still in the larval state . When conditions are particularly inhospitable on land , larval breeding may allow continuation of a population that would otherwise die out . There are fifteen species of obligate neotenic salamanders , including species of Necturus , Proteus and Amphiuma , and many examples of facultative ones that adopt this strategy under appropriate environmental circumstances . Lungless salamanders in the family Plethodontidae are terrestrial and lay a small number of unpigmented eggs in a cluster among damp leaf litter . Each egg has a large yolk sac and the larva feeds on this while it develops inside the egg , emerging fully formed as a juvenile salamander . The female salamander often broods the eggs . In the genus Ensatinas , the female has been observed to coil around them and press her throat area against them , effectively massaging them with a mucous secretion . In newts and salamanders , metamorphosis is less dramatic than in frogs . This is because the larvae are already carnivorous and continue to feed as predators when they are adults so few changes are needed to their digestive systems . Their lungs are functional early , but the larvae do not make as much use of them as do tadpoles . Their gills are never covered by gill sacs and are reabsorbed just before the animals leave the water . Other changes include the reduction in size or loss of tail fins , the closure of gill slits , thickening of the skin , the development of eyelids , and certain changes in dentition and tongue structure . Salamanders are at their most vulnerable at metamorphosis as swimming speeds are reduced and transforming tails are encumbrances on land . Adult salamanders often have an aquatic phase in spring and summer , and a land phase in winter . For adaptation to a water phase , prolactin is the required hormone , and for adaptation to the land phase , thyroxine . External gills do not return in subsequent aquatic phases because these are completely absorbed upon leaving the water for the first time . = = = = Caecilians = = = = Most terrestrial caecilians that lay eggs do so in burrows or moist places on land near bodies of water . The development of the young of Ichthyophis glutinosus , a species from Sri Lanka , has been much studied . The eel @-@ like larvae hatch out of the eggs and make their way to water . They have three pairs of external red feathery gills , a blunt head with two rudimentary eyes , a lateral line system and a short tail with fins . They swim by undulating their body from side to side . They are mostly active at night , soon lose their gills and make sorties onto land . Metamorphosis is gradual . By the age of about ten months they have developed a pointed head with sensory tentacles near the mouth and lost their eyes , lateral line systems and tails . The skin thickens , embedded scales develop and the body divides into segments . By this time , the caecilian has constructed a burrow and is living on land . In the majority of species of caecilians , the young are produced by vivipary . Typhlonectes compressicauda , a species from South America , is typical of these . Up to nine larvae can develop in the oviduct at any one time . They are elongated and have paired sac @-@ like gills , small eyes and specialised scraping teeth . At first , they feed on the yolks of the eggs , but as this source of nourishment declines they begin to rasp at the ciliated epithelial cells that line the oviduct . This stimulates the secretion of fluids rich in lipids and mucoproteins on which they feed along with scrapings from the oviduct wall . They may increase their length sixfold and be two @-@ fifths as long as their mother before being born . By this time they have undergone metamorphosis , lost their eyes and gills , developed a thicker skin and mouth tentacles , and reabsorbed their teeth . A permanent set of teeth grow through soon after birth . The ringed caecilian ( Siphonops annulatus ) has developed a unique adaptation for the purposes of reproduction . The progeny feed on a skin layer that is specially developed by the adult in a phenomenon known as maternal dermatophagy . The brood feed as a batch for about seven minutes at intervals of approximately three days which gives the skin an opportunity to regenerate . Meanwhile , they have been observed to ingest fluid exuded from the maternal cloaca . = = = Parental care = = = The care of offspring among amphibians has been little studied but , in general , the larger the number of eggs in a batch , the less likely it is that any degree of parental care takes place . Nevertheless , it is estimated that in up to 20 % of amphibian species , one or both adults play some role in the care of the young . Those species that breed in smaller water bodies or other specialised habitats tend to have complex patterns of behaviour in the care of their young . Many woodland salamanders lay clutches of eggs under dead logs or stones on land . The black mountain salamander ( Desmognathus welteri ) does this , the mother brooding the eggs and guarding them from predation as the embryos feed on the yolks of their eggs . When fully developed , they break their way out of the egg capsules and disperse as juvenile salamanders . The male hellbender , a primitive salamander , excavates an underwater nest and encourages females to lay there . The male then guards the site for the two or three months before the eggs hatch , using body undulations to fan the eggs and increase their supply of oxygen . The male Colostethus subpunctatus , a tiny frog , protects the egg cluster which is hidden under a stone or log . When the eggs hatch , the male transports the tadpoles on his back , stuck there by a mucous secretion , to a temporary pool where he dips himself into the water and the tadpoles drop off . The male midwife toad ( Alytes obstetricans ) winds egg strings round his thighs and carries the eggs around for up to eight weeks . He keeps them moist and when they are ready to hatch , he visits a pond or ditch and releases the tadpoles . The female gastric @-@ brooding frog ( Rheobatrachus spp . ) reared larvae in her stomach after swallowing either the eggs or hatchlings ; however , this stage was never observed before the species became extinct . The tadpoles secrete a hormone that inhibits digestion in the mother whilst they develop by consuming their very large yolk supply . The pouched frog ( Assa darlingtoni ) lays eggs on the ground . When they hatch , the male carries the tadpoles around in brood pouches on his hind legs . The aquatic Surinam toad ( Pipa pipa ) raises its young in pores on its back where they remain until metamorphosis . The granular poison frog ( Oophaga granulifera ) is typical of a number of tree frogs in the poison dart frog family Dendrobatidae . Its eggs are laid on the forest floor and when they hatch , the tadpoles are carried one by one on the back of an adult to a suitable water @-@ filled crevice such as the axil of a leaf or the rosette of a bromeliad . The female visits the nursery sites regularly and deposits unfertilised eggs in the water and these are consumed by the tadpoles . = = Feeding and diet = = With a few exceptions , adult amphibians are predators , feeding on virtually anything that moves that they can swallow . The diet mostly consists of small prey that do not move too fast such as beetles , caterpillars , earthworms and spiders . The sirens ( Siren spp . ) often ingest aquatic plant material with the invertebrates on which they feed and a Brazilian tree frog ( Xenohyla truncata ) includes a large quantity of fruit in its diet . The Mexican burrowing toad ( Rhinophrynus dorsalis ) has a specially adapted tongue for picking up ants and termites . It projects it with the tip foremost whereas other frogs flick out the rear part first , their tongues being hinged at the front . Food is mostly selected by sight , even in conditions of dim light . Movement of the prey triggers a feeding response . Frogs have been caught on fish hooks baited with red flannel and green frogs ( Rana clamitans ) have been found with stomachs full of elm seeds that they had seen floating past . Toads , salamanders and caecilians also use smell to detect prey . This response is mostly secondary because salamanders have been observed to remain stationary near odoriferous prey but only feed if it moves . Cave @-@ dwelling amphibians normally hunt by smell . Some salamanders seem to have learned to recognize immobile prey when it has no smell , even in complete darkness . Amphibians usually swallow food whole but may chew it lightly first to subdue it . They typically have small hinged pedicellate teeth , a feature unique to amphibians . The base and crown of these are composed of dentine separated by an uncalcified layer and they are replaced at intervals . Salamanders , caecilians and some frogs have one or two rows of teeth in both jaws , but some frogs ( Rana spp . ) lack teeth in the lower jaw , and toads ( Bufo spp . ) have no teeth . In many amphibians there are also vomerine teeth attached to a facial bone in the roof of the mouth . The tiger salamander ( Ambystoma tigrinum ) is typical of the frogs and salamanders that hide under cover ready to ambush unwary invertebrates . Others amphibians , such as the Bufo spp. toads , actively search for prey , while the Argentine horned frog ( Ceratophrys ornata ) lures inquisitive prey closer by raising its hind feet over its back and vibrating its yellow toes . Among leaf litter frogs in Panama , frogs that actively hunt prey have narrow mouths and are slim , often brightly coloured and toxic , while ambushers have wide mouths and are broad and well @-@ camouflaged . Caecilians do not flick their tongues , but catch their prey by grabbing it with their slightly backward @-@ pointing teeth . The struggles of the prey and further jaw movements work it inwards and the caecilian usually retreats into its burrow . The subdued prey is gulped down whole . When they are newly hatched , frog larvae feed on the yolk of the egg . When this is exhausted some move on to feed on bacteria , algal crusts , detritus and raspings from submerged plants . Water is drawn in through their mouths , which are usually at the bottom of their heads , and passes through branchial food traps between their mouths and their gills where fine particles are trapped in mucus and filtered out . Others have specialised mouthparts consisting of a horny beak edged by several rows of labial teeth . They scrape and bite food of many kinds as well as stirring up the bottom sediment , filtering out larger particles with the papillae around their mouths . Some , such as the spadefoot toads , have strong biting jaws and are carnivorous or even cannibalistic . = = Vocalization = = The calls made by caecilians and salamanders are limited to occasional soft squeaks , grunts or hisses and have not been much studied . A clicking sound sometimes produced by caecilians may be a means of orientation , as in bats , or a form of communication . Most salamanders are considered voiceless , but the California giant salamander ( Dicamptodon ensatus ) has vocal cords and can produce a rattling or barking sound . Some species of salamander emit a quiet squeak or yelp if attacked . Frogs are much more vocal , especially during the breeding season when they use their voices to attract mates . The presence of a particular species in an area may be more easily discerned by its characteristic call than by a fleeting glimpse of the animal itself . In most species , the sound is produced by expelling air from the lungs over the vocal cords into an air sac or sacs in the throat or at the corner of the mouth . This may distend like a balloon and acts as a resonator , helping to transfer the sound to the atmosphere , or the water at times when the animal is submerged . The main vocalisation is the male 's loud advertisement call which seeks to both encourage a female to approach and discourage other males from intruding on its territory . This call is modified to a quieter courtship call on the approach of a female or to a more aggressive version if a male intruder draws near . Calling carries the risk of attracting predators and involves the expenditure of much energy . Other calls include those given by a female in response to the advertisement call and a release call given by a male or female during unwanted attempts at amplexus . When a frog is attacked , a distress or fright call is emitted , often resembling a scream . The usually nocturnal Cuban tree frog ( Osteopilus septentrionalis ) produces a rain call when there is rainfall during daylight hours . = = Territorial behaviour = = Little is known of the territorial behaviour of caecilians , but some frogs and salamanders defend home ranges . These are usually feeding , breeding or sheltering sites . Males normally exhibit such behaviour though in some species , females and even juveniles are also involved . Although in many frog species , females are larger than males , this is not the case in most species where males are actively involved in territorial defence . Some of these have specific adaptations such as enlarged teeth for biting or spines on the chest , arms or thumbs . In salamanders , defence of a territory involves adopting an aggressive posture and if necessary attacking the intruder . This may involve snapping , chasing and sometimes biting , occasionally causing the loss of a tail . The behaviour of red back salamanders ( Plethodon cinereus ) has been much studied . 91 % of marked individuals that were later recaptured were within a metre ( yard ) of their original daytime retreat under a log or rock . A similar proportion , when moved experimentally a distance of 30 metres ( 98 ft ) , found their way back to their home base . The salamanders left odour marks around their territories which averaged 0 @.@ 16 to 0 @.@ 33 square metres ( 1 @.@ 7 to 3 @.@ 6 sq ft ) in size and were sometimes inhabited by a male and female pair . These deterred the intrusion of others and delineated the boundaries between neighbouring areas . Much of their behaviour seemed stereotyped and did not involve any actual contact between individuals . An aggressive posture involved raising the body off the ground and glaring at the opponent who often turned away submissively . If the intruder persisted , a biting lunge was usually launched at either the tail region or the naso @-@ labial grooves . Damage to either of these areas can reduce the fitness of the rival , either because of the need to regenerate tissue or because it impairs its ability to detect food . In frogs , male territorial behaviour is often observed at breeding locations ; calling is both an announcement of ownership of part of this resource and an advertisement call to potential mates . In general , a deeper voice represents a heavier and more powerful individual , and this may be sufficient to prevent intrusion by smaller males . Much energy is used in the vocalization and it takes a toll on the territory holder who may be displaced by a fitter rival if he tires . There is a tendency for males to tolerate the holders of neighbouring territories while vigorously attacking unknown intruders . Holders of territories have a " home advantage " and usually come off better in an encounter between two similar @-@ sized frogs . If threats are insufficient , chest to chest tussles may take place . Fighting methods include pushing and shoving , deflating the opponent 's vocal sac , seizing him by the head , jumping on his back , biting , chasing , splashing , and ducking him under the water . = = Defence mechanisms = = Amphibians have soft bodies with thin skins , and lack claws , defensive armour , or spines . Nevertheless , they have evolved various defence mechanisms to keep themselves alive . The first line of defence in salamanders and frogs is the mucous secretion that they produce . This keeps their skin moist and makes them slippery and difficult to grip . The secretion is often sticky and distasteful or toxic . Snakes have been observed yawning and gaping when trying to swallow African clawed frogs ( Xenopus laevis ) , which gives the frogs an opportunity to escape . Caecilians have been little studied in this respect , but the Cayenne caecilian ( Typhlonectes compressicauda ) produces toxic mucus that has killed predatory fish in a feeding experiment in Brazil . In some salamanders , the skin is poisonous . The rough @-@ skinned newt ( Taricha granulosa ) from North America and other members of its genus contain the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin ( TTX ) , the most toxic non @-@ protein substance known and almost identical to that produced by pufferfish . Handling the newts does not cause harm , but ingestion of even the most minute amounts of the skin is deadly . In feeding trials , fish , frogs , reptiles , birds and mammals were all found to be susceptible . The only predators with some tolerance to the poison are certain populations of common garter snake ( Thamnophis sirtalis ) . In locations where both snake and salamander co @-@ exist , the snakes have developed immunity through genetic changes and they feed on the amphibians with impunity . Coevolution occurs with the newt increasing its toxic capabilities at the same rate as the snake further develops its immunity . Some frogs and toads are toxic , the main poison glands being at the side of the neck and under the warts on the back . These regions are presented to the attacking animal and their secretions may be foul @-@ tasting or cause various physical or neurological symptoms . Altogether , over 200 toxins have been isolated from the limited number of amphibian species that have been investigated . Poisonous species often use bright colouring to warn potential predators of their toxicity . These warning colours tend to be red or yellow combined with black , with the fire salamander ( Salamandra salamandra ) being an example . Once a predator has sampled one of these , it is likely to remember the colouration next time it encounters a similar animal . In some species , such as the fire @-@ bellied toad ( Bombina spp . ) , the warning colouration is on the belly and these animals adopt a defensive pose when attacked , exhibiting their bright colours to the predator . The frog Allobates zaparo is not poisonous , but mimics the appearance of other toxic species in its locality , a strategy that may deceive predators . Many amphibians are nocturnal and hide during the day , thereby avoiding diurnal predators that hunt by sight . Other amphibians use camouflage to avoid being detected . They have various colourings such as mottled browns , greys and olives to blend into the background . Some salamanders adopt defensive poses when faced by a potential predator such as the North American northern short @-@ tailed shrew ( Blarina brevicauda ) . Their bodies writhe and they raise and lash their tails which makes it difficult for the predator to avoid contact with their poison @-@ producing granular glands . A few salamanders will autotomise their tails when attacked , sacrificing this part of their anatomy to enable them to escape . The tail may have a constriction at its base to allow it to be easily detached . The tail is regenerated later , but the energy cost to the animal of replacing it is significant . Some frogs and toads inflate themselves to make themselves look large and fierce , and some spadefoot toads ( Pelobates spp ) scream and leap towards the attacker . Giant salamanders of the genus Andrias , as well as Ceratophrine and Pyxicephalus frogs possess sharp teeth and are capable of drawing blood with a defensive bite . The blackbelly salamander ( Desmognathus quadramaculatus ) can bite an attacking common garter snake ( Thamnophis sirtalis ) two or three times its size on the head and often manages to escape . = = Cognition = = In amphibians , there is evidence of habituation , associative learning through both classical and instrumental learning , and discrimination abilities . In one experiment , when offered live fruit flies ( Drosophila virilis ) , salamanders choose the larger of 1 vs 2 and 2 vs 3 . Frogs can distinguish between low numbers ( 1 vs 2 , 2 vs 3 , but not 3 vs 4 ) and large numbers ( 3 vs 6 , 4 vs 8 , but not 4 vs 6 ) of prey . This is irrespective of other characteristics , i.e. surface area , volume , weight and movement , although discrimination among large numbers may be based on surface area . = = Conservation = = Dramatic declines in amphibian populations , including population crashes and mass localized extinction , have been noted since the late 1980s from locations all over the world , and amphibian declines are thus perceived to be one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity . In 2004 , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) reported stating that currently birds , mammals , and amphibians extinction rates were at minimum 48 times greater than natural extinction rates — possibly 1 @,@ 024 times higher . In 2006 there were believed to be 4 @,@ 035 species of amphibians that depended on water at some stage during their life cycle . Of these , 1 @,@ 356 ( 33 @.@ 6 % ) were considered to be threatened and this figure is likely to be an underestimate because it excludes 1 @,@ 427 species for which there was insufficient data to assess their status . A number of causes are believed to be involved , including habitat destruction and modification , over @-@ exploitation , pollution , introduced species , climate change , endocrine @-@ disrupting pollutants , destruction of the ozone layer ( ultraviolet radiation has shown to be especially damaging to the skin , eyes , and eggs of amphibians ) , and diseases like chytridiomycosis . However , many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood , and are a topic of ongoing discussion . With their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins , amphibians are often considered to be ecological indicators . In many terrestrial ecosystems , they constitute one of the largest parts of the vertebrate biomass . Any decline in amphibian numbers will affect the patterns of predation . The loss of carnivorous species near the top of the food chain will upset the delicate ecosystem balance and may cause dramatic increases in opportunistic species . In the Middle East , a growing appetite for eating frog legs and the consequent gathering of them for food was linked to an increase in mosquitoes . Predators that feed on amphibians are affected by their decline . The western terrestrial garter snake ( Thamnophis elegans ) in California is largely aquatic and depends heavily on two species of frog that are diminishing in numbers , the Yosemite toad ( Bufo canorus ) and the mountain yellow @-@ legged frog ( Rana muscosa ) , putting the snake 's future at risk . If the snake were to become scarce , this would affect birds of prey and other predators that feed on it . Meanwhile , in the ponds and lakes , fewer frogs means fewer tadpoles . These normally play an important role in controlling the growth of algae and also forage on detritus that accumulates as sediment on the bottom . A reduction in the number of tadpoles may lead to an overgrowth of algae , resulting in depletion of oxygen in the water when the algae later die and decompose . Aquatic invertebrates and fish might then die and there would be unpredictable ecological consequences . A global strategy to stem the crisis was released in 2005 in the form of the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan . Developed by over eighty leading experts in the field , this call to action details what would be required to curtail amphibian declines and extinctions over the following five years and how much this would cost . The Amphibian Specialist Group of the IUCN is spearheading efforts to implement a comprehensive global strategy for amphibian conservation . Amphibian Ark is an organization that was formed to implement the ex @-@ situ conservation recommendations of this plan , and they have been working with zoos and aquaria around the world , encouraging them to create assurance colonies of threatened amphibians . One such project is the Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project that built on existing conservation efforts in Panama to create a country @-@ wide response to the threat of chytridiomycosis .
