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= 1962 Commonwealth Paraplegic Games =
The First Commonwealth Paraplegic Games were held in Perth , Western Australia from 10 to 17 November 1962 . These Games preceded the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games which were held in Perth from 22 November to 1 December of that year . The Commonwealth Paraplegic Games were conceived by Dr George Bedbrook after Perth won the right to host the Commonwealth Games . Great support was received from the Royal Perth Hospital , a leading spinal rehabilitation centre in Australia .
These games raised the profile of paraplegic ( spinal cord and polio ) athletes in Australia , particularly Western Australia . The Chairman of the Organising Committee , Hugh Leslie , who had lost a leg in World War Two , gave a speech aimed to change public perceptions about disabilities by addressing the power of language . These Games , he told the audience , ‘ were designed to prove to the public that the person who was bodily handicapped was not a cripple , and he hoped that that horrible word would eventually be wiped out of use . He had a slogan which he hoped would be adopted by all disabled : “ I can , I will ” .
Leading officials such as Bedbrook , the founder of the Stoke Mandeville Games , were impressed with the spectator turnout . Although the standards were lower than those of the Stoke Mandeville Games , there were some outstanding individual performances and several world records were broken .
= = Background and administration = =
It was decided to hold the games in Perth because the city was to host the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games and Royal Perth Hospital had a well developed spinal unit that could support paraplegic athletes . The Commonwealth Paraplegic Games were held before the main Games as to not impact on this event and provide the opportunity for athletes to stay on for the main Games .
The Royal Perth Hospital 's board of management were the official sponsors of the event and established an organising committee in 1959 . The Australian Paraplegic Council was not formed until February 1962 . The main members of the organising committee were Hugh Leslie ( Executive Chairman ) , Dr George Bedbrook ( General Secretary ) and Mrs M.R. Fathers , ( Secretary ) . The appointment of Hugh Leslie , a leg amputee , as chairman was important due to his influence as a member of Federal Parliament , his previous experience with paraplegic sporting teams and as a champion of people with a disability .
The organising committee paid for all costs incurred in Australia to participating countries . They were only required to pay their transport and stop over costs to and from Australia . Other Australian States were consulted and requested to provide funding of £ 9 @,@ 250 . The specific state funding quotas were : Victoria £ 2 @,@ 500 , New South Wales £ 2 @,@ 500 , Western Australia £ 2 @,@ 600 , Queensland £ 1 @,@ 000 and South Australia £ 450 . There was a concern as to not impact on the fund raising required by the Commonwealth Games appeal . Several reports of the Games highlight the importance of large spectator attendance and ' passing the hat ' around in the fund raising efforts . The total cost at the Games was £ 11 @,@ 717 with a surplus of £ 2 @,@ 089 .
= = Ceremonies = =
= = = Opening = = =
" The Games were opened by the Governor of Western Australia , Sir Charles Gairdner on 10 November 1962 . In his opening speech Gairdner stated that " The public must learn that the handicapped person is not an invalid . I am handicapped , but the one thing I loathe is for people to treat me as an invalid . We , the public , must realise what can be done to rehabilitate people who have suffered a grevious physical disadvantage " .
The opening ceremony was described as a " colourful spectacle " due to the Army 's Western Command Band wearing scarlet jackets and white helmets , the Army Guard of Honour in jungle green clothing and the blue uniforms of the mounted escort . The order of the wheelpast was Singapore , India , New Zealand , Rhodesia , Wales , Northern Ireland , England and the host country Australia . Hugh Leslie , the Games Chairman , in his speech said " This event , apart from helping the participants , is designed to prove to the public that the person who is badly handicapped is not a cripple . I hope that this horrible word will eventually be wiped out of use . " Senator Shane Paltridge , who was representing the Federal Government , said " This is one fine example of leadership taken by this State in the work to lift the paraplegic from a life of resignation to one of self respect and purpose in the community . "
The second half of the opening ceremony and the start of the competitive program was a basketball match between Australia and England . The game was played on a special court , constructed of timber flooring laid on a sand base , at the Agricultural Showgrounds in full view of the crowd in the grandstand . In front of a couple of thousand spectators , with the game being called on the public address system by a television sports commentator , Allan Terry , the Australians beat the English by a single basket ( 20 @-@ 18 ) . The atmosphere was summarised in The Australian Paraplegic : " The spectacle of the opening ceremony and wheelpast , followed by the excitement of the basketball , sent spectators home well rewarded for their attendance at the opening day of the First Commonwealth Paraplegic Games . " The ceremony and the game received wide television , radio and newspaper coverage highlighting the importance of the event in rehabilitation .
= = = Closing = = =
The closing ceremony , before a near @-@ capacity crowd of 3 @,@ 500 , had the colour of the opening , with 35 marching bands ( 400 girls ) and Scottish bands . The crowd had been present for the recently completed basketball final game . A DC @-@ 7B aircraft , chartered by the British teams , conducted a fly past . Sir Ludwig Guttman , founder of the Paralympic Games , in his closing address , thanked Australia and stated that " What has been the most gratifying achievement is that the First Commonwealth Paraplegic Games have fulfilled the aims and ideals of the Stoke Mandeville Games in furthering friendship and understanding among various nations of the Commonwealth . " Guttman presented Dr George Bedbrook with the Stoke Mandeville pennant in recognition for the organisation of the Games . Each team then wheeled past the dais to the famous Australian song " Waltzing Matilda " . Dr Sir Arthur Porritt , Chairman of the British Empire and Commonwealth Games Federation , declared the Games closed . In his speech , he told the audience that he hoped the general public would continue to support paraplegics and their movement .
= = Logistics and insignia = =
The original plan was to hold the games at the Shenton Park Annexe of the Royal Perth Hospital but this was abandoned due the need for temporary buildings . Royal Agricultural Showgrounds in the suburb of Claremont was used as it had an oval and buildings for accommodation and events . A major advantage of the venue was that all facilities were on one level . There was no suitable facility for basketball and after much debate a wooden court was laid on a sand foundation in front of the main grandstand . The City of Perth Aquatic Centre , Beatty Park was used for swimming events . Pamela McCarthy , one of India 's two athletes , made the following comment on the showground facilities " This communal living was ideal for getting to know one and another and for making friends ; every conceivable facility was provided at the Showgrounds – such as television lounge , a shop , post office , bank , laundry and even a ladies hairdresser . "
The organising committee decided at the outset that transport would be a major issue and ultimately reflect on the success of the Games . The decision to locate most of the events and accommodation at the showgrounds reduced many of the issues . Car companies in Perth made cars available and volunteer drivers assisted in taking athletes and officials around Perth , particularly to Beatty Park . The biggest issue was encountered by teams from the United Kingdom that had to travel 20 @,@ 000 miles ( 32 @,@ 000 km ) . A total of 57 athletes and 23 escorts travelled from the United Kingdom in a chartered Caledonian Airways plane at the cost of 18 @,@ 500 pounds . The long flight required refuelling in Bahrain and a stop over in Colombo , Ceylon . Health checks such as measuring legs and ankles for swelling were undertaken during the flight to Perth and back home . A major logistical effort was required to transport the 80 member team to the Showgrounds on arrival at Perth airport . Royal Perth Hospital 's special coach , a Red Cross bus , private cars and a truck to carry wheelchairs were used .
The flag was the games emblem of a javelin thrower in a wheelchair with a background outline of the Flag of Australia on a flagpole in a slight breeze . Medals had one side with the games emblem and the reverse side name of sport with room for engraving . Badges were given to each competitor and official with the aims of identification and access to the dining hall . The badge also became a memento of the games .
= = Participating teams = =
A total of 89 athletes from nine countries competed . The countries represented and their allocated colours were : England ( dark blue ) , India ( light green ) , New Zealand ( pink ) , Northern Ireland ( dark green ) , Rhodesia ( light blue ) , Scotland ( black ) , Singapore ( red ) , Wales ( white ) and Australia ( gold ) . The only major Commonwealth country not represented was Canada , which decided not to attend . Many of the athletes competed in several sports because each country selected their team based on versatility of sporting ability to reduce their team size and costs .
Source – Official Programme Approximately 40 attendants assisted the teams .
= = Medals = =
There were fourteen events – archery , dartchery , javelin throw , precision javelin , club throw , shot putt , swimming , weightlifting , pentathlon , fencing , snooker , basketball and table tennis .
Medal Table
Not all events awarded silver and bronze medals due to insufficient competitors .
= = Awards = =
Seven awards were presented during the games that reflected sporting excellence and personal endeavour .
Lorraine Dodd from Australia was presented the Ben Richter Award for the physically handicapped person to have made the best effort to rehabilitate himself or herself .
Australia won the Royal Perth Hospital Paraplegic Unit Trophy for the winning country .
Singapore and Northern Ireland were awarded the Special Merit Award ; both countries failed to win a medal .
Rhodesia won the Best Team Performance , with 15 gold , 3 silver and 5 bronze medals with four team members .
Dick Thompson from England and Kevin Cunningham won the Australian Paraplegic Council Trophy for winning pentathlon events .
George Mann from Rhodesia won the trophy for the performance based on degree of physical disability . This trophy was donated by World Rehabilitation Fund in New York .
The Australian Basketball team won the Gordon Gooch Trophy . Gooch was the Games Patron .
= = Participant reflections and legacy = =
Reflections from athletes and officials provide an insight into the value of this inaugural event . Bill Mather @-@ Brown , an Australian athlete , said " The 1962 Games was the first time I had been asked for an autograph . We regarded it as a compliment . We were mobbed , especially at the swimming pool . Sometimes we were not sure people really wanted our signature or were just being polite and wanted us to feel good " .
John Buck , an English athlete , said this about his reason for attending the games : " I had been in Perth during the war years serving as an engine room artificer on H.M. submarine Thule and had the misfortune to pick up one of those endearing Australian bugs which left me in a rather poor state of health ( e.g. a paraplegic ) " . He wanted to go back to Perth to see the Stitt family who looked after him in Perth .
Bill Elson , an English support official , commented on the large swimming crowds " For many , this must have been a first introduction to swimming by the paralysed , and I felt that many were wondering whether paralysed persons could swim 50 metres – how many would fail to make the distance and it was all just a stunt to enlist their sympathies and raise money " . The crowd 's thunderous applause made the official more comfortable about the event .
Dr Gaynor Harry , an athlete from Wales , wrote " Then was the moment to think of the fabulous organization that went into the Games , from start to finish there wasn 't a hitch . If we needed a postage stamp , that was easy . If licking the back of it had given us a thirst for iced water , that was easy too . The highest tribute that can be paid is that it all appeared so effortless , as though it all just happened " .
Richard Hollick , an athlete from England , highlighted the importance of the games in self @-@ development " Not only do we enjoy ourselves but we also learnt more about adapting ourselves than we probably normally learn in a year " . Many athletes had to travel large distances to attend the games .
Shelagh Jones , an athlete from England , wrote of the nature of competition " As the various sports on the program got under way , more and more we realised a full @-@ blooded fight was on . The swimming , fencing and field events arrived at the top of the sportscard in next @-@ to @-@ no @-@ time and in these games we found success and failure , humour and disappointment , laughter and tears . Yet within this tiny cross section of life I shall never forget the honour and privilege of mounting the rostrum to collect a ' gold ' for England . "
These games raised the profile of paraplegic ( spinal cord and polio ) athletes in Australia , particularly Western Australia . The spectator attendance amazed leading officials such as Dr Ludwig Guttmann , the founder of the Stoke Mandeville Games . He commented that the attendance was the best he had seen at any paraplegic sports event in the world . The Games highlighted the versatility of the athletes with many winning medals in different sports . It was noted that generally the standard of performance was below that of the Stoke Mandeville Games ; however there were several outstanding performers including Vic Renalson , Bill Mather @-@ Brown , Lorraine Dodd , M. Bazeley , Lynne Gilchrist and R. Scott who broke records in their events . A film of the Games was made .
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= Battle of Yongju =
The Battle of Yongju ( 21 – 22 October 1950 ) , also known as the Battle of the Apple Orchard , took place as part of the United Nations ( UN ) offensive towards the Yalu River , against the North Korean forces which had invaded South Korea during the Korean War . The battle was fought between the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade and the North Korean 239th Regiment which was encircled east of Yongju , where it was attacking the US 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team ( US 187 RCT ) . On 20 October US 187 RCT had parachuted ahead of the advancing UN spearheads into drop zones in Sukchon and Sunchon , 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) north of the capital Pyongyang , with the objectives of cutting off the retreating North Korean forces that were withdrawing up the west coast of the Korean Peninsula and releasing American and South Korean prisoners of war . Although the airborne drop itself was a success , the operation came too late to intercept any significant North Korean elements and the American landings initially met little resistance . However , on 21 October as US 187 RCT began to advance south to the clear the Sukchon to Yongju road towards Pyongyang the Americans came under heavy attack from the North Korean 239th Regiment , and requested assistance .
The 27th British Commonwealth Brigade , which was leading the US Eighth Army general advance , was subsequently ordered forward to assist the American paratroopers . The British and Australians crossed the Taedong River at Pyongyang at noon on 21 October , and moved north on the main highway to Sukchon with the task of reaching the Chongchon River . The 1st Battalion , Argyll and Sutherland Highland Regiment ( 1 ASHR ) , subsequently pushed up the road until fired upon by North Korean forces in the hills to the south of Yongju . By nightfall the hills were cleared by the Argylls , while the 3rd Battalion , US 187 RCT occupied Yongju . Cut @-@ off , about midnight the North Korean 239th Regiment attempted to break out , resulting in heavy fighting between the Americans and North Koreans . The North Korean attacks drove the American paratroopers from Yongju , forcing them back onto the battalion 's main defensive position to the north . 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ) was ordered to take the lead the following morning . By dawn the Americans again requested assistance . At first light on 22 October , two companies of Argylls advanced into Yongyu , before the Australians passed through them riding on US M4 Sherman tanks . Now leading the brigade , at 09 : 00 the Australians came under fire from a North Korean rearguard position in an apple orchard on their right flank .
An encounter battle developed as 3 RAR carried out an aggressive quick attack off the line of march from the road , with American tanks in support . With fire support from mortars and artillery unavailable due to the location of US 3 / 187 RCT being unknown , the Australian attack succeeded nonetheless , and the North Koreans were forced to withdraw from the high ground having suffered heavy casualties . Meanwhile , 3 RAR 's tactical headquarters came under attack and was forced to fight off a group of North Koreans . Having been forced off the high ground , the North Koreans were now caught between the advancing Australians and the American paratroopers to the north . Attacking the North Koreans from the rear , 3 RAR subsequently relieved the American paratroopers , with the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade linked up with them by 11 : 00 . Following three hours of fighting the battle was largely over by midday ; however , many of the North Koreans that had been unable to escape continued to refuse to surrender , hiding or feigning death until individually flushed out . The Australians then proceeded to sweep the area , kicking over stacks of straw and shooting the North Korean soldiers they found hiding in them as they attempted to flee . Caught between the American paratroopers and the British and Australians , the North Korean 239th Regiment was practically destroyed . In their first major battle in Korea the Australians had distinguished themselves , and the battalion was later praised for its performance .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
The Korean War began early in the morning of 25 June 1950 , following the surprise invasion of the Republic of Korea ( ROK ) by its northern neighbour , the communist Democratic People 's Republic of Korea ( DPRK ) . Numerically superior and better @-@ equipped , the Korean People 's Army ( KPA ) crossed the 38th Parallel and rapidly advanced south , easily overcoming the South Koreans . In response , the United Nations ( UN ) decided to intervene on behalf of South Korea , inviting member states to send forces to restore the situation . As a consequence , American ground forces were hastily deployed in an attempt to prevent the South Koreans from collapsing , however they too were understrength and poorly equipped , and by early August had been forced back by the North Koreans to an enclave around Pusan , known as the Pusan Perimeter . Key US allies — Britain , Canada and Australia — also committed forces , although these were initially limited to naval contingents and were largely viewed as token efforts in the US . Under diplomatic pressure the British agreed to deploy an infantry brigade in July , and would later dispatch a second brigade as the crisis worsened . The Canadians also agreed to provide an infantry brigade , although the first battalion would not arrive until December 1950 . A total of 21 UN member states eventually contributed forces .
Australia was one of the first nations to commit units to the fighting , playing a small but sometimes significant part in the United Nations Command , which was initially led by General Douglas MacArthur . Forces deployed in Japan as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force formed the basis of the Australian response , with P @-@ 51 Mustang fighter @-@ bombers from No. 77 Squadron RAAF flying their first missions on 2 July , while the frigate HMAS Shoalhaven and the destroyer HMAS Bataan were also committed to naval operations . During this time the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ) , which had been preparing to return to Australia prior to the outbreak of the war , remained in Japan , however on 26 July the Australian government announced that it would also commit the under @-@ strength and poorly equipped infantry battalion to the fighting , following a period of preparation . Training and re @-@ equipment began immediately , while hundreds of reinforcements were hastily recruited in Australia as part of K Force ; they soon began arriving to fill out the battalion . The battalion 's commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Floyd Walsh , was subsequently replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Charles Green . An officer with extensive operational experience fighting the Japanese in New Guinea during the Second World War , Green took over from Walsh due to the latter 's perceived inexperience .
On 23 September 1950 , 3 RAR embarked for Korea , concentrating at Pusan on 28 September . There it joined the British 27th Infantry Brigade , a garrison formation hurriedly committed from Hong Kong by the British government as the situation deteriorated around the Pusan Perimeter in late August to bolster the US Eighth Army under Lieutenant General Walton Walker . Commanded by Brigadier Basil Coad , the brigade was renamed the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade and consisted of the 1st Battalion , Argyll and Sutherland Highland Regiment ( 1 ASHR ) , the 1st Battalion , Middlesex Regiment ( 1 MR ) and 3 RAR . Understrength , the two British battalions had each mustered just 600 men of all ranks , while the brigade was also short on transport and heavy equipment , and had no integral artillery support , for which it would rely entirely on the Americans until the 16th Field Regiment , Royal New Zealand Artillery arrived in January 1951 . As such , with a strength of nearly 1 @,@ 000 men , the addition of 3 RAR gave the brigade increased tactical weight as well as expediently allowing the Australians to work within a familiar organisational environment , rather than being attached to a US formation . Also under the command of the brigade were a number of US Army units , including 155 mm howitzers from the US 90th Field Artillery Battalion , M4 Sherman tanks from US 89th Tank Battalion and a company from the US 72nd Combat Engineer Battalion .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Opposing forces = = =
By the time 3 RAR arrived in the theatre , the North Koreans had been broken and were in rapid retreat , with MacArthur 's forces conducting a successful amphibious assault at Inchon and breaking out along the Naktong perimeter on the southern tip of the Korean peninsula . A steady advance began , driving the North Koreans northwards towards the 38th Parallel . The 27th British Commonwealth Brigade was airlifted from Taegu to Kimpo Airfield north of Seoul on 5 October , however its vehicles had to move by road , driving 420 kilometres ( 260 mi ) , and did not arrive until 9 October . It was subsequently attached to the US 1st Cavalry Division , under the command of Major General Hobart R. Gay . On 16 October the brigade took over from the US 7th Cavalry Regiment as the vanguard of the UN advance up the west coast , its axis intended to take it through Kaesong , Kumchon and Hungsu @-@ ri to Sariwon , then through Hwangju to the North Korean capital of Pyongyang . Although the North Koreans had suffered heavily in the preceding weeks , they continued to resist strongly , while a lack of accurate maps and the narrowness of the roads made rapid movement difficult for the advancing UN forces . During this time 3 RAR had a platoon of American M4 Sherman tanks attached and a battery of field guns in direct support .
The 27th British Commonwealth Brigade subsequently moved 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) from Kumchon , with the Argylls capturing Sariwon , an industrial town 54 kilometres ( 34 mi ) south of Pyongyang , on 17 October . Supported by 3 RAR and American tanks , the Highlanders killed 215 North Koreans and took several thousand prisoners for the loss of one man killed and three wounded in a one @-@ sided action . Prior to the attack the Australians had moved through the town to establish a blocking position 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) to the north . During the evening 3 RAR encountered a North Korean force withdrawing north . Using the same road and moving in the same direction , the North Koreans mistook the Australians and Argylls for Russians in the poor light and were bluffed into surrendering , with the Australians capturing thousands of North Koreans and their weapons and equipment following a brief exchange . Mounted on a tank , the 3 RAR second @-@ in @-@ command , Major Ian Ferguson , captured over 1 @,@ 600 North Korean soldiers with just an interpreter . Australian involvement had been limited , however , and they regarded their first exposure to the fighting in Korea as a relatively minor incident . The North Korean capital fell to US troops on 19 October . The 27th British Commonwealth Brigade then passed to the command of the US 24th Infantry Division on 21 October , under the overall command of Major General John H. Church , while the US 1st Cavalry Division remained in Pyongyang to complete its capture . Coad had hoped to rest his men at Pyongyang ; however , the advance continued north with little respite and the brigade moved through the village of Sangapo . The British and Australians were subsequently ordered to seize Chongju .
The previous day the US 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team ( US 187 RCT ) had parachuted ahead of the advancing UN spearheads into drop zones around Sukchon and Sunchon , 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) north of the capital . Commanded by Colonel Frank S. Bowen , the paratroopers were tasked with the objectives of cutting off the retreating North Korean forces that were withdrawing up the west coast of the Korean Peninsula and releasing American and South Korean prisoners of war . The plan envisioned the 1st and 3rd Battalions , US 187 RCT dropping southeast of Sukchon to seize the town , before establishing blocking positions on the two main highways and the railway to Pyongyang . The 2nd Battalion , US 187 RCT would then be dropped near Sunchon , 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) to the east to block another highway and railway line . The American paratroopers would then hold their positions while the US Eighth Army pushed northwards to link up them , a task which was expected to be complete within two days . US intelligence indicated that a trainload of American prisoners of war was moving north by night from Pyongyang , and Bowen hoped to intercept their train and release the men . As the US Eighth Army crossed the 38th Parallel MacArthur had held US 187 RCT at Kimpo Airfield near Seoul as the theatre reserve , with the intent of using them as a blocking force to prevent the anticipated North Korean withdrawal . Yet anxious not to expose the lightly equipped paratroopers by projecting them too far forward of the advance , MacArthur kept them back , and after changing the date twice , they were not dropped until 20 October . By this time the bulk of the North Korean Army had succeeded in withdrawing safely behind the Chongchon River . Only the North Korean 239th Regiment remained , having been ordered to delay the UN forces as they attempted to follow up . With a strength of 2 @,@ 500 men the regiment subsequently occupied positions on the high ground astride the road and rail lines east of Yongju , 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) south of the American drop zones at Sukchon .
= = Battle = =
= = = US 187 RCT airdrop at Sukchon and Sunchon , 20 – 21 October 1950 = = =
Beginning at 14 : 00 on 20 October , 1 @,@ 470 men from Lieutenant Colonel Harry Wilson 's US 1 / 187 RCT , Regimental Headquarters and Headquarters Company , as well as supporting engineer , medical , and logistic elements , were flown by C @-@ 119 Flying Boxcar and C @-@ 47 Skytrain transport aircraft from Kimpo Airfield . After forming up over the Han River , the force was parachuted into a drop zone southeast of Sukchon — designated Drop Zone William — supported by US fighter aircraft which rocketed and strafed the ground in preparation for the landing . The Americans subsequently met occasional sniper fire , experiencing only limited resistance . American casualties included 25 men injured in the jump , while one group which landed 2 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) east of the drop zone lost a man killed in his parachute after being attacked by the North Koreans . The heavy equipment subsequently followed the initial airdrop , including seven 105 mm M2A1 howitzers and their ammunition from A and C Battery , US 674th Field Artillery Battalion . One of the guns was damaged in the drop , however , and was unable to be used . US 1 / 187 RCT subsequently moved west , capturing Hill 97 east of Sukchon and Hill 104 to the north , before clearing the town itself and setting up a roadblock .
Wilson dispatched patrols to the river in the vicinity of Naeman @-@ ni , and prepared to move south towards Pyongyang . A platoon of engineers reached Songnani @-@ ni at 15 : 30 but was delayed for 45 minutes by North Korean fire . Capturing 15 prisoners , the platoon then moved to Namil @-@ ni where it was further engaged , killing five North Koreans and capturing another 16 . Meanwhile , Bowen established his command post at Chany @-@ ni on Hill 97 , along the dykes of the Choeyong River , and was dug @-@ in by 16 : 00 . US 3 / 187 RCT — under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Delbert Munson — jumped into Drop Zone William shortly afterwards , before turning south and adopting a defensive position on the low hills 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) south of Sukchon , where they established roadblocks across the highway and railway . Seizing their objectives by 17 : 00 , the American paratroopers killed five North Koreans and captured 42 others without loss . Preparing to attack south along the railway and highway , Munson subsequently dispersed his battalion along the high ground south of Sukchon , with Company I on the left and Company K on the right , where they set up a blocking position on the Sukchon – Pyongyang Road . US 2 / 187 RCT — under the command of Lieutenant Colonel William J. Boyle — jumped into Drop Zone Easy , 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) southwest of Sunchon at 14 : 20 and although the battalion suffered 20 men injured in the drop , it secured its objectives by nightfall almost unopposed . B Battery , US 674th Field Artillery Battalion was also dropped in support . Two companies then established roadblocks to the south and west of the town , while a third company married up with elements of the ROK 6th Division at Sunchon , which was pushing towards the Chongchon River .
MacArthur had flown from Japan to watch the drop from the air , and after observing the landing aboard an American bomber accompanied by a number of war correspondents , he subsequently flew to Pyongyang where he announced to the press that the operation had achieved complete surprise . Estimating that 30 @,@ 000 North Korean troops — perhaps half of those remaining in North Korea — had been caught between the US 187 RCT in the north and the US 1st Cavalry Division and ROK 1st Division to the south at Pyongyang , he predicted that they would soon be destroyed or captured by the UN advance . Yet , while the air drop itself had been a success , despite MacArthur ’ s optimistic predictions the operation came too late to intercept any significant North Korean elements and the American landings initially met little resistance . Indeed , most of the North Korean Army had succeeded in withdrawing north , and had crossed the Chongchon River , or were in the process of doing so , while the government and most important officials had moved to Kanggye in the mountains 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) southeast of Manpojin on the Yalu River . Most of the American and South Korean prisoners had also been moved to more remote parts of North Korea , and were unable to be rescued .
In total , during the operation approximately 4 @,@ 000 men and more than 600 tons of equipment and supplies were dropped by the Americans at Sukchon and Sunchon on 20 October and the days that followed , including twelve 105 mm howitzers , 39 jeeps , 38 1 / 4 @-@ ton trailers , four 90 mm antiaircraft guns , four 3 / 4 @-@ ton trucks , as well as ammunition , fuel , water , rations , and other supplies . Although sound in concept , the operation may have had more chance of success had a complete airborne division been employed . The following morning US 1 / 187 RCT captured the high ground north of Sukchon and established a blocking position on the main highway running north . However , strong North Korean rearguard forces held the next line of hills to the north . While at Sunchon , American troops from US 2 / 187 RCT had heard reports that a number of American prisoners had been murdered nearby by their North Korean captors as the KPA retreated . It became apparent that the train carrying the prisoners north from Pyongyang had halted in a railway tunnel on the 20th to conceal itself as US 187 RCT jumped into the area , and that while there , many of the men aboard had been shot by the North Korean soldiers guarding them as they waited for their evening meal . Sixty @-@ six bodies were later recovered , as well as those of seven more who were found to have died of disease or malnutrition . Twenty @-@ three starving and emaciated American survivors were found nearby ; however , many were badly wounded and two later died . The American paratroopers were subsequently ordered to return to Pyongyang .
= = = North Korean 239th Regiment is encircled , 21 October 1950 = = =
At 09 : 00 on 21 October , US 3 / 187 RCT began to advance south to clear the Sukchon to Yongju road towards Pyongyang . The American paratroopers advanced on two fronts , with I Company moving along the railway line and K Company along the highway . At 13 : 00 I Company reached Opa @-@ ri , where it encountered a strong North Korean force estimated as a battalion , equipped with 120 mm mortars and 40 mm guns . I Company was caught in an ambush . The North Koreans subsequently attacked the paratroopers and after a battle lasting two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours , they overran two American platoons . I Company was forced to withdraw west of the railway to Hill 281 having suffered 90 men missing . Despite their success , the North Koreans subsequently withdrew to their own defensive positions in the high ground around Opa @-@ ri . Amid the fighting , an American medic attached to I Company , Private First Class Richard G. Wilson , was killed while attempting to reach a wounded man who had been left behind , and he was later posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions . Wilson had repeatedly exposed himself to North Korean fire to render aid to the wounded , and later helped many to safety following the order to withdraw . On hearing that one of the Americans previously thought to be dead had been seen attempting to crawl to safety , he went back to the battlefield to search for him and had disappeared . Two days later a patrol found Wilson lying dead beside the man he had returned to rescue , having been shot while trying to shield him from further injury .
Meanwhile , during its advance along the highway , K Company encountered a battalion @-@ sized North Korean force , 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) north of Yongju . Following a sharp fight the Americans forced the North Koreans to withdraw to defensive positions on the high ground to the south and east of the town , as K Company continued into Yongju , where they established a position on Hill 163 , immediately to the north , digging @-@ in . The distance separating the highway and the railway which ran north either side of Yongju was larger at that point than anywhere else between Pyongyang and Sukchon . The American companies now occupied positions roughly opposite each other — at Yongju on the highway and Opa @-@ ri on the railway — yet these positions were now almost 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) apart and they were unable to mutually support each other . Elsewhere , elements of the 1st and 2nd Battalions , US 187 RCT successfully linked up at Sunchon that afternoon .
The North Korean 239th Regiment had subsequently established defensive positions on a line of hills extending southwest to northeast across the highway at Yongju and the railway at Opa @-@ ri , on ground which offered the best defensive terrain between capital and the Chongchon River . The last North Korean unit to leave Pyongyang , the Regiment had been tasked with fighting a delaying action against UN troops as they advanced north . Yet as a result of the unexpected American airborne assault , the North Korean 239th Regiment was subsequently encircled and found itself unexpectedly attacked from the rear . Already under threat from the UN advance north from Pyongyang , the North Koreans subsequently reacted vigorously to the Americans as US 3 / 187 RCT began to move south , and heavy fighting ensued 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) north of Yongju . The American paratroopers subsequently requested assistance from the US 24th Infantry Division , to which it was temporarily attached . Meanwhile , as the fighting at Yongju continued , US 2 / 187 RCT had remained out of contact at its drop zone at Sunchon as the ROK 6th Division completed the clearance of the town and its surrounds of North Korean stragglers .
= = = British and Australians advance to Yongju , 21 – 22 October 1950 = = =
In the days prior , US I Corps had continued its movement northward as part of the general advance of the US Eighth Army . Following the capture of Pyongyang , the corps commander , Major General Frank W. Milburn , ordered the advance to continue to the MacArthur Line , running approximately 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) south of the Yalu River . The US 24th Division , to which the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade was then attached , was ordered to lead this attack . On the division 's right flank three South Korean divisions — the ROK 1st Division , under US I Corps , and the ROK 6th and 8th Divisions under the control of ROK II Corps — were deployed to the east and would also be committed to the attack northwards . The British and Australians had covered 122 kilometres ( 76 mi ) in the previous two days , advancing rapidly until slowed by rain . A Company , 3 RAR was subsequently engaged by snipers from a nearby village without suffering casualties . The Sherman tanks proceeded to heavily engage the North Korean positions in the village , which was then cleared by the Australian infantry who killed five North Koreans and took three prisoners . As the rain ceased a North Korean T @-@ 34 tank , which had remained concealed during the earlier fighting , engaged D Company , 3 RAR and was subsequently knocked out by the American tanks . An unmanned SU @-@ 76 self @-@ propelled gun was also located nearby , and neither it or the tank were found to have any petrol . Meanwhile , US 187 RCT 's request for reinforcement had been received by the headquarters of the US 24th Infantry Division in Pyongyang . Yet , with the American division still well to the rear , the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade was the closest formation , and it was subsequently ordered forward to assist the American paratroopers .
Now the vanguard of the US Eighth Army , the British and Australians crossed the Taedong River using a sand @-@ bag bridge at Pyongyang at noon on 21 October , moving north on the main highway to Sukchon with the task of reaching the Chongchon River . Meanwhile , elements of US 3 / 187 RCT occupied Yongju . Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Nielson , 1 ASHR subsequently pushed up the road until fired upon by North Korean forces in the hills to the south of the town , with snipers engaging the column as it turned west out of the river valley around 16 : 00 . Encountering only light resistance from a small North Korean force of approximately 75 men which was then scattered by tank fire , the Argylls successfully cleared the foothills by last light on 21 October . Approaching Yongju , Coad decided to halt for the night . The Argylls subsequently sent a patrol into the town , establishing initial contact with US 3 / 187 RCT , marrying up with K Company which was established in a number of houses on the northern edge of Yongju and on Hill 163 immediately above their position . A strong North Korean force was believed to be nearby , however , with at least 300 men thought to remain in the town .
= = = North Koreans attempt to break @-@ out , 21 / 22 October 1950 = = =
Cut @-@ off , about midnight the North Korean 239th Regiment attempted to break out to the north , launching a number of attacks against the Americans . During the first attack a small group of North Koreans succeeded in infiltrating the K Company command post at Yongju . In the close @-@ quarter fighting that ensured Captain Claude K. Josey , the American company commander , tackled a North Korean machine @-@ gunner , and despite being wounded twice he succeeded in disarming him before collapsing from his injuries . Josey was later awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his actions . As the fighting continued the K Company executive officer was also wounded , yet the Americans eventually drove off the North Koreans , many of whom were subsequently killed . Nearby , the British and Australians could hear the sounds of heavy fighting between the Americans and North Koreans 1 to 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 6 to 3 @.@ 2 km ) to the north . Half an hour later a small group of North Koreans attacked A Company , 1 ASHR with grenades , killing two men and wounding two more before being repulsed having suffered one killed and one wounded . A large concentration of around 300 North Koreans were subsequently observed assembling in Yongju by the K Company forward observer , however the American artillery had relocated during the fighting and was unable to engage the target . Two guns from C Battery , US 674th Artillery Battalion were ordered to reposition south Sukchon to support US 3 / 187 RCT . Following two more North Korean attacks the Americans near Hill 163 were forced to abandon the roadblock after running out of ammunition . Detecting the withdrawal , the North Koreans attacked again at 04 : 00 . Meanwhile , after forcing their way through heavy North Korean machine @-@ gun and rifle fire the two American howitzers were successfully redeployed , coming into action at 04 : 15 . To the south , the British and Australians could hear the sounds of renewed fighting , and they began to fear that the Americans had been overrun .
The North Korean attacks drove K Company from Yongju that night , forcing them back towards the battalion 's main defensive position 3 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) to the north . Yet the paratroopers managed to reform into a tight perimeter on the northern edge of Yongju . Renewing their attack at 05 : 45 , the North Koreans then assaulted the command post of US 3 / 187 RCT and the L Company perimeter , but suffered heavy casualties from American enfilade and direct fire . During this action a column of North Koreans had moved towards L Company just before daybreak , singing as they approached . Dug @-@ in on the forward slopes facing the road , the 3 Platoon position gave the Americans a good field of fire overlooking the rice paddies and they began to engage the North Koreans with machine @-@ guns . Meanwhile , 1 Platoon and Company Headquarters also began to fire in support . Yet in the darkness the attackers claimed to be South Koreans and the Americans subsequently held their fire until the light became sufficient to confirm their identity . An American 57 mm recoilless rifle subsequently destroyed a North Korean truck at the head of another column as it moved up the road . The North Koreans then attempted to move a machine @-@ gun forward , but were thwarted as the Americans killed a number of men as took over the weapon . Under heavy fire the North Korean attack was broken up , with many of the survivors attempting to take cover behind the raised road . Meanwhile , the howitzers had continued to support the paratroopers , and by 05 : 50 the two guns had fired 145 rounds . During a single fire mission 54 North Koreans were killed , while by the time US 3 / 187 RCT was finally relieved later that day C Battery , 674th Artillery Battalion had accounted for more than 200 North Koreans .
In spite of these losses the North Koreans assaulted the American positions again , with a force of 300 men falling on L Company and a further 450 men assaulting Headquarters Company . At the bottom of the slope the North Koreans knocked out an American machine @-@ gun , hitting three of the crew in quick succession . The Americans responded with .50 calibre heavy machine @-@ guns , while a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch bazooka engaged the North Koreans in a culvert as they attempted to overrun the L Company position . Master Sergeant Willard W. Ryals subsequently moved forward down the hill under heavy fire to man the now silenced machine @-@ gun , and proceeded to engage the attackers . For his actions he was later awarded the US Silver Star . Hard @-@ pressed , the beleaguered Americans again requested assistance . Overnight Coad had ordered 3 RAR to take the lead the following morning and Green subsequently decided to send a company through Yongju to advance north as rapidly as possible , intending to push through the Argylls which were tasked with clearing the town . By dawn , the North Koreans and Americans had fought each other to a standstill after heavy fighting overnight and the previous day ; the North Korean 239th Regiment was almost exhausted , yet , in danger of being destroyed , it prepared for a final attempt to break out .
At first light on 22 October , A and C Company , 1 ASHR advanced into Yongju , before the Australians passed through them . Elsewhere , the Middlesex took up defensive positions to the north of Yongju . The Argylls then moved through the town , using high explosive and white phosphorus grenades to winkle out the remaining North Korean snipers , setting fire to many of the buildings . As planned , at 07 : 00 , 3 RAR was ordered to move through Yongju towards Sukchon to link up with US 187 RCT and close the gap between the two forces . C Company , 3 RAR under Captain Archer Denness subsequently passed through the burning town mounted on M4 Sherman tanks from D Company , US 89th Tank Battalion . Now leading the brigade , at 09 : 00 the Australians came under small arms and light mortar fire from a North Korean rearguard position in an apple orchard on their right flank , having moved just 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) . The Australians had driven into the rear of the North Korean 239th Regiment as it was forming up for a final assault on US 3 / 187 RCT . The strong North Korean force of approximately 1 @,@ 000 men subsequently allowed C Company , 3 RAR and the battalion 's tactical headquarters group to pass before engaging them . The North Korean @-@ held features lay between the advancing Australians and the American paratroopers , blocking any relief attempt . Yet rather than preparing a deliberate attack and potentially allowing the North Koreans time to organise their defences , Green chose to force his leading company through at once in order to seize the initiative and continue the pursuit . An encounter battle developed as 3 RAR carried out an aggressive quick attack from the road , with American tanks in support .
= = = Fighting in the apple orchard , 22 October 1950 = = =
Preparing for the assault , Green informed brigade headquarters of his plans and was advised that US 187 RCT was believed to be about 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 yd ) further north ; however , as the exact location of the Americans was unclear the indirect fire available to support the attack would be limited . The American tanks were also initially under orders not to fire for fear of hitting their own men . With mortars and artillery unavailable the Australians proceeded to attack regardless , with the tanks carrying C Company turning east towards the North Korean positions in the apple orchard . 7 and 8 Platoons were subsequently committed to the attack , while 9 Platoon — commanded by Lieutenant David Butler — was left near the road to protect the Australian flank . Supported by 18 Sherman tanks , the Australians dismounted close to their objective , charging the position with bayonets , Bren light machine @-@ guns , Owen guns , rifles and grenades as the tanks opened up with their main armament and machine @-@ guns . In the face of this determined attack many of the North Koreans left their pits in an attempt to move to safety , only to suffer heavy casualties after exposing themselves to the fire of the two assaulting platoons and the American tanks and flanking platoon in support . The speed and ferocity of the attack surprised the defenders , and the Australians quickly overcame the North Korean outposts despite the lack of indirect fires . The North Koreans , many of whom were recently trained conscripts , were then forced to withdraw for the loss of only four Australians wounded . For his leadership in co @-@ ordinating the assault Denness was later awarded the Military Cross , while Private Charles McMurray received the Military Medal for bravery .
More than 70 North Koreans were killed in the initial attack , while a further eight or nine were killed as the Australians cleared the position , setting fire to the North Korean dug @-@ outs and forcing the remaining defenders to flee . As the North Koreans broke , Green pushed A and B Company onto the higher ground to the right of C Company with the intention of clearing the ridge overlooking the highway , while D Company moved forward on the left of the road towards 9 Platoon . Meanwhile , the battalion tactical headquarters , which had followed closely behind C Company as they assaulted , came under attack in the apple orchard east of the road and was forced to fight off a group of North Koreans , with the regimental police and the battalion signallers fighting back @-@ to @-@ back to defend themselves . Withstanding the attack , the Australians eventually killed 34 North Koreans for the loss of three men wounded . Yet despite becoming personally involved in the heavy fighting , Green continued to skilfully control the battle throughout . D Company was subsequently ordered to clear the North Koreans threatening battalion headquarters , as well as sending a platoon forward to re @-@ establish contact with the Americans . Running low on ammunition , US 3 / 187 RCT had been in contact throughout the morning and continued to suffer casualties . However , having been forced off the high ground , the North Koreans were now caught between the advancing Australians and the American paratroopers to the north .
Unable to move north , the North Koreans attempted to breakout across the open rice fields to the west , through the gap between the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade and US 187 RCT . The North Koreans again suffered heavy casualties , with many cut down by tank and rifle fire from C Company , 3 RAR . Some of the survivors took refuge among a number of haystacks and rice stooks in front of 9 Platoon , from where they engaged the Australians with sniper fire . Others fled east , escaping to the higher ground where they dispersed . D Company , 3 RAR was subsequently ordered to clear pockets of resistance remaining within the battalion position . Meanwhile , the Middlesex battalion passed through the Australians and , with the tanks , linked up with US 187 RCT at 11 : 00 . Following three hours of fighting the battle was largely over by midday ; however , many of the North Koreans that had been unable to escape continued to refuse to surrender , hiding or feigning death until individually flushed out . After clearing their objectives 7 and 8 Platoon had moved forward towards 9 Platoon , which then clashed with a number of North Korean stragglers in the paddy fields . C Company , 3 RAR subsequently deployed in an extended line and a substantial action soon developed . In a scene Coad later likened to driving snipe , the Australians subsequently proceeded to sweep the area , kicking over stacks of straw and shooting the North Korean soldiers they found hiding in them as they attempted to flee . For his leadership Butler was subsequently awarded the US Silver Star , while Private John Cousins received the US Bronze Star for his role in the action .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
Despite the uncertain situation and the lack of indirect support , Green 's tactical handling of the Australian battalion had been bold , and his decision to move quickly through Yongju and to attack off the line of march proved decisive . Preoccupied with fighting the Americans to their north , the North Koreans were unprepared for the Australians to attack from the rear . Caught between the American paratroopers and the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade , the North Korean 239th Regiment was practically destroyed . North Korean casualties in the apple orchard were 150 killed , 239 wounded and 200 captured , while Australian casualties numbered just seven men wounded . Including those engaged by the Argylls , total North Korean losses during the fighting with the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade exceeded 200 killed and 500 captured . The survivors subsequently fled westwards . In their first major battle in Korea the Australians had distinguished themselves , and the battalion was later praised for its performance . The action became known as the " Battle of the Apple Orchard " , while the Royal Australian Regiment was later granted the battle honour " Yongju " . Boosting their confidence , the success prepared the Australians for the battles which they were to face in the months that followed . Meanwhile , US 3 / 187 RCT reported killing 805 North Koreans and capturing 681 in the fighting around Yongju . Altogether , American casualties during the Sukchon @-@ Sunchon operation were 48 killed in action and 80 wounded , and a further one killed and 56 injured in the jump . US 3 / 187 RCT and the 2nd Section , Antitank Gun Platoon , Support Company were both awarded the US Distinguished Unit Citation .
That afternoon US 3 / 187 RCT returned to Sukchon . The Middlesex battalion was subsequently ordered to push on to Sukchon , and after successfully relieving the Americans in place by nightfall , the battalion occupied a defensive position 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) north . US 187 RCT returned to Pyongyang by road on 23 October , moving through Sunchon . Shortly after they went back into theatre reserve . Meanwhile , the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade and US 24th Division continued their advance up the highway . Intending to defeat the North Koreans and bring the war to a close , the UN forces pushed towards the Yalu River , on the Chinese border . However , resistance continued to be met as the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade crossed the Chongchon River , and they now moved towards Pakchon . On 24 October , MacArthur had removed all restrictions on the movement of his forces south of the Yalu River and prepared for the final phase of the UN advance , defying a directive of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff and risking Chinese intervention on behalf of North Korea . An intense period of fighting followed and the Australians were involved in a number of major battles over the coming days .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
On the afternoon of 25 October a platoon from 3 RAR was fired on by two companies of North Koreans as they crossed the Taeryong River to conduct a reconnaissance of the west bank , and although they were subsequently forced to withdraw , the Australians took 10 prisoners with them . Acting as the forward elements of the brigade , that evening Green sent two companies across the river to establish defensive positions , and they subsequently broke up a frontal assault on their positions with mortars while the North Koreans were in the process of forming up . Sixty North Koreans supported by a T @-@ 34 tank then attacked the forward Australian companies at Kujin early the following morning , resulting in Australian losses of eight killed and 22 wounded . However , the North Koreans suffered heavy casualties including over 100 killed and 350 captured , and the Australians subsequently succeeded in defending the bridgehead after the North Koreans withdrew . Intelligence indicated that the British and Australians were facing the North Korean 17th Tank Brigade , which was preparing a last line of defence at Chongju , 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) away . With the war considered all but over the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade continued to pursue the North Koreans towards Chongju ; however , the advance increasingly encountered strong resistance as they approached the Manchurian border .
3 RAR took over as lead battalion of the brigade on 29 October , 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from Chongju . That morning a spotter aircraft reported a large North Korean formation consisting of a battalion @-@ sized force of 500 – 600 infantry supported by several tanks and at least two self @-@ propelled guns , positioned on a thickly wooded ridgeline around Chongju . The Battle of Chongju ensued as the Australians dislodged the strong North Korean armoured force and then defended their positions against North Korean counter @-@ attacks during the evening . The following day the Australians advanced to the high ground overlooking Chongju , killing and capturing a number of North Koreans in skirmishes . That afternoon the town itself was cleared by the remaining elements of the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade without opposition . The fighting around Chongju was the heaviest undertaken by the Australians since entering the war . North Korean casualties included 162 killed and 10 captured , while Australian losses were nine killed and 30 wounded , including Green , who was wounded in the stomach by artillery fire after the battle , dying two days later on 1 November after succumbing to his wounds .
Following the capture of Chongju the US 21st Infantry Regiment had set off rapidly along the road to Sonchon to the west . Encountering only one strong North Korean position which they quickly turned , by noon on 1 November the lead battalion had reached Chonggodong , just 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from the Yalu River where the Americans clashed with another North Korean armoured force . To the north meanwhile , the US 5th and 9th Infantry Regiments of the US 24th Infantry Division secured Taechon and Kusong , before advancing to within 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) of the Manchurian border . However , during the last weeks of October the Chinese had moved 18 divisions of the People 's Volunteer Army across the Yalu River under the overall command of Marshal Peng Dehuai in order to reinforce the remnants of the KPA . Undetected by US and South Korean intelligence , the 13th Army Group crossed the border on 16 October and penetrated up to 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) into North Korea , and were reinforced in early November by 12 divisions from the 9th Army Group ; in total 30 divisions composed of 380 @,@ 000 men . The Chinese subsequently ambushed MacArthur 's forces which were now widely dispersed , decimating ROK II Corps at Onjong and encircling and overrunning the US 8th Cavalry Regiment at Unsan . With the US 24th Infantry Division ordered back to the Chongchon River as a result , the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade also began moving south as part of the UN general withdrawal in the face of the Chinese First Phase Offensive .
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= Lambeosaurus =
Lambeosaurus ( / ˌlæmbioʊˈsɔːrəs / LAM @-@ bee @-@ o @-@ SAWR @-@ əs ; meaning " Lambe 's lizard " ) is a genus of hadrosaurid dinosaur that lived about 75 million years ago , in the Late Cretaceous period ( Campanian ) of North America . This bipedal / quadrupedal , herbivorous dinosaur is known for its distinctive hollow cranial crest , which in the best @-@ known species resembled a hatchet . Several possible species have been named , from Canada , the United States , and Mexico , but only the two Canadian species are currently recognized as valid .
Lambeosaurus was belatedly described in 1923 by William Parks , over twenty years after the first material was studied by Lawrence Lambe . The genus has a complicated taxonomic history , in part because small @-@ bodied crested hadrosaurids now recognized as juveniles were once thought to belong to their own genera and species . Currently , the various skulls assigned to the type species L. lambei are interpreted as showing age differences and sexual dimorphism . Lambeosaurus was closely related to the better known Corythosaurus , which is found in slightly older rocks , as well as the less well @-@ known genera Hypacrosaurus and Olorotitan . All had unusual crests , which are now generally assumed to have served social functions like noisemaking and recognition .
= = Description = =
Lambeosaurus , best known through L. lambei , was quite similar to Corythosaurus in everything but the form of the head adornment . Compared to Corythosaurus , the crest of Lambeosaurus was shifted forward , and the hollow nasal passages within were at the front of the crest and stacked vertically . It also can be differentiated from Corythosaurus by its lack of forking nasal processes making up part of the sides of the crest , which is the only way to tell juveniles of the two genera apart , as the crests took on their distinctive forms as the animals aged .
Lambeosaurus was like other hadrosaurids , and could move on both two legs and all fours , as shown by footprints of related animals . It had a long tail stiffened by ossified tendons that prevented it from drooping . The hands had four fingers , lacking the innermost finger of the generalized five @-@ fingered tetrapod hand , while the second , third , and fourth fingers were bunched together and bore hooves , suggesting the animal could have used the hands for support . The fifth finger was free and could be used to manipulate objects . Each foot had only the three central toes .
The most distinctive feature , the crest , was different in the two well @-@ known species . In L. lambei , it had a hatchet @-@ like shape when the dinosaur was full @-@ grown , and was somewhat shorter and more rounded in specimens interpreted as females . The " hatchet blade " projected in front of the eyes , and the " handle " was a solid bony rod that jutted out over the back of the skull . The " hatchet blade " had two sections : the uppermost portion was a thin bony " coxcomb " that grew out relatively late in life , when an individual neared adulthood ; and the lower portion held hollow spaces that were continuations of the nasal passages . In L. magnicristatus , the " handle " was greatly reduced , and the " blade " expanded , forming a tall , exaggerated pompadour @-@ like crest . This crest is damaged in the best overall specimen , and only the front half remains .
The Canadian species of Lambeosaurus appear to have been similar in size to Corythosaurus , and thus around 9 @.@ 4 m ( 31 ft ) long . Impressions of the scales are known for several specimens ; a specimen now assigned to L. lambei had a thin skin with uniform , polygonal scutes distributed in no particular order on the neck , torso , and tail . Similar scalation is known from the neck , forelimb , and foot of a specimen of L. magnicristatus .
= = Classification = =
Lambeosaurus is the type genus of the Lambeosaurinae , the subfamily of hadrosaurids that had hollow skull crests . Among the lambeosaurines , it is closely related to similar dinosaurs such as Corythosaurus and Hypacrosaurus , with little separating them but crest form . The relationships among these dinosaur genera are difficult to pick out . Some early classifications placed these genera in the tribe Corythosaurini , which was found by David Evans and Robert Reisz to include Lambeosaurus as the sister taxon to a clade made up of Corythosaurus , Hypacrosaurus , and the Russian genus Olorotitan ; these lambeosaurines , with Nipponosaurus . However , later researchers pointed out that due to the rules of priority set forth by the ICZN , any tribe containing Lambeosaurus is properly named Lambeosaurini , and that therefore the name " Corythosaurini " is a junior synonym . The following cladogram illustrating the relationships of Lambeosaurus and its close relatives was recovered in a 2012 phylogenetic analysis by Albert Prieto @-@ Márquez , Luis M. Chiappe and Shantanu H. Joshi .
= = Discovery and history = =
Lambeosaurus has a complicated taxonomic history , beginning in 1902 with Lawrence Lambe 's naming of hadrosaurid limb material and other bones ( originally GSC 419 ) from Alberta as Trachodon marginatus . Paleontologists began finding better remains of hadrosaurids from the same rocks in the 1910s , in what is now known as the late Campanian @-@ age ( Upper Cretaceous ) Dinosaur Park Formation . Lambe assigned two new skulls to T. marginatus , and based on the new information , coined the genus Stephanosaurus for the species in 1914 . Unfortunately , there was very little to associate the skulls with the scrappy earlier marginatus material , so in 1923 William Parks proposed a new genus and species for the skulls , with both generic and specific names honoring Lambe : Lambeosaurus lambei ( type specimen NMC 2869 , originally GSC 2869 ) .
= = = New species and procheneosaurs = = =
Although the early workers in Alberta did not recognize it at the time , they were finding the remains of juvenile Lambeosaurus as well . These fossils of small @-@ bodied crested duckbills were interpreted as adults of a distinct lineage of hadrosaurids , the subfamily Cheneosaurinae . The first such animal to be named was Trachodon altidens , a left upper jaw ( GSC 1092 ) from the Dinosaur Park Formation described by Lawrence Lambe in 1902 . In the same volume , Henry Fairfield Osborn suggested T. altidens could belong to a new genus , which he labelled Didanodon without further discussion . In 2006 , Lund and Gates stated that Didanodon altidens was a nomen nudum , without further discussion .
In 1920 , William Diller Matthew used the name Procheneosaurus ( no species name ) in a caption for a photograph of a skeleton at the American Museum of Natural History , from the Dinosaur Park Formation ( AMNH 5340 ) . Parks believed that the procedure and description were inadequate for the name to be considered valid , and to address the situation , he coined the genus Tetragonosaurus . Into this genus he placed the type species T. praeceps ( based on ROM 3577 ) and a second species T. erectofrons ( based on ROM 3578 ) for small skulls from the Dinosaur Park Formation , and assigned Matthew 's Procheneosaurus skeleton to T. praeceps . Charles M. Sternberg followed in 1935 by adding the slightly larger T. cranibrevis , based on GSC ( now NMC ) 8633 . The use of Tetragonosaurus was rejected by Richard Swann Lull in favor of Procheneosaurus . Lull requested that the name Tetragonosaurus be suppressed in favor of Procheneosaurus , which was granted , and Procheneosaurus received official approval from the ICZN as a conserved name . In 1942 he and Wright transferred the Tetragonosaurus species and , tentatively , Trachodon altidens , to Procheneosaurus , with P. praeceps serving as the type species . This usage was generally followed until 1975 , when Peter Dodson showed that the " cheneosaurs " were actually juveniles of other dinosaurs . Procheneosaurus praeceps and altidens are considered probable synonyms of Lambeosaurus lambei .
P. cranibrevis , from the Dinosaur Park Formation and named as a species of Tetragonosaurus in 1935 by Charles M. Sternberg , was slightly larger than the other species , and was interpreted by Dodson as a juvenile Corythosaurus . Further study has shown that the type specimen is a Lambeosaurus juvenile , based on how the skull bones articulate , and that several other specimens assigned to it are Corythosaurus . P. erectofrons , named by Parks as a species of Tetragonosaurus , is based on a skull from the Dinosaur Park Formation . Dodson found it to be a juvenile Corythosaurus casuarius , although one distinct skeleton from the late Campanian @-@ age Upper Cretaceous Two Medicine Formation of Montana , USA , appears to belong to a young Hypacrosaurus stebingeri .
" P. " convincens , from the Late Cretaceous of Kazakhstan , is known from a nearly complete skeleton missing only the snout and end of the tail . It was named by A. K. Rozhdestvensky in 1968 . It has at times been considered synonymous with Jaxartosaurus aralensis , or deserving of its own genus . Bell and Brink ( 2013 ) made " P. " convincens the type species of the new genus Kazaklambia .
The " procheneosaurs " weren 't the only crested duckbills being studied and named in the early 1900s . It was then the accepted practice to name genera and species for what is now seen as more likely individual variation , variation due to age or sex , or distortion from fossilization . Three more species were named during this period that relate to Lambeosaurus , all in 1935 . Sternberg , in the same paper as T. cranibrevis , named a skull and partial skeleton ( GSC — now NMC — 8705 ) L. magnicristatum ( corrected to magnicristatus ) , and a smaller skull ( GSC — now NMC — 8703 ) L. clavinitialis , with a less prominent crest and reduced spine pointing from the back . Parks contributed Corythosaurus frontalis , based on skull GSC 5853 ( now ROM 869 ) , which differed from the well @-@ known tall , straight , rounded crest of other specimens of Corythosaurus by having a low crest cocked forward .
= = = Reconsideration and consolidation = = =
New specimens were not described for many years following the activity of the early 1900s . In 1964 John Ostrom noted that an old species named by Othniel Charles Marsh , Hadrosaurus paucidens , based on USNM 5457 , a partial maxilla and squamosal from the Judith River Formation of Fergus County , Montana , was probably a specimen of Lambeosaurus .
In 1975 , Peter Dodson , examining why there should be so many species and genera of lambeosaurine duckbills within such a short geological time frame and small area , published the results of a morphometric study in which he measured dozens of skulls . He found that many of the species had been based on remains that were better interpreted as juveniles or different sexes . For Lambeosaurus , he found that L. clavinitialis was probably the female of L. lambei , and Corythosaurus frontalis and Procheneosaurus praeceps were probably its juveniles . L. magnicristatus was different enough to warrant its own species . He interpreted Procheneosaurus cranibrevis and P. erectofrons as juvenile corythosaurs . However , restudy of the Procheneosaurus / Tetragonosaurus remains indicates that within species , assignments had become confused , and the type specimen of P. cranibrevis was a Lambeosaurus juvenile , whereas others were Corythosaurus , based on the distinctive form of the contact of the nasal bone with the premaxilla .
Also during the 1970s , Bill Morris was studying giant lambeosaurine remains from Baja California . He named them ? L. laticaudus in 1981 ( type specimen LACM 17715 ) . Morris used a question mark in his work because no complete crest had been found for his species , and without it a definitive assignment could not be made . From what was known of the skull , he considered it to be most like Lambeosaurus . He interpreted this species as water @-@ bound , due to features like its size , its tall and narrow tail ( interpreted as a swimming adaptation ) , and weak hip articulations , as well as a healed broken thigh bone that he thought would have been too much of a handicap for a terrestrial animal to have survived long enough to heal . This species was later ( 2012 ) assigned to the new genus Magnapaulia .
= = Species = =
Two species of Lambeosaurus are currently confirmed valid , with a third sometimes accepted . L. lambei ( Parks , 1923 ) is known from at least 17 individuals , with seven skulls and partial skeletons and around ten isolated skulls . L. clavinitialis ( C.M. Sternberg , 1935 ) , Corythosaurus frontalis ( Parks , 1935 ) , and Procheneosaurus praeceps ( Parks , 1931 ) are all regarded as synonyms of L. lambei in the most recent review . It is possible that L. clavinitialis skulls without the backward spine may represent L. magnicristatus individuals instead , although this was rejected in the 2007 redescription of L. magnicristatus . L. magnicristatus ( C.M. Sternberg , 1935 ) is only definitely known from two specimens , both with skulls . Unfortunately , the majority of the articulated skeleton of the type specimen has been lost . Many of the bones were extensively damaged by water while in storage and were discarded before description ; other portions of this skeleton have also been lost . Its remains come from slightly younger rocks than L. lambei . The specific name is derived from the Latin magnus " large " and cristatus " crested " , referring to its bony crest . Additionally , Jack Horner has identified fragmentary lambeosaurine jaws from the Bearpaw Formation of Montana as possibly belonging to L. magnicristatus ; these represent the first lambeosaurine remains from marine rocks . As noted above , the large " L. " laticaudus ( Morris , 1981 ) was assigned to Magnapaulia .
L. paucidens ( Marsh , 1889 ) is regarded as a dubious name and is listed as Hadrosaurus paucidens in the latest review , although at least one author , Donald F. Glut , accepts it as a species of Lambeosaurus . In this case , the specific epithet is derived from the Latin pauci- " few " and dens " tooth " . The irregularities of Procheneosaurus cranibrevis , and the identity of the type as a juvenile lambeosaur , were recognized in 2005 , and thus have not yet entered wide circulation . Finally , Didanodon altidens has been assigned without comment to Lambeosaurus in two 21st Century reviews .
= = Paleoecology = =
Lambeosaurus lambei and L. magnicristatus , from the Dinosaur Park Formation , were members of a diverse and well @-@ documented fauna of prehistoric animals that included such well @-@ known dinosaurs as the horned Centrosaurus , Styracosaurus , and Chasmosaurus , fellow duckbills Prosaurolophus , Gryposaurus , Corythosaurus , and Parasaurolophus , tyrannosaurid Gorgosaurus , and armored Edmontonia and Euoplocephalus . The Dinosaur Park Formation is interpreted as a low @-@ relief setting of rivers and floodplains that became more swampy and influenced by marine conditions over time as the Western Interior Seaway transgressed westward . The climate was warmer than present @-@ day Alberta , without frost , but with wetter and drier seasons . Conifers were apparently the dominant canopy plants , with an understory of ferns , tree ferns , and angiosperms . The anatomically similar L. lambei , L. magnicristatus , and Corythosaurus were separated by time within the formation , based on stratigraphy . Corythosaurus fossils are known from the lower two @-@ thirds of the Formation , L. lambei fossils are present in the upper third , and L. magnicristatus remains are rare and present only at the very top , where the marine influence was greater .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Feeding = = =
As a hadrosaurid , Lambeosaurus was a large bipedal / quadrupedal herbivore , eating plants with a sophisticated skull that permitted a grinding motion analogous to mammalian chewing . Its teeth were continually replaced and were packed into dental batteries that each contained over 100 teeth , only a relative handful of which were in use at any time . It used its beak to crop plant material , which was held in the jaws by a cheek @-@ like organ . Feeding would have been from the ground up to around 4 meters ( 13 feet ) above . As noted by Bob Bakker , lambeosaurines have narrower beaks than hadrosaurines , implying that Lambeosaurus and its relatives could feed more selectively than their broad @-@ beaked , crestless counterparts .
= = = Cranial crest = = =
Like other lambeosaurines such as Parasaurolophus and Corythosaurus , Lambeosaurus had a distinctive crest on the top of its head . Its nasal cavity ran back through this crest , making it mostly hollow . Many suggestions have been made for the function or functions of the crest , including housing salt glands , improving the sense of smell , use as a snorkel or air trap , acting as a resonating chamber for making sounds , or being a method for different species or different sexes of the same species to recognize each other . Social functions such as noisemaking and recognition have become the most widely accepted of the various hypotheses .
The large size of hadrosaurid eye sockets and the presence of sclerotic rings in the eyes imply acute vision and diurnal habits , evidence that sight was important to these animals . The hadrosaurid sense of hearing also appears to be strong . There is at least one example , in the related Corythosaurus , of a slender stapes ( reptilian ear bone ) in place , which combined with a large space for an eardrum implies a sensitive middle ear , and the hadrosaurid lagena is elongate like a crocodilian 's . This indicates that the auditory portion of the inner ear was well @-@ developed . If used as a noisemaker , the crest could also have provided recognizable differences for different species or sexes , because the differing layouts of the nasal passages corresponding to the different crest shapes would have produced intrinsically different sounds .
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= The Beacon Street Collection =
The Beacon Street Collection is the second studio album by American rock band No Doubt , released in March 1993 . It was released independently by the band under their own record label , Beacon Street Records . It was produced by No Doubt themselves and recorded in a homemade recording studio in the garage of their house on Beacon Avenue in Anaheim , California , from which the album takes its name . Additional recording and mixing were done at Clear Lake Audio in North Hollywood , California with engineer Colin " Dog " Mitchell .
The album was released during a time in which the band were receiving little attention from their record label , Interscope Records , and were not getting a chance to record a second album . Interscope were disillusioned with the band after the commercial failure of their first album , No Doubt . No Doubt had written large numbers of songs and knew that they would not make it onto any Interscope album , so they built their own studio and recorded the album there . Two singles were released from it : " Squeal " and " Doghouse " on 7 @-@ inch vinyl .
The album sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies in 1993 , over three times as many as their first album sold . This success ensured that Interscope financed the band 's third album , Tragic Kingdom , which was a massive success , selling 16 million copies worldwide and attracting extensive interest in the band . The Beacon Street Collection was re @-@ released in 1997 as part of the band 's back catalog .
= = Background = =
No Doubt released their self @-@ titled debut album in 1992 , a year after being signed to Interscope . The group 's blend of upbeat brass @-@ dominated songs and funk @-@ style bass riffs came at a time when most of the United States was in the thrall of grunge music , a genre whose angst @-@ ridden lyrics and dirty sound could not have contrasted more with the atmosphere of most of the songs on No Doubt 's pop @-@ oriented album . Not surprisingly , the band lost out to the now @-@ ubiquitous grunge music and the album was a commercial failure , with only 30 @,@ 000 copies sold . In the words of the program director of KROQ , a Los Angeles radio station on which it was one of the band 's driving ambitions to be played : " It would take an act of God for this band to get on the radio . "
The band started to work on its second album in 1993 but Interscope , having lost faith in the band , rejected most of its material and so it was paired with producer Matthew Wilder . Kanal then ended his seven @-@ year relationship with Gwen , saying that he needed " space " .
= = Music = =
A large number of songs on The Beacon Street Collection were written by Eric Stefani , who left the group before their third album was recorded . This gave the album a similar sound to their first album , No Doubt , in which Eric Stefani had collaborated in the writing of all the songs . Because the lyrics in Tragic Kingdom were written mainly by Gwen Stefani about her experiences in life , the style of music changed from what No Doubt had previously produced . Tom Dumont explained the change in sound in an interview for Backstage Online :
" Well , there is a reason that the sound of our music has changed and it 's not because we 've sold out , easy for me to say . Eric , our keyboard player used to write most of our songs . He was the main creative force in the band for many years . And at a certain point after that first album came out , he had this personal thing , like he didn 't like touring , he didn 't like all that stuff . He just liked to sit down and write songs . That 's him . He 's the artistic side , the total Mr. Creative .
Well what happened is when Eric decided to leave the band it left the song writing to us , me , Gwen , Tony , the rest of us and it 's a really natural thing for our song writing style to be different than Eric 's . Just we 're different people . I mean we 've learned a lot from him and he taught us a lot of things about song writing , but we write simpler music . We have a simpler style . We 're not quite Genius like him I think . This album was our first attempt. it was Gwen 's first time really writing all the lyrics herself so to me , it went the opposie from selling out we have done something that is even more personal . In the past , Eric was writing songs about his life and having Gwen sing them . Now we have Gwen singing and writing about her own experiences . "
= = = Production = = =
No Doubt became frustrated at the lack of progress they were making with Interscope , who were proving unreliable in their support of the band . Instead , they built their own studio in their garage on Beacon Avenue in Anaheim , California Although the band had knowledge that they didn 't want any songs to be released in an Interscope @-@ distributed album , they recorded The Beacon Street Collection in their studio and Clear Lake Audio in one long weekend . Their independence shocked their company representative , Tony Ferguson , who had assumed they were recording a third single .
= = = Singles = = =
In 1994 , before recording of the album had even begun , No Doubt released two seven @-@ inch singles for their fans . The first was " Squeal " , a song written by Eric Stefani , detailing a criminal 's reaction to her partner 's betrayal to the police . They had agreed to be " in this together " but , after he " squeals " , she resolves to " kill the narc who wrote it and said it [ that she was guilty of a crime ] " . The single 's B @-@ side was " My Room Is Still Clean " , written by Tony Kanal and recorded live at the Icehouse in Fullerton , California on February 13 , 1993 .
The second single was " Doghouse " , written by Eric Stefani . It is about a man who is bullied and dominated by his girlfriend and is unwilling to force the situation to change . The song uses the metaphor of a dog and its master to illustrate the nature of the relationship , saying that she had got him " by the reins " and he has been " conditioned " by her . The single 's B @-@ side was " You Can 't Teach an Ol ' Dog New Tricks " , written by Eric Stefani .
= = Reception = =
= = = Significance = = =
On its original release in March 1995 , The Beacon Street Collection was only available in local record stores in Orange County , California and at No Doubt 's shows . Its rawer sound proved popular with the band 's fans and the band 's first batch of one thousand copies sold out within only a few months after its release . Interscope realized the band 's potential and allowed them to record their third album , Tragic Kingdom in various Los Angeles studios , " wherever they could get a deal on a studio " . During a recording session , the band was introduced to Paul Palmer , who was interested in mixing the new album . He owned his own record label Trauma Records , which was associated with Interscope . Interscope willingly sublicensed the project to Trauma Records in 1995 and Tragic Kingdom got the personal focus that comes from a small company .
By the end of the year , 100 @,@ 000 copies of The Beacon Street Collection had been sold , over three times as many as their first album , No Doubt . These sales were mostly due to the release of Tragic Kingdom , which was released seven months after The Beacon Street Collection in October 1995 . Tragic Kingdom was a massive commercial success , reaching sales of over 10 million in the United States and 16 million worldwide , peaking at number one on several charts and being certified " diamond " ( 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 units = Diamond album ) in the US and Canada and " platinum " in the UK and Australia . This success created an extensive interest in the band 's back catalog so , in October 1997 , The Beacon Street Collection was re @-@ released on Interscope .
In an interview with Axcess Magazine in April 1996 , Gwen Stefani described the release of The Beacon Street Collection as " one of the best things [ they ] ever did because [ they ] were able to take some songs that would have probably gotten lost and document them " .
= = = Critical = = =
Allmusic called the album " finer than the [ band 's ] debut " , and described it as containing more of a " raw sound inspired [ ... ] by punk " than the style of No Doubt 's first album , which was heavily " synth and new wave " . Entertainment Weekly , in 1997 , called it " more focused than Tragic Kingdom " with " reggae frat @-@ house grooves and perky horns " , and complimented " Gwen 's feisty Kewpie @-@ doll wail " and the " swaying ballads " , attributing it to " the band 's willing spirit " . Rock on the Net retrospectively called the album " a raw expression of their sound " and describing it as " 80s punk with 90s grunge .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits = =
= = = Personnel = = =
Gwen Stefani - vocals
Tom Dumont - guitar
Tony Kanal - bass
Adrian Young - percussion , drums
Eric Stefani - keyboard
Phil Jordan - trumpet
Eric Carpenter - saxophone
Additional personnel
Bradley Nowell - vocals
Gabrial McNair - percussion , trombone
Gerard Boisse- baritone , tenor , soprano saxophones
= = = Production = = =
Producer : No Doubt
Engineers : Ray Blair , Tom Dumont , Colin " Dog " Mitchell
Mixing : Tom Dumont , Nicholas Hexum , Colin " Dog " Mitchell , No Doubt , Scott Ralston , Adrian Young
Mixing assistants : Nick Hexum , Scott Ralston , Adrian Young
Mastering : Robert Vosgien
Advisor : Albhy Galuten
Design : Gwen Stefani
Layout design : Matt Wignall
Liner notes : No Doubt
= = Release history = =
All information is from the Allmusic page and No Doubt 's official website discography .
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= George Armitage Miller =
George Armitage Miller ( February 3 , 1920 – July 22 , 2012 ) was one of the founders of the cognitive psychology field . He also contributed to the birth of psycholinguistics and cognitive science in general . Miller wrote several books and directed the development of WordNet , an online word @-@ linkage database usable by computer programs . He authored the paper , " The Magical Number Seven , Plus or Minus Two , " in which he insightfully observed that many different experimental findings considered together reveal the presence of an average limit of seven for human short @-@ term memory capacity . This paper is frequently cited in both psychology and the wider culture . He also won awards , such as the National Medal of Science .
Miller started his education focusing on speech and language and published papers on these topics , focusing on mathematical , computational and psychological aspects of the field . He started his career at a time when the reigning theory in psychology was behaviorism , which eschewed any attempt to study mental processes and focused only on observable behavior . Working mostly at Harvard University , MIT and Princeton University , Miller introduced experimental techniques to study the psychology of mental processes . He went on to be one of the founders of psycholinguistics and was then one of the key figures in founding the broader new field of cognitive science , circa 1978 .. He collaborated and co @-@ authored work with other figures in cognitive science and psycholinguistics , such as Noam Chomsky . For moving psychology into the realm of mental processes and for aligning that move with information theory , computation theory , and linguistics , Miller is considered one of the great twentieth @-@ century psychologists . A Review of General Psychology survey , published in 2002 , ranked Miller as the 20th most cited psychologist of that era .
= = Biography = =
Miller was born on February 3 , 1920 , in Charleston , West Virginia , the son of an executive at a steel company , George E. Miller , and Florence ( Armitage ) Miller . Soon after , his parents divorced . He grew up with only his mother during the Great Depression , attended public school , and graduated from Charleston High School in 1937 . He relocated with his mother and stepfather to Washington D.C. , and was at George Washington University for a year . His family practiced Christian Science , which required turning to prayer , rather than medical science , for healing . After his stepfather was transferred to Birmingham , Alabama , Miller transferred to the University of Alabama .
He received his bachelor 's degree in history and speech in 1940 , and a master 's in speech in 1941 from the University of Alabama . He had taken courses in phonetics , voice science , and speech pathology . Membership in the Drama club fostered his interest in courses in the Speech Department . He was also influenced by Professor Donald Ramsdell , who introduced him both to psychology , and , indirectly through a seminar , to his future wife Katherine James . They married on November 29 , 1939 . Katherine died in January , 1996 . He married Margaret Ferguson Skutch Page in 2008 .
Miller taught the course " Introduction to Psychology " at Alabama for two years . He enrolled in the Ph.D. program in psychology at Harvard University in 1943 , after coming to the university in 1942 . He received his doctorate in 1946 from Harvard 's Psycho @-@ Acoustic Laboratory , under the supervision of Stanley Smith Stevens , researching military voice communications for the Army Signal Corps during World War II . His doctorate thesis , " The Optimal Design of Jamming Signals , " was classified top secret by the US Army .
= = = Career = = =
After receiving his doctorate , Miller stayed as a research fellow at Harvard , to continue his research on speech and hearing . He was appointed assistant professor of psychology in 1948 . The course he developed on language and communication would eventually lead to his first major book , Language and communication ( 1951 ) . He took a sabbatical in 1950 , and spent a year as a visiting fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study , Princeton , to pursue his interest in mathematics . Miller befriended J. Robert Oppenheimer , with whom he played squash . In 1951 , Miller joined MIT as an associate professor of psychology . He led the psychology group at MIT Lincoln Lab . He worked on voice communication and human engineering , whereupon he identified the minimal voice features of speech required for it to be intelligible . Based on this work , in 1955 , he was invited to a talk at the Eastern Psychological Association . That presentation , " The magical number seven , plus or minus two " , was later published as a paper which went on to be a legendary one in cognitive psychology .
Miller moved back to Harvard as a tenured associate professor in 1955 and became a full professor in 1958 , expanding his research into how language affects human cognition . At the university he met a young Noam Chomsky , another of the founders of cognitive science . They spent a summer together at Stanford training the faculty , and their two families shared a house . In 1958 – 59 , Miller took leave to join the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Palo Alto , California , ( now at Stanford University ) . There he collaborated with Eugene Galanter and Karl Pribram on the book Plans and the Structure of Behavior . In 1960 , along with Jerome S. Bruner , he co @-@ founded the Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard . The cognitive term was a break from the then @-@ dominant school of behaviorism , which insisted cognition was not fit for scientific study . The center attracted such notable visitors as Jean Piaget , Alexander Luria and Chomsky . Miller then became the chair of the psychology department . Miller was instrumental at the time for recruiting Timothy Leary to teach at Harvard . Miller knew Leary from the University of Alabama , where Miller was teaching psychology and Leary graduated with an undergraduate degree from the department .
In 1967 , Miller taught at Rockefeller University for a year , as a visiting professor , From 1968 to 1979 , he was Professor at the Rockefeller University and continued as Adjunct Professor there from 1979 @-@ 1982 . A new president 's selection at Rockefeller made him leave .
He moved to Princeton University in 1979 as the James S. McDonnell Distinguished University Professor of Psychology .
In 1986 , he helped in founding the Cognitive Science Laboratory at Princeton . Eventually he became a professor emeritus and senior research psychologist at Princeton . He also directed the McDonnell @-@ Pew Program in Cognitive Science .