= Here Comes Treble = " Here Comes Treble " is the fifth episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office . The episode originally aired on NBC on October 25 , 2012 . It guest stars Stephen Colbert as Andy 's college friend Broccoli Rob and Ben Silverman as an investor . The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) invites his old college a cappella group , Here Comes Treble , to perform for the office during Halloween . Andy , however , gets angry when he hears that his college friend Broccoli Rob ( Colbert ) is telling a different story about the group . Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) , with the help of Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) tries to track down a person who is using prescription anxiety pills . Jim ( John Krasinski ) and Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) fight over his new job . The title is a reference to Andy 's college a cappella group , which had previously been alluded to in the series , but never actually shown . The episode also marked the final Halloween installment for the series . " Here Comes Treble " received mixed reviews from television critics , with many mainly criticizing Andy 's characterization . Others were more complimentary of the episode 's subplots . " Here Comes Treble " was viewed by 4 million viewers and received a 1 @.@ 9 / 5 percent rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking third in its timeslot . The episode , however , ranked as the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night . = = Plot = = Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) invites the latest roster of his Cornell University a cappella group , Here Comes Treble ( portrayed by the University of Virginia Hullabahoos ) , to perform for the office during the Halloween party . He secretly hopes the group will ask him to lead them in a performance of George Michael 's " Faith " . He becomes increasingly frustrated when the group is not interested in talking about his glory days as part of the group , and upon learning that old band mate Broccoli Rob ( Stephen Colbert ) claimed Andy 's nickname of " Boner Champ " , Andy complains to both Rob , via video chat , and to Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) . Though Erin sees the situation as trivial , she nonetheless demands that the group sing " Faith " for Andy . Meanwhile , for his new job , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) meets with investors . Although the investing window had closed , Jim insists on taking part and offers $ 10 @,@ 000 under pressure — much more than he and Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) had agreed to . After Jim returns , he tells Pam during the Here Comes Treble 's performance , and they start arguing during the singing . When the group begins performing " Faith " , Andy is surprised that Rob appears via video to sing the lead . The group mistakenly thought the song was to be dedicated to Andy , and they contacted Rob to sing it with them . The " concert " ends and Andy continues to argue with Rob as Rob halfheartedly apologizes for stealing Andy 's song until Erin finally puts an end to the video chat . Andy entertains the idea of moving to Cornell to keep his legacy alive . Alarmed , Erin redirects him towards using his family 's money to create a scholarship for young a cappella singers . When he calls his mother to set it up , she informs him the family has lost all their money . Meanwhile , Dwight finds an anti @-@ anxiety pill on the floor and begins a search for the office " madman " . Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) partners with him in the investigation in order to escape his suspicions , but ultimately confesses that the pill belongs to her . = = Production = = " Here Comes Treble " was written by supervising producer Owen Ellickson , marking his third writing credit for the series , after the eighth season episodes " Pool Party " and " Fundraiser " . The episode was directed by Claire Scanlon , who has served as an editor on the series for several seasons , this was her second directing credit after the eight season episode , " Angry Andy " . The title is a reference to Andy 's a cappella group Here Comes Treble , which had previously been alluded to in the series , but never actually shown . " Here Comes Treble " guest stars Stephen Colbert as Andy 's college friend Broccoli Rob . Former NBC Entertainment co @-@ chairman Ben Silverman also guest stars as one of the investors at Jim 's meeting . With the filming of " Here Comes Treble " , the cast began realizing that the show was truly approaching its end . Wilson said , " it 's getting real . It 's like there 's a clock ticking " . Helms said that the fact that the episode was the last Halloween installment for the series is " a sad thing " . The official website of The Office included three cut scenes from " Here Comes Treble " within a week of the episode 's release . In the 146 @-@ second clip , Andy tells the office that the a cappella group is staying with Andy and Erin — Andy gets the basses and B @-@ tones and Erin gets the tenors . In another scene , Andy throws a tantrum about his solo and his nickname . In the final shot , Andy gives the group nihilistic advice about the future before he sings " Faith " . = = Cultural references = = Due to the nature of the episode , many of the characters are dressed as cultural icons and characters from fiction . Meredith Palmer ( Kate Flannery ) is dressed as Scarlett Johansson 's version of the superhero Black Widow from the 2012 superhero film The Avengers . Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) is dressed as Charlie Brown , the protagonist in the comic strip Peanuts by Charles M. Schulz . Angela is dressed as former First Lady Nancy Reagan , with her husband State Senator Robert Lipton wearing a Ronald Reagan mask . Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) is dressed as a dinosaur , but states that he is " the Electoral College " . Andy is dressed as George Michael . For the episode , Wilson 's character is dressed up as a pig . Wilson noted that the " writers really just wanted to torture me by having me in a pig 's nose for an entire week of shooting " . Due to the presence of the a cappella group , the episode features several songs . The group sings the Rose Royce 1976 single " Car Wash " , the 1983 Culture Club song " Karma Chameleon " , and Edwin McCain 's 1998 hit " I 'll Be " . The group also sings Cornell 's alma mater . Pam and Jim later get in an argument about the 1962 novelty song " The Monster Mash " . During their Skype @-@ argument Broccoli Rob mentions that he collaborated with Trey Anastasio , the frontman for the jam band Phish . During the seventh season episode " The Sting " , Andy mentioned that Broccoli Rob and Anastasio had collaborated on a song together . = = Broadcast and reception = = = = = Ratings = = = " Here Comes Treble " originally aired on NBC on October 25 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by 4 million viewers and received a 1 @.@ 9 rating / 5 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This made " Here Comes Treble " , at the time of its airing , the lowest @-@ rated episode of The Office , beating the eighth season entry " Fundraiser " , which was viewed by 4 @.@ 17 million viewers . The Office finished third in its time slot , being beaten by an episode of the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) series Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 0 / 8 percent rating and an entry of the CBS drama Person of Interest , which received a 2 @.@ 9 / 8 percent rating Despite this , The Office was the highest @-@ rated NBC television program of the night . = = = Reviews = = = The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B – " . He criticized the characterization of Andy and said that the character had " hit a plateau when his fist went through that wall in season three " and represented " a grinning puppet who can be imbued with some of Michael Scott 's leftover tics and remind people he went to Cornell " . However , Adams enjoyed the episode 's subplots and wrote that the episode really " gave me a better picture of what makes Andy 's girlfriend tick . " Furthermore , he praised many of her lines and her acting ability . Damon Houx of ScreenCrush said that the episode was a " surprisingly strong Erin episode " and that " Dwight acting crazy was also well used " . Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and called it " a nice enough holiday episode " . He was critical of the episode 's Jim and Pam sublot , saying that it could have " been left on the cutting room floor . " IGN reviewer Cindy White awarded the episode a 7 @.@ 9 rating , denoting a " good " episode . She wrote that while the story had its limitations , " Little lines and bits [ ... ] helped elevate ' Here Comes Treble ' " . Michael Tedder of New York felt that the main story was weak and that the " plot line might have made more sense last year , with Andy trying to take his mind off troubles with Erin or Robert California by trying to regress to his college days without it working , but these days Andy is the boss and has the girl . " He did , however , compliment the appearance of Colbert , writing that " it was still nice to see the two Daily Show alums sparring again . " He was also complimentary towards the " little tidbits " , such as Dwight 's subplot . Bonnie Stiergnberg of Paste felt that the episode was too rushed and that the storylines did not have a chance to naturally play out . She wrote that , " Each thread provided some interesting character development or set up future storylines , but , crammed together in the same 21 minutes , they made for a slightly disjointed @-@ feeling episode . " WhatCulture ! reviewer Joseph Kratzer gave the episode two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and called it the " first dud of the ninth season " . He criticized the story , saying that " the plot 's failure [ is due to the fact that ] the goal of the story was not met by the means the writers chose to employ ; there was no sense of grand scope or deep @-@ rooted history , just Andy being petty and refusing to let go of the past as he 's challenged by his old friend . " Kratzer called Dwight and Nellie 's subplot the " most successful story " in the episode . The manner in which Stephen Colbert appeared received mixed reviews . Adams compared Colbert 's cameo to former lead actor Steve Carell 's appearance in the first series of the BBC Two sitcom Life 's Too Short , calling it " an unfortunate echo " . White wrote that his cameo was not " quite the sublime experience I was hoping for " largely due to the amount of anticipation that was put into his appearance . Kratzer called the underuse of Colbert " borderline criminal " .