Miller had honorary doctorates from the University of Sussex ( 1984 ) , Columbia University ( 1980 ) , Yale University ( 1979 ) , Catholic University of Louvain ( 1978 ) , Carnegie Mellon University ( in humane letters , 2003 ) , and an honorary DSC from Williams College ( 2000 ) . He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1957 , the National Academy of Sciences in 1962 , the presidency of the Eastern Psychological Association in 1962 , the presidency of the American Psychological Association in 1969 , and to the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1985 . Miller was the keynote speaker at the first convention of the Association for Psychological Science in 1989 . He was a Fulbright research fellow at Oxford University in 1964 – 65 , and in 1991 , received the National Medal of Science .
= = = Death = = =
In his later years , Miller enjoyed playing golf . He died in 2012 at his home in Plainsboro , New Jersey of complications of pneumonia and dementia . At the time of his death , he was survived by his wife Margaret ; the children from his first marriage : son Donnally James and daughter Nancy Saunders ; two stepsons , David Skutch and Christopher Skutch ; and three grandchildren : Gavin Murray @-@ Miller , Morgan Murray @-@ Miller and Nathaniel James Miller .
= = Major contributions = =
Miller 's career started during the reign of behaviorism in psychology . Behaviorists questioned whether mental thought processes were fit for scientific study , not being observable . They focused on working with responses to stimuli , particularly among other animals . Miller disagreed . He , Jerome Bruner , and Noam Chomsky are considered the founders of the field of Cognitive Psychology that replaced behaviorism as the framework for analyzing the mind .
= = = Working memory = = =
From the days of William James , psychologists had the idea memory consisted of short @-@ term and long @-@ term memory . While short @-@ term memory was expected to be limited , its exact limits were not known . In 1956 , Miller would quantify its capacity limit in the paper " The magical number seven , plus or minus two " . He tested immediate memory via tasks such as asking a person to repeat a set of digits presented ; absolute judgment by presenting a stimulus and a label , and asking them to recall the label later ; and span of attention by asking them to count things in a group of more than a few items quickly . For all three cases , Miller found the average limit to be seven items . He had mixed feelings about the focus on his work on the exact number seven for quantifying short @-@ term memory , and felt it had been misquoted often . He stated , introducing the paper on the research for the first time , that he was being persecuted by an integer . Miller invented the term chunk to characterize the highly variable units to which the limit on memory applied . A chunk might be a single letter or a familiar word or even a larger familiar unit . Miller himself saw no relationship among the disparate tasks of immediate memory and absolute judgment , but lumped them to fill a one @-@ hour presentation . The results influenced the budding field of cognitive psychology .
= = = WordNet = = =
For many years starting from 1986 , Miller directed the development of WordNet , a large computer @-@ readable electronic reference usable in applications such as search engines . Wordnet is a large lexical database representing human semantic memory in English . Its fundamental building block is a synset , which is a collection of synonyms representing a concept or idea . Words can be in multiple synsets . The entire class of synsets is grouped into nouns , verbs , adjectives and adverbs separately , with links existing only within these four major groups but not between them . Going beyond a thesaurus , WordNet also includes inter @-@ word relationships such as part / whole relationships and hierarchies of inclusion.Although not intended to be a dictionary , Wordnet did have many short definitions added to it as time went on . Miller and colleagues had planned the tool to test psycholinguistic theories on how humans use and understand words . Miller also later worked closely with the developers at Simpli.com Inc . , on a meaning @-@ based keyword search engine based on WordNet . Wordnet has proved to be extremely influential on an international scale . It has now been emulated by wordnets in many different languages .
= = = Language psychology and computation = = =
Miller is considered one of the founders of psycholinguistics , which links language and cognition in psychology , to analyze how people use and create language . His 1951 book Language and Communication is considered seminal in the field . His later book , The Science of Words ( 1991 ) also focused on language psychology . He published papers along with Noam Chomsky on the mathematics and computational aspects of language and its syntax , two new areas of study . Miller also researched how people understood words and sentences , the same problem faced by artificial speech @-@ recognition technology . The book Plans and the Structure of Behavior ( 1960 ) , written with Eugene Galanter and Karl H. Pribram , explored how humans plan and act , trying to extrapolate this to how a robot could be programmed to plan and do things . Miller is also known for coining Miller 's Law : " In order to understand what another person is saying , you must assume it is true and try to imagine what it could be true of " .
= = Books = =
Miller authored several books , many considered the first major works in their respective fields .
= = = Language and Communication , 1951 = = =
Miller 's Language and Communication was one of the first significant texts in the study of language behavior . The book was a scientific study of language , emphasizing quantitative data , and was based on the mathematical model of Claude Shannon 's information theory . It used a probabilistic model imposed on a learning @-@ by @-@ association scheme borrowed from behaviorism , with Miller not yet attached to a pure cognitive perspective . The first part of the book reviewed information theory , the physiology and acoustics of phonetics , speech recognition and comprehension , and statistical techniques to analyze language . The focus was more on speech generation than recognition . The second part had the psychology : idiosyncratic differences across people in language use ; developmental linguistics ; the structure of word associations in people ; use of symbolism in language ; and social aspects of language use .
Reviewing the book , Charles E. Osgood classified the book as a graduate @-@ level text based more on objective facts than on theoretical constructs . He thought the book was verbose on some topics and too brief on others not directly related to the author 's expertise area . He was also critical of Miller 's use of simple , Skinnerian single @-@ stage stimulus @-@ response learning to explain human language acquisition and use . This approach , per Osgood , made it impossible to analyze the concept of meaning , and the idea of language consisting of representational signs . He did find the book objective in its emphasis on facts over theory , and depicting clearly application of information theory to psychology .
= = = Plans and the Structure of Behavior , 1960 = = =
In Plans and the Structure of Behavior , Miller and his co @-@ authors tried to explain through an artificial @-@ intelligence computational perspective how animals plan and act . This was a radical break from behaviorism which explained behavior as a set or sequence of stimulus @-@ response actions . The authors introduced a planning element controlling such actions . They saw all plans as being executed based on input using a stored or inherited information of the environment ( called the image ) , and using a strategy called test @-@ operate @-@ test @-@ exit ( TOTE ) . The image was essentially a stored memory of all past context , akin to Tolman 's cognitive map . The TOTE strategy , in its initial test phase , compared the input against the image ; if there was incongruity the operate function attempted to reduce it . This cycle would be repeated till the incongruity vanished , and then the exit function would be invoked , passing control to another TOTE unit in a hierarchically arranged scheme .
Peter Milner , in a review in the Canadian Journal of Psychology , noted the book was short on concrete details on implementing the TOTE strategy . He also critically viewed the book as not being able to tie its model to details from neurophysiology at a molecular level . Per him , the book covered only the brain at the gross level of lesion studies , showing that some of its regions could possibly implement some TOTE strategies , without giving a reader an indication as to how the region could implement the strategy .
= = = The Psychology of Communication , 1967 = = =
Miller 's 1967 work , The Psychology of Communication , was a collection of seven previously published articles . The first " Information and Memory " dealt with chunking , presenting the idea of separating physical length ( the number of items presented to be learned ) and psychological length ( the number of ideas the recipient manages to categorize and summarize the items with ) . Capacity of short @-@ term memory was measured in units of psychological length , arguing against a pure behaviorist interpretation since meaning of items , beyond reinforcement and punishment , was central to psychological length .
The second essay was the paper on magical number seven . The third , ' The human link in communication systems , ' used information theory and its idea of channel capacity to analyze human perception bandwidth . The essay concluded how much of what impinges on us we can absorb as knowledge was limited , for each property of the stimulus , to a handful of items . The paper on " Psycholinguists " described how effort in both speaking or understanding a sentence was related to how much of self @-@ reference to similar @-@ structures @-@ present @-@ inside was there when the sentence was broken down into clauses and phrases . The book , in general , used the Chomskian view of seeing language rules of grammar as having a biological basis — disproving the simple behaviorist idea that language performance improved with reinforcement — and using the tools of information and computation to place hypotheses on a sound theoretical framework and to analyze data practically and efficiently . Miller specifically addressed experimental data refuting the behaviorist framework at concept level in the field of language and cognition . He noted this only qualified behaviorism at the level of cognition , and did not overthrow it in other spheres of psychology .
= = Legacy = =
The Cognitive Neuroscience Society established a George A. Miller Prize in 1995 for contributions to the field . The American Psychological Association established a George A. Miller Award in 1995 for an outstanding article on general psychology . From 1987 the department of psychology at Princeton University has presented the George A. Miller prize annually to the best interdisciplinary senior thesis in cognitive science . The paper on the magical number seven continues to be cited by both the popular press to explain the liking for seven @-@ digit phone numbers and to argue against nine @-@ digit zip codes , and by academia , especially modern psychology , to highlight its break with the behaviorist paradigm .
Miller was considered the 20th most eminent psychologist of the 20th century in a list republished by , among others , the American Psychological Association .
= = Awards = =
Distinguished Scientific Contribution award from the American Psychological Association ( APA ) in 1963 .
Distinguished Service award from the American Speech and Hearing Association , 1976 .
Award in Behavioral Sciences from the New York Academy of Sciences , 1982 .
Guggenheim fellow in 1986 .
William James fellow of the American Psychological Society , 1989 .
Hermann von Helmholtz award from the Cognitive Neurosciences Institute , 1989 .
Gold Medal from the American Psychological Foundation in 1990 .
National Medal of Science from The White House , 1991 .
Louis E. Levy medal from the Franklin Institute , 1991 .
International Prize from the Fyssen Foundation , 1992 .
William James Book award from the APA Division of General Psychology , 1993 .
John P. McGovern award from the American Association for the Advancement of Science , 2000 .
Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology award from the APA in 2003 .
Antonio Zampolli Prize from the European Languages Research Association , 2006 .
= = List of Miller 's books = =
— ( 1963 ) . Language and Communication . McGraw Hill . ASIN B000SRSOIK .
— ( 1965 ) . Mathematics and Psychology ( Perspectives in Psychology ) . John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 9780471604082 .
Frank Smith & George A. Miller , eds . ( 1966 ) . The genesis of language ; a psycholinguistic approach ; proceedings of a conference on language development in children . The MIT Press .
Frank Smith ; George A Miller ( 1968 ) . The Genesis of Language : A Psycholinguistic Approach . The MIT Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0262690225 .
George A. Miller , ed . ( 1973 ) . Communication , Language and Meaning ( Perspectives in Psychology ) . Basic Books . ISBN 9780465128334 .
— ( 1974 ) . Linguistic Communication : Perspectives for Research . International Reading Association . ISBN 978 @-@ 0872079298 .
— ( 1975 ) . The Psychology of Communication . Harper Androw @-@ 1975 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0465097074 .
George A. Miller ; Philip N Johnson @-@ Laird ( 1976 ) . Language and Perception . Harvard University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0674509474 .
Morris Halle , Joan Bresnan , & George A. Miller , eds . ( 1978 ) . Linguistic theory and psychological reality . The MIT Press . ISBN 0262080958 .
George A. Miller & Elizabeth Lenneberg , eds . ( 1978 ) . Psychology and biology of language and thought : essays in honor of Eric Lenneberg . Academic Press . ISBN 0124977502 .
Oscar Grusky & George A. Miller , eds . ( 1981 ) . Sociology of Organizations ( 2 ed . ) . Free Press . ISBN 9780029129302 .
Ned Joel Block , Jerrold J. Katz , George A. Miller , eds . ( 1981 ) . Readings in Philosophy of Psychology , Volume II . Harvard University Press . ISBN 9780674748781 .
George A. Miller ; Eugene Galanter ; Karl H. Pribram ( 1986 ) . Plans and the Structure of Behavior . Adams Bannister Cox Pubs . ISBN 0937431001 .
— ( 1987 ) . Spontaneous Apprentices : Children and Language ( Tree of Life ) . Seabury Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0816493302 .
— ( 1987 ) . Language and Speech . W H Freeman & Co ( sd ) . ISBN 978 @-@ 0716712978 .
— ( 1991 ) . Psychology : The Science of Mental Life . Penguin Books Ltd . ISBN 9780140134896 .
— ( 1991 ) . The Science of Words . W H Freeman & Co . ISBN 978 @-@ 0716750277 .
= = = Chapters in books = = =
Miller , George A. ; Galanter , Eugene ( 1960 ) , " Some comments on Stochastic models and psychological theories " , in Arrow , Kenneth J. ; Karlin , Samuel ; Suppes , Patrick , Mathematical models in the social sciences , 1959 : Proceedings of the first Stanford symposium , Stanford mathematical studies in the social sciences , IV , Stanford , California : Stanford University Press , pp. 277 – 297 , ISBN 9780804700214 .
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= Tiger shark =
The tiger shark ( Galeocerdo cuvier ) is a species of requiem shark and the only extant member of the genus Galeocerdo . Commonly known as the " Sea Tiger " , the tiger shark is a relatively large macropredator , capable of attaining a length over 5 m ( 16 ft 5 in ) . It is found in many tropical and temperate waters , and it is especially common around central Pacific islands . Its name derives from the dark stripes down its body which resemble a tiger 's pattern , which fade as the shark matures .
The tiger shark is a solitary , mostly nocturnal hunter and is notable for having the widest food spectrum of all sharks , consuming a variety of prey ranging from crustaceans , fish , seals , birds , squid , turtles and sea snakes to dolphins and even other smaller sharks . The tiger shark has been known to eat inedible manmade objects that linger in its stomach , and it has a reputation as a " garbage eater " . While the tiger shark sits atop the food chain as an apex predator , killer whales have been known on occasion to prey on them . The tiger shark is considered a near threatened species due to finning and fishing by humans .
= = Taxonomy = =
The shark was first described by Peron and Lesueur in 1822 , and was given the name Squalus cuvier . Müller and Henle in 1837 renamed it Galeocerdo tigrinus . The genus , Galeocerdo , is derived from the Greek galeos , which means shark , and the Latin cerdus , the word for the hard hairs of pigs . It is often colloquially called the man @-@ eater shark .
The tiger shark is a member of the order Carcharhiniformes , the most species @-@ rich order of sharks , with more than 270 species also including the small catsharks and hammerhead sharks . Members of this order are characterized by the presence of a nictitating membrane over the eyes , two dorsal fins , an anal fin , and five gill slits . It is the largest member of the Carcharhinidae family , commonly referred to as requiem sharks . This family consists of mostly slender but powerful mid- to large @-@ sized sharks and includes some other well @-@ known sharks , such as the blue shark ( Prionace glauca ) , lemon shark ( Negaprion brevirostris ) , and bull shark ( Carcharhinus leucas ) .
= = Description = =
The tiger shark commonly attains a length of 3 @.@ 25 – 4 @.@ 25 m ( 10 ft 8 in – 13 ft 11 in ) and weighs around 385 – 635 kg ( 849 – 1 @,@ 400 lb ) . Sometimes , an exceptionally large male tiger shark can grow up to 4 m ( 13 ft 1 in ) . Females are larger , and exceptionally big ones can reportedly measure over 5 m ( 16 ft 5 in ) . One female specimen caught off Australia reportedly measured 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft 1 in ) long and weighed an exceptional 1 @,@ 524 kg ( 3 @,@ 360 lb ) , although her weight is thought to have been bolstered by her pregnant state at the time . Even larger specimens have been reported , but are unconfirmed .
Among the largest extant sharks , the tiger shark ranks in average size only behind the whale shark ( Rhincodon typus ) , the basking shark ( Cetorhinus maximus ) and the great white shark ( Carcharodon carcharias ) . Some other species such as megamouth sharks ( Megachasma pelagios ) , Pacific sleeper sharks ( Somniosus pacificus ) , Greenland sharks ( Somniosus microcephalus ) and bluntnose sixgill sharks ( Hexanchus griseus ) broadly overlap in size with the tiger shark , but as these species are comparatively poorly studied , it is unclear whether their typical mature size matches that of the tiger shark . The great hammerhead ( Sphyrna mokarran ) , a member of the same taxonomic order as the tiger shark , has a similar or even greater average body length but is lighter and less bulky , with a maximum known weight of 580 kg ( 1 @,@ 280 lb ) .
Its teeth are specialized to slice through flesh , bone , and other tough substances such as turtle shells . Like most sharks , its teeth are continually replaced by rows of new teeth .
= = = Skin = = =
The skin of a tiger shark can typically range from blue to light green with a white or light @-@ yellow underbelly . The advantage of this is that when it is hunting for its prey , when prey looks at the shark from above , the shark will be camouflaged since the water below is darker . And when prey is below the shark and looks up , of course because of the sun , it is lighter so that the light underbelly will also camouflage the shark . This is known as countershading . Dark spots and stripes are most visible in young sharks and fade as the shark matures . Its head is somewhat wedge @-@ shaped , which makes it easy to turn quickly to one side . They have small pits on the snout which hold electroreceptors called the ampullae of Lorenzini , which enable them to detect electric fields , including the weak electrical impulses generated by prey , which helps them to hunt . Tiger sharks also have a sensory organ called a lateral line which extends on their flanks down most of the length of their sides . The primary role of this structure is to detect minute vibrations in the water . These adaptations allow the tiger shark to hunt in darkness and detect hidden prey .
= = = Vision = = =
A reflective layer behind the tiger shark 's retina , called the tapetum lucidum , allows light @-@ sensing cells a second chance to capture photons of visible light , enhancing vision in low light conditions . A tiger shark generally has long fins to provide lift as the shark maneuvers through water , while the long upper tail provides bursts of speed . Tiger sharks normally swim using small body movements . Its high back and dorsal fin act as a pivot , allowing it to spin quickly on its axis , though the shark 's dorsal fins are distinctively close to its tail .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The tiger shark is often found close to the coast , mainly in tropical and subtropical waters throughout the world . Its behavior is primarily nomadic , but is guided by warmer currents , and it stays closer to the equator throughout the colder months . It tends to stay in deep waters that line reefs , but it does move into channels to pursue prey in shallower waters . In the western Pacific Ocean , the shark has been found as far north as Japan and as far south as New Zealand . A tiger shark tagged in the Caribbean has been tracked migrating to Cape Cod ; although they are a tropical species , the warm Gulf Stream brings the coast of Cape Cod to within the extreme north of its range during the summer .
Tiger sharks can be seen in the Gulf of Mexico , North American beaches , and parts of South America . It is also commonly known in the Caribbean Sea . Other locations where tiger sharks are seen include off Africa , China , Hong Kong , India , Australia , and Indonesia .
Certain tiger sharks have been recorded at depths just shy of 900 m ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) , but some sources claim they move into shallow water normally thought to be too shallow for a species of its size . A recent study showed the average tiger shark would be recorded at 350 m ( 1 @,@ 100 ft ) , making it uncommon to see tiger sharks in shallow water . However , tiger sharks in Hawaii have been observed in depths as shallow as 3 m ( 10 ft ) and regularly observed in coastal waters at depths of 6 to 12 m ( 20 to 40 ft ) .
= = Feeding = =
The tiger shark is an apex predator and has a reputation for eating anything . Young tiger sharks are found to prey largely on small fish , as well as various small jellyfish , cephalopods , and other mollusks . Around the time they attain 2 @.@ 3 m ( 7 @.@ 5 ft ) , or near sexual maturity , their prey selection expands considerably , and much larger animals become regular prey . Numerous fish , crustaceans , sea birds , sea snakes , marine mammals ( e.g. bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops ) , common dolphins ( Delphinus ) , spotted dolphins ( Stenella ) , dugongs ( Dugong dugon ) , seals and sea lions ) , and sea turtles ( including the three largest species : the leatherback ( Dermochelys coriacea ) , the loggerhead ( Caretta caretta ) and the green sea turtles ( Chelonia mydas ) , ) are regularly eaten by adult tiger sharks . The tiger shark also eats other sharks ( including adult sandbar sharks ( Carcharhinus plumbeus ) ) , as well as rays , and will sometimes even eat other tiger sharks .
Due to high risk of predatory attacks , dolphins often avoid regions inhabited by tiger sharks . Tiger sharks may also attack injured or ailing whales and prey upon them . A group was documented attacking and killing an ailing humpback whale ( Megaptera novaeangliae ) in 2006 near Hawaii . The tiger shark also scavenges on dead whales . In one such documented incident , they were observed scavenging on a whale carcass alongside great white sharks .
Evidence of dugong predation was identified in one study that found dugong tissue in 15 of 85 tiger sharks caught off the Australian coast . Additionally , examination of adult dugongs has shown scars from failed shark attacks . Finally , dugong microhabitats shift similarly to those of known tiger shark prey when the sharks are abundant .
The broad , heavily calcified jaws and nearly terminal mouth , combined with robust , serrated teeth , enable the tiger shark to take on these large prey . In addition , excellent eyesight and acute sense of smell enable it to react to faint traces of blood and follow them to the source . The ability to pick up low @-@ frequency pressure waves enables the shark to advance towards an animal with confidence , even in murky water . The shark circles its prey and studies it by prodding it with its snout . When attacking , the shark often eats its prey whole , although larger prey are often eaten in gradual large bites and finished over time .
Notably , terrestrial mammals , including horses ( Equus ferus caballus ) , goats ( Capra aegagrus hircus ) , sheep ( Ovis aries ) , dogs ( Canis lupus familiaris ) , cats ( Felis catus ) , brown rats ( Rattus norvegicus ) , are fairly common in the stomach contents of tiger sharks around the coasts of Hawaii . In one case , remains of two flying @-@ foxes were found in stomach of this shark . Because of its aggressive and indiscriminate feeding style , it often mistakenly eats inedible objects , such as automobile license plates , oil cans , tires , and baseballs .
= = = Swimming efficiency and stealth = = =
All tiger sharks generally swim slowly , which , combined with cryptic coloration , may make them difficult for prey to detect them in some habitats . They are especially well camouflaged against dark backgrounds . Despite their sluggish appearance , tiger sharks are one of the strongest swimmers of the carcharhinid sharks . Once the shark has come close , a speed burst allows it to reach the intended prey before it can escape .
= = Reproduction = =
Males reach sexual maturity at 2 @.@ 3 to 2 @.@ 9 m ( 7 @.@ 5 to 9 @.@ 5 ft ) and females at 2 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 to 11 @.@ 5 ft ) . Females mate once every three years . They breed by internal fertilization . The male inserts one of his claspers into the female 's genital opening ( cloaca ) , acting as a guide for the sperm . The male uses his teeth to hold the female still during the procedure , often causing the female considerable discomfort . Mating in the Northern Hemisphere generally takes place between March and May , with birth between April and June the following year . In the Southern Hemisphere , mating takes place in November , December , or early January . The tiger shark is the only species in its family that is ovoviviparous ; its eggs hatch internally and the young are born live when fully developed .
The young develop inside the mother 's body for up to 16 months . Litters range from 10 to 80 pups . A newborn is generally 51 to 76 cm ( 20 to 30 in ) long . This shark typically reaches maturity at lengths of 2 to 3 m ( 6 @.@ 6 to 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . It is unknown how long tiger sharks live , but they can live longer than 12 years .
= = Conservation = =
The tiger shark is captured and killed for its fins , flesh , and liver . It is caught regularly in target and nontarget fisheries . Several populations have declined where they have been heavily fished . Continued demand for fins may result in further declines in the future . Tiger sharks are considered a near threatened species due to excessive finning and fishing by humans according to International Union for Conservation of Nature .
While shark fin has very few nutrients , shark liver has a high concentration of vitamin A which is used in the production of vitamin oils . In addition , the tiger shark is captured and killed for its distinct skin , as well as by big @-@ game fishers .
In 2010 , Greenpeace International added the tiger shark to its seafood red list , which is a list of fish commonly sold around the world , and which have a very high risk of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Although it is very rare for sharks to bite humans , the tiger shark is reported to be responsible for a large percentage of fatal shark attacks , and is sometimes regarded as one of the most dangerous shark species . They often visit shallow reefs , harbors , and canals , creating the potential for encounter with humans . The tiger shark also dwells in river mouths and other runoff @-@ rich water . While the tiger shark is considered to be one of the sharks most dangerous to humans , its bite rate is low . The tiger is second on the list of number of recorded bites on humans , with the great white shark being first . On average , three to four shark bites occur per year in Hawaii , but they are rarely fatal . This bite rate is very low considering thousands of people swim , surf , and dive in Hawaiian waters every day . Human interactions with tiger sharks in Hawaiian waters have been shown to increase between September and November , when tiger shark females are believed to migrate to the islands to give birth .
Between 1959 and 2000 , 4 @,@ 668 tiger sharks were culled in an effort to protect the tourism industry . These efforts , despite damaging the shark population , were shown to be ineffective in decreasing the number of interactions between humans and tiger sharks . It is illegal to feed sharks in Hawaii ( except for traditional Hawaiian cultural or religious practices ) , and interaction with them , such as cage diving , is discouraged . South African shark behaviorist and shark diver Mark Addison demonstrated divers could interact and dive with them outside of a shark cage in a 2007 Discovery Channel special , and underwater photographer Fiona Ayerst swam with them in the Bahamas .
= = Mythology = =
The tiger shark is considered to be sacred na ʻaumakua ( ancestor spirits ) by some native Hawaiians who think their eyeballs have special powers of visual perception . This aligns with the general known facts about sharks and their highly developed senses .
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= Hugh John Casey =
Hugh John " Pat " Casey ( 24 July 1898 – 30 August 1981 ) was a major general in the United States Army . A 1918 graduate of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point , Casey served in Germany during the Occupation of the Rhineland . He later returned to Germany to attend the Technische Hochschule in Berlin , earning a Doctor of Engineering degree .
As an engineer , Casey prepared a voluminous report on flood control for the Pittsburgh District . He was involved with the design and construction of the Deadman Island Lock and Dam on the Ohio River , and was chief of the Engineering Division at the Passamaquoddy Tidal Power Project , a New Deal public works project . He went to the Philippines in 1937 to advise the government there on hydropower and flood control . In the early part of World War II , he became involved with the enormous wartime construction program . Perhaps his most notable and lasting achievement was his involvement with the design of The Pentagon , the largest office building in the world .
Casey served as General of the Army Douglas MacArthur 's chief engineer during the Battle of Bataan , in the jungles and mountains of New Guinea and the Philippines , and during the occupation of Japan . In the Battle of Leyte , he commanded the Army Support Command ( ASCOM ) , which was responsible for all construction and logistics activities in the forward area . He hoped to become Chief of Engineers , but President Harry S. Truman passed him over . Later , Casey worked for Schenley Industries from 1951 until his retirement in 1965 , and was chairman of the New York City Transit Authority from 1953 to 1955 .
= = Early life = =
Hugh John Casey was born in Brooklyn , New York on 7 June 1898 , the son of John J. Casey , a plumbing and heating contractor , and Margaret L. Casey . John 's grandparents were immigrants from Ireland and England . His grandfather served on the Union side in the American Civil War and was killed in the Battle of Shiloh . Margaret ’ s parents were Irish immigrants who settled in Pennsylvania .
Hugh Casey was educated at Manual Training High School from 1910 to 1914 , graduating at the age of 15 . He won a New York State scholarship and entered Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute , where he studied civil engineering . After a year there , he took a competitive examination for the U.S. Military Academy at West Point held by Congressman Daniel J. Griffin , the chairman of the House Committee on Military Affairs , ranking first out of 62 applicants for the appointment . To enter , Casey claimed to be slightly older , adopting his brother 's 7 June birthday .
Casey entered West Point in 1915 , where his best friend and roommate was Lucius D. Clay . At West Point , Casey played football as a halfback , substituting for Elmer Oliphant . One of Casey 's duties was tutoring Oliphant in mathematics . Casey decided that winning games was more important than playing , and he helped keep Oliphant proficient at math . Unlike most appointees to West Point , a grateful Casey wrote frequently to Griffin about his progress and sent him football tickets . When Casey 's younger brother Martin Charles Casey wanted to enter West Point , Griffin directly appointed him to the class of 1920 without having to pass the examination . Martin served with the coastal artillery for eleven years before being medically discharged due to migraine headaches on 30 November 1931 . Martin later became a successful lawyer . Both brothers acquired the nickname " Pat " at West Point .
= = World War I = =
Because of the United States ' entry into World War I , Casey 's class graduated early on 12 June 1918 . Casey was ranked third in the class and was commissioned as a captain in the United States Army Corps of Engineers . He was stationed at Camp A. A. Humphreys , Virginia , first as an instructor and then starting in September 1918 as a company commander with the 219th Engineers , part of the 19th Division . The 219th Engineers moved to Camp Dodge , Iowa in November 1918 . Casey returned to the Engineer School at Camp Humphreys as a student in September 1919 .
He served with the US Occupation forces in the Rhineland from June 1920 to May 1922 . While there , Casey improved on his high school German to become fluent enough in the language to write his doctoral thesis in the language . He also married Dorothy Ruth Miller , the daughter of Colonel R. B. Miller , the chief surgeon of the American forces stationed in Koblenz , on 22 May 1922 . On their honeymoon they traveled through south Germany , Austria , and Switzerland . The couple had three children : two sons , Hugh Boyd and Keith Miles , and a daughter , Patricia .
= = Between the wars = =
From 1922 to 1926 , Casey was the officer in charge of the Engineer Unit of the Reserve Officers Training Corps ( ROTC ) at the University of Kansas in Lawrence , Kansas , reverting to his substantive rank of first lieutenant on 27 November 1922 . He again returned to Camp Humpreys in 1926 to attend the Company Officers Course . In 1927 , Casey received his first civil works assignment , as assistant District Engineer at the Pittsburgh District . Casey took over the task of preparing a voluminous report on flood control . The Corps of Engineers was criticized by the Pittsburgh Flood Control Commission for over @-@ engineering , in planning for a " flood that had never happened and never would happen " , and the report was shelved . However , in 1936 the flood did happen . The report was then dusted off and its recommendations were adopted . The Flood Control Act of 1936 assigned responsibility for flood control to the Corps of Engineers and other Federal agencies . Casey was also responsible for construction at Deadman Island Lock and Dam ( now called the Dashields Lock and Dam ) on the Ohio River .
In September 1929 Casey was assigned to the Rivers and Harbors Section of the Office of the Chief of Engineers in Washington , DC . This job involved reviewing the project studies , plans and specifications of all river and harbor projects throughout the United States , including flood control and hydroelectric power projects . He also had responsibility for correspondence with U.S. senators and congressmen . During this time he co @-@ designed and patented the Kingman @-@ Casey Floating Mooring Bit for navigation locks . He was promoted to the substantive rank of captain on 1 May 1933 .
Casey won a John R. Freeman fellowship from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1933 to study hydraulics and civil engineering in Germany . For the next two years , he attended the Technische Hochschule in Berlin , earning a Doctorate in Engineering . His thesis , written in German , was on Geschieb Bewegung , the bedload movement in streams . Returning to the United States in June 1935 , Casey was posted to Eastport , Maine as chief of the Engineering Division at the Passamaquoddy Tidal Power Project , a New Deal public works project . There , he established a concrete testing laboratory under Charles E. Wuerpel which is now part of the Structures Laboratory at the Waterways Experiment Station at Vicksburg , Mississippi . Due to political forces , the project came to nothing and was allowed to die . After the Passamaquoddy project fell through , Casey served with the Boston Engineer District on flood control surveys of the Connecticut River Valley .
Along with Lucius Clay , Casey was sent to the Philippines in 1937 to advise the government there on hydropower and flood control . They worked with Meralco and other power companies in the Philippines , and conducted a series of surveys , including a detailed one of the Agno River . After Clay returned to the United States , Casey developed plans for the Caliraya Dam , a 40 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) hydroelectric project with an estimated cost of $ 5 million . Along with Lieutenant Colonel Dwight D. Eisenhower , the chief of staff to Major General Douglas MacArthur , the Military Advisor to the Commonwealth Government of the Philippines , and Mr. Rodriquez of the National Power Corporation , Casey presented the project to President Manuel Quezon , who approved it . After over twenty years as a captain , Casey was promoted to major on 1 February 1940 .
= = World War II = =
= = = Construction Division = = =
Casey returned to Washington , D.C. in October 1940 to become chief of the Design and Engineering Section in the Construction Division of the Office of the Quartermaster General , under Brigadier General Brehon B. Somervell . An enormous construction program was underway to meet the needs of World War II . Working with a staff that included George Bergstrom , a former president of the American Institute of Architects , Casey set about revising the standard designs for barracks . A number of new features were added to improve comfort , safety , and durability . Substitutions were made for scarce materials . It was discovered that the standard 63 @-@ man barracks was now too small . Of the 81 companies in the new triangular division , 51 fitted more easily into 74 @-@ man barracks . By slightly increasing the barracks size , substantial savings were made by reducing the overall number of buildings that needed to be constructed , the size of the cantonment areas required , and the length of required roads and utility lines . Casey was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 8 April 1941 .
On the afternoon of Thursday , 17 July 1941 , Somervell summoned Casey and Bergstrom and gave them a new special project : the design of an enormous office complex to house the War Department 's 40 @,@ 000 @-@ person staff together in one building . Somervell gave them until 09 : 00 on Monday morning to design the building , which he envisaged as a modern , four @-@ story structure with no elevators , on the site of the old Washington Hoover Airport . This would ultimately become The Pentagon , the largest office building in the world . Over that " very busy weekend " , Casey , Bergstrom and their staff roughed out the design for a four @-@ story , five @-@ sided structure with a floor area of 5 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 square feet ( 470 @,@ 000 m2 ) — twice that of the Empire State Building . The estimated cost was $ 35 million . President Roosevelt subsequently moved the site of the building , over Somervell 's objections , away from Arlington National Cemetery .
= = = Southwest Pacific = = =
In September 1941 , General Douglas MacArthur requested Casey 's services as his chief engineer . Casey arrived in Manila in October , shortly before the outbreak of war between the United States and Japan . He acquired construction equipment from the National Power Corporation that was being used on the Caliraya project . Casey supervised demolitions as MacArthur 's troops retreated to Bataan , for which he was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross . Unlike the rest of MacArthur 's headquarters , Casey , who was promoted to colonel on 19 December 1941 and brigadier general on 25 January 1942 , did not relocate to Corregidor but remained on Bataan with a small staff of five officers . However , he joined MacArthur and sixteen other members of his staff in their escape from Corregidor by PT boat in March 1942 . For his service in the 1942 campaign in the Philippines , he was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal .
In Australia , Casey became Chief Engineer at MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) , Southwest Pacific Area ( SWPA ) . He faced enormous engineering challenges . Most of New Guinea consisted of mountains and jungle , with very few airstrips , ports or roads . All of these had to be developed to support operations . To provide additional expertise in construction , Casey had Leif Sverdrup assigned to his staff as chief of the Construction Section , with the rank of colonel . As U.S. Army engineers were few , Casey worked closely with his Australian Army counterpart at General Sir Thomas Blamey 's Allied Land Forces headquarters , Major General Clive Steele . Construction activities in Australia were also undertaken by civilians of the Allied Works Council . Casey attempted to coordinate the activities of the various agencies . He had to fend off attempts by the U.S. Army Air Forces to gain control of his aviation engineer battalions . The Royal Australian Air Force organized its own airbase construction squadrons and only with difficulty was Casey able to control their activities .
Casey 's initial need was for engineer units to accomplish the daunting construction program , but soon stocks of engineer supplies and equipment began to run low . This was exacerbated by incoming units arriving without their equipment , or with it stowed on numerous ships , which often arrived at various ports in a theater where ports were hundred or thousands of miles apart . Critical shortages developed of tractors , graders , concrete mixers and welding equipment . In the absence of a proper stock control system , an overall coordinating agency , and adequate numbers of engineer depot units , the allocation and distribution of the meager supplies on hand were difficult tasks . The worst problem was spare parts . Equipment was operated around the clock under harsh conditions and soon wore out or broke . A large proportion of equipment became unserviceable for lack of spare parts . Requisitions sent to the United States took months to arrive , so recourse was made to the limited sources of supply in Australia .
In September 1942 , MacArthur decided to outflank Japanese troops on the Kokoda Trail by sending an American regimental combat team over the Owen Stanley Range . Two alternate means of crossing the mountains seemed possible . One , the Kapa Kapa Trail was known to climb to elevations above 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) and present formidable obstacles . Casey and Sverdrup took charge of investigating the Abau Trail . They reached Abau on 18 September . Casey explored the harbor , taking depth soundings from a native canoe . Sverdrup set out for Jaure with a party of one American , two Australians from the Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit , ten native police from the Royal Papuan Constabulary and 26 native carriers . After eight days on the trail , scaling heights of 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) , Sverdrup concluded that it would not be practical for troops to traverse the route and turned back . Meanwhile , Casey had concluded that the harbor was too shallow even for lighters . However , the trip was not a total loss , for Sverdrup had sighted a plateau north of the Owen Stanley Range suitable for airstrips , allowing troops to be flown across the Owen Stanley Range . Casey was awarded the Silver Star .
In New Guinea , logistics and construction activities were coordinated by task force engineer staffs . These were often hastily assembled and had not always been able to meet the demands imposed by base development in such a challenging theater of operations . The scale of operations in the Philippines was much greater , so for this purpose the Army Service Command ( ASCOM ) was formed in Brisbane on 23 July 1944 . Casey was appointed to command ASCOM . In his absence , Sverdrup became MacArthur 's chief engineer . Although part of USASOS , ASCOM operated under the control of Sixth Army , moving as far forward as combat operations allowed , developed new bases , and operated them until USASOS was ready to take over , at which point the units under ASCOM simply reverted to USASOS , allowing a seamless transfer of command . For the Battle of Leyte Casey 's ASCOM had 43 @,@ 000 men , of whom 21 @,@ 000 were engineers .
Casey and some members of his staff came ashore on A @-@ Day ; the advance echelon of his ASCOM headquarters arrived two days later . Work began immediately on the airfield at Tacloban , and commenced on airfields in central Leyte soon after they were captured . Heavy seasonal rains thwarted attempts to develop the airbases in central Leyte and it was decided to abandon their development and construct a new airbase on the coast at a site occupied by Sixth Army headquarters . The need to get aircraft based on Leyte to stop the Japanese from reinforcing the island was so pressing that Lieutenant General Walter Krueger agreed to move his headquarters .
Casey had intended to come ashore on the first day of the landing at Lingayen Gulf in January 1945 but was delayed a day because the destroyer he was traveling on had to escort a crippled transport . Despite enormous difficulties ASCOM was able to finish numerous projects on time and some ahead of schedule . On 13 February 1945 , ASCOM was transferred to USASOS and redesignated the Luzon Base Section ( LUBSEC ) . Casey then resumed his old post , now renamed Chief Engineer , US Army Forces Pacific . For his services as commander of ASCOM , he was awarded the Legion of Merit . He was subsequently awarded a bronze oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Service Medal for his services as Chief Engineer , US Army Forces Pacific .
Casey hoped to become Chief of Engineers when Lieutenant General Raymond A. Wheeler retired in 1948 , but President Harry S. Truman passed him over in favor of the Missouri River Division Engineer , Major General Lewis A. Pick . Instead , Casey remained in Japan as MacArthur 's Chief Engineer until Casey 's retirement on 31 December 1949 . He edited Engineers of the Southwest Pacific , a seven @-@ volume series about their wartime service . He received a number of foreign awards for his service , including the Distinguished Service Star from the Philippines , the Commander of the Order of the British Empire from Australia , the Commander of the Order of Orange @-@ Nassau from the Netherlands , and the Officer of Légion d 'honneur from France .
= = Later life = =
Casey was Chairman of the New York City Transit Authority from 1953 to 1955 , and served in various positions with Schenley Industries from 1951 until his retirement in 1965 . He was a member of a number of professional societies , and civic organizations . He died of a heart attack on 30 August 1981 at the Veterans Administration Hospital at White River Junction , Vermont , survived by his wife Dorothy and his son Keith . His other son , Hugh , had been killed in an air crash during the Korean War . Father and son were buried adjacent to each other in Arlington National Cemetery . His daughter Patricia , who married Major General Frank Butner Clay , the son of Lucius Clay , had died on 1 January 1973 , and is also buried in Arlington National Cemetery . In August 1982 , a new building at the Humphreys Engineer Center at Fort Belvoir was dedicated in his honor by Dorothy and the Chief of Engineers , Lieutenant General Joseph K. Bratton .
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= Three Men and a Comic Book =
" Three Men and a Comic Book " is the twenty @-@ first episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 9 , 1991 . In the episode , Bart catches a glimpse of the original issue of Radioactive Man for sale at a comic book convention , so he , Martin , and Milhouse combine their money to buy the valuable comic book , only to lose it due to their selfishness and inability to share .
The episode was written by Jeff Martin and directed by Wes Archer . It features cultural references to comic book characters such as Casper the Friendly Ghost and Richie Rich . Several new characters make their first appearance on the show in the episode , including Comic Book Guy , Radioactive Man , and Mrs. Glick . Since airing , the episode has received generally positive reviews from television critics for its use of parodies and cultural references . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 9 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
When Bart attends a comic book convention dressed as his superhero alter ego Bartman , he finds the first issue of Radioactive Man for $ 100 at Comic Book Guy 's Android 's Dungeon . However , he does not have enough money to buy it , and Homer refuses to give him extra money , so he decides to get a job . Bart turns to Mrs. Glick , who gives him fifty cents for his hard work . Bart then goes to the Android 's Dungeon , with only a few cents extra , where he runs into Milhouse Van Houten and Martin . He talks them into pooling their money and buying the comic book . Since none of them want to let the comic book out of their sights , they decide to spend the night together in Bart 's treehouse . The three get progressively more paranoid and Bart becomes convinced that the other two are conspiring against him .
Eventually , the tension is at a breaking point . When Martin gets up in the middle of the night to use the bathroom , Bart thinks he plans on stealing the comic and subsequently ties him up . Meanwhile , a thunderstorm approaches . Milhouse tries to alert Marge that Bart has gone crazy , but Bart thinks he is making a move for the comic and tackles him . Milhouse rolls over the side of the treehouse , but Bart catches him precariously by his sleeve . When a gale of wind takes hold of the comic so that it flies towards the treehouse 's entrance , Bart is forced to decide between it and Milhouse . After mulling over his options , Bart chooses Milhouse and pulls him up into the treehouse . The comic flies out the entrance and is shredded by Santa 's Little Helper on the ground , hit by lightning , and completely destroyed . The next morning , the three boys reflect on how their inability to share led to the destruction of the comic , although Bart , has forgotten the experience .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jeff Martin and directed by Wes Archer . Characters making their first appearance on the show in the episode are Comic Book Guy , Mrs. Glick , Radioactive Man , Fallout Boy , and Bartman . Although many suggestions state that Comic Book Guy was inspired by the show 's creator Matt Groening , Comic Book Guy was partly inspired by a clerk at the Los Angeles Amok book shop who , according to Simpsons writer George Meyer , often " [ sat ] on the high stool , kind of lording over the store with that supercilious attitude and eating behind the counter a big Styrofoam container full of fried clams with a lot of tartar sauce . " Matt Groening noted : " I can 't tell you how many times people have come up to me and said , ' I know who you based that comic book guy on . It 's that comic @-@ book guy right down the block . ' And I have to tell them , ' No , it 's every comic @-@ bookstore guy in America . ' " Cast member Hank Azaria based Comic Book Guy 's voice on a student who went by the name " F " and lived in the room next door at his college . Mrs. Glick was based on an old lady Martin and his brother used to do chores for when they were kids . Martin said they got to " pull weeds until [ their ] hands would bleed " , and yet they were only paid two quarters for several hours of work . American actress Cloris Leachman provided the voice of Mrs. Glick in the episode .
The episode features a parody of The Wonder Years , in which Bart stares into the distance after realizing that he has to get his first job , and an older version of Bart 's voice is heard saying " I didn 't realize it at the time , but a little piece of my childhood had slipped away forever . " Daniel Stern guest starred as the voice of the adult Bart , just like he did for the adult voice of the character Kevin in the television show The Wonder Years ( he had also featured with Yeardley Smith in the movie City Slickers around the time this episode was produced ) . According to Simpsons writer Mike Reiss , Stern was a " pleasure " to work with and it only took him a few minutes to record his lines . Stern 's younger brother David M. Stern worked as a writer on both The Simpsons and The Wonder Years , so he helped the writers get the idioms and the wording of the parody right . When it originally aired , the song played during this sequence was " Turn , Turn , Turn " by The Byrds . This was replaced in the DVD release with soundalike music , likely to avoid paying royalties for using the song .
= = Cultural references = =
At the beginning of the episode , Lisa reveals that she collects Casper the Friendly Ghost and Richie Rich comics , and Homer makes reference to Wonder Woman . Radioactive Man 's origin is nearly identical to the Marvel Comics character The Incredible Hulk , as they both gained their superpowers from absorbing massive amounts of radiation during an experimental detonation of a gamma bomb . The warning from the convention MC not to ask questions about the death of Radioactive Man 's actor Dirk Richter is a reference to the mysterious death of Superman 's actor George Reeves , although the addition of bordello could also be a reference to the unsolved 1978 murder of Bob Crane . When Bart asks Homer for money to buy the comic book , Homer replies : " One hundred bucks ? For a comic book ? ! Who drew it , Micha @-@ ma @-@ langelo ? " This is a reference to the Italian painter and sculptor Michelangelo , whose name Homer cannot pronounce .
Milhouse initially goes into the comic store to buy a 1973 Topps card of the former Boston Red Sox player , Carl Yastrzemski , " when he had the big sideburns " . When the boys first unwrap the comic book , Martin describes it as " [ T ] he stuff dreams are made of " , which is how Bogart 's character describes the Maltese Falcon at the end of the movie , The Maltese Falcon .
The Radioactive Man commercial for Laramie cigarettes that Bart and Lisa watch at the convention is a takeoff of The Flintstones starring in Winston cigarette television commercials which aired during the 1960s . When Bart begs Mrs. Glick not to apply iodine to his wounded arm , she grabs his arm and the scene shifts to their silhouettes as Bart screams , mirroring a scene in the 1939 film Gone with the Wind . The accusation and suspicion that grows between the boys is similar to the plot of the film The Treasure of the Sierra Madre . When Martin makes a squealing noise while falling in the treehouse , Bart calls him " Piggy " and threatens to stuff an apple into his mouth , resembling a similar quote from the 1954 book The Lord of the Flies by William Golding . Bart trying to save Milhouse from falling from the treehouse is a reference to a scene in the 1942 Alfred Hitchcock film Saboteur .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Three Men and a Comic Book " finished twenty @-@ third in the ratings for the week of May 6 – 12 , 1991 , with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 9 , equivalent to twelve million viewing households . The episode was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . It was the first time The Simpsons beat The Cosby Show in the ratings . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson lauded it for its use of new characters , commenting that " of all season two ’ s Bart @-@ focused episodes , only ' Bart the Daredevil ' offers competition with ' Comic ' as the best of the bunch . It ’ s a tough call , but I ’ ll take ' Comic ' in a squeaker . The show melds the series ’ deft satirical tone with exceptional character development . Bart seems to grow especially strongly , and his psychological meltdown in the third act is hilarious . " " Three Men and a Comic Book " was named the best episode of the season by IGN . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , commented that unless you have a " passing understanding of comic books and their buyers ' behaviour , some of the jokes will pass you by . " Doug Pratt , a DVD reviewer and Rolling Stone contributor , criticized the episode for not being inspired enough , and added that the Wonder Years parody " seems pointless " .
" Three Men and a Comic Book " is Bryce Wilson of Cinema Blend 's favorite episode of the season . Wilson praised the episode for its cultural references , calling them " true greatness " . Surrey Now 's Michael Roberds praised the Treasure of the Sierra Madre parody , saying that it is " one of the more clever film parodies hidden within a typical Simpsons plot . " Colin Kennedy of Empire called the Treasure of the Sierra Madre parody the ninth best film parody of the show , commenting that " Bart turns [ into ] a perfect Bogart – grizzled , paranoid and sleep @-@ deprived . With lighting and camera angles half @-@ inched from Huston , this priceless gag is joyfully pitched over the heads of 90 percent of the audience . " The episode 's reference to Saboteur was named the 25th greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum .
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= Caroline Lacroix =
Blanche Zélia Joséphine Delacroix , better known as Caroline Lacroix ( 13 May 1883 – 12 February 1948 ) was the most prominent and notorious of Leopold II of Belgium 's mistresses .
Delacroix , who was of French origin , met the king in Paris as a young girl , when she was only 16 and he was 65 . At that time , she earned her living as a prostitute . They soon embarked upon a relationship that was to last until his death in 1909 . Leopold lavished upon her large sums of money , estates , gifts , and a noble title , Baroness Vaughan . Because of these presents , Caroline was deeply unpopular both among the Belgian people and internationally , as Leopold became increasingly criticized for his greed @-@ induced actions in the Congo Free State , his own personal colony . As Caroline largely profited off the income from the colony , she became known as La reine du Congo ( “ the Queen of Congo ” ) .
She and Leopold married in a religious ceremony five days before his death , though their failure to perform a civil ceremony rendered the marriage illegitimate under Belgian law . After the king 's death , it was soon discovered that he had left Caroline numerous properties , items of high material value , Congolese bonds , and other valuable sources of income – all of which turned her into a multimillionaire . For years the Belgian government and Leopold 's three estranged daughters attempted to seize some of this wealth , with their success varying depending on the case . Caroline died on 12 February 1948 in Cambo @-@ les @-@ Bains , France .
= = Early life = =
There remains a small degree of mystery concerning Caroline 's early life . One account states that her father , Jules Delacroix , was a janitor of the French Legation at Bucharest . Another states that her father lived in Bucharest to seek his fortune , and she was born there as the thirteenth child of her parents . In her youth , Caroline worked as a barmaid .
Various sources assert that Caroline was a prostitute living in Paris . As a young woman , she was the mistress of Antoine @-@ Emmanuel Durrieux , a former officer in the French army . According to Adam Hochschild , Durrieux liked to support the two of them by betting on horse races ; when his luck soured , he became a form of pimp , prostituting Caroline to well @-@ born clients . They undertook their schemes at the Élysée Palace , but frequently left debts unpaid . One day in 1900 , while residing in Paris , Leopold II of Belgium heard of her " attractions " and felt interested in her modest beginnings . A woman sent by Leopold informed Caroline , " Madame , I am sent to you by a gentleman who has noticed you . He is a very high personage , but his exalted position obliges me to withhold his name " .
A meeting was arranged for the following day ; Caroline went to a secluded room , where Leopold arrived with two aides . As Leopold II was unknown to her , Caroline was so flustered with the encounter that she mixed up Belgium and Sweden in the king 's presence , referring to him as His Majesty Oscar , to his surprise and amusement . The two aides ' purpose soon became clear : one sat on each side of her and began asking questions that required her to " turn my head first to the right , then to the left ... their only aim , as I learned later , being to show off my two profiles to the mute personage " , according to her memoirs . Leopold confessed himself pleased and invited Caroline to Austria with him ; a large sum of money duly arrived the next day , along with some empty trunks , as Leopold was aware that she loved to buy clothes .
= = Relationship with Leopold II = =
= = = Reaction in the press = = =
As a mere sixteen @-@ year @-@ old ( compared with Leopold 's age of 65 ) , Caroline 's relationship with the old king quickly became public knowledge , causing Leopold to be labeled lecherous and besotted . Though Leopold had previously embarked upon affairs with other mistresses ( earning him the nickname le roi des Belges et des Belles ) , his affair with Caroline was unique , and the Belgian press in particular enjoyed publishing their affair for countless years . Her habit of accompanying Leopold to fashionable spas in Europe provoked further disbelief and outrage , with some speculating that she perversely pleasured the old king with the use of strategically placed mirrors and " special " equipment . The young mistress became known as la reine du Congo because the great wealth she accumulated from Leopold came from his colony . She became his companion for the last years of his life , as his estranged wife Queen Marie Henriette died in 1902 . Their relationship coincided with Leopold 's worsening international reputation , which was the result of his actions and orders concerning the Congo Free State . Hochschild writes that their affair ironically lost Leopold more popularity in Belgium than any of his crimes in the Congo ; consequently , few of his former allies were willing to defend him once he became the target of the international protest movement led by the Congo Reform Association . Belgian socialists in particular used the affair to prove that because Leopold was in his " dotage " and under the control of a " rapacious and ambitious woman " , he was unfit to govern .
= = = A wealthy mistress = = =
After Marie Henriette 's death , Leopold 's relationship with Caroline became flagrantly open , and he placed her across from his Laeken mansion , in the Villa Vanderborght , even building a pedestrian bridge so he could see her at will . The bridge reveals the king 's jealousy , although this may have been justified , as her former love Durrieux had been caught with her on several occasions . Caroline tried to pass him off as her brother when Leopold caught the two together ; one publication reported that she and Durrieux had placed secret electric bells in all her residences so that servants could warn her when the king was approaching .
Leopold spent vast sums of money on gifts and estates for his young mistress , presenting for instance the Villa Leopolda to Caroline in 1902 . She frequently traveled to Paris to visit her dress- and hat @-@ maker , once bragging that she spent three million francs on dresses at a single store on one occasion . Caroline once complained to Leopold that the evening express train back to Brussels gave her little time to shop , causing Leopold to arrange it so that the train would leave an hour later . When pregnant with their first child , the king and the French government even split the cost of constructing a new road close to her villa so that her ride would not be uncomfortable . Taking Caroline with him everywhere , the king spent much of his time outside Belgium on his various properties throughout Western Europe , and was much resented by the Belgian people as a result . Much of this time was spent with Caroline and their two sons at his estate at Cap Ferrat in southern France . Caroline also stayed at Chateau de Larmoy , which Leopold had rented for her ; he acquired the French Chateau de Balaincourt as well as a villa in Brussels , where Caroline had no scruples in appearing in public . Though typically traveling incognito , she accompanied Leopold to the funeral of Queen Victoria in 1901 , causing a great scandal . Her unpopularity in Belgium increased dramatically once it began to be realized that all of Leopold 's riches from the Congo were not benefiting his country , but rather himself and his young mistress .
As the years went by and the king became increasingly prone to outbursts of anger , breaking with all his old relationships , it was said that only in Caroline and their sons ' company did Leopold " recapture some of his vitality and Germanic humour " . Caroline was described as having been above average in height , " plump but graceful , with a beautiful complexion and skin " , with masses of chestnut hair ; in character , she was " haughty , sharp , irritable " and ill @-@ educated , and insisted on being treated with respect or else one would have to face the king 's displeasure . She was also said to be in possession of " vivid conversational powers " and " dazzling youthfulness " . Caroline was well @-@ used to Leopold 's " quirks " , such as his extreme hypochondria ; for instance , when she needed free time for herself , she coughed and pretended to have a cold ; she used this " weapon " to keep scheming female rivals from gaining favor with the king as well , telling Leopold that they had colds . Rather than ignore their age difference , Caroline and Leopold seemed to enjoy it , she calling him Tres Vieux and he calling her Tres Belle .
= = = Marriage = = =
The king became ill from an " intestinal blockage " at his home at Laeken , and his mistress and two sons rushed to his side . Five days before his death , on 12 December 1909 , King Leopold married Caroline in a religious ceremony performed by his personal chaplain . The marriage had no legal authority under Belgian law , as it was performed religiously , not civilly . It was recognized by the Vatican , as their wedding was solemnized in accordance with the Catholic Church 's religious rites . The marriage caused a great scandal in Belgium , as its citizens were shocked that the Church had not only sanctioned it , but also allowed Caroline to remain at his bedside , even when the priest was present . Despite their marriage , Caroline had to hide out of sight whenever a visitor arrived to see the king , though she stayed by his side otherwise .
Leopold died in the presence of Caroline and two nurses ; his youngest legitimate child Princess Clémentine , who had been barred from entering his palace before , was still not allowed to go into his room despite his weakening condition . Princesses Louise and Stéphanie also traveled to Brussels for a hoped @-@ for reconciliation with their father and changes to the king 's will , but Leopold turned them away . Caroline claimed that right before his passing , Leopold turned to his aide Baron Auguste Goffinet and said " I present you my widow . I place her under your protection during the few days she 'll spend in Belgium after my death " . Hochschild speculates that it is likely the king said this or something similar , as he was well @-@ aware how much his daughters and the public loathed her , particularly when they discovered just how much he had left her and their sons .
= = = Issue = = =
Caroline and Leopold had two sons together :
Lucien Philippe Marie Antoine ( 9 February 1906 – 1984 ) , Duke of Tervuren ; he married Lucie Gracieuse Mundutey on 1 March 1927 .
Philippe Henri Marie François ( 16 October 1907 – 21 August 1914 ) , Count of Ravenstein ; died young .
Like Caroline herself ( who was created Baroness Vaughan upon the birth of their first son ) , the two boys were granted courtesy titles , but no official royal decrees were ever issued by Leopold , the Belgian government , or any other foreign state , causing them to be merely honorary . Because of their parents ' legally invalid marriage , their two sons were still deemed illegitimate . Upon each of their births , they had been registered in France under Caroline 's name ; no mention of Leopold or another potential father was made . Despite these facts , there were fears in Belgium that Leopold would recognize his eldest son as heir to the throne . Had Leopold married in a legal civil ceremony , the boy could have indeed inherited the throne , because all classes were equal under the Belgian constitution , and thus their marriage would not have been considered morganatic . In 1910 , the two boys were adopted by Antoine Durrieux , whom Caroline married soon after Leopold 's death .
Leopold was devoted to his sons , and much of the wealth Caroline inherited went to the two ; she once reportedly boasted that because she was able to marry the king , her sons were in better standings than Charles Beauclerk , 1st Duke of St Albans , the illegitimate son of Nell Gwyn and Charles II of England . Because of these gifts , Caroline was loathed by the Belgian public ; on one occasion , her carriage was stoned on the streets of Brussels .
Their second son was born with a deformed hand , leading a cartoon to depict Leopold holding the child surrounded by Congolese corpses with their hands sliced off : the caption said Vengeance from on high .
= = Later years = =
Leopold gave his mistress vast sums of money by investing large sums in her name or confiding in trustees for her benefit . He also arranged for his two sons to be well provided for after his death . Under Belgian law , his three remaining legitimate children were entitled to a considerable portion of his estate , regardless of the contents of his will . However , this applied only in Belgium and not abroad ; consequently , much of the wealth he distributed for safekeeping was in foreign investments or in the shape of paintings , bric @-@ a @-@ brac , and art treasures that could be easily converted into cash . Leopold transferred Caroline a fortune in Congo securities , which were added to the already vast sum of six million francs he had previously presented her . Princess Louise soon went after these securities , but with the help of men loyal to the king , Caroline was able to safely spirit away the majority of her wealth to Paris ; two of her estates ( in Brussels and in France ) were boarded up however , disallowing her from entering them .
The exact degree of Caroline 's wealth was always problematic to trace , as the king had placed so much of it in different sources often difficult to locate and measure both during his lifetime and after his death . One 1912 source for instance reported that out of the king 's estimated estate of $ 65 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , Caroline received $ 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , while others stressed still higher numbers , and that the majority of it came from Congo shares .
= = = Legal suits = = =
The old king 's estrangement from his three daughters from his first marriage ( Princesses Louise , Stéphanie , and Clémentine ) spurred Leopold to keep or give as much wealth away as possible in order to disinherit the girls . An Austrian newspaper claimed that right before he died , Leopold personally gave Caroline his large collection of personal letters as well as documents detailing information about various European royal figures , which greatly worried his eldest daughter . After his death , the three princesses sued his estate for several million francs , although this was only a very small portion compared with the fortune he accumulated . The fortune was so large that the princesses were still attempting to recover some of Caroline 's wealth four years after their father 's death , claiming that Caroline and Durrieux had speedily ransacked one of Leopold 's properties in Paris and seized important financial documents before the Belgian envoy to France appeared . A trust of $ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 the king had placed in Caroline and their two sons ' names became a target of the princesses ; they and the Belgian government argued that the trust formed part of Leopold 's private estate , and thus all three girls and the government had a right to their share , as its funds had derived from the Congo Free State . The Belgian government 's lawsuit succeeded , allowing them to collect the entire trust , but it also diminished the share the princesses received ( as each collected a comparatively meager $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ) . Belgian statesman Emile Vandervelde later charged in an open letter that Leopold had given Caroline $ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 worth of Congo bonds which had been found to be previously missing when Belgium annexed the colony .
= = = Second marriage , divorce and death = = =
An extremely rich widow ( Leopold 's gifts left her a multimillionaire ) , Caroline continued to appear in newspapers long after Leopold 's death . She married Antoine Durrieux , her former love and longtime friend , in 1910 , seven months after the king 's death . He was formerly a non @-@ commissioned officer in the French army , and served as her chief agent at the time of Leopold 's death , helping her collect the necessary papers to secure her inherited fortune . Because of Durrieux 's earlier role in prostituting Caroline off for money , Adam Hochschild speculates that if she had shared some of her riches with him , their arrangement was " surely one of the most successful feats of pimpery of all time " . Though Durrieux recognized her two sons as his own offspring , giving them his surname , he disliked how Caroline insisted he acknowledge their noble ranks when in their presence .
Caroline and her second husband divorced soon after , and she was able to keep the bulk of her wealth intact ( though she settled on Durrieux a sum of one million dollars in order to retain custody of her two sons ) . Various suitors often in her entourage , such as Count Boni de Castellane and Gaston Bonnefoy , were reported to be engaged or interested in her , particularly after her divorce . She never remarried . Caroline 's younger son died in 1914 , but the elder lived a long , quiet life on his inherited wealth , dying in 1984 .
In 1937 , Caroline published her memoirs , A commoner married a king : As told by Baroness de Vaughan to Paul Faure ; in it , she stated she had loved and was faithful to the king , and that he had loved her and their two sons . Caroline died on 12 February 1948 at Cambo , Pyrénées @-@ Atlantiques in France .
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= The Vote That Counted =
The Vote That Counted is a 1911 American silent short drama film produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on a state senator who disappears from a train and detective Violet Gray investigates the case . Gray manages to find that he was kidnapped and that it was done because he opposed a powerful lobby . She manages to free the state senator in time for him to cast the deciding vote to defeat the lobby . The film was released on January 13 , 1911 , it was the second of four films in the " Violet Gray , Detective " series . The film received favorable reviews from Billboard and The New York Dramatic Mirror . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
The Moving Picture World synopsis states , " State Senator Jack Dare , one of the reform members of the legislature , starts to the state capitol to attend an important session of that body . That he took the midnight train from his home city is clearly proven , for his aged mother was a passenger on it , and besides the conductor and porter are certain that he retired for the night . In the morning , however , his berth is empty , although some of his garments are found there . The case puzzles the railroad officials and the police , and Violet Gray is given a chance to distinguish herself . She learns from the conductor and porter , who had happened to spend the night awake at opposite ends of the car , that the senator did not go by them . Consequently this leaves only the window as his means of egress , and she knows that he must have gone that way . Violet discovers that Dare is a hearty supporter of a bill that a powerful lobby is trying to defeat . The fight is so close that his is the deciding vote . Dare cannot be bribed , so his opponents spirited him away in a novel fashion . But the girl finds where he is hidden and brings him back , although he is much injured . He reaches his seat in time to cast the needed vote , and to astound and defeat the lobby . "
= = Cast and production = =
The only known credit in the cast is Julia M. Taylor as Violet Gray . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not cite any scenario or directorial credits . At this time the Thanhouser company operated out of their studio in New Rochelle , New York . In October 1910 , an article in The Moving Picture World described the improvements to the studio as having permanently installed a lighting arrangement that was previously experimental in nature . The studio had amassed a collection of props for the productions and dressing rooms had been constructed for the actors . The studio had installed new equipment in the laboratories to improve the quality of the films . By 1911 , the Thanhouser company was recognized as one of leading Independent film makers , but Carl Laemmle 's Independent Moving Picture Company ( IMP ) captured most of the publicity . Two production companies were maintained by the company , the first under Barry O 'Neil and the second under Lucius J. Henderson and John Noble , an assistant director to Henderson . Though the company had at least two Bianchi cameras from Columbia Phonograph Company , it is believed that imported cameras were also used . The Bianchi cameras were unreliable and inferior to competitors , but it was believed to be a non @-@ infringing camera , though with " rare fortune " it could shoot up to 200 feet of film before requiring repairs .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on January 13 , 1911 . This would be billed as the second in the series following the successful Love And Law film . The two later releases would be The Norwood Necklace and The Court 's Decree would conclude the " Violet Gray , Detective " series . Apparently the film series made an impact because the Lubin Manufacturing Company released a film under the title Violet Dare , Detective in June 1913 . The film received a positive review from The Billboard for its interest plot , good acting and photography . The New York Dramatic Mirror found the film to be a good melodrama , but found fault in that a woman detective was used to resolve the case when the part would have had more dignity and realism if the case was resolved by a man . The film would be shown in Pennsylvania and be advertised by theaters even a year after its release .
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= M.I.A. ( rapper ) =
Mathangi " Maya " Arulpragasam ( born 18 July 1975 ) , better known by her stage name M.I.A. , is an English hip hop recording artist , director , visual artist , activist , record producer , photographer , fashion designer and model . " M.I.A. " is a play on her own name and a reference to the acronym of Missing in Action . Her compositions combine elements of alternative , dance , electronic , hip hop and world music . M.I.A. began her career in 2000 as a visual artist , filmmaker and designer in west London before beginning her recording career in 2002 . Since rising to prominence in early 2004 for her singles " Sunshowers " and " Galang " , charting in Canada and the UK and reaching number 11 on the Billboard Hot Dance Singles Sales in the US , she has been nominated for an Academy Award , three Grammy Awards and the Mercury Prize .
She released her debut album Arular in 2005 and second album Kala in 2007 both to universal critical acclaim . Arular charted in Norway , Belgium , Sweden , Japan and the US , where it reached number 16 on the Billboard Independent Albums chart and number three on the Dance / Electronic Albums chart . Kala was certified silver in the UK and gold in Canada and the US , where it topped the Dance / Electronic Albums chart . It also charted in several countries across Europe , in Japan and Australia . The album 's first single " Boyz " reached the Top 10 in Canada and on the Billboard Hot Dance Singles Sales in 2007 , becoming her first Top 10 charting single . The single " Paper Planes " peaked in the Top 20 worldwide and reached number four on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Paper Planes " was certified gold in New Zealand and three times platinum in Canada and the US where , as of November 2011 , it is ranked the seventh best @-@ selling song by a British artist in the digital era . It has become XL Recordings ' second best @-@ selling single to date . M.I.A. ' s third album Maya was released in 2010 soon after the controversial song @-@ film short " Born Free " . This became her highest @-@ charting album in the UK and the US , reaching number nine on the Billboard 200 , topping the Dance / Electronic Albums chart and debuting in the Top 10 in Finland , Norway , Greece and Canada . The single " XXXO " reached the Top 40 in Belgium , Spain and the UK . M.I.A. has embarked on five global headlining tours and is the founder of her own multimedia label , N.E.E.T .. Her fourth studio album , Matangi , was released in 2013 .
Arulpragasam 's early compositions relied heavily on the Roland MC @-@ 505 music sequencer and drum machine . Her later work marked an evolution in her sound with rare instruments , electronics and unusual sound samples . Critics have acclaimed a distinctive style to her music . Lyrically incorporating a range of political , social , philosophical and cultural references that have defied existing pop music conventions , Arulpragasam was one of the first acts to come to public attention through the internet . She posted many of her songs and videos from 2002 onwards on platforms such as MySpace .
In 2001 , she received an " Alternative " Turner Prize nomination for her visual art . In 2005 and 2008 , M.I.A. was artist of the year by Spin and URB and Arulpragasam is named as one of the defining artists of the 2000s decade by Rolling Stone in its " Best of the Decade " list in December 2009 . Time magazine named her one of the world 's 100 most influential people in 2009 . Esquire magazine ranked M.I.A. on its list of the 75 most influential people of the 21st century in January 2010 .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1975 – 1999 : Early life and education = = =
Arulpragasam was born on 18 July 1975 , in Hounslow , West London , to Arul Pragasam , an engineer , writer and activist , and his wife , Kala , a seamstress . When Maya was six months old , her family moved to Jaffna , the cultural , political , and economic capital of the predominantly Tamil northern Sri Lanka , where her brother Sugu was born . There , her father adopted the name Arular and became a political activist and founding member of the Eelam Revolutionary Organisation of Students ( EROS ) , a political Tamil group affiliated with the LTTE . The first eleven years of Arulpragasam 's life were marked by displacement caused by the Sri Lankan Civil War . Her family went into hiding from the Sri Lankan army , and Arulpragasam had little contact with her father during this period . She has described her family as living in " big @-@ time " poverty during her childhood but also recalls some of her happiest memories from growing up in Jaffna . Maya attended Catholic convent schools such as the Holy Family Convent , Jaffna where she developed her art skills – painting in particular – to work her way up her class . During the civil war , soldiers would put guns through holes in the windows and shoot at the school , what she notes as " bullying exploitation . " Her classmates were trained to dive under the table or run next door to English @-@ language schools that , according to her , " wouldn ’ t get shot . " Arulpragasam lived on a road alongside much of her extended family and played inside temples and churches in the town .
Due to safety concerns , Arulpragasam 's mother , Kala , relocated herself and her children to Madras in Tamil Nadu , India , where they lived in a derelict house and received sporadic visits from their father , Arular , who was introduced to the children as their " uncle " in order to protect them . The family minus Arular then resettled in Jaffna temporarily , only to see the war escalate further in the northeast . During this time 9 @-@ year @-@ old Arulpragasam 's primary school was destroyed in a government raid . Kala then moved with her children back to London in 1986 a week before Arulpragasam 's eleventh birthday where they were housed as refugees . Arular remained on the island and became an independent peace mediator between the two sides of the civil war in the late 1980s – 2010 . Arulpragasam spent the rest of her childhood and teenage years living on the Phipps Bridge Estate in the Mitcham district of southwest London , where she learned to speak English , whilst Kala brought the children up on a modest income . Arulpragasam entered the final year of primary school in the autumn of 1986 and quickly mastered the English language . Despite being the only Sri Lankan family in the area , the family were made welcome and faced no racial abuse during their time on the estate .
While living in the United Kingdom and raising her children , her mother became a practising Christian in 1990 and worked as a commissioned seamstress for the Royal Family for much of her career . She worked from her home in Tooting , which is at the south of London . Arulpragasam has had a difficult relationship with her father , due to his political activities in the 1980s and complete absence during much of her life . Prior to the release of the first album , which Arulpragasam had named after her father , Arular emailed her : " This is Dad . Change the title of your album . I 'm really proud . Just read about you in the Sri Lanka Times . Dad . " Maya chose not to change the album title . Arulpragasam attended the Ricards Lodge High School in Wimbledon . After leaving school , she completed a degree in fine art , film , and video in June 2000 from London 's Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design . Her initial application to the school was rejected , but she was finally admitted and received a scholarship , being told that she " had chutzpah " .
= = = 2000 – 02 : Visual art and film = = =
While attending Central St Martins College , Arulpragasam wanted to make films and art depicting realism that would be accessible to everyone , something that she felt was missing from her classmates ' ethics and the course criteria . At college , she found the fashion courses " disposable " and more current than the film texts that she studied . Maya told Arthur magazine " [ Students there were ] exploring apathy , dressing up in some pigeon outfit , or running around conceptualising ... It missed the whole point of art representing society . Social reality didn ’ t really exist there ; it just stopped at theory . " She cited " radical cinema " including Harmony Korine , Dogme 95 and Spike Jonze as some of her cinematic inspirations during film school . As a student , she was approached by director John Singleton to work on a film in Los Angeles after he had read a script she had written , though she decided not to take up the offer . For her degree , M.I.A. prepared her departmental honours thesis on the film CB4 .
Arulpragasam befriended students in the college 's fashion , advertising and graphics departments . She met Justine Frischmann , front woman of the British band Elastica , through her friend Damon Albarn at an Air concert in 1999 , and Frischmann commissioned Arulpragasama to create the cover art for the band 's 2000 album , The Menace , and video document their American tour . Arulpragasam returned to Jaffna in 2001 to film a documentary on Tamil youth , but was unable to complete the project because she encountered harassment . In 2001 , Arulpragasam 's first public exhibition of paintings after graduating took place at the Euphoria Shop on London 's Portobello Road . It featured graffiti art and spray @-@ paint canvasses mixing Tamil political street art with images of London life and consumerist culture . The show was nominated for an Alternative Turner Prize and a monograph book of the collection was published in 2002 , [ 9 ] titled M.I.A .. Actor Jude Law was among early buyers of her art .
= = = 2003 – 05 : Musical beginnings and Arular = = =
Arulpragasam cites the radio broadcasts she heard emanating from her neighbours ' flats in the late 1980s as some of her first exposures to her earliest musical influences . From there , she developed an interest in hip @-@ hop and dancehall , identifying with " the starkness of the sound " in records by Public Enemy , MC Shan and Ultramagnetic MCs ; and the " weird , distinct style " of acts such as Silver Bullet and London Posse . In college she developed an affinity for punk and the emerging sounds of Britpop and electroclash . M.I.A. cites The Slits , Malcolm McLaren and The Clash as major influences .
By 2001 , Arulpragasam designed the cover for Elastica 's last single " The Bitch Don 't Work " , and went on the road with the band to video document their tour . The tour 's supporting act , electroclash artist Peaches , introduced Arulpragasam to the Roland MC @-@ 505 and encouraged her to make music , a medium in which Arulpragasam lacked confidence . While holidaying together in Bequia in the Caribbean , Arulpragasam began experimenting with Frischmann 's MC @-@ 505 . She adopted her stage name , " M.I.A. " , standing for " Missing In Acton " during this time . In her 2012 book Arulpragasam writes , " M.I.A. came to be because of my missing cousin . I wanted to make a film about where he was since he was M.I.A. ( Missing in Action ) in Sri Lanka . We were the same age , went to the same schools growing up . I was also living in Acton at the time . So I was living in Acton looking for my cousin missing in action . " Of her time in Bequia , she told " I started going out to this chicken shed with a sound system . You buy rum through a hatch and dance in the street . They convinced me to come to church where people sing so amazingly . But I couldn ’ t clap along to hallelujah . I was out of rhythm . Someone said , ‘ What happened to Jesus ? I saw you dancing last night and you were totally fine . ’ They stopped the service and taught me to clap in time . It was embarrassing " . Returning to West London , where she shared an apartment with Frischmann , she began working with a simple set @-@ up ( a second @-@ hand 4 @-@ track tape machine , the MC @-@ 505 , and a radio microphone ) , composing and recording a six song demo tape that included " Lady Killa " , " M.I.A. " , and " Galang " .
In 2003 , the independent label Showbiz Records pressed 500 vinyl singles of " Galang " , a mix of dancehall , electro , jungle , and world music , with Seattle Weekly praising its a cappella coda as a " lift @-@ up @-@ and @-@ over moment " evoking " clear skies beyond the council flats . " File sharing , college radio airplay , and the rise in popularity of " Galang " and " Sunshowers " in dance clubs and fashion shows made M.I.A. an underground sensation . M.I.A. has been heralded as one of the first artists to build a large fanbase exclusively via these channels and as someone who could be studied to reexamine the internet 's impact on how listeners are exposed to new music . She began uploading her music onto her MySpace account in June 2004 . Major record labels caught on to the popularity of the second song she has written , " Galang " , and M.I.A. was eventually signed to XL Recordings in mid @-@ 2004 . Her debut album , to be titled Arular was finalized by borrowing studio time .
M.I.A. ' s next single , " Sunshowers " , released on 5 July 2004 , and its B @-@ side ( " Fire Fire " ) described guerrilla warfare and asylum seeking , merging ambiguous references to violence and religious persecution with black and white forms of dissidence . These themes inspired her treatment for the music video , the first she wrote . It was filmed in the jungles of South India , which she has described as her favourite . " Galang " was re @-@ released in 2004 . In September 2004 , M.I.A was first featured on the cover of the publication The FADER , in its 24th issue . The music video for " Galang " made in November of that year showed multiple M.I.A.s against a backdrop of militaristic animated graffiti , and depicted scenes of urban Britain and war that influenced her art direction for it . Both singles appeared on international publications ' " Best of the Year " lists and subsequently " Best of the Decade " lists . The songs " Pull Up the People " , " Bucky Done Gun " and " " were released as 12 @-@ inch singles and CDs by XL Recordings , which along with the non @-@ label mashup mixtape of Arular tracks , Piracy Funds Terrorism , were distributed in 2004 to positive critical acclaim .
M.I.A. made her North American live debut in February 2005 in Toronto where concertgoers already knew many of her songs . In March 2005 , M.I.A. ' s debut album Arular was released worldwide to critical acclaim after several months delay . The album title is the nom de guerre that M.I.A. ' s father took when he joined the Tamil independence movement , and many of the songs acknowledge her and her father 's experiences in Jaffna . While making Arular in her bedroom in west London , she built tracks off her demos , using beats she programmed on the Roland MC @-@ 505 . The album experiments with bold , jarring and ambient sounds , and its lyrics address the Iraq War and daily life in London as well as M.I.A. ' s past .
" Galang " , " Sunshowers " , " Hombre " and the funk carioca @-@ inspired co @-@ composition " Bucky Done Gun " were released as singles from Arular . The release of the latter marked the first time that a funk carioca @-@ inspired song was played on mainstream radio and music television in Brazil , its country of origin . M.I.A. worked with one of her musical influences Missy Elliott , contributing to the track " Bad Man " on her 2005 album The Cookbook . Despite initial fears that her dyslexia might pose problems while touring , M.I.A. supported the album through a series of festival and club shows , including the Bue Festival in Buenos Aires , a free headlining show at Central Park Summerstage , the Summer Sonic Fest and the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival , where she played an encore in response to crowd enthusiasm , a rare occurrence for the festival generally and the first encore following a tent performance at Coachella . She also toured with Roots Manuva and LCD Soundsystem , and ended 2005 briefly touring with Gwen Stefani and performing at the Big Day Out festival . On 19 July 2005 , M.I.A. was shortlisted for the Mercury Music Prize for Arular . According to the music review aggregation Metacritic , it garnered an average score of 88 out of 100 , described as " universal acclaim " . They reported in 2010 that Arular was the seventh best reviewed album of 2005 and the ninth Best @-@ Reviewed Electronic / Dance Album on Metacritic of the 2000 – 09 decade . Arular became the second most featured album in music critics ’ Year @-@ End Top 10 lists for 2005 and was named best of the year by publications such as Blender , Stylus and Musikbyrån .
= = = 2006 – 08 : Kala and world recognition = = =
In 2006 , M.I.A. recorded her second studio album Kala , this time named after her mother . Due to censorship and visa complications in the United States , the album was recorded in a variety of locations — India , Trinidad , Liberia , Jamaica , Australia , Japan , and the UK . Eventually the album was completed in the US .
Kala featured live instrumentation and layers of traditional dance and folk styles such as soca and the urumee drum of gaana , rave music and bootleg soundtracks of Tamil film music , incorporating new styles into her avant @-@ garde electronic dance music . The songs , artwork and fashion of Kala have been characterized as simultaneously celebratory and infused with raw , " darker , outsider " themes , such as immigration politics , personal relationships and war . In February 2007 , the first track from the album to be made available to the public was " Bird Flu " , which was posted with an accompanying music video to her MySpace . Later that year , M.I.A. featured in the song " Come Around " , a bonus track on Timbaland 's 2007 album Shock Value and a track on Kala . The album 's first official single " Boyz " was released in June 2007 , accompanied by a music video co @-@ directed by Jay Will and M.I.A. , becoming M.I.A. ' s first top ten charting song . The single " Jimmy " , written about an invitation to tour genocide @-@ affected regions in Rwanda that the singer received from a journalist while staying in Liberia , was released next . The single " Paper Planes " , described a " satire on immigrant stereotypes " , and the EP Paper Planes - Homeland Security Remixes EP were released digitally in February 2008 , the single eventually selling three times platinum in the US and Canada , certified Gold in New Zealand , and becoming the 29th most downloaded song in the digital era in the US and earning a Grammy nomination for Record of the Year . " Paper Planes " is to date XL Recordings ' second best selling single , and by November 2011 it had sold 3 @.@ 6 million copies in the US , currently the seventh best @-@ selling song by a British artist in the digital era . In 2007 , M.I.A. also released the How Many Votes Fix Mix EP which included a remix of " Boyz " featuring Jay @-@ Z. " Paper Planes " is one of M.I.A. ' s most popular songs . On this song she collaborated with Florida @-@ based DJ Diplo . Their work on this song landed him a Grammy nomination for Record of the year and got number three in the U.S. Charts.They also worked together on her first album " Arular " Like its predecessor , universal acclaim met Kala 's release in August 2007 and the album earned a normalised rating of 87 out of 100 on the review aggregator MetaCritic . Kala was a greater commercial success than Arular . To support Kala , M.I.A. performed at a series of music festivals on the Kala Tour featuring performances in Europe , America and Asia . She performed three dates opening for Björk in the US and France . In 2008 , M.I.A. provided guest vocals on Buraka Som Sistema 's kuduro song " Sound of Kuduro " , recorded in Angola with an accompanying video . The same year , M.I.A. and director Spike Jonze filmed a documentary in Woolwich , South London , in which they both appeared with Afrikan Boy , a Nigerian immigrant rapper and she disclosed plans to launch her own record label , Zig @-@ Zag . She ended the year with concerts in the United Kingdom . By year end , Kala was named the best album of 2007 by publications including Rolling Stone and Blender . MetaCritic reported in 2010 that Kala was the tenth Best @-@ Reviewed Electronic / Dance Album on Metacritic of the 2000 – 09 decade , one position below her debut album Arular . M.I.A. performed on the People vs. Money Tour during the first half of 2008 . She cancelled the final leg of her tour in Europe through June and July after revealing her intentions to take a career break and work on other art projects , go back to college and make a film .
In 2008 , M.I.A. started her independent record label N.E.E.T. Recordings . The first artist signed to the label was Baltimore rapper Rye Rye , who performed with M.I.A. at the Diesel XXX party at Pier 3 in Brooklyn in October 2008 where it was revealed that M.I.A. was pregnant with her first child . M.I.A. contributed songs for A. R. Rahman 's score of the film Slumdog Millionaire , which included the collaboration " O … Saya " ; she was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song and a World Soundtrack Award for Best Original Song Written Directly for a Film for the song . M.I.A. was due to perform at the Oscars ceremony two weeks after her Grammy Award performance , but could not as she had just given birth to her son . M.I.A. is the first person of Asian descent to be nominated for an Oscar and Grammy award in the same year .
= = = 2009 – 11 : Maya = = =
At the 2009 BRIT Awards in February , M.I.A. was a nominee for Best British Female Artist . Seeking to promote new , underground music with N.E.E.T. , M.I.A. signed more bands including Baltimore musician Blaqstarr , indie rock band Sleigh Bells and visual artist Jaime Martinez by late 2009 . 3D photographic images of M.I.A. by Martinez were commissioned in April of that year . In August 2009 , M.I.A. began composing and recording her third studio album in a home studio section in her Los Angeles house . In January 2010 , M.I.A. posted her video for the song " Space " . While composing it , she helped write a song with Christina Aguilera called " Elastic Love " for Aguilera 's album Bionic . By April 2010 , the song and music video / short film " Born Free " were leaked online . The video @-@ film short was directed by Romain Gavras and written by M.I.A. , depicting genocide against red @-@ haired adolescents being forced to run across a minefield and caused controversy due to its graphically violent content . The video was removed from YouTube the same day it was released , then reinstated with an age restriction , then removed once more . Although not an official single , the song charted in Sweden and the United Kingdom . M.I.A. ' s third album , Maya — stylised as / \ / \ / \ Y / \ — was released on 23 June 2010 in Japan with bonus tracks before its release in other countries . Maya became M.I.A. ' s highest charting album globally . Its release in the US was delayed by two weeks . The album garnered a generally favourable , although divided , reception from critics . A more internet @-@ inspired album illustrating how a multimedia artist worked within the music industry , elements of industrial music were incorporated into M.I.A. ' s sound for the first time . She described the album in an interview with Dazed & Confused as a mix of " babies , death , destruction and powerlessness " .
On 11 May 2010 , the first official single from Maya , " XXXO " , was released and reached the top forty in Belgium , Spain and the UK . " Steppin ' Up " , " Teqkilla " , and " Tell Me Why " were also released as promotional singles exclusively on iTunes in the days leading to the release of Maya , with " Teqkilla " reaching the top 100 in Canada on digital downloads alone .
The video for " XXXO " was released online in August . M.I.A. hinted in an interview to Blitz that a music video is being made with director Spike Jonze for the single " Teqkilla . " She completed her live tour dates on the Maya Tour in summer of 2011 .
From 2000 until 2010 , she directed the video for Elastica single " Mad Dog God Dam " and videos for her songs " Bird Flu " , " Boyz " , " S.U.S. ( Save Ur Soul ) " , " Space " and " XXXO " as well as personally choosing the directors for the videos of her songs Galang , Sunshowers , which she described in 2005 and again in 2011 as being her favorite video experience and favorite video adaptation of a song of hers , in her words as of 2011 , " If you watch only one of my videos , please try Sunshowers " , " Jimmy , " " Born Free , " and " Bad Girls . " , a video inspired by YouTube videos of car stunts and photographs , including one of an Arab female trucker , from the Middle East , which she described as her second favorite music video . She directed a video for Rye Rye 's " Bang " . She judged in the Music Video category at the inaugural Vimeo Festival & Awards in New York in October 2010 .
M.I.A. released her second mixtape , Vicki Leekx , on 31 December 2010 , and followed this with Internet Connection : The Remixes , an EP to a bonus track from Maya in January 2011 . M.I.A. performed on the song " C.T.F.O. " on SebastiAn 's album Total . On 21 April 2011 , it was reported that M.I.A. had been in the studio with Chris Brown , the Cataracs , Swizz Beatz and Polow da Don .
= = = 2012 – 14 : Matangi = = =
M.I.A. co @-@ wrote the song " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " with Madonna and Nicki Minaj for the album MDNA and performed it at the Super Bowl XLVI Halftime Show . Controversially , instead of singing the lyric " shit " in the song , M.I.A. extended the middle finger to the camera . The N.F.L. responded by filing a lawsuit suing M.I.A. for million in damages and demanding a public apology from M.I.A. Maya and her legal team also responded by saying that the league 's claim of " wholesomeness " in the lawsuit is hypocritical since the N.F.L. itself has had multiple situations of their own players and coaches behaving badly as well as health problems within the league , particularly concussions . In September 2013 Maya released a video statement regarding the lawsuit . In her statement Arulpragasam said , " They 're basically [ saying ] it 's OK for me to promote being sexually exploited as a female , than to display empowerment , female empowerment , through being punk rock . That 's what it boils down to , and I 'm being sued for it . " The lawsuit was settled in August 2014 ; the terms of the settlement remain private .
She 's also featured in " B @-@ Day Song " , another song included on MDNA .
The first buzz track of her fourth album , " Bad Girls " , taken from her Vicki Leekx mixtape , premiered on 30 January 2012 , was released globally the day after , and was followed by a music video directed by Romain Gavras on 3 February 2012 . This received nominations for Video of the Year at the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards and at the 55th Grammy Awards . The song become one of M.I.A. ' s most successful singles , charting in the United Kingdom , Australia , France , Canada , United States , Switzerland , South Korea and Belgium . On 29 April 2012 she posted a preview of a new song to YouTube , titled " Come Walk With Me " . The full version of Come Walk With Me was shared one and a half year later , on September 2013 .
M.I.A. officially signed to Jay @-@ Z 's Roc Nation management in May 2012 . Rihanna welcomed her to the family , tweeting , " welcome home MIA . " She guested during Jay @-@ Z 's set at the Radio 1 Festival in Hackney on 23 June 2012 .
In October 2012 , M.I.A. released an autobiographical book titled M.I.A. documenting " the five years of M.I.A. art that spans across three LPs : Arular , Kala , and Maya . " The book contains artwork as well as a foreword by frequent collaborator Steve Loveridge and various essays by M.I.A. On 3 March 2013 , she released an 8 @-@ minute mix recording as part of a Kenzo fashion show in Paris .
Matangi , was recorded across the world with different collaborators . In relation to her previous albums , she described her fourth as " basically all of them together " , akin to an anthology . The album was released on Interscope and M.I.A. ' s label N.E.E.T. Recordings . Release dates of 31 January 2013 and later , 15 April 2013 were announced , but the album remained unreleased . M.I.A. later revealed that the original project for Matangi was not accepted by Interscope , which claimed that the record was " too positive " . " Bring the Noize " , produced by French producer Surkin and Switch , was announced as the second single and was released on 17 June 2013 . Soon after the single was released , the official video for " Bring the Noize " premiered on 25 June via Noisey . On 9 August 2013 , the album received an official release date of 5 November 2013 after M.I.A. threatened to leak the album due to the numerous delays by Interscope .
Matangi received generally positive reviews from music critics . In its first week of release , the album sold 15 @,@ 000 copies and peaked at number 23 on the Billboard 200 , falling to number 90 in its second week . Overall , Matangi is M.I.A. ' s lowest charting album worldwide .
On 31 December 2013 M.I.A. announced that she 's leaving Roc Nation .
= = = 2015 – present : A.I.M. = = =
On 13 July 2015 , M.I.A. released a five @-@ minute video titled " Matahdatah Scroll 01 Broader Than a Border " which features two of her tracks : Matangi 's " Warrior " and a new track " Swords " . The video was filmed in India and West Africa and shows different forms of dancing in those regions . On 27 November 2015 , M.I.A. released " Borders " as her new single on iTunes , prior to that her new single was announced via her Instagram account . The track mocks first world problems and touches on some serious issues happening in the world . She introduced a music video with it which was also socially and politically motivated . In January 2016 , the French football club Paris Saint @-@ Germain sued M.I.A. for wearing a modified version of their club ’ s T @-@ shirt in her Borders video and changing the words " Fly Emirates " to " Fly Pirates " on it .
In late February 2016 , she released " Boom ADD " , an expanded version of the " Boom Skit " , which appeared on M.I.A. ' s fourth studio album Matangi ; it is a diss @-@ track to the NFL 's lawsuit of her performance at the 2012 Superbowl .
On June 1 , 2016 , she released " Poc That Still A Ryda " , a lyrical mix of songs on her upcoming album .
On 12 July , 2016 , she announced the title of her upcoming fifth studio album was A.I.M. , and on July 15 , 2016 , she released " Go Off " as the first single . The song was produced by Skrillex and Blaqstarr .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Musical style and influences = = =
M.I.A. ' s music features styles such as electro , reggae , rhythm and blues , alternative rock , hip hop , grime , rap ballads and Asian folk and references to her musical influences such as Missy Elliott , Tamil film music , Lou Reed , Pixies , Timbaland , Beastie Boys and London Posse . She was a childhood fan of Boney M , composer A. R. Rahman and pop artists Michael Jackson and Madonna , also she has cited Björk as an inspiration and has been influenced by The Slits , Public Enemy , Malcolm McLaren and The Clash . Noting her early inspirations , she said " When I would go to bed , I ’ d listen to the radio and dream about dancing and Paula Abdul and Whitney Houston , and that ’ s how I fell asleep . When my radio was burgled , I started listening to hip hop " . She has revealed her ideal karaoke song would be " Germ @-@ Free Adolescents " by X @-@ Ray Spex . M.I.A. describes her music as dance music or club music for the " other " , and has been described as an " anti @-@ popstar " for refusing to conform to certain recording industry expectations of solo artists . M.I.A. possesses the vocal range of a mezzo @-@ soprano , spanning one octave in the western music scale , from the lower note of F3 to the higher note of F4 . M.I.A. ' s early compositions relied heavily on the Roland MC @-@ 505 , while later M.I.A. experimented further with her established sound and drew from a range of genres , creating layered textures of instruments , electronics and sounds outside the traditional studio environment . Artists including Nas , Chuck D and Krist Novoselic of Nirvana have praised her work .
She has also stated she is a fan of Beyoncé Knowles , stating " she 's like harder , faster , stronger . In our lifetime , she will be a classic , like how people talk about Aretha Franklin . "
Jimmy Iovine , the chairman of M.I.A. ' s American distribution label Interscope , compares M.I.A. to Reed and punk rock songwriter Patti Smith , and recalled , " She 's gonna do what she 's gonna do , I can 't tell her shit . " " The really left @-@ of @-@ center artists , you really wonder about them . Can the world catch up ? Can the culture meet them in the middle ? That ’ s what the adventure is . It doesn ’ t always happen , but it should and it could . " Richard Russell , head of XL Recordings , states , " You 've got to bend culture around to suit you , and I think M.I.A has done that " adding that M.I.A. ' s composition and production skills were a major attraction for him . As a vocalist , M.I.A. is recognisable by her distinctive whooping , chanting voice , which has been described as having an " indelible , nursery @-@ rhyme swing . " She has adopted different singing styles on her songs , from aggressive raps , to semi @-@ spoken and melodic vocals . She has said of the sometimes " unaffected " vocals and delivery of her lyrics , " It is what it is . Most people would just put it down to me being lazy . But at the same time , I don ’ t want [ that perfection ] , " saying some of the " raw and difficult " vocal styles she used reflected what was happening to her during recording .
= = = Image and stage = = =
Sasha Frere @-@ Jones , critic of The New Yorker praised the self made " unpretentious , stuck together with Scotch tape " style that M.I.A. achieves with her Roland MC @-@ 505 drum machine and keyboard unit , noting that many people had tried to copy the style since . Her considerable influence on American hip hop music as an international artist is described by Adam Bradley and Andrew DuBois in The Anthology of Rap as making her an " unlikely hip hop " celebrity , given that the genre was one of several influences behind M.I.A. ' s " eccentric and energizing " music and that the musician 's unclassifiable sound was one example of how hip hop was changing as it came into contact with other cultures . Similarly , Jeffrey H. Wallenfeldt writes in The Black experience in America : from civil rights to the present that no single artist may have personified hip hop in the 21st century better than M.I.A. , in her " politically radical lyrics drawing from widely diverse sources around the world " . The Guardian critic Hattie Collins commented of M.I.A. ' s influence , " A new raver before it was old . A baile funk / pop pioneer before CSS and Bonde do Rolê emerged . A quirky female singer / rapper before the Mini Allens had worked out how to log on to MySpace . Missing In Action ( or Acton , as she sometimes calls herself ) has always been several miles ahead of the pack . " The twisting of western modalities in her music style using multilingual , multiethnic soundscapes to make electroclash @-@ pop albums is noted by Derek Beres in Global beat fusion : the history of the future of music ( 2005 ) to defy world music categorization . In the book Downloading Music ( 2007 ) , Linda Aksomitis notes the various aspects of peer @-@ to @-@ peer file sharing of music in the rise in popularity of M.I.A. , including the advantages and disadvantages of the internet and platforms such as MySpace in the launch of her career . Andy Bennett and Jon Stratton highlight in Britpop and the English Music Tradition ( 2010 ) how M.I.A. alongside musicians such as Sway and Dizzee Rascal created music that explored new soundscapes with new technologies , with lyrics expressing anger at Britain 's " racialized subordination of minority groups " and that the innovation that generates new musical forms like grime and dubstep are , inevitably , politically engaged . The chart success of grime @-@ influenced artists like M.I.A. is heralded as a signal in the way that white Britons adapted to a new multicultural and plural musical mix in contrast to bands of the Britpop genre . Furthermore , her work being used as a global resource for the articulation of differently located themes and its connections to many music traditions is noted by Brian Longhurst in Popular music and society ( 2007 ) to illustrate such processes of interracial dialogue . Gary Shteyngart writing in GQ notes that " M.I.A. is perhaps the preeminent global musical artist of the 2000s , a truly kick @-@ ass singer and New York @-@ Londony fashion icon , not to mention a vocal supporter of Sri Lanka 's embattled Tamil minority , of which she 's a member . "
M.I.A. ' s stage performances are described as " highly energetic " and multimedia showcases , often with scenes of what Rolling Stone critic Rob Sheffield describes as " jovial chaos , with dancers and toasters and random characters roaming the stage , " bringing various crowds with interests in art , music and fashion . Camille Dodero , writing in The Village Voice opined that M.I.A. " works hard to manifest the chaos of her music in an actual environment , and , more than that , to actively create discomfort , energy , and anger through sensory overload . " Her role as an artist in and voice lender to the subaltern is appreciated by theorists as having brought such ideas to first world view . USA Today included her on its list of the 100 Most Interesting People of 2007 and she was named one of Time Out ' s 40th Birthday London Heroes in 2008 . The same year , Esquire listed M.I.A. as one of the 75 Most Influential People of the 21st century , describing her as the first and only major artist in world music , and in 2009 she was cited in Time magazine 's Time 100 as one of the world 's most influential people for her global influence across many genres . In December 2010 , USA Today listed M.I.A. at number 63 on its list of the " 100 People of 2010 " . M.I.A. placed number 14 on Rolling Stone 's Decade @-@ End Readers ' Poll of " Top Artists Of The Decade . " Rolling Stone named her one of eight artists who defined the 2000s decade .
= = = Themes and artwork = = =
M.I.A. has become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos and her cover art . Her politically inspired art became recognized while she exhibited and published several of her brightly coloured stencils and paintings portraying the tiger , a symbol of Tamil nationalism , ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka and urban Britain in the early 2000s . Lyrics on Arular regarding her experiences of identity politics , poverty , revolution , gender and sexual stereotypes , war , and the conditions of working class in London were hailed as new and unorthodox , setting her apart from previous artists . The album references the Palestine Liberation Organization and the Tamil independence movements and features culture jamming , multi @-@ lingual slang , strident and subtle imagery . Her albums ' social commentary and storytelling have incited debate on the " invigoratingly complex " politics of the issues she highlighted in the album , breaking taboos while the West was engaged in the 2003 Iraq War in the Middle East during the Presidency of George W. Bush . Government visits to her official website following her debut album 's release in 2005 , and a US refusal to grant M.I.A. a travel visa coupled with her brief presence on the US Homeland Security Risk List in 2006 due to her politically charged lyrics led to her second album Kala being recorded in a variety of locations around the world . The American Civil Liberties Union described the actions as part of a trend of ideological exclusion by the state which was detrimental to democracy by " censoring and manipulating debate " .
On Kala , M.I.A. ' s songs explored immigration politics and her personal relationships . Many related her experiences during recording sessions in Madras , Angola , Trinidad shantytowns , Liberia and London , and were well acclaimed . The album 's artwork was inspired by African art , " from dictator fashion to old stickers on the back of cars , " which like her clothing range , she hoped would capture " a 3 @-@ D sense , the shapes , the prints , the sound , film , technology , politics , economics " of a certain time . I @-@ D magazine described the " bleeding cacophany of graphics " on her website during this time as evoking the " noisy amateurism " of the early web , but also embodying a rejection of today 's " glossy , professional site design " which was felt to " efface the medium rather than celebrate it . " Jeff Chang , writing for The Nation , described a " Kala for the Nation " and the album 's music , lyrics and imagery as encompassing " everywhere – or , to be specific , everywhere but the First World 's self @-@ regarding ' here ' , " stating that against a media flow that suppresses the " ugliness " of reality and fixes beauty to consumption , M.I.A. forces a conversation about how the majority live , closing the distance " between ' here ' and everywhere else " . He felt that Kala explored poverty , violence and globalization through the eyes of " children left behind . "
Her third album , Maya , tackled information politics in the digital age , loaded with technological references and love songs , and deemed by Kitty Empire writing in The Observer to be her most melancholic and mainstream effort . Her genocide @-@ depicting 2010 video for the single " Born Free " was deemed by Ann Powers writing in the Los Angeles Times to be " concentrating fully " on the physical horror of gun butts and bullets hitting flesh , with the scenes giving added poignancy to the lyrical themes of the song . Interpreted as a comment on the Arizona immigration law , America 's military might and desensitised attitudes towards violence , others found that the video stressed that genocide still exists and violent repression remains commonplace . Some critics described the film as " sensationalist " . Neda Ulaby of NPR described the video as intended for " shock value " in the service of nudging people into considering real issues that can be hard to talk about . M.I.A. revealed that she felt " disconnected " during the writing process , and spoke of the Internet inspiration and themes of information politics that could be found in the songs and the artwork .
M.I.A. views her work as reflective , pieced together in one piece " so you can acquire it and hear it . " She states , " All that information floats around where we are – the images , the opinions , the discussions , the feelings – they all exist , and I felt someone had to do something about it because I can 't live in this world where we pretend nothing really matters . " On the political nature of her songs she has said , " Nobody wants to be dancing to political songs . Every bit of music out there that ’ s making it into the mainstream is really about nothing . I wanted to see if I could write songs about something important and make it sound like nothing . And it kind of worked . " Censorship on MTV of " Sunshowers " proved controversial and was again criticised following Kala release " Paper Planes " . YouTube 's block and subsequent age gating / obscuring of the video for " Born Free " from Maya due to its graphic violence / political subtext was criticized by M.I.A. as hypocritical , citing the Internet channel 's streaming of real @-@ life killings . She went on to state , " It 's just fake blood and ketchup and people are more offended by that than the execution videos " , referring to clips of Sri Lankan troops extrajudicially shooting unarmed , blindfolded , naked men that she had previously tweeted . Despite the block , the video remained on her website and Vimeo , and has been viewed 30 million times on the internet . Lisa Weems writes in the book Postcolonial challenges in education how M.I.A. pointed out in her music how immigrants , refugees and persons of the third world can and do resist through economic , political and cultural discursive practices . In light of her influence in modern culture and the historical and political significance embedded in both the instrumental music and lyrics of her songs , J. Gentry of Brown University instructs a course from summer 2012 titled " Music & Politics : From Mozart to M.I.A. " , with the objective of academically exploring and examining the political messages and contexts of music and the way " music has consistently participated in and reflected the political debates of its time " .
= = = Fashion and style = = =
M.I.A. cites guerrilla art and fashion as major influences . Her mother works as a seamstress in London . An early interest in fashion and textiles – designing confections of " bright fluorescent fishnet fabrics " — was a hallmark of her time at Central Saint Martins College . M.I.A. was a roommate of fashion designer Luella Bartley and is a long @-@ time friend of designer Carri Mundane . Clothes from her limited @-@ edition " Okley Run " line — Mexican and Afrika line jackets and leggings , Islamic @-@ inspired and water melon @-@ print hoodies , and tour @-@ inspired designs – were sold in 2008 during New York fashion week . She commented , " I wanted to tie all my work together . When I make an album , I make a number of artworks that go with it , and now I make some clothes that go with it too . So this Okley run was an extension of my Kala album and artwork . " Spin described her designs as " 1000 watt Malcolm McLaren @-@ meets @-@ Basquiat " , that complimented her personal style that could " run from futurist aerobic instructor to new wave pirate to queenly candy raver " .
Contrary to her present style , M.I.A. ' s Arular era style has been described as " tattered hand me downs and patched T @-@ shirts of indigents " , embodying the " uniform of the refugee " but modified with cuts , alterations and colours to fashion a distinctly new style and apparel line . M.I.A. built on this during the Kala era with a " playful " combination of baggy T @-@ shirts , leggings and short @-@ shorts . She incorporated eccentric accessories in bold patterns , sparkle and " over @-@ saturated " neon colour to fashion her signature style which inspired flocks of " garishly @-@ clothed all @-@ too @-@ sassy " new @-@ rave girls with bright red tights , cheetah @-@ skin smock and faded 1980s T- shirts . Her commodifying and performance of this refugee image has been noted to " reposition " perceptions of it in the wider public . Hailed as presenting a challenge to the mainstream with her ironic style , M.I.A. has been praised for dictating such a subcultural trend worldwide , combining " adolescent " frustrations of race and class with a strong desire to dance . Eddy Lawrence of Time Out commented how her multi genre style contributed to her being beloved of the broadsheet fashionistas yet simultaneously patron saint and pin @-@ up for the Day @-@ Glo nu @-@ rave kids . Similarly , Mary Beth Ray , in the book Rock Brands : Selling Sound in a Media Saturated Culture writes that M.I.A. ' s hybrid style addressed a number of social and political issues including power , violence , identity and survival in a globalized world , while using avenues that challenged " traditional " definitions of what it meant to be a contemporary pop artist .
M.I.A. was once denied entry into a Marc Jacobs party , but subsequently DJed at the designer 's 2008 fashion show afterparty , and modelled for " Marc by Marc Jacobs " in Spring / Summer 2008 . M.I.A. ' s fashion and style landed her on Vogue 's 10 Best Dressed of 2008 . She turned down her inclusion on People magazine 's list of the " 50 Most Beautiful People in the World " the same year . M.I.A. ' s status as a style icon , trendsetter and trailblazer is globally affirmed , with her distinct identity , style , and music illuminating social issues of gender , the third world , and popular music . Critics point out that such facets of her public persona underline the importance of authenticity , challenging the globalized popular music market , and demonstrating music 's strive to be political . Her albums have been met with acclaim , often heralded as " eclectic " for possessing a genre all their own , " packaging inherent politics in the form of pleasurable dance music . " M.I.A. ' s artistic efforts to connect this " extreme eclecticism " with issues of exile , war , violence and terrorism are both commended and criticized . Commentators laud M.I.A. ' s use and subversion of her refugee and migrant experiences , through the weaving of musical creativity , artwork and fashion with her personal life as having dispelled stereotypical notions of the immigrant experience . This gives her a unique place in popular music , while demanding new responses within popular music , media and fashion culture . M.I.A. has been the muse of designers Donatella Versace and Bartley and photographers Rankin and David Bailey , whose spread documents the British musicians who defined the sound and style of rock ' n ' roll . On 1 July 2012 Maya attended the Atelier Versace Show in Paris , wearing clothing inspired from the designer 's 1992 collection . In 2013 she released her own Versace Collection .
= = Accolades = =
M.I.A. ' s albums have generated widespread acclaim . PopMatters writer Rob Wheaton felt M.I.A. subverted the " abstract , organized , refined " distilling of violence in Western popular music and imagination and made her work represent much of the developing world 's decades @-@ long experiences of " arbitrary , unannounced , and spectacular " slaughter , deeming her work an " assault " with realism . Some detractors criticized M.I.A. early in her music career for " using radical chic " and for her attendance of an art school . Critic Simon Reynolds , writing in The Village Voice in 2005 saw this as a lack of authenticity and felt M.I.A. was " a veritable vortex of discourse , around most likely irresolvable questions concerning authenticity , postcolonialism , and dilettantism " . He continued that while swayed by her chutzpah and ability to deliver live , he " was also turned off by the stencil @-@ sprayed projection imagery of grenades , tanks , and so forth ( redolent of the Clash with their strife @-@ torn Belfast stage backdrops and Sandinista cred by association ) " while the " 99 percent white audience punched the air " , admonishing what he perceived as a " lack of local character " to her debut album .
Critic Robert Christgau described Reynolds ' argument as " cheap tack " in another article written in the publication , stating M.I.A 's experiences connected her to world poverty in a way " few Western whites can grasp " . He questioned why M.I.A. ' s 2001 Alternative Turner Prize nominated images of pastel @-@ washed tigers , soldiers , guns , armored vehicles , and fleeing civilians that bedeck M.I.A. ' s albums and videos were now assumed or analyzed as being incendiary propaganda , suggesting that unlike art buyers , rock and roll fans were " assumed to be stupid " . Reynolds later argued that M.I.A. was the " Artist of the Decade " in a 2009 issue of The Guardian . Music culture writer Michael Meyer opined that M.I.A. ' s record imagery , lyrical booklets , homepages and videos supported the " image of provocation yet also avoidance of , or inability to use consistent images and messages . " Instead of catering to stereotypes , he felt that M.I.A. " played with them " creating an uncategorizable and hence unsettling result . Critic Zach Baron felt that it had been shown in her career that M.I.A. had " always been adept at using a larger force against itself . " M.I.A. has been hailed as demonstrating dislocation to be a " productive site of departure " and praised for her ability to transform such a " disadvantage " into a creative form of expression .
= = Social causes = =
= = = Activism = = =
M.I.A. ' s commentary on the oppression of Sri Lankan Tamils , Palestinians and African Americans has drawn praise and criticism . The United States has restricted her access into and out of the country during her career since the release of her debut album . M.I.A. notes that the voicelessness she felt as a child dictated her role as a refugee advocate and voice lender to civilians in war during her career .
M.I.A. attributes much of her success to the " homeless , rootlessness " of her early life . Due to her and her family being displaced from Sri Lanka because of the Civil War , M.I.A. has become a refugee icon . The EMP Museum 's 2008 Pop Conference featured paper submissions and discussions on M.I.A. presented on the theme of " Shake , Rattle : Music , Conflict , and Change . " She has used networking sites such as Twitter and MySpace to discuss and highlight the human rights abuses and war crimes that Sri Lanka is accused of perpetrating against Tamils , citing news articles , human rights group reports , government reports , her own experiences as a child and on her return to the island in 2001 to support calls for a ceasefire . M.I.A. has also used a great deal of tiger print and imagery , a symbol for the Tamil Tigers in both album artwork and music videos , such as seen in " Galang " . Being the only Tamil widely known in Western media , M.I.A. has discussed how she feels a responsibility to represent the Tamil minority . M.I.A. has spoken of discussions with witnesses during and after the war as reinforcing the need for international intervention to protect and provide justice to Tamil people . As the 2009 Tamil diaspora protests gathered pace , she joined other activists in condemning the actions of the Sri Lankan government against the Tamil populace as a slow " systematic " genocide . Telling TIME that she didn 't see anything wrong in sticking up for 300 @,@ 000 trapped and dying people , M.I.A. stated that international governments were privy to Sri Lanka 's use of widespread censorship and propaganda on the rebellion during the island 's civil war to aid its impunity in numerous atrocities on civilians , but had no will to end it . Sri Lanka 's Foreign Secretary denied that his country perpetrated genocide , responding that he felt M.I.A. was " misinformed " and that " it 's best she stays with what she 's good at , which is music , not politics . " She has also appeared on Real Time with Bill Maher , as well as other television networks , to discuss the issues in Sri Lanka and critique the Sri Lankan government and their censorship of the media .
Consequently , she has been accused of being a " terrorist sympathiser " and " LTTE supporter " by the Sri Lankan government , even by public figures such as Oprah Winfrey , as was stated in a Rolling Stone magazine article , where the singer recalled their exchange : " She shut me down . She took that photo of me , but she was just like , ‘ I can ’ t talk to you because you ’ re crazy and you ’ re a terrorist . And I ’ m like , ‘ I ’ m not . I ’ m a Tamil and there are people dying in my country and you have to like look at it because you ’ re fucking Oprah and every American told me you ’ re going to save the world . "
Two weeks before his death , the Tigers ' Political Head B. Nadesan told Indian magazine , The Week , that he felt that M.I.A. ' s humanitarianism had been a source of strength to Eelam Tamils and fearless , knowingly amidst the " all @-@ powerful Sri Lankan propaganda machinery that demonises any one who speaks for the Tamils . " Miranda Sawyer of The Observer highlighted that M.I.A. was emotional and that this could be limiting her , stating that while she was well informed , " you 're not meant to get involved when giving information out about war " , and that the difficulty for M.I.A. was that the world " doesn 't really care . "
Hate mail , including death threats directed at M.I.A. and her son , has followed her activism , which she also cited as an influence on the songs on her album Maya .
In 2008 , M.I.A. filmed from her Bed Stuy apartment window and posted on YouTube an incident involving a black man being apprehended by white policemen , which in light of the Sean Bell shooting incident , elicited commentary debating the force used for the arrest . She has spoken of the combined effects that news corporations and search engine Google have on news and data collection , while stressing the need for alternative news sources that she felt her son 's generation would need in order to ascertain truth . She told Nylon magazine that social networking site Facebook and Google 's development " by the CIA " was harmful to internet freedom . Some criticized the claim as lacking detail .
In 2010 , M.I.A. voiced her fears of the influence of video game violence on her son and his generation , saying , " I don 't know which is worse . The fact that I saw it in my life has maybe given me lots of issues , but there 's a whole generation of American kids seeing violence on their computer screens and then getting shipped off to Afghanistan . They feel like they know the violence when they don 't . Not having a proper understanding of violence , especially what it 's like on the receiving end of it , just makes you interpret it wrong and makes inflicting violence easier . "
On 20 November 2013 M.I.A. appeared on The Colbert Report and was asked by host Stephen Colbert what she thought of America . Trying to be gentle , Maya ultimately responded with , " Well you know , in my mind , there 's no countries , you know it 's like ; we 're all one , we all live on this planet . "
On 2 December 2013 Time asked M.I.A. who she would pick for its " Person of the Year " and she said her pick would be N.S.A. whistleblower Edward Snowden . On 8 July 2016 Maya tweeted a YouTube video of an episode of Edward Snowden on the HBO show " VICE " entitled " State of Surveillance " which discusses abilities of governments to hack into cellular phones . MIAuniverse ( 8 July 2016 ) . " ' State of Surveillance ' with Edward Snowden " ( Tweet ) .
M.I.A. has also been outspoken about the police killings of citizens in the United States . On 12 July 2016 she posted an article to Twitter showing that more US citizens have been killed by police than military personnel since September 11 , 2001 . MIAuniverse ( 12 July 2016 ) . " " Shock Report : More Americans Killed by Police Since 9 / 11 than Soldiers Killed in War " " ( Tweet ) .
= = = Politics = = =
M.I.A. endorsed candidate Jan Jananayagam at the 2009 European Parliament election , a last @-@ minute candidate standing on a platform of anti @-@ genocide , civil liberties , financial transparency , the environment and women 's rights , who became one of the most successful independent election candidates ever despite her loss in the general election . In 2010 , she condemned the Chinese Government 's role in supporting and supplying arms to the Sri Lankan government during the conflict in an interview with music magazine Mondomix , stating that China 's influence within the UN was preventing prosecutions of war crimes committed during the conflict . In October 2009 , she stated that the President of the United States Barack Obama should give back his 2009 Nobel Peace Prize " like John Lennon sent back his MBE . " She said in one interview , playing on the famous Lennon phrase " Give Peace a Chance " - " I 'm a bit beyond being an artist who says , ' Give peace a chance . ' Part of me is like , ' Give war a chance , ' just to stir it up , you know what I mean ? " . Following the 2011 United Kingdom anti @-@ austerity protests and the 2011 London riots , during which her cousin 's jewellery shop in Croydon was attacked and looted , M.I.A. criticised the UK Government 's response to the rioters as failing to address the root causes of them . She recalled the importance of a council funded youth worker she had in her school years and the use of tax money to incentivise a new business job creation program amongst the working class . She stated that the top forty companies in Britain who banked offshore should be made to pay taxes in the UK and " cut the poor people some slack . "
M.I.A. has been a supporter of WikiLeaks and Julian Assange . In her own book , M.I.A. wrote regarding Wikileaks , " So obviously I love Wikileaks because , after I ’ d gone through the whole backlash , they were the first news information site to confirm any news on the Sri Lankan war in the truest form ; they were the first to release information stating the truth about what had happened to the Tamils as I knew it and to reveal that the United Nations was aware that the Sri Lankan government was lying — war crimes had been committed but their hands were tied because any time anyone tried to impose sanctions , governments would walk out . I support Wikileaks because of that . " She composed the theme to Assange 's television show The World Tomorrow and later stood by Assange 's side as he held a press conference at the Ecuadorian Embassy in London where Assange was successfully granted political asylum by Ecuador in August 2012 . " I ask President Obama to do the right thing . The United States must renounce its witch hunt against WikiLeaks , " Assange said at the press conference . She posted a photo of Assange from within the embassy , and later tweeted , " hummmm after this day 2things have 2 happen ..... , either 500 cops turn up outside every rape case reported even if it 's without charge. or we get raped by the powerz that be and we deal 4eva . " The tweets were in reference to an arrest warrant the Swedish Prosecutor 's Office issued in August 2010 for Assange on two charges : rape and molestation . Earlier in 2012 Britain 's Supreme Court denied an appeal by Assange to avoid extradition to Sweden to face these charges . In November 2013 , Assange appeared via Skype to open M.I.A. ' s New York City concert . Also , on 18 September 2014 Maya tweeted a link to a documentary on YouTube entitled " The Internet 's Own Boy : Aaron Swartz " . The documentary is about the life of Aaron Swartz , who was a computer programmer , writer , political organizer and Internet hacktivist . In the same tweet Maya included a link and invitation to RSVP to a party to launch Julian Assange 's new book " When Google Met WikiLeaks " .
Ann Powers , in conversation with Billboard revealed that in trying to handle political issues and creating art , the musician did not want to compromise or keep silent . She notes that this method worked for The Clash , but that this was at a certain time and a certain place , that they benefitted from being a band , and that audiences were more used to seeing men being confrontational . Conversely , Denise Sullivan writing in Keep on Pushing : Black Power Music from Blues to Hip @-@ Hop ( 2011 ) , noted that in contrast to other rock musicians , M.I.A. furthered the legacy of The Clash , " creating a controversy while doing so " . Critic Jon Dolan of Spin noted M.I.A. may be a " confused revolutionary ? brilliant provocateur ? " and one of the most polarising yet thrilling figures in pop music today . Sarahanna , writing in Impose magazine cited composer Igor Stravinsky in describing M.I.A. ' s role as an artist who challenged the audience into breaking their mind from a conservative cycle of familiarity . Baron writing in the Village Voice felt that although M.I.A. ' s bloodline , politics and grievance meant that she was more informed than most and gave her " every right to be a partisan and were reason for caution , " he praised her efforts for leading thousands of American writers including himself to know of the situation in Sri Lanka as " brilliant " , noting her mainly humanitarian angle in her protesting of civilian casualties that had been vastly and disproportionately inflicted on Sri Lanka 's Tamil minority and her courage in " putting her success and fame on the line to use every opportunity and avenue possible to remind Americans and people around the globe of this conflict " is pretty much the most admirable thing going in pop music .
= = = Media = = =
M.I.A. ' s relationship with some media outlets has been controversial . M.I.A. confronted Pitchforkmedia in 2007 , citing sexism and racist mechanisms as possible reasons for misattribution of some of her work in her career . In 2010 , M.I.A. tweeted " Fuck the New York Times , " after The New York Times published a critical article by Lynn Hirschberg about M.I.A. and the conflict that portrayed the musician as politically naive and hypocritical . Both M.I.A. and several pop culture media outlets were highly critical of Hirschberg 's article and reporting . Hirschberg later published a correction , apologizing for reporting quotes made by the artist out of order . Rob Horning , writing for PopMatters , believed that Hirschberg 's incorrect quotes were a deliberate effort to defame the artist . M.I.A. responded on her Twitter account , posting of a telephone number and asking followers to call in and give feedback on the piece , and the revelatory content of the conversations , which she secretly taped . In 2010 , she expressed disappointment that Wikileaks distributed their documents to other news publications – including the New York Times — to gain wider coverage , as she stated their " way of reporting " did not work .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
M.I.A. supports a number of charities , both publicly and privately . She funded Youth Action International to help youth break out of cycles of violence and poverty in war torn African communities and set up school @-@ building projects in Liberia in 2006 . She supports the Unstoppable Foundation , cofunding the establishment of the Becky Primary School in Liberia . During her visit to Liberia she met the then President of Liberia and rehabilitated ex @-@ child soldiers . She also appeared as part of a humanitarian mission there , hosting a " 4Real " TV @-@ series documentary on the post @-@ war situation in the country with activist Kimmie Weeks . Following her performance at the 2008 MTV Movie Awards afterparty , she donated her performance fee to building more schools in the country , telling the crowd , " It costs to build a school for 1 @,@ 000 . " Winning the 2008 Official Soundclash Championships ( iPod Battle ) with her " M.I.A. and Friends " team , 20 % of the following year 's championship ticket sales were donated to her Liberian school building projects .
M.I.A. has also donated to The Pablove Foundation to fund paediatric cancer research , aid cancer families , and improve the quality of life for children living with cancer through creative arts programmes . In 2009 , she supported the " Mercy Mission to Vanni " aid ship , destined to send civilian aid from Britain to Vanni and controversially blocked from reaching its destination . The country 's navy announced that it would fire on any ship that entered its waters , and M.I.A. was singled out on the Sri Lankan army 's official website after the singer announced her support for the campaign . In 2011 , following her performance at the Roskilde Festival , she donated from the Roskilde Festival Charity Society to help bring justice to Tamil victims of war crimes and genocide and to aid advocacy and ensure legal rights for refugees and witnesses .
= = Personal life = =
After M.I.A. approached American DJ Diplo at the Fabric Club in London , the two were romantically involved for five years .
From 2006 to 2008 , M.I.A. lived in the Bedford @-@ Stuyvesant neighborhood of Brooklyn , New York , where she met Benjamin Bronfman ( a.k.a. Benjamin Brewer ) , an environmentalist , founder of Green Owl , musician and member of the Bronfman family and Lehman family . They became engaged and she gave birth to their son , Ikhyd Edgar Arular Bronfman , on 13 February 2009 , just three days after performing at the Grammy Awards . In February 2012 , it was announced that she and Bronfman had split . In a 2013 interview with Ferrari Sheppard , M.I.A. commented on her relationship with Bronfman and his family 's wealth : " I think it ’ s weird . It ’ s not that I got with Ben and then suddenly I was a billionaire . You know ? I got with Ben , and I realised that we do come from different worlds , but it ’ s interesting that it is more about the concepts of , again , elitism and power . Who Ben is on paper sounds way more powerful than who I am because of where he comes from . "
= = Discography = =
Arular ( 2005 )
Kala ( 2007 )
Maya ( 2010 )
Matangi ( 2013 )
A.I.M. ( 2016 )
= = Tours = =
Arular Tour ( 2005 )
Kala Tour ( 2007 )
People vs. Money Tour ( 2008 )
Maya Tour ( 2010 )
Matangi Tour ( 2013 @-@ 2014 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Tewkesbury Medieval Festival =
The Tewkesbury Medieval Festival is a medieval fair held over the second weekend of every July near the town of Tewkesbury , United Kingdom . Its main feature is the re @-@ enactment of the Battle of Tewkesbury , which was fought in 1471 . Located on parts of the ground where the original battle was fought , the festival also features a medieval camp , in which traders ply their wares and visitors are entertained by musicians and acrobats . The largest medieval fair in the United Kingdom , the Tewkesbury Medieval Festival was listed in Footprint England as one of the " ten most bizarre festivals " in the country .
= = Background = =
The Tewkesbury Medieval Festival started in 1984 as a simple fair with 10 stalls , a beer tent , and a small @-@ scale re @-@ enactment of the Battle of Tewkesbury , which was originally fought in 1471 near the town of Tewkesbury , United Kingdom . The festival became a regular celebration held over the second weekend of every July on parts of the original battlefield . In 2005 , the organisers — a group of local re @-@ enactors named the Companions of the Black Bear — registered the event as a company to facilitate the application of grants and their protection . Besides the re @-@ enactment and the camp , the festival offers guided walks of the battlefield . Since its start , the event has expanded to become the largest medieval fair in the United Kingdom . Attendance of the festival is open to all , but participation as a re @-@ enactor is by invitation only . The sight of hundreds of men dressed as medieval soldiers and fighting in a battle led Footprint England to list the event as one of the " ten most bizarre festivals " in the country .
= = Re @-@ enactment of the Battle of Tewkesbury = =
The festival 's main feature is its re @-@ enactment of the Battle of Tewkesbury , which was fought on 4 May 1471 between the Houses of York and Lancaster . The engagement was a decisive victory for the Yorkists and their leader , King Edward IV . The forces of the House of Lancaster were decimated , and their leaders killed or captured , leaving Edward as the unchallenged ruler of England . Several Lancastrians fled the battlefield and sought sanctuary at Tewkesbury Abbey . The Yorkists stormed the abbey , captured their foes , and executed them .
The re @-@ enactment at the first festival was a simple affair compared to later years : approximately 100 local enthusiasts , kitted out in crude imitations of medieval gear , fought each other on the fields of Tewkesbury . They wore woollen chainmail or armour made of fibreglass . Their swords and pole arms were made from wood ; arrows were rolled @-@ up wallpaper . As the festival became more popular over the years , the scale and quality of the re @-@ enactment changed . Re @-@ enactors from other parts of the United Kingdom joined the event , as well as those from Poland , Germany and other European countries . The armour and weapons used in the later years were faithful steel reproductions that could cost thousands of pounds sterling ( £ ) . By 2002 , the Battle of Tewkesbury was re @-@ enacted by approximately 2 @,@ 000 men and women , and the British Broadcasting Corporation called the next year 's re @-@ enactment the largest in Europe . Aside from the battle , the storming of Tewkesbury Abbey is also re @-@ enacted during the festival . The subsequent trial and execution of the prisoners are acted out in a mock fashion .
= = Medieval camp = =
Since 2002 , the festival has been more than a small setup of stalls . It has grown to be a camp of up to 120 stalls , where life in medieval times is enacted by participants of the battle and their families . The beer tent is a regular fixture , and the stalls peddle herbs , sweets , and food . Entertainers , such as acrobats , fire @-@ eaters , and jugglers , wander the area , performing their arts . Musicians and dancers also entertain visitors . Re @-@ enactors demonstrate pottery , yarn spinning , and other medieval craft . These enthusiasts come from foreign countries , such as Belarus and Hungary . The German Mittelalter rock band Schelmish has performed several times at the festival . Short bouts of simulated duels are performed in the camp and a jousting tournament was also featured . The festival has attracted visitors from as far as New Zealand and the west coast of the United States ; the local tabloid quoted an estimate of 25 @,@ 000 visitors to the festival in 2003 .
= = Town of Tewkesbury = =
Although the town council of Tewkesbury plays no part in organising the festival , it has supported the event by giving it grants ( the amount for 2005 and 2008 was £ 1 @,@ 000 each ) . Most of the money for organising the festival is recouped from " tithes paid by the [ stall holders ] " , which at times proved insufficient to cover the expenses ; the event was operating in the red for 2002 – 2004 . Under encouragement from the Companions of the Black Bear and the Chamber of Commerce , the town 's traders support the event by decorating their shops and dressing up in medieval @-@ period costumes . The pubs and restaurants serve medieval @-@ style fare as well . A free bus service connects the town and the festival .
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= Pasty =
A pasty ( / ˈpæsti / , Cornish : Pasti ) is a baked pastry , a traditional variety of which is particularly associated with Cornwall , in the United Kingdom . It is made by placing an uncooked filling , typically meat and vegetables , on one half of a flat shortcrust pastry circle , folding the pastry in half to wrap the filling in a semicircle and crimping the curved edge to form a seal before baking .
The traditional Cornish pasty , which since 2011 has Protected Geographical Indication ( PGI ) status in Europe , is filled with beef , sliced or diced potato , swede ( also known as yellow turnip or rutabaga – referred to in Cornwall as turnip ) and onion , seasoned with salt and pepper , and is baked . Today , the pasty is the food most associated with Cornwall . It is regarded as the national dish and accounts for 6 % of the Cornish food economy . Pasties with many different fillings are made and some shops specialise in selling all sorts of pasties .
The origins of the pasty are unclear , though there are many references to them throughout historical documents and fiction . The pasty is now popular world @-@ wide due to the spread of Cornish miners , and variations can be found in Australia , the United States , Argentina , Mexico , Ulster and elsewhere .
= = History = =
Despite the modern pasty 's strong association with Cornwall , its exact origins are unclear . The English word " pasty " derives from Medieval French ( O.Fr. paste from V.Lat pasta ) for a pie , filled with venison , salmon or other meat , vegetables or cheese , baked without a dish . Pasties have been mentioned in cookbooks throughout the ages . For example , the earliest version of Le Viandier ( Old French ) has been dated to around 1300 and contains several pasty recipes . In 1393 , Le Menagier de Paris contains recipes for pasté with venison , veal , beef , or mutton .
Other early references to pasties include a 13th @-@ century charter that was granted by Henry III ( 1207 – 1272 ) to the town of Great Yarmouth . The town is bound to send to the sheriffs of Norwich every year one hundred herrings , baked in twenty four pasties , which the sheriffs are to deliver to the lord of the manor of East Carlton who is then to convey them to the King . Around the same time , 13th @-@ century chronicler Matthew Paris wrote of the monks of St Albans Abbey " according to their custom , lived upon pasties of flesh @-@ meat " . A total of 5 @,@ 500 venison pasties were served at the installation feast of George Neville , archbishop of York and chancellor of England in 1465 . They were even eaten by royalty , as a letter from a baker to Henry VIII 's third wife , Jane Seymour ( 1508 – 1537 ) confirms : " ... hope this pasty reaches you in better condition than the last one ... " In his diaries written in the mid @-@ 17th century , Samuel Pepys makes several references to his consumption of pasties , for instance " dined at Sir W. Pen ’ s ... on a damned venison pasty , that stunk like a devil . " , but after this period the use of the word outside Cornwall declined .
In contrast to its earlier place amongst the wealthy , during the 17th and 18th centuries , the pasty became popular with working people in Cornwall , where tin miners and others adopted it due to its unique shape , forming a complete meal that could be carried easily and eaten without cutlery . In a mine , the pasty 's dense , folded pastry could stay warm for several hours , and if it did get cold , it could easily be warmed on a shovel over a candle .
Side @-@ crimped pasties gave rise to the suggestion that the miner might have eaten the pasty holding the thick edge of pastry , which was later discarded , thereby ensuring that his dirty fingers ( possibly including traces of arsenic ) did not touch food or his mouth . However , many old photographs show that pasties were wrapped in bags made of paper or muslin and were eaten from end @-@ to @-@ end ; according to the earliest Cornish recipe book , published in 1929 , this is " the true Cornish way " to eat a pasty . Another theory suggests that pasties were marked at one end with an initial and then eaten from the other end so that if not finished in one go , they could easily be reclaimed by their owners .
In 2006 , a researcher in Devon discovered a list of ingredients for a pasty tucked inside an audit book and dated 1510 , calculating the cost of making a venison pasty . This replaced the previous oldest recipe , dated 1746 , held by the Cornwall Records Office in Truro , Cornwall . The dish at the time was cooked with venison , in this case from the Mount Edgcumbe estate , as the pasty was then considered a luxury meal . Alongside the ledger , which included the price of the pasty in Plymouth , Devon , in 1509 , the discovery sparked a controversy between the neighbouring counties of Devon and Cornwall as to the origin of the dish . However , the term pasty appears in much earlier written records from other parts of the country , as mentioned above .
= = Cornish pasty = =
The pasty is regarded as the national dish of Cornwall , and the term " Cornish pasty " has been in use since at least the early 1860s :
The Cornish pasty , which so admirably comprises a dinner in itself — meat , potatoes , and other good things well cooked and made up into so portable a form — was a subject of much admiration , and reminded me of the old coaching days , when I secured a pasty at Bodmin in order to take it home to my cook , that it might be dissected and serve as a pattern for Cornish pasties in quite another part of the country .
Cornish pasties are very popular with the workingclasses in this neighbourhood , and have lately been successfully introduced into some parts of Devonshire . They are made of small pieces of beef , and thin slices of potatoe , highly peppered , and enclosed in wrappers of paste .
By the late 19th century , national cookery schools began to teach their pupils to create their own version of a " Cornish pasty " that was smaller , and was to be eaten as an " economical savoury nibble for polite middle @-@ class Victorians " .
On 20 July 2011 , after a nine @-@ year campaign by the Cornish Pasty Association – the trade organisation of about 50 pasty makers based in Cornwall – the name " Cornish pasty " was awarded Protected Geographical Indication ( PGI ) status by the European Commission . According to the PGI status , a Cornish pasty should be shaped like a ‘ D ’ and crimped on one side , not on the top . Its ingredients should include beef , swede ( called turnip in Cornwall ) , potato and onion , with a light seasoning of salt and pepper , keeping a chunky texture . The pastry should be golden and retain its shape when cooked and cooled . The PGI status also means that Cornish pasties must be prepared in Cornwall . They do not have to be baked in Cornwall , nor do the ingredients have to come from the county , though the Cornish Pasty Association ( CPA ) noted that there are strong links between pasty production and local suppliers of the ingredients . Packaging for pasties that conform to the requirements include an authentication stamp , the use of which is policed by the CPA .
Producers outside Cornwall objected to the PGI award , with one saying " [ EU bureaucrats could ] go to hell " , and another that it was " protectionism for some big pasty companies to churn out a pastiche of the real iconic product " . Major UK supermarkets Asda and Morrisons both stated they would be affected by the change , as did nationwide bakery chain Greggs , though Greggs was one of seven companies allowed to continue to use the name " Cornish pasty " during a three @-@ year transitional period .
Members of the CPA made about 87 million pasties in 2008 , amounting to sales of £ 60 million ( about 6 % of the food economy of Cornwall ) . In 2011 , over 1 @,@ 800 permanent staff were employed by members of the CPA and some 13 @,@ 000 other jobs benefited from the trade . Surveys by the South West tourism board have shown that one of the top three reasons people visit Cornwall is the food and that the Cornish pasty is the food most associated with Cornwall .
Michael Ball , a Cornish @-@ born businessman who is chief executive of WMC Retail Partners , Oxfordshire , is planning to establish a Cornish pasty museum at Cornish Market World near St Austell . He hopes to collect pasty @-@ making artifacts and memorabilia for the museum .
= = Recipes and ingredients = =
The recipe for a Cornish pasty , as defined by its protected status , includes diced or minced beef , onion , potato and swede in rough chunks along with some " light peppery " seasoning . The cut of beef used is generally skirt steak . Swede is sometimes called turnip in Cornwall , but the recipe requires use of actual swede , not turnip . Pasty ingredients are usually seasoned with salt and pepper , depending on individual taste . The use of carrot in a traditional Cornish pasty is frowned upon , though it does appear regularly in recipes .
The type of pastry used is not defined , as long as it is golden in colour and will not crack during the cooking or cooling , although modern pasties almost always use a shortcrust pastry . There is a humorous belief that the pastry on a good pasty should be strong enough to withstand a drop down a mine shaft , and indeed the barley flour that was usually used does make hard dense pastry .
= = = Variations = = =
Although the officially protected Cornish pasty has a specific ingredients list , old Cornish cookery books show that pasties were generally made from whatever food was available . Indeed , the earliest recorded pasty recipes include venison , not beef . " Pasty " has always been a generic name for the shape and can contain a variety of fillings , including stilton , vegetarian and even chicken tikka . Pork and apple pasties are readily available in shops throughout Cornwall and Devon , with the ingredients including an apple flavoured sauce , mixed together throughout the pasty , as well as sweet pasties with ingredients such as apple and fig or chocolate and banana , which are common in some areas of Cornwall .
A part @-@ savoury , part @-@ sweet pasty ( similar to the Bedfordshire clanger ) was eaten by miners in the 19th century , in the copper mines on Parys Mountain , Anglesey . The technician who did the research and discovered the recipe claimed that the recipe was probably taken to Anglesey by Cornish miners travelling to the area looking for work . No two @-@ course pasties are commercially produced in Cornwall today , but are usually the product of amateur cooks . They are , however , commercially available in the British supermarket chain Morrisons ( under the name ' Tin Miner Pasty ' ) . Other traditional fillings have included a wide variety of locally available meats including pork , bacon , egg , rabbit , chicken , mackerel and sweet fillings such as dates , apples , jam and sweetened rice - leading to the oft @-@ quoted joke that ' the Devil hisself was afeared to cross over into Cornwall for fear that ee 'd end up in a pasty ' .
A pasty is known as a " tiddy oggy " when steak is replaced with an extra potato , " tiddy " meaning potato and " oggy " meaning pasty and was eaten when times were hard and expensive meat could not be afforded . Another traditional meatless recipe is ' herby pie ' with parsley , freshly gathered wild green herbs and chives , ramsons or leeks and a spoonful of clotted cream .
= = = Shape = = =
Whilst the PGI rules state that a Cornish pasty must be a " D " shape , with crimping along the curve ( i.e. , side @-@ crimped ) , crimping is variable within Cornwall , with some advocating a side crimp while others maintain that a top crimp is more authentic .
Some sources state that the difference between a Devon and Cornish pasty is that a Devon pasty has a top @-@ crimp and is oval in shape , whereas the Cornish pasty is semicircular and side @-@ crimped along the curve . However , pasties with a top crimp have been made in Cornwall for generations , yet those Cornish bakers who favour this method now find that they cannot legally call their pasties " Cornish " .
= = In other regions = =
Migrating Cornish miners and their families ( colloquially known as Cousin Jacks and Cousin Jennies ) helped to spread pasties into the rest of the world during the 19th century . As tin mining in Cornwall began to decline , miners took their expertise and traditions to new mining regions around the world . As a result , pasties can be found in many regions , including :
Many parts of Australia , including the Yorke Peninsula , which has been the site of an annual pasty festival ( claimed to be the world 's largest ) since 1973 . A clarification of the Protected Geographical Status ruling has confirmed that pasties made in Australia are still allowed to be called " Cornish Pasties " .
The Upper Peninsula of Michigan . In some areas , pasties are a significant tourist attraction , including an annual Pasty Fest in Calumet , Michigan in late June . Pasties in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan have a particularly unusual history . Many ethnic groups adopted the pasty for use in the Copper Country copper mines ; the Finnish immigrants to the region mistook it for the traditional piiraat and kuuko pastries . The pasty has become strongly associated with all cultures in this area , and in the similar Iron Range in northern Minnesota .
Mineral Point , Wisconsin , was the site of the first mineral rush in the USA during the 1830s . After lead was discovered in Mineral Point , many of the early miners migrated from Cornwall to this south @-@ western Wisconsin area . Those Cornish miners brought their skills working in the deep underground tin mines of Cornwall . They also brought their recipe and appetite for the pasty .
A similar local history about the arrival of the pasty in the area with an influx of Welsh and Cornish miners to the area 's copper mines , and its preservation as a local delicacy , is found in Butte , Montana , " The Richest Hill On Earth " .
The Anthracite regions of northeastern Pennsylvania , including the cities of Wilkes @-@ Barre , Scranton , and Hazleton , had an influx of miners to the area in the 1800s and brought the pasty with them . To this day , pasties are still a local favourite . In 1981 , a Pennsylvania entrepreneur started marketing pasties under the brand name Mr. Pastie .
The Mexican state of Hidalgo , and the twin silver mining cities of Pachuca and Real del Monte ( Mineral del Monte ) , have notable Cornish influences from the Cornish miners who settled there , with pasties being considered typical local cuisine . In Mexican Spanish , they are referred to as pastes . The town of Real del Monte in Mexico is the site of a museum of pasties .
They are also popular in South Africa , New Zealand and Ulster .
= = Culture = =
= = = Literature = = =
Pasties have been mentioned in multiple literary works since the 12th century Arthurian romance Erec and Enide , written by Chrétien de Troyes , in which they are eaten by characters from the area now known as Cornwall . There is a mention in Havelok the Dane , another romance written at the end of the thirteenth century ; in the 14th century Robin Hood tales ; in Chaucer 's The Canterbury Tales ; and in three plays by William Shakespeare .
Pasties appear in many novels , used to draw parallels or represent Cornwall . In American Gods by Neil Gaiman , main character Shadow discovers pasties at Mabel 's restaurant in the fictional town of Lakeside . The food is mentioned as being popularised in America by Cornishmen , as a parallel to how gods are " brought over " to America in the rest of the story . Another literature reference takes place in The Cat Who ... series by Lilian Jackson Braun . Pasties are referred to as a cultural part of the north country , and Jim Qwilleran often eats at The Nasty Pasty , a popular restaurant in fictional Moose County , famous for its tradition of being a mining settlement . Reference to pasties is made in Brian Jacques ' popular Redwall series of novels , where it is a staple favourite on the menu to the mice and hares of Redwall Abbey . Pasties also appear in the Poldark series of historical novels of Cornwall , by Winston Graham , as well as the BBC television series adapted from these works .
= = = Superstitions , rhymes and chants = = =
In the tin mines of Devon and Cornwall , pasties were associated with " knockers " , spirits said to create a knocking sound that was either supposed to indicate the location of rich veins of ore , or to warn of an impending tunnel collapse . To encourage the good will of the knockers , miners would leave a small part of the pasty within the mine for them to eat . Sailors and fisherman would likewise discard a crust to appease the spirits of dead mariners , though fishermen believed that it was bad luck to take a pasty aboard ship .
A Cornish proverb , recounted in 1861 , emphasised the great variety of ingredients that were used in pasties by saying that the devil would not come into Cornwall for fear of ending up as a filling in one . A West Country schoolboy playground @-@ rhyme current in the 1940s concerning the pasty went :
Matthew , Mark , Luke and John , ate a pasty five feet long ,
Bit it once , Bit it twice , Oh my Lord , it 's full of mice .
In 1959 the English singer @-@ songwriter Cyril Tawney wrote a nostalgic song called " The Oggie Man " . The song tells of the pasty @-@ seller with his characteristic vendor 's call who was always outside Plymouth 's Devonport Naval Dockyard gates late at night when the sailors were returning , and his replacement by hot dog sellers after World War II .
The word " oggy " in the internationally popular chant " Oggy Oggy Oggy , Oi Oi Oi " is thought to stem from Cornish dialect " hoggan " , deriving from " hogen " the Cornish word for pasty . When the pasties were ready for eating , the bal maidens at the mines would supposedly shout down the shaft " Oggy Oggy Oggy " and the miners would reply " Oi Oi Oi " .
= = = Giant pasties = = =
As the national dish of Cornwall , several oversized versions of the pasty have been created in the county . For example , a giant pasty is paraded from Polruan to Fowey through the streets during regatta week . Similarly , a giant pasty is paraded around the ground of the Cornish Pirates rugby team on St Piran 's Day before it is passed over the goal posts .
The world 's largest Cornish pasty was made in August 2010 , measuring 4 @.@ 6 metres ( 15 ft ) and weighing 860 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 900 lb ) . It was created by " Proper Cornish " bakers , using 165 kg ( 364 lb ) of beef , 180 lb ( 82 kg ) of swede , 100 lb ( 45 kg ) of potatoes and 75 lb ( 34 kg ) of onions . The pasty was estimated to cost £ 7 @,@ 000 and contain 1 @.@ 75 million calories .
= = Gallery = =
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= She Has a Name =
She Has a Name is a play about human trafficking written by Andrew Kooman in 2009 as a single act and expanded to full length in 2010 . It is about the trafficking of children into sexual slavery and was inspired by the deaths of 54 people in the Ranong human @-@ trafficking incident . Kooman had previously published literature , but this was his first full @-@ length play . The stage premiere of She Has a Name was directed by Stephen Waldschmidt in Calgary , Alberta in February 2011 . From May to October 2012 , She Has a Name toured across Canada . In conjunction with the tour , A Better World raised money to help women and children who had been trafficked in Thailand as part of the country 's prostitution industry . The first performances of She Has a Name in the United States took place in Folsom , California in 2014 under the direction of Emma Eldridge , who was a 23 @-@ year @-@ old college student at the time .
The script calls for five actors to portray ten characters . The two main characters are Jason , a young Canadian lawyer ; and Number 18 , a young female prostitute who claims to be fifteen years old and has been a prostitute for six years . The drama centers on Jason 's infiltration of a brothel ring that is trafficking girls into Bangkok . Jason comes to believe that Number 18 could be a key witness to a human trafficking incident and tries to gain her trust and persuade her to testify against the ring . The victimized child in the play is known only by the number 18 to reflect that traffickers often dehumanize their victims by giving them a new name or simply a number , which in some cases is branded onto the victim 's body . Waldschmidt said he hoped that She Has a Name will educate Canadians about human trafficking and motivate them to act on what they learn , thereby turning them into anti @-@ sexual slavery activists .
She Has a Name received strong endorsement from Canadian activists , including MP Joy Smith , Ratanak International 's Brian McConaghy , and IJM Canada 's Jamie McIntosh . The play 's premiere and initial run were critically acclaimed . In the 2012 tour across Canada , She Has a Name was performed in several fringe theatre festivals , at which critics representing the Montreal Gazette , the Winnipeg Free Press , and CFEQ @-@ FM said it stood out for its quality and moral content .
= = Background = =
She Has a Name was the first full @-@ length play by Andrew Kooman , a playwright and author from Alberta in western Canada . He began work on it in 2008 and finished a one @-@ act version by 2009 , writing under the guidance of a dramaturge at a Scripts At Work workshop at Red Deer College . He drew on his experiences working with a Canadian film crew in Thailand in 2006 . He intended to extend the script into a full @-@ length play eventually . Kooman had previously written other literary works , including the young @-@ adult novel Ten Silver Coins : The Drylings of Acchora , and two plays , Shelter and Joseph , that had been selected for development at Scripts At Work workshops .
Kooman first became aware of human trafficking while he was working for the nonprofit organization Youth With A Mission ( YWAM ) in southeast Malaysia , where he met children who had been trafficked . Kooman later realized that people are also trafficked in Canada . Kooman wrote She Has a Name with the intention of bringing attention to this issue , specifically in connection with sexual exploitation .
To ground the play in reality , Kooman researched human trafficking and met with survivors . He read about the Ranong human @-@ trafficking incident , in which 121 people were trafficked from Burma to Thailand and left in a locked water tank , which was then abandoned by its drivers and discovered only after 54 of the people had died from suffocation or hyperthermia . The truck carrying the water tank had been abandoned because it ran out of fuel . When the truck was discovered in April 2008 , it contained men , women , and children . Knowing that many of the impoverished girls who are smuggled in this manner become enslaved in brothels as child prostitutes , Kooman used the incident in the backstory of the play .
In January 2010 , there was a full reading of the one @-@ act version of the play . Despite an unfinished script and a performance by amateur actors , it evoked a strong response from the audience . Later that year , Stephen Waldschmidt , an artistic associate of Burnt Thicket Theatre , asked to read the script of She Has a Name , and later said he could not put it down . He was initially reluctant to attach himself to the play because of the immensity and ugliness of the issues therein , but he ultimately worked with Kooman to expand it into a full @-@ length play with an extra hour of material by the end of 2010 . The result is a play that can be performed in 90 minutes but may last up to two hours . Burnt Thicket Theatre served as the play 's initial production company .
= = Characters = =
There are ten characters in She Has a Name , but the script calls for only five actors , four female and one male . The main characters are Jason and Number 18 . Jason is a young , Canadian lawyer with experience in corporate law . He found this work unsatisfying , so he started working in international human rights law for the United Nations and a non @-@ governmental organization ( NGO ) that opposes sex trafficking . Number 18 — the play 's heroine — is a young , female prostitute who claims to be fifteen years old and has been a prostitute for six years . Ali is Jason 's wife , and they have two young daughters . Marta is Jason 's employer , who has become very tough from years of fighting for justice and who is now driven and stressed . The other characters are a pimp , who is unnamed , and his assistant , a cruel brothel keeper called Mama .
The script calls for one actor to play both male characters — Jason and the pimp . Jason and Number 18 are haunted by four voices . As poetic and prophetic voices , these characters serve much the same purpose as a chorus in Greek tragedies , according to reviewer Lana Michelin of the Red Deer Advocate . Variously considered angels or ghosts , the voices are written in the script to be played by the female actors who portray Number 18 , Marta , Ali , and Mama . While these voices sometimes emphasize the horrors of the sex industry , at other times , they offer comfort to Number 18 . It is only revealed at the play 's conclusion that the chorus is made up of dead child prostitutes .
= = Plot summary = =
A pimp rapes Number 18 in a bar , then enslaves her sexually . Number 18 's father died when she was young and her family struggled to support her thereafter . Strangers took her from her home in Cambodia as a child , replaced her name with a number , and prostituted her in various countries . Number 18 ends up in the Thai child prostitution industry . Most of her clients are rich men , many of them foreign tourists . In a brothel and bar called The Pearl , Number 18 is kept in a dark room containing only a table and a dilapidated bed . Whenever she fails to follow the orders of Mama , the brothel @-@ keeper , Mama shouts at her and beats her . Number 18 prays for a man to come and save her from these ordeals . At the same time she becomes the most elegant and highly sought @-@ after prostitute at The Pearl and her pimp 's favourite . She becomes very proficient in pleasing men sexually but also remains childlike — she dries her face with her skirt and plays with its hem .
Jason starts work with an NGO in Thailand , having left his wife and children in Canada and abandoned a lucrative job at his father @-@ in @-@ law 's legal firm . He communicates with his wife Ali over Skype . Jason 's first task is to find witnesses to or survivors from a human @-@ trafficking incident and then to shut down the brothels into which they have been trafficked ; his boss Marta sends him into the brothels as she cannot enter herself . His specific focus is an Asia @-@ wide brothel ring 's trafficking of girls into Bangkok for prostitution as part of the child sex tourism industry . An abandoned storage truck has been discovered containing the bodies of dead sex workers . Attempting to build a legal case against the brothel ring , Jason pays to see prostitutes in the hope that one of them witnessed the incident . The first prostitute he sees is Number 18 , whose attempts to seduce him make him uneasy . Thinking Number 18 could be a key witness , he tries to persuade her to testify . The other prostitutes Jason encounters are too afraid to give evidence . Number 18 answers some of Jason 's questions about where she is from , where she has worked , and how long she has been working , but only on the condition that Jason pay 100 baht for each response . She reveals that she has been prostituted in Thailand and Malaysia .
It is revealed that Number 18 was one of the girls in the storage truck , but that she escaped and ended up at The Pearl . Traumatized , she does not understand what Jason wants . She knows that every girl who has talked about the storage truck incident has been killed and is therefore reluctant to testify . One night Number 18 is injured in a party at the brothel and can barely walk when Jason visits . When he tells Ali about his experiences , she begs him to come home , but Jason believes he is in Bangkok by divine providence . Number 18 comes to understand that Jason is not like the other men who frequent The Pearl , and agrees to trust him and testify against the brothel ring if he can rescue her .
Jason pays Number 18 's pimp enough money to take her out of the brothel for a weekend . Before he arrives to take her away , however , Mama finds and confiscates the money Jason has previously paid Number 18 , and correctly guesses that he does not intend to bring her back . When Jason arrives to collect Number 18 , Mama tells him she is dead and offers a refund . Believing Number 18 is still alive , Jason becomes violent . Mama mocks him , saying the Western culture he is part of is hedonistic and responsible for people in the Third World being sexually trafficked . Jason stops short of hurting Mama and leaves to report to Marta . Through her connections , Marta discovers that Number 18 is alive . Marta tries to save Number 18 , posing as a lawyer protecting Number 18 's rights . The pimp forces Marta off with a gun . When Jason makes another attempt to rescue Number 18 , the pimp kills her . Number 18 joins the chorus of dead child prostitutes who have been watching over and commenting on events throughout the play .
= = Productions = =
= = = Initial run = = =
The stage premiere of She Has a Name was directed by Waldschmidt , who was also the scenic designer . Aaron Krogman was selected to portray Jason and the unnamed pimp , Sienna Howell @-@ Holden to portray Mama , Glenda Warkentin to portray Marta , Denise Wong to portray Number 18 , and Cari Russell to portray Ali . Waldschmidt suggested that Warkentin audition for the play after seeing her perform at Rosebud Theatre in Rosebud , Alberta . Wong , Krogman , and Kooman spoke highly of Waldschmidt 's directing , and Kooman praised Waldschmidt 's work as scenic designer . Waldschmidt praised the cast 's acting . He said he found the play 's opening scene , in which a rape occurs , the most difficult to stage , despite having previously performed a similar rape scene as an actor . The premiere of She Has a Name was produced by Burnt Thicket Theatre in partnership with Raise Their Voice . The office of Joy Smith , MP for Kildonan — St. Paul , released a statement advertising the premiere of She Has a Name .
The premiere took place at the EPCOR Centre for the Performing Arts in Calgary in February 2011 . Performances were scheduled to run on the centre 's Motel stage between February 23 and March 5 . Tickets quickly sold out . Four days after the premiere , Burnt Thicket Theatre moved the play to the Scott Block Theatre in Red Deer , where the play was scheduled to be performed until March 12 . All the performances in Red Deer were sold out . The play drew emotional reactions from the audience . Kooman learned that some audience members at the initial performances later responded to the play by talking with others about human trafficking , writing letters to their Members of Parliament , and doing other creative things on the subject . They also contacted Waldschmidt , sometimes up to a year later , with stories about how the play had continued to affect their lives . In conjunction with the initial run of She Has a Name , Burnt Thicket Theatre provided the names of organizations that assist human @-@ trafficking victims . There was also a panel discussion about human trafficking after the matinée on February 26 .
= = = Pre @-@ tour revisions and readings = = =
After the play 's initial run , Kooman revised the script , making prominent changes in the scenes involving Jason and Marta . In the version performed at the premiere , the two characters debate issues of human rights on a solely philosophical level , while in the new version , Marta makes real demands of Jason , making their interactions more dynamic . Kooman made Jason 's wife Ali more patient and understanding in dealing with Jason 's lengthy absences from home and removed the intermission . According to reviewer Lana Michelin of the Red Deer Advocate , Kooman 's changes strengthened the emotional pull of the play . Because of the amount of interest in She Has a Name in 2011 , not enough tickets were available for the initial run , and a second run was planned for the end of 2011 . To finance a tour of the play , Burnt Thicket Theatre raised money through fundraisers , which included the 2011 Calgary Ride for Refuge .