= One More Chance ( Madonna song ) = " One More Chance " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna from the ballads compilation Something to Remember ( 1995 ) . Written and produced by Madonna and David Foster , it was released on March 7 , 1996 by Maverick Records as the album 's second single in Australia and Japan , and the third single in several European countries . An acoustic pop ballad , the song lyrically talks about attempting to win a lost lover back . The song was inspired by Madonna 's real life experience , but she wrote it from the opposite point of view . The song received positive response from music critics , who praised its musical simplicity and Madonna 's vocal delivery . " One More Chance " peaked at number two in Italy and charted within the top forty in Australia , Finland , Sweden , and the United Kingdom . Since Madonna was busy filming the musical Evita , the song received little promotion and no accompanying music video . = = Background and writing = = In November 1995 , Madonna released a compilation album , Something to Remember , featuring a selection of her ballads over a decade of her career and three new songs . " One More Chance " was one of the new songs she composed alongside Canadian musician David Foster . It was released as the album 's second single in Australia and Japan , and the third single in the European countries on March 7 , 1996 . The Spanish version of " You 'll See " , titled " Verás " , appeared as the B @-@ side of the single release . Foster initially did not expect Madonna would collaborate with him , as he believed that his music was not " really [ be ] hip enough for her . " Madonna and Foster worked on the song during the writing and recording session for Something to Remember , in the third weekend of September 1995 . According to biographer Barbara Victor in the book Goddess : Inside Madonna , Madonna wrote the song during her six @-@ month vocal training with vocal coach Joan Leder in preparation of her role in the musical Evita . In a January 1996 interview with Spin magazine , Madonna said that the song was inspired by a happy moment in her life , when she gave a chance to a man she knew , and he was able to fulfill it to her needs . She reversed the situation and wrote the song . Madonna explained , " Often in my songwriting , I take things people say to me and turn them around , and put it in the first person . So it 's actually something that was said to me . " Madonna did not reveal the name of the person who became the main subject of the song . = = Recording and composition = = " One More Chance " was produced and arranged by Madonna and David Foster . Recording process of the song was done in Brooklyn Studios and assisted by Ronnie Rivera . It was engineered and mixed by David Reitzas , who also produced the remix of " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " for the same album . Simon Franglen provided synclavier programming for the song . Only three instruments were used for the song — acoustic guitar played Dean Parks , cello played by Suzie Katayama and keyboard played by David Foster . " One More Chance " is an acoustic pop ballad . It is set in the time signature of common time , having a tempo of 92 beats per minute . The song is played in the key of F major , with a basic sequence of Cmaj7 – Bm7 – Am7 – Bm7 as its chord progression , while piano and guitar are used to play the background music . Madonna 's voice spans from G3 to B ♭ 4 . The verses start off with F major and then the chorus leans towards D minor , the bridge and the ending sections changes to D major . Louis Virtel from Idolator said on the song " [ Madonna ] begs for forgiveness , and her only accompaniment is stark acoustic strumming . " Madonna utilized her vocal lessons for Evita during the recording of " You 'll See " and " One More Chance " . She said " If you listen to those songs , you can hear how I was trying to absorb and utilize what I was learning for the recording of Evita . " The song begins with the sound of a finger @-@ picked acoustic guitar , reminiscent of " More Than Words " ( 1991 ) by American rock band Extreme . The composition has an organic arrangement , devoid of any synths and sequencing , and only based on guitars and subdued strings . A number of chord changes happen throughout the song as Madonna sings the lyrics , accompanied by an interval gap after the end of each chorus with the line " if you care for me " . The bridge section portrays a combination between the harmonies and the guitars , as the key changes . " One More Chance " ends with a brief pause of Madonna 's solo vocals , couple of guitar chords and then it dissipates with a final strung of a major chord on the instrument . = = Critical reception = = Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly wrote that " One More Chance " is just one of the " consumer enticements that just add to the allure . " Billboard critic Timothy White called it " bittersweet serenade . " J. D. Considine from The Baltimore Sun called the song " the album 's greatest surprise " . He explained , " this David Foster song is quite demanding vocally , requiring a wider range and more power than anything else on the album . Yet Madonna more than lives up to the challenge , showing enough power and polish to make even Madonna @-@ phobes admit she can sing . Louis Virtel from music website Idolator wrote , " No other Madonna song sounds quite like it , and it holds up as a melancholic statement against grander compositions like ' You 'll See ' and ' I 'll Remember ' . " J. Randy Taraborrelli , the author of Madonna : An Intimate Biography , called the song , along with " You 'll See " , as one of " the most sombre songs [ Madonna ] has ever recorded . " Tirzah Agassi from The Jerusalem Post felt the song is " much more shallow " than " You 'll See " . Adam Graham from The Detroit News called the song " a sparse acoustic ballad " on which Madonna warmed up her pre @-@ Evita pipes . Writing for the website TheBacklot.com in 2012 , Louis Virtel ranked the song at number 84 on " The 100 Greatest Madonna Songs " , saying that the song is " nothing more than a guitar and Madonna 's torch @-@ song trilling , and it 's more effective than anything you 've heard out of Taylor Swift 's mouth in the past five years " . Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna was critical of the song . He panned the lyrics , saying they were " bland " and felt that Madonna 's singing " lacked confidence and improvisation needed to make this kind of [ song ] really come alive " . = = Chart performance = = " One More Chance " entered the UK Singles Chart at number 11 on March 23 , 1996 . It dropped to number 29 in its second week and stayed on the top 100 for four weeks . According to the Official Charts Company , the single had sold 56 @,@ 851 copies in the United Kingdom as of August 2008 . In Australia , the song debuted at number 43 on the ARIA Singles Chart on March 24 , 1996 . It peaked at number 35 on the chart and stayed within the top 50 for five weeks . In Italy , " One More Chance " debuted at number ten on the FIMI Singles Chart on April 6 , 1996 . The next week , the single reached a peak of number two on the chart , staying there for one week before descending down the chart . " One More Chance " was the 77th best @-@ selling single of the year in Italy . In Finland , " One More Chance " entered the singles chart at number 14 in the 13th week of 1996 . It appeared on the chart for four weeks with peak position at number 12 . In Sweden , the song debuted and peaked at number 39 on March 29 , 1996 , staying on the chart for three weeks . Due to its weak performance in European countries , " One More Chance " only managed to peak at number 50 on the European Hot 100 Singles chart on April 13 , 1996 . = = Promotion and cover version = = Released while Madonna was busy filming the musical Evita , the song had barely any promotion and no official music video was shot . A video was shown on MTV combining the music videos for " Rain " , " You 'll See " , I Want You " , " Take a Bow " and " La Isla Bonita " . Madonna has also never performed the song live since its release . In 2000 , the song was covered in Spanish by Mexican pop duo Sentidos Opuestos with the title " Hoy que no estás " ( English : " Today That You 're Not Here " ) . The Spanish lyrics were written by Donato Póveda . It was included in their fifth studio album , Movimiento perpetuo , released October 10 , 2000 , by EMI Latin . = = Track listings and formats = = UK CD single / Japanese CD maxi @-@ single " One More Chance " ( Album Version ) – 4 : 25 " You 'll See " ( Spanish Version ) – 4 : 20 " You 'll See " ( Spanglish Version ) – 4 : 20 UK 7 " single / UK cassette single " One More Chance " ( Album Version ) – 4 : 25 " You 'll See " ( Spanish Version ) – 4 : 20 = = Credits and personnel = = Madonna – songwriter , producer , arranger , vocals David Foster – songwriter , producer , arranger , keyboards Simon Franglen – synclavier programming Suzie Katayama – cello Dean Parks – acoustic guitar David Reitzas – engineer , mixing Ronnie Rivera – assistant Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes . = = Charts = =
= 1899 Atlantic hurricane season = The 1899 Atlantic hurricane season featured the longest @-@ lasting tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin on record . There were nine tropical storms , of which five became hurricanes . Two of those strengthened into major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the modern day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . The first system was initially observed in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico on June 26 . The tenth and final system dissipated near Bermuda on November 10 . These dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic . In post @-@ season analysis , two tropical cyclones that existed in October were added to HURDAT – the official Atlantic hurricane database . At one point during the season , September 3 through the following day , a set of three tropical cyclones existed simultaneously . The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Three , nicknamed the San Ciriaco hurricane . A post @-@ season analysis of this storm indicated that it was the longest @-@ lasting Atlantic tropical cyclone on record . The path impacted the Lesser Antilles , Puerto Rico , Dominican Republic , the Bahamas , Florida , South Carolina , North Carolina , Virginia , and the Azores . The San Ciriaco hurricane alone caused about $ 20 million ( 1899 USD ) in damage and at least 3 @,@ 656 deaths . Another notable tropical cyclone , the Carrabelle hurricane , brought extensive damage to Dominican Republic and Florida Panhandle . Losses in Florida reached about $ 1 million . At least 9 deaths were associated with the storm . Hurricane Nine in October brought flooding to Cuba and Jamaica , as well as minor damage to South Carolina , North Carolina , and Virginia . The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 150 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . = = Storms = = = = = Tropical Storm One = = = Weather maps first indicated a tropical storm in the extreme northwestern Gulf of Mexico on June 26 . With initial sustained winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , the storm did not differentiate in intensity as it headed northwestward . At 0900 UTC on June 27 , the system made landfall near the southwestern end of Galveston Island , Texas at the same intensity . Three hours later , it weakened to a tropical depression and later dissipated over Southeast Texas at 1800 UTC . Heavy rainfall produced by the storm from Granbury to Waco and toward the coast contributed to an ongoing flood event in the state . According to Texas State Senator Asbury Bascom Davidson , the Brazos , Colorado , Guadalupe , Navasota , and San Saba Rivers overflowed . An estimated 12 @,@ 000 square miles ( 31 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land were inundated . In Hearne , water rose above every rain gauge . Thousands of people were left homeless . The flood caused $ 9 million in damage and 284 deaths . = = = Hurricane Two = = = A hurricane was first observed south of Dominican Republic on July 28 . Shortly thereafter , it made landfall in Azua Province with an intensity equivalent to a Category 1 hurricane . Early on July 29 , the system weakened to a tropical storm , shortly before emerging into the southwestern Atlantic Ocean . It then moved west @-@ northwestward and remained at relatively the same intensity over the next 24 hours . The storm made landfall near Islamorada , Florida on July 30 . Crossing the Florida Keys , it soon emerged into the Gulf of Mexico . The storm began to re @-@ intensify on July 31 and became a hurricane later that day . Early on August 1 , it peaked with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) , several hours before making landfall near Apalachicola , Florida at the same intensity . The storm quickly weakened inland and dissipated over southern Alabama on August 2 . In Dominican Republic , three large schooners were wrecked at Santo Domingo ; only one crew member on the three vessels survived . " Great " damage was reported along coastal sections of the country , while a loss of telegraph service impacted most of interior areas . In Florida , damage in the city of Carrabelle was extensive , with no more than a score of " unimportant " houses remained . Losses in the city reached approximately $ 100 @,@ 000 . At least 57 shipping vessels were destroyed ; damage from these ships collectively totaled about $ 375 @,@ 000 . Additionally , 13 lumber vessels were beached . Many boats at the harbor and the wharfs in Lanark were wrecked . Large portions of stores and pavilions in the city were damaged . The towns of Curtis Mill and McIntyre were completely destroyed , while the resort city of St. Teresa suffered significant damage . Seven deaths were confirmed in Florida . Overall , losses reached at least $ 1 million . = = = Hurricane Three = = = The next storm , known as the San Ciriaco Hurricane , was first observed as a tropical storm to the southwest of Cape Verde on August 3 . It slowly strengthened while heading steadily west @-@ northwestward across the Atlantic Ocean . By late on August 5 , the storm strengthened into a hurricane . During the following 48 hours , it deepened further , reaching Category 4 hurricane status before crossing the Leeward Islands on August 7 . Later that day , the storm attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 930 mbar ( 27 inHg ) . The storm weakened slightly before making landfall in Guayama , Puerto Rico with winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) on August 8 . Several hours later , it emerged into the southwestern Atlantic as a Category 3 hurricane ; it would remain at that intensity for over 9 days . The system paralleled the north coast of Dominican Republic and then crossed the Bahamas , striking several islands , including Andros and Grand Bahama . After clearing the Bahamas , it began heading northward on August 14 , while centered east of Florida . Early on the following day , the storm re @-@ curved northeastward and appeared to be heading out to sea . However , by August 17 , it turned back to the northwest . At 0100 UTC on August 18 , the storm made landfall near Hatteras , North Carolina with 120 mph winds . The storm weakened after moving inland and fell to Category 1 intensity by 1200 UTC on August 18 . Later that day , the storm re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic Ocean . Now heading northeastward , it continued weakening , but maintained Category 1 intensity . By late on August 20 , the storm curved eastward over the northwestern Atlantic . It also began losing tropical characteristics and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone at 0000 UTC on August 22 , while located about 325 miles ( 525 km ) south of Sable Island . However , after four days , the system regenerated into a tropical storm while located about 695 miles ( 1 @,@ 120 km ) west @-@ southwest of Flores Island in the Azores on August 26 . It moved slowly north @-@ northwestward , until curving to the east on August 29 . Between August 26 and September 1 , the storm did not differentiate in intensity , but began re @-@ strengthening while turning southeastward on September 2 . Early on the following day , the storm again reached hurricane intensity . It curved northeastward and passed through the Azores on September 3 , shortly before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone . The storm had the longest duration of an Atlantic hurricane on record , lasting for 31 days , 28 of which it was tropical . In Guadeloupe , the storm unroofed and flooded many houses . Communications were significantly disrupted in the interior portions of the island . Impact was severe in Montserrat , with nearly every building destroyed and 100 deaths reported . About 200 small houses were destroyed on Saint Kitts , with estates suffering considerable damage , while nearly all estates were destroyed on Saint Croix . Eleven deaths were reported on the island . In Puerto Rico , the system brought strong winds and heavy rainfall , which caused extensive flooding . Approximately 250 @,@ 000 people were left without food and shelter . Additionally , telephone , telegraph , and electrical services were completely lost . Overall , damage totaled approximately $ 20 million , with over half were losses inflicted on crops , particularly coffee . At the time , it was the costliest and worst tropical cyclone in Puerto Rico . It was officially estimated that the storm caused 3 @,@ 369 fatalities . In the Bahamas , strong winds and waves sank 50 small crafts , most of them at Andros . Severe damage was reported in the capital city of Nassau , with over 100 buildings destroyed and many damaged , including the Government House . A few houses were also destroyed in Bimini . The death toll in the Bahamas was at least 125 . In North Carolina , storm surge and rough sea destroyed fishing piers and bridges , as well as sink about 10 vessels . Because Hatteras Island was almost entirely inundated with 4 to 10 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 0 m ) of water , a great proportion of homes on the island were damaged , with much destruction at Diamond City . There were at least 20 deaths in the state of North Carolina . In the Azores , the storm also caused one fatality and significant damage on some islands . = = = Hurricane Four = = = Weather maps indicated a tropical storm just east of the Lesser Antilles beginning on August 29 . The storm moved westward and strengthened into a hurricane early on August 30 . Several hours later , it entered the Caribbean Sea after passing near Antigua and Montserrat . Impact was generally light in the Lesser Antilles . At San Juan , Puerto Rico , sustained winds reached 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) . The storm maintained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) as it continued westward across the Caribbean Sea . Vessels sailing from ports in Cuba and Hispaniola were advised to " take every precaution " . After the storm curved northward late on September 1 , vessels from Hispaniola only were advised to take caution . Late on September 1 , the hurricane made landfall east of Jacmel , Haiti with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . By 1800 UTC , it weakened to a tropical storm . The storm emerged into the Atlantic Ocean early on September 2 , after weakening further . While passing just east of the Turks and Caicos Islands early on September 3 , the storm re @-@ strengthened and attained hurricane status again . Several hours later , it strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane and peaked with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . After weakening to a Category 1 hurricane late on September 4 , the storm passed northwest of Bermuda . Hurricane force winds caused considerable damage on the island . At 1200 UTC on September 5 , the hurricane became extratropical . = = = Hurricane Five = = = HURDAT initially indicates a tropical storm about 920 miles ( 1 @,@ 480 km ) west @-@ southwest of Brava , Cape Verde on September 3 . The storm moved west @-@ northwestward and slowly intensified , reachig hurricane status late on September 5 . It continued to slowly strengthen , becoming a Category 2 hurricane on September 6 . About 24 hours later , the cyclone deepened into a Category 3 hurricane while located near the Lesser Antilles . On Saint Kitts , sustained winds reached 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) , while up to 3 @.@ 13 inches ( 80 mm ) of rainfall was reported . Many houses were destroyed on Anguilla and Barbuda . In the former , an estimated 200 homes were demolished , leaving 800 people homeless . Early on September 9 , the storm reached maximum sustained winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . The storm maintained intensity as a Category 3 hurricane and re @-@ curved northward by September 11 . The hurricane turned northeastward on September 12 and began to accelerate . Early on September 13 , it passed very close to Bermuda , with a minimum barometric pressure of 939 mbar ( 27 @.@ 7 inHg ) observed on the island . Cedar trees were uprooted , while fruit and ornamental trees were swept out to sea . Some houses were destroyed , while others were deroofed . Severe damage was also reported at the naval yard and colonial government buildings . At the Her Majesty 's Dockyard alone , damage was " at least five figures " . Early on September 14 , the storm weakened to a Category 2 hurricane , then to a Category 1 several hours later . Shortly after 0000 UTC on September 15 , the hurricane struck the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . It soon became extratropical . In Newfoundland , severe damage was reported at fishing premises . The schooners Angler , Daisy , and Lily May either capsized or were driven ashore , resulting in 16 deaths . = = = Tropical Storm Six = = = A ship in the western Caribbean Sea reported a tropical storm on October 2 . The storm moved north @-@ northwestward and entered the Gulf of Mexico early on the following day . Late on October 3 , it peaked with maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The storm re @-@ curved eastward while situated over the northeastern Gulf of Mexico . At 0000 UTC on October 5 , this system made landfall in modern @-@ day Largo , Florida at the same intensity . Thereafter , the storm headed northeastward , until becoming extratropical early on October 6 , while located offshore Georgia . Impact from this system was generally minor . Prior to landfall in Florida , the storm produced winds up to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) in Port Eads , Louisiana . The highest wind speed in Florida was 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) in Jupiter . There , the storm also dropped 4 @.@ 94 inches ( 125 mm ) of rain . The Jupiter area also reported rough seas , with the highest tides in 7 years . The storm wrecked two schooners – the John R. Anidia at Fernandina Beach and the John H. Tingue at Cumberland Island , Georgia . After becoming extratropical , the remnants of the storm brought wind gusts up to 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) to Cape Henry , Virginia and Block Island , Rhode Island . = = = Tropical Storm Seven = = = Reports from a ship on October 10 indicated a tropical storm with sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 008 mbar ( 29 @.@ 8 inHg ) . Located well southwest of Cape Verde , the storm moved northwestward without differentiating in intensity . It was lasted noted on October 14 , while situated at 21 @.@ 5 ° N , 43 @.@ 5 ° W. = = = Tropical Storm Eight = = = A tropical depression developed in the central Bahamas on October 15 . The depression moved east @-@ northeastward strengthened into a tropical storm by the following day . Later on October 16 , the storm peaked with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . It re @-@ curved northwestward and slowly began to weaken . Early on October 18 , the system fell to tropical depression intensity . Several hours later , the cyclone dissipated while located about 195 miles ( 315 km ) east @-@ southeast of Virginia Beach , Virginia . = = = Hurricane Nine = = = An area of disturbed weather developed into a tropical storm while located south @-@ southwest of Jamaica on October 26 . The system moved slowly north @-@ northwestward and gradually strengthened , reaching hurricane status on October 28 . By early on the following day , it made landfall on the southern coast of Sancti Spíritus Province , Cuba . Briefly weakening to a tropical storm , the system re @-@ intensified into a hurricane after reaching the Atlantic Ocean late on October 29 . Moving toward the Bahamas , the storm became a Category 2 hurricane on October 30 . Around that time , it struck Grand Bahama island . After peaking with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) , the system accelerated north @-@ northwestward and made landfall near Myrtle Beach , South Carolina on October 31 . It quickly weakened and became extratropical over Virginia later that day . In the city of Black River , Jamaica , rough seas caused significant damage to the marine industry and washed out crops . There were " many dead " in Jamaica , though the actual number of fatalities is unknown . Damage from the storm in Cuba was reported in the Sancti Spíritus and Santa Clara Provinces . Due to the threat of the Zaza River overflowing , residents were forced to evacuate . Strong winds and flooding destroyed several houses and severely damaged a number of others . At Wrightsville Beach , North Carolina , tides were reported as 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above normal . Water came over the wharves in Wilmington and inundated some streets ; there was also flooding in New Bern , Morehead City , and Beaufort . One steamer was wrecked on the coast and 10 smaller vessels were driven ashore . One fatality was reported and damage was estimated at roughly $ 200 @,@ 000 . = = = Tropical Storm Ten = = = A ship observed a tropical storm north of Panama on November 7 . The storm strengthened and headed northeastward across the central Caribbean Sea . It curved northward on November 8 , around the time of peaking with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Later that day , the storm made landfall in Saint Thomas Parish , Jamaica at the same intensity . Thereafter , the system weakened and struck extreme western Santiago de Cuba Province , Cuba with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on November 9 . It continued to weaken while crossing the island and emerged into the southwestern Atlantic Ocean later that day . The storm curved northeastward and passed through the Bahamas on November 10 . It then weakened to a tropical depression , several hours before dissipating about 385 miles ( 620 km ) southeast of Bermuda . The storm brought strong winds and heavy rainfall to Jamaica and Cuba . Significant damage was reported at Port Antonio , Jamaica , especially the property and agriculture of the United Fruit Company . Several districts of Saint Thomas Parish became isolated and the town of Morant Bay was " shattered " . In Cuba , rainfall peaked at 5 @.@ 7 inches ( 140 mm ) in the city of Santiago de Cuba . Damage to buildings and crops were reported in the region . Four fatalities occurred when a tree fell on their farmhouse in Manzanillo , Granma Province .