In August 2011 , extracts from She Has a Name were read at a conference in Strathmore called Justice Tapestry . A reading of the play took place during an event at Mount Royal University on February 16 , 2012 , which also included a speech by Yvon Dandurand on the subject of human trafficking , and a book signing by John Winterdyk for his book Human Trafficking : Exploring the International Nature , Concerns , and Complexities .
= = = 2012 tour = = =
The 2012 tour of She Has a Name was a fringe theatre tour across Canada . The performances were co @-@ produced by Burnt Thicket Theatre and Raise Their Voice and were directed by Waldschmidt . Carl Kennedy portrayed Jason , Evelyn Chew portrayed Number 18 , Alysa van Haastert portrayed Ali , and Warkentin and Howell @-@ Holden returned as Marta and Mama . To avoid giving the impression that human trafficking is limited to Asia , the producers deliberately cast actors who were not of Asian descent .
The tour started on May 23 in Lethbridge and went on to the other Canadian cities of Saskatoon , Ottawa , Montreal , Halifax , London , Winnipeg , Calgary , Victoria , Vancouver , Kelowna , Edmonton , and Red Deer . London was added mid @-@ tour because of popular demand . The London performances were hosted by Men Against Sexual Trafficking and the London Anti @-@ Human Trafficking Committee . The final performances of the tour were conducted at the Scott Block Theatre in Red Deer from October 2 to 6 . After the Saturday matinée in each city , a panel discussion was held with both the audience and anyone else who wanted to attend , the purpose being to raise awareness about human trafficking in Canada and elsewhere . The final talkback panel in Red Deer was attended by about 70 people .
A Better World partnered with Raise Their Voice to raise funds throughout the tour to help women and children who had been trafficked in Thailand as part of the country 's prostitution industry . Kooman stated that he had " a ' pinch me ' sort of feeling that [ the 2012 tour ] has happened , and that there is interest beyond this tour " . Cynthia Foster , who attended one of the performances during the tour , went on to produce and direct the first school production , with students at Strathcona Christian Academy Secondary School acting in two performances at La Cite in Edmonton in November 2014 . Kooman was scheduled to facilitate a discussion about sex trafficking with the audience after each performance .
= = = Performances in the United States = = =
The first performances of She Has a Name in the United States were produced by FreeFall Stage in a rented space at Victory Life Church in Folsom , California in 2014 under the direction of Emma Eldridge , who was a 23 @-@ year @-@ old college student at the time . She and her sister had become passionate about the issue of human trafficking as a result of their involvement with the organization Run for Courage , and the two sisters considered writing a play about human trafficking in the United States . Because they were both college students , they did not find the time to write a play , so in 2013 , their mother , Deedee Eldridge , began looking for a human @-@ trafficking @-@ related play that had already been written and she discovered She Has a Name . It was the only play she was able to find on the subject of human trafficking . Emma Eldridge later said of She Has a Name , " I 've never read something and been so compelled to do it . " The family decided to stage the play , and Deedee Eldridge served as producer and executive director . To have the rights to produce the play , FreeFall Stage made a special arrangement with the Playwrights Guild of Canada .
For these initial performances in 2014 , the characters of Jason and the pimp were portrayed by different actors ; Chris Quandt portrayed Jason and Arturo Gonzalez portrayed the pimp . The role of Number 18 was taken on by Supatchaya " Jazz " Sunpanich , who was born in Thailand . Emma Eldridge attested to crying at the first rehearsal as a result of being moved by the intensity of Sunpanich 's performance . In these performances , Ali was portrayed by Brianna Flynn and Adison Kingsley , Marta by Marybeth Moore and Janine Romney , and Mama by Sara Matsui @-@ Colby . The voices were separately portrayed by Caitlyn Wardell , Bonnie Antignani , and Jeannette Baisch . These performances were staged in partnership with Run for Courage , which had representatives at each performance . Performances were scheduled to run from May 2 to June 22 .
FreeFall Stage discouraged people under the age of fifteen from attending because of the subject matter of the play , but encouraged older teenagers to attend because teenagers are at the greatest risk of being trafficked . Several human trafficking survivors attended the performances , and other survivors sent the Eldridges messages about their personal experiences with human trafficking . Quandt said that he encountered many audience members who , because of watching the play , became determined to do something to combat human trafficking .
= = = Film = = =
By February 2012 , Kooman was working on a screenplay version of She Has a Name . The idea of a stage @-@ to @-@ film adaptation of She Has a Name was also independently suggested by Pat Donnelly of the Montreal Gazette . In 2014 , Kooman and his younger brothers , Daniel and Matthew , scouted locations in Cambodia in preparation for the film .
= = Themes = =
Kooman made justice the focus of She Has a Name ; the social issues that interest him include poverty , the HIV / AIDS epidemic , and the effects of war . The central issues in She Has a Name are gender @-@ based . The general topic of the play is human trafficking — specifically the trafficking of children into sexual slavery . Kooman has stated that She Has a Name " suggests that justice can only be realized if real people know , care and take informed and decisive action . " The victimized child in the play is known only by the number 18 to reflect that traffickers often dehumanize their victims by giving them a new name or simply a number , which in some cases is branded onto the victim 's body . After his rape of Number 18 , the pimp leaves the situation without adverse effect , but Number 18 is left bleeding from her crotch and mouth . The play invites viewers to feel sympathetic towards Number 18 , and , although the world of human trafficking is depicted as horrific and ugly , both the victims and perpetrators of human trafficking are portrayed as relatable characters , suggesting that every individual has inherent value and dignity . In an interview with The Calgary Journal prior to the 2012 tour , Waldschmidt said that the sympathetic portrayal of the perpetrators prevents the play from becoming a simplistic story of good and evil . According to Liz Nicholls of the Edmonton Journal , Number 18 is a nuanced character , better @-@ developed than the stock damsel in distress .
Kooman said that the massive proportions of human trafficking often prevent people from dealing with it ; he therefore chose to portray a single trafficked victim in the play so that audiences could approach the subject on a more workable level . He hoped that audiences would avoid getting stuck in the statistics of human trafficking and would connect with a personal story . The two questions that propel the story are : " Can [ Jason ] convince [ Number 18 ] to risk her life to testify for the sake of justice ? " and " Can he save her from the unthinkable circumstances ? " Jason is weary and , although he never falls into self @-@ pity , he comes to hate himself for his inability to save Number 18 from her slavery because he lacks the evidence he requires for his case to be successful in court .
Much of the play is concerned with demonstrating the immensity of the difficulties that face Jason in trying to rescue Number 18 . For example , he finds it difficult to be away from his wife , and struggles with the decision of whether to continue his work or return to Canada . To depict this tension , Jason and Ali communicate via Skype , represented on stage by two laptop computers placed back @-@ to @-@ back with Jason and Ali standing on either side facing one another . The two argue , but their interactions demonstrate the kind of love that Number 18 can only dream of . In the 2012 cross @-@ Canada tour , a torn picture of Number 18 's family remained on stage as scenery to emphasize what the character has lost . This picture took the form of a painted curtain held over a geometric floor pattern and depicted the family as tired , poor , and living in a shack . Lana Michelin of the Red Deer Advocate said the most emotionally gripping scene was the one in which the voices cause Number 18 to recall the face of her dead father . Anna Borowiecki of the St. Albert Gazette called the play a story of " fallible people who find strength in each other under the worst conditions . "
Denise Wong , the Calgarian actor who portrayed Number 18 in the premiere , said that the play was about the human condition . Evelyn Chew , the Vancouverite actor who took over the role for the 2012 tour , said that the play is intense because it unabashedly deals with human trafficking , and that builds in intensity to its climax . Sienna Howell @-@ Holden , who played Mama in the premiere and the 2012 tour , said that many audience members had not been previously familiar with 21st @-@ century human trafficking . The character of Mama calls attention to the fact that poverty in the Third World fuels sex trafficking . Stephen Waldschmidt said he hoped that the play will educate Canadians about human trafficking and motivate them to act on what they learn , thereby turning them into anti @-@ sexual slavery activists . He also said he hoped that the play will put a face on the million women and children sold into sexual slavery each year worldwide . Because of the play 's heavy themes , producers of the first performances issued an advisory for parents . Waldschmidt also stressed the amount of action in the play and said that , if the play was a film , it would receive a PG @-@ 13 rating and would be billed a thriller . He also said it was difficult to stage a play that is inherently sexual and extremely violent in nature without making it feel pornographic . Waldschmidt said that he wanted to stage She Has a Name partially to show how horrible human trafficking is and partially because the play is so theatrically gripping .
The Country Sunrise News stated that the drama has a fast pace . Mallory Clarkson of the London Community News reported that , while She Has a Name is an emotional play , there are lighter moments where audience members can laugh . Similarly , Lana Michelin of the Red Deer Advocate asserted that the play 's sporadic humorous points maintain the audience 's engagement with the story so they do not become numb to the play 's emotional pulls . Kooman stated that he tried to write the play in a way that would shock audiences without disturbing them to the point that they would not recommend it to friends .
Marlo Campbell , a writer for Uptown , said that the play critiques masculine egotism and Western heroism through the character of Jason . Lana Michelin of the Red Deer Advocate disagreed , stating that Jason never lapses into self @-@ importance . Aaron Krogman , who portrayed Jason and the pimp in the play 's premiere , said , " there is a thin line between Jason and the pimp ... both characters are struggling with power and how they use it . " Waldschmidt stated that the doubling of this role is intended to remind audiences that there are Canadians who are perpetrators of human trafficking and that it " is not just somebody else 's problem over there ... but that it 's us , and it 's in our country and in our backyard and in our suburbs " . Jason has in this way been considered an everyman . Chris Quandt , who portrayed Jason at the United States premiere , said that he and his fellow cast members greatly appreciated the fact that Kooman incorporated into the play the facts that taking down one brothel often leaves space for another brothel to be established soon afterwards , and that child sex tourism exists because there is a demand for it .
One Canadian critic said that the play 's Bangkok setting allows Canadians to easily dissociate from the issue . Liz Nicholls of the Edmonton Journal wrote that the pimp character " represents the ruthless spirit of pure human greed . " Stephen Pederson of The Chronicle Herald called the play a combination of idealism , realism , and lyricism . Dustin Wiebe of the Mennonite Brethren Herald wrote that the play shows " the darker side of man 's desire for control " by presenting Number 18 as having been stripped of her humanity . The disaster that concludes the play is foreshadowed throughout . The play both starts and ends with a depiction of the reality of contemporary slavery .
= = Critical response = =
Critical response to She Has a Name began with initial readings of the play at the 2009 Scripts At Work workshop , where the script was given the Scripts At Work / Alberta Playwrights Network Award . The play has since become very successful and was endorsed by Canadian activists including MP Joy Smith , Ratanak International 's Brian McConaghy , and IJM Canada 's Jamie McIntosh . Lara Quarterman , director of the Calgary chapter of ACT Alberta , said she was concerned that She Has a Name suggests that human trafficking is limited to the sex trafficking of women and children in Thailand , but there is sexual @-@ slavery @-@ related human trafficking in Canada , and there is also human trafficking for the purposes of unfree labour . The chorus of dead human @-@ trafficking victims has generally received negative reviews ; one critic called it " the play 's least successful device " . Adrian Chamberlain of the Victoria Times Colonist criticised some of the script , charging that there were " implausible plot twists " and other " fundamental flaws " , but concluded that it was well @-@ intentioned and ambitious and " has its heart in the right place . "
The play 's premiere and initial run were mostly critically acclaimed . The religious community 's reviews of the initial run were also positive . After the first performances in 2011 , Louis Hobson of the Calgary Sun said the character of Marta was an unrealistic caricature and didn 't " ring true " because of how she was written . The character underwent a series of rewrites to make her more well @-@ rounded and kind before the 2012 cross @-@ Canada tour . In the 2012 tour , the play was performed in several fringe theatre festivals , at which critics representing the Montreal Gazette , the Winnipeg Free Press , and CFEQ @-@ FM said it stood out for its quality and moral content . The writing was praised by one critic from the Victoria News , who wrote that the play demonstrates that Kooman has a " gift for creating powerful , believable dialogue that can draw an audience in " , but criticised by Chamberlain of the Times Colonist , who attested to " melodramatic — and just plain bad — cop @-@ show dialogue " . Liz Nicholls of the Edmonton Journal called the performances compelling . Karen Nelson , also of the Edmonton Journal , called the play " sobering " in such a way that she was caused " to wonder what [ she ] could do about this global epidemic of abuse of children , women and the disenfranchised . "
During the 2012 tour , Kooman was awarded the Outstanding Alumnus Provincial Award Celebrating Excellence by the Alberta Association of Colleges & Technical Institutes and the Alberta Ministry of Enterprise . At the St @-@ Ambroise Montreal Fringe Festival , She Has a Name was nominated for the 2012 Centaur Theatre Award for Best Anglophone Production . At the Victoria Fringe Theatre Festival , She Has a Name was selected for a " Pick of the Fringe " award . Later in the 2012 tour , Sienna Howell @-@ Holden won a Spirit of the Fringe Award at the Vancouver Fringe Festival for her portrayal of Mama .
When the play was staged in California in 2014 , Gerry Camp of The Folsom Telegraph said that he had " never been more emotionally drained than ... after seeing the riveting opening night performance . " He praised all of the actors ' performances , and particularly those of Quandt and Sunpanich . " If you truly love theater , you must see this play , " he concluded . " And I promise you , it is a play you will carry with you long after the lights have gone up . "
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= Miles Straume =
Miles Straume is a fictional character played by Ken Leung on the ABC television series Lost . Miles is introduced early in the fourth season as a hotheaded and sarcastic medium as a crew member aboard the freighter called the Kahana that is offshore the island where most of Lost takes place . Miles arrives on the island and is eventually taken captive by John Locke ( played by Terry O 'Quinn ) , who suspects that those on the freighter are there to harm his fellow crash survivors of Oceanic Airlines Flight 815 and expose the island to the general public . Miles is on a mission to obtain Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) ; instead , he tries to cut a deal with Ben to lie to Miles 's employer Charles Widmore ( Alan Dale ) that Ben is dead .
The writers created the role of Miles specifically for Leung after seeing him guest star on The Sopranos . Leung was the only actor to read for the part . They chose his name because it resembles " maelstrom " , another word for a powerful whirlpool . Reaction to the character has been positive .
= = Arc = =
Miles was born in March 1977 . As a child , he lives with his mother Lara Chang ( Leslie Ishii ) in Encino , California . Miles does not know his father , only being told by his mother that he is dead and did not care about them when he was alive , forcing them to leave him when Miles is a baby . Miles resents his father for never having been around and also has disdain for other fathers who mistreat their children . At seven years old , Miles discovers that he can hear the thoughts from before their death of those who are dead . He becomes a professional spiritualist and develops his ability so that he can access specific information from the deceased . In early December 2004 , when he is twenty @-@ seven years old , Miles is hired for $ 1 @.@ 6 million by Charles Widmore to go on a freighter called the Kahana to an uncharted island to retrieve a mass murderer named Ben Linus , as Widmore believes that Miles will be able to communicate with those whom he had killed and gain information regarding his location . Before he leaves , Miles is briefly abducted by Bram ( Brad William Henke ) and his team . Bram claims to know about Miles 's father and the source of his superpower and he warns Miles not to go on this mission , instead trying to convince Miles to join him .
= = = Season 4 = = =
Miles is flown via helicopter from the freighter to the island on December 21 as part of a science team . The next day on the island , Miles encounters the survivors of the September 22 Oceanic Airlines Flight 815 , who are believed to be dead by the world at large . Hostile and distrustful of the survivors for killing his colleague Naomi Dorrit ( Marsha Thomason ) , Miles is taken prisoner by 815 survivor John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) and kept in a boathouse near a Barracks on the island . The next day , Miles temporarily escapes and bargains with Ben , who has also been taken prisoner : Miles will tell Widmore that Ben is dead in exchange for $ 3 @.@ 2 million , double what Widmore was paying him . The Barracks are ransacked on December 27 by a mercenary team from the freighter , who murder six people . Miles leaves with Sawyer , Claire and Aaron for their beach camp . On the way , Miles stumbles upon the dead bodies of Karl and Danielle Rosseau . Later that night Claire disappears into the jungle and Sawyer initially blames Miles . Miles arrives on December 30 , shortly before eight are rescued not far from the island , the freighter explodes and the mercenary team is killed by the Others , the island 's indigenous people under Ben 's leadership . Also that day , Ben moves the island through spacetime by turning a large frozen donkey wheel underground .
= = = Season 5 = = =
The group on the beach begin flashing through time , landing in fourteen different times throughout the Island 's past and future in the span of about a week before the wheel is turned again ; however , according to fellow freighter science team member physicist Daniel Faraday ( Jeremy Davies ) , none of the past is changed because their suddenly appearing in various times is what had always happened . The survivors settle in 1974 , by which point only Miles , Faraday , former Other Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) and 815 passengers James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) and Jin Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) remain ; Rose Henderson ( L. Scott Caldwell ) , Bernard Nadler ( Sam Anderson ) and Vincent the dog ( Pono ) also survive , but they are physically separated and do not meet any of them again for three years until July 1977 . Miles and his group move into the Barracks and pseudonymously join the DHARMA Initiative , an organization conducting scientific research while living there that would eventually be purged in 1992 by Ben and the Others . Despite the option to board the DHARMA submarine and " go back to the real world " , the survivors from 2004 stay on the island together in the hope that they can somehow return to the time that they knew . Miles becomes a security officer and ends up becoming friends with Sawyer . He discovers that his mother and father Dr. Pierre Chang live on the island as part of DHARMA and his father is even the man in the organization 's station @-@ specific orientation films ; however , Miles does not approach or befriend his father , continuing to harbor resentment for his absence from much of Miles 's life .
In July 1977 , both thirty @-@ year @-@ old security officer Miles and three @-@ month @-@ old infant Miles are living on the island . Four survivors , Jack , Kate , Hurley , and Sayid from Flight 815 who had been rescued nearly three years earlier on December 30 , 2004 arrive on the island in 1977 after flying near the island in late 2007 and also join DHARMA , Sayid being a prisoner on suspicion of being an Other . Miles still stays distant from his father , but , after talking to Hurley during a late @-@ night chore , witnesses a peaceful moment between his younger self and his father . Three days later , the groups from the future are exposed as liars . The next morning , Faraday comes clean to Chang that they are from the future and warns of a catastrophic " incident " that is due to occur at the building site for the Swan , DHARMA 's planned island station dedicated to electromagnetism . He instructs Chang to evacuate the island of non @-@ essential personnel , which he does , ordering his wife and baby Miles to leave him , shortly after finding out that adult Miles is his son and confronting him about it . Here , Miles realizes that he himself caused his father to order his mother and his three @-@ month @-@ old self to leave . Faraday theorizes that if " Jughead " – a hydrogen bomb that is buried on the island – is detonated at the Swan site by the underground electromagnetic pocket of energy , the timeline will be altered , preventing any of the group from the future from ever having come to the island in 2004 , saving everyone who had died after they arrived . The plan proceeds as planned , even though Miles expresses skepticism . The antagonistic DHARMA members engage in a gunfight with Jack , believing him to be an Other , and Miles , Sawyer , Juliet , and Kate come to his aid . When the Swan site goes haywire , Chang 's arm is caught in the debris and Miles rushes to his side , saving him and calling him " Dad " . After he tells his father to run as far as possible from the site , the bomb is detonated and everything goes to white , leaving Miles 's status uncertain .
= = = Season 6 = = =
In the first episode of Season 6 , Miles is revealed to have been returned to the future along with the other survivors . When Kate , Jack , Hurley and Jin go to the temple to save Sayid , Sawyer asks Miles to remain behind to help bury the now @-@ deceased Juliet and to use his power to find out what she was trying to tell him before she died . He reluctantly agrees , and after a few seconds , tells Sawyer " it worked . "
He and Sawyer are captured shortly after by the Others and taken to the Temple , where he stays with Hurley , Jack , and Sayid , while Kate , Jin , and Sawyer escape . A few days later , after Jack and Hurley too escape , Miles is left behind with the " infected " Sayid and the Others when Claire Littleton , also " infected , " shows up to talk to the Others ' spokesperson , Dogen ( Hiroyuki Sanada ) . Kate meanwhile returns , hoping to find Claire . Miles tells her Claire is held hostage . Later that night , the Smoke Monster ravages the Temple , killing anyone in its path . Miles and Kate flee but get separated ; Miles shuts himself in a room , until Ilana , Frank Lapidus , Sun @-@ Hwa Kwon , and Ben burst in to help him . They go through a secret passageway safely just as the Smoke Monster enters the room .
Miles uses his gift to discover how Jacob died , and reveals to Ilana that Ben killed him . They take shelter at the Oceanic Flight 815 survivors ' beach camp . When confronting Ben later , Miles refuses the offered $ 3 @.@ 2 million in exchange for freeing Ben from Ilana . Ben is spared , however , and Miles then digs up Nikki and Paulo 's diamonds where they had been buried with them to compensate for his lack of money on the Island .
When Hurley , Jack , and Richard join their group , Miles is particularly happy to greet Hurley . A few days later , Richard decides their mission is to stop the Man in Black from escaping ; they are to destroy the Ajira Airways Flight 316 on the other Island , dubbed " Hydra Island , " so that the Man in Black stays trapped in the area . However , Hurley destroys the remaining dynamite from an old ship shipwrecked on the Island , thinking it will save everyone . The disagreement between Richard and Hurley splits the group into two : Hurley 's party will go talk to the Man in Black , while Richard 's party will search for more explosives . Miles decides to follow Richard and Ben , telling Hurley that he has seen " that thing in action , " and that it doesn 't want to talk .
Miles , Richard , and Ben go back to the barracks to get some C4 that Ben secretly kept in his closet behind the bookcase . When they get there Miles hears the screams of Ben 's daughter Alex , buried there . They get the C4 but when they come out they are confronted by Widmore and his geologist Zoe . Widmore says he needs a hiding place because the monster was coming . Ben reluctantly says he can hide in his secret room . When The Man in Black comes Richard says he can talk to it , claiming all he wants is for Richard to join him . Ben goes with him but Miles ; saying he is sticking to surviving , decides to leave them and run back into the jungle .
He then finds Richard Alpert in the jungle and calls Ben on a walkie talkie that he gave him . When Richard gets up he says to Miles that they need to get back to Hydra Island and destroy the plane with the C4 that they still have ; saying they have to finish what they started .
Miles and Richard get to the boat they left at the dock . As they are undocking the boat he reveals to Richard that he is starting to age . When they are rowing to Hydra Island they spot Frank Lapidus drifting in the water in life vests . When they get him on the boat Frank proposes they leave the island on the plane before the Man in Black comes . Richard and Miles agree . Miles then radios Ben again , saying they have made it to Hydra Island and about his plan about the plane . As he is talking , Claire comes out from the bushes and fires two warning shots to tell them not to come closer . Richard manages to calm her down but she refuses to go on the plane with them . Miles radios a third time . Kate picks up . He says to her they are patching up the plane and getting ready to take off . He tells Kate about Claire not wanting to come with them . Kate then smashes the radio she has . Miles asks Frank how the plane was doing . Frank says he has to check the electrical outlet before they take off . Miles and Richard repair the hydraulics with duct tape , then rejoin Frank in the cockpit .
With Richard and Miles in the cockpit Frank tries a third time to turn the plane on , and this time succeeds . Miles heads to the back to watch out for Sawyer and the others who want to come . Miles announces they are clear for takeoff , and closes the door . Frank then tells Richard and Miles to open the door back up again when he sees Kate and Sawyer . Miles opens the door and lets in Kate , Sawyer and Claire . After that Miles sits in the back with the others . Miles and the others smile at the sight of the island getting smaller and smaller in the distance .
= = = Afterlife = = =
Oceanic Flight 815 does not crash on the Island , resulting in a different background for Miles . Instead of a professional medium , he is an officer of the LAPD along with his partner , James Ford . A comment by Miles indicates that his father is still alive in this reality , working at a museum with Charlotte , who Miles sets up on a blind date with Ford . Although working well with James , Miles feels he lacks trust from him . He later gains access to James ' credit card account and learns his partner did not go to Palm Springs like he said , instead going to Australia . Angrily demanding answers , Miles make James eventually informing him of Anthony Cooper 's con . Miles objects to James ' intention to kill Cooper , until a car crashes into theirs . The two cops pursue the hit @-@ and @-@ run driver , who is revealed to be Kate .
After receiving a surveillance tape showing Sayid Jarrah leaving the scene of a crime , Miles informs James of this and together they go to the home of Sayid 's sister @-@ in @-@ law , Nadia . While Miles blocks the front door , James catches Sayid and arrests him at the back .
= = Personality = =
Miles is hotheaded and initially hostile toward the survivors , after one of them kills his colleague Naomi Dorrit ( Marsha Thomason ) . But he , too , is disrespectful of Naomi after she dies , telling Kate , " Sure I 'm affected [ by Naomi 's death ] . She was hot and I dug her accent . " Upon learning that Miles has been captured by Locke , Frank informs Sayid that " that guy 's nothing but a pain in my ass . "
Miles sarcastically nicknames his acquaintances , prompting critics , fans and characters to compare him to the character Sawyer and give him a nickname of his own : " mini @-@ Sawyer " . Ken Leung claims that he is often approached by people who like the character and he assumes that it is because of Miles 's " sardonic wit " and " devil @-@ may @-@ care sort of attitude . " Leung surmised that " Usually when people are like that , just … kind of throwing off quick [ and ] quirky remarks … they 're hiding something , so he 's definitely hiding something . " Asked if Miles is much like him , Leung responded with " I don 't think I 'm that similar . Um , I don 't know — I guess I have moments . " Leung said that " Miles doesn 't know how to be social , which is great , because I don 't know how to be social . " He has also stated that Miles " trust [ s ] the dead more than the living " and is intrigued as to whom Miles grieves for . Leung stated that " He seems haunted by something , that — that 's for sure … one of the first thoughts I had [ was that his ] communication with the dead … can 't be a great thing … it 's not a happy skill to have . "
Both Miles and Hurley can speak to the dead — a similarity noted by Hurley ; however , their manners of communication vary . While Miles is able to access a person 's mind as it was before death , Hurley physically interacts with apparitions of the deceased . Executive producer / writer Edward Kitsis has commented that " they both have unique abilities , and that very question of how they differ may be explored by the end of the series . "
= = Development = =
The day after the April 22 , 2007 episode of The Sopranos titled " Remember When " aired , Lost 's co @-@ creator Damon Lindelof met with fellow executive producer / writer / show runner Carlton Cuse and said that " there 's an actor on th [ e ] show [ last night ] — I 'm not going to tell you who he is — and I wonder if he has the same impression on you that he had on me " . Cuse correctly guessed Ken Leung , who had guest starred as one @-@ time character Carter Chong , a young and angry mental patient . In mid @-@ May , they contacted Leung 's agent and were informed in July that he was available and interested in working on Lost . To limit the leak of spoilers , Lindelof and Cuse auditioned Leung with a character and scene created specifically for the audition that would not be used in the show but was " analogous to the role [ that they ] really want [ ed ] . " Leung believed that he was auditioning for the role of Russell , a " brilliant mathematician " in his late thirties with immense knowledge across various scientific fields , limited social skills and broken personal relationships . Leung was the only actor who tried out for this part , as writers had written the role of Miles for him ; had he not accepted the job , the character would have been completely rewritten . The name Miles Straume was simply chosen because the writers thought that " it would be cool if his name sounded like ' maelstrom ' " .
Leung relocated from New York to where the show is filmed in Oahu , Hawaii , which Leung described as " so dreamy " . He was initially contracted as a guest star with " potential regular status in [ the ] future " , which came to fruition . At first , Leung struggled with the show 's secrecy , not knowing much about his character 's background or motivations , but he found some understanding with his character 's clothing . Costume designer Roland Sanchez based Miles 's wardrobe choice after that of The Rolling Stones member Keith Richards ; specifically a picture in which he wore a sleeveless vest . Sanchez believed that Miles fit the haggard look and bought an Armani Exchange jacket , cropped the sleeves and added a hood .
The writers planned for the ninth or tenth episode of the fourth season to focus on Miles 's backstory ; however , this was pushed back to the thirteenth episode of the fifth season as a result of the Writers Guild of America strike . The revelation that Miles is Chang 's son was not confirmed until Miles 's flashback episode ; however , this plot point had been speculated by the Internet fan community as early as Miles 's first appearance on the show . Further speculation occurred following the broadcast of the fifth season premiere , in which Chang was seen tending to a baby boy . This influenced the way that it was revealed in the show , as the writers looked for a way to present the information in a way that would both be interesting to those who had not guessed it and not insulting to viewers who had been predicting it . What resulted was Miles and Hurley discussing Chang with Miles plainly saying , " That douche is my dad " before a cut to a commercial break .
= = Reception = =
After four appearances , Leung was nominated for the J. C. Penney Asian Excellence Award in the Supporting Television Actor category , but he lost to Rex Lee , who plays Lloyd on HBO 's Entourage . According to Jon Lachonis of UGO , Miles and the other new characters have been well received by fans . Maureen Ryan of The Chicago Tribune said that Leung is " terrifically intense " in his portrayal . Paige Albiniak of the New York Post praised the cast addition . Diane Werts of Newsday thought that " Ken Leung and Michael Emerson may be the two current most interesting actors in this mix " . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger commented that " Miles the dustbusting ghostbuster is easily my favorite [ of the characters introduced in ' Confirmed Dead ' ] … why not throw in a medium [ among the show 's science fiction phemonena ] … I love the sarcastic energy he brings . Sawyer and Ben can 't be the only ones getting the good one @-@ liners " . After Miles ' introduction in the second episode of the fourth season , Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly wrote that Leung made " a strong impression " and was well cast . Chris Carabott of IGN stated that " Leung does an adequate job of getting Miles ' arrogant brand of confidence across . "
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= Brodie Croyle =
John Brodie Croyle ( / ˈkrɔɪl / ; born February 6 , 1983 ) is a former American football quarterback . He was drafted by the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League ( NFL ) in the third round of the 2006 NFL Draft . He played college football for the University of Alabama from 2002 to 2005 .
Despite being hindered by knee injuries in his senior season in high school , Croyle was a highly recruited prospect by Louisiana State University , Florida State University and the University of Alabama . On the night Croyle was ready to announce his decision to attend Florida State , he changed his mind and chose Alabama , his father 's alma mater , instead . In Croyle 's four years playing for the Alabama Crimson Tide football team , he set numerous school records , and was a finalist for the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award . Croyle led the Crimson Tide to the 2006 Cotton Bowl Classic and was named the game 's offensive MVP .
Though he saw little playing time in his rookie season in the NFL , Croyle shared the starting position with Damon Huard in 2007 . On November 18 , Croyle started his first game as the Chiefs ' starting quarterback against the Indianapolis Colts .
Croyle remained the Chiefs ' starting quarterback for the remainder of the season despite losing all six games that he started . He was the incumbent starter heading into the 2008 regular season , but suffered a shoulder injury in the Chiefs ' first game . Croyle returned in Week 7 but suffered a torn MCL and was ruled out for the remainder of the season . Croyle began the 2009 season once again as the Chiefs ' starting quarterback , filling in for an injured Matt Cassel . Croyle was released by the Chiefs in 2011 and later signed with the Arizona Cardinals . On May 21 , 2012 , he announced his immediate retirement from professional football .
= = Early years = =
The son of John Croyle , a former defensive end for the University of Alabama , Croyle was born on February 6 , 1983 . He attended high school at Westbrook Christian School in Rainbow City , Alabama and became a Super @-@ Prep All @-@ American selection in football . In his sophomore season , Croyle passed for 3 @,@ 787 yards and 44 touchdowns . That same season he passed for 528 yards and 7 touchdowns in one game . Croyle had an equally successful junior year passing for 2 @,@ 838 yards and 38 touchdowns . Croyle led his team to the state championship that year , but the team lost by a field goal .
Entering his senior year , many scouts had Croyle ranked as high as the # 2 quarterback in the country behind Joe Mauer . However , Croyle 's high school career ended abruptly in the first game of his senior season against Glencoe High School after a hit by an opposing player tore Croyle 's anterior cruciate ligament , causing him to miss the remainder of his final year . When he graduated , he held the Alabama state records for career passing yards with 9 @,@ 323 , and career touchdowns with 105 . He set marks for most passing yards in a single season , passing yards in a single game , touchdown passes in a season , and touchdown passes in a game .
= = College career = =
Despite the knee injury , Croyle received interest from members the Southeastern Conference and the Atlantic Coast Conference , including Louisiana State and Florida State . Croyle showed interest in playing for Florida State due in part because of the team 's offensive coordinator , Mark Richt . Croyle initially showed little interest in playing for Alabama after their head coach , Mike DuBose had recently been fired , but once Richt took the head coaching job with the Georgia Bulldogs , Croyle followed in his father 's footsteps . On the night before he was to announce his college decision to play for Florida State , Croyle announced that he would instead play for the Alabama Crimson Tide . Interestingly enough , the Crimson Tide were not fazed by Croyle ’ s rather serious ligament tear , for they felt he would heal well enough that his talent still warranted a spot on the roster . Croyle graduated early from high school and enrolled at the University of Alabama in January 2001 . After red @-@ shirting his freshman year at Alabama , Croyle earned a spot as the top backup in his second season behind senior starter Tyler Watts . Croyle 's coaches voted for him as the Ozzie Newsome Most Improved Freshman after starting two games in 2002 . After the 2002 season , Alabama head coach Dennis Franchione resigned to take the same position at Texas A & M. Washington State head coach Mike Price was hired to replace Franchione in January 2003 .
Coach Price mentored Croyle throughout the 2003 spring drills and practice but was dismissed from the head coach position in May 2003 for his conduct off the field . Soon after , Mike Shula , quarterback coach for the Miami Dolphins and former quarterback of the Crimson Tide , was named head coach at Alabama . Croyle , now with his third head coach in as many years , had only a few weeks to prepare and practice under coach Shula 's system . Despite starting all 11 games in 2003 as a sophomore , Croyle suffered a separated shoulder before half time of the fifth game . Croyle would start the next game against Georgia only to re @-@ aggravate the injury , but still only sat out one game that season , and did not reveal to the public he had suffered from two cracked ribs . The Crimson Tide 's 2003 season ended with a record of 4 – 9 . He was subsequently named the Dixie Memorial Award winner as the club ’ s MVP and won the Derrick Thomas Community Award . His 341 pass attempts on the season were the highest seasonal total in Crimson Tide history while his 16 touchdown passes tied the single @-@ season mark .
Croyle started the 2004 season hoping to help his team improve on their last record of 4 – 9 . Croyle started three games , completing 44 of 66 passes for 534 yards with six touchdowns . But during the third game of the season against Western Carolina University , Croyle tore his anterior cruciate ligament in his other knee . Croyle was forced to sit out the rest of the season , and the team finished with a 6 @-@ 6 record .
Undaunted , he fully recovered from the injury in 2005 and started all 12 games as a senior ; completing 202 of 339 passes for 2 @,@ 499 yards with 14 touchdowns and four interceptions and one rushing touchdown . Croyle led the Crimson Tide to a # 8 national ranking , a 10 – 2 record , and a 13 – 10 victory over Texas Tech in the Cotton Bowl Classic , where he shared the game 's Most Valuable Player honors with teammate DeMeco Ryans . In his final season at Alabama , Croyle attempted a then @-@ school @-@ record 190 passes without an interception and a finalist for the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award as the nation ’ s most outstanding senior quarterback . He became the first Alabama quarterback to start every game in a season since 1996 .
His 2 @,@ 499 passing yards in 2005 were the highest single @-@ season total in Alabama 's school history . His total 202 completions and 339 passing attempts rank as the second @-@ best seasonal marks in school annals . His 2 @,@ 311 yards of total offense were the third @-@ best seasonal mark in the history of the school , and his 1 @.@ 18 interception percentage was the lowest single @-@ season mark in school history as well .
= = Professional career = =
On April 29 , 2006 , the Kansas City Chiefs drafted Croyle in the third round of the 2006 NFL Draft as the 85th overall selection , and he signed a four @-@ year contract on July 28 . Croyle 's reputation for being injury prone caused him to drop into the third round of the draft .
( * represents NFL Combine )
= = = Kansas City Chiefs = = =
= = = = 2006 season = = = =
Croyle saw few snaps his rookie season and played in only 2 games . He completed 3 of 7 passes for 23 yards including 2 interceptions . One of those interceptions was returned by Pittsburgh Steelers safety Rian Wallace for a touchdown . Croyle originally was assigned the number four as his jersey number but later switched back to his collegiate number twelve after the release of wide receiver Craphonso Thorpe .
= = = = 2007 season = = = =
In April 2007 , nearly a year after Croyle was drafted , Chiefs starting quarterback Trent Green was traded to the Miami Dolphins . In the months prior to the trade agreement , Green had stated that he was being treated unfairly on and off the field and that the pre @-@ season quarterback competition was " weighted " towards Croyle . Head coach Herman Edwards , who was emphasizing a " youth movement " on the team 's roster at the time , voiced his displeasure with Green 's outspoken comments and simply said that he was " trying to create competition . " Edwards indicated throughout the off @-@ season that the Chiefs ' starting quarterback position was up for grabs .
Throughout the offseason , Croyle was given every opportunity to win the starting job over Damon Huard . Against the New Orleans Saints while Huard sat out with a calf injury , Croyle completed only 5 of 17 passes for 45 yards as the Chiefs lost 30 – 7 and dropped to 0 – 3 in exhibition. but poor play in the pre @-@ season led to Huard being named the Chiefs ' starting quarterback for the season opener against the Houston Texans .
On October 7 , in a regular season home game against the Jacksonville Jaguars , Huard was injured in the fourth quarter . Croyle threw six completions in thirteen attempts over the remainder of the game and threw his first NFL touchdown pass on the final play of regulation to Samie Parker in the 17 – 7 loss . The touchdown helped Kansas City avoid its first shut @-@ out loss at home since 1994 . Croyle 's last minute drive made him 6 @-@ for @-@ 13 for 83 yards and one touchdown .
On November 11 , Croyle again substituted for an injured Huard in the final half of a 27 – 11 loss to the Denver Broncos . Croyle finished the game 17 @-@ for @-@ 30 for 162 yards , with one interception , in the loss that dropped Kansas City to 4 – 5 on the year . The following day , Croyle was named the starting quarterback for the Chiefs ' upcoming game against the Indianapolis Colts , and made his first start on November 18 at the RCA Dome in a 13 – 10 loss . Croyle was the first quarterback drafted by Kansas City to start a game for the Chiefs since Todd Blackledge started a game in 1984 . Croyle was 19 @-@ of @-@ 27 for 169 yards with one touchdown , but he lost a fumble that set up Adam Vinatieri 's game @-@ winning field goal .
Croyle started his first home game at Arrowhead Stadium on November 25 against the Oakland Raiders , but injured his back in the 20 – 17 loss . The injury sidelined Croyle for the following week 's game against the San Diego Chargers , and Damon Huard started in Croyle 's place . The injured quarterbacks continued to rotate playing time , and Croyle was again declared the starter for Kansas City 's game against the Denver Broncos on December 9 . The plan , barring injury , was for Croyle to start the remaining games of the 2007 season , so that coach Herm Edwards and his staff could better evaluate him moving forward into 2008 . However , Croyle bruised his hand while trying to stop a defender from running an interception in for a touchdown and Damon Huard , who was the only active quarterback on the Chiefs ' roster besides Croyle , filled in for the remainder of the game .
In the final game of the season , Croyle led the Chiefs to a 10 – 10 tie with the Jets with just three minutes remaining . However , the Chiefs lost 13 – 10 with a Jets field goal in overtime . Croyle would finish the game 20 @-@ of @-@ 43 for 195 yards .
Croyle lost all six games that he started for the Chiefs in 2007 . Despite his poor performance as a starter , Croyle 's statistics were considered to be hard to evaluate . With a lack of pass protection and the absence of a stable starting running back in Larry Johnson , the Chiefs may not have seen Croyle at his best in 2007 .
= = = = 2008 season = = = =
Croyle entered the 2008 season as the Chiefs ' starting quarterback . During the season opener against the New England Patriots on September 7 , Croyle left the game in the third quarter with a bruised shoulder after being sacked by linebacker Adalius Thomas . Prior to the injury , Croyle completed 11 out of 19 with no touchdowns or interceptions . Two days after the game , the Chiefs signed quarterback Ingle Martin off the Tennessee Titans ' practice squad to back up Damon Huard and Tyler Thigpen in Croyle 's absence . In Croyle 's absence , Damon Huard started the Chiefs ' game against the Oakland Raiders the following week . Huard suffered a neck injury , so Tyler Thigpen became the third Chiefs starting quarterback in as many games .
After missing four games , Croyle returned to start against the Tennessee Titans in Week 7 . He was injured on Kansas City 's 14th play when he was sandwiched between two rushing defenders while throwing a pass early in the second quarter . He limped off the field . He slammed his helmet to the turf once he reached the sideline , then hobbled down a tunnel . After the game , Chiefs head coach Herman Edwards announced that Croyle would miss the remainder of the 2008 season .
= = = = 2009 season = = = =
After the Chiefs acquired quarterback Matt Cassel from the New England Patriots , Croyle entered training camp competing against Tyler Thigpen for a roster spot as backup quarterback . The first depth chart in training camp listed Croyle as the second quarterback ahead of Thigpen . Croyle entered the Chiefs ' first preseason game of 2009 ( against the Houston Texans ) as the second quarterback and finished as the team 's leading passer ( 12 @-@ of @-@ 18 for 145 yards ) and looked poised throughout the evening to post a 91 @.@ 2 quarterback rating . The Chiefs would go on to lose the game 16 – 10 . After quarterback Matt Cassel was injured on August 29 against the Seattle Seahawks , Croyle started the final game of the preseason against the St. Louis Rams .
Croyle played the entire game at quarterback for the Chiefs ' regular season opener against the Baltimore Ravens when Cassel was still unable to play . Despite completing 16 @-@ of @-@ 24 passes for 177 yards and two touchdowns , the Chiefs lost to the Ravens 38 – 24 . However solid play during week 1 was not enough , Cassel returned to practice and started against the Oakland Raiders in Week 2 .
= = = Arizona Cardinals = = =
= = = = 2011 season = = = =
After leaving the Chiefs as a free agent , Croyle signed with the Arizona Cardinals on August 23 , 2011 . Croyle was waived on September 2 , 2011 .
= = = = 2012 season = = = =
On January 8 , 2012 , Croyle was signed by the Arizona Cardinals to replace quarterback Max Hall , who was waived .
= = = Retirement = = =
On May 21 , 2012 Croyle announced his retirement from the NFL .
= = Personal life = =
Croyle volunteers at the Big Oak Ranch , a Christian home and school founded by his father for children from troubled and abusive situations , and at the Drumm Farm in Independence , Missouri , a facility that provides foster children with a safe and stable home . Croyle serves as a spokesperson for Johnson County Court Appointed Special Advocate . On July 14 , 2007 Croyle married Kelli Schutz , the 2005 winner of the America 's Junior Miss competition . The couple met in Mobile , Alabama in 2006 , while Croyle was preparing for the Senior Bowl .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = College = = =
= = = NFL = = =
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= Perry Como =
Pierino Ronald " Perry " Como ( May 18 , 1912 – May 12 , 2001 ) was an American singer and television personality . During a career spanning more than half a century , he recorded exclusively for RCA Victor for 44 years after signing with the label in 1943 . " Mr. C. " , as he was nicknamed , sold millions of records for RCA and pioneered a musical variety television show . Como was seen weekly on television from 1949 to 1963 , then continued hosting the Kraft Music Hall variety program monthly until 1967 . His television shows and seasonal specials were broadcast throughout the world . Also a popular recording artist , Perry Como released numerous hit records from the 1940s thru the 1970s . Como 's appeal spanned generations and he was universally respected for both his professional standards and the conduct in his personal life .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Early years = = =
Como was born in Canonsburg , Pennsylvania . He was the seventh of ten children and the first American @-@ born child of Pietro Como and Lucia Travaglini , who both immigrated to the US in 1910 from the Abruzzese town of Palena , Italy . He did not begin speaking English until he entered school , since the Comos spoke Italian at home . The family had a second @-@ hand organ his father had bought for $ 3 ; as soon as Como was able to toddle , he would head to the instrument , pump the bellows , and play music he had heard by ear . Pietro , a mill hand and an amateur baritone , had all his children attend music lessons even if he could barely afford them . In a rare 1957 interview , Como 's mother , Lucia , described how her young son also took on other jobs to pay for more music lessons ; Como learned to play many different instruments , but never had a voice lesson . He showed more musical talent in his teenage years as a trombone player in the town 's brass band , playing guitar , singing at weddings , and as an organist at church . Como was a member of the Canonsburg Italian Band along with the father of singer Bobby Vinton , bandleader Stan Vinton , who was often a customer at his barber shop .
Young Como started helping his family at age 10 , working before and after school in Steve Fragapane 's barber shop for 50 ¢ a week . By age 13 , he had graduated to having his own chair in the Fragapane barber shop , although he stood on a box to tend to his customers . It was also around this time that young Como lost his week 's wages in a dice game . Filled with shame , he locked himself in his room and did not come out until hunger got the better of him . He managed to tell his father what had happened to the money his family depended on . His father told him he was entitled to make a mistake and that he hoped his son would never do anything worse than this . When Perry was 14 , his father became unable to work because of a severe heart condition . Como and his brothers became the support of the household .
Despite his musical ability , Como 's primary ambition was to become the best barber in Canonsburg . Practicing on his father , young Como mastered the skills well enough to have his own shop at age 14 . One of Como 's regular customers at the barber shop owned a Greek coffee house that included a barber shop area , and asked the young barber whether he would like to take over that portion of his shop . Como had so much work after moving to the coffee house , he had to hire two barbers to help with it . His customers worked mainly at the nearby steel mills . They were well @-@ paid , did not mind spending money on themselves and enjoyed Como 's song renditions . Perry did especially well when one of his customers would marry . The groom and his men would avail themselves of every treatment Como and his assistants had to offer . Como sang romantic songs while busying himself with the groom as the other two barbers worked with the rest of the groom 's party . During the wedding preparation , the groom 's friends and relatives would come into the shop with gifts of money for Como . He became so popular as a " wedding barber " in the Greek community that he was asked to provide his services in Pittsburgh and throughout Ohio .
= = = Marriage and family = = =
In 1929 , the 17 @-@ year @-@ old Como met Roselle Belline at a picnic on Chartiers Creek that attracted many young people from the Canonsburg area . Como , who attended the cookout with another girl , did not spot Roselle until everyone was around the campfire singing and the gathering was coming to a close . When it came Como 's turn to sing , he chose More Than You Know , with his eyes on Roselle for the entire song . The teenage sweethearts were married July 31 , 1933 . They raised three children , Ronnie , David , and Terri , with traditional , non @-@ show @-@ business values . Because Perry Como believed his professional life and his personal life should be kept separate , he declined repeated interview requests from Edward R. Murrow 's Person to Person .
In 1958 , the Comos celebrated their silver wedding anniversary with a family trip to Italy . On the itinerary was an audience with Pope Pius XII . Como , who sat in a side wing of the Long Island church where he attended Sunday Mass in an effort to avoid attracting attention , was both puzzled and upset on returning home that photos from the visit made the newspapers throughout the world . A thorough check of both the Como and NBC publicity offices found that neither was responsible for the release of the photos to the media ; it was done by the Vatican 's press department . When Perry and Roselle became Knight Commander and Lady Commander of the Equestrian Order of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre in 1952 , it was a news item only after Archbishop Fulton J. Sheen , who had been honored at the same ceremony , mentioned it some time later .
Como suffered a debilitating fall from a stage platform in 1971 while taping Perry Como 's Winter Show in Hollywood . X @-@ rays showed no serious injury to his knee , but by the next morning , it was twice its normal size . The ailing Como chartered a jet back to his home and doctors in Florida , where a second exam showed it had been seriously broken . His knee was re @-@ set and placed in a cast with a recuperation time of eight months . In 1993 , he was successfully treated for bladder cancer . When Roselle died suddenly on August 12 , 1998 , at the age of 84 , the couple had been married for 65 years . Como was reportedly devastated by her loss .
Bing Crosby once described Como as " the man who invented casual . " His preference for casual clothing did not keep him from being named one of the Best Dressed Men beginning in 1946 , and continuing long after Como stopped appearing on weekly television . Como also had his own line of sports / casual men 's clothing made by Bucknell c. early 1950s .
= = = Personal characteristics = = =
One of the many factors in his success was Como 's insistence on his principles of good taste ; if he considered something to be in bad or questionable taste , it was not in the show or broadcast . When a remark made by Julius La Rosa about television personality Arthur Godfrey on The Perry Como Show was misconstrued , Como offered an on @-@ air apology at the beginning of his next show , against the advice of his staff .
While his performance of " Ave Maria " was a tradition of his holiday television programs , Como refused to sing it at live performances , saying , " It 's not the time or place to do it , " even though it was the number @-@ one request of his audiences . Another was his naturalness ; the man that viewers saw on television every week was the same person who could be encountered behind a supermarket shopping cart , at a bowling alley , or in a kitchen making breakfast . From his first Chesterfield Supper Club television show , if scripts were written at all , they were based on Como 's everyday manner of speaking . Though Como was widely known for his amiability , laid @-@ back and easygoing style , he was not devoid of a temper , and it could be seen at times as a result of the frustrations of daily life . Mitchell Ayres , his musical director from 1948 to 1963 said , " Perry has a temper like everyone else . And he loses his temper at the normal things everyone else does . When we 're driving , for instance , and somebody cuts him off , he really lets the offender have it . "
Perry was an avid and accomplished golfer ; there was always time to try getting in a game of golf . " Perry Como Putters " were sold by MacGregor , each stamped with a Como facsimile autograph . His colleagues held an annual Perry Como Golf Tournament to honor him and his love for the game . Como 's guests on the October 3 , 1962 , broadcast were Jack Nicklaus , Arnold Palmer , and Gary Player . The four golfers played 18 holes for the cameras at Sands Point , New York , where the Comos made their home in the television years . Como also enjoyed fishing and he could be found out on his boat almost daily after the family moved to Florida . Perry 's catches would usually turn out to be the Como family 's dinners . Como also used his boat as a rehearsal hall with pre @-@ recorded instrumental tapes sent to him by RCA Victor . Perry would work on material while he was waiting for the fish to bite . Having enjoyed golfing and fishing in the North Carolina mountains for several years , Como built a vacation home in Saluda , North Carolina , in 1980 . He discouraged photos of his home , as it was his private place to get away from the celebrity life .
= = Como 's career as a professional singer = =
= = = Freddy Carlone and Ted Weems = = =
In 1932 , Como left Canonsburg , moving about 100 miles away to Meadville , Pennsylvania , where his uncle had a barber shop in the Hotel Conneaut . Around 80 miles from Cleveland , it was a popular stop on the itinerary for dance bands who worked up and down the Ohio Valley . Como , Roselle , and their friends had gone to nearby Cleveland ; their good times took them to the Silver Slipper Ballroom where Freddy Carlone and his orchestra were playing . Carlone invited anyone who thought he might have talent to come up and sing with his band . Young Como was terrified , but his friends urged him and pushed him onto the stage . Carlone was so impressed with Como 's performance that he immediately offered him a job .
The young man was not certain if he should accept the offer Freddy Carlone had made , so he returned to Canonsburg to talk the matter over with his father . Perry expected he would tell him to stay in the barber business , but to his surprise , the senior Como told him if he did not take the opportunity , he might never know whether or not he could be a professional singer . The decision was also made with an eye on finances ; Como earned around $ 125 per week from his barber shop while the job with Carlone paid $ 28 per week . Roselle was willing to travel with her husband and the band , but the salary was not enough to support two people on the road . Perry and Roselle were married in Meadville on July 31 , 1933 ; four days later , Como joined Freddy Carlone 's band and began working with them . Roselle returned home to Canonsburg ; her new husband would be on the road for the next 18 months .
Three years after joining the Carlone band , Como moved to Ted Weems 's Orchestra and his first recording dates . Como and Weems met in 1936 while the Carlone orchestra was playing in Warren , Ohio . Perry initially did not take the offer to join Weems 's orchestra . Apparently realizing it was the best move for his young vocalist , Freddy Carlone urged him to sign with Weems . Art Jarrett had just left the Weems organization to start his own band . Weems was in need of a vocalist ; Como got a raise , as Weems paid him $ 50 per week , and his first chance for nationwide exposure . Ted Weems and his orchestra were based in Chicago , and were regulars on radio shows such as The Jack Benny Program and Fibber McGee and Molly . The Weems band also had its own weekly radio program on the Mutual Broadcasting System from 1936 – 1937 .
It was here where the young Como acquired polish and his own unique style , with the help of Ted Weems . Mutual 's Chicago affiliate WGN radio threatened to stop carrying the Weems broadcasts from Chicago 's Palmer House if Weems 's new singer did not improve . Weems had recordings of some previous radio programs ; one evening he and Como listened to them after the show . From listening to them , Como was shocked to realize that no one could make out the words to the songs he was singing . Weems told Como there was no need for him to resort to vocal tricks ; what was necessary was to sing from the heart .
Como 's first recording with the Weems band was a novelty tune called " You Can 't Pull the Wool Over My Eyes " , recorded for the Decca Records label in May , 1936 . During one of Como 's early Decca recording sessions with the Weems orchestra , Weems was told to get rid of " that kid " ( Como ) because he sounded too much like Bing Crosby , who also recorded for Decca . Before Como could reply , Ted Weems spoke up , saying that Como was part of the session or it was over . By the time Como had been with Ted Weems about a year , he was mentioned in a 1937 Life magazine NBC Radio ad for Fibber McGee and Molly as " causing cardiac flutters with his crooning . " The weekly radio show , Beat the Band , which ran on NBC from 1940 – 1944 , was a " stump the band " type musical quiz show where Weems and his orchestra were the featured band from 1940 – 1941 .
= = = RCA Victor and radio = = =
The Comos ' first child , Ronnie , was born in 1940 while the Weems band was working in Chicago . Como left the performance to be at his wife 's side even though he was threatened with dismissal if he did so . Though Perry was now making $ 250 a week and travel expenses for the family were no problem , young Ronnie could not become used to a normal routine when they were able to stay in one place for a period of time . The radio program Beat the Band did not always originate from Chicago , but was often done from locations such as Milwaukee , Denver and St. Louis , as the band continued to play road engagements while part of the radio show cast . The Comos decided road life was no place to try raising a child , and Roselle and the baby went back to Canonsburg .
In late 1942 , Como made the decision to quit the Weems band , even if it meant giving up singing . He returned to Canonsburg , his family , and his trade , tired of life on the road without his wife and young son . Como received an offer to become a Frank Sinatra imitator , but chose to keep his own style . While Perry was negotiating for a store lease to re @-@ open a barber shop , he received a call from Tommy Rockwell at General Artists Corporation , who also represented Ted Weems . Como fielded many other calls that also brought offers ; what was different was that he liked and trusted Rockwell , who was offering him his own sustaining ( non @-@ sponsored ) Columbia Broadcasting System ( CBS ) radio show and to get him a recording contract . The offers were also appealing because it meant staying in New York with no more road tours . As Perry pondered the job offer , Roselle told him , " You can always get another barber shop if it doesn 't work out ! " Until the radio show and recording contract offers , he did not really view singing as his career , believing the years with Carlone and Weems had been enjoyable , but now it was time to get back to work . Como said in an 1983 interview , " I thought I 'd have my fun and I 'd go home to work . "
Perry went on the air for CBS on March 12 , 1943 . Rockwell 's next move was to book Como into the renowned Copacabana Night Club for two weeks beginning on June 10 , 1943 . One week later he signed his first RCA Victor contract and three days after that cut his first record for the company , " Goodbye , Sue " . It was the beginning of a 44 @-@ year professional relationship . He became a very successful performer in theater and night club engagements ; Como 's initial two weeks at the Copacabana in June stretched into August . There were times when Frank Sinatra would ask Como to fill in for him at his Paramount Theater performances . The crooning craze was at its height during this time and the " bobby soxer " and " swooner " teenage girls who were wild about Sinatra added Como to their list , a " swooners " club voting him " Crooner of the Year " in 1943 . The line for a Perry Como Paramount performance was three deep and wound around the city block . Como 's popularity also extended to a more mature audience when he played the Versailles and returned to the Copacabana , where the management placed " SRO @-@ Swooning Ruled Out " cards on their tables .
Doug Storer , who was an advertising manager with the Blackman Company at the time , became convinced of Como 's abilities after hearing him on his non @-@ sponsored CBS Radio show . Storer produced a demo radio program recording with Como and the Mitchell Ayres Orchestra which he brought to the advertising agency that handled the Chesterfield Cigarettes account . Initially , the agency liked the format of the show , but wanted someone else as the star , asking Storer to obtain the release of the singer they preferred , so he would be free for their new program . Storer decided to do nothing about getting the singer released from his contract . When he was contacted by the agency some weeks later , saying they were ready to put the program on the air on NBC , Storer bluntly told them the man for their show was the man they had heard on the demo recording . The program was scheduled to make its debut in about a week ; the only option was to hire Como for the show . Storer then arranged for Como 's release from his CBS contract . On December 11 , 1944 , he moved from CBS to NBC for a new radio program , Chesterfield Supper Club .
The April 5 , 1946 , broadcasts of the Chesterfield Supper Club took place 20 @,@ 000 feet in the air ; these were the first known instances of a complete radio show being presented from an airplane . Como , Jo Stafford , the Lloyd Shaffer Orchestra and the entire " Supper Club " crew made the flights for the shows . There were two " Supper Club " broadcast flights that evening : at 6 PM and again at 10 PM for the West Coast broadcast of the show . A total of three flights were made ; there was an earlier rehearsal flight for reception purposes . In addition to the instruments for the band , the plane also carried a small piano . Because the stand @-@ held microphones were not very useful on the plane , hand @-@ held mikes were then used , but due to the cabin pressure , they became extremely heavy to hold after a few minutes . This mid @-@ air performance caused the American Federation of Musicians to consider this a new type of engagement and issue a special set of rates for it .
= = = Como in concert = = =
Como had not made a night club appearance in 26 years when he accepted an engagement at the International Hotel in Las Vegas in June 1970 , which also resulted in his first " live " album , Perry Como in Person at the International Hotel , Las Vegas . Ray Charles , whose Ray Charles Singers were heard with Como for over 35 years , formed a special edition of the vocal group for his Las Vegas opening . Prior to this he had last appeared at New York 's Copacabana in 1944 . Como continued to do periodic engagements in Las Vegas and Lake Tahoe , limiting his night club appearances to Nevada .
Performing live again brought Como a new sense of enjoyment . In May 1974 , he embarked on his first concert appearance outside of the United States , a show at the London Palladium for the Variety Club of Great Britain to aid children 's charities . It was here where he discovered what he had been missing when the audience cheered for ten minutes after he walked onstage . At the show 's end , Como sat in a chair , delightedly chatting back and forth with his equally delighted fans . Perry returned to the United Kingdom ( UK ) in November for a Royal Variety Performance to benefit the Entertainment Artistes ' Benevolent Fund with the Queen Mother in attendance . Como was invited to visit Buckingham Palace the day after the show . At first , the invitation did not extend to his associates traveling and working with him , and Como politely declined . When word reached the Palace regarding the reason for Perry 's turning down the invitation , it was then extended to include all in the Como party and Como accepted this invitation . Soon after , he announced his first concert tour that began in the UK in the spring of 1975 .
In 1982 , Como and Frank Sinatra were invited to entertain Italian President Sandro Pertini at a White House State dinner when he made an official visit . President Pertini enjoyed their performance enough to join them in singing " Santa Lucia " . The pair reprised this routine the next year in California as part of the entertainment for Queen Elizabeth 's Royal visit . Perry was on the program by special request of the Queen .
The year 1984 found Como traveling the US with his 50th Anniversary tour . Having spent most of his professional life in radio or recording studios and on television soundstages , he was enjoying doing live performances . Even after his 80th birthday , Perry continued the concert tours . Gone , however , were the cardigan sweaters which had been a staple of his weekly television shows , and which he had actually hated having to wear . Como now performed in a tuxedo , saying , " It shows respect for the audience . " The return to live appearances also provided Como with an opportunity to have a little fun with his " Mister Nice Guy " image in a song Ray Charles and Nick Perito his closest collaborator since 1963 , wrote and composed for him :
It doesn 't take a guy equipped with ESP , to see what 's cookin ' with your curiosity !
Is " Mister Nice Guy " just a press agent 's pitch ? his dearest friends say he 's a ...
You never thought you 'd see me in Las Vegas ' live ' I haven 't played a " club " since 1885 !
It 's spelled out in dollar signs ( you better believe it ! ) I can almost read your minds !
– Nick Perito and Ray Charles , " If I Could Almost Read Your Mind "
= = = Vocal characteristics = = =
Perry Como credited Bing Crosby for influencing his voice and style . Perry Como 's voice is widely known for its good @-@ natured vocal acrobatics as portrayed in his highly popular novelty songs such as " Hot Diggity ( Dog Ziggity Boom ) " , but there was another side to Perry Como . Music critic Gene Lees describes it in his sleeve note to Como 's 1968 album Look To Your Heart :
Despite his immense popularity , Como is rarely given credit for what , once you stop and think of it , he so clearly is : one of the great singers and one of the great artists of our time .
Perhaps the reason people rarely talk about his formidable attributes as a singer is that he makes so little fuss about them . That celebrated ease of his has been too little understood . Ease in any art is the result of mastery over the details of the craft . You get them together to the point where you can forget about how you do things and concentrate on what you are doing . Como got them together so completely that the muscles don 't even show . It seems effortless , but a good deal of effort has gone into making it seem so . Como is known to be meticulous about rehearsal of the material for an album . He tries things out in different keys , gives the song thought , makes suggestions , tries it again , and again , until he is satisfied . The hidden work makes him look like Mr. Casual , and too many people are taken in by it — but happily so .
– Gene Lees @-@ sleeve note , Look To Your Heart
From 1989 until his death in 2001 , Como co @-@ hosted a weekly syndicated radio show with John Knox , called Weekend With Perry .
= = Films = =
Como 's Hollywood type good looks earned him a seven @-@ year contract with 20th Century @-@ Fox in 1943 . He made four films for Fox , Something for the Boys ( 1944 ) , March of Time ( 1945 ) , Doll Face ( 1945 ) , and If I 'm Lucky ( 1946 ) , plus Words and Music for Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( 1948 ) . He never appeared to be truly comfortable in films , feeling the roles assigned him did not match his personality .
Some misguided Hollywood press agent sought to alter Como 's life story by changing his previous occupation from barber to coal miner , claiming it would make for better press . Fred Othman , a Hollywood columnist , publicly stated he believed Como the barber was just a publicity gimmick . Perry gave him a shave and haircut at the Fox Studios barber shop to prove him wrong . In 1985 , Como related the story of his first film role experience in Something for the Boys . He sat ready to work in his dressing room for two weeks without being called . Perry spent the next two weeks playing golf , still not missed by the studio . It was five weeks before he was actually called to the set , despite the studio 's initial urgent report for work notice . When Como finally appeared , the director had no idea who he was .
At the time Como was signed , movie musicals were on the wane and he became a studio contract player , where the actors or actresses worked only when the studio needed to fill out a schedule . Though his last movie , Words and Music , was made for prestigious Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer , Como fared no better . Less than two weeks before the film 's release , Walter Winchell wrote in his syndicated column , " Someone at MGM must have been dozing when they wrote the script for Words and Music . In most of the film Perry Como is called Eddie Anders and toward the end ( for no reason ) they start calling him Perry Como . " Como asked for and received a release from the remainder of his movie contract in the same year . Quoting Como , " I was wasting their time and they were wasting mine . "
Como 's comments during a 1949 interview were prophetic , as far as his success was concerned . At the time he was doing the Chesterfield Supper Club on both radio and television , " Television is going to do me a lot more personal good than the movies ever have ... The reason should be obvious . On television , I 'm allowed to be myself ; in pictures , I was always some other guy . I come over like just another bum in a tuxedo . " Como was offered some movie roles that interested him after he began appearing on the weekly TV shows , but there was just never enough time to pursue any film work .
= = Television = =
= = = Early years : 1948 – 1955 = = =
Perry Como made the move to television when NBC initially televised the Chesterfield Supper Club radio program on December 24 , 1948 . A very special guest on that first television show was Como 's eight @-@ year @-@ old son , Ronnie , as part of a boys ' choir singing " Silent Night " with his father . The show was the usual Friday night Chesterfield Supper Club with an important exception — it was also being broadcast on television . The experimental simulcast was to continue for three Friday " Supper Club " shows , but had gone so well , NBC decided to extend the televised version through August 1949 . Years later , Como admitted to being scared and feeling awkward initially , but somehow managed to just be himself . Said Como , " You can 't act on TV . With me , what you see is what you get . " While still in its experimental phase , Como and the television show survived an on location broadcast in Durham , North Carolina , on April 15 , 1949 .
On September 8 , 1949 , it became a weekly half @-@ hour offering on Sunday nights , directly opposite Ed Sullivan 's Toast of the Town . In 1950 , Perry moved to CBS and the show 's title was changed to The Perry Como Chesterfield Show , again sponsored by Liggett & Myers ' Chesterfield cigarettes . Como hosted this informal 15 minute musical variety series on Monday , Wednesday and Friday , immediately following the CBS Television News . The Faye Emerson Show was initially broadcast in the same time slot on Tuesday and Thursday . By 1952 , it was evident that television would replace radio as the major entertainment medium . Gary Giddins , the biographer of Bing Crosby , said in 2001 , " He ( Como ) came from this whole generation of crooners--Crosby and Sinatra , but he was the only one of them who figured out TV . " Como 's 15 @-@ minute television show was also simulcast on radio via the Mutual Broadcasting System beginning on August 24 , 1953 ; while the Chesterfield Supper Club broadcasts were simulcast on radio and television , this was the first instance of a simulcast between two networks .
Como 's CBS contract was to expire on July 1 , 1955 . The year before , he had been asked to be the master of ceremonies and narrator of the NBC Radio 35th anniversary special . That April , Perry Como signed a 12 @-@ year " unbreakable " contract with NBC . On his last CBS show , June 24 , 1955 , Como was in high spirits , bringing all those who worked off camera on the air for introductions . Perry tried his hand at camera work , getting a picture on the air but one that was upside @-@ down . In appreciation for the 11 @-@ year association , his sponsor , Chesterfield , presented him with all the musical arrangements used during this time as a parting gift .
= = = Sing to me , Mr. C. : 1955 – 1959 = = =
He moved back to NBC with a weekly hour @-@ long variety show featuring additional musical and production numbers , comedy sketches and guest stars called The Perry Como Show , premiering Saturday , September 17 , 1955 . This version of his show was also so popular that in the 1956 – 1957 television season , it reached ninth in the Nielsen ratings , the only show on NBC that season to land in the top ten .
Como 's " Dream Along With Me " became the show 's opening theme song , " Mr. C. " received the first of many " stacks and stacks of letters " requesting him to sing a specific song . It was also here where he began wearing his trademark cardigan sweaters . The " Sing to me , Mr. C. " segment of the Como shows with Perry seated on a stool singing viewer requested songs had its roots in the first television broadcasts of Chesterfield Supper Club . When cameras entered the " Supper Club " radio studio , they found Como and his guests sitting on stools behind music stands . The show 's closing theme was , " You Are Never Far Away From Me " .
Perry 's announcer on the broadcasts , Frank Gallop , became a foil for Como 's jokes . When the television show began , there was not enough room for Gallop to appear on stage ; he was an invisible " voice from the clouds " until the show 's 1958 – 1959 season . There was as much fun at rehearsals as on the show itself . Como 's relaxed and fun @-@ loving manner at rehearsals put many nervous guests at ease . It was common for Como to leave the Saturday afternoon rehearsal for about a half @-@ hour to go to confession . He managed to save some time by asking his music publisher , Mickey Glass , to wait in line for him at the confessional . Glass , who was Jewish , was most agreeable to this , but wondered what to do if his turn came before Como arrived .
Perry thoroughly enjoyed what he was doing , saying in a 1989 interview , " I got a kick out of live television . The spontaneity was the fun of it . " Spontaneity and the ability to be himself came in handy for swimmer / actress Esther Williams ' guest appearance of March 16 , 1957 . A wardrobe malfunction meant that viewers were seeing more of Esther than 1950s television considered to be in good taste ; more live show mishaps followed . At the show 's end , Williams was swimming in a pool specially constructed on the set for her appearance . Como simply said , " Goodnight , folks , " and leaped , fully clothed , into the swimming pool .
On December 17 , 1955 , viewers were able to see first @-@ hand what Perry did for a living before he was a professional singer . Actor Kirk Douglas was one of Como 's television guests ; Douglas had grown a beard for his Vincent van Gogh role in Lust For Life , which finished filming that week . Como shaved Douglas ' movie beard live on national television . On September 15 , 1956 , the season premiere of The Perry Como Show was broadcast from NBC 's new color television studios at the New York Ziegfeld Theatre , making it one of the first weekly color TV shows . In addition to this season premiere as a color television show , there was also a royal visit from Prince Rainier of Monaco and his bride of six months , Grace Kelly .
Como competed with Jackie Gleason in what was billed as the " Battle of the Giants " and won . This is now rarely mentioned , in part because Como commonly downplayed his own achievements , and also because the two men were friends . The weekly ratings winner would phone the loser for some mock gloating . At the height of this television competition , Como asked Gleason a favor : to visit his home when his mother @-@ in @-@ law , a big Gleason fan , was there . Though Mrs. Belline spoke no English and Gleason no Italian , Roselle 's mother was thrilled . Como 's words to Gleason after the visit , " Anything you want , you got it . In fact , I 'll even do one of your shows so the ratings will be better . " Como was among those who filled in for Gleason on The Jackie Gleason Show in 1954 when the entertainer suffered a broken ankle and leg in an on @-@ air fall .
An example of Como 's popularity came in 1956 , when Life conducted a poll of young women , asking them which man in public life most fit the concept of their ideal husband : it was Perry Como . A 1958 nationwide poll of U.S. teenagers found Perry Como to be the most popular male singer , beating Elvis Presley , who was the winner of the previous year 's poll . At one point , his television show was broadcast in at least 12 other countries .
Another way to judge the value of the Como show to the network can be found in the following : during sound checks at rehearsals , it was often difficult to hear Como 's soft voice without having a large microphone ruin a camera shot . NBC had RCA design a microphone for the show , which was known as the " Como mike " ; the microphone was able to pick up Como 's voice properly and was small enough not to interfere with camera shots .
= = = Kraft Music Hall : 1959 – 1967 = = =
In 1959 , Como moved to Wednesday nights , hosting Perry Como 's Kraft Music Hall weekly for the next eight years ; the last four seasons from 1963 to 1967 were done as monthly specials alternating with Kraft Suspense Theatre , The Andy Williams Show , and finally The Road West . Como became the highest @-@ paid performer in the history of television to that date , earning mention in the Guinness Book of World Records . Como himself took part in none of this ; his production company , Roncom , named for son Ronnie Como , handled the transaction along with all other Como business matters . Como also had control of the show which would replace his during the summer television hiatus . While " Mr. C. " was having a holiday , viewers would see Perry Presents , beginning in 1959 .
In late 1962 , after the Cuban Missile Crisis had settled well enough to permit the evacuated servicemen 's families to return to Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba , Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara was eager to do more for morale there . He asked Perry Como to bring his television show to the Naval base . Perry and his cast and crew were at Guantanamo when the loved ones began their return . The first entertainers to visit the base since the crisis , the Como show filmed there for eight days . Some highlights of the program , which was seen in the US on December 12 , 1962 , included Como 's shaving a serviceman with a Castro @-@ like beard and the enthusiastic participation when Perry asked for volunteers to come on stage to do the Twist with the lovely ladies who were part of the visiting dance troupe .
Filming for the Kraft Music Hall Christmas show that was aired on December 17 , 1964 began at the Vatican November 7 . By special permission of Pope Paul VI , Como and his crew were able to shoot segments in the Vatican gardens and other areas where cameras had never been permitted previously . The show featured the first television appearance of the Sistine Chapel Choir , and also the first time a non @-@ choir member ( Como ) sang with them . The choir performed a Christmas hymn in Latin written by their director , Domenico Bartolucci , called " Christ Is Born " , as part of their presentation . Como asked his associate , Ray Charles , to write English lyrics for the song , using it many times on both television shows and his Christmas albums . The Carpenters also recorded the song on their first Christmas album , Christmas Portrait .
= = = Specials = = =
Beginning in 1967 , Como began reducing his TV appearances , gradually becoming limited to seasonal and holiday specials with the emphasis being on Christmas . Como had numerous Christmas television specials , beginning on Christmas Eve 1948 , and continuing to 1994 , when his final Christmas special was recorded in Ireland . They were recorded in many countries , including the Holy Land , Mexico , and Canada , as well as many locations throughout the United States . The 1987 Christmas special was cancelled at the behest of an angry Como ; The American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) was willing to offer him only a Saturday 10 PM time slot for it three weeks before the holiday . Perry filled the yearly gap for his fans with live Christmas concerts in various locations .
Como 's final Christmas special was filmed in January 1994 in Dublin 's Point Theatre before an audience of 4 @,@ 500 people , including Irish President Mary Robinson and Como 's friend , the actress Maureen O 'Hara . Perry Como 's Irish Christmas was a Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS ) production , made by an Irish independent production company in association with RTÉ . Como , appearing aged and unwell , had the flu during the show which took four hours to record . At the show 's conclusion , Como apologized to his Dublin audience for a performance he felt was not up to his usual standards .
During his visit to Dublin , Como visited a barber shop called " The Como " on Thomas Street . The owners , lifelong fans who named their business in his honor , had sent photographs of the shop and letters to Como inviting him to visit . Photos of Como with the barbers were framed in the shop . " The Como " closed in 2002 but it remains a household name in The Liberties .
= = Death = =
Como died in his sleep on May 12 , 2001 , at his home in Jupiter Inlet Colony , Florida , six days before his eighty @-@ ninth birthday . He was reported to have suffered from symptoms of Alzheimer 's disease . Como 's older son , Ronnie , and his daughter , Terri , could not agree on their interpretations of Como 's 1999 living will and it became a matter for the courts in the year before his death . His funeral Mass took place at St. Edward 's Catholic Church in Palm Beach , Florida . Como and his wife , Roselle are buried at Riverside Memorial Park , Tequesta ( Palm Beach County ) , Florida .
= = Honors and tributes = =
= = = Awards = = =
Como received the 1959 Grammy Award for Best Vocal Performance , Male ; five Emmys from 1955 to 1959 ; a Christopher Award ( 1956 ) and shared a Peabody Award with good friend Jackie Gleason in 1956 . He was inducted into the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences Hall of Fame in 1990 and received a Kennedy Center Honor in 1987 . Posthumously , Como received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2002 ; he was inducted into the Long Island Music Hall of Fame in 2006 . Como has the distinction of having three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his work in radio , television , and music .
= = = Tributes = = =
In the official RCA Records Billboard magazine memorial , his life was summed up in these words : " 50 years of music and a life well lived . An example to all . " Composer Ervin Drake said of him , " ... [ o ] ccasionally someone like Perry comes along and won 't ' go with the flow ' and still prevails in spite of all the bankrupt others who surround him and importune him to yield to their values . Only occasionally . "
= = = Hometown honors = = =
Canonsburg has always been very proud to be the birthplace of Perry Como ; the local newspaper of the time , Canonsburg Daily Notes , seems to have been the first to write an article about him . Their edition of July 19 , 1934 , featured a photo and the following : " A young Canonsburg boy threatens to snatch the crown from Bing Crosby 's head . Perry Como , son of Mr. and Mrs. Pietro Como of 530 Franklin street is said to have one of the grandest baritone voices in the country . " The borough honored him three times over the course of his life . The first of these events took place September 14 , 1946 , when Third Street , where Perry worked in the barber shop of Steve Fragapane , was renamed " Perry Como Avenue " . Perry , Roselle , and Como 's mother , Lucy , attended the ceremonies and banquet held at the State Armory .
A second ceremony marking Perry Como Day took place August 24 , 1977 , but the most ambitious project began in 1997 – a statue of the singer . The planned statue had the blessing of Como 's wife , Roselle , who died the year before it was unveiled on May 15 , 1999 . As part of the festivities , Como 's stool and music stand from The Perry Como Show and the equipment he used at Steve Fragapane 's barber shop were donated to the borough . Como was not present at the unveiling because of poor health . The inscription on the base , " To This Place God Has Brought Me " , was a favorite saying of Como 's ; the musical feature was added in 2002 .
The Como celebration crossed the Atlantic in August 2002 . Palena , Italy , the birthplace of Como 's parents , had a long @-@ standing week @-@ long festival in honor of the singer . A smaller version of the statue was taken to Palena by the mayor of Canonsburg , Anthony Colaizzo . Perry 's son , David , and his wife were also in attendance when the town of Palena renamed a street for Como . There is a marble plaque on a Palena town wall stating that Pietro and Lucia Como , parents of Perry Como , emigrated from this village to the United States which dates from these ceremonies .
Perry Como never forgot Canonsburg either . One of the things he did to give a helping hand to his home town was to convince RCA to open a record @-@ pressing plant there . Those who needed to raise funds for local projects like Boys ' and Girls ' Clubs found him always ready to do whatever was needed .
In 2007 , the local McDonald 's was totally rebuilt . The new building decor features memorabilia of Como along with that of fellow singer and Canonsburg native , Bobby Vinton . A children 's playground in Canonsburg on Giffin Avenue is also named for Como . In downtown Canonsburg , all of the tree grates are marked with information about the records that sold a million copies and the town clock hourly plays one of the hits of Como ( 141 ) , Vinton ( 44 ) , or the Four Coins ( 7 ) , also from Canonsburg .
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= Storm Prediction Center =
The Storm Prediction Center ( SPC ) is a government agency that is part of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) , operating under the control of the National Weather Service ( NWS ) , which in turn is part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) of the United States Department of Commerce ( DoC ) .
Headquartered at the National Weather Center in Norman , Oklahoma , the Storm Prediction Center is tasked with forecasting the risk of severe thunderstorms and tornadoes in the contiguous United States . It issues convective outlooks , mesoscale discussions , and watches as a part of this process . Convective outlooks are issued for the following eight days ( issued separately for Day 1 , Day 2 , Day 3 , and Days 4 – 8 ) , and detail the risk of severe thunderstorms and tornadoes during the given forecast period , although tornado , hail and wind details are only available for Day 1 . Days 2 and 3 , as well as 4 – 8 use a probabilistic scale , determining the probability for a severe weather event in percentage categories .
Mesoscale discussions are issued to provide information on certain individual regions where severe weather is becoming a threat and states whether a watch is likely and details thereof , particularly concerning conditions conducive for the development of severe thunderstorms in the short term , as well as situations of isolated severe weather when watches are not necessary . Watches are issued when forecasters are confident that severe weather will occur , and usually precede the onset of severe weather by one hour , although this sometimes varies depending on certain atmospheric conditions that may inhibit or accelerate convective development .
The agency is also responsible for forecasting fire weather ( indicating conditions that are favorable for wildfires ) in the contiguous U.S. , issuing fire weather outlooks for Days 1 , 2 , and 3 – 8 , which detail areas with critical or extremely critical fire conditions .
= = History = =
The Storm Prediction Center began in 1952 as SELS ( Severe Local Storms Unit ) , a special unit of forecasters at the U.S. Weather Bureau in Washington , D.C. In 1954 , the unit moved its forecast operations to Kansas City , Missouri . SELS began issuing convective outlooks for predicted thunderstorm activity in 1955 , and began issuing radar summaries in three @-@ hour intervals in 1960 ; with the increased duties of compiling and disseminating radar summaries , this unit became the National Severe Storms Forecast Center ( NSSFC ) in 1966 , remaining headquartered in Kansas City .
In 1968 , the National Severe Storms Forecast Center began issuing status reports on weather watches ; the agency then made its first computerized data transmission in 1971 . On April 2 , 1982 , the agency issued the first " Particularly Dangerous Situation " watch , which indicates the imminent threat of a major severe weather event over the watches ' timespan . In 1986 , the NSSFC introduced two new forecast products : the Day 2 Convective Outlook ( which include probabilistic forecasts for outlined areas of thunderstorm risk for the following day ) and the Mesoscale Discussion ( a short @-@ term forecast outlining specific areas under threat for severe thunderstorm development ) .
In October 1995 , the National Severe Storms Forecast Center relocated its operations to Norman , Oklahoma , and was rechristened the Storm Prediction Center . At that time , the guidance center was housed at Max Westheimer Airport ( now the University of Oklahoma Westheimer Airport ) , co @-@ located in the same building as the National Severe Storms Laboratory and the local National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office ( the latter of which , in addition to disseminating forecasts , oversees the issuance of weather warnings and advisories for the western two @-@ thirds of Oklahoma and western portions of North Texas , and issues outline and status updates for SPC @-@ issued severe thunderstorm and tornado watches that include areas served by the Norman office ) . In 1998 , the Center began issuing the National Fire Weather Outlook to provide forecasts for areas potentially susceptible to the development and spread of wildfires based on certain meteorological factors . The Day 3 Convective Outlook ( which is similar in format to the Day 2 forecast ) was first issued on an experimental basis in 2000 , and was made an official product in 2001 .
In 2006 , the Storm Prediction Center , National Severe Storms Laboratory and National Weather Service Norman Forecast Office moved their respective operations into the newly constructed National Weather Center , near Westheimer Airport . Since the agency 's relocation to Norman , the 557th Weather Wing at Offutt Air Force Base would assume control of issuing the Storm Prediction Center 's severe weather products in the event that the SPC is no longer able to issue them in the event of an outage ( such as a computer system failure or building @-@ wide power disruption ) or emergency ( such as an approaching strong tornadic circulation or tornado on the ground ) affecting the Norman campus ; on April 1 , 2009 , the SPC reassigned responsibilities for issuing the center 's products in such situations to the 15th Operational Weather Squadron based out of Scott Air Force Base .
= = Overview = =
The Storm Prediction Center is responsible for forecasting the risk of severe weather caused by severe thunderstorms , specifically those producing tornadoes , hail of one inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) in diameter or larger , and / or winds of 58 miles per hour ( 93 km / h ) or greater . The agency also forecasts hazardous winter and fire weather conditions . It does so primarily by issuing convective outlooks , severe thunderstorm watches , tornado watches and mesoscale discussions .
There is a three @-@ stage process in which the area , time period , and details of a severe weather forecast are refined from a broad @-@ scale forecast of potential hazards to a more specific and detailed forecast of what hazards are expected , and where and in what time frame they are expected to occur . If warranted , forecasts will also increase in severity through this three @-@ stage process .
The Storm Prediction Center employs a total of 43 personnel , including five lead forecasters , ten mesoscale / outlook forecasters , and seven assistant mesoscale forecasters . Many SPC forecasters and support staff are heavily involved in scientific research into severe and hazardous weather . This involves conducting applied research and writing technical papers , developing training materials , giving seminars and other presentations locally and nationwide , attending scientific conferences , and participating in weather experiments .
= = Convective outlooks = =
The Storm Prediction Center issues convective outlooks ( AC ) , consisting of categorical and probabilistic forecasts describing the general threat of severe convective storms over the contiguous United States for the next six to 192 hours ( Day 1 through Day 8 ) . These outlooks are labeled and issued by day , and are issued up to five times per day .
The categorical risks are TSTM ( for Thunder Storm : light green shaded area – rendered as a brown line prior to April 2011 – indicating a risk for general thunderstorms ) , " MRGL " ( for Marginal : darker green shaded area , indicating a very low but present risk of severe weather ) ; " SLGT " ( for Slight : yellow shaded area – previously rendered as a green line – indicating a slight risk of severe weather ) ; " ENH " ( for Enhanced : orange shaded area , which replaced the upper end of the SLGT category on October 22 , 2014 ) ; " MDT " ( for Moderate : red shaded area – previously rendered as a red line – indicating a moderate risk of severe weather ) ; and " HIGH " ( pink shaded area – previously a rendered as a fuchsia line – indicating a high risk of severe weather ) . Significant severe areas ( referred to as " hatched areas " because of their representation on outlook maps ) refer to a threat of increased storm intensity that is of " significant severe " levels ( F2 / EF2 or stronger tornado , 2 inches ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) or larger hail , or 75 miles per hour ( 121 km / h ) winds or greater ) .
In April 2011 , the SPC introduced a new graphical format for its categorical and probability outlooks , which included the shading of risk areas ( with the colors corresponding to each category , as mentioned above , being changed as well ) and population , county / parish / borough and interstate overlays . The new shaded maps also incorporated a revised color palette for the shaded probability categories in each outlook .
In 2013 , the SPC incorporated a small table under the Convective Outlook 's risk category map that indicates the total coverage area by square miles , the total estimated population affected and major cities included within a severe weather risk area .
Public severe weather outlooks ( PWO ) are issued when a significant or widespread outbreak is expected , especially for tornadoes . From November to March , it can also be issued for any threat of significant tornadoes in the nighttime hours , noting the lower awareness and greater danger of tornadoes at that time of year .
= = = Categories = = =
A marginal risk day indicates storms of only limited organization , longevity , coverage and / or intensity , typically isolated severe or near @-@ severe storms with limited wind damage , large hail and perhaps a tornado . Wind gusts of at least 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) and hailstones of around 1 inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) in diameter are common storm threats within a marginal risk ; depending on the sufficient wind shear , a tornado – usually of weak ( EF0 to EF1 ) intensity and short duration – may be possible . This category replaced the " SEE TEXT " category on October 22 , 2014 .
A slight risk day typically will indicate that the threat exists for scattered severe weather , including scattered wind damage ( produced by straight @-@ line sustained winds and / or gusts of 60 to 70 mph ) , scattered severe hail ( varying in size from .25 inches ( 0 @.@ 64 cm ) to 1 @.@ 75 inches ( 4 @.@ 4 cm ) ) and / or isolated tornadoes ( often of shorter duration and varying weak to moderate intensity , depending on the available wind shear and other sufficient atmospheric parameters ) . During the peak severe weather season , most days will have a slight risk somewhere in the United States . Isolated significant severe events are possible in some circumstances , but are generally not widespread .
An enhanced risk day indicates that there is a greater threat for severe weather than that which would be indicated by a slight risk , but conditions are not adequate for the development of widespread significant severe weather to necessitate a moderate category . Severe storms are expected to be more concentrated and of varying intensities . This risk category replaced the upper end of " slight " on October 22 , 2014 , although a few situations that previously warranted a moderate risk were reclassified as enhanced ( i.e. 45 % wind or 15 % tornado with no significant area ) .
A moderate risk day indicates that more widespread and / or more dangerous severe weather is possible ( sometimes with major hurricanes ) , with significant severe weather often more likely . Numerous tornadoes ( some of which may be strong and potentially long @-@ track ) , more widespread or severe wind damage and / or very large / destructive hail ( up to or exceeding 2 inches ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) in diameter ) could occur . Major events , such as large tornado outbreaks or widespread straight @-@ line wind events , are sometimes also possible on moderate risk days , but with greater uncertainty . Moderate risk days are not uncommon , and typically occur several times a month during the peak of the severe weather season , and occasionally at other times of the year . Slight and enhanced risk areas typically surround areas under a moderate risk , where the threat is lower .
A high risk day indicates a considerable likelihood of significant to extreme severe weather , generally a major tornado outbreak or ( much less often ) an extreme derecho event . On these days , the potential exists for extremely severe and life @-@ threatening weather , including widespread strong or violent tornadoes – some of which may be on the ground for a half @-@ hour or longer – and / or very destructive straight @-@ line winds ( hail cannot verify or produce a high risk on its own , although such a day usually involves a threat for widespread very large and damaging hail as well ) . Many of the most prolific severe weather days were high risk days . Such days are quite rare ; a high risk is typically issued only a few times each year ( see List of SPC High Risk days ) . High risk areas are usually surrounded by a larger moderate risk area , where uncertainty is greater or the threat is somewhat lower .
The Storm Prediction Center began asking for public comment on proposed categorical additions to the Day 1 @-@ 3 Convective Outlooks on April 21 , 2014 , for a two @-@ month period . The Storm Prediction Center broadened this system beginning on October 22 , 2014 by adding two new risk categories to the three used originally . The new categories that were added are a " marginal risk " ( replacing the " SEE TEXT " contours , see below ) and an " enhanced risk " ( which is used to delineate areas where severe weather will occur that would fall under the previous probability criteria of an upper @-@ end slight risk , but do not warrant the issuance of a moderate risk ) . In order from least to greatest threat , these categories are ranked as : marginal , slight , enhanced , moderate and high .
= = = Issuance and usage = = =
Convective outlooks are issued by the Storm Prediction Center in Zulu time ( also known as Universal Coordinated Time or UTC ) .
The categories at right refer to the risk levels for the specific severe weather event occurring within 25 miles ( 40 km ) of any point in the delineated region , as described in the previous section . The Day 1 Convective Outlook , issued five times per day at 0600Z ( valid from 1200Z of the current day until 1200Z the following day ) , 1300Z and 1630Z ( the " morning updates , " valid until 1200Z the following day ) , 2000Z ( the " afternoon update , " valid until 1200Z the following day ) , and the 0100Z ( the " evening update , " valid until 1200Z the following day ) , provides a textual forecast , map of categories and probabilities , and chart of probabilities . The Day 1 is currently the only outlook to issue specific probabilities for tornadoes , hail or wind . It is the most descriptive and highest accuracy outlook , and typically has the highest probability levels .
Day 2 outlooks , issued twice daily at 0600Z and 1730Z , refer to predicted risks of convective weather for the following day ( 1200Z to 1200Z of the next calendar day ; for example , a Day 2 outlook issued on April 12 , 2100 would be valid from 1200Z on April 13 , 2100 through 1200Z on April 14 , 2100 ) and include only a categorical outline , textual description , and a probability graph for severe convective storms generally . Day 2 moderate risks are fairly uncommon , and a Day 2 high risk has only been issued twice ( for April 7 , 2006 and for April 14 , 2012 ) .
Day 3 outlooks refer to the day after tomorrow , and include the same products ( categorical outline , text description , and probability graph ) as the Day 2 outlook . As of June 2012 , the SPC forecasts general thunderstorm risk areas . Higher probability forecasts are less and less likely as the forecast period increases due to lessening forecast ability farther in advance . Day 3 moderate risks are quite rare ; these have been issued only fourteen times since the product became operational ( most recently for May 9 , 2015 ) . Day 3 high risks are never issued and the operational standards do not allow for such . This is most likely because it would require both a very high degree of certainty ( 60 % ) for an event which was still at least 48 hours away and a reasonable level of confidence that said severe thunderstorm outbreak would include significant severe weather ( EF2 + tornadoes , hurricane @-@ force winds , and / or egg @-@ sized hail ) .
Day 4 – 8 outlooks are the longest @-@ term official SPC Forecast Product , and often change significantly from day to day . This extended forecast for severe weather was an experimental product until March 22 , 2007 , when the Storm Prediction Center incorporated it as an official product . Areas are delineated in this forecast that have least a 15 % or 30 % chance of severe weather in the Day 4 – 8 period ( equivalent to a slight risk and an enhanced risk , respectively ) ; as forecaster confidence is not fully resolute on how severe weather will evolve more than three days out , the Day 4 – 8 outlook only outlines the areas in which severe thunderstorms are forecast to occur during the period at the 15 % and 30 % likelihood , and does not utilize other categorical risk areas or outline where general ( non @-@ severe ) thunderstorm activity will occur .
Local forecast offices of the National Weather Service , radio and television stations , and emergency planners often use the forecasts to gauge the potential severe weather threats to their areas . Even after the marginal and enhanced risk categories were added in October 2014 , some television stations have continued to use the original three @-@ category system to outline forecasted severe weather risks ( though stations that do this may utilize in @-@ house severe weather outlooks that vary to some degree from the SPC convective outlooks ) , while certain others that have switched to the current system have chosen not to outline marginal risk areas .
Generally , the convective outlook boundaries or lines – general thunderstorms ( light green ) , marginal ( dark green ) , slight ( yellow ) , enhanced ( orange ) , moderate ( red ) and high ( purple ) – will be continued as an arrow or line not filled with color if the risk area enters another country ( Canada or Mexico ) or across waters beyond the United States coastline . This indicates that the risk for severe weather is also valid in that general area of the other side of the border or oceanic boundary .
= = Mesoscale discussions = =
SPC mesoscale discussions ( MDs ) once covered convection ( mesoscale convective discussions [ MCDs ] ) and precipitation ( mesoscale precipitation discussions [ MPDs ] ) ; MPDs are now issued by the Weather Prediction Center ( WPC ) . MCDs generally precede the issuance of a tornado or severe thunderstorm watch , by one to three hours when possible . Mesoscale discussions are designed to give local forecasters an update on a region where a severe weather threat is emerging and an indication of whether a watch is likely and details thereof , as well as situations of isolated severe weather when watches are not necessary . MCDs contain meteorological information on what is happening and what is expected to occur in the next few hours , and forecast reasoning in regard to weather watches . Mesoscale discussions are often issued to update information on watches already in effect , and sometimes when one is to be canceled . Mesoscale discussions are occasionally used as advance notice of a categorical upgrade of a scheduled convective outlook .
= = = Example = = =
= = Weather watches = =
Watches ( WWs ) issued by the SPC are generally less than 20 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 square miles ( 52 @,@ 000 – 129 @,@ 000 km2 ) in area and are normally preceded by a mesoscale discussion . Watches are intended to be issued preceding the arrival of severe weather by one to six hours . They indicate that conditions are favorable for thunderstorms capable of producing various modes of severe weather , including large hail , damaging straight @-@ line winds and / or tornadoes . In the case of severe thunderstorm watches organized severe thunderstorms are expected but conditions are not thought to be especially favorable for tornadoes ( although they can occur in such areas where one is in effect , and some severe thunderstorm watch statements issued by the SPC may note a threat of isolated tornadic activity if conditions are of modest favorability for storm rotation capable of inducing them ) , whereas for tornado watches conditions are thought to be favorable for severe thunderstorms to produce tornadoes .
In situations where a forecaster expects a significant threat of extremely severe and life @-@ threatening weather , a watch with special enhanced wording , " Particularly Dangerous Situation " ( PDS ) , is subjectively issued . It is occasionally issued with tornado watches , normally for the potential of major tornado outbreaks , especially those with a significant threat of multiple tornadoes capable of producing F4 / EF4 and F5 / EF5 damage and / or staying on the ground for long @-@ duration – sometimes uninterrupted – paths . A PDS severe thunderstorm watch is very rare and is typically reserved for derecho events impacting densely populated areas .
Watches are not " warnings " , where there is an immediate severe weather threat to life and property . Although severe thunderstorm and tornado warnings are ideally the next step after watches , watches cover a threat of organized severe thunderstorms over a larger area and may not always precede a warning ; watch " busts " do sometimes occur should thunderstorm activity not occur at all or that which does develop never reaches the originally forecast level of severity . Warnings are issued by local National Weather Service offices , not the Storm Prediction Center , which is a national guidance center .
The process of issuing a convective watch begins with a conference call from SPC to local NWS offices . If after collaboration a watch is deemed necessary , the Storm Prediction Center will issue a watch approximation product which is followed by the local NWS office issuing a specific county @-@ based watch product . The latter product is responsible for triggering public alert messages via television , radio stations and NOAA Weather Radio . The watch approximation product outlines specific regions covered by the watch ( including the approximate outlined area in statute miles ) and its time of expiration ( based on the local time zone ( s ) of the areas under the watch ) , associated potential threats , a meteorological synopsis of atmospheric conditions favorable for severe thunderstorm development , forecasted aviation conditions , and a pre @-@ determined message informing the public of the meaning behind the watch and to be vigilant of any warnings or weather statements that may be issued by their local National Weather Service office .
Watch outline products provide a visual map depiction of the issued watch ; the SPC typically delineates watches within this product in the form of " boxes , " which technically are represented as either squares , rectangles ( horizontal or vertical ) or parallelograms depending on the area it covers . Jurisdictions outlined by the county @-@ based watch product as being included in the watch area may differ from the actual watch box ; as such , certain counties , parishes or boroughs not covered by the fringes of the watch box may actually be included in the watch and vice versa . Watches can be expanded , contracted ( by removing jurisdictions where SPC and NWS forecasters no longer consider there to be a viable threat of severe weather ) or canceled before their set time of expiration by local NWS offices .
= = = Example = = =
= = Fire weather products = =
The Storm Prediction Center also is responsible for issuing fire weather outlooks ( FWD ) for the continental United States . These outlooks are a guidance product for local , state and federal government agencies , including local National Weather Service offices , in forecasting the potential for wildfires . The outlooks issued are for Day 1 , Day 2 , and Days 3 – 8 . The Day 1 product is issued at 4 : 00 a.m. Central Time and is updated at 1700Z , and is valid from 1200Z to 1200Z the following day . The Day 2 outlook is issued at 1000Z and is updated at 2000Z for the forecast period of 1200Z to 1200Z the following day . The Day 3 – 8 outlook is issued at 2200Z , and is valid from 1200Z two days after the current calendar date to 1200Z seven days after the current calendar date .
There are four types of Fire Weather Outlook areas : " See Text " , a " Critical Fire Weather Area for Wind and Relative Humidity " , an " Extremely Critical Fire Weather Area for Extreme Conditions of Wind and Relative Humidity " , and a " Critical Fire Weather Area for Dry Thunderstorms " . The outlook type depends on the forecast weather conditions , severity of the predicted threat , and local climatology of a forecast region . " See Text " is a map label used for outlining areas where fire potential is great enough to pose a limited threat , but not enough to warrant a critical area , similar to areas using the same notation title that were formerly outlined in convective outlooks . Critical Fire Weather Areas for Wind and Relative Humidity are typically issued when strong winds ( > 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) ) and low relative humidity ( usually < 20 % ) are expected to occur where dried fuels exist , similar to a slight or moderate risk of severe weather . Critical Fire Weather Areas for Dry Thunderstorms are typically issued when widespread or numerous thunderstorms producing rainfall of little accumulation to provide sufficient ground wetting ( < 0 @.@ 10 inches ( 2 @.@ 5 mm ) ) are expected to occur where dried fuels exist . Extremely Critical Fire Weather Areas for Wind and Relative Humidity are issued when very strong winds and very low humidity are expected to occur with very dry fuels . Extremely Critical areas are rarely issued , similar to the very low frequency of high risk areas in convective outlooks ( see List of SPC extremely critical fire days ) .
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= Battle of the Trench =
The Battle of the Trench ( Arabic : غزوة الخندق , translit . Ghazwah al @-@ Khandaq ) also known as the Battle of the Confederates ( Arabic : غزوة الاحزاب , translit . Ghazwah al @-@ Ahzab ) , was a 27 @-@ day long siege of Yathrib ( now Medina ) by Arab and Jewish tribes . The strength of the confederate armies is estimated around 10 @,@ 000 men with six hundred horses and some camels , while the Medinan defenders numbered 3 @,@ 000 . The battle coincided with harsh winter weather of January / February AD 627 .
The largely outnumbered defenders of Medina , mainly Muslims led by Islamic prophet Muhammad , dug a trench on the suggestion of Salman Farsi , which together with Medina 's natural fortifications , rendered the confederate cavalry ( consisting of horses and camels ) useless , locking the two sides in a stalemate . Hoping to make several attacks at once , the confederates persuaded the Muslim @-@ allied Medinan Jews , Banu Qurayza , to attack the city from the south . However , Muhammad 's diplomacy derailed the negotiations , and broke up the confederacy against him . The well @-@ organised defenders , the sinking of confederate morale , and poor weather conditions caused the siege to end in a fiasco .
The siege was a " battle of wits " , in which the Muslims tactically overcame their opponents while suffering very few casualties . Efforts to defeat the Muslims failed , and Islam became influential in the region . As a consequence , the Muslim army besieged the area of the Banu Qurayza tribe , leading to their surrender .
The defeat caused the Meccans to lose their trade and much of their prestige .
= = Name = =
The battle is named after " trench " , or khandaq , that was dug by Muslims in preparation for the battle . The word khandaq ( خندق ) is the Arabised form of the Persian word kandak ( meaning " that which has been dug " ) . Salman the Persian advised Muhammad to dig a trench around the city . The battle is also referred to as the Battle of Confederates ( غزوة الاحزاب ) . The Qur 'an uses the term confederates ( الاحزاب ) in sura Al @-@ Ahzab [ Quran 33 : 9 – 32 ] to denote the confederacy of non @-@ believers and Jews against Islam .
= = Background = =
After their expulsion from Mecca , the Muslims fought the Meccan Quraysh at the Battle of Badr in 624 , and at the Battle of Uhud in 625 . Although the Muslims neither won nor were defeated at the Battle of Uhud , their military strength was gradually growing . In April 626 Muhammad raised a force of 300 men and 10 horses to meet the Quraysh army of 1 @,@ 000 at Badr for the second time . Although no fighting occurred , the coastal tribes were impressed with Muslim power . Muhammad also tried , with limited success , to break up many alliances against the Muslim expansion . Nevertheless , he was unable to prevent the Meccan one .
As they had in the battles of Badr and Uhud , the Muslim army again used strategic methods against their opponents ( at Badr , the Muslims surrounded the wells , but did not deprive their opponents of water since Ali did not want to follow the footsteps of the Meccan army ; at the Battle of Uhud , Muslims made strategic use of the hills ) . In this battle they dug a trench to render the enemy cavalry ineffective .
= = = Reason for battle = = =
The reason for this battle was to defend Medina from attack , after Banu Nadir and Banu Qaynuqa tribes formed an alliance with the Quraysh to attack him as revenge for expelling them from Medina during the Invasion of Banu Qaynuqa and Invasion of Banu Nadir . The Muslim scholar Ibn Kathir states : " The reason why the Confederates came was that a group of the leaders of the Banu Nadir , whom the Messenger of Allah had expelled from Al @-@ Madinah to Khaybar , including Sallam bin Abu Al @-@ Huqayq , Sallam bin Mishkam and Kinanah bin Ar @-@ Rabi` , went to Makkah where they met with the leaders of Quraysh and incited them to make war against the Prophet "
= = The Confederates = =
Early in 627 , the Banu Nadir met with the Quraysh of Makkah . Huyayy ibn Akhtab , along with other leaders from Khaybar , travelled to swear allegiance with Safwan ibn Umayya at Makkah .
The bulk of the Confederate armies were gathered by the Quraysh of Makkah , led by Abu Sufyan , who fielded 4 @,@ 000 foot soldiers , 300 horsemen , and 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 500 men on camels .
The Banu Nadir began rousing the nomads of Najd . The Nadir enlisted the Banu Ghatafan by paying them half of their harvest . This contingent , the second largest , added a strength of about 2 @,@ 000 men and 300 horsemen led by Unaina bin Hasan Fazari . The Bani Assad also agreed to join , led by Tuleha Asadi . From the Banu Sulaym , the Nadir secured 700 men , though this force would likely have been much larger had not some of its leaders been sympathetic towards Islam . The Bani Amir , who had a pact with Muhammad , refused to join .
Other tribes included the Banu Murra , with 400 men led by Hars ibn Auf Murri , and the Banu Shuja , with 700 men led by Sufyan ibn Abd Shams . In total , the strength of the Confederate armies , though not agreed upon by scholars , is estimated to have included around 10 @,@ 000 men and six hundred horsemen . In January 627 the army , which was led by Abu Sufyan , marched on Medina .
In accordance with the plan the armies began marching towards Medina , Meccans from the south ( along the coast ) and the others from the east . At the same time horsemen from the Banu Khuza 'a left to warn Medina of the invading army .
= = Muslim defence = =
The men from Banu Khuza 'a reached Muhammad in four days , warning him of the Confederate armies that were to arrive in a week . Muhammad gathered the Medinans to discuss the best strategy of overcoming the enemy . Meeting the enemy in the open ( which led to victory at Badr ) , and waiting for them inside the city ( a lesson learnt from the defeat at Uhud ) were both suggested . Ultimately , the outnumbered Muslims opted to engage in a defensive battle by digging deep trenches to act as a barrier along the northern front . The tactic of a defensive trench was introduced by Salman the Persian . Every capable Muslim in Medina including Muhammad contributed to digging the massive trench in six days . The ditch was dug on the northern side only , as the rest of Medina was surrounded by rocky mountains and trees , impenetrable to large armies ( especially cavalry ) . The digging of the ditch coincided with a near @-@ famine in Medina . Women and children were moved to the inner city . The Medinans harvested all their crops early , so the Confederate armies would have to rely on their own food reserves .
Muhammad established his military headquarters at the hillock of Sala ' and the army was arrayed there ; this position would give the Muslims an advantage if the enemy crossed the trench .
The final army that would defend the city from the invasion consisted of 3 @,@ 000 men , and included all inhabitants of Medina over the age of 15 , except the Banu Qurayza ( the Qurayza did supply the Muslims with some instruments for digging the trench ) .
= = Siege of Medina = =
The siege of Medina began in January 627 and lasted for 27 days . Since sieges were uncommon in Arabian warfare , the arriving confederates were unprepared to deal with the trenches dug by the Muslims . The Confederates tried to attack with horsemen in hopes of forcing a passage , but the Medinans were rigidly entrenched , preventing such a crossing . Both of the armies gathered on either side of the trench and spent two or three weeks exchanging insults in prose and verse , backed up with arrows fired from a comfortable distance . According to Rodinson , there were three dead among the attackers and five among the defenders . On the other hand , the harvest had been gathered and the besiegers had some trouble finding food for their horses , which proved of no use to them in the attack .
The Quraysh veterans grew impatient with the deadlock . A group of militants led by ‘ Amr ibn ‘ Abd Wudd ( who was thought to be equal to a thousand men in fighting ) and Ikrimah ibn Abi Jahl attempted to thrust through the trench and managed to effect a crossing , occupying a marshy area near the hillock of Sala . ' Amr challenged the Muslims to a duel . In response , Ali ibn Abi Talib accepted the challenge , and was sent by Muhammad to fight . Both the fighters got lost in the dust as the duel became intense . Finally , the soldiers heard scream ( s ) which hinted decisive blows , but it was unclear which of the two was successful . The slogan , ' Allahu Akbar ' ( God is the greatest ) from the dust confirmed Ali 's victory . The confederates were forced to withdraw in a state of panic and confusion . Although the Confederates lost only three men during the encounter , they failed to accomplish anything important .
The Confederate army made several other attempts to cross the trench during the night but repeatedly failed . Although the confederates could have deployed their infantry over the whole length of the trench , they were unwilling to engage the Muslims at close quarter as the former regarded the latter as superior in hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . As the Muslim army was well dug in behind the embankment made from the earth which had been taken from the ditch and prepared to bombard attackers with stones and arrows , any attack could cause great casualties .
= = = Banu Qurayza = = =
The Confederates then attempted several simultaneous attacks , in particular by trying to persuade the Banu Qurayza to attack the Muslims from the south . From the Confederates , Huyayy ibn Akhtab , a Khaybarian , the leader of the exiled tribe Banu Nadir , returned to Medina seeking their support against the Muslims .
So far the Banu Qurayza had tried their best to remain neutral , and were very hesitant about joining the Confederates since they had earlier made a pact with Muhammad . When Akhtab approached them , their leader refused to allow him entry .
Akhtab eventually managed to enter and persuade them that the Muslims would surely be overwhelmed . The sight of the vast Confederate armies , surging over the land with soldiers and horses as far as the eye could see , swung the Qurayza opinion in the favour of the Confederacy .
News of the Qurayzah 's supposed renunciation of the pact with Muhammad leaked out , and Umar promptly informed Muhammad . Such suspicions were reinforced by the movement of enemy troops towards the strongholds of the Qurayza . Muhammad became anxious about their conduct , and realised the grave potential danger the Qurayza posed . Because of his pact with the Qurayza , he had not bothered to make defensive preparations along the Muslims ' border with the tribe . The Qurayza also possessed weaponry : 1 @,@ 500 swords , 2 @,@ 000 lances , 300 suits of armour , and 500 shields .
Muhammad sent three leading Muslims to bring him details of the recent developments . He advised the men to openly declare their findings , should they find the Banu Qurayza to be loyal , so as to increase the morale of the Muslim fighters . However , he warned against spreading the news of a possible breach of the pact on the Qurayza 's part , so as to avoid any panic within Muslim ranks .
The leaders found that the pact indeed had been renounced and tried in vain to convince the Qurayza to revert by reminding them of the fate of the Banu Nadir and Banu Qaynuqa at the hands of Muhammad . The findings of the leaders were signalled to Muhammad in a metaphor : " Adal and Qarah " . Because the people of Adal and Qarah had betrayed the Muslims and killed them at the opportune moment , Maududi believes the metaphor means the Qurayza were thought to be about to do the same .
= = = Crisis in Medina = = =
Muhammad attempted to hide his knowledge of the activities of Banu Qurayza ; however , rumours soon spread of a massive assault on the city of Medina from Qurayza 's side which severely demoralised the Medinans .
The Muslims found themselves in greater difficulties by day . Food was running short , and nights were colder . The lack of sleep made matters worse . So tense was the situation that , for the first time , the canonical daily prayers were neglected by the Muslim community . Only at night , when the attacks stopped due to darkness , could they resume their regular worship . According to Ibn Ishaq , the situation became serious and fear was everywhere .
Quran describes the situation in surah Al @-@ Ahzab :
= = = Muslim response = = =
Immediately after hearing the rumours about the Qurayza , Muhammad had sent 100 men to the inner city for its protection . Later he sent 300 horsemen ( cavalry was not needed at the trench ) as well to protect the city . The loud voices , in which the troops prayed every night , created the illusion of a large force .
The crisis showed Muhammad that many of his men had reached the limits of their endurance . He sent word to Ghatafan , trying to pay for their defection and offering them a third of Medina 's date harvest if they withdrew . Although the Ghatafan demanded half , they eventually agreed to negotiating with Muhammad on those terms . Before Muhammad began the order of drafting the agreement , he consulted the Medinan leaders . They sharply rejected the terms of the agreement , protesting Medina had never sunk to such levels of ignominy . The negotiations were broken off . While the Ghatafan did not retreat they had compromised themselves by entering into negotiations with Medina , and the Confederacy 's internal dissension had thereby been increased .
At about that point , Muhammad received a visit from Nuaym ibn Masud , an Arab leader who was well respected by the entire confederacy , but who had , unknown to them , secretly converted to Islam . Muhammad asked him to end the siege by creating discord amongst Confederates .
Nuaym then came up with an efficient stratagem . He first went to the Banu Qurayza and warned them about the intentions of the rest of the Confederacy . If the siege fails , he said , the Confederacy will not be afraid to abandon the Jews , leaving them at the mercy of Muhammad . The Qurayza should thus demand Confederate leaders as hostages in return for cooperation . This advice touched upon the fears the Qurayza had already harboured .
Next Nuaym went to Abu Sufyan , the Confederate leader , warning him that the Qurayza had defected to Muhammad . He stated that the tribe intended to ask the Confederacy for hostages , ostensibly in return for cooperation , but really to hand over to Muhammad . Thus the Confederacy should not give a single man as hostage . Nuaym repeated the same message to other tribes in the Confederacy .
= = = Collapse of the Confederacy = = =
Nuaym 's stratagem worked . After consulting , the Confederate leaders sent Ikrimah to the Qurayza , signalling a united invasion of Medina . The Qurayza , however , demanded hostages as a guarantee that the Confederacy would not desert them . The Confederacy , considering that the Qurayza might give the hostage to Muhammad , refused . Messages were repeatedly sent back and forth between the parties , but each held to its position stubbornly .
Abu Sufyan summoned Huyayy ibn Akhtab , informing him of Qurayza 's response . Huyayy was taken aback , and Abu Sufyan branded him as a " traitor " . Fearing for his life , Huyayy fled to the Qurayza 's strongholds .
The Bedouins , the Ghatafan and other Confederates from Najd had already been compromised by Muhammad 's negotiations . They had taken part in the expedition in hopes of plunder , rather than any particular prejudice against Islam . They lost hope as chances of success dwindled , uninterested in continuing the siege . The two confederate armies were marked by recriminations and mutual distrust .
The provisions of the Confederate armies were running out . Horses and camels were dying out of hunger and wounds . For days the weather had been exceptionally cold and wet . Violent winds blew out the camp fires , taking away from the Confederate army their source of heat . The Muslim camp , however , was sheltered from such winds . The enemy ’ s tents were torn up , their fires were extinguished , the sand and rain beat in their faces , and they were terrified by the portents against them . They had already well nigh fallen out among themselves . During the night the Confederate armies withdrew , and by morning the ground was cleared of all enemy forces .
= = Aftermath : Siege and demise of the Banu Qurayza = =
Following the retreat of the Confederate army , the Banu Qurayza neighbourhoods were besieged by the Muslims , in revenge for their treachery . After a 25 @-@ day siege of their neighbourhood the Banu Qurayza unconditionally surrendered . When the Banu Qurayza tribe surrendered , the Muslim army seized their stronghold and their possessions . On the request of the Banu Aus , who were allied to the Qurayza , Muhammad chose one of them , Sa 'ad ibn Mu 'adh , as an arbitrator to pronounce judgment upon them . Sa 'ad , who would later die of his wounds from the battle , decreed the sentence according to the Torah , in which the men shall be killed and women and children enslaved . Deuteronomy 20 : 10 – 14 says :
When you march up to attack a city , make its people an offer of peace . If they accept and open their gates , all the people in it shall be subject to forced labor and shall work for you . If they refuse to make peace and they engage you in battle , lay siege to that city . When the Lord your God delivers it into your hand , put to the sword all the men in it . As for the women , the children , the livestock and everything else in the city , you may take these as plunder for yourselves . And you may use the plunder the Lord your God gives you from your enemies .
Muhammad approved of this decision , and the next day the sentence was carried out .
The men – numbering between 400 and 900 – were bound and placed under the custody of Muhammad ibn Maslamah , while the women and children were placed under Abdullah ibn Salam , a former rabbi who had converted to Islam .
Ibn Ishaq describes the killing of the Banu Qurayza men as follows :
Several accounts note Muhammad 's companions as executioners , Umar and Al @-@ Zubayr in particular , and that each clan of the Aws was also charged with killing a group of Qurayza men .
According to Ibn Ishaq 's biography of Muhammad , one woman who had thrown a millstone from the battlements during the siege and killed one of the Muslim besiegers , was also beheaded along with the men . Ibn Asakir writes in his History of Damascus that the Banu Kilab , a clan of Arab clients of the Banu Qurayza , were also killed .
The spoils of battle , including the enslaved women and children of the tribe , were divided up among the Muslims that had participated in the siege and among the emigrees from Mecca ( who had hitherto depended on the help of the Muslims native to Medina .
As part of his share of the spoils , Muhammad selected one of the women , Rayhana , for himself and took her as part of his booty . Muhammad offered to free and marry her and according to some sources she accepted his proposal , while according to others she rejected it and remained Muhammad 's slave . She is said to have later become a Muslim .
Scholars argue that Muhammad had already decided upon this judgment before the Qurayza 's surrender , and that Sa 'ad was putting his allegiance to the Muslim community above that to his tribe . One reason cited by some for such punishment is that Muhammad 's previous clemency towards defeated foes was in contradiction to Arab and Jewish laws of the time , and was seen as a sign of weakness . Others see the punishment as a response to what was perceived as an act of treason by the Qurayza since they betrayed their joint defence pact with Muhammad by giving aid and comfort to the enemies of the Muslims .
= = Implications = =
The failure of the siege marked the beginning of Muhammad 's undoubted political ascendancy in the city of Medina . The Meccans had exerted their utmost strength to dislodge Muhammad from Medina , and this defeat caused them to lose their trade with Syria and much of their prestige with it . Watt conjectures that the Meccans at this point began to contemplate that conversion to Islam would be the most prudent option .
= = Islamic primary sources = =
= = = Quran = = =
The main contemporary source of the battle is the 33rd Surah of the Quran . The most trustworthy source for the reconstruction of the life of the historical Muhammad is the Quran .
The Sunni Muslim Mufassir Ibn Kathir mentions that [ Quran 33 : 10 – 22 ( Translated by Yusuf Ali ) ] is about this incident in his book Tafsir ibn Kathir , and his commentary on this verse mentions the reason and event of the Battle , his commentary is as follows :
= = = Hadith = = =
The event is referenced in the Sunni , Hadith collection Sahih al @-@ Bukhari , it mentions the death of Sa 'd ibn Mu 'adh , as follows :
The Sahih al @-@ Bukhari collection also mentions that after the battle , Muslims were to carry out offensive attacks against their enemies :
The event is also mentioned in the Sahih Muslim Hadith collection as follows :
= = = Biographical literature = = =
The incident also is mentioned in the historical works by writers of the third and fourth century of the Muslim era . These include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad , and quotes attributed to him ( the sira and hadith literature ) , which provide further information on Muhammad 's life . The earliest surviving written sira ( biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him ) is Ibn Ishaq 's Life of God 's Messenger written some 120 to 130 years after Muhammad 's death . Although the original work is lost , portions of it survive in the recensions of Ibn Hisham and Al @-@ Tabari . Another early source is the history of Muhammad 's campaigns by al @-@ Waqidi ( d . 823 ) .
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= Tropical Storm Claudette ( 2009 ) =
Tropical Storm Claudette was the third named storm of the 2009 Atlantic hurricane season and the first tropical cyclone of 2009 to affect the United States . Forming out of a tropical wave and an upper @-@ level low pressure system on August 16 , Claudette quickly intensified into a tropical storm offshore south of Tallahassee , Florida . By the afternoon , the storm had attained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and steadily tracked towards the Florida Panhandle . Early on August 17 , the center of Claudette made landfall on Santa Rosa Island . Several hours after landfall , the storm weakened to a tropical depression and the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center took over primary responsibility of the storm . Later on August 17 , the final public advisory was issued on the system as it dissipated over Alabama .
The National Hurricane Center issued tropical storm warnings for the coastline and residents in some counties were advised to evacuate storm @-@ surge @-@ prone areas . One fatality resulted from rough seas off the coast of Panama City , Florida . Later that day , another man drowned after falling off his ship near Bay County . An EF @-@ 0 tornado spawned by the storm in Cape Coral , Florida damaged 11 homes , leaving $ 103 @,@ 000 ( 2009 USD ) in damages . Additional damages to coastal property and beaches amounted to $ 125 @,@ 000 ( 2009 USD ) as a result of Claudette .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Claudette originated from a tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on August 7 . On August 11 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring the wave when it was located roughly 600 mi ( 965 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . Disorganized shower and thunderstorm activity was associated with the westward moving wave ; however , the NHC did not anticipate further development of the system . By the afternoon of August 12 , little convective activity remained with the wave . Strong upper @-@ level wind shear created an unfavorable environment for the system to re @-@ organize as it tracked through the eastern Caribbean Sea .
By August 15 , convection began to consolidate around the center of the system as it passed over the Florida Keys . Early on August 16 , the system rapidly organized , with a low @-@ level circulation developing roughly 80 mi ( 130 km ) southwest of Tampa , Florida . Favorable environmental conditions led to the NHC anticipating the system to develop into a tropical depression later that day . Several hours later , the first advisory was issued on Tropical Depression Four . Low wind shear provided an environment that promoted quick development of the cyclone and the storm was forecast to attain tropical storm status within 12 hours . The depression tracked northwest around the periphery of a subtropical ridge to the east . Around 11 : 00 am EDT , the NHC upgraded the depression to a tropical storm and gave it the name Claudette in light of information from the NEXRAD Doppler weather radar in Tallahassee , Florida that found winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) around the center of circulation .
During the afternoon of August 16 , a brief increase in wind shear due to a trough over the southeastern United States , caused the center to become exposed . Despite this , Claudette attained its peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) around this time . Around 1 : 10 am EDT ( 0510 UTC ) on August 17 , the storm made landfall near the eastern end of Santa Rosa Island with winds of 45 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Shortly thereafter , the barometric pressure decreased to 1005 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 68 inHg ) , the lowest pressure recorded in associated with the storm . Several hours after landfall , convection associated with the storm quickly decreased and by 8 : 00 am EDT , the NHC issued their final advisory on Claudette as it weakened to a tropical depression . At this time , the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center ( HPC ) began issuing advisories on the system . The HPC issued their final advisory late on August 17 as the remnants of Claudette began to dissipate over Alabama . The remnants persisted for several more hours before becoming indistinguishable over Mississippi , on August 18 .
= = Preparations = =
Upon being classified a tropical depression , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning for areas between the Alabama @-@ Florida border and the mouth of the Suwanee River . Residents in these areas were urged to quickly prepare for the storm by ensuring their hurricane kit was fully stocked and ready . East of the center of Claudette , along western Florida , residents were warned about possible heavy rainfall that could cause flooding . Storm surge near where the storm was forecast to make landfall was expected to reach 3 to 5 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 52 m ) . Residents in areas of Wakulla County prone to storm surge were urged to evacuate before the arrival of the storm by the Wakulla County Emergency Management Office . Shortly after 3 : 00 pm EDT , the National Weather Service in Mobile , Alabama issued a tropical storm wind warning for areas between Destin , Florida and Pascagoula , Mississippi . A flood watch was also issued for most of the Florida Panhandle , as rainfall from Claudette was anticipated to exceed 7 in ( 180 mm ) . An inland tropical storm warning was also issued for most of southeastern Alabama .
During the afternoon of August 16 , officials issued a mandatory evacuation order for residents in St. Joseph Peninsula State Park and Stone State Park on Cape San Blas in Gulf County , Florida . Two shelters were opened in Bay County , one at the Dean Bozeman High School and the other at Bozeman Learning Center . Voluntary evacuation orders were also given to residents living in low @-@ lying areas along the coastline . Although no plans were put in place to open shelters , the Emergency Operations Center in Washington County raised their activation level to stage two . In Franklin County , the Emergency Operations Center was placed at stage three and voluntary evacuation orders were issued for Alligator Point . After an afternoon briefing , officials in Walton County declared a State of Emergency based on available information on the storm . In Wakulla County , the American Red Cross opened a shelter in Crawfordville at a local church .
= = Impact = =
= = = Florida = = =
By the evening of August 16 , upwards of 1 @.@ 71 in ( 43 mm ) of rain had fallen in parts of Franklin County . In Apalachicola , a daily record of 3 @.@ 57 in ( 91 mm ) of rain fell on August 16 , surpassing the previous record set in 1931 . However , with an exception of a tree falling across U.S. Route 98 , no damage was caused to Apalachicola . By the dissipation of the storm , a maximum of 5 @.@ 62 in ( 143 mm ) of rain fell in Big Coppitt Key .
A tornado was reported near Cape Coral and multiple tornado warnings were issued for Florida in association with rain bands from the storm . Twenty @-@ three homes were damaged by the tornado in Cape Coral . Damages to 11 out of 23 of the homes from the tornado amounted to roughly $ 103 @,@ 000 . Florida Governor Charlie Crist briefly toured the damage from the tornado . The tornado was later rated EF @-@ 0 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale with winds between 70 and 80 mph ( 110 and 120 km / h ) . The National Weather Service also stated that the tornado was on the ground for 0 @.@ 35 mi ( 0 @.@ 56 km ) between 4 : 42 pm and 4 : 45 pm EDT .
One drowning was reported off Panama City , Florida . By the early evening , officials closed down a 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) segment of Highway 20 due to a fallen tree and power line . In Leon County , a total of 440 residences lost power . By 9 : 40 pm EDT , the highway was reopened and power to all 440 homes was restored . Other power outages were reported near Parker and in downtown Panama City . Roughly 500 residences were left without power in Walton County .
In Okaloosa County , up to 1 @,@ 267 residents lost power during the storm . Most of the residents had their power restored within a few hours ; however , due to continuing wind damage , scattered power outages , affecting up to 500 homes at a time , occurred throughout the county . Throughout the county , roughly $ 25 @,@ 000 was sustained in flood losses . A second fatality occurred after a man was knocked off his ship near the coast of Bay County . Rescuers managed to reach him but during the rescue , he fell off the life raft and was lost . The search was later called off as he was presumed dead .
Along the coastline , waves produced by Claudette resulted in the loss of 30 to 40 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 to 12 @.@ 2 m ) of sand in coastal areas of Bay , Walton , Franklin and Gulf counties . An estimated $ 100 @,@ 000 worth of sand was lost in all four counties . A maximum storm surge of 2 @.@ 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 70 m ) was recorded in Destin as the storm made landfall . In all , two people were killed throughout the state and damages amounted to $ 228 @,@ 000 .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Upon making landfall , flash flood watches were issued for parts of southern Alabama due to the threat of heavy rainfall . In the state , Claudette produced widespread moderate rainfall , peaking at 2 @.@ 11 in ( 54 mm ) in Bradley . Some areas received up to 2 in ( 51 mm ) in a two @-@ hour span , prompting the National Weather Service to issue flash flood warnings . Flash flood watches were also issued for Hale , Sumter and Perry counties . The remnants of Claudette created a very moist atmosphere in parts of Alabama , resulting in several days of afternoon thunderstorms . Some of these thunderstorms produced gusty winds , recorded up to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) in Jefferson County . In Rainbow City , lightning struck an apartment building , sparking a fire and leading to the evacuation of two units of the building . Damage from the fire was estimated at $ 20 @,@ 000 . In Georgia , outer bands of the storm also a maximum of 2 @.@ 37 in ( 60 mm ) at Fort Benning .
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= Revanta =
Revanta or Raivata ( Sanskrit : रेवन ् त , lit . " brilliant " ) is a minor Hindu deity . According to the Rig @-@ Veda , Revanta is the youngest son of the sun @-@ god Surya , and his wife Sanjna ( Saranya ) . Revanta is chief of the Guhyakas ( गुह ् यक ) , semi @-@ divine and demonic class entities – like the Yakshas – who are believed to live as forest dwellers in the Himalayas . Images and sculptures of Revanta often show him as a huntsman on a horse , with a bow and arrow .
= = Origins = =
Revanta is the brother of the Aswinikumar the God of healing and son of the Sun God .
= = Legends = =
The tale of Revanta 's birth is narrated in scriptures like Vishnu Purana and Markandeya Purana . Once , Sanjna , the daughter of celestial architect Vishvakarma and wife of Surya , unable to take the fervour of the Sun @-@ god , repaired to the forests to engage in devout austerities in the form of a mare . She placed her shadow Chhaya , who looked just like Sanjna in her position as Surya 's wife . When Surya realised that Chhaya was not the real Sanjna , he searched for Sanjna and finally found her in the forests of Uttar Kuru . There , Surya approached Sanjna disguised as a horse . Their union produced the twin @-@ Ashvins and Revanta . In Kurma Purana and Matsya Purana , the mother of Revanta is named Rajni , another wife of Surya . While in another chapter of Markandeya Purana , he is son of Chhaya and his brothers are the Saturn @-@ god Shani and Savarni Manu .
Markandeya Purna further adds he was assigned the duty as chief of Guhyakas by Surya and to protect mortals " amid the terrors of forests and other lonely places , of great conflagration , of enemies and robbers . " Sometimes , Revanta is depicted as combating robbers in reliefs .
Another tale from the Devi Bhagavata Purana has a passing reference to Revanta . Once when Revanta – riding on the seven headed horse Uchaishravas – went to Vishnu 's abode , Vishnu 's wife goddess Lakshmi was mesmerized with the horse and ignored a question asked by the Lord . Thus , she was cursed by her husband to become a mare .
= = Iconography = =
Markandeya Purana describes Revanta as " holding a sword and bow , clad in an armour , riding on horseback , and carrying arrows and a quiver " . Kalika Purana describes him carrying a sword in right hand and a whip in his left , seated on a white horse . Thus he is called Haya @-@ Vahana , one who rides a horse . Varahamihira describes him as accompanied by attendants for hunting .
In sculpture , Revanta is often depicted with the Guhyakas , whose chief he is , in scenes of hunting . Apart from the attributes described in texts like the sword , bow ; he sometimes also carries a cup of wine in his hand . Revanta is often depicted wearing long boots reaching up to the calves , unlike other Hindu divinities – except Surya – who are depicted barefoot . Revanta is depicted seated on a horse and accompanied by a hunting dog . Revanta 's attendants are depicted with various hunting weapons like lances and swords . Some of them are shown blowing a conch or beaming drums or holding an umbrella over the head of their lord , the umbrella being the symbol of royalty . Also , some of them are depicted as flying or holding wine or water jars . Sometimes , an attendant carries a dead boar in his shoulder or the dog chasing a boar .
= = Worship = =
Revanta was worshipped as guardian deity of warriors and horses , protector from the dangers of forests and the patron god of hunting . The worship of Revanta is closely associated with Saura , cult of Surya . Often , scriptures like Vishnudharmottara Purana and Kalika Purana recommend worship of Revanta alongside Surya or according to the rituals of Sun worship . Shabha @-@ kalpa @-@ druma records Revanta 's worship after Surya 's , in the Hindu month of Ashvin by warriors . Nakula , the fourth Pandava , is believed to have written Ashavashastram on horses . He suggests worship of Raivata to protect horses from ghosts .
The worship of Revanta was popular in the early @-@ mediaeval period , particularly in Rajasthan . Revanta is mostly depicted in Vaishnava and Surya temples . There is a stone inscription that talks about a temple to Revanta , as the principal deity , in Vikranapur ( modern Kotgaph , Madhya Pradesh ) built by the Kalachuri king Ratnadeva II .
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= James D. Ramage =
James D. " Jig Dog " Ramage ( 19 July 1916 – 21 July 2012 ) was a naval aviator in World War II and a major factor in putting nuclear @-@ capable aircraft aboard aircraft carriers . Before retirement he attained the rank of rear admiral .
A graduate of the United States Naval Academy class of 1939 , he served on the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise before being sent to the Naval Air Station Pensacola for flight training . He rejoined the Enterprise in 1943 , and became executive officer , and later commanding officer of Bombing Squadron Ten ( VB @-@ 10 ) , flying the SBD Dauntless dive bomber . He saw his first combat in the Battle of Kwajalein in January 1944 , and participated in the attack on Truk in February and landings at Hollandia in April . During the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944 , he led 12 Dauntlesses and 17 other aircraft from Enterprise in a maximum @-@ range twilight attack against the Japanese fleet , and was personally credited with crippling a Japanese aircraft carrier , probably the Ryūhō . He later commanded Bombing Squadron Ninety @-@ Eight ( VB @-@ 98 ) , a California @-@ based training unit .
After the war , Ramage attended the first postwar class at the Naval War College , where he wrote a thesis on nuclear weapons and carrier aviation . He became the navigator of the escort carrier USS Bairoko , and participated in Operation Sandstone at Enewetak Atoll in April and May 1948 . In March 1950 , Ramage went to Sandia Base , where he was assigned to the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project ( AFSWP ) , writing and reviewing nuclear war plans . After becoming jet qualified in F9F Panther , he assumed command of Carrier Air Group 19 , which embarked for Korea on the USS Oriskany . He then assumed command of VC @-@ 3 , a large composite squadron that acted as a transitional training unit . He became chief of the Sea Base Striking Forces Planning Unit ( OP @-@ 05W ) in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations in Washington , DC in June 1955 , and then entered the National War College in July 1957 . After graduating a year later , he assumed command of Heavy Attack Wing One , and then of the seaplane tender , USS Salisbury Sound . He returned to the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations as head of Special Weapons Plans in 1961 , and in 1963 , received command of an aircraft carrier , the USS Independence .
As a flag officer , he was Commander Fleet Air NAS Whidbey Island , Commander Carrier Division Seven during the Vietnam War , Commander Naval Air Reserve , and Commander Tenth Naval District / Caribbean Sea Frontier / Commander Fleet Air Caribbean from 1973 to 1975 . He retired from active duty in 1975 . He was involved in the ultimately successful campaign to rename Waterloo 's ConWay Civic Center as the Five Sullivan Brothers Convention Center , in honor of the Sullivan brothers , and appeared in The History Channel series Battle 360 , in which he recounted many of his experiences as a member of VB @-@ 10 .
= = Early life = =
James David Ramage was born in Waterloo , Iowa , on 19 July 1916 , the son of David S. and Flora Groat Ramage . He had an older half @-@ sister Mary from his mother 's first marriage , and a younger sister , Betty . His father was a machinist by trade , who arrived in Waterloo as a salesman . He became a farmer , but lost the farm during the Great Depression . He then worked at the Waterloo Trust and Savings Bank until it failed , and then ran a Maxwell and Chalmers car dealership . Ramage was educated in Waterloo at Francis Grout , McKinley School and finally East Waterloo High . In 1934 , he entered Iowa State Teachers College in Cedar Falls , Iowa . That year , he was nominated for the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis , Maryland , by the local U.S. Representative , John W. Gwynne , as an alternative candidate . The 1934 Vinson @-@ Trammell Act created additional vacancies at the Academy , and Ramage was appointed .
At the Academy , he acquired the nickname " Jig Dog " from the phonetic alphabet for his initials . He graduated from the Academy and was commissioned as an ensign on 1 June 1939 . At his request , was posted to the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise , which was then based in Hawaii , as a deck officer . Through some crewmates , he met Orville Tyler , the Vice President of Bishop Bank . Ramage married his daughter , Emeleen Tyler , on 4 September 1941 , before leaving for flight training at the Naval Air Station Pensacola in Florida .
= = World War II = =
The United States entered World War II while Ramage was in training at Pensacola , learning to fly on N3Ns , OS2Us and finally SNJs . On graduation in May 1942 , he was posted to VS @-@ 3 , a scouting squadron . He was promoted to lieutenant ( junior grade ) on 1 June 1942 , and lieutenant on 1 August 1942 . He returned to Hawaii , where he was assigned to the cruiser USS Salt Lake City in November . After some effort , he managed to get himself reassigned to the Enterprise .
Ramage reported to the Enterprise in Noumea in February 1943 . After qualifying to land on a carrier in Noumea in April 1943 , he was assigned to Bombing Squadron Ten ( VB @-@ 10 ) , one of the carrier 's two dive bomber squadrons flying the Douglas SBD Dauntless as its executive officer . Shortly afterwards , the Enterprise returned to Pearl Harbor for overhaul , and Ramage returned to the United States with his wife . The squadrons of Carrier Air Group 10 , of which VB @-@ 10 was a part , were reequipped with new aircraft , with VB @-@ 10 receiving new SBD @-@ 5s to replace its older SBD @-@ 3 models . Air Group 10 returned to Hawaii in November 1943 , and the whole group qualified for night operation , making two night landings on the Enterprise in January 1944 . Ramage saw his first combat in the Battle of Kwajalein in January 1944 , and participated in the attack on Truk in February and landings at Hollandia in April . He became commander of VB @-@ 10 in March .
On the evening of June 20 , 1944 , during the Battle of the Philippine Sea , Ramage led 12 Dauntlesses , 12 Grumman F6F Hellcats and 5 Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers from Enterprise in the maximum @-@ range attack against the Japanese fleet . He later recalled :
Shortly , our strike group was picked up by the Japanese combat air patrol . Cawley informed me that there were several Zeros on our port quarter , high . Each time they would commence a run on the base element , our Air Group Commander , " Killer " Kane , would nose into them with his F6Fs . The Japanese would break off the attack . They had decided to wait until our most vulnerable time , the point of roll into the attack . At that time the bomber and torpedo formation integrity would be broken as each pilot made his dive . Bombing Squadron Ten did not dive from an echelon . Rather , during the high speed run @-@ in , the wingman gradually drifted back until the division leader rolled in . This preserved the " V " formation for as long as possible , permitting the gunners to concentrate on an attack from the rear from either side . It was standard procedure for the low fighter cover to strafe ahead of the base element , and the high cover to strafe behind . The fighters would proceed to the rendezvous point to provide cover for the aircraft of the base element as they rejoined and formed a defensive formation .
The Japanese fleet was easy to locate ; there were black AA puffs over a wide area – also some colored detonations . Soon , I could make out two carriers below and to port . It was just as we had been briefed . I took the closest carrier and Bangs ' division took the second carrier in the middle task group . Eason 's torpedo planes split between the two . The TBFs carried four 500 @-@ lb general purpose bombs , while the SBDs each carried one 1000 @-@ lb bomb : half general purpose and half semi armor piercing .
As I rolled in , I had a fine view of the carrier . I split my dive brakes at about 10 @,@ 000 feet . Shortly thereafter I could hear Cawley 's twin thirties chattering ; then I looked over to the right and within five feet of me , passing below , was a Zero . The dive brakes had thrown him off aim . My dive was a good , standard 70 ° attack . At about 5000 feet I opened up with my two 50 @-@ caliber machine guns . The tracers were going directly into the forward elevator . The carrier was steaming into the wind . Allowing for the wind and target motion , I moved the pipper to just ahead of the bow of the carrier , and released at 1800 feet .
My First Division plus Van Eason 's five TBMs dove on Ryuho . Bang 's six plane division , upon sighting a third carrier , split into two sections with Bang 's diving on Hiyo and Grubiss ' section attacking Junyo . There is still doubt about which section hit which carrier . All three carriers in CarDiv Two were covered . None returned to battle during the war . Hiyo was sunk , and the damaged Junyo and Ryuho were broken up two years after the war in a Japanese shipyard . You will note that other U.S. squadrons registered hits on Carrier Division 2 as well .
I pulled out , easing down to about 300 feet and was immediately taken under fire by all sorts of ships – battleships , cruisers , and destroyers . Cawley yelled into his mike , " Skipper , look back . She 's burning from asshole to appetite ! " About that time there was so much stuff being thrown up at us that I just couldn 't look back . Cawley then began telling me to climb or descend , depending on where the AA was aimed . We pulled out to the eastward . As soon as I was clear of the Japanese outer screen , I started a gentle turn to the left . It was about 1930 and beginning to get dark . I shortly had six of my birds , then three more . Several Zeros were about to make a run on us , but Kane 's fighters shot down four or five . After three orbits , I knew that we 'd have to start back to the task force . As I gave the hand signal indicating that we were squared away on our return course , we began to pick up all sorts of stragglers . As soon as they picked up our heading they added throttle and left us . They weren 't going to get stuck with the SBD 's 150 @-@ knot cruise speed .
He was personally credited with crippling a Japanese aircraft carrier , which naval historian Barrett Tillman believes was the Ryūhō . Ramage made a slow and deliberate return to the Enterprise in order to conserve fuel , but on reaching it found that its deck was obstructed by a crashed aircraft , and he had to land on the USS Yorktown instead . Only one Enterprise plane was lost in combat , although five more were lost operationally through accidents , crash landings or dirching at sea . Only one of these was an SBD . For his part in the battle , Ramage was awarded the Navy 's second highest honor , the Navy Cross . His citation read :
for extraordinary heroism in operations against the enemy while serving as Pilot of a carrier @-@ based Navy Dive Bomber and Flight Leader in Bombing Squadron Ten ( VB @-@ 10 ) , attached to the USS Enterprise ( CV @-@ 6 ) , in action against enemy Japanese forces in the vicinity of the Marianas Islands from June 12 to 20 June 1944 . An aggressive combat pilot , Lieutenant Commander Ramage led his squadron with consistent skill and daring on numerous bombing missions in the Marianas and , striking repeatedly against strongly defended military objectives , inflicted costly and excessive damage upon the enemy 's defenses and ground installations . Acting as air coordinator on June 15 and 16 , he directed brilliant attacks of all squadrons in support of the landings of our ground forces in their initial advance against the enemy . Taking off with three divisions of his squadron on 20 June he led a fierce attack against enemy carriers , personally diving upon a medium @-@ sized carrier and scoring a hit on the stern of the enemy vessel . By his expert airmanship , exceptional daring and courageous initiative , Lieutenant Commander Ramage contributed essentially to the success of our operations in this strategic area , and his great personal valor in the face of grave peril was in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service .
The superior performance of the Lexington and Enterprise squadrons that were still equipped with the old SBD compared with those equipped with the new Curtiss SB2C Helldiver caused great concern , and serious consideration was given to going back to the old aircraft . For this tour of duty , in addition to the Navy Cross , Ramage was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross twice and the Air Medal six times . In September 1944 , Ramage received his last wartime assignment , as commanding officer of Bombing Squadron Ninety Eight VB @-@ 98 , a California @-@ based training unit . He remained with VB @-@ 98 until July 1946 .
= = Post @-@ war = =
After the war , Ramage applied for the first postwar class at the Naval War College . He wrote two theses , one on the possibility of future conflict with the Soviet Union , and the other on nuclear weapons and carrier aviation . This would eventually lead to new prospects , but on graduation Ramage could not obtain another flying assignment , and instead was posted to the escort carrier USS Bairoko as its navigator . In this capacity , he participated in Operation Sandstone at Enewetak Atoll in April and May 1948 . In July , he was assigned to COMNAVAIRPAC as a personnel officer .
In March 1950 , Ramage went to Sandia Base , where he attended an indoctrination course on nuclear weapons . In June was assigned to the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project ( AFSWP ) , and was promoted to commander in July . While waiting for his Q clearance , he was put in charge of a board investigating a crash of an AJ Savage , then the Navy 's frontline nuclear bomber , an aircraft that did not impress Ramage . After his clearance came through , he worked in the AFSWP 's Operations Division , writing and reviewing war plans .
After becoming jet qualified in F9F Panthers at the Fleet Air Gunnery Unit ( FAGU ) , Ramage assumed command of Carrier Air Group 19 in December 1952 . His squadrons carrier qualified on the USS Yorktown in June 1953 before embarking on the USS Oriskany . The ship sailed for Korea , where a ceasefire had been in effect since July 1953 . Alan Shepard flew as his wing man . At the end of this cruise in June 1954 , he assumed command of VC @-@ 3 , a large composite squadron that acted as a transitional training unit at Naval Air Station Miramar in California . He became chief of the Sea Base Striking Forces Planning Unit ( OP @-@ 05W ) in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations in Washington , DC in June 1955 , and then entered the National War College in July 1957 , where he was promoted to captain on 1 August . Once again he produced a dissertation on nuclear weapons .
On graduating a year later , Ramage once again expressed a preference for a flying job , so he received command of Heavy Attack Wing One , which was based at the Naval Air Station Sanford . This wing consisted of the nuclear attack squadrons flying the A3D Skywarrior , detachments from which were posted to the aircraft carriers . The post was a senior one for a captain ; Robert Goldthwaite had held the post while he was a rear admiral . Ramage had never flown the A3D before , so he started by becoming carrier qualified on it , which required eight carrier landings . To his surprise , he found that the aircraft was easy to fly , and he was successful at lifting the training level of the entire wing .
Still too junior to be considered for command of an aircraft carrier , he received command of a seaplane tender , USS Salisbury Sound . He then returned to the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations as head of Special Weapons Plans ( OP @-@ 604 ) in July 1961 . He was awarded a Master of Arts degree from George Washington University in 1963 . In July 1963 , he received command of an aircraft carrier , the USS Independence . Despite having limited experience with ships , Ramage had no trouble adjusting to commanding one . He never felt though , that commanding a ship was an enjoyable as flying an aircraft . The ship won the Arleigh Burke award for most improved crew . Around this time , his marriage broke up , and he became divorced . He was remarried in Rome on 14 August 1964 , to Virginia ( Ginger ) Keesling Cordes . She had two children , Randy and Karen Cordes .
Returning to shore duty in Washington , he was assigned to Joint Task Force 2 , which was charged by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara with investigating whether it was necessary to have aircraft that could fly at low altitude at supersonic speeds . This was the subject of considerable debate between the Navy and the Air Force at the time . Tests were carried out at Sandia Base with the OV @-@ 1 Mohawk , A @-@ 1 Skyraider , A @-@ 4 Skyhawk , A @-@ 6 Intruder , F @-@ 4 Phantom , F @-@ 105 Thunderchief , B @-@ 52 and B @-@ 58 Hustler aircraft .
In January 1966 , he became chief of staff of Carrier Division Seven , which was commanded by Rear Admiral James R. Reedy , flying his flag from the aircraft carrier USS Kitty Hawk . This formed part of Task Force 77 , which was cruising off the North Vietnamese coast at Yankee Station during the Vietnam War . North Vietnam was divided into Route Packages , which allotted certain areas to the Navy , and Ramage 's role was to coordinate the Navy 's part in Operation Rolling Thunder . For this he was awarded the Legion of Merit . He also spent a brief time as commander of the aircraft carrier USS Franklin D. Roosevelt after its skipper had a heart attack .
Ramage was promoted to rear admiral on 1 July 1967 . As a flag officer , became Commander Fleet Air NAS Whidbey Island , another training command , this time specializing on the A @-@ 6 Intruder . His tenure was short , for in April he was assigned to the staff of the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , U.S. Pacific Command ( CINCPAC ) , Admiral U. S. Grant Sharp , Jr . , which was responsible for the overall direction of the war in Vietnam . For his service at CINCPAC , Ramage was awarded the Navy Distinguished Service Medal . In 1970 , he assumed command of Carrier Division Seven , which was still off the coast of Vietnam . For this , he was awarded a second and third Legion of Merit .
In April 1972 , Ramage became Commander Naval Air Reserve , based at Naval Air Station Glenview in Illinois , for which he received a fourth Legion of Merit . His final assignment was as Commander Tenth Naval District , Caribbean Sea Frontier and Commander Fleet Air Caribbean from 12 June 1973 to 23 August 1975 . He retired from active duty in January 1976 .
= = Later life = =
Ramage was a member of the Carrier Aviation Hall of Fame , and in 2006 , was inducted into the American Combat Airman Hall of Fame in Midland , Texas . In May 2008 he was inducted into the Hall of Honor at the National Naval Museum in Pensacola , Florida . He was involved in the ultimately successful campaign to rename Waterloo 's ConWay Civic Center as the Five Sullivan Brothers Convention Center , in honor of the Sullivan brothers , five brothers from Waterloo who died when the USS Juneau was lost during World War II . In 2008 , Ramage appeared in The History Channel series Battle 360 and recounted many of his experiences as a member of VB @-@ 10 .
On 21 July 2012 , he died at his Coronado , California , home of congenital heart failure , and was buried at Fort Rosecrans National Cemetery in San Diego . He was survived by his daughters Jamie and Jaleen , and his step daughter Karen . He had four grandchildren and four great grandchildren . A scholarship was established by the Tailhook Educational Foundation in his honor .
= = Jig Dog Ramage Award = =
In 2001 , the Tailhook Association established the annual " Jig Dog " Ramage Award to recognize the air wing @-@ aircraft carrier team with the best performance as an integrated unit and excellence in Navy carrier operations .
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= Selenium =
Selenium is a chemical element with symbol Se and atomic number 34 . It is a nonmetal with properties that are intermediate between the elements above and below in the periodic table , sulfur and tellurium . It rarely occurs in its elemental state or as pure ore compounds in the Earth 's crust . Selenium ( Greek σελήνη selene meaning " Moon " ) was discovered in 1817 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius , who noted the similarity of the new element to the previously discovered tellurium ( named for the Earth ) .
Selenium is found in metal sulfide ores , where it partially replaces the sulfur . Commercially , selenium is produced as a byproduct in the refining of these ores , most often during production . Minerals that are pure selenide or selenate compounds are known but rare . The chief commercial uses for selenium today are glassmaking and pigments . Selenium is a semiconductor and is used in photocells . Applications in electronics , once important , have been mostly supplanted by silicon semiconductor devices . Selenium is still used in a few types of DC power surge protectors and one type of fluorescent quantum dot .
Selenium salts are toxic in large amounts , but trace amounts are necessary for cellular function in many organisms , including all animals . Selenium is an ingredient in many multivitamins and other dietary supplements , including infant formula . It is a component of the antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase ( which indirectly reduce certain oxidized molecules in animals and some plants ) . It is also found in three deiodinase enzymes , which convert one thyroid hormone to another . Selenium requirements in plants differ by species , with some plants requiring relatively large amounts and others apparently requiring none .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Selenium forms several allotropes that interconvert with temperature changes , depending somewhat on the rate of temperature change . When prepared in chemical reactions , selenium is usually an amorphous , brick @-@ red powder . When rapidly melted , it forms the black , vitreous form , usually sold commercially as beads . The structure of black selenium is irregular and complex and consists of polymeric rings with up to 1000 atoms per ring . Black Se is a brittle , lustrous solid that is slightly soluble in CS2 . Upon heating , it softens at 50 ° C and converts to gray selenium at 180 ° C ; the transformation temperature is reduced by presence of halogens and amines .
The red α , β , and γ forms are produced from solutions of black selenium by varying the evaporation rate of the solvent ( usually CS2 ) . They all have relatively low , monoclinic crystal symmetries and contain nearly identical puckered Se8 rings with different arrangements , as in sulfur . The packing is most dense in the α form . In the Se8 rings , the Se @-@ Se distance is 233 @.@ 5 pm and Se @-@ Se @-@ Se angle is 105 @.@ 7 ° . Other selenium allotropes may contain Se6 or Se7 rings .
The most stable and dense form of selenium is gray and has a hexagonal crystal lattice consisting of helical polymeric chains , where the Se @-@ Se distance is 237 @.@ 3 pm and Se @-@ Se @-@ Se angle is 130 @.@ 1 ° . The minimum distance between chains is 343 @.@ 6 pm . Gray Se is formed by mild heating of other allotropes , by slow cooling of molten Se , or by condensing Se vapor just below the melting point . Whereas other Se forms are insulators , gray Se is a semiconductor showing appreciable photoconductivity . Unlike the other allotropes , it is insoluble in CS2 . It resists oxidation by air and is not attacked by nonoxidizing acids . With strong reducing agents , it forms polyselenides . Selenium does not exhibit the changes in viscosity that sulfur undergoes when gradually heated .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Selenium has six naturally occurring isotopes . Synthetic isotope 79Se and 23 others have been identified :
82Se is stable , for all practical purposes . See also Selenium @-@ 79 for recent changes in the measured half @-@ life of 79Se , which are important for the dose calculations in the geological disposal of long @-@ lived radioactive waste .
= = Chemical compounds = =
Selenium compounds commonly exist in the oxidation states − 2 , + 2 , + 4 , and + 6 .
= = = Chalcogen compounds = = =
Selenium forms two oxides : selenium dioxide ( SeO2 ) and selenium trioxide ( SeO3 ) . Selenium dioxide is formed by the reaction of elemental selenium with oxygen :
Se8 + 8 O2 → 8 SeO2
It is a polymeric solid that forms monomeric SeO2 molecules in the gas phase . It dissolves in water to form selenous acid , H2SeO3 . Selenous acid can also be made directly by oxidizing elemental selenium with nitric acid :
3 Se + 4 HNO3 + H2O → 3 H2SeO3 + 4 NO
Unlike sulfur , which forms a stable trioxide , selenium trioxide is thermodynamically unstable and decomposes to the dioxide above 185 ° C :
2 SeO3 → 2 SeO2 + O2 ( ΔH = − 54 kJ / mol )
Selenium trioxide is produced in the laboratory by the reaction of anhydrous potassium selenate ( K2SeO4 ) and sulfur trioxide ( SO3 ) .
Salts of selenous acid are called selenites . These include silver selenite ( Ag2SeO3 ) and sodium selenite ( Na2SeO3 ) .
Hydrogen sulfide reacts with aqueous selenous acid to produce selenium disulfide :
H2SeO3 + 2 H2S → SeS2 + 3 H2O
Selenium disulfide consists of 8 @-@ membered rings . It has an approximate composition of SeS2 , with individual rings varying in composition , such as Se4S4 and Se2S6 . Selenium disulfide has been used in shampoo as an antidandruff agent , an inhibitor in polymer chemistry , a glass dye , and a reducing agent in fireworks .
Selenium trioxide may be synthesized by dehydrating selenic acid , H2SeO4 , which is itself produced by the oxidation of selenium dioxide with hydrogen peroxide :
SeO2 + H2O2 → H2SeO4
Hot , concentrated selenic acid can react with gold to form gold ( III ) selenate .
= = = Halogen compounds = = =
Iodides of selenium are not well known . The only stable chloride is selenium monochloride ( Se2Cl2 ) , which might be better known as selenium ( I ) chloride ; the corresponding bromide is also known . These species are structurally analogous to the corresponding disulfur dichloride . Selenium dichloride is an important reagent in the preparation of selenium compounds ( e.g. the preparation of Se7 ) . It is prepared by treating selenium with sulfuryl chloride ( SO2Cl2 ) . Selenium reacts with fluorine to form selenium hexafluoride :
Se8 + 24 F2 → 8 SeF6
In comparison with its sulfur counterpart ( sulfur hexafluoride ) , selenium hexafluoride ( SeF6 ) is more reactive and is a toxic pulmonary irritant . Some of the selenium oxyhalides , such as selenium oxyfluoride ( SeOF2 ) and selenium oxychloride ( SeOCl2 ) have been used as specialty solvents .