= SMS Niobe = SMS Niobe ( " His Majesty 's Ship Niobe " ) was the second member of the ten @-@ ship Gazelle class of light cruisers built by the Imperial German Navy . She was built by the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen , laid down in 1898 , launched in July 1899 , and commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in June 1900 . She was named after Niobe , a figure from Greek mythology . Armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , Niobe was capable of a top speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) . The ship had a long career , serving in all three German navies , along with the Yugoslav and Italian fleets over the span of over 40 years in service . Niobe served in both home and overseas waters in the Imperial Navy , before being reduced to a coastal defense ship after the outbreak of World War I. She survived the conflict and was one of six cruisers permitted to the Reichsmarine by the Treaty of Versailles . In 1925 , the German Navy sold the ship to the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) . There , she was renamed Dalmacija and served until April 1941 , when she was captured by the Italians during the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia . Renamed Cattaro , she served in the Italian Regia Marina until the Italian surrender in September 1943 . She was then seized by the German occupiers of Italy , who restored her original name . She was used in the Adriatic briefly until December 1943 , when she ran aground on the island of Silba , and was subsequently destroyed by British Motor Torpedo Boats . The wreck was ultimately salvaged and broken up for scrap in 1947 – 49 . = = Design = = Niobe was 105 meters ( 344 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 12 @.@ 2 m ( 40 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 03 m ( 16 @.@ 5 ft ) forward . She displaced 2 @,@ 963 t ( 2 @,@ 916 long tons ; 3 @,@ 266 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple @-@ expansion engines manufactured by AG @-@ Germania . They were designed to give 8 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 6 @,@ 000 kW ) , for a top speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) . The engines were powered by eight coal @-@ fired Thornycroft water @-@ tube boilers . Niobe carried 500 tonnes ( 490 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 3 @,@ 570 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 610 km ; 4 @,@ 110 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 14 officers and 243 enlisted men . The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 40 @,@ 000 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition , for 100 shells per gun . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes . They were submerged in the hull on the broadside . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 20 to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick . The conning tower had 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields . = = Service history = = = = = Construction and early career = = = Niobe was ordered under the contract name " B " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen on 30 August 1898 and launched on 18 July 1899 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned on 25 June 1900 to begin sea trials , which lasted until 22 August . She was thereafter placed in reserve . On 11 April 1901 , the ship returned to service and was assigned as the flagship of the I Torpedo @-@ boat Flotilla on the 18th , replacing the elderly aviso Blitz , which was by then worn out . Niobe served in this position until 26 June , and during this period , took part in training exercises in the Baltic Sea and the Kattegat . On 28 June , she left the I Flotilla and escorted the imperial yacht Hohenzollern on a trip to Norway . The visit was cut short following the death of Kaiser Wilhelm II 's mother , Victoria . Niobe then joined the I Squadron for the annual fleet exercises in late August and early September . Following the conclusion of the maneuvers , Niobe was again tasked with escorting Wilhelm II in Hohenzollern , this time to meet with Russian Tsar Nicholas II from 11 to 13 September . Niobe then returned to Wilhelmshaven , where she went into drydock for alterations that lasted from 1 October to 1 April 1902 . After Niobe returned to active service in April 1902 , she returned to duty with the I Torpedo @-@ boat Flotilla , and was stationed in the Baltic . On 2 July , she was transferred back to the I Squadron for the annual training exercises and a winter cruise toward the end of the year . During this period , Korvettenkapitän ( Corvette Captain ) Franz von Hipper served as the ship 's commander . In early 1903 , she again returned to the I Torpedo @-@ boat Flotilla , her last stint as the flotilla flagship . The Navy initially planned on sending Niobe to reinforce the squadron participating in the Venezuelan crisis of 1902 – 03 , but the incident concluded before she could be sent . Instead , on 1 March , she joined the cruisers of the I Scouting Group for a trip to Norway . She remained in the I Scouting Group for the annual maneuvers that followed later in the year , and through 1904 as well . Following the fleet maneuvers in August and September 1904 , Niobe was decommissioned on 29 September . She spent the following two years out of service , during which time she underwent a major overhaul . On 19 June 1906 , Niobe was recommissioned for service in the East Asia Squadron . She left Wilhelmshaven on 9 July and rendezvoused with the squadron , the flagship of which was the armored cruiser Fürst Bismarck , on 8 September . The ship cruised Chinese and Japanese waters for the next three years ; her time in the East Asia Squadron was uneventful . On 31 January 1909 , Niobe steamed out of the main German port in the region , Tsingtao , and made the return voyage to Germany . She reached Kiel on 21 March , and having become badly worn out during her three years abroad , she was decommissioned on the 31st . = = = World War I = = = After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Niobe was recommissioned for coastal defense , stationed in the German Bight . Between 28 August to 2 September , and from 23 December , Niobe 's commander also served as the commander of the torpedo @-@ boat flotillas defending the Jade Bight and the mouth of the Weser . She was removed from front @-@ line service on 5 September 1915 , and her crew was reduced four days later . The commander of the torpedo @-@ boat flotillas returned to Niobe on 14 January 1916 , as his previous flagship , the old coastal defense ship Siegfried , was decommissioned . Niobe nevertheless remained in service with a reduced crew . Kommodore ( Commodore ) Ludwig von Reuter , the commander of the IV Scouting Group , and his staff briefly used Niobe as a headquarters ship , from 6 June to 3 July . Starting on 20 August , she became the headquarters ship for now @-@ Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) von Hipper , the commander of the I Scouting Group . During this period , Hipper organized the office of Befehlshabers der Sicherung der Nordsee ( BSN — Commander of the Defense of the North Sea ) , which was also stationed on Niobe . In 1917 , she was disarmed so her guns could be used to reinforce the defenses of Wilhelmshaven . In October that year , Konteradmiral Friedrich Boedicker , then the commander of the I Squadron , came aboard Niobe ; the bulk of the High Seas Fleet had gone into the Baltic to launch Operation Albion , and Boedicker temporarily took control of the BSN . Hipper and his staff left Niobe on 11 August 1918 , having been promoted to command of the High Seas Fleet . The BSN remained aboard Niobe until January 1919 , two months after the war ended with the Armistice ; it was then transferred to the old pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Kaiser Wilhelm II , also in use as a headquarters ship . Niobe was then decommissioned on 3 February . Niobe was among the ships permitted by the Treaty of Versailles after the end of the war , and so she continued on in service with the newly reorganized Reichsmarine . During this period , she was significantly modernized ; her old ram bow was replaced with a clipper bow . Her old 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns were replaced with newer SK L / 45 guns in U @-@ boat mountings and two 50 cm ( 20 in ) torpedo tubes in deck @-@ mounted launchers were installed . On 24 June 1925 , Niobe was stricken from the naval register and sold to the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) . = = = Yugoslav service and World War II = = = Yugoslavia had initially been given the ships of the old Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy after the dissolution of the Empire in the closing days of World War I , but the Allied powers quickly seized the majority of the ships and allocated them to the various Allied countries . Left with only twelve modern torpedo boats , Yugoslavia sought more powerful vessels . The Royal Yugoslav Navy therefore purchased Niobe when Germany placed her for sale in 1925 . Renamed Dalmacija ( Dalmatia ) , she was completely rearmed in 1926 before she entered Yugoslavian service . She was equipped with six Škoda 8 @.@ 5 cm / 55 quick @-@ firing guns , and initially four and later six 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns were added . After entering service , Dalmacija was employed as a gunnery training ship . In May and June 1929 , Dalmacija , the submarines Hrabri and Nebojša , the submarine tender Hvar and six torpedo boats went on a cruise to Malta , the Greek island of Corfu in the Ionian Sea , and Bizerte in the French protectorate of Tunisia . According to the British naval attaché , the ships and crews made a very good impression while visiting Malta . In April 1941 , during the Axis Invasion of Yugoslavia , Dalmacija remained in harbor and did not see action . Following the Yugoslav surrender , the ship was captured by the Italians in Kotor on 25 April . Renamed Cattaro , the ship was placed in service with the Regia Marina . On 31 July 1942 , the cruiser was attacked by the British submarine HMS Traveller south of Premantura but all of the torpedoes missed . The ship 's fate is somewhat unclear ; according to Hildebrand et. al . , Cattaro was later transferred to the Navy of the Independent State of Croatia , where she was commissioned as a training ship under the name Znaim . She returned to German service in September 1943 after Italy surrendered to the Allies , significantly reducing the warships available to Germany in the Adriatic . A German and Croatian crew operated the ship , once again named Niobe , under the German flag . According to Gardiner and Chesneau , however , the ship remained in Italian hands until Germany seized it in September 1943 , thereafter turning her over to the Independent State of Croatia as Znaim before retaking the ship and restoring her original name at some point thereafter . Nevertheless , the ship 's armament was again revised after leaving Italian service , this time consisting of six 8 @.@ 4 cm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns , four 4 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns , four 20 mm Oerlikon anti @-@ aircraft guns , and twenty @-@ six 20 mm Breda anti @-@ aircraft guns , and she was commissioned on 8 November . On the night of 21 – 22 September , while she was still refitting , two British Motor Torpedo Boats — MTB 226 and MTB 228 — attacked the ship to the northwest of Zara without success . Niobe began escorting convoys in the Adriatic , the first taking place of 13 November . This convoy consisted of several transports carrying units from the 7th Infantry Division to the islands of Cres , Krk , and Lussino . On 19 December , Niobe ran aground on the island of Silba . Three days later , the British Motor Torpedo Boats MTB 276 and MTB 298 attacked the ship and hit her with two torpedoes ; nineteen men were killed in the attack . The Germans then abandoned the wreck , which was later cannibalized for spare parts by the Yugoslav Partisans . The wreck remained on Silba until 1947 , when salvage operations began . She was raised and broken up for scrap by 1949 .
= Go to the Top ( song ) = " Go to the Top " is a song recorded by Japanese recording artist Kumi Koda for her eleventh studio album , Bon Voyage ( 2012 ) . It premiered on October 24 , 2012 as the lead single from the album . The song was written by Kumi , while production was handled by Clarabell . It was used as the opening theme song for the Âge – developed anime series Muv @-@ Luv Alternative : Total Eclipse . Musically , the track was described as an electronic dance song with elements of 8 @-@ bit music , dance @-@ pop , and dubstep . Upon its release , " Go to the Top " garnered positive reviews from music critics . Many critics commended the song 's dance @-@ influenced composition , lyrical content , and Kumi 's vocal delivery . Minor criticism was towards the songs inclusion of 8 @-@ bit music elements . The song was successful in Japan , peaking at # 1 on the Japanese Oricon Singles Chart and becoming Kumi 's eighth number one single . It also reached 10 on Billboard 's Japan Hot 100 chart , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . The accompanying music video for " Go to the Top " was shot in Tokyo by Tomoe Nakano ; it features an animated Kumi flying a large robot in a racing circuit with another racer . Koda performed the single during several of her concerts , including Premium Night : Love & Songs and the Hall Tour 2014 : Bon Voyage . = = Background = = " Go to the Top " was Kumi 's first single since her promotional recording " Whatchu Waitin ' On ? " from her sixth remix album Beach Mix , and giving birth to her and Kenji 's son in July 2012 . On June 30 , Koda Kumi 's record label Rhythm Zone confirmed that she was to perform the theme song for the Âge – developed anime series Muv @-@ Luv Alternative : Total Eclipse . The song was Kumi 's seventh collaboration effort with anime series ; the previous six songs being " Real Emotion " and " 1000 Words " for the 2003 video game Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , " Go Way " for the 2006 film Crayon Shin @-@ chan : Densetsu o Yobu Odore ! Amigo ! . Koda also performed the theme songs the live @-@ action film of the anime series ; the title track for Cutie Honey , " Crazy 4 U " for Gilgamesh , " No Regret " for The Law of Ueki , and the title track for Re : Cutie Honey . It was selected as the lead single from Bon Voyage and was released in Japan on October 24 , 2012 by Rhythm Zone . The Maxi CD version of the single contains the B @-@ side " Darling " , and the DJ AKI and Takeo Yatabe remix for " Go to the Top " . The DVD version of the single contains the accompanying music video , and a limited " Total Eclipse Edition " with Slipcase includes all tracks and the video except " Darling " . There are four cover sleeves to " Go to the Top " . The CD , DVD , and Fan Club formats feature close @-@ up shots of Kumi wearing a bejewelled masquerade mask . Red construction tape superimposes her , with Kumi 's and the song 's title inserted in it . The Total Eclipse Edition features a shot of Total Eclipse character Takamura Yui . The digital single uses the original DVD cover . = = Composition = = " Go to the Top " was written by Kumi , while production was handled by Clarabell . Clarabell was in charge of the song 's arrangement and production , including the synthesizers , keyboards , and drum machine . Kiyoto Konda played the electric guitar during the chorus and song breaks . The song was described as an electronic dance song that , according to Patrick St. Michel from The Japan Times , " featured elements of contemporary stateside electronic dance music ( EDM ) . " The song was noted for its numerous musical elements including 8 @-@ bit music , dance @-@ pop , and dubstep . Koda said that she had become " languish [ ed ] " after having " life @-@ changing events such as marriage and having a baby , " . She felt the effects left her " not knowing what direction I was going to take , " in terms of her musical sound and lyrical delivery . = = Critical reception = = " Go to the Top " received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Vixen Ninetails from Comic Buzz stated that the song was the reason she loved the episodes , particularly the first two . Ninetails said that the song was " worth listening to " . Julie from the website GoBoiano.com listed Koda as their Music Spotlight Arist of the Week , and listed " Go to the Top " as her third most essential career track . The other five were , in order : " Juicy " , " Taboo " , " Freaky " and " You " . Tetsuo Hiraga from Hot Shot Discs praised the composition and production of " Go to the Top " . He commended how Kumi " played " with the lyrical content , and complimented the " futuristic " and " robotic " sounds . He went on to compliment her vocal abilities and the " attitude " portrayed in the track . A reviewer from CD Journal labelled the 8 @-@ bit elements were " cheap " , he commended Kumi 's " strong " delivery . The NHK ( Japan Broadcasting Corporation ) listed the song in the Red Team for their annual New Years Eve countdown show , Kōhaku Uta Gassen . = = Commercial performance = = " Go to the Top " debuted at two on the Daily Japanese Oricon Singles Chart , moving to number one the following day ; it later reached the top spot in its first week on the top 100 . Its first week sales in Japan were an estimated 54 @,@ 559 units . It became her eighth number one single and her first inside the 2010 decade . Despite this , this became Kumi 's second number one single with the lowest first week sales ; her lowest to date is her 2009 double a @-@ side single " Alive / Physical Thing " with an estimated 32 @,@ 468 units . Regarding the number one position , Kumi stated , " I decided to come back to the stage and I am thrilled beyond words to be back in the No. 1 spot . " The song stayed in the top 100 for three weeks , and an additional three weeks inside the top 200 . It has sold over 69 @,@ 390 units in Japan , her second lowest selling number single after " Alive / Physical Thing " with 44 @,@ 725 units . As of October 2012 , the single is her last single to reach number one on the Oricon Singles Chart and her last single to sell over 50 @,@ 000 units . As of January 2016 , Oricon 's database has ranked " Go to the Top " as her 21 best selling single . It also reached number 10 on Billboard 's Japan Hot 100 chart . " Go to the Top " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units , her last single to be certified for physical shipments . = = Music video = = The accompanying music video for " Go to the Top " was directed by Tomoe Nakano . This is Kumi 's first animated music video , and her only collaboration with Nakano . The video opens with people inside a late @-@ night cafe . In the distance , a television screen reads " The next single is a winter ballad single in December " ; this is a reference to Kumi 's December single Koishikute . The music video features an animated Kumi inside a giant robot , ready to race an opponent . The two robots get ready to race around a city circuit , with the crowd cheering them on . As they race , several obstacles are in the way . The opponent attacks Kumi , but crashes into the stadium . Due to some damage of her robot , she jumps out of the robot with a cyber – motocycle and races to the end . Winning , the opponent 's robot is completely damage as the opponent emerges from it . The opponent , a woman , throws a pendant of Kumi and her . The video finishes with the pendant changing to the song 's title . The music video premiered on October 24 on Japanese music television . = = Promotion and other appearances = = Koda performed the song for the first time on her Premium Night : Love & Songs concert tour in Japan . It was later included on the live album , released on March 20 , 2013 . The song was included on Koda 's Hall Tour 2014 : Bon Voyage concert tour in Japan . It was included on the special medley segment , which also included the tracks : " Real Emotion " , " Last Angel " , " Crazy 4 U " , " Gentle Words " , " Anata Dake Ga " , " Take Back " , " Taboo " , and " Lady Go ! " . It was later included on the live album and DVD release , released on October 3 and October 10 , 2014 @.@ respectively . The DJ Aki and Asy remix was included on her Koda Kumi Driving Hit 's 5 remix compilation ( 2013 ) . = = Track listing = = = = Credits and personnel = = Kumi Koda – vocals , background vocals , song writing Clarabell – composer , producer , arranger , programmer , engineer Yoichiro Nomura – composer , producer , arranger , programmer , engineer Kiyoto Konda – guitar DJ Aki – composer , remixer Takeo Yatabe – composer , remixer Tomoe Nakano – director Rhythm Zone - management , label Avex Trax - parent label , management Credits adapted from the CD and DVD version of the single : = = Charts = = = = Certifications = =
= Gravity ( Fred Frith album ) = Gravity is a 1980 solo album by English guitarist , composer and improviser Fred Frith from Henry Cow and Art Bears . It was Frith 's second solo album and his first since the demise of Henry Cow in 1978 . It was originally released in the United States on LP record on The Residents 's Ralph record label and was the first of three solo albums Frith made for the label . Gravity was recorded in Sweden , the United States and Switzerland and featured Frith with Swedish Rock in Opposition group Samla Mammas Manna on one side of the LP , and Frith with United States progressive rock group The Muffins on the other side . Additional musicians included Marc Hollander from Aksak Maboul and Chris Cutler from Henry Cow . Gravity has been described as an avant @-@ garde " dance " record that draws on rhythm and dance from folk music across the world . AllMusic called it one of the most important experimental guitar titles from Fred Frith . = = Background = = Fred Frith was a classically @-@ trained violinist who turned to playing blues guitar while at school . In 1967 he went to Cambridge University where he and fellow student , Tim Hodgkinson formed the English avant @-@ rock group Henry Cow . Frith and Hodgkinson remained with the band until its demise in 1978 . After the release of Henry Cow 's second album in May 1974 , Frith recorded his debut solo album , Guitar Solos ( 1974 ) , which featured unaccompanied and improvised experimental rock music played on prepared guitars by Frith without any overdubbing . Guitar Solos was well received by music critics , and was voted one of the best albums of 1974 by NME . During the recording of Henry Cow 's sixth album in January 1978 , musical differences arose within the group over the prevalence of song @-@ oriented material on the album . Some wanted purely instrumental compositions , while others , including Frith , favoured songs . As a compromise Frith and the band 's drummer , Chris Cutler released the songs on an album Hopes and Fears ( 1978 ) under the name Art Bears , while the instrumental tracks , plus others recorded later were released on Henry Cow 's last album , Western Culture ( 1979 ) . Art Bears went on to make two more albums of songs . After Henry Cow broke up , Frith moved to New York City in 1979 where he became involved with a number of musical projects , including a new solo album . To make a more " immediate " record after the intensities of Henry Cow and Art Bears , Frith turned his attention to world folk and dance music . In Hopes and Fears he had " rediscovered the joys of song @-@ form " , and it was the song " The Dance " that Frith and Cutler wrote for that album that inspired the making of Gravity . Frith said in a BBC interview : Frith had been listening to music from other cultures , particularly Eastern Europe since the mid @-@ 1970s . He made no attempt to notate what he heard , but absorbed it and let it find its way later into his own music . On Gravity Frith mixed up all these different musical styles to make new songs out of them . = = Recording = = Gravity was the first of a series of projects Frith did for The Residents 's record label Ralph Records . He had recorded with The Residents in the late 1970s and early 1980s , and appeared on several of their albums . Frith used two backing bands for Gravity , Swedish Rock in Opposition group Samla Mammas Manna and United States progressive rock group The Muffins . He recorded side one of the LP record with Samla Mammas Manna at Norrgården Nyvla in Uppsala , Sweden , with additional recording at Sunrise Studios , Kirchberg , Switzerland in August 1979 . Side two of the LP was recorded with The Muffins at Catch @-@ a @-@ Buzz Studio in Rockville , Maryland , United States in November 1979 , with additional recording at Sunrise Studios in Switzerland in January 1980 . Frith recorded two additional tracks with The Muffins , " Vanity , Vanity " and " Dancing in Sunrise , Switzerland " , but they were omitted from the album due to space constraints . They appeared later on The Muffins 's 1985 album , Open City . Many of the tracks on Gravity consist of melodic lines woven into complex rhythmic structures taken from different folk music cultures . The time signatures are not the standard 3 / 4 or 4 / 4 , but more complex signatures like 15 / 8 . Frith described in an interview how he arrived in Uppsala with his carefully written music sheets , only to find that Samla Mammas Manna could not read music . But when he played the music to them , he was " stunned by their ability to hear the details , especially the rhythmic details , that I had written . " The title of the album came from a 1937 quote by Curt Sachs ( printed on the back of the album sleeve ) in which he described dance as " the victory over gravity " . In 1980 Ralph Records also released a single from the album , " Dancing in the Street " b / w " What a Dilemma " . It did not chart on any of the major music charts . = = Music = = Frith called Gravity a " dance album " , not in the disco / funk sense of its day , but a collection of " dance music " drawn from cultures around the world . The album features an array of rock , folk and jazz instruments , plus field recordings , clapping and " whirling " , and has been described as a " musical hybridization " of " Latin percussion , calypso festivity , eastern @-@ tinged percussion [ and ] Klezmer @-@ like celebration " . " The Boy Beats the Rams " opens Gravity with a burst of laughter followed by some tap dancing , " random " percussion and Frith 's " distinctive keening " violin . On " Spring Any Day Now " Frith mixes a bossa nova rhythm with a North African melody . " Don 't Cry For Me " features Greek mandolin with heavy metal guitar . " Hands of the Juggler " draws on Middle Eastern folk dance , " Slap Dance " is a Serbian " folk romp " , and " Career in Real Estate " is in the tradition of a Scottish fiddle tune . " Dancing in the Street " is a " de / reconstruction " of Martha and the Vandellas 's 1964 hit that includes a " bizarrely harmonised guitar " playing the song 's melody over a " boiling mass of feedback " and tape manipulation . According to the album 's sleeve notes , this track also includes a recording of " Iranian demonstrators celebrating the capture of American hostages " . " Crack in the Concrete " features an e @-@ bowed guitar over " edgy , dissonant chords " and a " massed kazoo choir of horns " that presages Frith 's experimental rock band Massacre he formed in New York City in February 1980 . " Norrgården Nyvla " flows into " Year of the Monkey " which ends with a brief sample of the 13th Puerto Rico Summertime Band , " ten seconds of the real thing " according to the LP liner notes . = = Reception and influence = = In the January 1983 edition of Down Beat magazine , Bill Milkowski wrote that in contrast to Art Bears 's " bleak attitude " , Frith 's Gravity is a " truly joyous solo LP , [ ... ] an extremely warm , almost whimsical album " . Thomas Schulte at AllMusic described it as an " entertaining and multicultural pocket folk festival " and said it was " one of the most important guitar @-@ based , experimental guitar titles from the avant @-@ guitarist " . In a BBC Online review of Gravity , Peter Marsh called it " Absolutely essential " , adding that it " manages to be wildly eclectic yet avoids incoherence " . Brandon Wu of Ground and Sky said that despite his " relative indifference " to the album , one of Gravity 's great strengths is that it is both accessible and avant @-@ garde . Gravity inspired a 2003 album Spring Any Day Now by David Greenberg and David McGuinness with the Concerto Caledonia . Subtitled " Music of 18th century Scotland and elsewhere " , the album includes covers of two tracks from Gravity , " Spring Any Day Now " and " Norrgården Nyvla " , and a track from Frank Zappa 's Roxy & Elsewhere ( 1974 ) , " Echidna 's Arf ( Of You ) " . Frith continued his exploration of folk and dance music on his next album for Ralph Records , Speechless ( 1981 ) . As with Gravity , he recorded Speechless with two bands , French Rock in Opposition group Etron Fou Leloublan on one side of the LP , and Frith 's New York City group Massacre on the other . The album included extensive tape manipulation , which was an ongoing passion of Frith 's at the time . = = Live performances = = In August 2012 Frith led a performance of Gravity in San Francisco , California entitled " Fred Frith and Friends play Gravity " . The performers were Frith , Dominique Leone , Jon Leidecker ( Wobbly ) , Aaron Novik , Ava Mendoza , Jordan Glenn , Kasey Knudsen , Lisa Mezzacappa and Marië Abe . Frith led two more performances of Gravity at Roulette in Brooklyn , New York City on 19 and 20 September 2013 , featuring Frith ( guitar / electric bass ) , Leone ( keyboards ) , Leidecker ( sampling ) , Novik ( clarinet / bass clarinet ) , Mendoza ( guitar ) , Abe ( accordion ) , Glenn ( drums ) , Knudsen ( alto saxophone ) , Mezzacappa ( bass ) , Kaethe Hostetter ( violin ) , and William Winant ( percussion ) . Frith formed the Gravity Band in 2014 , comprising Frith ( conductor / guitar / bass ) , Hostetter ( violin ) , Knudsen ( saxophone ) , Novik ( clarinet ) , Abe ( accordion ) , Leidecker ( samples ) , Leone ( keyboards ) , Mendoza ( guitar ) , Mezzacappa ( bass ) , Glenn ( drums ) , Winant ( percussion ) , and Myles Boisen ( sound ) . They performed the album live at the 30th Festival International de Musique Actuelle de Victoriaville in Canada in May 2014 , at the Music Meeting in Nijmegen , Netherlands in June 2014 , and at the Moers Festival in Germany , also in June 2014 . = = Track listing = = All tracks composed by Fred Frith except where noted . = = = Original 1980 release = = = = = = 1990 CD re @-@ issue bonus tracks = = = = = Personnel = = = = = Side one = = = Fred Frith – guitar , bass guitar , violin , extra percussion Samla Mammas Manna : Lars Hollmer – piano , organ , accordion Hans Bruniusson – drums Eino Haapala – guitar , mandolin Marc Hollander – alto saxophone , clarinet = = = = Guests = = = = Olivia Bruynhooghe – tap dancing , clapping Chris Cutler – snare drum and maracas ( track 3 ) , clapping Tina Curran – whirling , clapping Catherine Jauniaux – whirling , clapping Frank Wuyts – recorders ( track 6 ) , whirling , clapping Michel Berckmans – clapping Etienne Conod – clapping Denis van Hecke – clapping Veronique Vincent – clapping = = = = Recording and production = = = = Recorded at Norrgården Nyvla in Uppsala , Sweden and at Sunrise Studios , Kirchberg , Switzerland in August 1979 . Gabriel Rosen – engineer ( Sweden ) Etienne Conod – engineer ( Switzerland ) = = = Side two = = = Fred Frith – guitar , bass guitar , violin , keyboards , drums ( tracks 1 @,@ 5 @,@ 7 ) The Muffins : Dave Newhouse – alto saxophone , organ ( track 4 ) Thomas Scott – soprano saxophone ( track 6 ) Paul Sears – drums ( tracks 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 4 @,@ 6 @,@ 8 ) Billy Swann – bass guitar ( tracks 2 @,@ 4 @,@ 6 @,@ 8 ) Marc Hollander – alto saxophone , bass clarinet = = = = Guests = = = = Hans Bruniusson – drums ( track 4 ) Tina Curran – subliminal bass guitar ( track 1 ) Frank Wuyts – drums ( track 3 ) = = = = Recording and production = = = = Recorded at Catch @-@ a @-@ Buzz Studio , Rockville , Maryland , United States in November 1979 and at Sunrise Studios , Kirchberg , Switzerland in January 1980 . Thomas Scott and Colleen Scott – engineers ( USA ) Etienne Conod – engineer ( Switzerland ) = = = Bonus tracks on 1990 CD re @-@ issue = = = Fred Frith – bass guitar , guitar , violin , keyboards , drums , percussion Marc Hollander – soprano saxophone ( track 18 ) Chris Cutler – drums ( tracks 15 – 18 ) Frank Wuyts – synthesiser ( track 18 ) Michel Berckmans – oboe , bassoon ( track 18 ) Denis van Hecke – cello ( track 18 ) Lindsay Cooper – bassoon , oboe ( tracks 15 @,@ 16 ) Tim Hodgkinson – alto saxophone ( track 15 ) Annemarie Roelofs – trombone ( track 15 ) Dagmar Krause – voice ( track 17 ) Tom Cora – bass guitar , percussion ( track 19 ) = = = = Recording = = = = Track 15 recorded at Sunrise Studios , Kirchberg , Switzerland in July – August 1978 , previously unreleased ( an outtake from the Henry Cow Western Culture recording sessions ) Track 16 recorded at Kaleidophon , London in March 1978 , originally released on Hopes and Fears ( 1978 ) by Art Bears Track 17 recorded at Sunrise Studios , Kirchberg , Switzerland in January 1978 , originally released on Hopes and Fears ( 1978 ) by Art Bears Track 18 recorded at Sunrise Studios , Kirchberg , Switzerland in January 1979 , originally released on Un Peu de l 'Âme des Bandits ( 1980 ) by Aksak Maboul Track 19 recorded at Sunrise Studios , Kirchberg , Switzerland in January 1984 , originally released on Learn to Talk ( 1984 ) by Skeleton Crew Track 20 recorded at Noise , New York City in September 1988 , previously unreleased = = = Artwork = = = Alfreda Benge ( Robert Wyatt 's wife ) – album cover artwork on the original LP record = = CD reissues = = In 1990 East Side Digital and RecRec Music re @-@ issued Gravity on CD with six bonus tracks . In 2002 Fred Records issued a remastered version of the original Gravity with no bonus tracks .