= = = Selenides = = =
Analogous to the behavior of other chalcogens , selenium forms hydrogen selenide , H2Se . It is a strongly odiferous , toxic , and colorless gas . It is more acidic than H2S . In solution it ionizes to HSe − . The selenide dianion Se2 − forms a variety of compounds , including the minerals from which selenium is obtained commercially . Illustrative selenides include mercury selenide ( HgSe ) , lead selenide ( PbSe ) , zinc selenide ( ZnSe ) , and copper indium gallium diselenide ( Cu ( Ga , In ) Se2 ) . These materials are semiconductors . With highly electropositive metals , such as aluminium , these selenides are prone to hydrolysis :
Al2Se3 + 6 H2O → Al2O3 + 6 H2Se
Alkali metal selenides react with selenium to form polyselenides , Se2 −
n , which exist as chains .
= = = Other compounds = = =
Tetraselenium tetranitride , Se4N4 , is an explosive orange compound analogous to tetrasulfur tetranitride ( S4N4 ) . It can be synthesized by the reaction of selenium tetrachloride ( SeCl4 ) with [ ( ( CH
3 )
3Si )
2N ]
2Se .
Selenium reacts with cyanides to yield selenocyanates :
8 KCN + Se8 → 8 KSeCN
= = = Organoselenium compounds = = =
Selenium , especially in the II oxidation state , forms stable bonds to carbon , which are structurally analogous to the corresponding organosulfur compounds . Especially common are selenides ( R2Se , analogues of thioethers ) , diselenides ( R2Se2 , analogues of disulfides ) , and selenols ( RSeH , analogues of thiols ) . Representatives of selenides , diselenides , and selenols include respectively selenomethionine , diphenyldiselenide , and benzeneselenol . The sulfoxide in sulfur chemistry is represented in selenium chemistry by the selenoxides ( formula RSe ( O ) R ) , which are intermediates in organic synthesis , as illustrated by the selenoxide elimination reaction . Consistent with trends indicated by the double bond rule , selenoketones , R ( C = Se ) R , and selenaldehydes , R ( C = Se ) H , are rarely observed .
= = History = =
Selenium ( Greek σελήνη selene meaning " Moon " ) was discovered in 1817 by Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Johan Gottlieb Gahn . Both chemists owned a chemistry plant near Gripsholm , Sweden , producing sulfuric acid by the lead chamber process . The pyrite from the Falun mine created a red precipitate in the lead chambers which was presumed to be an arsenic compound , so the pyrite 's use to make acid was discontinued . Berzelius and Gahn wanted to use the pyrite and they also observed that the red precipitate gave off a smell like horseradish when burned . This smell was not typical of arsenic , but a similar odor was known from tellurium compounds . Hence , Berzelius 's first letter to Alexander Marcet stated that this was a tellurium compound . However , the lack of tellurium compounds in the Falun mine minerals eventually led Berzelius to reanalyze the red precipitate , and in 1818 he wrote a second letter to Marcet describing a newly found element similar to sulfur and tellurium . Because of its similarity to tellurium , named for the Earth , Berzelius named the new element after the Moon .
In 1873 , Willoughby Smith found that the electrical resistance of grey selenium was dependent on the ambient light . This led to its use as a cell for sensing light . The first commercial products using selenium were developed by Werner Siemens in the mid @-@ 1870s . The selenium cell was used in the photophone developed by Alexander Graham Bell in 1879 . Selenium transmits an electric current proportional to the amount of light falling on its surface . This phenomenon was used in the design of light meters and similar devices . Selenium 's semiconductor properties found numerous other applications in electronics . The development of selenium rectifiers began during the early 1930s , and these replaced copper oxide rectifiers because they were more efficient . These lasted in commercial applications until the 1970s , following which they were replaced with less expensive and even more efficient silicon rectifiers .
Selenium came to medical notice later because of its toxicity to human beings working in industries . Selenium was also recognized as an important veterinary toxin , which is seen in animals that have eaten high @-@ selenium plants . In 1954 , the first hints of specific biological functions of selenium were discovered in microorganisms . It was discovered to be essential for mammalian life 1957 . In the 1970s , it was shown to be present in two independent sets of enzymes . This was followed by the discovery of selenocysteine in proteins . During the 1980s , selenocysteine was shown to be encoded by the codon UGA . The recoding mechanism was worked out first in bacteria and then in mammals ( see SECIS element ) .
= = Occurrence = =
Native ( i.e. , elemental ) selenium is a rare mineral , which does not usually form good crystals , but , when it does , they are steep rhombohedra or tiny acicular ( hair @-@ like ) crystals . Isolation of selenium is often complicated by the presence of other compounds and elements .
Selenium occurs naturally in a number of inorganic forms , including selenide , selenate , and selenite , but these minerals are rare . The common mineral selenite is not a selenium mineral , and contains no selenite ion , but is rather a type of gypsum ( calcium sulfate hydrate ) named like selenium for the moon well before the discovery of selenium . Selenium is most commonly found as an impurity , replacing a small part of the sulfur in sulfide ores of many metals .
In living systems , selenium is found in the amino acids selenomethionine , selenocysteine , and methylselenocysteine . In these compounds , selenium plays a role analogous to that of sulfur . Another naturally occurring organoselenium compound is dimethyl selenide .
Certain solids are selenium @-@ rich , and selenium can be bioconcentrated by some plants . In soils , selenium most often occurs in soluble forms such as selenate ( analogous to sulfate ) , which are leached into rivers very easily by runoff . Ocean water contains significant amounts of selenium .
Anthropogenic sources of selenium include coal burning , and the mining and smelting of sulfide ores .
= = Production = =
Selenium is most commonly produced from selenide in many sulfide ores , such as those of copper , nickel , or lead . Electrolytic metal refining is particularly productive of selenium as a byproduct , obtained from the anode mud of copper refineries . Another source was the mud from the lead chambers of sulfuric acid plants , a process that is no longer used . Selenium can be refined from these muds by a number of methods . However , most elemental selenium comes as a byproduct of refining copper or producing sulfuric acid . Since its invention , solvent extraction and electrowinning ( SX / EW ) production of copper produces an increasing share of the worldwide copper supply . This changes the availability of selenium because only a comparably small part of the selenium in the ore is leached with the copper .
Industrial production of selenium usually involves the extraction of selenium dioxide from residues obtained during the purification of copper . Common production from the residue then begins by oxidation with sodium carbonate to produce selenium dioxide , which is mixed with water and acidified to form selenous acid ( oxidation step ) . Selenous acid is bubbled with sulfur dioxide ( reduction step ) to give elemental selenium .
About 2 @,@ 000 tonnes of selenium were produced in 2011 worldwide , mostly in Germany ( 650 t ) , Japan ( 630 t ) , Belgium ( 200 t ) , and Russia ( 140 t ) , and the total reserves were estimated at 93 @,@ 000 tonnes . These data exclude two major producers , the United States and China . A previous sharp increase was observed in 2004 from 4 – 5 to $ 27 / lb . The price was relatively stable during 2004 – 2010 at about US $ 30 per pound ( in 100 @-@ pound lots ) but increased to $ 65 / lb in 2011 . The consumption in 2010 was divided as follows : metallurgy – 30 % , glass manufacturing – 30 % , agriculture – 10 % , chemicals and pigments – 10 % , and electronics – 10 % . China is the dominant consumer of selenium at 1 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 000 tonnes / year .
= = Applications = =
= = = Manganese electrolysis = = =
During the electro winning of manganese , the addition of selenium dioxide decreases the power necessary to operate the electrolysis cells . China is the largest consumer of selenium dioxide for this purpose . For every tonne of manganese , an average 2 kg selenium oxide is used .
= = = Glass production = = =
The largest commercial use of Se , accounting for about 50 % of consumption , is for the production of glass . Se compounds confer a red color to glass . This color cancels out the green or yellow tints that arise from iron impurities typical for most glass . For this purpose , various selenite and selenate salts are added . For other applications , a red color may be desired , produced by mixtures of CdSe and CdS .
= = = Alloys = = =
Selenium is used with bismuth in brasses to replace more toxic lead . The regulation of lead in drinking water applications with the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 made a reduction of lead in brass necessary . The new brass is marketed under the name EnviroBrass . Like lead and sulfur , selenium improves the machinability of steel at concentrations around 0 @.@ 15 % . Selenium produces the same machinability improvement in copper alloys .
= = = = Solar cells = = = =
Copper indium gallium selenide is a material used in solar cells .
= = = Other uses = = =
Small amounts of organoselenium compounds are used to modify the vulcanization catalysts for the production of rubber .
The demand for selenium by the electronics industry is declining , despite a number of continuing applications . Its photovoltaic and photoconductive properties are still useful in photocopying , photocells , light meters and solar cells . Its use as a photoconductor in plain @-@ paper copiers once was a leading application , but in the 1980s , the photoconductor application declined ( although it was still a large end @-@ use ) as more and more copiers switched to organic photoconductors . Though once widely used , selenium rectifiers have mostly been replaced ( or are being replaced ) by silicon @-@ based devices . The most notable exception is in power DC surge protection , where the superior energy capabilities of selenium suppressors make them more desirable than metal oxide varistors .
Zinc selenide was the first material for blue LEDs , but gallium nitride is dominating the market now . Cadmium selenide was an important component in quantum dots . Sheets of amorphous selenium convert X @-@ ray images to patterns of charge in xeroradiography and in solid @-@ state , flat @-@ panel X @-@ ray cameras .
Selenium is a catalyst in some chemical reactions , but it is not widely used because of issues with toxicity . In X @-@ ray crystallography , incorporation of one or more selenium atoms in place of sulfur helps with multiple @-@ wavelength anomalous dispersion and single wavelength anomalous dispersion phasing .
Selenium is used in the toning of photographic prints , and it is sold as a toner by numerous photographic manufacturers . Selenium intensifies and extends the tonal range of black @-@ and @-@ white photographic images and improves the permanence of prints .
75Se is used as a gamma source in industrial radiography .
= = Biological role = =
Although it is toxic in large doses , selenium is an essential micronutrient for animals . In plants , it occurs as a bystander mineral , sometimes in toxic proportions in forage ( some plants may accumulate selenium as a defense against being eaten by animals , but other plants , such as locoweed , require selenium , and their growth indicates the presence of selenium in soil ) . See more on plant nutrition below .
Selenium is a component of the unusual amino acids selenocysteine and selenomethionine . In humans , selenium is a trace element nutrient that functions as cofactor for reduction of antioxidant enzymes , such as glutathione peroxidases and certain forms of thioredoxin reductase found in animals and some plants ( this enzyme occurs in all living organisms , but not all forms of it in plants require selenium ) .
The glutathione peroxidase family of enzymes ( GSH @-@ Px ) catalyze certain reactions that remove reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide and organic hydroperoxides :
2 GSH + H2O2----GSH @-@ Px → GSSG + 2 H2O
The thyroid gland and every cell that uses thyroid hormone use selenium , which is a cofactor for the three of the four known types of thyroid hormone deiodinases , which activate and then deactivate various thyroid hormones and their metabolites ; the iodothyronine deiodinases are the subfamily of deiodinase enzymes that use selenium as the otherwise rare amino acid selenocysteine . ( Only the deiodinase , iodotyrosine deiodinase , which works on the last breakdown products of thyroid hormone , does not use selenium . )
Selenium may inhibit Hashimoto 's disease , in which the body 's own thyroid cells are attacked as alien . A reduction of 21 % on TPO antibodies is reported with the dietary intake of 0 @.@ 2 mg of selenium .
Increased dietary selenium reduces the effects of mercury toxicity , although it is effective only at low to modest doses of mercury . Evidence suggests that the molecular mechanisms of mercury toxicity includes the irreversible inhibition of selenoenzymes that are required to prevent and reverse oxidative damage in brain and endocrine tissues .
= = = Evolution in biology = = =
From about three billion years ago , prokaryotic selenoprotein families drive the evolution of selenocysteine , an amino acid . Selenium is incorporated into several prokaryotic selenoprotein families in bacteria , archaea , and eukaryotes as selenocysteine , where selenoprotein peroxiredoxins protect bacterial and eukaryotic cells against oxidative damage . Selenoprotein families of GSH @-@ Px and the deiodinases of eukaryotic cells seem to have a bacterial phylogenetic origin . The selenocysteine @-@ containing form occurs in species as diverse as green algae , diatoms , sea urchin , fish , and chicken . Selenium enzymes are involved in the small reducing molecules glutathione and thioredoxin . One family of selenium @-@ bearing molecules ( the glutathione peroxidases ) destroys peroxide and repairs damaged peroxidized cell membranes , using glutathione . Another selenium @-@ bearing enzyme in some plants and in animals ( thioredoxin reductase ) generates reduced thioredoxin , a dithiol that serves as an electron source for peroxidases and also the important reducing enzyme ribonucleotide reductase that makes DNA precursors from RNA precursors .
Trace elements involved in GSH @-@ Px and superoxide dismutase enzymes activities , i.e. selenium , vanadium , magnesium , copper , and zinc , may have been lacking in some terrestrial mineral @-@ deficient areas . Marine organisms retained and sometimes expanded their selenoproteomes , whereas the selenoproteomes of some terrestrial organisms were reduced or completely lost . These findings suggest that , with the exception of vertebrates , aquatic life supports selenium use , whereas terrestrial habitats lead to reduced use of this trace element . Marine fishes and vertebrate thyroid glands have the highest concentration of selenium and iodine . From about 500 million years ago , freshwater and terrestrial plants slowly optimized the production of " new " endogenous antioxidants such as ascorbic acid ( vitamin C ) , polyphenols ( including flavonoids ) , tocopherols , etc . A few of these appeared more recently , in the last 50 – 200 million years , in fruits and flowers of angiosperm plants . In fact , the angiosperms ( the dominant type of plant today ) and most of their antioxidant pigments evolved during the late Jurassic period .
The deiodinase isoenzymes constitute another family of eukaryotic selenoproteins with identified enzyme function . Deiodinases are able to extract electrons from iodides , and iodides from iodothyronines . They are , thus , involved in thyroid @-@ hormone regulation , participating in the protection of thyrocytes from damage by H2O2 produced for thyroid @-@ hormone biosynthesis . About 200 million years ago , new selenoproteins were developed as mammalian GSH @-@ Px enzymes .
= = = Nutritional sources of selenium = = =
Dietary selenium comes from nuts , cereals and mushrooms . Brazil nuts are the richest dietary source ( though this is soil @-@ dependent , since the Brazil nut does not require high levels of the element for its own needs ) .
Recommended Dietary Allowance ~ 55 µg / day . Selenium as a dietary supplement is available in many forms , including multi @-@ vitamins / mineral supplements - typically 20 µg / day . Selenium @-@ specific supplements may have -200 µg / day .
In June 2015 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) published its final rule establishing the requirement of minimum and maximum levels of selenium in infant formula .
The selenium content in the human body is believed to be in the 13 – 20 milligram range .
= = = Indicator plant species = = =
Certain species of plants are considered indicators of high selenium content of the soil becauses they require high levels of selenium to thrive . The main selenium indicator plants are Astragalus species ( including some locoweeds ) , prince 's plume ( Stanleya sp . ) , woody asters ( Xylorhiza sp . ) , and false goldenweed ( Oonopsis sp . )
= = = Medical use = = =
The substance loosely called selenium sulfide ( approximate formula , SeS2 ) is the active ingredient in some anti @-@ dandruff shampoos . The selenium compound kills the scalp fungus Malassezia , which causes shedding of dry skin fragments . The ingredient is also used in body lotions to treat tinea versicolor due to infection by a different species of Malassezia fungus .
= = = Detection in biological fluids = = =
Selenium may be measured in blood , plasma , serum , or urine to monitor excessive environmental or occupational exposure , to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized victims , or investigate a suspected case of fatal overdose . Some analytical techniques are capable of distinguishing organic from inorganic forms of the element . Both organic and inorganic forms of selenium are largely converted to monosaccharide conjugates ( selenosugars ) in the body prior elimination in the urine . Cancer patients receiving daily oral doses of selenothionine may achieve very high plasma and urine selenium concentrations .
= = = Toxicity = = =
Although selenium is an essential trace element , it is toxic if taken in excess . Exceeding the Tolerable Upper Intake Level of 400 micrograms per day can lead to selenosis . This 400 µg Tolerable Upper Intake Level is based primarily on a 1986 study of five Chinese patients who exhibited overt signs of selenosis and a follow up study on the same five people in 1992 . The 1992 study actually found the maximum safe dietary Se intake to be approximately 800 micrograms per day ( 15 micrograms per kilogram body weight ) , but suggested 400 micrograms per day to avoid creating an imbalance of nutrients in the diet and to accord with data from other countries . In China , people who ingested corn grown in extremely selenium @-@ rich stony coal ( carbonaceous shale ) have suffered from selenium toxicity . This coal was shown to have selenium content as high as 9 @.@ 1 % , the highest concentration in coal ever recorded .
Signs and symptoms of selenosis include a garlic odor on the breath , gastrointestinal disorders , hair loss , sloughing of nails , fatigue , irritability , and neurological damage . Extreme cases of selenosis can exhibit cirrhosis of the liver , pulmonary edema , or death . Elemental selenium and most metallic selenides have relatively low toxicities because of low bioavailability . By contrast , selenates and selenites have an oxidant mode of action similar to that of arsenic trioxide and are very toxic . The chronic toxic dose of selenite for humans is about 2400 to 3000 micrograms of selenium per day . Hydrogen selenide is an extremely toxic , corrosive gas . Selenium also occurs in organic compounds , such as dimethyl selenide , selenomethionine , selenocysteine and methylselenocysteine , all of which have high bioavailability and are toxic in large doses .
On 19 April 2009 , 21 polo ponies died shortly before a match in the United States Polo Open . Three days later , a pharmacy released a statement explaining that the horses had received an incorrect dose of one of the ingredients used in a vitamin / mineral supplement compound that had been incorrectly compounded by a compounding pharmacy . Analysis of blood levels of inorganic compounds in the supplement indicated the selenium concentrations were ten to fifteen times higher than normal in the blood samples , and 15 to 20 times higher than normal in the liver samples . Selenium was later confirmed to be the toxic factor .
Selenium poisoning of water systems may result whenever new agricultural runoff courses through normally dry , undeveloped lands . This process leaches natural soluble selenium compounds ( such as selenates ) into the water , which may then be concentrated in new " wetlands " as the water evaporates . Selenium pollution of waterways also occurs when selenium is leached from coal flue ash , mining and metal smelting , crude oil processing , and landfill . The resultant high selenium levels in waterways were found to cause congenital disorders in oviparous species , including wetland birds and fish . Elevated dietary methylmercury levels can amplify the harm of selenium toxicity in oviparous species .
In fish and other wildlife , selenium is necessary for life , but toxic in high doses . For salmon , the optimal concentration of selenium is about 1 microgram selenium per gram of whole body weight . Much below that level , young salmon die from deficiency ; much above , they die from toxic excess .
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) has set the legal limit ( Permissible exposure limit ) for selenium in the workplace at 0 @.@ 2 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has set a Recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 0 @.@ 2 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday . At levels of 1 mg / m3 , selenium is immediately dangerous to life and health .
= = = Deficiency = = =
Selenium deficiency is rare in otherwise healthy , well @-@ nourished individuals . It can occur in patients with severely compromised intestinal function , those undergoing total parenteral nutrition , and in those of advanced age ( over 90 ) . Also , people dependent on food grown from selenium @-@ deficient soil are at risk . Although New Zealand soil has low levels of selenium , adverse health effects have not been detected in the residents .
Selenium deficiency , defined by low ( < 60 % of normal ) selenoenzyme activity levels in brain and endocrine tissues , occurs only when a low selenium level is linked with an additional stress , such as high exposures to mercury or increased oxidant stress from vitamin E deficiency .
Selenium interacts with other nutrients , such as iodine and vitamin E. The effect of selenium deficiency on health remains uncertain , particularly in relation to Kashin @-@ Beck disease . Also , selenium interacts with other minerals , such as zinc and copper . High doses of Se supplements in pregnant animals might disturb the Zn : Cu ratio and lead to Zn reduction ; in such treatment cases , Zn levels should be monitored . Further studies are needed to confirm these interactions .
In the regions ( e.g. various regions within North America ) where low selenium soil levels lead to low concentrations in the plants , some animal species may be deficient unless selenium is supplemented with diet or injection . Ruminants are particularly susceptible . In general , absorption of dietary selenium is lower in ruminants than other animals , and is lower from forages than from grain . Ruminants grazing certain forages , e.g. , some white clover varieties containing cyanogenic glycosides , may have higher selenium requirements , presumably because cyanide is released from the aglycone by glucosidase activity in the rumen and glutathione peroxidases is deactivated by the cyanide acting on the glutathione moiety . Neonate ruminants at risk of WMD ( white muscle disease ) may be administered both selenium and vitamin E by injection ; some of the WMD myopathies respond only to selenium , some only to vitamin E , and some to either .
= = = Controversial health effects = = =
A number of correlative epidemiological studies have implicated selenium deficiency ( measured by blood levels ) in a number of serious or chronic diseases , such as cancer , diabetes , HIV / AIDS , and tuberculosis . In addition , selenium supplementation has been found to be a chemopreventive for some types of cancer in some types of rodents . However , in randomized , blinded , controlled prospective trials in humans , selenium supplementation has not succeeded in reducing the incidence of any disease , nor has a meta @-@ analysis of such selenium supplementation studies detected a decrease in overall mortality .
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= Amak Volcano =
Amak Volcano is a basaltic andesite stratovolcano in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska , USA , 618 miles ( 995 km ) from Anchorage . It is located on the eponymous island , 31 miles ( 50 km ) from Frosty Volcano and near the edge of the Alaskan Peninsula 's western flank . Only boats are allowed to access the island with a certain permit .
Blocky ( dotted with flat blocks of minerals and crystals ) lava flows stream from its summit to its flanks . Three historical eruptions have taken place – two within the 18th century , the first from 1700 – 1710 , and the latter in 1796 . The earliest prehistoric eruption was believed to have taken place between 3050 and 2050 BCE .
= = Accessibility = =
Cold Bay , the city nearest Amak , is easily accessible by plane . Amak is accessible only by boat ; airplanes are not permitted to land on the island . Private boat rides to Amak are available in Cold Bay , but for access to the Aleutian Islands , a permit is required from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service .
= = Geography and geology = =
Amak Island lies in the Bering Sea , north of the main archipelago of the Aleutians . It is one of two islands ( along with Bogoslof Island ) that are 31 miles ( 50 km ) north of the main range .
The United States has the most active volcanoes in the world , many of them geologically young . In Alaska , at least 50 volcanoes , including those in the Aleutian archipelago , have erupted in historical time . The state accounts for ~ 80 % of the United States ' volcanoes , excluding the seamounts in the area , ~ 8 % of world volcanoes , and most of these are located among the Aleutian Islands . The Aleutian Islands arc serves as the northern boundary of the Pacific Ring of Fire , where tectonic activity generates earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in masses .
The volcano is basaltic @-@ andesitic in composition . It is a modest stratovolcano , rising no more than 1 @,@ 683 feet ( 513 m ) above sea level . The volcanic crater is distinct , and has erupted in historical times , only " blocky " lava flows . Charles Wood and Jürgen Kienle , volcanologists , propose that earlier activity , 4 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 years ago , consisted primarily of lavas of ethereal ( fine ) platy and thick andesite . Amak Volcano is unique in that its andesitic lavas , while composed the same as the other Aleutians , contain an abundance of potash . They also could contain more sodium carbonate and rare earth element deposits than the Aleutian norm . Between Bogoslof , the other Aleutian island north of the main arc , and Amak , Amak 's lavas are more alkalic and silicic .
Glaciation took place around the volcano roughly 6700 years BP , carving out U @-@ shaped valleys . At the southwest flank of the island , a crater , likely a maar , can be found amid an alluvial plain .
= = = Eruptive history = = =
The Amak Volcano has erupted three times in historical times : circa 2550 BC , from 1700 – 1710 , and in 1796 ; the first of these events was identified with tephrochronology . Each eruption has been characterized by lava flows , and the two most recent eruptions included a crater eruption .
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= Dwarf planet =
A dwarf planet is a planetary @-@ mass object that is neither a planet nor a natural satellite . That is , it is in direct orbit of the Sun , and is massive enough for its gravity to crush itself into a hydrostatic equilibrium shape ( usually a spheroid ) , but has not cleared the neighborhood of other material around its orbit .
The term dwarf planet was adopted in 2006 as part of a three @-@ way categorization of bodies orbiting the Sun , brought about by an increase in discoveries of objects farther away from the Sun than Neptune that rivaled Pluto in size , and finally precipitated by the discovery of an even more massive object , Eris . The exclusion of dwarf planets from the roster of planets by the IAU has been both praised and criticized ; it was said to be the " right decision " by astronomer Mike Brown , who discovered Eris and other new dwarf planets , but has been rejected by Alan Stern , who had coined the term dwarf planet in April 1991 .
The International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) currently recognizes five dwarf planets : Ceres , Pluto , Haumea , Makemake , and Eris . Brown criticizes this official recognition : " A reasonable person might think that this means that there are five known objects in the solar system which fit the IAU definition of dwarf planet , but this reasonable person would be nowhere close to correct . "
It is suspected that another hundred or so known objects in the Solar System are dwarf planets . Estimates are that up to 200 dwarf planets may be found when the entire region known as the Kuiper belt is explored , and that the number may exceed 10 @,@ 000 when objects scattered outside the Kuiper belt are considered . Individual astronomers recognize several of these , and in August 2011 Mike Brown published a list of 390 candidate objects , ranging from " nearly certain " to " possible " dwarf planets . Brown currently identifies eleven known objects — the five accepted by the IAU plus 2007 OR10 , Quaoar , Sedna , Orcus , ( 307261 ) 2002 MS4 and Salacia — as " virtually certain " , with another dozen highly likely . Stern states that there are more than a dozen known dwarf planets .
However , only two of these bodies , Ceres and Pluto , have been observed in enough detail to demonstrate that they actually fit the IAU 's definition . The IAU accepted Eris as a dwarf planet because it is more massive than Pluto . They subsequently decided that unnamed trans @-@ Neptunian objects with an absolute magnitude brighter than + 1 ( and hence a diameter of ≥ 838 km assuming a geometric albedo of ≤ 1 ) are to be named under the assumption that they are dwarf planets . The only two such objects known at the time , Makemake and Haumea , went through this naming procedure and were declared to be dwarf planets . The question of whether other likely objects are dwarf planets has never been addressed by the IAU .
The classification of bodies in other planetary systems with the characteristics of dwarf planets has not been addressed .
= = History of the concept = =
Starting in 1801 , astronomers discovered Ceres and other bodies between Mars and Jupiter which were for some decades considered to be planets . Between then and around 1851 , when the number of planets had reached 23 , astronomers started using the word asteroid for the smaller bodies and then stopped naming or classifying them as planets .
With the discovery of Pluto in 1930 , most astronomers considered the Solar System to have nine planets , along with thousands of significantly smaller bodies ( asteroids and comets ) . For almost 50 years Pluto was thought to be larger than Mercury , but with the discovery in 1978 of Pluto 's moon Charon , it became possible to measure Pluto 's mass accurately and to determine that it was much smaller than in initial estimates . It was roughly one @-@ twentieth the mass of Mercury , which made Pluto by far the smallest planet . Although it was still more than ten times as massive as the largest object in the asteroid belt , Ceres , it was one @-@ fifth that of Earth 's Moon . Furthermore , having some unusual characteristics , such as large orbital eccentricity and a high orbital inclination , it became evident it was a completely different kind of body from any of the other planets .
In the 1990s , astronomers began to find objects in the same region of space as Pluto ( now known as the Kuiper belt ) , and some even farther away . Many of these shared several of Pluto 's key orbital characteristics , and Pluto started being seen as the largest member of a new class of objects , plutinos . This led some astronomers to stop referring to Pluto as a planet . Several terms , including subplanet and planetoid , started to be used for the bodies now known as dwarf planets . By 2005 , three trans @-@ Neptunian objects comparable in size to Pluto ( Quaoar , Sedna , and Eris ) had been reported . It became clear that either they would also have to be classified as planets , or Pluto would have to be reclassified . Astronomers were also confident that more objects as large as Pluto would be discovered , and the number of planets would start growing quickly if Pluto were to remain a planet .
Eris ( then known as 2003 UB313 ) was discovered in January 2005 , which was thought to be slightly larger than Pluto , and some reports informally referred to it as the tenth planet . As a consequence , the issue became a matter of intense debate during the IAU General Assembly in August 2006 . The IAU 's initial draft proposal included Charon , Eris , and Ceres in the list of planets . After many astronomers objected to this proposal , an alternative was drawn up by Uruguayan astronomer Julio Ángel Fernández , in which he created a median classification for objects large enough to be round but that had not cleared their orbits of planetesimals . Dropping Charon from the list , the new proposal also removed Pluto , Ceres , and Eris , because they have not cleared their orbits .
The IAU 's final Resolution 5A preserved this three @-@ category system for the celestial bodies orbiting the Sun . It reads :
The IAU ... resolves that planets and other bodies , except satellites , in our Solar System be defined into three distinct categories in the following way :
( 1 ) A planet1 is a celestial body that ( a ) is in orbit around the Sun , ( b ) has sufficient mass for its self @-@ gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium ( nearly round ) shape , and ( c ) has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit .
( 2 ) A " dwarf planet " is a celestial body that ( a ) is in orbit around the Sun , ( b ) has sufficient mass for its self @-@ gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium ( nearly round ) shape , 2 ( c ) has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit , and ( d ) is not a satellite .
( 3 ) All other objects , 3 except satellites , orbiting the Sun shall be referred to collectively as " Small Solar System Bodies . "
Footnotes :
1 The eight planets are : Mercury , Venus , Earth , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , and Neptune .
2 An IAU process will be established to assign borderline objects either dwarf planet or other status .
3 These currently include most of the Solar System asteroids , most Trans @-@ Neptunian Objects ( TNOs ) , comets , and other small bodies .
Although concerns were raised about the classification of planets orbiting other stars , the issue was not resolved ; it was proposed instead to decide this only when such objects start being observed .
= = Name = =
The term dwarf planet has itself been somewhat controversial , as it implies that these bodies are planets , much as dwarf stars are stars . This is the conception of the Solar System that Stern promoted when he coined the phrase . The older word planetoid ( " having the form of a planet " ) has no such connotation , and is also used by astronomers for bodies that fit the IAU definition . Brown states that planetoid is " a perfectly good word " that has been used for these bodies for years , and that the use of the term dwarf planet for a non @-@ planet is " dumb " , but that it was motivated by an attempt by the IAU division III plenary session to reinstate Pluto as a planet in a second resolution . Indeed , the draft of Resolution 5A had called these median bodies planetoids , but the plenary session voted unanimously to change the name to dwarf planet . The second resolution , 5B , defined dwarf planets as a subtype of planet , as Stern had originally intended , distinguished from the other eight that were to be called " classical planets " . Under this arrangement , the twelve planets of the rejected proposal were to be preserved in a distinction between eight classical planets and four dwarf planets . However , Resolution 5B was defeated in the same session that 5A was passed . Because of the semantic inconsistency of a dwarf planet not being a planet due to the failure of Resolution 5B , alternative terms such as nanoplanet and subplanet were discussed , but there was no consensus among the CSBN to change it .
In most languages equivalent terms have been created by translating dwarf planet more @-@ or @-@ less literally : French planète naine , Spanish planeta enano , German Zwergplanet , Russian karlikovaya planeta ( карликовая планета ) , Arabic kaukab qazm ( كوكب قزم ) , Chinese ǎixíngxīng ( 矮行星 ) , Korean waesohangseong ( 왜소행성 ; 矮小行星 ) , but Japanese and Latin are exceptions : In Japanese they are called junwakusei ( 準惑星 ) meaning " subplanets " or " almost @-@ planets " , and the modern Latin name , planetula ( or planetion following the Greek ) , is a diminutive derivation of planeta , hence also meaning something less than a planet .
IAU Resolution 6a of 2006 recognizes Pluto as " the prototype of a new category of trans @-@ Neptunian objects " . The name and precise nature of this category were not specified but left for the IAU to establish at a later date ; in the debate leading up to the resolution , the members of the category were variously referred to as plutons and plutonian objects but neither name was carried forward , perhaps due to objections from geologists that this would create confusion with their pluton . On June 11 , 2008 , the IAU Executive Committee announced a name , plutoid , and a definition : all trans @-@ Neptunian dwarf planets are plutoids , though " in part because of an email miscommunication , the WG @-@ PSN [ Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature ] was not involved in choosing the word plutoid . ... In fact , a vote taken by the WG @-@ PSN subsequent to the Executive Committee meeting has rejected the use of that specific term " , and it has not come into common use among astronomers .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Orbital dominance = = =
Alan Stern and Harold F. Levison introduced a parameter Λ ( lambda ) , expressing the likelihood of an encounter resulting in a given deflection of orbit . The value of this parameter in Stern 's model is proportional to the square of the mass and inversely proportional to the period . This value can be used to estimate the capacity of a body to clear the neighbourhood of its orbit , where Λ > 1 will eventually clear it . A gap of five orders of magnitude in Λ was found between the smallest terrestrial planets and the largest asteroids and Kuiper belt objects .
Using this parameter , Steven Soter and other astronomers argued for a distinction between planets and dwarf planets based on the inability of the latter to " clear the neighbourhood around their orbits " : planets are able to remove smaller bodies near their orbits by collision , capture , or gravitational disturbance ( or establish orbital resonances that prevent collisions ) , whereas dwarf planets lack the mass to do so . Soter went on to propose a parameter he called the planetary discriminant , designated with the symbol µ ( mu ) , that represents an experimental measure of the actual degree of cleanliness of the orbital zone ( where µ is calculated by dividing the mass of the candidate body by the total mass of the other objects that share its orbital zone ) , where µ > 100 is deemed to be cleared . There are several other schemes that try to differentiate between planets and dwarf planets , but the 2006 definition uses this concept .
= = = Hydrostatic equilibrium = = =
Sufficient internal pressure , caused by the body 's gravitation , will turn a body plastic , and sufficient plasticity will allow high elevations to sink and hollows to fill in , a process known as gravitational relaxation . Bodies smaller than a few kilometers are dominated by non @-@ gravitational forces and tend to have an irregular shape . Larger objects , where gravitation is significant but not dominant , are " potato " shaped ; the more massive the body is , the higher its internal pressure and the more rounded its shape , until the pressure is sufficient to overcome its internal compressive strength and it achieves hydrostatic equilibrium . At this point a body is as round as it is possible to be , given its rotation and tidal effects , and is an ellipsoid in shape . This is the defining limit of a dwarf planet .
When an object is in hydrostatic equilibrium , a global layer of liquid covering its surface would form a liquid surface of the same shape as the body , apart from small @-@ scale surface features such as craters and fissures . If the body does not rotate , it will be a sphere , but the faster it does rotate , the more oblate or even scalene it becomes . However , if such a rotating body were to be heated until it melted , its overall shape would not change when liquid . The extreme example of a non @-@ spherical body in hydrostatic equilibrium is Haumea , which is twice as long along its major axis as it is at the poles . If the body has a massive nearby companion , then tidal forces come into effect as well , distorting it into a prolate spheroid . An example of this is Jupiter 's moon Io , which is the most volcanically active body in the Solar System due to effects of tidal heating . Tidal forces also cause a body 's rotation to gradually become tidally locked , such that it always presents the same face to its companion . An extreme example of this is the Pluto – Charon system , where both bodies are tidally locked to each other . Earth 's Moon is also tidally locked , as are many satellites of the gas giants .
The upper and lower size and mass limits of dwarf planets have not been specified by the IAU . There is no defined upper limit , and an object larger or more massive than Mercury that has not " cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit " would be classified as a dwarf planet . The lower limit is determined by the requirements of achieving a hydrostatic equilibrium shape , but the size or mass at which an object attains this shape depends on its composition and thermal history . The original draft of the 2006 IAU resolution redefined hydrostatic equilibrium shape as applying " to objects with mass above 5 × 1020 kg and diameter greater than 800 km " , but this was not retained in the final draft .
Empirical observations suggest that the lower limit will vary according to the composition and thermal history of the object . For a body made of rigid silicates , such as the stony asteroids , the transition to hydrostatic equilibrium should occur at a diameter of approximately 600 km and a mass of some 3 @.@ 4 × 1020 kg . For a body made of less rigid water ice , the limit should be about 320 km and 1019 kg . In the asteroid belt , Ceres is the only body that clearly surpasses the silicaceous limit ( though it is actually a rocky – icy body ) , and its shape is an equilibrium spheroid . 2 Pallas and 4 Vesta , however , are rocky and are just below the limit . Pallas , at 525 – 560 km and 1 @.@ 85 – 2 @.@ 4 × 1020 kg , is " nearly round " but still somewhat irregular . Vesta , at 530 km and 2 @.@ 6 × 1020 kg , deviates from an ellipsoid shape primarily due to a large impact basin at its pole .
= = Dwarf planets and possible dwarf planets = =
Many trans @-@ Neptunian objects ( TNOs ) are thought to have icy cores and therefore would require a diameter of perhaps 400 km ( 250 mi ) — only about 3 % of that of Earth — to relax into gravitational equilibrium . As of January 2015 , about 150 known TNOs are thought to be probably dwarf planets , although only rough estimates of the diameters of most of these objects are available . A team is investigating thirty of these , and think that the number will eventually prove to be around 200 in the Kuiper belt , with thousands more beyond .
The IAU has recognized five bodies as dwarf planets since 2008 : Ceres , Pluto , Eris , Haumea , and Makemake . Ceres and Pluto are known to be dwarf planets through direct observation . Eris is recognized as a dwarf planet because it is more massive than Pluto ( measurements by New Horizons indicate that Pluto 's diameter is larger than that of Eris ) , whereas Haumea and Makemake qualify based on their absolute magnitudes . In relative distance from the Sun , the five are :
Ceres ⚳ – discovered on January 1 , 1801 , 45 years before Neptune . Considered a planet for half a century before reclassification as an asteroid . Accepted as a dwarf planet by the IAU on September 13 , 2006 .
Pluto ♇ – discovered on February 18 , 1930 . Classified as a planet for 76 years . Reclassified as a dwarf planet by the IAU on August 24 , 2006 .
Haumea – discovered on December 28 , 2004 . Accepted by the IAU as a dwarf planet on September 17 , 2008 .
Makemake – discovered on March 31 , 2005 . Accepted by the IAU as a dwarf planet on July 11 , 2008 .
Eris – discovered on January 5 , 2005 . Called the " tenth planet " in media reports . Accepted by the IAU as a dwarf planet on September 13 , 2006 .
Mike Brown considers an additional six trans @-@ Neptunian objects to be " nearly certainly " dwarf planets with diameters at or above 900 kilometers . These objects are :
Orcus – discovered on February 17 , 2004
2002 MS4 – discovered on 18 June 2002
Salacia – discovered on September 22 , 2004
Quaoar – discovered on June 5 , 2002
2007 OR10 – discovered on July 17 , 2007
Sedna – discovered on November 14 , 2003
Tancredi et al. advised the IAU to officially accept Orcus , Sedna and Quaoar . In addition , Gonzalo Tancredi considers the five TNOs Varuna , Ixion , 2003 AZ84 , 2004 GV9 , and 2002 AW197 to be dwarf planets as well . These objects are also recognized by Mike Brown and classified as " highly likely " . An extensive table compares the dwarf planet candidates of the two planetary astronomers in detail .
Vesta , the next @-@ most @-@ massive body in the asteroid belt after Ceres , is roughly spherical , deviating mainly because of massive impacts that formed Rheasilvia and Veneneia crater after it solidified . Furthermore , its triaxial dimensions are not consistent with hydrostatic equilibrium . Triton is thought to be a captured dwarf planet . Phoebe is a captured body that , like Vesta , is no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium , but is thought to have been so early in its history .
= = Exploration = =
On March 6 , 2015 , the Dawn spacecraft began to orbit Ceres , becoming the first spacecraft to orbit a dwarf planet . On 14 July 2015 , the New Horizons space probe flew by Pluto and its five moons . Dawn has also explored the former dwarf planet , Vesta . Phoebe has been explored by Cassini ( most recently ) and Voyager 2 , which also explored Triton . These three are thought to be former dwarf planets and therefore their exploration helps in the study of the evolution of dwarf planets .
= = Contention = =
In the immediate aftermath of the IAU definition of dwarf planet , a number of scientists expressed their disagreement with the IAU resolution . Campaigns included car bumper stickers and T @-@ shirts . Mike Brown ( the discoverer of Eris ) agrees with the reduction of the number of planets to eight .
NASA has announced that it will use the new guidelines established by the IAU . However , Alan Stern , the director of NASA 's mission to Pluto , rejects the current IAU definition of planet , both in terms of defining dwarf planets as something other than a type of planet , and in using orbital characteristics ( rather than intrinsic characteristics ) of objects to define them as dwarf planets . Thus , in 2011 , he still referred to Pluto as a planet , and accepted other dwarf planets such as Ceres and Eris , as well as the larger moons , as additional planets . Several years before the IAU definition , he used orbital characteristics to separate " überplanets " ( the dominant eight ) from " unterplanets " ( the dwarf planets ) , considering both types " planets " .
= = Planetary @-@ mass moons = =
Nineteen moons are known to be massive enough to have relaxed into a rounded shape under their own gravity , and seven of them are more massive than either Eris or Pluto . They are not physically distinct from the dwarf planets , but are not dwarf planets because they do not directly orbit the Sun . The seven that are more massive than Eris are the Moon , the four Galilean moons of Jupiter ( Io , Europa , Ganymede , and Callisto ) , one moon of Saturn ( Titan ) , and one moon of Neptune ( Triton ) . The others are six moons of Saturn ( Mimas , Enceladus , Tethys , Dione , Rhea , and Iapetus ) , five moons of Uranus ( Miranda , Ariel , Umbriel , Titania , and Oberon ) , and one moon of Pluto ( Charon ) . There are additional possibilities among TNOs , including Dysnomia orbiting Eris . Alan Stern calls these moons " satellite planets " , one of three categories of planet together with dwarf planets and classical planets . The term planemo ( " planetary @-@ mass object " ) covers all three .
In a draft resolution for the IAU definition of planet , both Pluto and Charon would have been considered dwarf planets in a binary system , given that they both satisfied the mass and shape requirements for dwarf planets and revolved around a common center of mass located between the two bodies ( rather than within one of the bodies ) . The IAU currently states that Charon is not considered to be a dwarf planet and is just a satellite of Pluto , although the idea that Charon might qualify to be a dwarf planet in its own right may be considered at a later date . The location of the barycenter depends not only on the relative masses of the bodies , but also on the distance between them ; the barycenter of the Sun – Jupiter orbit , for example , lies outside the Sun .
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= Eddisbury hill fort =
Eddisbury hill fort , also known as Castle Ditch , is an Iron Age hill fort near Delamere , Cheshire , in northern England . Hill forts are fortified hill @-@ top settlements constructed across Britain during the Iron Age . Eddisbury is the largest and most complex of the seven hill forts in the county of Cheshire . It was constructed before 200 – 100 BC and expanded in 1 – 50 AD . In the 1st century AD , the Romans slighted the site . It was reoccupied in the 6th – 8th centuries AD , and an Anglo @-@ Saxon burh was probably established at Eddisbury in 914 . In the medieval and post @-@ medieval periods quarrying and farming have damaged the site . Ownership is currently split between the Forestry Commission and a local farm . Eddisbury is protected as a Scheduled Ancient Monument .
= = Background = =
Hill forts developed in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age , roughly the start of the first millennium BC . The reason for their emergence in Britain , and their purpose , has been a subject of debate . It has been argued that they could have been military sites constructed in response to invasion from continental Europe , sites built by invaders , or a military reaction to social tensions caused by an increasing population and consequent pressure on agriculture . The dominant view since the 1960s has been that the increasing use of iron led to social changes in Britain . Deposits of iron ore were located in different places to the tin and copper ore necessary to make bronze , and as a result trading patterns shifted and the old elites lost their economic and social status . Power passed into the hands of a new group of people . Archaeologist Barry Cunliffe believes that population increase still played a role and has stated " [ the forts ] provided defensive possibilities for the community at those times when the stress [ of an increasing population ] burst out into open warfare . But I wouldn 't see them as having been built because there was a state of war . They would be functional as defensive strongholds when there were tensions and undoubtedly some of them were attacked and destroyed , but this was not the only , or even the most significant , factor in their construction " .
= = Location and layout = =
Although there are over 1 @,@ 300 hill forts in England , they are concentrated in the south of the country , with only seven in Cheshire . Eddisbury is the largest and most complex of the Cheshire hill forts . The forts form two geographical groups of three , with Maiden Castle on its own in the south of the county ; Eddisbury hill fort is in the southern group with Kelsborrow Castle and Oakmere hill fort . Located at grid reference SJ553694 , Eddisbury Hill , in common with all of the hill forts in Cheshire , sits on part of the central ridge that runs north – south through the county .
Eddisbury hill fort follows the contours of its hill and measures 200 by 380 m ( 660 by 1 @,@ 250 ft ) . It is surrounded by two ramparts with a ditch in between . The ditch is 10 m ( 33 ft ) wide and 0 @.@ 5 m ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) deep . The inner bank lies between .
= = History = =
There is evidence of Bronze Age activity at Eddisbury . Before 250 BC , a palisade was erected on Eddisbury Hill . The first hill fort was built in 200 – 100 BC . Eddisbury hill fort has two main archaeological phases . In the first phase of activity , the site was defended by a single rampart and ditch ; this type of hill fort is termed " univallate " . The settlement was concentrated on the eastern part of the fort 's hill . During the second phase , the fort extended westwards , occupying the entire hill top , and the defences were enhanced through the addition of more ramparts and ditches . The enclosed area expanded from 5 @.@ 5 acres ( 22 @,@ 000 m2 ) to 7 acres ( 28 @,@ 000 m2 ) , and the defences covered 15 @.@ 5 acres ( 63 @,@ 000 m2 ) , 6 acres ( 24 @,@ 000 m2 ) more than previously . There are two theories about the expansion of the fort : either the growth westwards and the extended defences were completed at the same time or that they were separate events . If they happened at the same time it is likely to have been in the interest of making the site easier to defend . If they were separate , the ramparts may have been extended to incorporate an entrance at the western end of the site . The expansion phase dated to 1 – 50 AD .
In the late 1st century AD , the hill fort was destroyed by the Romans . The defences were slighted to prevent the site being reused . In the 4th – 6th centuries AD , the hill fort was reoccupied and huts were built over the inner rampart . A later hut , dating from the 6th – 8th centuries , has also been discovered . Eddisbury has been suggested as the site of an Anglo @-@ Saxon burh built in 914 by Æthelflæd , daughter of Alfred the Great , and recorded in the Mercian Register in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle but this has been queried . In the medieval and post @-@ medieval period , the south @-@ east part of the site was inhabited , at one point being used as a forester 's lodge . The centre of the fort has been cultivated since at least the 19th century , still undergoes ploughing , and was used as a quarry .
Eddisbury was excavated between 1935 and 1938 by W. J. Varley , who also undertook excavations at Maiden Castle nearby , as part of his investigation into the origin of Cheshire 's hill forts . The structure was made a Scheduled Ancient Monument in 1995 , giving Eddisbury protection against unauthorised change . The site has been assessed as being " at high risk " due to ploughing on the site , causing erosion . Five of Cheshire 's seven hill forts have been assessed as being " at high risk " compared to 15 % of North West England 's Scheduled Monuments . Although the western and northern parts of Eddisbury are owned by the Forestry Commission , the rest of the site is part of Old Pale Farm .
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= 7 Khoon Maaf =
7 Khoon Maaf , pronounced Saat Khoon Maaf , released internationally as Seven Sins Forgiven , is a 2011 Indian romantic crime thriller film directed , co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Vishal Bhardwaj . The film stars Priyanka Chopra in the lead role , with Naseeruddin Shah , Irrfan Khan , Annu Kapoor , Neil Nitin Mukesh , John Abraham , Aleksandr Dyachenko , Vivaan Shah and Usha Uthup in supporting roles . The film tells the story of a femme fatale , Susanna Anna @-@ Marie Johannes , an Anglo @-@ Indian woman who murders her seven husbands in an unending quest for love .
7 Khoon Maaf is an adaptation of the short story Susanna 's Seven Husbands by Ruskin Bond . After Bhardwaj saw the possibility of a script in the short story , he requested Bond to develop the story for a film adaptation . Bond expanded his four @-@ page short story into an 80 @-@ page novella , and later co @-@ wrote the script with Bhardwaj . The film 's musical score was composed by Bhardwaj , and Gulzar wrote the lyrics . Principal photography started in Kashmir before moving to Coorg , where extensive filming was done .
The film opened on 18 February 2011 to mostly positive reviews , with praise for Chopra 's performance . Despite the critical acclaim , 7 Khoon Maaf underperformed at the box @-@ office . However , according to its producers , it made a profit by earning a total of ₹ 33 crore ( US $ 4 @.@ 9 million ) for its box @-@ office run and television @-@ music @-@ home @-@ video rights against a production budget of ₹ 15 crore ( US $ 2 @.@ 2 million ) . It premiered at the 61st Berlin International Film Festival , receiving several accolades at award ceremonies across India . At the 57th Filmfare Awards 7 Khoon Maaf received three nominations , winning two : the Best Actress Critics Award for Chopra and the Best Female Playback Singer for Uthup and Rekha Bhardwaj 's song , " Darling " .
= = Plot = =
= = = Prologue — Prem Pujari = = =
7 Khoon Maaf tells the story of an Anglo @-@ Indian woman , Susanna Anna @-@ Marie Johannes ( Priyanka Chopra ) , who murders all her husbands . Susanna tries to find love , but six of her seven husbands have a flaw which proves fatal . The killings ( and her yearning for love ) are explained by the loss of her mother at a young age . The story is told by a young forensic pathologist , Arun ( Vivaan Shah ) , to his wife , Nandini ( Konkona Sen Sharma ) . Arun has watched Susanna since their childhood , and has a secret crush on her . He owes his life to her ; she funded his education , making him what he is today . Arun tells his wife that Susanna has committed suicide , leaving him a note congratulating him on his marriage . The doctor must now confirm that the body found is Susanna 's . Arun is unable to overcome his grief over her death and pours out his heart to his wife , who listens patiently .
= = = Adamkhor Major = = =
Susanna 's first husband — Edwin Rodriques ( Neil Nitin Mukesh ) , an army major — is overbearing , jealous and possessive . Disabled , he cannot believe that a beautiful woman like Susanna would be faithful to him . Uncertain of his sexual potency , he takes out his anger on his wife . Although Susanna endures his mental cruelty , she cannot forgive Edwin for blinding her faithful , mute stableboy ( Shashi Malviya ) with a whip . Edwin is eliminated during a panther @-@ hunting trip with the help of Susanna 's faithful maid ( Usha Uthup ) , butler ( Harish Khanna ) and the mute stableboy .
= = = Ek Duje Ke Liye = = =
Susanna 's second husband — Jamshed Singh Rathod ( John Abraham ) , who renames himself Jimmy Stetson after their marriage — is a singer whose flaw is pride . The marriage begins well , but Jimmy becomes successful and misuses his new @-@ found fame . He steals songs , dallies with other women and becomes dependent on drugs . Susanna wants to be lucky in love the second time ; she tries to wean him from his addiction , but he continues in secret . She gives up , disposing of him with a heroin overdose . Police investigators find footprints near his body indicating that a person with six toes is the murderer .
= = = Teesra Khoon = = =
Susanna 's third husband — Wasiullah Khan ( also known as Musafir ) ( Irrfan Khan ) — is a soft @-@ spoken , thoughtful poet by day and a sado @-@ masochist by night . Susanna tries to cover her bruises with makeup ; her servants cannot bear to see her mistreated , and advise her to get rid of him . Khan is ultimately interred in a snowy Kashmiri grave .
= = = Amar Prem = = =
Her fourth husband , Nicolai Vronsky ( Aleksandr Dyachenko ) , is a Russian spy leading a double life . When Susanna discovers he has another wife and family , her rage knows no bounds and he meets his end with the aid of Susanna 's pet snakes . After Vronsky 's death , Susanna no longer agonizes over eliminating anyone of whom she disapproves .
= = = Pyaar Ki Keemat = = =
Her fifth husband , Keemat Lal ( Annu Kapoor ) , is a police inspector who has shielded his " Madame " from prosecution for two murders in exchange for marriage . With a voracious appetite for sex , his dependence on Viagra proves his undoing ; one fateful night , Susanna mixes an overdose of the drug into Lal 's drink .
= = = Mushroom Da = = =
Modhusudhon Tarafdar ( Naseeruddin Shah ) is a Bengali doctor who rescues Susanna from a suicide attempt ( when she learns about Arun 's marriage ) and puts her on a mushroom @-@ only diet . Although she does not want to marry him , Tarafdar persuades her with a promise that she will be the sole heir of his property . Actually bankrupt , he tries to poison Susanna with mushroom soup several years later for her inheritance . Her butler drinks it by accident and dies instead ; in a state of shock , she shoots Tarafdar during a game of Russian roulette . That night , Susanna sets her house ablaze in another suicide attempt . Seeing the house on fire , her maid ( who has six toes ) tries to rescue her but dies in the attempt .
= = = Epilogue — The seventh husband = = =
In the forensics laboratory , Arun discovers that the body is not Susanna 's ; however , he declares Susanna dead in his reports . He looks for her ; when he finds Susanna , she tells him she is finally getting married the next day to someone who accepts her , knowing all her sins . In an epiphany she imagines Jesus Christ as her seventh husband , full of love and never hurtful ; she becomes a nun and finding the love she sought all her life . Arun and Nandini return home after he tells her that Susanna is dead .
= = Cast = =
Priyanka Chopra as Susanna Anna @-@ Marie Johannes ( also known as Saheb , Suzi , Sultana , Anna and Sunaina )
Neil Nitin Mukesh as Major Edwin Rodriques ( first husband )
John Abraham as Jamshed Singh Rathod @-@ Jimmy Stetson ( second husband )
Irrfan Khan as Wasiullah Khan ( also known as Musafir ) ( third husband )
Aleksandr Dyachenko as Nicolai Vronsky ( fourth husband )
Annu Kapoor as Inspector Keemat Lal ( fifth husband )
Naseeruddin Shah as Dr. Modhusudhon Tarafdar ( also known as Modhu Daa ) ( sixth husband )
Vivaan Shah as Arun Kumar
Usha Uthup as Maggie Aunty ( maid )
Harish Khanna as Galib Khan ( butler )
Shashi Malviya as Goonga Chacha ( stableboy )
Konkona Sen Sharma as Nandini , Arun 's wife ( cameo appearance )
Ruskin Bond as church father ( cameo appearance )
Radhika Arora as Nandini 's friend ( cameo appearance )
Ayush Tandon as Young Arun
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The idea for 7 Khoon Maaf came when Ruskin Bond sent his book of Short Story collection to Vishal Bhardwaj . He was intrigued by a four @-@ page story 's title named " Susanna 's Seven Husbands " , and thought it had potential for a novel and a film . Bhardwaj said , " I told myself why would a woman have seven husbands and then I came to know that she also kills them ! I was immediately hooked to it . It reminded me of a very old film , Bluebeard 's Seven Wives " . Bhardwaj suggested the story to a fellow director , who was looking for a good story . However , after reading the short story , the director dismissed it saying it has no film potential . After reading the story twice , he became even more confident about possibility of a film . Bhardwaj who had previously adapted Bond 's novel The Blue Umbrella into a film , decided to adapt the short story for the screen . Bhardwaj later requested Bond to turn the story into a novella , noting that only Bond could flesh out the characters well , to which he agreed . Bond expanded the story into an 80 @-@ page novella , which later became a 200 @-@ page full @-@ length Hindi script .
Bhardwaj noted that he retained Bond 's theme , but incorporated his own elements to make the film a dark comedy . He said , " I had previously taken liberties with Shakespeare . Naturally , when you adapt a story , your vision also comes in it . But I have remained honest to its essence " . He included Keemat Lal ( who plays a police officer in all Bond 's stories ) , although the character is not in the original story . Bhardwaj decided to include him in the film as an homage to Bond , explaining that he took liberties with characters ' names and traits . Bond also had to devise Indian methods of killing the husbands , which he found challenging : " The challenge was devising seven ingenious ways in which she could kill her husbands without being suspected . And she does it successfully , until towards the end " .
= = = Casting and characters = = =
Priyanka Chopra was Bhardwaj 's original choice for the role of Susanna after he worked with the actress in Kaminey : He said that Chopra " is the finest actor of her generation right now ... As a director I had so much trust on her that I felt that no one else can essay this role as brilliantly as she would do " . Mohanlal was cast as one of Susanna 's husbands in the film ; however , he left the project to concentrate on Malayalam films . The actor was replaced by Annu Kapoor in the role of Inspector Keemat Lal . Other actors in the film were John Abraham , Naseeruddin Shah , Neil Nitin Mukesh and Vivaan Shah . Directors Karan Johar and Imtiaz Ali were approached to play two of the seven husbands , but they reportedly turned down the offer . Usha Uthup was cast as Susanna 's maid in the film . Konkona Sen Sharma was confirmed for a cameo appearance .
During production , the film underwent two name changes . The project was initially titled Seven , which became Ek Bataa Saat and finally 7 Khoon Maaf . In the film , Chopra 's character ages from 20 to 65 , and prosthetic makeup was used for her looks at different ages . Bhardwaj hired Hollywood special makeup effects artist Greg Cannom , who did the makeup for 2008 's The Curious Case of Benjamin Button , to create seven looks for the character . Chopra found the most challenging period was that of the 65 @-@ year @-@ old woman . The actress said , " prosthetics had to play a heavy part but I ’ m happy that I pushed myself as the result is really fab . I had to be very careful of not doing things that would damage the make @-@ up " . To make Chopra look authentic , the makeup team used Chopra 's mother 's and grandmother ’ s photos to create her look . She had to gain five kg weight to fit her aging character .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began in March 2010 with Chopra and Irrfan Khan in Kashmir . Locations included Shalimar Bagh and Dal Lake in Srinagar . The cast and crew were provided with two @-@ tier security coverage by the Central Reserve Police Force ( CRPF ) and the Jammu & Kashmir Police , due to unrest in the valley . The film was also shot in Gulmarg , Delhi and Coorg , which included extensive shooting in the forests . Other locations were Puducherry , Mumbai , Hyderabad and in Russia . During filming Chopra was restricted from eating and drinking while donning the prosthetic makeup ( which took five hours to apply ) .
= = Soundtrack = =
The film 's score and songs were composed by Vishal Bhardwaj , with lyrics by Gulzar . Its soundtrack contains seven songs and two reprise versions . The soundtrack was digitally released on Ovi ( Nokia ) on 21 January 2011 , and on CD 24 January 2011 . The song " Darling " is based on the Russian folk song " Kalinka " , and contains several Russian words ( one of Susanna 's husbands was Russian ) . " Kalinka " is credited on the album cover . " Tere Liye " , sung by Suresh Wadkar , was not used in the film .
The soundtrack received positive reviews from music critics . The Indo @-@ Asian News Service gave the album 3 @.@ 5 stars ( out of 5 ) : " Bharadwaj has composed a wonderful album that is not a clone of his previous work . It exudes freshness and is worth listening . However , the songs would not have achieved zenith without Gulzar 's lovely lyrics . The team has done it again " . Bollywood Hungama rated the album a 3 ( out of 5 ) : " 7 Khoon Maaf is a good album with a couple of definite hits , couple of skip worthy ones and the remaining have the potential to grow . Since 7 Khoon Maaf is not a routine Bollywood affair , it can 't be expecting a quick pick at the stands from Day One " . The Hindustan Times noted that the soundtrack takes the listener through a variety of moods : " Bhardwaj has certainly succeeded in adding new sounds to his catalogue . He continues to evade Bollywood monotony with this soundtrack [ ... ] an innovative effort . "
= = Marketing and release = =
The film 's preview and trailer were released on 24 December 2010 to a positive response from critics , who praised the whole presentation and Chopra 's dialogues particularly : " duniya ki har biwi ne kabhie na kabhie toh yeh zarur sochega , ki main apne pati se hamesha hamesha ke liye chutkara kaise paun " ( " Every wife in the entire world must have once in her lifetime thought of how to get rid of her husband forever " ) . Following the preview @-@ trailer launches , Chopra promoted the film by appearing with seven men ( dressed as bridegrooms ) at the Radio Mirchi FM studio . The succession of marriages and funerals was illustrated at a promotional event for the film , where Chopra appeared as a Catholic bride in a wedding gown holding a bouquet . A short time later she reappeared as a widow in mourning , for her husbands ' funerals .
Emphasizing the film 's theme , Chopra introduced a " seven ways to lose your Valentine " press kit for reporters at a Valentines Day promotion . The kit contained a rope , a syringe , a knife , a bottle of poison , a sachet of potassium cyanide , an ice pick and a blister pack of Viagra , which was based on Susanna 's way to kill her husbands in the film . In February 2011 , a book entitled Susanna 's Seven Husbands was released by Penguin Books as a collector 's edition including the novella , the short story and the film ’ s screenplay .
The film was screened at the 61st Berlin International Film Festival as part of its world premiere in the festival 's Panorama section . At the Friedrichstadt Palace ( a Berlin theatre ) an audience of some 2 @,@ 500 people watched the film on the festival 's final evening , giving the director and the nine cast and crew members present a standing ovation when they appeared onstage . 7 Khoon Maaf was originally scheduled for release on 21 January 2011 , but was postponed a month to avoid conflicting with Dhobi Ghat . The film was released on 18 February 2011 on about 700 screens across India . Reliance Home Entertainment released 7 Khoon Maaf on DVD in March 2011 across all regions in a one @-@ disc NTSC format . The Blu @-@ ray and Video CD versions were released at the same time .
= = Critical reception = =
7 Khoon Maaf was critically praised and Chopra 's performance was singled out in particular , with many reviewers describing it as " a role of a lifetime " . Aniruddha Guha of the Daily News and Analysis rated the film a four ( out of five ) and wrote , " For a filmmaker who has long established his hold over the craft , 7 Khoon Maaf is the only way forward – it pushes the envelope and takes you on a cinematic journey you may not experience in a Hindi film for a long time to come " . She praised Chopra 's performance : " Priyanka Chopra takes on a character that most of her contemporaries would shy away from and enacts it in a way that only she possibly can . For a woman with as many shades as Susanna , Chopra gets a crack at a role of a lifetime . And Bhardwaj ensures she sparkles like never before " . The Indo @-@ Asian News Service described the film as a " winner " by Vishal Bhardwaj , rating it four out of five : " Chalk up an absolute winner for the Vishal Bhardwaj @-@ Priyanka Chopra team . They make a coherent vision out of an inconceivable marital crises . " Zee News also rated the film four out of five : " Vishal Bhardwaj does it again . The maverick filmmaker has once again woven magic with his latest blockbuster Saat Khoon Maaf , which presents Priyanka Chopra in a never before character " .
Nikhat Kazmi of the Times of India gave the film a 3 @.@ 5 ( out of 5 ) rating , describing it as " serious , sensitive and stirring " , " a whole new cinematic experience " and praising Chopra 's performance : " 7 Khoon Maaf would undoubtedly end up as a milestone in Priyanka Chopra 's career graph . The actor displays exquisite command over a complex character that is definitely a first in Indian cinema . She renders a subtle and restrained portrayal of a lonely and wronged woman who wanted love and only love from life " . Mayank Shekhar of the Hindustan Times gave 7 Khoon Maaf three out of five stars noting that the film was crafted around strong , effective scenes alone : a lot of them , cleanly cut and clinical , a whole lot immediately compelling , and recommended not to miss the partly captivating film Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the film three stars , saying that " 7 Khoon Maaf is a dark film that has its share of positives and negatives . However , the film will meet with diverse reactions – some will fancy it , while some will abhor it . The film will appeal more to the critics / columnists and the festival circuit " .
The film also received some criticism . The Telegraph 's Pratim D. Gupta called 7 Khoon Maaf " adventurous but over @-@ indulgent " , saying that Vishal Bhardwaj " traded economy for mainstream acceptance " . However , Gupta praised the film 's cinematography and its unexpected ending : " Discovering Susanna ’ s seventh husband [ is ] a killer twist in the end " . Anupama Chopra of NDTV gave the movie two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars ( out of five ) , terming it a " disappointment " and saying " the film stumbles and fumbles . The episodic nature of the narrative makes the plot predictable . "
= = Box office = =
At the box office , the film opened to weak ticket sales across India ( its release coincided with the 2011 Cricket World Cup ) . It grossed ₹ 14 crore ( US $ 2 @.@ 1 million ) during its first week . By the end of its domestic box office run , the film earned approximately ₹ 20 crore ( US $ 3 @.@ 0 million ) , an underperformance compared to its production budget of ₹ 15 crore ( US $ 2 @.@ 2 million ) . It made an additional ₹ 13 crore ( US $ 1 @.@ 9 million ) from the pre @-@ release sale of music , television , and home video rights . Its producers reported that the venture was commercially successful . Siddharth Roy Kapur ( CEO of UTV Motion Pictures ) said , " ' 7 Khoon Maaf ' has worked well for us commercially due to a combination of tight production budgeting , optimised spending on prints and publicity and a pre @-@ sales strategy that helped us to de @-@ risk the film via sales of home video , music , satellite and theatrical rights even before the release " .
= = Accolades = =
7 Khoon Maaf received a number of nominations and won several awards , particularly Best Actress for Chopra . The film received three nominations at the 57th Filmfare Awards , winning two : Best Actress ( Critics ) for Chopra and Best Female playback singer for Utthup and Bhardwaj for " Darling " . At the Screen Awards the film received five nominations ; Chopra won the Best Actor in a Negative Role award . 7 Khoon Maaf won three Producers Guild Film Awards ( out of six nominations ) in technical categories : Best Cinematography , Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design .
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= Cyril Rioli =
Cyril Rioli ( born 14 July 1989 ) is a professional Australian rules footballer playing for the Hawthorn Football Club in the Australian Football League ( AFL ) . Primarily a forward pocket , Rioli also spends time in the midfield , although injury and hamstring injuries have limited his ability to spend long periods in the midfield .
= = Early life and junior football = =
= = = Family background = = =
Born to Cyril Jr. and Kathy in 1989 , Rioli comes from a bloodline of talented footballers . His father Cyril Jr. was a champion footballer in the Northern Territory and the brother of the late Richmond Norm Smith Medallist Maurice Rioli . Cyril Jr. played for Northern Territory Football League club St Mary 's , where he won 12 premiership medallions and the 1995 – 96 Nichols Medal as the league 's best and fairest player . His mother Kathy is the sister of Essendon two @-@ time premiership player and 1993 Norm Smith Medallist Michael Long . Another former footballer , Dean Rioli , is his cousin . After the 2015 season his cousin Daniel was drafted to the Richmond Football Club .
= = = Northern Territory lifestyle = = =
He spent the first eight years of his life in the Tiwi Islands before moving with his family to Darwin in the Northern Territory , playing his younger years at St Mary 's also .
= = = Football scholarship = = =
Rioli moved to Melbourne in 2004 as a 14 @-@ year @-@ old , where he attended and boarded at Scotch College for four years whilst playing for the school 's football team . The move came about after a decade @-@ long relationship between the school and Indigenous communities of the Northern Territory . Dr. Rob Smith , a teacher at Scotch College , had expanded the school 's four @-@ week exchange program for talented Indigenous footballers into a full scholarship program , following numerous tours of the Tiwi Islands and specifically , Bathurst Island . Rioli was the first selected into the program . He originally made the trip alongside his cousin Steven , after just three days in Melbourne the two re @-@ packed their bags with the intention of returning home . In an effort to retain the boys , Smith phoned Michael Long , who came out to the school with Derek Kickett and Sibby Rioli , another uncle . Long said he knew Cyril was making a life @-@ defining choice at just 14 ; " That was the big moment , whether he 'd tough it out or go " . Steven returned home and Cyril persisted in Melbourne . Nicknamed " Junior " or " Junior Boy " , he shone in his final season with Scotch College , despite suffering injuries throughout the season ; including a broken collarbone and a severely damaged ankle . He developed somewhat of a cult following whilst playing for the school , following a video clip of his highlights being uploaded to YouTube . He has since stated that he believes the early move to school in Melbourne made the transition a lot easier .
Rioli was also a standout performer in the 2007 AFL national under 18 championships , becoming the only Northern Territorian to earn All @-@ Australian honours , following a seven @-@ goal performance in a match against Queensland . He was tipped to go high in the national draft , from anywhere between five and twenty @-@ five . In this final year of junior football , he was one of five players , including Trent Cotchin , to be chronicled in the book The Draft : Inside the AFL 's Search for Talent , by The Age journalist Emma Quayle .
Despite Rioli 's speed , evasiveness and flashy tricks , the scouts at the AFL 's draft camp were still to be convinced of his dedication , with his skin folds being described as " less than brilliant " and his commitment to AFL still being questionable . Prior to the draft , Rioli said " I have had a few clubs call me , and it 's just confusing . I love playing footy , and I think I am pretty good at it , but it doesn 't really matter where ( I go in the draft ) . " He reportedly spoke to both the Kangaroos and the Adelaide Crows , before eventually being drafted by the Hawthorn Football Club in the 2007 AFL Draft . The Hawks used their first @-@ round draft pick and the number 12 pick overall to claim Rioli .
= = AFL career = =
= = = 2008 : Debut season and premiership = = =
Just four days after being drafted by the Hawks , Rioli was ordered to urgently organise a passport so he could attend the club 's trek of the Kokoda Track . He covered 90 % of his first pre @-@ season schedule for the club ; a very high volume of work for a first @-@ year player according to the head fitness coach Andrew Russell . Russell said , " Nobody that I worked with in the last four years at Hawthorn did that much in their first pre @-@ season . "
Rioli made his AFL debut in Hawthorn 's defeat of the Melbourne Football Club at the Melbourne Cricket Ground ( MCG ) in round one 2008 . He built a reputation around his ability to chase and pressure the opposition as they attempted to rebound from the forward line . In round six , he was nominated for the AFL Rising Star Award , after his display against Richmond , in which he received a nomination for Goal of the Year . Rioli appeared in every game in his debut season , including an inspirational performance in Hawthorn 's defeat of Geelong in the 2008 AFL Grand Final . His impact on the game was described as instrumental as Hawthorn defeated Geelong , in the club 's first premiership since 1991 . Rioli assisted in a couple of first quarter goals and kicked two goals for himself in the final , achieving a total of 10 possessions in the game . After the game Hawthorn coach Alastair Clarkson said , " We knew Cyril was a beauty , but you just never anticipate that they 're going to play every game of the season and be able to play in a grand final . " With nothing but praise for Rioli , Clarkson also made mention of his achievements in 2008 , " He 's got a premiership medal now , but he 's been in contention for mark of the year , goal of the year and the rising star and he 's been very , very consistent . He 's a 15 @-@ possession , five @-@ tackle a game player with a goal or two – he 's been a sensational acquisition to our club .
Rioli finished second overall in the 2008 AFL Rising Star Award , the award was won by Fremantle 's Rhys Palmer with 44 votes , ahead of Rioli on 37 .
= = = 2009 : First injury and Hawthorn 's premiership hangover = = =
In February 2009 , Rioli was selected for the Indigenous All @-@ Stars that played a pre @-@ season match against the Adelaide Football Club . Following his successful debut season and promising start to his second , he was compared to Gary Ablett Jr . , who also began his career as a small forward with the potential to become a " dominant , match @-@ winning midfielder " . This was due to the " sublime skills " he displays , and his " ability to make something out of nothing with vision and an instinct for the game . " Former footballer and journalist Garry Lyon said in an article for The Age , that when Rioli is ready to take on a greater workload in the midfield , will be determined by his physical and aerobic capacity . Rioli 's greatest challenge in the coming 12 months being to incorporate the " gut " running into his game that the likes of Ablett , Chris Judd , Lenny Hayes and Brett Kirk have mastered .
In May , journalist Mike Sheahan proclaimed that Rioli 's exploits on the field were being overlooked . He said whilst Hawthorn as a club was being analysed and dissected , Rioli wasn 't getting the recognition he deserved . According to Champion Data , only captain Sam Mitchell had been more effective for Hawthorn at this time in the year . Following 36 consecutive games after being drafted , Rioli tore his hamstring in round 11 2009 against the Sydney Swans . Missing his first regular season match in round 12 , he spent a month on the sidelines before returning against North Melbourne in round 15 . The Hawks were defeated in all three games he missed . His return was described as a " big boost " for Hawthorn 's last @-@ ditch bid to revive its season , after many commentators said the club was suffering a " premiership hangover " . Following his return , it was announced that Rioli had re @-@ signed with Hawthorn for a further three years . Hawthorn eventually faltered in the final round of the home and away season , losing to Essendon by 17 points . Thus , failing to qualify for the finals . Rioli 's season was however , still seen as impressive . In the AFL website 's end of year review , it was predicted that he will be considered an elite AFL player in the coming years .
Approaching the end of the 2009 season , Rioli bought his first apartment and declared his allegiance to spending his whole career with Hawthorn , he also revealed his intentions to help bring more players down from the Northern Territory ; " That 's the real goal for me , to get more kids drafted from the Northern Territory . " After Hawthorn 's demise in 2009 , Rioli gave his support to a project which aims to teach Indigenous people in remote areas about the damage drugs and alcohol can do to the brain . An image of him is used in flip charts developed by the Menzies School of Health Research as an example of a person with a healthy brain . Sheree Cairney , the lead researcher at Menzies School , says there is a lack of knowledge in remote communities about how to treat drug and alcohol addiction , with the problem being " very , very widespread . " At the end of 2009 , he was awarded the AFL Coaches Association award for Best Young Player , covering his first two years in football . He also received the Phil Manassa Medal ( Goal of the Year award ) for his round seven effort against Essendon , and came second in the Peter Crimmins Medal behind the club 's captain Sam Mitchell . When Rioli kicked the goal of the year , commentator Bruce McAvaney described him as a " delicious young footballer " and the description " delicious " has become strongly associated with both Rioli and McAvaney .
= = Personal life = =
Rioli married his childhood sweetheart , Shannyn Ah Sam , on 19 October 2014 at the George Brown Darwin Botanic Gardens .
= = Statistics = =
Statistics are correct to the end of the 2014 season
= = Honours and achievements = =
Team
AFL Premiership ( Hawthorn ) : 2008 , 2013 , 2014 , 2015
Individual
U / 18 All @-@ Australian : 2007
AFL Rising Star Award nominee , round 6 2008
AFL Goal of the Year nominee , round 6 2008
AFL Rising Star Award runner @-@ up : 2008
Peter Crimmins Medal ( Club best and fairest ) , sixth place , 2008
AFLCA Best Young Player 2009
AFL Goal of the Year Winner , round 7 2009
Peter Crimmins Medal , second place , 2009
Peter Crimmins Medal , fourth place , 2010
All @-@ Australian team : 2012 , 2015
Norm Smith Medal : 2015
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= David III of Tao =
David III Kuropalates ( Georgian : დავით III კუროპალატი , Davit ’ III Kuropalati ) or David III the Great ( დავით III დიდი , Davit ’ III Didi ) , also known as David II , ( c . 930s – 1000 or 1001 ) was a Georgian prince of the Bagratid family of Tao , a historic region in the Georgian – Armenian marchlands , from 966 until his murder in 1000 . Kuropalates was a Byzantine courtier title bestowed upon him in 978 and again in 990 .
David is best known for his crucial assistance to the Byzantine Macedonian dynasty in the 976 – 9 civil war and his unique role in the political unification of various Georgian polities as well as his patronage of Christian culture and learning . Between 987 and 989 , David joined his friend Bardas Phocas in a revolt against the Byzantine emperor Basil II , but was defeated and agreed to cede his lands to the empire on his death . Yet he was able to secure for his heir , Bagrat III , an opportunity to become the first ruler of a unified Georgian kingdom .
= = History = =
David was the younger son of Adarnase V , a representative of the Second House of Tao , a branch of the Kartli line of the Georgian Bagrationi ( Bagratid ) dynasty which held sway over Tao ( a province on the historic Georgian @-@ Armenian border known to the Armenians as Tayk ; now part of Turkey ) since the extinction of the original Tao line in the 940s .