= Cedric Wright = George Cedric Wright ( April 13 , 1889 – 1959 ) was an American violinist and wilderness photographer of the High Sierra . He was Ansel Adams 's mentor and best friend for decades , and accompanied Adams when three of his most famous photographs were taken . He was a long -time participant in the annual wilderness High Trips sponsored by the Sierra Club . = = Family = = Cedric Wright was born and raised in Alameda , California . His father was a successful attorney , and one of his father 's clients was astronomer Charles Hitchcock Adams , Ansel Adams 's father . Cedric 's uncle , William Hammond Wright , was an astronomer who became head of Lick Observatory . As a result of his father 's success , Wright was financially comfortable throughout his life . His first wife was Mildred Sahlström , and they had a daughter , Alberta . After they divorced , he married pianist and piano teacher Rhea Ufford in 1929 . They had a daughter , Joanne , and a son , David . = = Violinist = = Wright was motivated to become a violinist when he heard a performance by Fritz Kreisler . After study in the United States , he spent seven years studying with Otakar Ševčík in Prague and Vienna . Wright was known as a " distinguished violinist " , and was a violin teacher at the University of California Extension and Mills College for many years . Renowned violin teacher and conductor Louis Persinger called him " one of the foremost performers and instructors in the West " . In 1934 , arthritis brought an early end to his professional career as a violinist , and he then decided to pursue his hobby of photography as a career . = = Friendship and collaboration with Ansel Adams = = Wright first met Ansel Adams at a family gathering at the Wright family vacation home in the Santa Cruz Mountains when Cedric was about 21 and Ansel was about 8 years old . They encountered each other again on a four @-@ week wilderness High Trip in Yosemite National Park , organized by the Sierra Club in 1923 . Nancy Newhall wrote , " On that first High Trip , Ansel found himself drawn to one Cedric Wright , a violinist , who could fiddle by the fire deep into the night and still be among the first up , making a little fire of twigs . . . " Their friendship , which continued until Wright 's death in 1959 , was described by Mary Street Alinder as an " intense comradeship " . The men shared a deep interest in both classical music and photography , since Adams was an accomplished classical pianist . Wright introduced Adams to the writings of the British philosopher Edward Carpenter , whose thoughts helped shape both men 's world views . Together , they discussed the works of other writers , including Elbert Hubbard and Walt Whitman . Back in the Bay Area after their initial 1923 wilderness journey together had ended , Adams became a part of Wright 's social circle of musicians and Sierra Club activists who gathered at his Berkeley home . Adams " idolized " Wright , and he followed in Wright 's footsteps by taking long trips into the wilderness of the Sierra Nevada each summer , photographing the remote mountain peaks . In his autobiography , Ansel Adams called Cedric Wright " my best friend for many years " . He described Wright as " almost an occupant of another world and a creator and messenger of beauty and mysteries . Perhaps his greatest gift was that of imparting confidence to those who were wavering on the edge of fear and indecision ; often it was me . " In 1926 , Wright introduced Adams to Albert Bender , a patron of the arts who was to play an instrumental role in Adams 's enormous success as a photographer . Wright was also a close friend of Virginia Best , who was Adams ' girlfriend for years . Wright visited with her when Adams was away on photography trips , and she confided in him about the problems in her relationship with Adams . Wright was their best man when they were married on January 2 , 1928 . Wright accompanied and assisted Adams when he took three of the most famous photographs of his career : On April 10 , 1927 , Wright hiked with Adams , Virginia Best , Charles Michael and another photographer , Arnold Williams , to a rocky perch high above Yosemite Valley called the " Diving Board " . There , Adams took Monolith , the Face of Half Dome , which Mary Street Alinder called Adams 's " most significant photograph " because it was a triumph of visualization showing " extreme manipulation of tonal values " . This photo set Adams on the path of becoming America 's most well @-@ known photographer . Adams called the excursion a " personally historic moment in my photographic career . " During the 1932 Sierra Club High Trip to Sequoia National Park , Wright and Adams both photographed Precipice Lake near Eagle Scout Peak , while Virginia swam in the lake , still arrayed with icy patches . Wright was shocked when he saw Adams 's Frozen Lake and Cliffs , The Sierra Nevada , Sequoia National Park , so much more beautiful than the photos Wright himself had produced . Mary Street Alinder described the image : " Mirrored ghostly upon the inky waters , a shattered black cliff descends into a partially frozen lake . " In 1941 , Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes hired Adams for six months to create photographs of lands under the jurisdiction of the Department of the Interior . Wright accompanied Adams and his young son Michael Adams on a long road trip around the west . While traveling through the Chama River valley near nightfall on November 1 , 1941 , they encountered a " fantastic scene " , a church and cemetery near Hernandez , New Mexico , and pulled to the side of the road . Adams recalled that he yelled at his son Michael and at Wright to " Get this ! Get that , for God 's sake ! We don 't have much time ! " Desperate to capture the image in the fading light , they scrambled to set up the tripod and camera , knowing that only moments remained before the light was gone . The result was Moonrise , Hernandez , New Mexico , a photograph that became so popular and collectible that Adams personally made over 1 @,@ 300 photographic prints of it during his long career . On October 17 , 2006 , Sotheby 's auctioned a print of this photograph for $ 609 @,@ 600 . Art historian H. W. Janson called this photo " a perfect marriage of straight and pure photography " . = = Wright 's Berkeley home = = In 1921 , Wright purchased an old dairy barn at 2515 Etna Street in Berkeley , California , and hired architect Bernard Maybeck to remodel it into a home . Nicknamed " the barn " , Wright 's home featured " a soaring ceiling with room for a rope swing hung from the rafters and space enough for two grand pianos . Maybeck 's daughter @-@ in @-@ law Jacomena Maybeck " remembered evenings at Cedric Wright 's studio , when the women wore evening dresses and the men wore tuxedos , and there was much music around the big stone fireplace . " The home was known as " party central " among Sierra Club members of the era . Among that social circle were Richard M. Leonard and his wife Doris , Francis P. Farquhar and his wife Marjorie , David Brower and his wife Anne , Edgar Wayburn and his wife Peggy , and Wright 's best friends , Ansel Adams and his wife Virginia . Nancy Newhall described the atmosphere : " Meanwhile in Cedric Wright 's house among the redwoods in Berkeley , Ansel was finding a warm welcome ... In his house there was music for violin and piano ; there was poetry , especially Whitman . " = = Sierra Club High Trips = = The High Trips were large wilderness excursions organized and led by the Sierra Club , beginning in 1901 . While most of these excursions were to the High Sierra , some were to other destinations , such as the Canadian Rockies in 1928 . Wright 's photos of that trip , along with those of Adams and other photographers , were included in a portfolio produced to commemorate it . No other member participated in as many High Trips as Wright , and David Brower recounted that Wright told him in 1953 that he had participated in 33 High Trips . Tom Turner wrote that " Wright was a tireless and talented photographer of the mountain scene , who entertained campers with his fiddle and loved to greet weary hikers at day 's end with an unexpected cup of tea or soup . " During the High Trips , Wright and his student Dorothy Minty would often entertain groups of 200 participants with performances of Bach 's Double Violin Concerto . = = Photographer , inventor and writer = = Arthritis forced Wright to give up his career as a violinist in 1934 , and he resolved to pursue his hobby of photography as a new career . In 1939 the Museum of Modern Art accepted six of Wright 's photographs , donated by Albert Bender , into its photography collection . These were followed by another ten prints the following year . Several of his photos were displayed at the Golden Gate International Exposition in San Francisco in 1939 and 1940 . Wright 's work was also featured in a 1943 exhibition at The Museum of Modern Art called " Action Photography " , along with work by Erich Salomon , Peter Stackpole , Alfred Stieglitz , Paul Strand and Weegee . He was issued a United States patent for a portable photo @-@ printing device in 1935 . He also made various devices , including " collapsible and portable latrines " for the High Trips , and " astonishingly solid camera and violin cases of varnished plywood with leather thongs , which would tolerate the rigors of being packed for a month on muleback . " In an article published in 1957 , which included eight full @-@ page photographs , Wright described his thoughts about how high mountain beauty resembles great music : " Beauty haunts the high country like a majestic hymn , sings in cold sunny air , the brilliant mountain air — makes of sunlight a living thing — floats in cloud forms — filters changing floods of light ever clothing the mountains anew . Beauty arrives in deep voice of river and wind through forest , swelling the chorus , giving sonority universal proportions . " He dedicated these words to Sierra Club leader William Edward Colby , and they became part of the introduction to Wright 's posthumous book , Words of the Earth . = = Final years = = Ansel Adams described Wright 's final years as " complex and difficult " . He suffered a stroke , which caused a personality change , and he became " rigid and dictatorial " , which was a " painful experience for all his friends . " Wright died in 1959 . = = Legacy = = After his death , Nancy Newhall edited and completed his book , Words of the Earth , which was among the first titles published by Sierra Club Books in 1960 . Ansel Adams wrote the foreword . In 1961 , a 12 @,@ 362 @-@ foot ( 3768 meter ) High Sierra peak was officially named Mount Cedric Wright ( 36 ° 54 ′ 13 @.@ 9 ″ N 118 ° 23 ′ 15 @.@ 2 ″ W ) , in memory of Wright , who was described as an " internationally known photographer whose photography has made a significant contribution to the appreciation of the natural scene . " The mountain is located in Kings Canyon National Park , 1 @.@ 9 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) southwest of Colosseum Mountain and 5 @.@ 3 km ( 3 @.@ 3 mi ) south @-@ southeast of Mount Pinchot . Virginia Best Adams later arranged for park ranger Randy Morgenson to scatter Wright 's ashes on the slopes of Mount Cedric Wright . In 1976 , Ansel Adams and the Sierra Club arranged for Wright 's personal papers to be donated to the Bancroft Library at the University of California , Berkeley . A 2011 exhibit at the Chadwick School featured photos of the school by both Wright and Adams . Two of Wright 's children had attended the school . A critic writing for the Los Angeles Times praised Wright 's work : " In the Chadwick exhibition , it 's Wright who trumps Adams with the show 's most jaw @-@ dropping image : a 1947 shot of five boys playing basketball on the school 's outdoor court , against a backdrop of rolling hills and the Los Angeles Basin far below . It captures a moment of sheer ballet , the composition so gracefully perfect that one would think it had been choreographed by Balanchine — except that you can 't choreograph players leaping for a rebound . "
= Hurricane Danielle ( 1998 ) = Hurricane Danielle resulted in minor damage throughout its duration as a tropical cyclone in late August and early September 1998 . The fourth named storm and second hurricane of the annual hurricane season , Danielle originated from a tropical wave that emerged off the western coast of Africa on August 21 . Tracking generally west @-@ northwestward , the disturbance was initially disorganized ; under favorable atmospheric conditions , shower and thunderstorm activity began to consolidate around a low @-@ pressure center . Following a series of satellite intensity estimates , the system was upgraded to Tropical Depression Four during the pre @-@ dawn hours of August 24 , and further to Tropical Storm Danielle that afternoon . Moving around the southern periphery of the Azores High located in the northeastern Atlantic , quick intensification to hurricane status occurred early on August 25 . By 0600 UTC the following day , Danielle reached an initial peak intensity of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , a Category 2 hurricane . Increased wind shear from a nearby trough encroached on further development later that day , and subsequently led to slight weakening . By 1200 UTC on August 27 , despite continued unfavorable conditions , Danielle reached a second peak intensity equal to the first . Weakening once ensued late on August 27 in addition to the days following , and Danielle was a low @-@ end Category 1 hurricane by August 31 as its forward speed slowed . As the cyclone reached the western periphery of the ridge that steered it across the Atlantic for much of its existence , it began yet another period of intensification , and once again attained a peak intensity as a Category 2 hurricane . Passing northwest of Bermuda , Danielle weakened to Category 1 hurricane strength , but for a final time intensified into a 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) tropical cyclone thereafter . As the cyclone passed over increasingly cool sea surface temperatures and became intertwined in a baroclinic zone , it began to undergo an extratropical transition . At 0000 UTC on September 4 , Danielle was no longer considered a tropical cyclone , despite retaining hurricane @-@ force winds . Several days later , the remnants of Danielle merged with a larger extratropical low and became indistinguishable . As a tropical cyclone , it produced heavy rainfall in Puerto Rico and the Lesser Antilles , leading to flooding . Tropical storm @-@ force winds were observed in Bermuda even though the cyclone passed well northwest of the island . During Danielle 's transition to an extratropical cyclone , it produced light rain and led to minor beach erosion in Newfoundland . The larger extratropical low that merged with the system resulted in large waves off the coast of the United Kingdom , leading to major beach erosion and coastal flooding . Overall , no fatalities were reported with the system and it caused an estimated $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1998 USD ) in damage . = = Meteorological history = = The origins of Hurricane Danielle trace back to a tropical wave that emerged off the western coast of Africa and into the eastern Atlantic Ocean early on August 21 . Tracking west @-@ northwestward , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began Dvorak satellite intensity estimates later that morning following the consolidation of convection – shower and thunderstorm activity – near the system 's center . Favorable atmospheric conditions led to further organization , and it is estimated that the disturbance intensified into a tropical depression by 0600 UTC on August 24 , while located roughly 690 miles ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) west @-@ southwest of the Cape Verde Islands . Operationally , the National Hurricane Center initiated advisories at 1530 UTC and noted that the depression was already on the verge of tropical storm intensity . The depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Danielle later on August 24 following an increase in organization on satellite imagery . As the cyclone moved northwestward along the southern periphery of the Azores High , it began a period of rapid deepening in which a " pinhole " eye became distinguishable on satellite imagery ; on this basis , Danielle was upgraded to a hurricane at 1200 UTC on August 25 . At the time , Danielle was a compact system , with tropical storm force winds spanning only 115 miles ( 185 km ) from the center . Although the NHC was fairly certain that the storm would continue west @-@ northwestward , a veer north or south of the forecast track seemed plausible due to the influence of an upper @-@ level low to the west @-@ northwest of Danielle . Nonetheless , the storm continued its west @-@ northwest track . At 0600 UTC on August 26 , Danielle attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , one of four peak intensities . Although the eye became obscured and southeasterly vertical wind shear increased late on August 26 , the National Hurricane Center did not indicate weakening and instead predicted that Danielle would reach winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) by late on August 27 . Early on August 27 , a United States Air Force reconnaissance aircraft flight reported surface winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , though post @-@ analysis indicates that the intensity of the storm was underestimated . The storm briefly re @-@ strengthened slightly on August 27 , reaching its maximum sustained wind speed of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) for the second time at 1200 UTC . Vertical wind shear persisted and Danielle soon began to weaken again . Later on August 27 , the National Hurricane Center predicted that the storm would travel along the periphery of an anticyclone centered just east of Bermuda , which would keep the storm away from the East Coast of the United States . Despite being in an apparently favorable environment , Danielle continued to slowly weaken , as the forecast for decreasing wind shear did not initially materialize . Additionally , upwelling from Hurricane Bonnie roughly a week earlier contributed to a decrease in strength . Although the storm weakened further , reconnaissance aircraft observations on August 