= = = Alliance with the Byzantine Empire = = =
He succeeded his brother , Bagrat II , as a duke of Tao in 966 , and through his expansionist policy and flexible diplomacy began assembling a larger state . In order to enact his ambitious plans , David had to secure his independence from the Byzantine Empire , which would reach its greatest height under the emperor Basil II ( r . 976 @-@ 1025 ) .
The Byzantines ' eastern neighbors – the fragmented Armenian and Georgian principalities – rarely threatened the empire directly , but were of particular interest to Constantinople as they controlled strategic international trade routes that ran through their domains . The Byzantines had already annexed the Armenian principalities of Taron ( 966 ) and Manzikert ( 968 ) and posed a potential danger to the constellation of several Georgian Bagratid principalities known as Tao @-@ Klarjeti . However , the integrity of the empire itself was under serious threat after a full @-@ scale rebellion , led by Bardas Skleros , broke out in 976 . Following a series of successful battles the rebels swept across Asia Minor and threatened Constantinople itself . In the urgency of a situation , the young emperor Basil requested aid from David of Tao , who promptly responded and sent 12 @,@ 000 first @-@ rate cavalry troops under the command of Tornikios to reinforce the recently defeated loyal Byzantine general Bardas Phokas , thereby contributing to the decisive loyalist victory at the Battle of Pankalia near Caesarea on 24 March 979 .
David 's reward was the lifetime rule of key imperial territories in eastern Asia Minor , known to the contemporary Georgian sources as the " Upper Lands of Greece " ( ზემონი ქუეყანანი საბერძნეთისანი ) , consisting chiefly of northwestern Armenian lands : the city of Theodosiopolis or Karin ( Geo . Karnu @-@ kalaki , present @-@ day Erzurum , Turkey ) , Phasiane , Hark ( now Muş Province ) , Apahunik , Mardali ( Mardaghi ) , Khaldoyarich , and Chormayri . On this occasion , he was granted the high Byzantine court title of kouropalates . Basil II also rewarded the valor of David ’ s commander Tornikios by funding a Georgian Orthodox monastery on Mount Athos . Although populated now chiefly with Greek monks , it is to this day known as Iviron , " of the Iberians ( i.e. Georgians ) " .
These formidable acquisitions made David the most influential ruler in the Caucasus , enabling him to interfere in and arbitrate dynastic disputes in both Georgia and Armenia . The medieval Georgian authors call him " greatest of all the kings of Tao " and the eleventh @-@ century Armenian chronicler Aristakes Lastivertsi describes him as :
a mighty man , a builder of the world , very honorable , a lover of the poor , indeed , the definition of peace . For in his day it was as the prophecy states : everyone reposed under his vine and his fig tree .
Being in control of highly important commercial centers , his principality profited from taxing the major trading routes running through southwestern Caucasus and eastern Anatolia . David invested these revenues in extensive building projects : constructing towns , forts and churches , and promoting Georgian monastic communities and cultural activities both in Georgia and abroad .
= = = Issue of succession = = =
Having no children of his own , David adopted his kinsman , the young prince Bagrat , heir to the Bagratid throne of Kartli ( Iberia ) . He did so at the request of the energetic Georgian nobleman Iovane Marushis @-@ dze . Through his fortunate bloodlines Bagrat was destined to sit upon two thrones . Furthermore , through his mother Gurandukht , sister of the childless Abkhazian king Theodosius III , Bagrat was a potential heir to the realm of Abkhazia . Making a plan for the creation of an all @-@ Georgian state , David occupied Kartli for his foster @-@ son in 976 and repulsed the troops from the easternmost Georgian kingdom of Kakheti , which had recently occupied the western sector of Kartli with its rock @-@ hewn city of Uplistsikhe . Two years later , in 978 , David and Marushis @-@ dze secured the crown of Abkhazia for Bagrat by displacing Theodosius III .
David ’ s good fortunes changed in 987 when he , anxious to make his extensive possessions a hereditary Bagratid domain , joined his long @-@ time friend Bardas Phokas in a rebellion against the emperor Basil . Once the rebels were defeated by the Byzantine @-@ Rus ' forces in 989 , Basil dispatched a strong force under John of Chaldea to punish the Georgians , and David had to submit . Reconciled with the emperor , he was granted , in c . 990 , the title of kuropalates again in return for his promise that upon his death the lands previously placed under his sovereignty would revert to the Byzantine Empire .
Another problem arose around the same year , when Bagrat of Abkhazia planned a punitive expedition against the non @-@ submissive duke Rati of Kldekari in Lower Kartli . Persuaded that his foster @-@ son intended to attack Tao and kill him , David crushed the army led by Bagrat ’ s natural father Gurgen on its march to Kldekari . As a medieval Georgian chronicler relates :
Bagrat then went [ to David ] alone , fell at his feet and swore that he was going against Rati . [ David ] believed that too and released him in peace .
= = = Last years and death = = =
After the reconciliation with the emperor and his kinsmen , David led a series of successful raids against the Muslim emirates of Lake Van and Azerbaijan . Bagrat II of Georgia ( grandfather of Bagrat , David ’ s adoptee ) , and Gagik I of Armenia allied themselves with David , who recaptured Manzikert from the Marwanid emir of Diyar Bakr about 993 and raided Akhlat , another important stronghold of this Kurdish dynasty , in 997 . Mamlan , the Rawadid emir of Azerbaijan , was also twice defeated , the second time decisively , in 998 , near Archesh .
David was murdered by his nobles early in 1000 . According to Aristakes :
They had mixed poison into the communion on Good Thursday , and had given it to him [ Dawit ' ] to drink , causing that venerable man to choke to death . [ This was ] because they had wearied of him , and were interested in promises [ made to them ] earlier by the emperor .
Although the Georgian Chronicles maintain that David died in 1001 , several Armenian and Muslim accounts suggest he may have died in 1000 . Aristakes gives the date of David ’ s death as March 28 , 1000 , which is closely corroborated by another Armenian chronicler Asoghik who says David died on the Easter day of the year 449 of the Armenian calendar , i.e. , March 31 , 1000 . Yet another Armenian , Samuel Anetsi , also puts the date as 1000 .
= = = Wars of the Kuropalates ’ succession = = =
Basil II was at that time in the eastern provinces of his empire , wintering on the plain of Tarsus following his campaign against the Fatimid dynasty in Syria . On hearing of David ’ s death he marched north @-@ eastward to claim the lands David had promised to the emperor . The local Georgian and Armenian nobility submitted without any serious resistance . The only notable incident occurred when a quarrel between a Georgian soldier and a Varangian Guardsman over a bale of hay developed into a major fight , involving 6 @,@ 000 Varangians and taking the lives of thirty Georgian high @-@ ranking nobles .
King Bagrat , David ’ s foster @-@ son , met with Basil but , unable to prevent the annexation of David ’ s realm , had to recognize the new borders in reward of the imperial title of kouropalates . Despite this setback , Bagrat was able to become the first king of an all @-@ Georgian unified monarchy , a result made possible largely by the efforts of David of Tao , who , as the modern scholar Stephen Rapp puts in , " appropriately ranks high on any ' Top Ten ' list of Georgian history . "
There is some disagreement among modern scholars on whether David ceded to the Byzantines only those lands which had been granted to him as a reward for his assistance against the rebel Bardas Skleros , or if it had been the whole of his principality that was acquired by Basil II . As the former was endowed upon David for lifetime stewardship , it would be more reasonable to assume that he conceded his entire realm , i.e. , Thither Tao / Tayk and the adjacent Armenian counties up to Lake Van . Whatever the extent of David ’ s domain , the Georgian kings would not so easily reconcile with the loss of those territories , leading to a series of conflicts with the Byzantine Empire in the eleventh century .
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= Siege of Nicaea ( 727 ) =
The Siege of Nicaea of 727 was an unsuccessful attempt by the Umayyad Caliphate to capture the Byzantine city of Nicaea , the capital of the Opsician Theme . Ever since its failure to capture the Byzantine Empire 's capital , Constantinople , in 717 – 718 , the Caliphate had launched a series of raids into Byzantine Asia Minor . In 727 , the Arab army , led by one of the Caliph 's sons , penetrated deep into Asia Minor , sacked two Byzantine fortresses and in late July arrived before Nicaea . Despite constant attacks for 40 days , the city held firm and the Arabs withdrew and returned to the Caliphate . The successful repulsion of the attack was a major boost for Byzantine emperor Leo III the Isaurian 's recently initiated campaign to abolish the veneration of icons in the Empire ; Leo claimed it as evidence of divine favour for his policy . The siege of Nicaea marks also the high point of the Umayyad raids , as new threats and defeats on their far @-@ flung frontiers diverted Umayyad strength elsewhere , while Byzantine power gradually recovered .
= = Background = =
Following the failure of the year @-@ long assault by the Umayyad armies on the Byzantine capital Constantinople in 717 – 718 , a short period of peace followed as the Umayyads licked their wounds , suppressed the rebellion of Yazid ibn al @-@ Muhallab and re @-@ assessed their priorities . When warfare on the Arab – Byzantine frontier recommenced in 720 , the strategic focus of the Caliphate had shifted away from outright conquest . The Muslim raids across the Taurus Mountains into Byzantine Asia Minor still occurred regularly every spring and summer , sometimes accompanied by naval raids and followed by a winter expedition ; they devastated large tracts of Asia Minor , and destroyed several fortresses ; but the Arabs did not attempt to hold on to captured strongholds on the west side of the Taurus Mountains . Byzantine reaction during these years was passive , as the Empire still nursed its strength against the vastly superior resources of the Caliphate . The Byzantines did not obstruct or confront the raiding Arab armies , but rather retreated to well @-@ fortified positions scattered throughout Asia Minor .
After the accession of Caliph Hisham ( r . 723 – 743 ) , the scale and ambition of the Muslim raids grew . One of the most prominent Umayyad leaders in these campaigns was Hisham 's son Mu 'awiya , who led expeditions in 725 and 726 , the first of which went as far west as Dorylaion .
= = Invasion of 727 and the siege of Nicaea = =
In summer 727 , another large @-@ scale invasion was led by Mu 'awiya , with Abdallah al @-@ Battal heading the vanguard of the army . The Byzantine chronicler Theophanes the Confessor claims that the vanguard alone numbered 15 @,@ 000 men and the entire invasion force 100 @,@ 000 , clearly a grossly inflated number . Theophanes also records a certain Amr as Mu 'awiya 's second @-@ in @-@ command , but Arab sources are unambiguous in this regard . The Arab army moved west into northwestern Asia Minor , and the vanguard under al @-@ Battal attacked and sacked the town of Gangra in Paphlagonia and a place called in Arab sources Tabya , possibly the fort of Ateous in Phrygia . Gangra was razed to the ground , but during the attack on Tabya the Arabs , especially the Antiochene contingent , are said to have suffered heavy losses .
From there , the Arabs turned west towards Nicaea , the chief city of Bithynia and capital of the powerful Opsician Theme . The Arabs arrived before the city in late July , with al @-@ Battal 's vanguard preceding the main army . The Byzantines , probably under the command of the Count of the Opsicians , Artabasdos , did not meet them in the field , but instead retreated behind the city 's walls . The Arabs assaulted the city for forty days , employing siege engines which destroyed a part of the walls , but eventually failed to take it . In late August , they raised the siege and departed , taking along many captives and much booty . The 12th @-@ century chronicle of Michael the Syrian claims that the city 's inhabitants abandoned it and fled by ship through Lake Ascania , whereupon the Arabs destroyed Nicaea , but this is clearly an error .
= = Aftermath = =
The repulsion of the Arab assault on Nicaea was an important success for the Byzantines . Emperor Leo III the Isaurian ( r . 717 – 741 ) regarded the city 's survival as a sign of divine favour towards his newly instituted iconoclastic policies , and was encouraged to drive them further . This is probably related to an incident mentioned in the account of Theophanes , where a certain Constantine , who served as a groom ( strator ) to Artabasdos , threw a stone on an icon of the Virgin Mary and then trampled on it . The soldier was killed the next day by a catapult , a fact which Theophanes reports as evidence of divine vengeance . However , this passage shows strong signs of tampering by the fervently anti @-@ iconoclast Theophanes , from what was probably originally a pro @-@ iconoclast story .
Militarily , the siege of Nicaea was the high @-@ water @-@ mark of the post @-@ 718 Umayyad raids ; never again would Umayyad armies penetrate as deeply into Asia Minor . Increasingly thereafter the Syro @-@ Jaziran army , that provided the manpower for the raids against Byzantium , was diverted in the hard and fruitless wars against the Khazars in the Caucasus : the Khazars inflicted a heavy defeat on the Muslims in 730 , and a Byzantine – Khazar alliance was sealed by the marriage of Leo III 's son and heir Constantine V ( r . 741 – 775 ) with the Khazar princess Irene shortly after . Over the next few years , while Byzantine strength revived , the Muslim military situation on all fronts of the over @-@ extended Caliphate deteriorated . Consequently , in the 730s , Arab raids were mostly limited to the immediate frontier regions and their successes became fewer . By 740 , when the Umayyads assembled the largest invasion force fielded after 718 , the Byzantines had recovered enough to inflict a heavy defeat against them at the Battle of Akroinon .
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= Walls of Dubrovnik =
The Walls of Dubrovnik ( Croatian : Dubrovačke gradske zidine ) are a series of defensive stone walls that have surrounded and protected the citizens of the afterward proclaimed maritime city @-@ state of Dubrovnik ( Ragusa ) , situated in southern Croatia , since the city 's founding prior to the 7th century as a Byzantium castrum on a rocky island named Laus ( Ragusia or Lave ) . With numerous additions and modifications throughout their history , they have been considered to be amongst the great fortification systems of the Middle Ages , as they were never breached by a hostile army during this time period . In 1979 , the old city of Dubrovnik , which includes a substantial portion of the old walls of Dubrovnik , joined the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites .
The oldest systems of fortifications around the town were likely wooden palisades . Today 's intact city walls , constructed mainly during the 12th – 17th centuries , mostly a double line , have long been a source of pride for Dubrovnik . The walls run an uninterrupted course of approximately 1 @,@ 940 metres ( 6 @,@ 360 ft ) in length , encircling most of the old city , and reach a maximum height of about 25 metres ( 82 ft ) . The bulk of the existing walls and fortifications were constructed during the 14th and 15th centuries , but were continually extended and strengthened up until the 17th century .
This complex structure , amongst the largest and most complete in Europe , protected the freedom and safety of a " civilised " and " sophisticated " republic that flourished in peace and prosperity for some five centuries . The walls were reinforced by three circular and 14 quadrangular towers , five bastions ( bulwarks ) , two angular fortifications and the large St. John 's Fortress . Land walls were additionally reinforced by one larger bastion and nine smaller semicircular ones , like the casemate Fort Bokar , the oldest preserved fort of that kind in Europe . The moat that ran around the outside section of the city walls , which were armed by more than 120 cannons , provided superb city defense capabilities .
= = Former city walls = =
The construction of the first limestone forts around the city began in the Early Middle Ages , towards the end of the 8th century . But , the " old chronicles " say that some sort of castle reliably existed on the Lave peninsula quite a long time prior to that . It is certain that the early town on Laus Island was also surrounded by defensive walls , probably mainly by wooden palisades . The fact that Dubrovnik managed to survive a fifteen @-@ month @-@ long invasion by the Saracens in the 9th century proves how well the city was fortified .
The city first spread towards the uninhabited eastern part of the islet , which explains why the current name for the southeast part of the city , near St. John 's Fortress , is called Pustijerna . The name " Pustijerna " comes from the Latin statement " post terra " , which means " outside the town " . In the 9th and 10th centuries , the defensive wall enclosed the eastern portion of the city . When the sea channel separating the city from mainland was filled with earth in the 11th century , the city merged with the settlement on land , and soon , a single wall was built around the area of the present @-@ day city core .
During this same time period , Dubrovnik and the surrounding area were described as a part of the Croatian ( Grwasiah ) entity , in one of the works by the famous Arab geographer Muhammad al @-@ Idrisi . In his book Nuzhat al @-@ Mushataq fi ikhtiraq al @-@ afaq ( English : Joy for those who wish to sail over the world ) from 1154 , he mentioned Dubrovnik as the southernmost city of " the country of Croatia and Dalmatia " .
The basic city plan dates from 1292 , when the port was rebuilt following a fire . The whole city was entirely enclosed in the 13th century , except for the Dominican monastery , which came under its protection later on , during the 14th century .
= = Modern @-@ day city walls = =
The city walls have been preserved to the present day , not only because of the knowledge of the skilled construction workers and the constant care provided by city dwellers that maintained and rebuilt the structures as needed , but also because of the brilliantly reputed diplomacy in Ragusa , which managed on many occasions to avoid dangerous measures taken by enemies against the Republic of Ragusa .
The present shape of the walls was defined in the 14th century after the city gained its full independence from Venetian suzerainty , but the peak of its construction lasted from the beginning of the 15th century until the latter half of the 16th century . Being constructed very solidly , the walls were generally unaffected by a strong earthquake occurring in 1667 . The largest stimulus for continued development and emergency repairs and works of the Ragusan fortresses came as a result of the danger of unexpected attack by Turkish military forces , especially after they conquered Constantinople in 1453 . The city was also under latent danger of attack by the Venetians . For centuries the people of Dubrovnik were able to preserve their city @-@ republic by skillful maneuvering between East and West . A strategic treaty with Turkey protracted Ragusa ’ s liberty and maintained the opportunity for a major trading role between the Ottoman Empire and Europe .
The irregular parallelogram surrounding Dubrovnik consists of four strong fortresses at its most significant points . To the north is the strong circular Minčeta Tower , and to the east side of the city port is the Revelin Fortress . The western city entrance is protected by the strong and nicely @-@ shaped Fort Bokar , and the strong , freestanding , St. Lawrence Fortress ( also known as Lovrijenac ) , protects the western side of the city from possible land and sea assaults . The large and complex St. John Fortress is located on the southeast side of the city .
= = = Land Walls = = =
The main wall on the landside is 4 metres ( 13 ft ) to 6 metres ( 20 ft ) thick , and , at certain locations , the walls reach up to 25 meters ( 80 feet ) in height . The land walls stretch from Fort Bokar in the west to the detached Revelin Fortress in the east . On the landside , the wall is protected with an additional range of slanted supporting walls as defense against artillery fire , especially against possible Ottoman attacks .
= = = = Gates = = = =
The town has four city gates : two that lead to the harbor and two ( with drawbridges ) that lead to the mainland . During the time period when the Austrian Empire controlled the city , two more gates were opened in the wall .
Communication with the outside world on the land side was maintained with the city through two main well @-@ protected city gates , one placed on the western side of the city and the other placed on the eastern side . These entrances were constructed so that communications with the city could not be carried out directly ; the messenger had to enter through multiple doors and walk down a winding passageway , which is evidence of the security measures taken as a last defense against the possibility of a surprise breach or entrance of unexpected visitors .
= = = = = Gate of Pile = = = = =
The Pile Gates are a well @-@ fortified complex with multiple doors , defended by Fort Bokar and the moat that ran around the outside section of the city walls . At the entrance gate to the Old Town , on the western side of the land walls , there is a stone bridge between two Gothic arches , which were designed by the esteemed architect Paskoje Miličević in 1471 . That bridge connects to another bridge , a wooden drawbridge which can be pulled up . During the republican era , the wooden drawbridge to the Pile Gate was hoisted each night with considerable pomp in a ceremony which delivered the city 's keys to the Ragusan rector . Today , it spans a dry moat whose garden offers respite from crowds . Above the bridges , over the arch of town 's principal gateway , there is a statue of city patron Saint Blaise ( Croatian : Sveti Vlaho ) , with a model of the Renaissance city . After passing the Pile Gate 's original Gothic inner gateway , it is possible to reach one of a three access points to the city walls .
= = = = = Gate of Ploče = = = = =
On the eastern side of the land walls stands the second major entrance to the city , the Gate of Ploče . This gate is protected by the freestanding Revelin Fortress , which are connected by a wooden drawbridge and a twin @-@ spanned stone bridge spanning a protective ditch . The Outer Gate of Ploče was designed and constructed by architect Mihajlo Hranjac in 1628 , while the two bridges to the Revelin Fortress were built in the 15th century by Paskoje Miličević . Miličević was also designed the Pile Gate bridges , which explains the similarities between the bridges . Over the bridge , just like with the Gate of Pile , there is the statue of Saint Blaise , the patron saint of Dubrovnik .
= = = = = Gate of Buža = = = = =
The Gate of Buža ( meaning " hole " ) is located on the northern side of the land walls . This gate is relatively new compared to the other gates , as it was constructed during the early 1900s .
= = = Sea Walls = = =
The main wall on the sea @-@ facing side of Dubrovnik stretches from Fort Bokar in the west to St. John Fortress in the south , and to the Revelin Fortress on the land @-@ side . These walls are 1 @.@ 5 to 5 meters ( 5 – 16 feet ) thick , depending on their location and its strategic importance . The purpose of these walls were to help defend the city from sea @-@ based attacks , particularly from the Republic of Venice , which was often considered a threat to Dubrovnik 's safety .
= = = = City Harbour = = = =
One of the oldest sectors of Dubrovnik was constructed around a Late Antique castle by the sea , which stretched landwards a bit more than it does today . It was constructed on the site of the Pre @-@ Romanesque cathedral and the Rector 's Palace , thus encircling the city 's harbour . The harbour was designed and constructed by engineer Paskoje Miličević in the late 15th century . Notably , the harbour was noticeably painted on the palm of St. Blaise in a triptych painted by the artist Nikola Božidarević around 1500 .
The most prominent portion of the harbour is the three enormous arches ( the fourth original arch was walled in ) of a large arsenal built in the late 12th century and enlarged in the latter part 15th century . The harbour is also the oldest shipyard within the city and is still in use today .
Porporela was built in 1873 , next to St. John Fortress . The Kase jetty ( Kaše Breakwater ) was built in 1485 , according to the design of Paskoje Miličević , in order to defend the harbour and protect it from south @-@ eastern winds and waves . The breakwater thus shortened the harbour 's bulky chain stretched in the night from the St. John Fortress to St. Luke 's tower . It was constructed of huge stone blocks laid over wooden foundations without binder .
Today , the arsenal hosts the City Café and a movie theatre , whereas both the harbour and Porporela have become pleasant promenades and tourist attractions .
= = = = Gates = = = =
In the city port area , one of the most significant areas of the maritime trade city , there were two entrances : the Gate of Ponte ( port ) and the Fishmarket Gate . The entire layout of the Dubrovnik streets , as well as a range of expansions , was intended for fast and effective communication with the forts of the city walls .
= = = = = Gate of Ponte = = = = =
Constructed in 1476 , the Gate of Ponte is situated westwards from the Great Arsenal . The city wall , built at the same period , leads from the Gate to St. John Fortress . The present @-@ day street of Damjan Juda was formed in the 15th century when the sewage system was completed , and building houses against the western city wall was no longer allowed .
= = = = = The Fishmarket Gate = = = = =
The Fishmarket Gate , built in 1381 , stands eastward from the Great Arsenal . The three arches of the 15th century Small Arsenal , where small boats were repaired , are situated a bit further . The old tower of St. Luke 's protects the harbour in the east , and the harbour entrance is encircled and guarded by the Revelin Fortress .
= = Forts = =
= = = Forts within walls = = =
The fall of Constantinople in 1453 to the Ottomans was a clear sign to the cautious citizens of Dubrovnik that ample defensive measures were quickly needed , the strengthening of its defensive structures the foremost of the issues . The fall of Bosnia , which followed soon in 1463 , only hastened the works . As a result , the Republic invited the architect Michelozzo di Bartolomeo of Florence to direct the improvement of the city 's defenses . His work in Dubrovnik resulted in the construction and expansion of numerous buildings of key importance for the defense of Dubrovnik .
= = = = Minčeta Tower = = = =
The Minčeta Tower was built by a local builder named Nicifor Ranjina and Italian engineers sent by Pope Pius II in 1463 , at the height of the Turkish threat . Originally as a strong four @-@ sided fort , it is the most prominent point in the defensive system towards the land . The tower 's name derives from the name of the Menčetić family , who owned the ground upon which the tower was built . By its height and impressive volume , the tower dominates the northwestern high part of the city and its walls . In the middle of the 15th century , around the earlier quadrilateral fort , Michelozzo built a new round tower using new warfare technique and joined it to the new system of low scarp walls . The full six @-@ meter ( 20 feet ) thick walls of the new tower had a series of protected gun ports . The architect and sculptor Giorgio da Sebenico of Zadar continued the work on the Minčeta tower . He designed and built the high narrow round tower while the battlements are a later addition . The tower was completed in 1464 and became the symbol of the unconquerable city of Dubrovnik .
After a long excavation , a 16th @-@ century cannon foundry was discovered under Minčeta Tower in Gornji ugao ( Upper Tower ) . It is now a museum .
Since Minčeta Tower is the highest point of the wall , it is considered to offer a seemingly " unforgettable " view on the city .
= = = = Fort Bokar = = = =
The Fort Bokar , often called " Zvjezdan " , is considered to be amongst the most beautiful instances of harmonious and functional fortification architecture . Built as a two @-@ story casemate fortress by Michelozzo from 1461 to 1463 , while the city walls were being reconstructed , it stands in front of the medieval wall face protruding into space almost with its whole cylindrical volume . It was conceived as the key point in the defense of the Pila Gate , the western fortified entrance of the city ; and after the Minčeta Tower , it is the second key point in the defense of the western land approach to the city . It is said to be the oldest casemented fortress in Europe , which contains a small lapidary collection and numerous cannons .
= = = = St. John Fortress = = = =
The St. John Fortress ( Croatian : Sveti Ivan ) , often called Mulo Tower , is a complex monumental building on the southeastern side of the old city port , controlling and protecting its entrance . The first fort was built in the mid 14th century , but it was modified on several occasions in the course of the 15th and 16th centuries , which can be seen in the triptych made by the painter Nikola Božidarević in the Dominican monastery . The painting shows Saint Blaise , the patron saint of Dubrovnik . Dominant in the port ambiance , the St. John Fortress prevented access of pirates and other enemy ships . Always cautious at the first sign of danger , the inhabitants of Dubrovnik used to close the entry into the port with heavy chains stretched between the St. John Fortress and the Kase jetty , and they also used to wall up all the port entries to the Great Arsenal .
Today , the fortress houses an aquarium on the ground floor , stocked with fishes from various parts of the Adriatic Sea . On the upper floors there is an ethnographic and a maritime museum devoted to the Republic Maritime Period , the Age of Steam , the Second World War , and the section of techniques of sailing and navigation .
= = = Detached forts = = =
= = = = Revelin Fortress = = = =
In the period of unmistakable Turkish danger and the fall of Bosnia under Turkish rule , a detached fortress providing additional protection to the land approach to the eastern Ploče Gate was built to the east of the city in 1462 . The name Revelin derives from rivelino ( ravelin ) , a term in military architecture which refers to work built opposite the city gate in order to afford better protection from enemy attack . Danger of Venetian assault suddenly increased in the times of the First Holy League , and it was necessary to strengthen this vulnerable point of the city fortifications . The Senate hired Antonio Ferramolino , an experienced builder of fortresses in the service of the Spanish admiral Doria , a trusted friend of the Republic . In 1538 the Senate approved his drawings of the new , much stronger Revelin Fortress . It took 11 years to build it , and during that time all other construction work in the city had stopped in order to finish this fortress as soon as possible .
The new Revelin became the strongest of the city fortresses , safeguarding the eastern land approach to the city . Shaped in the form of an irregular quadrilateral with one of its sides descending towards the sea , it is protected by a deep ditch on the other . One bridge crosses the protective ditch and connects it to the Ploče Gate , while another bridge connects it to the eastern suburb . The construction work was executed so perfectly so that the devastating earthquake of 1667 did not damage Revelin . Divided into three large vaulted rooms in its interior , Revelin became the administrative center of the Republic .
= = = = St. Lawrence Fortress = = = =
St. Lawrence Fortress ( Croatian : Lovrijenac ) , often called Dubrovnik 's Gibraltar , is located outside the western city walls , 37 metres ( 121 ft ) above sea level . The fortress has a quadrilateral court with mighty arches and , as its height is uneven , it has 3 terraces with powerful parapets with the broadest one looking south towards the sea . Lovrijenac was defended with 10 large cannons , being the largest and most famous called " Lizard " ( Croatian : Gušter ) . The walls exposed to enemy fire are almost 12 meters ( 39 feet ) thick , but the large wall surface facing the city does not exceed 60 centimetres ( 2 feet ) . Two drawbridges lead to the fort , there being the inscription " Non Bene Pro Toto Libertas Venditur Auro " – " Freedom is not to be sold for all the treasures in the world . " above the gate . To ensure loyalty , the troops in St. Lawrence Fortress were rotated every 30 days . And to ensure complete loyalty , they were given only 30 days of rations when they went into the fort . According to old scripts it was built in only three months .
Today its interior is one of the most dignified stages in Europe , and a well @-@ known place for William Shakespeare 's Hamlet performances .
= = Fortifications around Dubrovnik = =
= = = Walls of Ston = = =
The Walls of Ston are originally a series of defensive stone walls of more than 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) long . Despite its small size , the well protected Republic of Ragusa decided to use Pelješac to build another line of defense . At Pelješac 's narrowest point , just before joining the mainland , a wall from Ston to Mali Ston was built .
Today 's 5 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) long wall that links these two small communities has the shape of a pentagon . It was completed in the 15th century along with other 40 towers and 5 fortresses . The " wall " meant protection to the precious salt pans that greatly contributed to Dubrovnik 's wealth , which are still being worked today . It is the second longest wall in Europe , surpassed only by the Hadrian 's Wall between Scotland and England .
= = = Falcon Fortress = = =
The Falcon Fortress ( Croatian : Soko Grad ) was one of the largest and most important fortresses on the territory of the Republic of Ragusa , due to its position in the mountainous region near the Bosnian inland . It was built at the location of earlier Illyrian and later Roman fortifications , evident from the remains of ceramics and Roman bricks in its walls . In 1391 , the Sanković brothers , at that time the rulers of Konavle , gave to the Republic of Rag full authority over the Falcon Fortress , while it came under republic 's final possession only in 1423 .
Due to its strategic importance , the Republic of Ragusa constantly invested in the maintenance of the fortress , which contained a cistern , a powder storage , wine and food cellars , sentry @-@ boxes , military barracks , and sanctuary buildings to accommodate refugees from nearby villages in the event of war .
= = = Imperial Fortress = = =
The Fortress is placed at the top of the mountain Srđ , just above the city of Dubrovnik . It was built in 1806 by Marshal Marmont , called the Imperial , in honor of emperor Napoleon . The fortress was strategically important to defend the northern side of the city .
= = = Prevlaka Fortress = = =
This fortress is placed at Ponta Oštro , at the very end of Prevlaka peninsula . It was built in the mid @-@ 19th century , between 1856 and 1862 , as part of the fortification system of the Bay of Kotor at the time of the Austrian Empire . By its monumentality and unique structure , it presents an exceptional example of military architecture of its time . Today , the fortress is out of use and badly damaged by various destructions during history .
= = City walls during sieges = =
= = = Saracen siege in 866 – 867 = = =
In 866 , a major Arab raid along Dalmatia struck Budva and Kotor , and then laid siege to Dubrovnik in 867 . The city appealed to Byzantine Emperor Basil the Macedonian , who responded by sending over one hundred ships . Finally , the 866 – 867 Saracens ' siege of Dubrovnik , which lasted fifteen months , was raised due to the intervention of Basil I , who sent a fleet under the command of Niketas Oryphas in relief of the city . After this successful intervention , the Byzantine navy sailed along the coast collecting promises of loyalty to the empire from the Dalmatian cities . The damage done by Saracens is not known , but the fact that Dubrovnik managed to survive a fifteen @-@ month @-@ long siege , proves how well the city was fortified .
= = = Venetian siege in 948 = = =
With the weakening of Byzantium , Venice began to see Ragusa as a rival who needed to be brought under her control , but the attempt to conquer the city in 948 failed . The citizens of the city attributed this to Saint Blaise , whom they adopted as the patron saint of the city .
= = = Nemanja 's siege in 1185 = = =
After some territorial disputes , war broke out between Stefan Nemanja , Grand prince of Raška , and the city of Dubrovnik , at that time under Norman suzerainty . In 1185 , Nemanja attacked the city and laid siege to it , but a Ragusan counter @-@ attack drove Nemanja 's forces back . According to chronicles from Dubrovnik , which are accepted by most historians , the siege ultimately failed . How much help Dubrovnik received from the Normans while repelling the siege is also not known exactly .
= = = Venetian and Fourth Crusades siege in 1205 = = =
In 1205 , the Republic of Venice invaded Dalmatia with the forces of the Fourth Crusade . Ragusa was forced to pay a tribute , eventually becoming a source of supplies for Venice , thus saving itself from being sacked like Zadar in the Siege of Zara , used as Venice 's naval base in the southern Adriatic Sea . In the 14th century , after liberation from Venetian supremacy , extensive work was done on the walls to ensure the republic 's liberty .
= = = Siege by Stjepan Vukčić Kosača in 1451 = = =
In 1451 , the very powerful Bosnian regional lord Herzeg Stjepan Vukčić Kosača attacked Dubrovnik , and laid siege to the city . He had earlier been made a Ragusan nobleman and , consequently , the Ragusan government now proclaimed him a traitor . A reward of 15 @,@ 000 ducats , a palace in Dubrovnik worth 2 @,@ 000 ducats , and an annual income of 300 ducats was offered to anyone who would kill him , along with the promise of hereditary Ragusan nobility which also helped hold this promise to whoever did the deed . Stjepan was so scared by the threat that he finally raised the siege .
= = = Russian siege in 1806 = = =
By 1800 , the Republic had a highly organized network of consulates and consular offices in more than eighty cities and ports around the world . In 1806 , the Republic surrendered to the forces of the First French Empire to end a months @-@ long siege by the Russian and Montenegrin fleet during which 3 @,@ 000 cannonballs fell on the city . The French lifted the siege and Ragusa was saved . The French army , led by Napoleon Bonaparte , entered Dubrovnik in 1806 . In 1808 , Marshal Auguste de Marmont abolished the Republic of Ragusa and amalgamated its territory into the French Illyrian Provinces , himself becoming the " Duke of Ragusa " ( Duc de Raguse ) .
= = = Anglo @-@ Austrian siege in 1814 = = =
Austria declared war on France in August 1813 and by the Autumn the Royal Navy enjoyed unopposed domination over the Adriatic sea . Working in conjunction with the Austrian armies now invading the Illyrian Provinces and Northern Italy Rear Admiral Thomas Fremantle 's ships were able to rapidly transport British and Austrian troops from one point to another , forcing the surrender of the strategic ports one after another December . Captain William Hoste with his ship HMS Bacchante ( 38 guns ) along with HMS Saracen an 18 gun brig , arrived at Ragusa already blockaded by Pro Austrian Croat forces led by Todor Milutinović . The British with the Austrians were able to take the Imperial fortress and positions on Lokrum island . By hauling cannon up to Srđ hill they bombarded the city until the French General Joseph de Montrichard decided it was best to surrender . British and Croat troops entered the city via the Pile gates shutting the Ragusan rebels out .
= = = Yugoslav army siege in 1991 – 1992 = = =
The Siege of Dubrovnik ( Croatian : Opsada Dubrovnika ) is a term marking the battle and siege of the city of Dubrovnik and the surrounding area in Croatia as part of the Croatian War of Independence . Dubrovnik was besieged and attacked by forces of the Serb @-@ dominated Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) in late 1991 , with the major fighting ending in early 1992 , and the Croatian counterattack finally lifting the siege and liberating the area in mid @-@ 1992 . At the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) , the prosecution alleged that , " It was the objective of the Serb forces to detach this area from Croatia and to annex it to Montenegro . "
In 1991 , the American Institute of Architects condemned the bombardment of the city 's buildings . The Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments , in conjunction with UNESCO , found that , of the 824 buildings in the Old Town , 563 ( or 68 @.@ 33 percent ) had been hit by projectiles during the siege . Of these 563 , nine buildings had been completely destroyed by one of several major fires that occurred during the siege . In 1993 , the Institute for the Rehabilitation of Dubrovnik and UNESCO estimated the total cost for restoring public , private , and religious buildings , streets , squares , fountains , ramparts , gates , and bridges at $ 9 @,@ 657 @,@ 578 . By the end of 1999 , over $ 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 had been spent on restoration . It is a testament to the resilience of the ancient walls that more buildings in the old town were not destroyed during the bombardment ; the ancient walls in fact were more effective at resisting modern weaponry than contemporary structures in the city 's periphery .
= = Main sources = =
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= Cubeb =
Cubeb ( Piper cubeba ) , or tailed pepper is a plant in genus Piper , cultivated for its fruit and essential oil . It is mostly grown in Java and Sumatra , hence sometimes called Java pepper . The fruits are gathered before they are ripe , and carefully dried . Commercial cubebs consist of the dried berries , similar in appearance to black pepper , but with stalks attached – the " tails " in " tailed pepper " . The dried pericarp is wrinkled , and its color ranges from grayish @-@ brown to black . The seed is hard , white and oily . The odor of cubebs is described as agreeable and aromatic and the taste as pungent , acrid , slightly bitter and persistent . It has been described as tasting like allspice , or like a cross between allspice and black pepper .
Cubeb came to Europe via India through the trade with the Arabs . The name cubeb comes from Arabic kabāba ( كبابة ) , which is of unknown origin , by way of Old French quibibes . Cubeb is mentioned in alchemical writings by its Arabic name . In his Theatrum Botanicum , John Parkinson tells that the king of Portugal prohibited the sale of cubeb to promote black pepper ( Piper nigrum ) around 1640 . It experienced a brief resurgence in 19th @-@ century Europe for medicinal uses , but has practically vanished from the European market since . It continues to be used as a flavoring agent for gins and cigarettes in the West , and as a seasoning for food in Indonesia .
= = History = =
In the fourth century BC , Theophrastus mentioned komakon , including it with cinnamon and cassia as an ingredient in aromatic confections . Guillaume Budé and Claudius Salmasius have identified komakon with cubeb , probably due to the resemblance which the word bears to the Javanese name of cubeb , kumukus . This is seen as a curious evidence of Greek trade with Java in a time earlier than that of Theophrastus . It is unlikely Greeks acquired them from somewhere else , since Javanese growers protected their monopoly of the trade by sterilizing the berries by scalding , ensuring that the vines were unable to be cultivated elsewhere .
In the Tang Dynasty , cubeb was brought to China from Srivijaya . In India , the spice came to be called kabab chini , that is , " Chinese cubeb " , possibly because the Chinese had a hand in its trade , but more likely because it was an important item in the trade with China . In China this pepper was called both vilenga , and vidanga , the cognate Sanskrit word . Li Hsun thought it grew on the same tree as black pepper . Tang physicians administered it to restore appetite , cure " demon vapors " , darken the hair , and perfume the body . However , there is no evidence showing that cubeb was used as a condiment in China .
The Book of One Thousand and One Nights , compiled in the 9th century , mentions cubeb as a remedy for infertility , showing it was already used by Arabs for medicinal purposes . Cubeb was introduced to Arabic cuisine around the 10th century . The Travels of Marco Polo , written in late 13th century , describes Java as a producer of cubeb , along with other valuable spices . In the 14th century , cubeb was imported into Europe from the Grain Coast , under the name of pepper , by merchants of Rouen and Lippe . A 14th @-@ century morality tale exemplifying gluttony by the Franciscan writer Francesc Eiximenis describes the eating habits of a worldly cleric who consumes a bizarre concoction of egg yolks with cinnamon and cubeb after his baths , probably as an aphrodisiac .
Cubeb was thought by the people of Europe to be repulsive to demons , just as it was by the people of China . Ludovico Maria Sinistrari , a Catholic priest who wrote about methods of exorcism in the late 17th century , includes cubeb as an ingredient in an incense to ward off incubus . Even today , his formula for the incense is quoted by neopagan authors , some of whom also claim that cubeb can be used in love sachets and spells .
After the prohibition of sale , culinary use of cubeb decreased dramatically in Europe , and only its medicinal application continued to the 19th century . In the early 20th century , cubeb was regularly shipped from Indonesia to Europe and the United States . The trade gradually diminished to an average of 135 t ( 133 long tons ; 149 short tons ) annually , and practically ceased after 1940 .
= = Chemistry = =
The dried cubeb berries contain essential oil consisting monoterpenes ( sabinene 50 % , α @-@ thujene , and carene ) and sesquiterpenes ( caryophyllene , copaene , α- and β @-@ cubebene , δ @-@ cadinene , germacrene ) , the oxides 1,4- and 1 @,@ 8 @-@ cineole and the alcohol cubebol .
About 15 % of a volatile oil is obtained by distilling cubebs with water . Cubebene , the liquid portion , has the formula C15H24 . It is a pale green or blue @-@ yellow viscous liquid with a warm woody , slightly camphoraceous odor . After rectification with water , or on keeping , this deposits rhombic crystals of camphor of cubebs .
Cubebin ( C20H20O6 ) is a crystalline substance existing in cubebs , discovered by Eugène Soubeiran and Capitaine in 1839 . It may be prepared from cubebene , or from the pulp left after the distillation of the oil . The drug , along with gum , fatty oils , and malates of magnesium and calcium , contains also about 1 % of cubebic acid , and about 6 % of a resin . The dose of the fruit is 30 to 60 grains , and the British Pharmacopoeia contains a tincture with a dose of 4 to 1 dram .
= = Uses = =
= = = Medicinal = = =
In India , the ancient texts of Ayurveda ( Sanskrit आयुर ् वेद ) include cubeb in various remedies . Charaka and Sushruta prescribe a cubeb paste as a mouthwash , and the use of dried cubebs internally for oral and dental diseases , loss of voice , halitosis , fevers , and cough . Unani physicians use a paste of the cubeb berries externally on male and female genitals to intensify sexual pleasure during coitus . Due to this attributed property , cubeb was called " Habb @-@ ul @-@ Uruus " .
In traditional Chinese medicine cubeb is used for its alleged warming property . In Tibetan medicine , cubeb ( ka ko la in Tibetan ) is one of bzang po drug , six fine herbs beneficial to specific organs in the body , with cubeb assigned to the spleen .
Arab physicians of the Middle Ages were usually versed in alchemy , and cubeb was used , under the name kababa , when preparing the water of al butm . The Book of One Thousand and One Nights mentions cubeb as a main ingredient in making an aphrodisiac remedy for infertility :
The mixture , called " seed @-@ thickener " , is given to Shams @-@ al @-@ Din , a wealthy merchant who had no child , with the instruction that he must eat the paste two hours before having intercourse with his wife . According to the story , the merchant did get the child he desired after following these instructions . Other Arab authors wrote that cubeb rendered the breath fragrant , cured affections of the bladder , and that eating it " enhances the delight of coitus " .
In 1654 , Nicholas Culpeper wrote in the London Dispensatorie that cubebs were " hot and dry in the third degree ... ( snip ) they cleanse the head of flegm and strengthen the brain , they heat the stomach and provoke lust " . A later edition in 1826 informed the reader that " the Arabs call them Quabebe , and Quabebe Chine : they grow plentifully in Java , they stir up venery . ( snip ) ... and are very profitable for cold griefs of the womb " .
The modern use of cubeb in England as a drug dates from 1815 . There were various preparations , including oleum cubebae ( oil of cubeb ) , tinctures , fluid extracts , oleo @-@ resin compounds , and vapors , which were used for throat complaints . A small percentage of cubeb was commonly included in lozenges designed to alleviate bronchitis , in which the antiseptic and expectoral properties of the drug are useful . The most important therapeutic application of this drug , however , was in treating gonorrhea , where its antiseptic action was of much value . William Wyatt Squire wrote in 1908 that cubebs " act specifically on the genito @-@ urinary mucous membrane . ( They are ) given in all stages of gonorrhea " . As compared with copaiba in this connection cubeb has the advantages of being less disagreeable to take and somewhat less likely to disturb the digestive apparatus in prolonged administration .
The volatile oil , oleum cubebae , was the form in which cubeb is most commonly used as a drug , the dose being 5 to 20 minims , which may be suspended in mucilage or given after meals in a wafer . The drug exhibited the typical actions of a volatile oil , but exerted some of these to an exceptional degree . As such , it was liable to cause a cutaneous erythema in the course of its excretion by the skin , had a marked diuretic action , and was a fairly efficient disinfectant of the urinary passages . Its administration caused the appearance in the urine of a salt of cubebic acid which was precipitated by heat or nitric acid , and was therefore liable to be mistaken for albumin , when these two most common tests for the occurrence of albuminuria were applied .
The National Botanic Pharmacopoeia printed in 1921 tells that cubeb was " an excellent remedy for flour albus or whites . "
= = = Culinary = = =
In Europe , cubeb was one of the valuable spices during the Middle Ages . It was ground as a seasoning for meat or used in sauces . A medieval recipe includes cubeb in making sauce sarcenes , which consists of almond milk and several spices . As an aromatic confectionery , cubeb was often candied and eaten whole . Ocet Kubebowy , a vinegar infused with cubeb , cumin and garlic , was used for meat marinades in Poland during the 14th century . Cubeb can still be used to enhance the flavor of savory soups .
Cubeb reached Africa by way of the Arabs . In Moroccan cuisine , cubeb is used in savory dishes and in pastries like markouts , little diamonds of semolina with honey and dates . It also appears occasionally in the list of ingredients for the famed spice mixture Ras el hanout . In Indonesian cuisine , especially in Indonesian gulés ( curries ) , cubeb is frequently used .
= = = Cigarettes and spirits = = =
Cubeb was frequently used in the form of cigarettes for asthma , chronic pharyngitis and hay fever . Edgar Rice Burroughs , being fond of smoking cubeb cigarettes , humorously stated that if he had not smoked so many cubebs , there might never have been Tarzan . " Marshall 's Prepared Cubeb Cigarettes " was a popular brand , with enough sales to still be made during World War II . Occasionally , marijuana users claimed that smoking marijuana is no more harmful than smoking cubeb . In the musical The Music Man , set in rural Iowa in 1912 , the character Harold Hill alarms parents by telling this that their sons are trying out cubeb cigarettes at the notorious pool hall in the song " Trouble " .
In 2000 cubeb oil was included in the list of ingredients found in cigarettes , published by the Tobacco Prevention and Control Branch of North Carolina 's Department of Health and Human Services .
Bombay Sapphire gin is flavored with botanicals including cubeb and grains of paradise . The brand was launched in 1987 , but its maker claims that it is based on a secret recipe dating to 1761 . Pertsovka , a dark brown Russian pepper vodka with a burning taste , is prepared from infusion of cubeb and capsicum peppers .
= = = Other = = =
Cubeb is sometimes used to adulterate the essential oil of Patchouli , which requires caution for Patchouli users . In turn , cubeb is adulterated by Piper baccatum ( also known as the " climbing pepper of Java " ) and Piper caninum .
Cubeb berries are used in love @-@ drawing magic spells by practitioners of hoodoo , an African @-@ American form of folk magic .
In 2000 , Shiseido , a well @-@ known Japanese cosmetics company , patented a line of anti @-@ aging products containing formulas made from several herbs , including cubeb .
In 2001 , the Swiss company Firmenich patented cubebol , a compound found in cubeb oil , as a cooling and refreshing agent . The patent describes application of cubebol as a refreshing agent in various products , ranging from chewing gum to sorbets , drinks , toothpaste , and gelatin @-@ based confectioneries .
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= Scenes from the Class Struggle in Springfield =
" Scenes from the Class Struggle in Springfield " is the 14th episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 4 , 1996 . In the episode , Marge buys a Chanel suit and is invited to join the Springfield Country Club . Marge becomes obsessed with trying to fit in , but realizes that it has changed her personality and that she was happier being her old self . She decides she would rather go back to the way things were than continue to pursue high social ambitions .
The episode was written by Jennifer Crittenden and directed by Susie Dietter . It was the first time a female writer and director were credited in the same episode . Tom Kite guest starred in the episode , and he " really enjoyed " recording his parts for it . The episode 's title is a parody of the 1989 film Scenes from the Class Struggle in Beverly Hills . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from fans and television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 , and was the fifth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
When Grampa tries to " fix " the family 's television , it breaks irreparably , so the family travels to the Ogdenville outlet mall . Marge and Lisa wander off to a discounted store and Marge locates a fancy Chanel suit , which has been marked from $ 2 @,@ 800 and is now $ 90 . Marge is first reluctant to buy the suit , but after Lisa 's convincing that it 's a great buy , Marge purchases the suit , so she becomes infatuated with it and wears it constantly , begging Homer to take her somewhere fancy so the suit can be put to good use . However , one day when Marge wears it to the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart , she runs into an old classmate , Evelyn , who is impressed by Marge 's fashion sense and invites her to come to the Springfield Country Club ( even though Marge has married Homer , as Evelyn originally assumed it was a rumor ) . Marge , intimidated by the wealthy club members , works hard to fit in with their snobbish ways . Along the way , Marge loses interest in her family and becomes obsessed with both impressing the club members and altering her suit so she comes off as wealthy .
Meanwhile , the rest of the family is uncomfortable at the country club until Lisa finds the stables and Homer begins playing golf . Homer is revealed to have a knack for golf , and Mr. Burns , having seen Homer 's skill in the bathroom at work , challenges him to a match . Mr. Burns believes that he is the best golfer in Springfield , and is determined to take down Homer . However , once they begin playing , Homer , who is in disbelief at one of Mr. Burns ' shots , runs over to the green and finds Mr. Smithers replacing the ball Mr. Burns hit with a new one that is close to the hole . Homer , who breaks out in a sing @-@ songy over Mr. Burns ' cheating , threatens to tell everyone about how Mr. Burns is not the best golfer he says he is . Mr. Smithers then offers Homer a chance to be sponsored for membership if he keeps quiet about the decades of Mr. Burns ' cheating , since Mr. Burns holds a lot of influence at the club . Homer is unswayed , as he does not care about joining the club . However , Mr. Burns reminds Homer that the family being allowed to join the club is important to Marge .
In the meantime , Marge is offended by a crack made by one of the snobby club members and is eager to change the suit even more to impress at a party . However , due to Lisa 's annoyingly inquisitive nature , Marge accidentally destroys the suit on the sewing machine . Marge rushes back to the Ogdenville outlet mall , but there are no suitable clothes for the party . Marge , having nowhere left to turn , goes to the actual Chanel store and purchases a $ 3 @,@ 300 dress . When she and the rest of the Simpsons arrive at the party , Marge criticizes the behavior of everyone in her family , including Maggie . Homer tells Marge that he and the kids have realized what awful people they are compared to the changed Marge . Marge realizes that she has changed for the worse , and goes to Krusty Burger with her family instead of the party . However , it is later revealed that the party was actually supposed to be an initiation party , as Evelyn Peters , Mr. Burns , and the rest of the club has decided to sponsor their membership . The snobby club member who frequently bashed and insulted Marge remarks that she hopes that Marge didn 't take her " attempt to destroy her too seriously . "
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jennifer Crittenden and directed by Susie Dietter . It was the first time a female writer and director were credited in the same episode . The episode 's title is a parody of the film Scenes from the Class Struggle in Beverly Hills . The first script of the episode was too long and it had to be cut down . Dietter remembered that it " took on a more serious tone " because they had to keep the parts that were essential to the story and cut the many " throwaway gags " . Bill Oakley , the show runner of The Simpsons at the time , praised the episode for having a " terrific " story that " really comes together well " . Oakley said that he and his partner Josh Weinstein wanted to have more " emotionally " based episodes this season that still had humor in them . He thought Crittenden did a " good job " at that and he thought the episode " came out well " .
Marge 's dress was modeled on an actual Chanel dress , and also the type of dresses that former First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis used to wear . The show 's creator , Matt Groening , was worried that such a detailed dress would look " weird " on a Simpsons character because they are " simply designed " and their clothing is " very generic " . He ended up liking the design , though , and Dietter thought it looked " good " on Marge . Oakley also liked the design and thought the cut on Marge was " flattering " . The country club women 's clothes were changed in every scene , something Dietter thought was hard to do because the animators had to come up with new designs .
Tom Kite guest starred in the episode as himself . He said that he " really enjoyed " recording his parts for it . " It was a lot of fun trying to imagine exactly what Homer 's golf swing is going to look like . My number one fear is that Homer will end up having a better golf swing than I do — heaven forbid ! " , he added .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Scenes from the Class Struggle in Springfield " finished 64th in the ratings for the week of January 29 to February 4 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 . The episode was the fifth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Beverly Hills , 90210 , My Cousin Vinny , and Married ... With Children .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , summed it up as follows : " Marge looks great in her Chanel , the golf scenes between Homer and Mr. Burns are brilliant , and there are many true , touching moments as Marge struggles valiantly to improve herself . Yet again , it 's tempting for the viewer to urge Marge on and get the hell away from the family . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said that he does not know if he " accepts " the episode as being " in character " for Marge . He said that it borrows liberally from The Flintstones , but he " likes it anyway " . Jacobson added that the episode " jabs the idle rich nicely " , and he enjoys the golf scenes with Homer . The program succeeds despite a few problems . " Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be Mr. Burns 's demand for his tires to be revulcanized at the gas station . The website concluded its review by giving the episode a grade of B. The authors of the book Homer Simpson Goes to Washington , Joseph Foy and Stanley Schultz , wrote that in the episode , " the tension of trying to demonstrate a family 's achievement of the American Dream is satirically and expertly played out by Marge Simpson " .
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= Charles II of England =
Charles II ( 29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685 ) was monarch of the three kingdoms of England , Scotland , and Ireland .
Charles II 's father , Charles I , was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649 , at the climax of the English Civil War . Although the Parliament of Scotland proclaimed Charles II King on 5 February 1649 , England entered the period known as the English Interregnum or the English Commonwealth , and the country was a de facto republic , led by Oliver Cromwell . Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651 , and Charles fled to mainland Europe . Cromwell became virtual dictator of England , Scotland and Ireland , and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France , the Dutch Republic , and the Spanish Netherlands .
A political crisis that followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy , and Charles was invited to return to Britain . On 29 May 1660 , his 30th birthday , he was received in London to public acclaim . After 1660 , all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649 .
Charles 's English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code , designed to shore up the position of the re @-@ established Church of England . Charles acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance . The major foreign policy issue of his early reign was the Second Anglo @-@ Dutch War . In 1670 , he entered into the secret treaty of Dover , an alliance with his first cousin King Louis XIV of France . Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo @-@ Dutch War and pay him a pension , and Charles secretly promised to convert to Catholicism at an unspecified future date . Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence , but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it . In 1679 , Titus Oates 's revelations of a supposed " Popish Plot " sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charles 's brother and heir ( James , Duke of York ) was a Catholic . The crisis saw the birth of the pro @-@ exclusion Whig and anti @-@ exclusion Tory parties . Charles sided with the Tories , and , following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683 , some Whig leaders were executed or forced into exile . Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681 , and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685 . He was received into the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed .
Charles was popularly known as the Merry Monarch , in reference to both the liveliness and hedonism of his court and the general relief at the return to normality after over a decade of rule by Oliver Cromwell and the Puritans . Charles 's wife , Catherine of Braganza , bore no live children , but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses . He was succeeded by his brother James .
= = Early life , civil war , and exile = =
Charles was born in St James 's Palace on 29 May 1630 . His parents were Charles I ( who ruled the three kingdoms of England , Scotland and Ireland ) and Henrietta Maria ( the sister of the French king Louis XIII ) . Charles was their second son and child . Their first son was born about a year before Charles but died within a day . England , Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican , Presbyterian and Roman Catholic . Charles was baptised in the Chapel Royal on 27 June by the Anglican Bishop of London , William Laud , and brought up in the care of the Protestant Countess of Dorset , though his godparents included his maternal uncle and grandmother , Marie de ' Medici , both of whom were Catholics . At birth , Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay , along with several other associated titles . At or around his eighth birthday , he was designated Prince of Wales , though he was never formally invested with the Honours of the Principality of Wales .
During the 1640s , when Charles was still young , his father fought Parliamentary and Puritan forces in the English Civil War . Charles accompanied his father during the Battle of Edgehill and , at the age of fourteen , participated in the campaigns of 1645 , when he was made titular commander of the English forces in the West Country . By Spring 1646 , his father was losing the war , and Charles left England due to fears for his safety , setting off from Falmouth after staying at Pendennis Castle , going first to the Isles of Scilly , then to Jersey , and finally to France , where his mother was already living in exile and his first cousin , eight @-@ year @-@ old Louis XIV , was king .
In 1648 , during the Second English Civil War , Charles moved to The Hague , where his sister Mary and his brother @-@ in @-@ law William II , Prince of Orange , seemed more likely to provide substantial aid to the royalist cause than the Queen 's French relations . However , the royalist fleet that came under Charles 's control was not used to any advantage , and did not reach Scotland in time to join up with the royalist Engagers army of the Duke of Hamilton , before it was defeated at the Battle of Preston by the Parliamentarians .
At The Hague , Charles had a brief affair with Lucy Walter , who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married . Her son , James Crofts ( afterwards Duke of Monmouth and Duke of Buccleuch ) , was one of Charles 's many illegitimate children who became prominent in British society .
Charles I surrendered in 1646 . He escaped and was recaptured in 1648 . Despite his son 's diplomatic efforts to save him , Charles I was beheaded in January 1649 , and England became a republic . On 5 February , the Covenanter Parliament of Scotland had proclaimed Charles II " King of Great Britain , France and Ireland " at the Mercat Cross , Edinburgh , but refused to allow him to enter Scotland unless he accepted Presbyterianism throughout Britain and Ireland .
When negotiations stalled , Charles authorised General Montrose to land in the Orkney Islands with a small army to threaten the Scots with invasion , in the hope of forcing an agreement more to his liking . Montrose feared that Charles would accept a compromise , and so chose to invade mainland Scotland anyway . He was captured and executed . Charles reluctantly promised that he would abide by the terms of a treaty agreed between him and the Scots Parliament at Breda , and support the Solemn League and Covenant , which authorised Presbyterian church governance across Britain . Upon his arrival in Scotland on 23 June 1650 , he formally agreed to the Covenant ; his abandonment of Episcopal church governance , although winning him support in Scotland , left him unpopular in England . Charles himself soon came to despise the " villainy " and " hypocrisy " of the Covenanters .
On 3 September 1650 , the Covenanters were defeated at the Battle of Dunbar by a much smaller force led by Oliver Cromwell . The Scots forces were divided into royalist Engagers and Presbyterian Covenanters , who even fought each other . Disillusioned by the Covenanters , in October Charles attempted to escape from them and rode north to join with an Engager force , an event which became known as " the Start " , but within two days the Presbyterians had caught up with and recovered him . Nevertheless , the Scots remained Charles 's best hope of restoration , and he was crowned King of Scotland at Scone Abbey on 1 January 1651 . With Cromwell 's forces threatening Charles 's position in Scotland , it was decided to mount an attack on England . With many of the Scots ( including Lord Argyll and other leading Covenanters ) refusing to participate , and with few English royalists joining the force as it moved south into England , the invasion ended in defeat at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651 , after which Charles eluded capture by hiding in the Royal Oak at Boscobel House . Through six weeks of narrow escapes Charles managed to flee England in disguise , landing in Normandy on 16 October , despite a reward of £ 1 @,@ 000 on his head , risk of death for anyone caught helping him and the difficulty in disguising Charles , who , at over 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , was unusually tall .
Cromwell was appointed Lord Protector of England , Scotland and Ireland , effectively placing the British Isles under military rule . Impoverished , Charles could not obtain sufficient support to mount a serious challenge to Cromwell 's government . Despite the Stuart family connections through Henrietta Maria and the Princess of Orange , France and the Dutch Republic allied themselves with Cromwell 's government from 1654 , forcing Charles to turn for aid to Spain , which at that time ruled the Southern Netherlands . Charles raised a ragtag army from his exiled subjects ; this small , underpaid , poorly equipped , and ill @-@ disciplined force formed the nucleus of the post @-@ Restoration army .
= = Restoration = =
After the death of Cromwell in 1658 , Charles 's chances of regaining the Crown at first seemed slim as Cromwell was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son , Richard . However , the new Lord Protector had no power base in either Parliament or the New Model Army . He was forced to abdicate in 1659 and the Protectorate was abolished . During the civil and military unrest which followed , George Monck , the Governor of Scotland , was concerned that the nation would descend into anarchy . Monck and his army marched into the City of London and forced the Rump Parliament to re @-@ admit members of the Long Parliament excluded in December 1648 during Pride 's Purge . The Long Parliament dissolved itself and for the first time in almost 20 years , there was a general election . The outgoing Parliament defined the electoral qualifications so as to ensure , as they thought , the return of a Presbyterian majority .
The restrictions against royalist candidates and voters were widely ignored , and the elections resulted in a House of Commons which was fairly evenly divided on political grounds between Royalists and Parliamentarians and on religious grounds between Anglicans and Presbyterians . The new so @-@ called Convention Parliament assembled on 25 April 1660 , and soon afterwards received news of the Declaration of Breda , in which Charles agreed , amongst other things , to pardon many of his father 's enemies . The English Parliament resolved to proclaim Charles king and invite him to return , a message that reached Charles at Breda on 8 May 1660 . In Ireland , a convention had been called earlier in the year , and on 14 May it declared for Charles as King .
He set out for England from Scheveningen , arrived in Dover on 25 May 1660 and reached London on 29 May , his 30th birthday . Although Charles and Parliament granted amnesty to Cromwell 's supporters in the Act of Indemnity and Oblivion , 50 people were specifically excluded . In the end nine of the regicides were executed : they were hanged , drawn and quartered ; others were given life imprisonment or simply excluded from office for life . The bodies of Oliver Cromwell , Henry Ireton , and John Bradshaw were subjected to the indignity of posthumous decapitations .
Charles agreed to the abolition of feudal dues ; in return , the English Parliament granted him an annual income to run the government of £ 1 @.@ 2 million , generated largely from customs and excise duties . The grant , however , proved to be insufficient for most of Charles 's reign . The sum was only an indication of the maximum the King was allowed to withdraw from the Treasury each year ; for the most part , the actual revenue was much lower , which led to mounting debts , and further attempts to raise money through poll taxes , land taxes and hearth taxes .
In the later half of 1660 , Charles 's joy at the Restoration was tempered by the deaths of his youngest brother , Henry , and sister , Mary , of smallpox . At around the same time , Anne Hyde , the daughter of the Lord Chancellor , Edward Hyde , revealed that she was pregnant by Charles 's brother , James , whom she had secretly married . Edward Hyde , who had not known of either the marriage or the pregnancy , was created Earl of Clarendon and his position as Charles 's favourite minister was strengthened .
= = = Clarendon Code = = =
The Convention Parliament was dissolved in December 1660 , and , shortly after the coronation , the second English Parliament of the reign assembled . Dubbed the Cavalier Parliament , it was overwhelmingly Royalist and Anglican . It sought to discourage non @-@ conformity to the Church of England , and passed several acts to secure Anglican dominance . The Corporation Act 1661 required municipal officeholders to swear allegiance ; the Act of Uniformity 1662 made the use of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer compulsory ; the Conventicle Act 1664 prohibited religious assemblies of more than five people , except under the auspices of the Church of England ; and the Five Mile Act 1665 prohibited expelled non @-@ conforming clergymen from coming within five miles ( 8 km ) of a parish from which they had been banished . The Conventicle and Five Mile Acts remained in effect for the remainder of Charles 's reign . The Acts became known as the " Clarendon Code " , after Lord Clarendon , even though he was not directly responsible for them and even spoke against the Five Mile Act .
The Restoration was accompanied by social change . Puritanism lost its momentum . Theatres reopened after having been closed during the protectorship of Oliver Cromwell , and bawdy " Restoration comedy " became a recognisable genre . Theatre licences granted by Charles required that female parts be played by " their natural performers " , rather than by boys as was often the practice before ; and Restoration literature celebrated or reacted to the restored court , which included libertines like John Wilmot , 2nd Earl of Rochester . Of Charles II , Wilmot supposedly said :
We have a pretty witty king ,
Whose word no man relies on ,
He never said a foolish thing ,
And never did a wise one "
to which Charles supposedly riposted , " That 's true , for my words are my own , but my actions are those of my ministers " .
= = = Great Plague and Great Fire = = =
In 1665 , Charles was faced with a great health crisis : the Great Plague of London . The death toll reached a peak of 7 @,@ 000 per week in the week of 17 September . Charles , with his family and court , fled London in July to Salisbury ; Parliament met in Oxford . All attempts by London public health officials to contain the disease failed , and the plague spread rapidly .
Adding to London 's woes , but marking the end of the plague , was what later became known as the Great Fire of London , which started on 2 September 1666 . The fire consumed about 13 @,@ 200 houses and 87 churches , including St Paul 's Cathedral . Charles and his brother James joined and directed the fire @-@ fighting effort . The public blamed Catholic conspirators for the fire , although it had actually started in a bakehouse in Pudding Lane .
= = Foreign and colonial policy = =
Since 1640 , Portugal had been fighting a war against Spain to restore its independence after a dynastic union of sixty years between the crowns of Spain and Portugal . Portugal had been helped by France , but in the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659 Portugal was abandoned by its French ally . Negotiations with Portugal for Charles 's marriage to Catherine of Braganza began during his father 's reign and upon the restoration , Queen Luísa of Portugal , acting as regent , reopened negotiations with England that resulted in an alliance . On 23 June 1661 , a marriage treaty was signed , Catherine 's dowry securing to England Tangier ( in North Africa ) and the Seven islands of Bombay ( the latter having a major influence on the development of the British Empire in India ) , together with trading privileges in Brazil and the East Indies , religious and commercial freedom in Portugal and two million Portuguese crowns ( about £ 300 @,@ 000 ) ; while Portugal obtained military and naval support against Spain and liberty of worship for Catherine . Catherine journeyed from Portugal to Portsmouth on 13 – 14 May 1662 , but was not visited by Charles there until 20 May . The next day the couple were married at Portsmouth in two ceremonies – a Catholic one conducted in secret , followed by a public Anglican service .
In an unpopular move , also in 1662 , Charles sold Dunkirk to his first cousin King Louis XIV of France for about £ 375 @,@ 000 . The channel port , although a valuable strategic outpost , was a drain on Charles 's limited finances .
Before Charles 's restoration , the Navigation Acts of 1650 had hurt Dutch trade by giving English vessels a monopoly , and had started the First Dutch War ( 1652 – 1654 ) . To lay foundations for a new beginning , envoys of the States General appeared in November 1660 with the Dutch Gift . The Second Dutch War ( 1665 – 1667 ) was started by English attempts to muscle in on Dutch possessions in Africa and North America . The conflict began well for the English , with the capture of New Amsterdam ( renamed New York in honour of Charles 's brother James , Duke of York ) and a victory at the Battle of Lowestoft , but in 1667 the Dutch launched a surprise attack on the English ( the Raid on the Medway ) when they sailed up the River Thames to where a major part of the English fleet was docked . Almost all of the ships were sunk except for the flagship , Royal Charles , which was taken back to the Netherlands as a trophy . The Second Dutch War ended with the signing of the Treaty of Breda .
As a result of the Second Dutch War , Charles dismissed Lord Clarendon , whom he used as a scapegoat for the war . Clarendon fled to France when impeached for high treason ( which carried the penalty of death ) . Power passed to five politicians known collectively by a whimsical acronym as the Cabal — Clifford , Arlington , Buckingham , Ashley ( afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury ) and Lauderdale . In fact , the Cabal rarely acted in concert , and the court was often divided between two factions led by Arlington and Buckingham , with Arlington the more successful .
In 1668 , England allied itself with Sweden , and with its former enemy the Netherlands , to oppose Louis XIV in the War of Devolution . Louis made peace with the Triple Alliance , but he continued to maintain his aggressive intentions towards the Netherlands . In 1670 , Charles , seeking to solve his financial troubles , agreed to the Treaty of Dover , under which Louis XIV would pay him £ 160 @,@ 000 each year . In exchange , Charles agreed to supply Louis with troops and to announce his conversion to Catholicism " as soon as the welfare of his kingdom will permit " . Louis was to provide him with 6 @,@ 000 troops to suppress those who opposed the conversion . Charles endeavoured to ensure that the Treaty — especially the conversion clause — remained secret . It remains unclear if Charles ever seriously intended to convert .
Meanwhile , by a series of five charters , Charles granted the East India Company the rights to autonomous government of its territorial acquisitions , to mint money , to command fortresses and troops , to form alliances , to make war and peace , and to exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the its possessions in the Indies . Earlier in 1668 he leased the islands of Bombay for a nominal sum of £ 10 paid in gold . The Portuguese territories that Catherine brought with her as a dowry proved too expensive to maintain ; Tangier was abandoned in 1684 . In 1670 , Charles granted control of the entire Hudson Bay drainage basin to the Hudson 's Bay Company by royal charter , and named the territory Rupert 's Land , after his cousin Prince Rupert of the Rhine , the company 's first Governor .
= = Conflict with Parliament = =
Although previously favourable to the Crown , the Cavalier Parliament was alienated by the king 's wars and religious policies during the 1670s . In 1672 , Charles issued the Royal Declaration of Indulgence , in which he purported to suspend all penal laws against Catholics and other religious dissenters . In the same year , he openly supported Catholic France and started the Third Anglo @-@ Dutch War .
The Cavalier Parliament opposed the Declaration of Indulgence on constitutional grounds by claiming that the King had no right to arbitrarily suspend laws passed by Parliament . Charles withdrew the Declaration , and also agreed to the Test Act , which not only required public officials to receive the sacrament under the forms prescribed by the Church of England , but also later forced them to denounce certain teachings of the Catholic Church as " superstitious and idolatrous " . Clifford , who had converted to Catholicism , resigned rather than take the oath , and committed suicide shortly after . By 1674 England had gained nothing from the Anglo @-@ Dutch War , and the Cavalier Parliament refused to provide further funds , forcing Charles to make peace . The power of the Cabal waned and that of Clifford 's replacement , Lord Danby , grew .
Charles 's wife Queen Catherine was unable to produce an heir ; her four pregnancies had ended in miscarriages and stillbirths in 1662 , February 1666 , May 1668 and June 1669 . Charles 's heir presumptive was therefore his unpopular Catholic brother , James , Duke of York . Partly to assuage public fears that the royal family was too Catholic , Charles agreed that James 's daughter , Mary , should marry the Protestant William of Orange . In 1678 , Titus Oates , who had been alternately an Anglican and Jesuit priest , falsely warned of a " Popish Plot " to assassinate the King , even accusing the Queen of complicity . Charles did not believe the allegations , but ordered his chief minister Lord Danby to investigate . While Lord Danby seems to have been rightly sceptical about Oates 's claims , the Cavalier Parliament took them seriously . The people were seized with an anti @-@ Catholic hysteria ; judges and juries across the land condemned the supposed conspirators ; numerous innocent individuals were executed .
Later in 1678 , Lord Danby was impeached by the House of Commons on the charge of high treason . Although much of the nation had sought war with Catholic France , Charles had secretly negotiated with Louis XIV , trying to reach an agreement under which England would remain neutral in return for money . Lord Danby had publicly professed that he was hostile to France , but had reservedly agreed to abide by Charles 's wishes . Unfortunately for him , the House of Commons failed to view him as a reluctant participant in the scandal , instead believing that he was the author of the policy . To save Lord Danby from the impeachment trial , Charles dissolved the Cavalier Parliament in January 1679 .
The new English Parliament , which met in March of the same year , was quite hostile to Charles . Many members feared that he had intended to use the standing army to suppress dissent or impose Catholicism . However , with insufficient funds voted by Parliament , Charles was forced to gradually disband his troops . Having lost the support of Parliament , Lord Danby resigned his post of Lord High Treasurer , but received a pardon from the King . In defiance of the royal will , the House of Commons declared that the dissolution of Parliament did not interrupt impeachment proceedings , and that the pardon was therefore invalid . When the House of Lords attempted to impose the punishment of exile — which the Commons thought too mild — the impeachment became stalled between the two Houses . As he had been required to do so many times during his reign , Charles bowed to the wishes of his opponents , committing Lord Danby to the Tower of London . Lord Danby would be held there for another five years .
= = Later years = =
Charles faced a political storm over the succession to the Throne . The prospect of a Catholic monarch was vehemently opposed by Anthony Ashley Cooper , 1st Earl of Shaftesbury ( previously Baron Ashley and a member of the Cabal , which had fallen apart in 1673 ) . Shaftesbury 's power base was strengthened when the House of Commons of 1679 introduced the Exclusion Bill , which sought to exclude the Duke of York from the line of succession . Some even sought to confer the Crown to the Protestant Duke of Monmouth , the eldest of Charles 's illegitimate children . The Abhorrers — those who thought the Exclusion Bill was abhorrent — were named Tories ( after a term for dispossessed Irish Catholic bandits ) , while the Petitioners — those who supported a petitioning campaign in favour of the Exclusion Bill — were called Whigs ( after a term for rebellious Scottish Presbyterians ) .
Fearing that the Exclusion Bill would be passed , and bolstered by some acquittals in the continuing Plot trials , which seemed to him to indicate a more favourable public mood towards Catholicism , Charles dissolved the English Parliament , for a second time that year , in the summer of 1679 . Charles 's hopes for a more moderate Parliament were not fulfilled , within a few months he had dissolved Parliament yet again , after it sought to pass the Exclusion Bill . When a new Parliament assembled at Oxford in March 1681 , Charles dissolved it for a fourth time after just a few days . During the 1680s , however , popular support for the Exclusion Bill ebbed , and Charles experienced a nationwide surge of loyalty . Lord Shaftesbury was prosecuted ( albeit unsuccessfully ) for treason in 1681 and later fled to Holland , where he died . For the remainder of his reign , Charles ruled without Parliament .
Charles 's opposition to the Exclusion Bill angered some Protestants . Protestant conspirators formulated the Rye House Plot , a plan to murder the King and the Duke of York as they returned to London after horse races in Newmarket . A great fire , however , destroyed Charles 's lodgings at Newmarket , which forced him to leave the races early , thus , inadvertently , avoiding the planned attack . News of the failed plot was leaked . Protestant politicians such as Arthur Capell , 1st Earl of Essex , Algernon Sydney , Lord William Russell and the Duke of Monmouth were implicated in the plot . Lord Essex slit his own throat while imprisoned in the Tower of London ; Sydney and Russell were executed for high treason on very flimsy evidence ; and the Duke of Monmouth went into exile at the court of William of Orange . Lord Danby and the surviving Catholic lords held in the Tower were released and the King 's Catholic brother , James , acquired greater influence at court . Titus Oates was convicted and imprisoned for defamation .
= = = Death = = =
Charles suffered a sudden apoplectic fit on the morning of 2 February 1685 , and died aged 54 at 11 : 45 am four days later at Whitehall Palace . The suddenness of his illness and death led to suspicion of poison in the minds of many , including one of the royal doctors ; however , a more modern medical analysis has held that the symptoms of his final illness are similar to those of uraemia ( a clinical syndrome due to kidney dysfunction ) . In the days between his collapse and his death , Charles endured a variety of torturous treatments including bloodletting , purging and cupping in hopes of effecting a recovery .
On his deathbed Charles asked his brother , James , to look after his mistresses : " be well to Portsmouth , and let not poor Nelly starve " , and told his courtiers : " I am sorry , gentlemen , for being such a time a @-@ dying " . On the last evening of his life he was received into the Catholic Church , though the extent to which he was fully conscious or committed , and with whom the idea originated , is unclear . He was buried in Westminster Abbey " without any manner of pomp " on 14 February .
Charles was succeeded by his brother , who became James II of England and Ireland and James VII of Scotland .
= = Posterity and legacy = =
Charles had no legitimate children , but acknowledged a dozen by seven mistresses , including five by the notorious Barbara Villiers , Lady Castlemaine , for whom the Dukedom of Cleveland was created . His other mistresses included Moll Davis , Nell Gwyn , Elizabeth Killigrew , Catherine Pegge , Lucy Walter , and Louise de Kérouaille , Duchess of Portsmouth . As a result , in his lifetime he was often nicknamed " Old Rowley " , the name of one of his horses which was notable at the time as a stallion .
His subjects resented paying taxes that were spent on his mistresses and their children , many of whom received dukedoms or earldoms . The present Dukes of Buccleuch , Richmond , Grafton and St Albans descend from Charles in unbroken male line . Diana , Princess of Wales , was descended from two of Charles 's illegitimate sons : the Dukes of Grafton and Richmond . Diana 's son , Prince William , Duke of Cambridge , second in line to the British throne , is likely to be the first British monarch descended from Charles II .