29 concluded that the structure of Danielle had improved compared to the previous day . By early on August 30 , Danielle had weakened to the extent that it was only a minimal hurricane , with maximum winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) at the time . On August 30 , the National Hurricane Center noted that Danielle would soon leave the upwelling track left by Bonnie , and likely lead to intensification . Thus , the possibility of re @-@ strengthening increased , though predictions only showed gradual intensification . By early on August 31 , an increase in sustained winds , a decrease in barometric pressure , and a 23 miles ( 37 km ) wide eye observed by reconnaissance aircraft all suggested that Danielle was beginning to intensify . On August 31 , the anticyclone near Bermuda caused Danielle to curve northeastward , away from the East Coast of the United States . Later that day , a significant increase in intensity led the storm to again reach its maximum sustained wind speed of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . On September 1 , there was significant uncertainty in the future intensity of Danielle , as a shortwave trough located northeast of the storm would either enhance outflow , causing strengthening , or increase wind shear , resulting in weakening . At 1500 UTC on September 1 , it was predicted that Danielle would strengthen slightly before weakening and becoming extratropical by September 3 . Three hours later , Danielle reached its maximum sustained wind speed of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) for the fourth and final time . Early on September 2 , the storm weakened again and was downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane . At 0600 UTC on September 3 , Danielle reached its minimum barometric pressure of 960 mb ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 35 inHg ) , although sustained winds were only 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) at the time . As late as 1500 UTC on September 3 , satellite imagery indicated that Danielle was retaining tropical characteristics . The National Hurricane Center did not forecast any further weakening before the extratropical transition , but instead mentioned the possibility of baroclinic strengthening . Late on September 3 , the final advisory was issued on the transitioning storm . Danielle officially transitioned into an extratropical cyclone at 0000 UTC on September 4 according to a post @-@ season report from the NHC , while located east @-@ southeast of Newfoundland . The remnants of Danielle traversed east and eventually northeastward across the Atlantic Ocean . It produced rough seas in the British Isles on September 6 before merging with an extratropical low pressure area north of Ireland on September 8 . = = Preparations and impact = = Shortly after formation , Danielle was considered a potential threat to the Lesser Antilles , with the National Hurricane Center noting that " any deviation to the left of the track would bring Danielle closer [ to ] the Leeward Islands . " However , Danielle bypassed far enough north of the Lesser Antilles to prevent any tropical storm or hurricane watches or warnings . Several days later , the storm was considered a possible threat to Florida by local newspapers , though the National Hurricane Center accurately predicted a re @-@ curvature from the United States mainland well in advance . At 1500 UTC on September 1 , at which time Danielle was situated northeast of the Bahamas , a tropical storm warning was issued for Bermuda ; this was later cancelled after Danielle passed northwest of the island . The outer bands of Danielle produced heavy rainfall in Puerto Rico , causing street flooding and landslides in Bayamón , Guaynabo , Toa Alta , and Vega Alta ; several streams overflowed their banks , causing additional flooding . In a neighborhood of Bayamón , one house was damaged after a wall collapsed . Losses in Puerto Rico totaled to approximately $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1998 USD ) . Hurricane Bonnie ripped an artificial reef composed of tires offshore Atlantic Beach , North Carolina in late August . Danielle washed numerous of these loose tires ashore , especially on Emerald Isle . As a result , the Governor of North Carolina , Jim Hunt , requested prison labor and the National Guard to clean up beaches from Brunswick County to Carteret County . Instead of resulting in further erosion in the aftermath of Bonnie farther up along the coast , Danielle led to a 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) increase in sand along the New Jersey coastline . In Bermuda , sustained winds of 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) and a gust of 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) were reported on September 2 . Offshore Atlantic Canada , wave heights reached as high as 82 feet ( 25 m ) . However , other than light rainfall in Newfoundland , the storm caused no impact in Canada . Tori Murden , an American attempting to become the first woman to solo row across the Atlantic Ocean , encountered rough seas from the storm and its remnants . By September 7 , Murden sent out a distress signal and was rescued by the Independent Spirit later that day . While passing near the British Isles on September 6 as an extratropical storm , Danielle produced severe sea conditions on the western part of the isles . Major beach erosion was observed , and many people required rescuing . Coastal portions of Cornwall were evacuated as high waves inundated many homes , and an all @-@ terrain police vehicle was shoved into the sea by a rogue wave in the Isles of Scilly . An 11 ‑ year @-@ old boy and his father were trapped in a sea cave on the north coast of Cornwall due to rough surf . Two other men from Port Isaac also became isolated in the same location after their boat capsized . All four were eventually rescued by a helicopter that hovered near the entrance of the sea cave . At the West Sands Caravan Park near Selsey , West Sussex , twelve families were evacuated to higher ground . A yacht filled with eight people ran aground near Calshot ; they required rescuing by the Solent Coastguards . Flash flooding was reported throughout Wiltshire , especially in the city of Melksham . Numerous motorists were left stranded in inundated streets , while water entered several homes , store basements , a fire station , and the Cooper Avon Tyre Factory .
= Attack on Titan = Attack on Titan ( Japanese : 進撃の巨人 , Hepburn : Shingeki no Kyojin , lit . " Advancing Giants " ) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Hajime Isayama . The series began in Kodansha 's Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine on September 9 , 2009 , and has been collected into 19 tankōbon volumes as of April 2016 . It is set in a world where humanity lives in cities surrounded by enormous walls ; a defense against the Titans , gigantic humanoids that eat humans seemingly without reason . The story initially centers on Eren Yeager , his adopted sister Mikasa Ackerman and childhood friend Armin Arlert , who join the military to fight the Titans after their home town is invaded and Eren 's mother is eaten . However , as the story progresses and the truths about the Titans are slowly revealed to the reader , the narrative shifts to encompass Historia Reiss , squad leader Levi , and other supporting characters . The spin @-@ off light novel series Before the Fall began in December 2011 and has received a manga adaptation . Two additional light novel series and four additional spin @-@ off manga series have also been created . A television anime adaptation produced by Wit Studio and Production I.G aired in Japan on MBS between April and September 2013 and a second season is confirmed to be released in April 2017 . Four video game adaptations developed by Nitroplus staffers in collaboration with Production I.G were announced to be released as bonus content for the third and sixth volumes of the Blu @-@ ray Disc release of the anime , with another game developed by Spike Chunsoft for the Nintendo 3DS . A two @-@ part live @-@ action film adaptation , Attack on Titan and Attack on Titan : End of the World , and a live @-@ action web @-@ series were released in 2015 . An anime adaptation of the Junior High spin @-@ off manga , produced by Production I.G , began airing in October 2015 . Attack on Titan and all five spin @-@ off manga are published in North America by Kodansha Comics USA , while the three novel series are published by Vertical . The anime has been licensed by Funimation Entertainment for North America , by Manga Entertainment for the UK , and by Madman Entertainment for Australasia . Attack on Titan has become a commercial success . As of July 2015 , the manga had 52 @.@ 5 million copies in print , with 50 million copies in Japan and 2 @.@ 5 million copies overseas . The release of the anime also saw a boost in the series ' popularity , with it having received critical acclaim for its atmosphere and story . Although it also gained fame in neighboring Asian countries , the series ' themes have been a subject of controversy . = = Overview = = = = = Setting = = = Over 100 years before the beginning of the story , giant humanoid creatures called Titans ( 巨人 , Kyojin ) suddenly appeared and nearly wiped out humanity , devouring them without remorse or reason . What remains of humanity now resides within three enormous concentric walls : the outermost is Wall Maria ( ウォール・マリア , Wōru Maria ) ; the middle wall is Wall Rose ( ウォール・ローゼ , Wōru Rōze , sometimes pronounced like rosé ) and the innermost is Wall Sheena ( ウォール・シーナ , Wōru Shīna , alt . " Wall Sina " ) . Inside these walls , humanity has lived in uneasy peace for one hundred years ; many people growing up without ever having seen a Titan . This all changes when one day , a giant 60 @-@ meter ( 200 ft ) -tall Colossus Titan mysteriously appears after a strike of lightning and breaches the outer wall of the Shiganshina district , a town at Wall Maria , allowing the smaller Titans to invade the district . An Armored Titan smashes clean through Wall Maria , forcing mankind to abandon the land between Wall Maria and Wall Rose , evacuating the remaining population into the inner districts . The sudden influx of population causes turmoil and famine . The Titans are giant humanoid figures about 3 – 15 meters ( 10 – 50 ft ) tall and are usually masculine in body structure but lack reproductive organs . Although they do not appear to need food , they instinctively attack and eat humans on sight ; it is mentioned that they derive their energy from sunlight . In addition the Titans also do not have a proper digestive tract ; once they have eaten their fill of human prey , titans will vomit their meal into large , slimy balls , derisively referred to as " hairballs " . Finally , their skin is tough and difficult to penetrate , and they regenerate quickly from injuries , save for a weak spot at the nape of their neck . Combating the Titans is the military , which is divided into three branches . Foremost in the story is the Survey Corps ( 調査兵団 , Chōsa Heidan ) , which goes out into Titan territory to try to reclaim the land . The Survey Corps are heavily derided in society because of their high casualty rate and little sense of progress . The second and largest branch is the Garrison Regiment ( 駐屯兵団 , Chūton Heidan ) , which guards the walls and the civilian populace . The third branch is the Military Police Brigade ( 憲兵団 , Kenpeidan ) , who guards the royal family and live relatively relaxed lives , although this eventually results in fraud , corruption , and political subterfuge . The soldiers use a tethering system called Vertical Maneuvering Equipment ( 立体機動装置 , Rittai Kidō Sōchi ) acting as a grappling system , allowing them to jump onto ( and swing from ) walls , trees , or nearby buildings to attack Titans . However , despite it being the soldiers ' primary line of defense against the Titans , it is useless in open and flat terrain like fields . = = = Plot = = = The story of Attack on Titan revolves around the adventures of Eren Yeager , his foster sister , Mikasa Ackerman , and their childhood friend Armin Arlert . After the wall which protects their hometown of Shinganshina is breached by the Colossal Titan leading the other Titans to enter , Eren watches in horror as one of them eats his mother . Vowing to kill all the Titans , Eren enlists in the military , along with his friends . Five years later , the three cadet graduates are positioned in Trost District , one of the border towns jutting out of Wall Rose when the Titans attack again . In the ensuing battle , Eren is eaten by one of the Titans before Armin 's eyes . A Titan later appears and begins fighting the other Titans while ignoring humans ; the Titan is revealed to be Eren , who has developed the ability to transform into one . Though he is seen as a threat by some , he helps the military take back Trost District . After being placed on trial for being a danger to the humans , he is taken in by the Survey Corps ' Special Operations Squad , led by Captain Levi . In an expedition to Shinganshina , the Scouts are attacked by a Female Titan who attempts to capture Eren . Although the Scouts are able to briefly capture the Female Titan , she breaks free and devastates Levi 's squad , forcing the expedition to retreat . Armin determines that the Female Titan is Annie , one of the cadets who taught Eren to fight , and devises a plan to capture her at Stohess . During this operation , collateral damage reveals that Titans reside in and make up the walls surrounding the human settlements . Some of Eren 's friends are also revealed to be able to transform into Titans and had been sent as spies by an unknown party to find something called " The Coordinate " . It is later confirmed that the Coordinate is the power to control other Titans at will , and that Eren holds that power . The royal family and the Military Police track Eren and his friend Krista Lenz , who is actually Historia Reiss , the successor to the real king , Rod Reiss , as the current king is but a figurehead . The Survey Corps , losing all will to follow the current government , stage a successful rebellion to overthrow the monarchy , culminating with the death of Rod by the hands of his own daughter , who becomes the new queen . It is then revealed that the Reiss Family was responsible for the creation of the walls 100 years ago using the Coordinate , which was stolen by Eren 's father Grisha , who then transferred it to Eren 's body by turning him into a Titan before allowing his son to devour him . Eren also obtains a new power that allows him to create massive and permanent structures that the Survey Corps intend to use in order to seal the breach in Shinganshina and reclaim Wall Maria . = = Production = = Hajime Isayama created a 65 @-@ page one @-@ shot version of Attack on Titan in 2006 . Originally , he also offered his work to the Weekly Shōnen Jump department at Shueisha , where he was advised to modify his style and story to be more suitable for Jump . He declined and instead decided to take it to the Weekly Shōnen Magazine department at Kodansha . Before serialization began in 2009 , he had already thought of ideas for twists , although they are fleshed out as the series progresses . The author initially based the scenery in the manga on that of his hometown , which is surrounded by mountains . While working at an internet cafe , Isayama encountered a customer who grabbed him by the collar . It was this incident that showed him " the fear of meeting a person I can 't communicate with , " which is the feeling that he conveys through the Titans . When designing the appearances of the Titans , he uses several models such as martial artist Yushin Okami for Eren Yeager 's Titan form as well as Brock Lesnar for the Armored Titan . George Wada , the anime 's producer , stated that the " Wall of Fear " was influenced by the isolated and enclosed nature of Japanese culture . He also said that the inner feelings of every individual is one of the series ' main influences . Isayama later would confirm that Attack on Titan was inspired in part by Muv @-@ Luv Alternative , the second visual novel in the Muv @-@ Luv visual novel series . Isayama estimated his basic monthly timeline as one week to storyboard and three weeks to actually draw the chapter . The story is planned out in advance , even marking down in which collected volumes a specific " truth " will be revealed . In September 2013 , he stated that he is aiming to end the series in 20 collected volumes . Originally , Isayama planned to give the series a tragic conclusion similar to that of the film adaptation of Stephen King 's The Mist , where every character dies . However , positive response to the manga and anime has caused the author to contemplate changing the ending due to the impact it could have on fans . = = Media = = = = = Manga = = = Hajime Isayama 's original manga serial , Attack on Titan commenced publication in Kodansha 's monthly publication Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine starting with the September 2009 issue . The first tankōbon collected volume was released on March 17 , 2010 . The most recent , volume 16 , was released on April 9 , 2015 . As of November 2014 , the manga had 45 million copies in print The series ' twelfth collected volume was given a first printing of 2 @.@ 2 million copies , making Attack on Titan one of only two manga series ever to get an initial print surpassing 2 million , the other being One Piece . Volume 13 has the highest initial first print of the series so far , with 2 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 copies . It is also the first print run record for its publisher , Kodansha . A comedic spin @-@ off of the series , titled Attack on Titan : Junior High ( 進撃！巨人中学校 , Shingeki ! Kyojin Chūgakkō ) and written by Saki Nakagawa , began serialization in Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine 's May 2012 issue . It follows the main characters as they battle the Titans while in junior high school . Another manga series based on the prequel light novels Attack on Titan : Before the Fall started running in Kodansha 's Monthly Shōnen Sirius from August 2013 , drawn by Satoshi Shiki . An additional spin @-@ off based on the No Regrets visual novel was serialized in the shōjo manga magazine Aria , titled Attack on Titan : No Regrets ( 進撃の巨人悔いなき選択 , Shingeki no Kyojin : Kuinaki Sentaku ) . It is written by Gun Snark and illustrated by Hikaru Suruga . It focuses on the origins of Captain Levi , one of the most prominent characters in the main series . A yonkoma spin @-@ off , called Spoof on Titan ( 寸劇の巨人 , Sungeki no Kyojin , " Titan Short Skits " ) and drawn by hounori , was released on Kodansha 's Manga Box smartphone and tablet application from December 2013 to December 30 , 2014 in both Japanese and English . A manga adaptation of Hiroshi Seko 's Attack on Titan : Lost Girls novel , written and illustrated by Ryōsuke Fuji , began publication in Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine on August 9 , 2015 . In North America , the series is published in English by Kodansha Comics USA . They published the first volume on June 19 , 2012 , . The fifteenth was released on April 7 , 2015 . By July 2015 , the manga had 2 @.@ 5 million copies in circulation in North America . The first three spin @-@ off manga have also been licensed by Kodansha Comics USA , who published the first volume of each between March and June 2014 . It announced its license to Spoof on Titan at the New York Comic Con in October 2015 , and its acquisition of Lost Girls in March 2016 . = = = Novel = = = A light novel series titled Attack on Titan : Before the Fall ( 進撃の巨人 Before the fall ) , written by Ryō Suzukaze and illustrated by Thores Shibamoto , began on April 1 , 2011 . Its story is set before the events of the manga and it was published by Kodansha in three volumes . While the first tells the story of Angel , the blacksmith who develops the first prototypes of the Vertical Maneuvering Equipment , the following two follow a young man who was found as a baby in the stomach of a Titan . A second light novel series called Attack on Titan : Harsh Mistress of the City ( 進撃の巨人隔絶都市の女王 , Shingeki no Kyojin Kakuzetsu Toshi no Joō ) , written by Ryō Kawakami and illustrated by Range Murata , began on August 1 , 2014 . Vertical began releasing the novels in North America in the summer of 2014 . A novel titled Attack on Titan : Lost Girls ( 進撃の巨人 Lost Girls ) , written by Hiroshi Seko , was published on December 9 , 2014 . It comprises three short stories featuring Mikasa and Annie Leonhart , titled " Lost in the cruel world " , " Wall Sina , Goodbye " , and " Lost Girls " . It was also released in English by Vertical . = = = Anime = = = An anime television series adaptation produced by Wit Studio ( a subsidiary of IG Port ) aired on MBS between April 7 , 2013 and September 29 , 2013 , directed by Tetsurō Araki with Yūki Kaji starring as Eren , Yui Ishikawa voicing Mikasa and Marina Inoue as Armin . Both Funimation and Crunchyroll simulcast the series on their respective websites , and Funimation began releasing the series on North American home video in 2014 . The anime has been licensed in the UK by Manga Entertainment . Madman Entertainment acquired the show for distribution in Australia and New Zealand . The final episode was also aired in Japanese theaters . The anime had some production issues with needing more animators with Wit Studios ' character designer , Kyoji Asano tweeting and looking for active animators to work on the anime . An OVA version of the " Ilse 's Notebook " special chapter from tankōbon volume 5 was originally scheduled to be released on August 9 , 2013 , bundled with the volume 11 limited edition , but was postponed and included with a limited edition of volume 12 , released on December 9 , 2013 , instead . The OVA was bundled on subtitled DVD with the English limited edition release of the 17th manga volume , released on December 1 , 2015 . A second OVA was released on April 9 , 2014 , bundled with the 13th volume of the series , this one focused on the members of the 104th Training Corps . Two additional OVA episodes , based on the Attack on Titan : No Regrets prequel manga , were bundled with the 15th and 16th volumes of the main series , released on December 9 , 2014 and April 9 , 2015 , respectively . The anime previously aired on Adult Swim 's Toonami block . In Australia , the anime currently airs on SBS 2 on Tuesdays , in Japanese with English subtitles , with the first episode having aired on September 30 . For the first thirteen episodes , the opening theme is " Guren no Yumiya " ( 紅蓮の弓矢 , lit . " Crimson Bow and Arrow " , styled in German as " Feuerroter Pfeil und Bogen " ) by Linked Horizon , and the ending theme is " Utsukushiki Zankoku na Sekai " ( 美しき残酷な世界 , lit . " This Beautiful Cruel World " ) by Yōko Hikasa . For episodes 14 – 25 , the opening theme is " Jiyū no Tsubasa " ( 自由の翼 , lit . " Wings of Freedom " , styled in German as " Die Flügel der Freiheit " ) by Linked Horizon , and the ending theme is " great escape " by Cinema Staff . Both " Guren no Yumiya " and " Jiyū no Tsubasa " were released as part of the single " Jiyū e no Shingeki " on July 10 , 2013 . The anime was compiled into two animated theatrical films with new voice acting from the same cast . The first film Attack on Titan – Part 1 : Crimson Bow and Arrow ( 「進撃の巨人」前編～紅蓮の弓矢～ , Shingeki no Kyojin Zenpen ~ Guren no Yumiya ~ ) covers the first 13 episodes and was released on November 22 , 2014 , while the second film Attack on Titan – Part 2 : Wings of Freedom ( 「進撃の巨人」後編～自由の翼～ , Shingeki no Kyojin Kōhen ~ Jiyū no Tsubasa ~ ) adapts the remaining episodes and adds new ending footage . It was released on June 27 , 2015 . A rebroadcast of the first season will be aired during January 9 on NHK 's BS Premium channel . A second season of the anime series was announced on the opening day of the first theatrical film , set to be released in 2016 , though the premiere date was pushed back to April 2017 . A television anime adaptation of the Attack on Titan : Junior High manga spin @-@ off began airing in October 2015 . The series is being directed by Yoshihide Ibata at Production I.G , with series composition by Midori Gotou , character design by Yuuko Yahiro , and music by Asami Tachibana . Linked Horizon will be back to do the opening theme " Youth Like Fireworks " . The ending theme , " Ground 's Counterattack " ( " Hangeki no Daichi " ) , is performed by the voice actors for Eren , Mikasa , and Jean . A rebroadcast of the series will be aired during January . = = = Video games = = = There have been four video game adaptations of Attack on Titan developed by Nitroplus staffers in collaboration with Production I.G. Nitroplus clarified that the studio as a company is not involved in the Attack on Titan Blu @-@ ray Disc games , while individual staffers are . The games are visual novels and were included in the first copies of the third and sixth Blu @-@ ray Disc volumes of the anime . The games cover spin @-@ off stories about the characters of Attack on Titan . Isayama supervised the development of the games . The third Blu @-@ ray volume was released on September 18 with Seko 's Lost in the Cruel World visual novel about Mikasa , and a preview of Gun Snark 's No Regrets ( 悔いなき選択 , Kuinaki Sentaku , lit . " A Choice with No Regrets " ) . The sixth Blu @-@ ray volume was released on December 18 with the full version of No Regrets about Levi and Erwin 's past , Jin Haganeya 's visual novel In the Forest of the Night , Burning Bright about Eren and Levi , and Seko 's Wall Sina , Goodbye visual novel about Annie . An action game , titled Attack on Titan : Humanity in Chains ( 進撃の巨人～反撃の翼～ , Shingeki no Kyojin ~ Hangeki no Tsubasa ~ , subtitle lit . " Wings of Counterattack " ) , was developed by Spike Chunsoft for the Nintendo 3DS and released in Japan on December 5 , 2013 , North America on May 12 , 2015 and Europe on July 2 , 2015 . A smartphone social game , titled Attack on Titan : Howl Toward Freedom ( Shingeki no Kyojin ~ Jiyū e no Hōkō ~ ) is in development by Mobage for iOS and Android platforms . In the game , players play as a character who has been exiled from Wall Rose . Players must build and fortify a town outside the wall and expand it by manufacturing items as well as using Titans and exploiting resources from other players . Additionally , Attack on Titan gameplay and merchandise has been featured in a crossover event with Nexon MMORPG MapleStory in its Japanese and GMS versions . Another game , Attack on Titan , for PlayStation 4 , PlayStation 3 , and PlayStation Vita , published by Koei Tecmo and developed by Omega Force , was announced at Gamescom 2015 . It was released on February 18 , 2016 in Japan . Later was confirmed to be released worldwide along with PC and Xbox One versions . Capcom are developing an Attack on Titan arcade game named Shingeki no Kyojin : Team Battle . = = = Live @-@ action = = = A live @-@ action film was announced to be in production in October 2011 . In December 2012 , it was reported that Tetsuya Nakashima left his position as director . According to film distributor Toho , Nakashima had considerable creative differences on the scriptwriting and other matters . In December 2013 , Shinji Higuchi was revealed to be directing , and would also be responsible with the special effects . Writer Yūsuke Watanabe and critic / subculture expert Tomohiro Machiyama was announced to be scripting the movie with series creator Isayama . In July 2014 , it was revealed that two films will be released in the summer of 2015 . A teaser trailer for the first live @-@ action film was released in March 2015 . The following month , Toho released the second trailer for the first film , and announced the second installment will be called Attack on Titan : End of the World . In June 2015 , a third trailer for the first film was released , revealing the Three @-@ Dimensional Maneuvering Gear , as well as confirming the film will be released in IMAX theaters in Japan . A live @-@ action miniseries , titled Shingeki no Kyojin : Hangeki no Noroshi ( 進撃の巨人反撃の狼煙 , " Attack on Titan : Beacon for Counterattack " ) and utilizing the same actors as the films , started streaming on NTT DoCoMo 's online @-@ video service dTV on August 15 , 2015 . The three episode series focuses on Zoë Hange and her research of the Titans , as well as how the Vertical Maneuvering Equipment was created . = = = Other media = = = Two guidebooks to the manga titled Inside and Outside were released on April 9 and September 9 , 2013 , featuring concept art , character profiles and interviews . They were combined into one and released in North America on September 16 , 2014 , by Kodansha USA . A 16 @-@ minute drama CD was created with the anime 's staff and included in the January 2014 issue of Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine . On November 3 , 2014 , American writer C. B. Cebulski revealed that a crossover between Attack on Titan and Marvel Comics was in the works . Cebulski scripts the scenario written by the original author Hajime Isayama . The one @-@ shot crossover featured Spider @-@ Man , the Avengers and the Guardians of the Galaxy facing off against several Titans , including the Colossal Titan , the Armored Titan , and the Female Titan on the streets of New York City . During Free Comic Book Day 2015 , Marvel 's Secret Wars preview included an 8 @-@ page presentation " Attack on Avengers " by creator Hajime Isayama with art by Gerardo Sandova . It was announced at the 2015 New York Comic @-@ Con that an American comic book titled Attack on Titan Anthology will be published . From January 23 to May 10 , 2015 , Universal Studios Japan hosted attractions based on Attack on Titan . “ The Real ” Attack on Titan Experience features a life @-@ size 15 meter tall Eren titan engaging a 14 meter tall female titan in combat . Other attractions include a ground level titan , which visitors can pose with . = = Reception = = Attack on Titan won the Kodansha Manga Award in the shōnen category in 2011 , was nominated for the 4th Manga Taishō Award and both the 16th and 18th annual Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize . The 2012 edition of Kono Manga ga Sugoi ! , which surveys people in the manga and publishing industry , named Attack on Titan the eighth best manga series for male readers , while the 2014 edition named it the sixth best . Attack on Titan was the top favorite manga for Yomiuri Shimbun 's Sugoi Japan Awards in 2015 . Attack on Titan was the second highest selling manga series of 2013 , with 15 @,@ 933 @,@ 801 copies sold in a single year . In April 2014 , Oricon reported that 30 million volumes of the series have been sold . In the first half of 2014 it topped the chart , ending One Piece 's five @-@ year reign as the highest selling series in that period , with Isayama surprised about it and thanking the readers . By the end of the year , it was the second best selling manga with 11 @,@ 728 @,@ 368 copies sold . In 2015 , the series sold 8 @,@ 778 @,@ 048 copies ranking third for the year . The manga 's publisher , Kodansha , credits Attack on Titan for the company 's first revenue increase in eighteen years . The anime is noted to have helped in boosting the series ' sales while Mainichi Shimbun called it a " once @-@ in @-@ a @-@ decade hit . " Six of the seven English volumes published in North America at the time charted on The New York Times Manga Best Seller list for the week of October 13 , 2013 , and volume one was on the list for 81 weeks straight . In June 2015 , the first volume clocked in at its 100th week on the top 10 chart . Volume one was also number one on Nielsen BookScan 's list of top 20 graphic novels in American bookstores for October 2013 , and for the month of September , the series had more volumes on the list than any other series . The Young Adult Library Services Association in the United States named the series one of its " Great Graphic Novels for Teens " in 2013 . Kodansha USA 's English release won the 2014 Harvey Award for Best American Edition of Foreign Material . Attack on Titan was the only manga to be nominated for the 2015 Goodreads Choice Award for Best Graphic Novel / Comic . Many have analyzed Attack on Titan as representing " the hopelessness felt by young people in today 's society . " while writer Mao Yamawaki called it a " coming @-@ of @-@ age story of the boys and girls at its core , " with a new mystery every episode . It is these mysteries that critic Tomofusa Kure says amplifies readers ' expectations . The artwork of the manga has been criticized as crude by some reviewers , with Isayama himself admitting his drawings are " amateurish . " However , those same critics stated that after years of serialization , the art has been improving , and Kure believes that had the illustrations been " refined " , it would not have conveyed the " eeriness " that is a key characteristic of the work . In a short review , Jason Thompson noted how the characters conveniently receive " power @-@ ups " to create plot twists , but concluded that these said plot twists and the manga 's post @-@ apocalyptic world are " too good to miss . " The anime has been very successful in Japan , with average sales of 52 @,@ 052 across 9 volumes , with a total of 468 @,@ 468 as of August 2015 . It was the number one selling TV anime of 2013 in Japan . It was also the number one streaming anime from Funimation in 2014 and the number one fan favorite Funimation home video released of 2014 . The anime adaptation won multiple prizes during the 3rd Newtype Anime Awards , including Best Director , Best Script , Best Soundtrack , Best Theme Song , Top Female Character and Title of the Year . It received the award for Best TV Animation at the 2013 Animation Kobe Awards . It received the award for Animation of the Year at the 2014 Tokyo Anime Award , along with , Best Director , Best Screenplay and Best Music . It won the 2013 Digital Contents of the Year Award at Japan 's 19th annual Association of Media in Digital ( AMD ) Awards . Carl Kimlinger from Anime News Network was sharply critical of the first two episodes of the anime adaptation . He did praise the show for " [ bringing ] back the terror of the fee @-@ fi @-@ fo @-@ fum set " , but then said that it " does not a good show make " . Kimlinger criticized Araki 's direction , saying he " clearly intends it to be powerful and unsettling , but it 's just crude and unpleasant . " On the other hand , other critics from Anime News Network praised much of the series . Rebecca Silverman said it " is both gorgeous and appalling in its visuals " , and " an excellent mix of what 18th century Gothic novelist Ann Radcliffe defined as horror versus terror : the one is physical , making you want to look away , and the other is intellectual , making you want to know what 's going to happen next . " Though there are several apocalyptic action shows , Carlo Santos noted that " few get as close to perfection as Attack on Titan does " . Santos described it as " a masterpiece of death and destruction " even if he only watched the first episode . Theron Martin of Anime News Network praised the musical score and the " intense , impactful first episode " despite his feeling that it has " limited animation " . Martin also compared Attack on Titan 's vibe and visual aesthetic to Claymore . = = Political interpretations = = The series has gained a strong popularity in not only Japan but also throughout the world . For instance , coverage of the anime appeared on the front page of the Hong Kong free newspaper am730 on May 27 , 2013 , concerning its popularity within Hong Kong as well as in China and Taiwan . However , the series also attracted criticism : the South Korean Electronic Times magazine accused Attack on Titan of having a militaristic message that serves Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe 's political leanings ; while the series also resonated with Hong Kong youths who saw the invading Titans as a metaphor for Mainland China . Hong Kong media commentator Wong Yeung @-@ tat praised Isayama 's style and the versatility of Attack on Titan 's setting , which opens itself to readers ' various interpretations . In 2013 , after media linked to a 2010 blog post by Isayama indicating that the design of the character Dot Pixis was based on the Imperial Japanese General Akiyama Yoshifuru , an Internet flame war about the general 's war record ( e.g. allowing the Port Arthur massacre to occur ) ensued on his blog and included death threats to the author . Because many of the threats written in Japanese had grammatical errors , it is believed that they were written by people outside of Japan .

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