Charles 's eldest son , the Duke of Monmouth , led a rebellion against James II , but was defeated at the Battle of Sedgemoor on 6 July 1685 , captured and executed . James was eventually dethroned in 1688 , in the course of the Glorious Revolution . He was the last Catholic monarch to rule Britain .
Looking back on Charles 's reign , Tories tended to view it as a time of benevolent monarchy whereas Whigs perceived it as a terrible despotism . Today it is possible to assess him without the taint of partisanship , and he is seen as more of a lovable rogue — in the words of his contemporary John Evelyn , " a prince of many virtues and many great imperfections , debonair , easy of access , not bloody or cruel " . John Wilmot , 2nd Earl of Rochester , wrote more lewdly of Charles :
Charles , a patron of the arts and sciences , founded the Royal Observatory and supported the Royal Society , a scientific group whose early members included Robert Hooke , Robert Boyle and Sir Isaac Newton . He was the personal patron of Sir Christopher Wren , the architect who helped rebuild London after the Great Fire and who constructed the Royal Hospital Chelsea , which Charles founded as a home for retired soldiers in 1682 .
The anniversary of the Restoration ( which was also Charles 's birthday ) — 29 May — was recognised in England until the mid @-@ nineteenth century as Oak Apple Day , after the Royal Oak in which Charles hid during his escape from the forces of Oliver Cromwell . Traditional celebrations involved the wearing of oak leaves but these have now died out . Charles II is commemorated by statues in London 's Soho Square , in Edinburgh 's Parliament Square , in Three Cocks Lane in Gloucester , and near the south portal of Lichfield Cathedral , and is depicted extensively in literature and other media . Charleston , South Carolina , and South Kingstown , Rhode Island , are named after him .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
29 May 1630 – May 1638 : The Duke of Cornwall
May 1638 – 30 January 1649 : The Prince of Wales
30 January 1649 – 6 February 1685 : His Majesty The King
The official style of Charles II was " Charles the Second , by the Grace of God , King of England , Scotland , France and Ireland , Defender of the Faith , etc . " The claim to France was only nominal , and had been asserted by every English monarch since Edward III , regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled .
= = = Honours = = =
KG : Knight of the Garter , 21 May 1638
= = = Arms = = =
As Prince of Wales , Charles 's coat of arms was the royal arms ( which he later inherited ) , differenced by a label of three points Argent . His arms as monarch were : Quarterly , I and IV Grandquarterly , Azure three fleurs @-@ de @-@ lis Or ( for France ) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or ( for England ) ; II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory @-@ counter @-@ flory Gules ( for Scotland ) ; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent ( for Ireland ) .
= = Issue = =
By Marguerite or Margaret de Carteret
Letters claiming that she bore Charles a son named James de la Cloche in 1646 are dismissed by historians as forgeries .
By Lucy Walter ( c . 1630 – 1658 )
James Crofts , later Scott ( 1649 – 1685 ) , created Duke of Monmouth ( 1663 ) in England and Duke of Buccleuch ( 1663 ) in Scotland . Ancestor of Sarah , Duchess of York . Monmouth was born nine months after Walter and Charles II first met , and was acknowledged as his son by Charles II , but James II suggested that he was the son of another of her lovers , Colonel Robert Sidney , rather than Charles . Lucy Walter had a daughter , Mary Crofts , born after James in 1651 , but Charles II was not the father , since he and Walter parted in September 1649 .
By Elizabeth Killigrew ( 1622 – 1680 ) , daughter of Sir Robert Killigrew , married Francis Boyle , 1st Viscount Shannon , in 1660
Charlotte Jemima Henrietta Maria FitzRoy ( 1650 – 1684 ) , married firstly James Howard and secondly William Paston , 2nd Earl of Yarmouth
By Catherine Pegge
Charles FitzCharles ( 1657 – 1680 ) , known as " Don Carlo " , created Earl of Plymouth ( 1675 )
Catherine FitzCharles ( born 1658 ; she either died young or became a nun at Dunkirk )
By Barbara née Villiers ( 1641 – 1709 ) , wife of Roger Palmer , 1st Earl of Castlemaine ; created Duchess of Cleveland in her own right
Lady Anne Palmer ( Fitzroy ) ( 1661 – 1722 ) , married Thomas Lennard , 1st Earl of Sussex . She may have been the daughter of Roger Palmer , but Charles accepted her . Sarah , Duchess of York , descends from Anne by both parents .
Charles Fitzroy ( 1662 – 1730 ) , created Duke of Southampton ( 1675 ) , became 2nd Duke of Cleveland ( 1709 )
Henry Fitzroy ( 1663 – 1690 ) , created Earl of Euston ( 1672 ) , Duke of Grafton ( 1675 ) , also 7 @-@ greats @-@ grandfather of Diana , Princess of Wales
Charlotte Fitzroy ( 1664 – 1717 ) , married Edward Lee , 1st Earl of Lichfield
George Fitzroy ( 1665 – 1716 ) , created Earl of Northumberland ( 1674 ) , Duke of Northumberland ( 1678 )
Barbara ( Benedicta ) Fitzroy ( 1672 – 1737 ) – She was probably the child of John Churchill , later Duke of Marlborough , who was another of Cleveland 's many lovers , and was never acknowledged by Charles as his own daughter .
By Nell Gwyn ( 1650 – 1687 )
Charles Beauclerk ( 1670 – 1726 ) , created Duke of St Albans ( 1684 )
James , Lord Beauclerk ( 1671 – 1680 )
By Louise Renée de Penancoet de Kérouaille ( 1649 – 1734 ) , created Duchess of Portsmouth in her own right ( 1673 )
Charles Lennox ( 1672 – 1723 ) , created Duke of Richmond ( 1675 ) in England and Duke of Lennox ( 1675 ) in Scotland . Ancestor of Diana , Princess of Wales ; Camilla , Duchess of Cornwall ; and Sarah , Duchess of York .
By Mary ' Moll ' Davis , courtesan and actress of repute
Lady Mary Tudor ( 1673 – 1726 ) , married Edward Radclyffe , 2nd Earl of Derwentwater ; after Edward 's death , she married Henry Graham , and upon his death she married James Rooke .
Other probable mistresses :
Christabella Wyndham
Hortense Mancini , Duchess of Mazarin
Winifred Wells – one of the Queen 's Maids of Honour
Jane Roberts – the daughter of a clergyman
Mrs Knight – a famous singer
Elizabeth Berkeley , née Bagot , Dowager Countess of Falmouth – the widow of Charles Berkeley , 1st Earl of Falmouth
Elizabeth Fitzgerald , Countess of Kildare
= = Ancestry = =
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= Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional Puertorriqueña =
The Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional ( English : Armed Forces of National Liberation , FALN ) was a Puerto Rican clandestine paramilitary organization that , through direct action , advocated complete independence for Puerto Rico . At the time of its dissolution , the FALN was responsible for more than 120 bomb attacks on United States targets between 1974 and 1983 .
The FALN was led by Filiberto Ojeda Ríos , who was one of the FBI 's most wanted criminals . The group served as the predecessor of the Boricua Popular Army . Several of the organization 's members were arrested and convicted for conspiracy to commit robbery and for firearms and explosives violations . On August 11 , 1999 then United States President Bill Clinton offered clemency to sixteen of the convicted militants under the condition that they renounce any kind of violent manifestation . This decision drew criticism towards the Clinton administration from figures that include the Office of the United States Attorney , the FBI , and the United States Congress .
= = Philosophy = =
The group was a 1970s Marxist – Leninist militant group which fought to transform Puerto Rico into a communist state . The organization 's ideological basis consisted of five reforms that they expected to implement , these were :
Directing the armed and political struggle in accordance with the Marxist @-@ Leninist principle of a broad front including a popular sectors willing to [ join ] the armed struggle right away
Agglutination of all forces based upon the principle of coordination between political work and military work under the leadership of a party composed of combatants assigned to different tasks
Application of the principle of internal ideological debate , a study of Marxist @-@ Leninist ideology and the use of criticism and self @-@ criticism
Implementation of the Stalinist ideological position on the concept of " nation " with regard to American reality
Application of the principle of the priority of the struggle for independence of Puerto Rico over any question of internal solidarity , demanding concrete support for our armed struggle as a priority matter in the international struggle against colonialism
= = History = =
The Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional was founded in the 1960s under the leadership of Filiberto Ojeda Rios . They were one of several organizations established during this decade that promoted " clandestine armed struggles " against the United States government that the movement described as the " colonial forces of the United States " . The group was founded following decades of alleged harassment , attacks , illegal imprisonments and assassination against members of the Puerto Rican independence movement . The group was part of a movement that included other clandestine organizations , including the Movimiento Independentista Revolucionario Armado , Organización de Voluntarios por la Revolución Puertorriqueña and Los Comandos Armados de Liberación , and served as predecessor for what would become the Boricua Popular Army . The organization 's intention was to draw attention to what they described as the " colonial condition " of Puerto Rico through armed action against the United States government and military .
The modus operandi of the FALN was to perform bombing and incendiary actions and then admit responsibility through press releases . The first of these news releases announced the group 's intention ; in this document they admitted responsibility for attacks on several locations in New York to weaken the " Yanki capitalist monopoly " , and demanded the release of five political prisoners , these were : Lolita Lebrón , Oscar Collazo , Rafael Cancel Miranda , Andres Figueroa and Irvin Flores . In this communique the organization warns that they had opened two fronts , in Puerto Rico and the United States respectively , the goal of these were to organize a People 's Revolutionary Army which they expected would " rid Puerto Rico of Yanki colonialism " . Both fronts were supported and maintained by allies within Puerto Rico and North America .
The group openly expressed their opposition towards any government that was guided by any other system besides the Marxist – Leninist principles and rejected any kind of support or solidarity towards the Puerto Rican independence coming from the government of these countries . Of these countries they accused the governments of Mexico and Venezuela directly , expressing that the actions taken by these governments were hypocritical in origin , citing that while the Venezuelan government supported the independence of Puerto Rico they also supported the regime led by José Napoleón Duarte in El Salvador . The group went further and claimed that the Venezuelan government was a " protector and enforcer of the Yankee imperialist plans to expand their grip in the Caribbean and Central America " and claimed that Venezuelan Army was receiving modern weapons in exchange . In their fifth communique the FALN expressed their dislike for several agencies of the United States government , they mentioned the Federal Bureau of Investigation , Central Intelligence Agency and the Department of Immigration . They claimed that the Department of Immigration was trying to blame the use of a failing economic system on the Chicano population , and that it was responsible for massive deportation and repressive action against Chicano and Mexican workers . In the communique the organization also expresses their confidence on the ability of the group 's mobile guerrilla units to attack any location within the continental United States . Regardless of their activism against the American government the FALN extended friendship and solidarity towards the United States working class , whom they described as " allies in the struggle against Yanki fascism " . They said that the reason for this was that the American working class was being pushed out of work forced to unemployment while the nation 's corporations were gaining billions of dollars in profits . The FALN used some of their communiques to advertise other causes that they felt were fair , including support towards the government of Panama when this country wanted the control of the Panama Canal .
= = = FALN Pardons of 1999 = = =
On August 11 , 1999 , President Bill Clinton offered conditional clemency to sixteen members of the FALN convicted for conspiracy to commit robbery , conspiracy to bomb @-@ making , and sedition , as well as for firearms and explosives violations . None of the sixteen were convicted of bombings or any crime which injured another person , and all of the sixteen had served nineteen years or longer in prison , which was a longer sentence than such crimes typically received , according to the White House . Clinton offered clemency , on condition that the prisoners renounce violence , at the appeal of 10 Nobel Peace Prize laureates , President Jimmy Carter , the Archbishop of New York , and the Archbishop of Puerto Rico . The commutation was opposed by U.S. Attorney 's Office , the FBI , and the Federal Bureau of Prisons and criticised by many including former victims of FALN terrorist activities , the Fraternal Order of Police , and members of Congress . Hillary Clinton in her campaign for Senator also criticised the commutation , although she had earlier been supportive .
The former New York City police officer Richard Pascarella , who was blinded and lost five fingers on his right hand in an FALN bombing , also publicly opposed clemency to FALN members , claiming : " They will again voice their ideology on the American public with a bomb and with a gun . "
= = Incidents = =
= = Known group members = =
Filiberto Ojeda Ríos , co @-@ founder ; former leader
Edwin Cortes
Elizam Escobar
Ricardo Jimenez
Oscar López Rivera
Adolfo Matos
Dylcia Noemi Pagan
Alberto Rodriguez
Alicia Rodríguez
Ida Luz Rodriguez
Luis Rosa
Juan Enrique Segarra @-@ Palmer
Alejandrina Torres
Carmen Valentin
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= Decompression ( diving ) =
The decompression of a diver is the reduction in ambient pressure experienced during ascent from depth . It is also the process of elimination of dissolved inert gases from the diver 's body , which occurs during the ascent , during pauses in the ascent known as decompression stops , and after surfacing until the gas concentrations reach equilibrium . Divers breathing gas at ambient pressure need to ascend at a rate determined by their exposure to pressure and the breathing gas in use . A diver who only breathes gas at atmospheric pressure when free @-@ diving or snorkelling will not usually need to decompress , Divers using an atmospheric diving suit do not need to decompress as they are never exposed to high ambient pressure .
When a diver descends in the water the hydrostatic pressure , and therefore the ambient pressure , rises . Because breathing gas is supplied at ambient pressure , some of this gas dissolves into the diver 's blood and is transferred by the blood to other tissues . Inert gas such as nitrogen or helium continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the diver is in a state of equilibrium with the breathing gas in the diver 's lungs , at which point the diver is saturated for that depth and breathing mixture , or the depth , and therefore the pressure , is changed . During ascent , the ambient pressure is reduced , and at some stage the inert gases dissolved in any given tissue will be at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state and start to diffuse out again . If the pressure reduction is sufficient , excess gas may form bubbles , which may lead to decompression sickness , a possibly debilitating or life @-@ threatening condition . It is essential that divers manage their decompression to avoid excessive bubble formation and decompression sickness . A mismanaged decompression usually results from reducing the ambient pressure too quickly for the amount of gas in solution to be eliminated safely . These bubbles may block arterial blood supply to tissues or directly cause tissue damage . If the decompression is effective , the asymptomatic venous microbubbles present after most dives are eliminated from the diver 's body in the alveolar capillary beds of the lungs . If they are not given enough time , or more bubbles are created than can be eliminated safely , the bubbles grow in size and number causing the symptoms and injuries of decompression sickness . The immediate goal of controlled decompression is to avoid development of symptoms of bubble formation in the tissues of the diver , and the long @-@ term goal is to avoid complications due to sub @-@ clinical decompression injury .
The mechanisms of bubble formation and the damage bubbles cause has been the subject of medical research for a considerable time and several hypotheses have been advanced and tested . Tables and algorithms for predicting the outcome of decompression schedules for specified hyperbaric exposures have been proposed , tested and used , and in many cases , superseded . Although constantly refined and generally considered acceptably reliable , the actual outcome for any individual diver remains slightly unpredictable . Although decompression retains some risk , this is now generally considered acceptable for dives within the well tested range of normal recreational and professional diving . Nevertheless , all currently popular decompression procedures advise a ' safety stop ' additional to any stops required by the algorithm , usually of about three to five minutes at 3 to 6 metres ( 10 to 20 ft ) , even on an otherwise continuous no @-@ stop ascent .
Decompression may be continuous or staged . A staged decompression is interrupted by decompression stops at calculated depth intervals , but the entire ascent is actually part of the decompression and the ascent rate is critical to harmless elimination of inert gas . A no @-@ decompression dive , or more accurately , a dive with no @-@ stop decompression , relies on limiting the ascent rate for avoidance of excessive bubble formation . The elapsed time at surface pressure immediately after a dive is also an important part of decompression and can be thought of as the last decompression stop of a dive . It can take up to 24 hours for the body to return to its normal atmospheric levels of inert gas saturation after a dive . When time is spent on the surface between dives this is known as the " surface interval " and is considered when calculating decompression requirements for the subsequent dive .
= = Decompression theory = =
Decompression theory is the study and modelling of the transfer of the inert gas component of breathing gases from the gas in the lungs to the tissues of the diver and back during exposure to variations in ambient pressure . In the case of underwater diving and compressed air work , this mostly involves ambient pressures greater than the local surface pressure — but astronauts , high altitude mountaineers , and occupants of unpressurized aircraft , are exposed to ambient pressures less than standard sea level atmospheric pressure . In all cases , the symptoms of decompression sickness occur during or within a relatively short period of hours , or occasionally days , after a significant reduction of ambient pressure .
= = = Physics and physiology of decompression = = =
The absorption of gases in liquids depends on the solubility of the specific gas in the specific liquid , the concentration of gas , customarily expressed as partial pressure , and temperature . The main variable in the study of decompression theory is pressure .
Once dissolved , distribution of the dissolved gas may be by diffusion , where there is no bulk flow of the solvent , or by perfusion where the solvent ( in this case blood ) is circulated around the diver 's body , where gas can diffuse to local regions of lower concentration . Given sufficient time at a specific partial pressure in the breathing gas , the concentration in the tissues stabilizes , or saturates , at a rate that depends on solubility , diffusion rate and perfusion , all of which vary in the different tissues of the body . This process is referred to as in @-@ gassing , and is usually modeled as an inverse exponential process .
If the concentration of the inert gas in the breathing gas is reduced below that of any of the tissues , there is a tendency for gas to return from the tissues to the breathing gas . This is known as out @-@ gassing , and occurs during decompression , when the reduction in ambient pressure reduces the partial pressure of the inert gas in the lungs . This process may be complicated by the formation of gas bubbles , and the modeling is more complex and varied .
The combined concentrations of gases in any given tissue depend on the history of pressure and gas composition . Under equilibrium conditions , the total concentration of dissolved gases is less than the ambient pressure — as oxygen is metabolized in the tissues , and the carbon dioxide produced is much more soluble . However , during a reduction in ambient pressure , the rate of pressure reduction may exceed the rate at which gas is eliminated by diffusion and perfusion . If the concentration gets too high , it may reach a stage where bubble formation can occur in the supersaturated tissues . When the pressure of gases in a bubble exceed the combined external pressures of ambient pressure and the surface tension of the bubble @-@ liquid interface , the bubbles grow , and this growth can damage tissue .
If the dissolved inert gases come out of solution within the tissues of the body and form bubbles , they may cause the condition known as decompression sickness , or DCS , also known as divers ' disease , the bends or caisson disease . However , not all bubbles result in symptoms , and doppler bubble detection shows that venous bubbles are present in a significant number of asymptomatic divers after relatively mild hyperbaric exposures .
Since bubbles can form in or migrate to any part of the body , DCS can produce many symptoms , and its effects may vary from joint pain and rashes to paralysis and death . Individual susceptibility can vary from day to day , and different individuals under the same conditions may be affected differently or not at all . The classification of types of DCS by its symptoms has evolved since its original description .
The risk of decompression sickness after diving can be managed through effective decompression procedures and contracting it is now uncommon , though it remains to some degree unpredictable . Its potential severity has driven much research to prevent it and divers almost universally use decompression tables or dive computers to limit or monitor their exposure and to control their ascent speed and decompression procedures . If DCS is contracted , it is usually treated by hyperbaric oxygen therapy in a recompression chamber . If treated early , there is a significantly higher chance of successful recovery .
A diver who only breathes gas at atmospheric pressure when free @-@ diving or snorkelling will not usually need to decompress but it is possible to get decompression sickness , or taravana , from repetitive deep free @-@ diving with short surface intervals .
= = = Decompression models = = =
Actual rates of diffusion and perfusion , and solubility of gases in specific physiological tissues are not generally known , and vary considerably . However mathematical models have been proposed that approximate the real situation to a greater or lesser extent . These models predict whether symptomatic bubble formation is likely to occur for a given dive profile . Algorithms based on these models produce decompression tables . In personal dive computers , they produce a real @-@ time estimate of decompression status and display it for the diver .
Two different concepts have been used for decompression modelling . The first assumes that dissolved gas is eliminated while in the dissolved phase , and that bubbles are not formed during asymptomatic decompression . The second , which is supported by experimental observation , assumes that bubbles are formed during most asymptomatic decompressions , and that gas elimination must consider both dissolved and bubble phases .
Early decompression models tended to use the dissolved phase models , and adjusted them by factors derived from experimental observations to reduce the risk of symptomatic bubble formation .
There are two main groups of dissolved phase models :
In parallel compartment models , several compartments with varying rates of gas absorption ( half time ) , are considered to exist independently of each other , and the limiting condition is controlled by the compartment that shows the worst case for a specific exposure profile . These compartments represent conceptual tissues and don 't represent specific organic tissues . They merely represent the range of possibilities for the organic tissues . The second group uses serial compartments , which assumes that gas diffuses through one compartment before it reaches the next .
More recent models attempt to model bubble dynamics , also usually by simplified models , to facilitate the computation of tables , and later to allow real time predictions during a dive . Models that approximate bubble dynamics are varied . They range from those that are not much more complex than the dissolved phase models , to those that require considerably greater computational power .
= = Decompression practice = =
The practice of decompression by divers comprises the planning and monitoring of the profile indicated by the algorithms or tables of the chosen decompression model , the equipment available and appropriate to the circumstances of the dive , and the procedures authorized for the equipment and profile to be used . There is a large range of options in all of these aspects . In many cases decompression practice takes place in a framework or " decompression system " which imposes extra constraints on diver behaviour . Such constraints may include : limiting the ascent rate ; making stops during the ascent additional to any decompression stops ; limiting the number of dives performed in a day ; limiting the number of days of diving within a week ; avoiding dive profiles that have large numbers of ascents and descents ; avoiding heavy work immediately after a dive ; not diving prior to flying or ascending to altitude ; and organizational requirements .
= = = Procedures = = =
Decompression may be continuous or staged , where the ascent is interrupted by stops at regular depth intervals , but the entire ascent is part of the decompression , and ascent rate can be critical to harmless elimination of inert gas . What is commonly known as no @-@ decompression diving , or more accurately no @-@ stop decompression , relies on limiting ascent rate for avoidance of excessive bubble formation .
The procedures used for decompression depend on the mode of diving , the available equipment , the site and environment and the actual dive profile . Standardized procedures have been developed that provide an acceptable level of risk in appropriate circumstances . Different sets of procedures are used by commercial , military , scientific and recreational divers , though there is considerable overlap where similar equipment is used , and some concepts are common to all decompression procedures .
Normal diving decompression procedures range from continuous ascent for no @-@ stop dives , where the necessary decompression occurs during the ascent , which is kept to a controlled rate for this purpose , through staged decompression in open water or in a bell , to decompression from saturation , which generally occurs in a decompression chamber that is part of a saturation system . Decompression may be accelerated by the use of breathing gases that provide an increased concentration differential of the inert gas components of the breathing mixture by maximizing the acceptable oxygen content .
Therapeutic recompression is a medical procedure for treatment of decompression sickness , and is followed by decompression , usually to a relatively conservative schedule .
= = = Equipment = = =
Equipment directly associated with decompression includes :
The decompression tables or software used to plan the dive ,
The equipment used to control and monitor depth and dive time , such as :
personal dive computers , depth gauges , and timers ,
Shot lines , surface marker buoys , and decompression trapezes
diving stages ( baskets ) , wet and dry bells ,
deck and saturation decompression chambers , and
hyperbaric treatment chambers .
The supply of decompression gases , which may be :
carried by the diver ,
supplied from the surface via the diver 's umbilical or bell umbilical , or
supplied in the chamber at the surface .
= = History of decompression research and development = =
The symptoms of decompression sickness are caused by damage from the formation and growth of bubbles of inert gas within the tissues and by blockage of arterial blood supply to tissues by gas bubbles and other emboli consequential to bubble formation and tissue damage .
The precise mechanisms of bubble formation and the damage they cause has been the subject of medical research for a considerable time and several hypotheses have been advanced and tested . Tables and algorithms for predicting the outcome of decompression schedules for specified hyperbaric exposures have been proposed , tested , and used , and usually found to be of some use but not entirely reliable . Decompression remains a procedure with some risk , but this has been reduced and is generally considered acceptable for dives within the well @-@ tested range of commercial , military and recreational diving .
= = = Early developments = = =
The first recorded experimental work related to decompression was conducted by Robert Boyle , who subjected experimental animals to reduced ambient pressure by use of a primitive vacuum pump . In the earliest experiments the subjects died from asphyxiation , but in later experiments signs of what was later to become known as decompression sickness were observed .
Later , when technological advances allowed the use of pressurization of mines and caissons to exclude water ingress , miners were observed to present symptoms of what would become known as caisson disease , compressed air illness , the bends , and decompression sickness .
Once it was recognized that the symptoms were caused by gas bubbles , and that re @-@ compression could relieve the symptoms , Paul Bert showed in 1878 that decompression sickness is caused by nitrogen bubbles released from tissues and blood during or after decompression , and showed the advantages of breathing oxygen after developing decompression sickness .
Further work showed that it was possible to avoid symptoms by slow decompression , and subsequently various theoretical models have been derived to predict safe decompression profiles and treatment of decompression sickness .
= = = Start of systematic work on decompression models = = =
In 1908 John Scott Haldane prepared the first recognized decompression table for the British Admiralty , based on extensive experiments on goats using an end point of symptomatic DCS .
George D. Stillson of the United States Navy tested and refined Haldane 's tables in 1912 , and this research led to the first publication of the United States Navy Diving Manual and the establishment of a Navy Diving School in Newport , Rhode Island . At about the same time Leonard Erskine Hill was working on a system of continuous uniform decompression
The Naval School , Diving and Salvage was re @-@ established at the Washington Navy Yard in 1927 , and the Navy Experimental Diving Unit ( NEDU ) was moved to the same venue . In the following years , the Experimental Diving Unit developed the US Navy Air Decompression Tables , which became the accepted world standard for diving with compressed air .
During the 1930s , Hawkins , Schilling and Hansen conducted extensive experimental dives to determine allowable supersaturation ratios for different tissue compartments for Haldanean model , Albert R. Behnke and others experimented with oxygen for re @-@ compression therapy , and the US Navy 1937 tables were published .
In 1941 , Altitude decompression sickness was first treated with hyperbaric oxygen. and the revised US Navy Decompression Tables were published in 1956 .
= = = Beginnings of alternative models = = =
In 1965 LeMessurier and Hills published A thermodynamic approach arising from a study on Torres Strait diving techniques , which suggests that decompression by conventional models forms bubbles that are then eliminated by re @-@ dissolving at the decompression stops — which is slower than elimination while still in solution . This indicates the importance of minimizing bubble phase for efficient gas elimination , Groupe d 'Etudes et Recherches Sous @-@ marines published the French Navy MN65 decompression tables , and Goodman and Workman introduced re @-@ compression tables using oxygen to accelerate elimination of inert gas .
The Royal Navy Physiological Laboratory published tables based on Hempleman 's tissue slab diffusion model in 1972 , isobaric counterdiffusion in subjects who breathed one inert gas mixture while being surrounded by another was first described by Graves , Idicula , Lambertsen , and Quinn in 1973 , and the French government published the MT74 Tables du Ministère du Travail in 1974 .
From 1976 , decompression sickness testing sensitivity was improved by ultrasonic methods that can detect mobile venous bubbles before symptoms of DCS become apparent .
= = = Several more approaches were developed = = =
Paul K Weathersby , Louis D Homer and Edward T Flynn introduced survival analysis into the study of decompression sickness in 1982 .
Albert A. Bühlmann published Decompression – Decompression sickness in 1984 . Bühlmann recognized the problems associated with altitude diving , and proposed a method that calculated maximum nitrogen loading in the tissues at a particular ambient pressure by modifying Haldane 's allowable supersaturation ratios to increase linearly with depth . In 1984 DCIEM ( Defence and Civil Institution of Environmental Medicine , Canada ) released No @-@ Decompression and Decompression Tables based on the Kidd / Stubbs serial compartment model and extensive ultrasonic testing , and Edward D. Thalmann published the USN E @-@ L algorithm and tables for constant PO2 Nitrox closed circuit rebreather applications , and extended use of the E @-@ L model for constant PO2 Heliox CCR in 1985 . The E @-@ L model may be interpreted as a bubble model . The 1986 Swiss Sport Diving Tables were based on the Haldanean Bühlmann model , as were the 1987 SAA Bühlmann tables in the UK .
= = = Bubble models started to become prevalent = = =
D. E. Yount and D. C. Hoffman proposed a bubble model in 1986 , and the BSAC ' 88 tables were based on Hennessy 's bubble model .
The 1990 DCIEM sport diving tables were based on fitting experimental data , rather than a physiological model , and the 1990 French Navy Marine Nationale 90 ( MN90 ) decompression tables were a development of the earlier Haldanean model of the MN65 tables .
In 1991 D.E. Yount described a development of his earlier bubble model , the Varied Permeability Model , and the 1992 French civilian Tables du Ministère du Travail ( MT92 ) also have a bubble model interpretation .
NAUI published Trimix and Nitrox tables based on the Wienke reduced gradient bubble model ( RGBM ) model in 1999 , followed by recreational air tables based on the RGBM model in 2001 .
In 2007 , Wayne Gerth and David Doolette published VVal 18 and VVal 18M parameter sets for tables and programs based on the Thalmann E @-@ L algorithm , and produce an internally compatible set of decompression tables for open circuit and CCR on air and Nitrox , including in water air / oxygen decompression and surface decompression on oxygen . In 2008 , the US Navy Diving Manual Revision 6 included a version of the 2007 tables developed by Gerth and Doolette .
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= Angus Paton =
Sir Thomas Angus Lyall Paton CMG FRS FREng FICE FIStructE ( 10 May 1905 – 7 April 1999 ) was a British civil engineer from Jersey . Paton was born into a family that had founded the civil engineering firms of Easton , Gibb & Son and Sir Alexander Gibb & Partners and he would spend his entire professional career working for the latter . Following his graduation from University College London one of his first jobs was the construction of a dam in Maentwrog in Wales . Paton later became an expert on dams and much of his career was devoted to their construction . In 1931 he undertook an economic survey of Canada which recommended a programme of works for its port system . This report was still being used into the 1970s . During the Second World War Paton was involved with the construction of gun emplacements in the Dardanelles , Turkey and of caissons for the Mulberry Harbours used after the Invasion of Normandy .
After the Second World War , Paton undertook an economic survey of Syria , which made recommendations for port , water infrastructure , irrigation and hydroelectric improvements . This was followed by a similar report on Lebanon and one on the possibility of extending railways from Northern Rhodesia to neighbouring countries . From 1946 , Paton worked almost exclusively on hydroelectric projects , beginning with the Owen Falls Hydroelectric Scheme in Uganda . He also worked on the Kariba Dam in Zambia and Zimbabwe , which was the largest dam in the world when built and for which he was made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George . He was also involved with the Indus Basin Project , the Aswan High Dam , the Hendrik Verwoerd Dam , the P.K. Le Roux Dam , the Spioenkop Dam and the Tarbela Dam . Paton was knighted in 1973 and retired in 1977 , remaining a senior consultant to Gibb and Partners . He spent his retirement in Jersey , where he died at St Helier on 7 April 1999 . Paton was dedicated to his professional career and served as President of both the Institution of Civil Engineers ( November 1970 - November 1971 ) and the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers .
= = Early life = =
Angus , the name he preferred , was born on the island of Jersey in the Channel Islands on the 10 May 1905 . His father , Thomas Lyall Paton , was a journalist and author . His mother , Janet , was the daughter of Easton Gibb , founder of Easton , Gibb & Son , a firm of civil engineering contractors . His uncle on his mother 's side , Alexander Gibb , was also a civil engineer ; and had founded Sir Alexander Gibb & Partners , where Paton would spend his professional career . Paton left Jersey with his family in 1909 and spent a year in England before being sent to school in Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer in France then Lausanne in Switzerland . He returned to England at the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 . He spent the next six years living in St Leonards @-@ on @-@ Sea in Sussex where he lived next door to his future wife , Joan Delme @-@ Murray .
Paton spent four years at Brunswick preparatory school in Haywards Heath , Sussex before studying at Cheltenham College . He was a good student , which he put down to an excellent maths teacher , a good memory and being " not much good at games " . On Alexander Gibb 's advice Paton read for a degree in civil engineering at University College London ( UCL ) , where he had won a scholarship at the age of 17 . Whilst at UCL Paton earned half @-@ colours for long distance running and became the only student to graduate with a first class honours Bachelor of Science degree in engineering in 1925 .
= = Work = =
= = = Post @-@ graduation = = =
Upon graduation Paton joined Sir Alexander Gibb & Partners , which had been founded in 1922 . One of his first jobs there was to assist with the design of a new jetty for Barking Power Station . In 1927 he worked on a dam at Maentwrog in North Wales and between 1932 and 1933 was resident engineer on the Glenlee portion of the Galloway hydro @-@ electric power scheme . Paton was seconded to the Rangoon Port Trust in 1930 to construct a wharf for the export of Lead from Burma . This wharf survived a serious earthquake on 5 May 1930 and was opened on 20 February 1931 . On 10 April 1931 Paton sailed to Canada to undertake a survey of its ports and outline the additional facilities that would be required in the next 25 – 50 years . He was assisted in this for six weeks by Ralph Freeman who had designed the Sydney Harbour Bridge . The report was issued on 15 January 1932 but was not implemented until 1935 with the election of William Lyon Mackenzie King as Prime Minister of Canada . The report 's findings continued to be in use until the 1970s . Paton was responsible for the construction of a new brewery for Guinness in Park Royal , London from October 1933 to October 1936 . This was the biggest job of his career thus far and involved the construction of seven steel framed buildings , a power station , a storage silo , roads and railway sidings . Paton also built industrial and trading estates in Wales , West Cumberland and London . He was made a partner in the firm in 1938 .
= = = Second World War = = =
During the Second World War the running of Gibb and Partners fell largely to Paton and James Guthrie Brown . Gibb and Partners gained a large number of government contracts and within a few weeks of the start of the war in September 1939 the workforce increased by 2000 . Paton designed and sited several Royal Ordnance Factories ; and in March 1940 travelled to Turkey to construct an iron and steel works there . Whilst in Turkey he was contracted to build emplacements to contain guns from mothballed battleships in the Dardanelles . The construction of the emplacements was completed but the guns would later be prevented from reaching the site by the Axis occupation of Greece . Paton made his way back to Britain via Greece , Italy and France and arrived home two days prior to the Italian declaration of war against the Allies on 10 June 1940 . He also constructed a plant at Barry in South Wales for the extraction of Magnesium Hydroxide from the sea , a turbine factory for British Thomson @-@ Houston Company and a £ 7 million underground aircraft engine factory . From 1943 @-@ 44 Paton supervised the construction , in London Docks , of the precast concrete caissons required for the construction of Mulberry Harbours following the Normandy Landings . From 1944 @-@ 45 he was in charge of the rebuilding of houses damaged by V @-@ 2 rockets in the London districts of Wanstead and Woodford .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
In 1945 Paton began construction of a wool factory at Darlington and a Rayon factory at Carrickfergus , both jobs were completed in 1951 . In 1946 Paton was put in charge of an economic survey of Syria which required him to traverse the country by aircraft and car . The report , issued in 1947 , recommended port , water infrastructure and irrigation improvements and the construction of a hydroelectric power station on the Euphrates River . Paton undertook a similar survey in Lebanon from 1947 to 1948 . He was also involved in a report on the possibility of running a railroad from Northern Rhodesia to Dar es Salaam , Mtwara and Nyasaland .
Paton worked extensively in the field of hydroelectric power and became regarded as a world authority on the matter . From 1946 to 1955 he worked on the Owen Falls Hydroelectric Scheme in Uganda which resulted in the complete stoppage of the White Nile for the first time in history . Following the completion of Owen Falls Dam , Paton worked on the first stage of the Kariba Dam on the Zambezi River , of which he said that it was the " highlight of [ his ] professional career " . Paton made 22 visits to the site , of a total duration of 267 days . The project itself was , at 420 ft high , the largest dam built until then and , despite some of the worst floods on record hitting the project , was completed in 1960 at £ 5 million under budget . In recognition of his work on the Kariba project Paton was made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George on 1 January 1960 . As a result of the success of the Kariba project Gibb and Partners became involved with many of the biggest dam projects of the next two decades including works in Sudan , Argentina , South Africa and Pakistan .
Paton was later involved in the second stage of the Kariba Project and in the Aswan High Dam project . In 1955 he became a senior partner in Sir Alexander Gibb & Partners upon the death of Alistair Gibb in a polo accident . From 1960 until 1977 , when he retired , Paton was the responsible partner for the firm 's involvement in the supervision of the $ 1 @.@ 2 billion World Bank Indus Basin Project . This included the construction of the Mangla Dam between 1962 and 1968 .
In 1962 Gibb & Partners was one of two firms chosen ( with Coyne et Bellier ) by the South African government to build two dams on the Orange River . The first to be constructed was the Hendrik Verwoerd Dam which was officially opened in March 1972 . The second , the P.K. Le Roux Dam , was finished in 1977 . Following the success of this project Paton was retained to build a third , smaller dam , the Spioenkop Dam , which was finished in 1972 . Paton was also involved with the tunnelling and underground powerhouse for the Drakensberg Pumped Storage Scheme . Paton was retained by the World Bank once more in 1967 to supervise the construction of the Tarbela Dam in Pakistan , which was completed in 1976 . He also worked on the modernisation of the Royal Mint which involved the move from its 600 @-@ year home at Tower Hill to Llantrisant in Wales in time for decimalisation in 1971 .
= = Retirement = =
Paton retired from the firm in 1977 but worked for them again as a senior consultant between 1979 and 1985 . During this time he worked on the James Bay Project , a large hydroelectric and infrastructure development in Quebec , Canada . Paton spent the last twenty years of his life in retirement in Jersey in the Channel Islands . In his working life he had visited 48 countries and spent 3152 days abroad . During his career with Gibb and Partners he had grown the company from a 400 employee , home @-@ based company to one which employed more than 1500 engineers working in 63 countries . He was also largely responsible for leading the trend of exporting British technical expertise around the world .
Paton made an endowment to the Royal Academy of Engineering in 1986 , as a result the Academy awards the Sir Angus Paton Bursary of £ 7000 annually to a masters student . Paton married on 7 June 1933 to Joan with whom he raised two daughters and two sons . Joan died on 7 January 1964 , an event which spurred him to become more involved in his profession . Paton died at St Helier in Jersey on 7 April 1999 .
= = Professional recognition = =
= = = Institutional and committee memberships = = =
In addition to his busy work schedule Paton served his profession on numerous councils and committees . The first of these was as chairman of the Association of Consulting Engineers between 1949 and 1950 , an association of which he was made an honorary member in 1984 . Paton served on the council of the Institution of Civil Engineers from 1954 to 1959 and again from 1961 to 1966 . He was elected vice president of that institution , a position he filled from 1966 to 1970 when he was elected president . Whilst serving as president he started New Civil Engineer magazine to keep members up to date with civil engineering news .
From 1960 to 1965 Paton was a board member of the Hydraulics Research Station of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and from 1964 to 1975 he served on the council of the Construction Industry Research and Information Association . Paton was also the British representative on the committee of the International Commission on Large Dams between 1966 and 1973 . From 1968 to 1970 he was chairman of the National Economic Development Council 's working party on large industrial construction sites and from 1969 to 1974 was a member of the Natural Environment Research Council . Paton was vice @-@ chairman of the Council of Engineering Institutions from 1971 to 1972 and chairman for 1972 to1973 . From 1974 to 1979 he was chairman of the Ministry of Agriculture , Fisheries and Food flood protection research committee . Paton was also a member emeritus of the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers and served as their president in 1980 .
= = = Other honours = = =
Paton was awarded many honours for his contributions to civil engineering . In 1952 he was made an honorary fellow of University College London and he was also a fellow of the Institution of Structural Engineers and the American Society of Civil Engineers . Paton was made a fellow of the Royal Society in 1969 and served as one of its vice @-@ presidents for the 1977 @-@ 78 session . Paton became one of the few practising engineers to have held that post .
He was created a knight bachelor in the Queen 's Birthday Honours of 1973 in recognition of his services to the construction industry . This knighthood was personally conferred upon him by Queen Elizabeth II on 7 November 1973 . In 1976 Paton became a founding member of the Fellowship of Engineering and received an honorary Doctorate of Science ( DSc ) in engineering from the University of London in 1977 . In 1978 he was made an honorary fellow of Imperial College London and received another honorary DSc in engineering from Bristol University .
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= Patrick Star =
Patrick Star is a fictional character in the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants . He is voiced by actor Bill Fagerbakke , who also voices numerous other characters on the show . Created and designed by marine biologist and cartoonist Stephen Hillenburg , the series creator , Patrick first appeared on television in the show 's pilot episode " Help Wanted " on May 1 , 1999 .
Depicted as an overweight , dimwitted pink starfish , Patrick lives under a rock in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom next door to Squidward Tentacles ' moai . His most significant character trait is his lack of common sense , which sometimes leads him and his best friend , main character SpongeBob SquarePants , into trouble . Patrick is unemployed and a self @-@ proclaimed expert in the " art of doing nothing " .
The character has received positive reactions from critics and fans alike ; however , he has been involved in a public controversy that centered on speculation over his relationship with SpongeBob . Patrick has been included in various SpongeBob SquarePants @-@ related merchandise , including trading cards , video games , plush toys , and comic books . He appears in the 2004 full @-@ length feature film The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie and in its 2015 sequel .
= = Role in SpongeBob SquarePants = =
Patrick is the ignorant but humorous best friend of main character SpongeBob SquarePants . He is portrayed as being an overweight , dimwitted , pink starfish residing in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom . Patrick has been shown to make many ludicrous mistakes ; despite this , he has occasionally been portrayed as a savant , with articulate observance to certain subjects in specific detail . However , he always reverts quickly back to his usual , unintelligent self after displaying a moment of wisdom . He holds no form of occupation except for several very brief stints working at the Krusty Krab and at the Chum Bucket in a variety of positions , and mostly spends his time either clowning around with SpongeBob , catching jellyfish with him , or lounging beneath the rock under which he resides .
At home , Patrick is typically depicted either sleeping , watching TV , or engaged in the " art of doing nothing " , at which he is an expert . All the furnishings in the space under his rock are made of sand , and Patrick can simply opt to quickly build up furniture as needed ; even so , his living space is sparse and contains only the barest essentials . Aside from his best friend SpongeBob , who is often impressed by Patrick 's capacity to come up with naïve yet genius plans or solutions , Patrick frequently irritates those around him and is confounded by the simplest of questions or subjects . The characters of Mr. Krabs and Squidward have no patience for Patrick 's stupidity , and the former does not pay him much regard ; Clancy Brown , who provides Mr. Krabs ' voice , said , " The only person that he [ Mr. Krabs ] doesn 't hire is Patrick because Patrick is just too stupid to work for nothing . " Sandy often gets annoyed by Patrick , but still sees him as a friend .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation and design = = =
Stephen Hillenburg first became fascinated with the ocean and began developing his artistic abilities as a child . During college , he majored in marine biology and minored in art . He planned to return to college eventually to pursue a master 's degree in art . After graduating in 1984 , he joined the Ocean Institute , an organization dedicated to educating the public about marine science and maritime history . While he was there , he initially had the idea that would lead to the creation of SpongeBob SquarePants : a comic book titled The Intertidal Zone . In 1987 , Hillenburg left the institute to pursue a career in animation .
A few years after studying experimental animation at the California Institute of the Arts , Hillenburg met Joe Murray , creator of the Nickelodeon series Rocko 's Modern Life , at an animation festival , and was offered a job as a director of the show . Martin Olson , one of the writers for Rocko 's Modern Life , read The Intertidal Zone and encouraged Hillenburg to create a television series with a similar concept . At that point , Hillenburg had not even considered creating his own series . However , he realized that if he ever did , this would be the best approach . Production on Rocko 's Modern Life ended in 1996 . Shortly afterwards , Hillenburg began working on SpongeBob SquarePants .
For the show 's characters , Hillenburg started to draw and used character designs from his comic book — including starfish , crab , and sponge . He described Patrick as " probably the dumbest guy in town " . The character was conceived as a starfish to embody the animal 's nature ; according to Hillenburg , starfish look " dumb and slow " , but they are " very active and aggressive " in reality , like Patrick . Hillenburg incorporated character comedy rather than topical humor on the show to emphasize " things that are more about humorous situations and about characters and their flaws . " He designed Patrick and SpongeBob as such because " they 're whipping themselves up into situations — that 's always where the humor comes from . The rule is : Follow the innocence and avoid topical [ humor ] . "
In spite of being depicted as having a good temperament or state of mind , Patrick has been shown in some episodes to have a tantrum . Patrick 's emotional outbreak was originally written only for the first season episode " Valentine 's Day " , where SpongeBob and Sandy try to give Patrick a Valentine 's Day gift , and " was supposed to be a one @-@ time thing " . However , according to episode writer Jay Lender , " when that show came back it felt so right that his dark side started popping up everywhere . You can plan ahead all you want , but the characters eventually tell you who they are . "
Every main character in the show has its own unique footstep sound . The sound of Patrick 's footsteps is recorded by the show 's Foley crew , with a Foley talent wearing a slip @-@ on shoe . Jeff Hutchins , show 's sound designer said , " [ Going ] barefoot makes it tough to have much presence , so we decided that Patrick would be performed with shoes on . "
= = = Voice = = =
Patrick 's voice is provided by actor Bill Fagerbakke , who also does the voices of numerous other characters on SpongeBob SquarePants . While creating the show and writing its pilot episode in 1997 , Hillenburg and Derek Drymon , the show 's then @-@ creative director , were also conducting auditions to find voices for the show 's characters . Fagerbakke auditioned for the role of Patrick after Tom Kenny , SpongeBob 's voice actor , had been cast . Fagerbakke said , " Steve is such a lovely guy , and I had absolutely no feeling for the material whatsoever . " He described his experience in the audition , saying " I was just going in for another audition , and I had no idea what was in store there in terms of the remarkable visual wit and really the kind of endearing child @-@ like humanity in the show . I couldn 't pick that up from the audition material at all . I was just kind of perfunctorially trying to give the guy what he wanted . "
Steve Hillenburg actually played for me a portion of Tom [ Kenny ] ' s performance as the character , and they were looking for a counterpoint . And I do the big dumb stuff . That 's my deal ... that 's what I do [ sic ] . It was such a neat experience . Typically , when you audition for any kind of voiceover stuff , you 're in a studio , but as I remember it , this was , like , in a weird conference room somewhere , and he had one of those little old cassette decks that ’ s about half the size of a shoebox , and there was something so endearing about it .
Fagerbakke referred Patrick as " AquaDauber " ( a reference to his role as Michael " Dauber " Dybinski on the 1990s sitcom Coach ) in the first few years of working on the show . Patrick is " enormously entertaining to portray " because , according to Fagerbakke , " when I 'm performing Patrick , there are many secrets that I could never divulge " . Fagerbakke 's approach in voicing Patrick is " much the same way I would do [ to ] any kind of character . " " I 'm always looking for opportunities to explore that freewheeling imagination and insanity of children . To be able to plug in to that and let that carry you in to a performance is such a gas , I have so much fun with that . I love kids ; I raised two girls and I love being a parent , " he said . The cast members record as a whole cast . Fagerbakke says that the situation improves his performance as a voice actor because " there is something remarkable that happens when people are working together that is unique to that . " Fagerbakke modeled his performance whenever Patrick is angry after that of American actress Shelley Winters .
Fagerbakke has been compared to Patrick 's character , which he concurs with . Kenny said that " Bill [ Fagerbakke ] is a big guy . The world is almost too small for him . He 's a force of nature , like Patrick . " Writer Jay Lender said , describing Fagerbakke in the recording studio , " Bill Fagerbakke is the most thoughtful performer I 've ever seen in the booth — he was always asking questions and really trying to get into the mindset , such as it is , of Patrick . " Writer Kent Osborne said of Fagerbakke , " He is this big guy , and he plays Patrick so well . He 's just this big guy , and he lumbers around . " Fagerbakke said , " I 'm clumsy . I 'm goofy . I make mistakes all the time " and agreed that " I guess I 'm a lot of Patrick . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Critical reception for the character from both professionals and fans has been positive . In his DVD review for DVD Verdict , Bill Treadway called Patrick " the village idiot , who sometimes gives SpongeBob some really bad advice , but he is a loyal friend and that 's something we don 't see much of these days . " He said , " Patrick is the definition of stupid and his antics will have you laughing out loud . " In a review published in 2007 , Peter Keepnews of The New York Times said , " Patrick is a popular character , and the new episodes illustrate why : He is unfailingly enthusiastic , touchingly loyal and absolutely undeterred by his intellectual limitations . Hilariously voiced by Bill Fagerbakke , he is not just an endearing comic creation but a role model for idiots everywhere . "
Nancy Basile of About.com called Patrick " one of the silliest characters on SpongeBob SquarePants " . In her " SpongeBob and Friends : Patrick SquarePants " , a Patrick @-@ themed SpongeBob SquarePants home video release , DVD review , Basile said , " The episodes included [ ... ] are hilarious . They 're not only some of Patrick 's best episodes , but also some of the show 's classic episodes . " She ranked " That 's No Lady " as Patrick 's best episode and said , " I was remiss not to include this episode in my top ten [ SpongeBob SquarePants episodes ] list . " She cited her favorite scene from the episode , where " Patrick can 't read the number on Mr. Krabs ' table , saying , ' Ford knee . ' Mr. Krabs replies , ' That 's a seven , Patricia . ' " The Kids ' Choice Awards , an annual awards show presented by Nickelodeon , added several new categories , including " Favorite Animated Animal Sidekick " , in its 2014 ceremony . Patrick received the Kids ' Choice Award Blimp for the category , winning to Perry the Platypus ( Phineas and Ferb ) , Sparky ( The Fairly OddParents ) and Waddles ( Gravity Falls ) .
= = = Criticism and controversy = = =
In 2002 , the show 's popularity among the gay community grew , and it was reported that they had embraced the show , according to BBC Online . The Wall Street Journal also raised questions about SpongeBob and Patrick in a recent article that pointed out the show 's popularity in the gay community . Tom Kenny , in response to the article , said " [ I ] felt the insinuation was a stretch . " " I had heard that gay viewers enjoy the show in the same way that lots of people — college students , parents and children — like the show [ ... ] I thought it was rather silly to hang an entire article on that . I don 't think it 's a case of it being a gay @-@ friendly show — It 's a human @-@ being @-@ friendly show . They 're all welcome , " Kenny said .
In 2005 , a promotional video that involves SpongeBob promoting diversity and tolerance was criticized by two U.S. Christian evangelical groups , most notably Focus on the Family , because they saw the character was being used as an advocate for homosexuality though the video contained " no reference to sex , sexual lifestyle or sexual identity . " The incident led to questions as to whether or not SpongeBob , his best friend Patrick , and the rest of the series ' characters are homosexual characters . After this speculation and comments , Hillenburg repeated his assertion that sexual preference was never considered during the creation of the show . He clarified the issue and said " We never intended them to be gay . I consider them to be almost asexual . We 're just trying to be funny and this has got nothing to do with the show . " Tom Kenny and other production members were shocked and surprised that such an issue had arisen . Derek Drymon , show 's creative director , said , " If SpongeBob holds hands with Patrick it 's because he 's his best friend and he loves him . I think the whole thing is a part of a larger agenda to stigmatize gay people . " Focus on the Family founder James Dobson later stated that his comments were taken out of context and that his original complaints were not with SpongeBob or any of the characters in the video but with the organization that sponsored the video , the We Are Family Foundation . Dobson noted that the foundation had posted pro @-@ homosexual material on its website , but later removed it .
Queer theorist Jeffrey P. Dennis , author of the journal article " The Same Thing We Do Every Night : Signifying Same @-@ Sex Desire in Television Cartoons , " argued that SpongeBob and Sandy are not romantically in love , while adding that he believed that SpongeBob and Patrick " are paired with arguably erotic intensity . " Dennis noted the two are " not consistently coded as romantic partners , " since they live in separate residences , and have distinct groups of friends , but claimed that in the series , " the possibility of same @-@ sex desire is never excluded . " Martin Goodman of Animation World Magazine described Dennis 's comments regarding SpongeBob and Patrick as " interesting . "
= = In other media = =
Patrick has appeared in other SpongeBob SquarePants @-@ related media , including board games , comic books , keychains , plush toys , trading cards and video games . Patrick has a major role in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie , the first feature @-@ length film adaptation of the show . The film was released on November 19 , 2004 and has been a financial success , grossing over $ 140 million worldwide . He has also appeared in the film 's sequel , which was released in theaters on February 6 , 2015 . In the second film , Patrick ( along with SpongeBob , Squidward , Mr. Krabs , and Plankton ) is rendered in 3D ( using CGI ) in the live action scenes . The group becomes an " Avengers @-@ type team " ; Patrick transforms to Mr. Superawesomeness .
In 2009 , actor John Fricker portrayed Patrick in the musical adaptation of the third season episode " The Sponge Who Could Fly " . Fricker and the musical itself were well received by most critics . Gordon Barr and Roger Domeneghetti of the Evening Chronicle described the musical as " a silly riot of colour [ ... ] as you 'd have to expect from an adaptation of a cartoon TV show " , while Viv Hardwick of The Northern Echo said that Fricker and Martin Johnston ( Mr. Krabs ) " win the biggest costume contest . " A critic from the Chichester Observer wrote , " John Fricker is in his element as the simple but lovable Patrick Star " .
The character of Patrick has become viral in the Internet in the forms of memes or image macros . A still from The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie , which displays Patrick in a drop @-@ jawed look , inspired YouTube user to create a presentation of Patrick 's expression using a number of different filters . Following this , a YouTube user uploaded another video featuring Patrick reacting to Canadian singer Justin Bieber 's 2010 single , " Baby " . The meme called " Surprised Patrick " started to disseminate , with one of the first images was posted to Reddit by SeannyOC , and then reblogged onto I Can Has Cheezburger ? ' s Memebase . Comedy websites — including BiteTV , CollegeHumor , Mashable and Smosh — have published their own " Best of " lists and compilations , covering the " Surprised Patrick " meme 's popularity . Mashable 's Nena Prakash said , " For years , Patrick Star helped hold down Bikini Bottom while SpongeBob was flippin ' burgers at [ t ] he Krusty Krab . But now it 's time for Patrick to come out from under that rock and take a seat upon his royal meme throne , because he 's an Internet star ( fish ) . " Another popular meme based on the character is the " Push It Somewhere Else Patrick " image macro , which was taken from the second season episode " Sandy , SpongeBob , and the Worm " .
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= Robinson 's Arch =
Robinson 's Arch is the name given to a monumental staircase carried by an unusually wide stone arch , which once stood at the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount . It was built as part of the expansion of the Second Temple initiated by Herod the Great at the end of the 1st century BCE . Recent findings suggest that it may not have been completed until at least 20 years after his death . The massive stone span was constructed along with the retaining walls of the Temple Mount . It carried traffic up from ancient Jerusalem 's Lower Market area and over the Tyropoeon street to the Royal Stoa complex on the esplanade of the Mount . The overpass was destroyed during the Great Jewish Revolt , only a few decades after its completion .
The arch is named after Biblical scholar Edward Robinson who identified its remnants in 1838 . Excavations during the second half of the 20th century revealed both its purpose and the extent of its associated structures . Today the considerable surviving portions of the ancient overpass complex may be viewed by the public within the Jerusalem Archaeological Park . As it is adjacent to Jerusalem 's Western Wall worship area , a portion is used by some groups as a place of prayer .
= = History = =
Robinson 's Arch was constructed as part of King Herod 's renovation and expansion of the Second Temple , announced in 20 – 19 BCE . It was built to link the Tyropoeon Valley street , a major traffic artery in the Second Temple Period , with the Royal Stoa at the southern end of the Temple Mount platform .
The site abuts a major ancient intersection . Opposite lay a large public square fronting the Temple 's main Hulda Gates . The Tyropoeon street itself was lined with shops and formed part of the city 's Lower Market . The Royal Stoa , an exceptionally large basilica complex which served various commercial and legal functions , looked down on the intersection from atop the Temple platform . Although the Stoa stood on the Temple esplanade , it was constructed upon an expansion added by Herod . It was therefore evidently not considered sacred by some at the time , allowing it to be used for mundane activities . The heavy public traffic to and from this edifice accounts for the width of the stepped street , which approximates that of a modern four @-@ lane highway .
Fragments of a gate once located at the top of the overpass have been recovered . From these , the gate 's width has been calculated at 5 metres ( 16 ft ) . Due to the few extant gate remnants , it has not been established whether there may have been more than one gate . There may have been a single gate , a double gate , or even a triple gate opening into the Royal Stoa complex at this point . This was one of four gates along the western wall of the compound :
Now in the western quarters of the enclosure of the temple there were four gates ; the first led to the king 's palace , and went to a passage over the intermediate valley ; two more led to the suburbs of the city ; and the last led to the other city , where the road descended into the valley by a great number of steps , and thence up again by the ascent for the city lay over against the temple in the manner of a theater , and was encompassed with a deep valley along the entire south quarter .
The conventional view of modern @-@ archaeologists is to reckon the counting of these four gates ( e.g. 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 ) from left to right , as one would count in Western societies , making Robinson 's Arch the fourth and last in a row , counting from left to right . The question , however , which arises is whether or not Josephus , a Hebrew who was accustomed to reckon numbered objects while counting them from right to left , intended that this gate should , in fact , be the first gate mentioned in his description of the gates leading into the Temple Mount enclosure on its western side . According to the Mishnah ( Middot 1 : 3 ) , a compendium of oral teachings received and compiled by Rabbi Judah the Prince in 189 CE , only one gate on the western side of the Temple Mount was actually in use and " served for coming in and for going out , " namely , the Kiponus Gate . The other gates , presumably , had been sealed earlier . It is of singular importance that Josephus notes that of the gates built into the western enclosure of the Temple Mount , there was a bridge that also ascended to one of these gates and which same bridge was broken @-@ off by the insurgents during their war with Rome , most likely the bridge leading to the only serviceable gate .
= = = Construction = = =
The arch was built as part of the Temple Mount 's massive western retaining wall , which forms its eastern support . The voussoirs spring from a row of impost blocks which were cut to produce a dentil pattern . There have been some theories which speculate that the dentils were employed as part of a system used to shore up timber forms used during construction . However , this was a common decorative element employed in the region at the time , and archaeologists have noted that in this region of limited forests it is much more likely that packed earth , rather than expensive timbers , was used to support the form on which the arch was constructed .
Upon completion the arch spanned 15 metres ( 49 ft ) and had a width of 15 @.@ 2 metres ( 50 ft ) . The stepped street it bore over a series of seven additional arches was more than 35 metres ( 115 ft ) in length . Robinson 's Arch itself stood 12 metres ( 39 ft ) to the north of the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount 's retaining wall , soaring some 17 metres ( 56 ft ) over the ancient Tyropoeon street that once ran along the Temple Mount 's western wall . It was among the most massive stone arches of classical antiquity .
Although Herod 's renovation of the Second Temple was initiated in late 1st century BCE , excavations beneath the street near the arch revealed three oil lamps of a type common in the first century CE and 17 identifiable coins , several of which were struck by Valerius Gratus , Roman procurator of Judea , in the year 17 / 18 CE . This means that the arch and nearby sections of the Western Wall were constructed after this date .
= = = Destruction = = =
The destruction of Robinson 's Arch occurred during the events surrounding the Roman sacking of Jerusalem in 70 CE . It has traditionally been blamed on the Roman legions which destroyed the Temple Mount enclosure and eventually set fire to the entire city . More recently , this has been attributed to the Zealot factions which had wrested control of the Temple Mount and fortified it prior to its fall . Some of these continued to hold out in Jerusalem 's Upper City for a month after the city had been breached by the Romans . By wrecking the overpass , as well as the viaduct at Wilson 's Arch to the north , the defenders made access to the Temple platform much more difficult for besieging forces .
South of the Temple Mount , excavators have uncovered an inscribed Roman milestone bearing the names of Vespasian and Titus , fashioned from one of the staircase handrails which stood on top of the arch . This places the destruction of the arch at no later than 79 CE .
= = Rediscovery and excavations = =
Four stone courses of the eastern spring of the arch , consisting of a row of impost blocks and three layers of voussoirs , have survived to modern times . This remnant was first identified in 1838 by Biblical scholar Edward Robinson and now bears his name . At that time , prior to any excavations , remains of the arch were at ground level . The ancient street level lay far underground , buried by debris from destruction of structures on the Temple Mount and later fill dumped into the Tyropoeon Valley over the centuries . Robinson believed he had identified the eastern edge of a bridge that linked the Temple Compound with the Upper City which lay on the ridge to the west . During his investigations of 1867 – 1870 , Charles Warren noted the presence of a large pier 13 metres ( 43 ft ) west of the wall and the remains of the arch . Warren concluded this was but one of many supports for a supposed series of arches supporting a bridge spanning the valley . He subsequently dug a series of seven shafts to the west at regular intervals , yet found no evidence of additional piers .
Only during Benjamin Mazar 's excavations between 1968 and 1977 was it discovered that the pier was in fact the western support of a single great arch . The uncovered pier , 15 @.@ 2 metres ( 50 ft ) long and 3 @.@ 6 metres ( 12 ft ) wide , was preserved to a height of 5 metres ( 16 ft ) . Within its base were found four small hollow spaces , possibly for shops opening onto the Herodian – era Tyropoeon street that passes beneath the arch . The lintels of these survive in place and are themselves arched to relieve pressure from the weight of the pier 's superstructure . Mazar 's excavations have revealed that the same pier was also the eastern external wall of a monumental building which Mazar suggested was the archives of Jerusalem mentioned by Josephus . South of the building , excavators found the remains of six vault – supporting piers , gradually decreasing in height southwards over a distance of 35 metres ( 115 ft ) . These vaults , the building and Robinson 's Arch , all supported a monumental flight of stairs which led the street up and over the Typropoeon street to the gate of the Royal Stoa at the top of the Temple Mount platform . Numerous stone steps , some still adjoined , were also found nearby .
Excavations near the arch resumed between 1994 and 1996 , directed by Ronny Reich and Yaacov Billig . These have uncovered much of the debris from the collapse of the arch . The remains include both stairs from the staircase and stones from its rounded handrails . Some of these are still visible where they were found , at the Jerusalem Archaeological Park now occupying the site .
= = Egalitarian prayer site = =
The location of the arch along the western wall of the Temple Mount , yet at a distance from the Western Wall plaza , has prompted the Israeli Government to allow the area to be used for alternative services . In 2003 Israel 's Supreme Court disallowed women from reading the Torah or wearing traditional prayer shawls at the plaza itself , yet instructed the Israeli government to prepare the site of Robinson 's Arch to host such events . The site was inaugurated in August 2004 and has since hosted services by Reform and Conservative groups , as well as by other movements , such as Women of the Wall activists . This has resulted in the location being referred to as " HaKotel HaMasorti " .
The court @-@ ordered compromise , however , continues to be contentious . Reform and " Women of the Wall " activists consider the location to be unsatisfactory , in part due to the designation of the park as an archaeological site and the resulting restrictions on access and worship , and in part due to their perceived treatment as " second class @-@ citizens " and their exclusion from the Western Wall plaza . Eric Yoffie , president of the Union for Reform Judaism , has also expressed the opinion that " The wall as it 's been understood by the Jewish people does not mean Robinson 's Arch ... It just doesn 't . "
In April 2013 Jewish Agency chairman Nathan Sharansky proposed a solution for resolving the controversy over female prayer at the Western Wall , calling for the renovation of the site at the foot of Robinson 's Arch to make it accessible to worshippers at all hours of the day . On 25 August 2013 , a new 4 @,@ 480 square foot prayer platform was completed at Robinson 's Arch , with access at all hours , as promised . The area is named " Azarat Yisrael " ( or in more proper pronunciation , " Ezrat Yisrael " ) . After some controversy regarding the question of authority over this prayer area , the announcement was made that it would come under the authority of a future government @-@ appointed " pluralist council " that would include non @-@ Orthodox representatives .
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= Fringe ( TV series ) =
Fringe is an American science fiction television series created by J. J. Abrams , Alex Kurtzman , and Roberto Orci . It premiered on the Fox Broadcasting network on September 9 , 2008 , and concluded on January 18 , 2013 , after five seasons and 100 episodes . The series follows Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) , Peter Bishop ( Joshua Jackson ) , and Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) , all members of the fictional Fringe Division of the Federal Bureau of Investigation , based in Boston , Massachusetts , under the supervision of Homeland Security . The team uses fringe science and FBI investigative techniques to investigate a series of unexplained , often ghastly occurrences , which are related to mysteries surrounding a parallel universe .
The series has been described as a hybrid of fantasy and procedural dramas and serials , influenced by film and television shows such as Lost , The X @-@ Files , Altered States , and The Twilight Zone . The series began as a traditional mystery @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week series and became more serialized in later seasons . Most episodes contain a standalone plot , with several others also exploring the series ' overarching mythology .
Critical reception was at first lukewarm but became more favorable after the first season , when the series began to explore its mythology , including parallel universes and alternate timelines . The show , as well as the cast and crew , has been nominated for many major awards . Despite its move to the " Friday night death slot " and low ratings , the series has developed a cult following . It has also spawned two six @-@ part comic book series , an alternate reality game , and three novels .
= = Plot = =
Fringe follows the casework of the Fringe Division , a Joint Federal Task Force supported primarily by the Federal Bureau of Investigation , which includes Agent Olivia Dunham ; Dr. Walter Bishop , the archetypal mad scientist ; and Peter Bishop , Walter 's estranged son and jack @-@ of @-@ all @-@ trades . They are supported by Phillip Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) , the force 's director , and Agent Astrid Farnsworth ( Jasika Nicole ) , who assists Walter in laboratory research . The Fringe Division investigates cases relating to fringe science , ranging from transhumanist experiments gone wrong to the prospect of a destructive technological singularity to a possible collision of two parallel universes . The Fringe Division 's work often intersects with advanced biotechnology developed by a company called Massive Dynamic , founded by Walter 's former partner , Dr. William Bell ( Leonard Nimoy ) , and run by their common friend , Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) . The team is also watched silently by a group of bald , pale men who are called " Observers " .
Season 1 introduces the Fringe Division as they investigate cases that form " the Pattern " geographically centered around Reiden Lake in New York state , many of which are orchestrated by an international network of rogue scientists known as ZFT ( Zerstörung durch Fortschritte der Technologie , or in English , Destruction through Advancement of Technology ) , led by David Robert Jones ( Jared Harris ) , who are preparing for a doomsday event . The ZFT threat appears to end when Peter kills Jones as he attempts travel to a parallel universe . Olivia comes to learn she was a child test subject for Walter years ago for a nootropic drug , Cortexiphan , giving her weak psionic abilities . Walter also struggles with adjusting to normal life in Peter 's care after living seventeen years in a mental institution while hiding the fact that Peter is from the parallel universe , " his " Peter having died as a child .
In Season 2 , the occurrences are found to be in conjunction with activities of a parallel universe , which is plagued by singularities occurring at weakened points of the fabric between worlds ; over there , scientists have developed an amber @-@ like substance that isolates these singularities as well as any innocent people caught in the area on its release . The Fringe team deals with more cases that are leading to a " great storm " as the parallel universe appears to be at war with the prime one , engineered by human @-@ machine hybrid shapeshifters from the parallel universe . Walter is forced to tell Peter that he is from the parallel universe , a replacement for his own Peter , who died from a genetic disease . Walter had crossed over on the frozen ice of Reiden Lake in 1985 to administer the cure for the alternate version of Peter , but , after accidentally destroying a dose of the cure upon transport , he instead brought the boy across . On return , they fell through the ice but were saved by the Observer September ( Michael Cerveris ) , who told Walter of the importance of " the boy " , which Walter took to mean Peter . Walter 's crossing is what caused the singularities in the parallel universe , with Reiden Lake at their epicenter . Walter has been looking for a sign of forgiveness in the form of a white tulip .
Season 3 presents episodes that alternate between the two universes . " Walternate " , Walter 's doppelgänger in the parallel universe , is the U.S. Secretary of Defense and has set events in motion to assemble the Machine , a doomsday device that reacts only to Peter 's biology . He also sent his Olivia , " Fauxlivia " 2 , to the prime universe , in Olivia 's place , to engage the Fringe Division and assemble the prime universe 's version of the device , while he studies Olivia 's Cortexiphan @-@ induced powers . By happenstance , Fauxlivia becomes pregnant with Peter 's child , Henry , before being outed and extracted to the parallel universe . Walternate orchestrated acceleration of the pregnancy to gain a sample of the baby 's blood , which he uses to activate the machine . Peter , with Olivia 's help , enters the prime version of the machine , and experiences a vision of the future where the parallel universe has been destroyed and the same fate threatens the prime one , and learns the Machine is really a device created by Walter and his associates from this future , sent back in time purposely to relay this vision of the future to Peter . Recovering in the present , Peter alters his plan and uses the Machine to merge the two rooms , creating a bridge where inhabitants of both universes can solve their dilemma , before time re @-@ written so September ( The Observer ) doesn 't save him and is forgotten by both Walter and Olivia .
Season 4 begins in an alternate timeline , one in which September had failed to save the alternate version of Peter in 1985 , according to the Observers . This creates a butterfly effect influencing the main characters ' pasts but otherwise stabilizing both universes due to the creation of the bridge . Peter is pulled into this new timeline due to the actions of the alternate timeline 's Fringe team , which includes Lincoln Lee ( Seth Gabel ) . Peter initially works to return to his own timeline , fueled by fears that his memories are altering Cortexiphan @-@ dosed Olivia 's of this timeline , but after encountering a wounded September , Peter comes to learn that this timeline is truly his home , and both he and Olivia come to accept the change , rekindling their affair . September also reveals to Peter that the Observers needed to erase Peter 's son , Henry , to assure their future will be created , though noting that Peter 's future child with Olivia will be important . Meanwhile , in the present , William Bell has instructed David Robert Jones , alive in this timeline , to work with the parallel universe 's version of Nina Sharp to synchronize the two universes , aiming to collapse them both and pave the way for a third universe under Bell 's control , using Olivia 's Cortexiphan powers to enable the collapse . The Fringe division is forced to close the dimensional bridge , but this fails to stop Bell 's plan . Walter is left with one choice , to shoot and kill Olivia , her death disrupting the process and saving the world . Olivia 's " death " is only temporary , as the Cortexiphan in her body is consumed to repair the bullet wound , leaving her alive and healthy but lacking her psionic abilities . As Olivia and Peter begin their lives together , September appears to Walter and warns that the Observers " are coming " .
The fifth and final season begins in 2036 , following from the flash @-@ forward fourth season episode " Letters of Transit " . As September warned , Observers from the far future , having ruined Earth for themselves , time @-@ traveled to 2015 and instituted " The Purge " , wiped out much of humanity , subjected the survivors to their control , and began modifying the planet 's environment to be more suitable for themselves . The Fringe team was able to seal themselves in amber to avoid capture shortly after the Purge , and are reunited through Henrietta ( " Etta " ) ( Georgina Haig ) , Peter and Olivia 's now adult daughter who disappeared shortly after the Observer arrival in 2015 . Walter reveals he and September developed a plan to defeat the Observers , revealed through a series of pre @-@ recorded videotapes ambered in the lab . The tapes lead to several components of a device , including a young Observer child , named Michael ( Spencer List in Season 1 and Rowan Longworth in Season 5 ) , but further allude to a man named Donald that had helped Walter prepare the plan . Etta is killed during these events , driving Olivia and Peter to complete the plan for her sake . Through Michael , they discover Donald is September , having been stripped of his Observer powers for helping the Fringe team , and that Michael is his genetic son , having been purposely grown as an anomaly in the far future . September explains the plan is to send Michael to the year 2167 , where human genetic experiments to sacrifice emotion for intelligence would be started and leading to the creation of the Observers ; by showing them Michael , who possesses both emotion and intelligence , the experiments would be stopped and the Observers never created . September is prepared to take Michael to the future as the plan is set in motion , but he is shot and killed at the last moment ; Walter , already made aware that he will have to make a sacrifice , takes Michael through to the future to assure the plan 's completion . As predicted , time is reset from the invasion onwards in 2015 ; the Observers never invade , and Peter , Olivia , and Etta , live their lives peacefully — though Peter receives one final letter from his father : a drawing of a white tulip .
= = = Parallel universe = = =
Much of the story arc for Fringe involves an alternate universe that mostly mirrors the prime universe , but with numerous historical idiosyncrasies . A significant example element used is the effect of the September 11 attacks ; though this event also occurred in the alternate universe , the World Trade Center was untouched by the attacks , leaving the buildings as predominant landmarks in the alternate world 's skyline of " Manhatan " . The South Tower was used as the office of William Bell in several episodes .
The producers were strongly interested in " world building , " and the alternate universe allowed them to create a very similar world with a large amount of detail to fill in the texture of the world . An alternate universe also allowed them to show " how small choices that you make define you as a person and can change your life in large ways down the line , " according to co @-@ director Jeff Pinkner . However , the producers also realized the concept of the alternate universe could be confusing to viewers . To avoid this , elements of the world were introduced in small pieces over the course of the first two seasons before the larger revelation in the second season finale and the third season . J. H. Wyman stated that he would often pass the story ideas for the alternate universe by his father to see if it made sense , and would rework the script if his father found it confusing . Such world building also gave them a risky opportunity to create stories that focused solely on characters from the alternate universe with nearly no ties to the main characters ; as stated by Wyman , they would be able to " make two shows about one show , " a concept that the network executives embraced .
= = = Glyph code = = =
Prior to commercial breaks , a brief image of a glyph is shown . Abrams revealed in an interview that the glyphs had a hidden meaning . " It 's something that we 're doing for people who care to figure it out and follow it , but it 's not something that a viewer has to consider when they watch the show . " Abrams also revealed that the seemingly unrelated frogs which have the Greek letter Phi ( Φ ) imprinted on their back appeared in promos for the show have significance within the context of the series , saying " it 's part of the code of the show . " The glyph code was cracked by an editor at the technology site Ars Technica , who discovered it to be a simple substitution cipher used to spell out a single thematic word for each episode ; for example , the pilot episode 's eight glyphs spell out the word " observer " . Whether there is a further second @-@ order code to be solved remains to be seen . Additionally , the glyphs are representative of some of the means by which Walter solves a case ( such as the moth / butterfly from " Johari Window " , the seahorse strain of DNA from " The Bishop Revival " ) . In " Jacksonville " , behind Walter as he speaks to Olivia about her treatment where the nootropic Cortexiphan was first studied as a trial , each of the glyphs is clearly visible on the daycare wall . An episode @-@ by @-@ episode key to the various glyphs was made available on Fringepedia .
= = = Opening sequence = = =
The show 's standard opening sequence interplays images of the glyph symbols alongside words representing fringe science topics , such as " teleportation " and " dark matter " . Within the third season , with episodes that took place primarily in the parallel universe , a new set of titles was used , following a similar format , though tinted red instead of blue and using alternate fringe science concepts like " hypnosis " and " neuroscience " . The difference in color has led some fans to call the prime universe the Blue one in contrast to the parallel Red one . In the third @-@ season episode " Entrada " , the titles used a mix of both the blue- and red @-@ tinted versions , given that the episode took place equally in each universe . In the two flashback episodes , " Peter " and " Subject 13 , " a variation on the sequence , using retro graphics akin to 1980s technology and phrases like " personal computing " and " genetic engineering , " was used . For the dystopian future third season episode " The Day We Died , " a black @-@ toned theme , with more dire phrases like " hope " and " water , " was used . The fourth season premiere , " Neither Here Nor There " introduced an amber @-@ toned title sequence with additional new terms that is used for nearly all fourth @-@ season episodes . The fourth @-@ season episode " Letters of Transit , " which returned to the future dystopian universe , and the subsequent fifth season episodes , feature a cold @-@ toned title sequence with phrases such as " joy , " " private thought , " " free will , " and " freedom , " ideas which have been lost in this future . There is one frame in the opening sequence in which the words " Observers are here " flash very quickly , and the opening sequence must be paused to see them .
= = Cast and characters = =
= = = Main characters = = =
Anna Torv as Olivia Dunham ( seasons 1 – 5 ) : a Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) agent assigned to investigate the spread of unexplained phenomena . She later discovers she was a child test subject under Walter for the nootropic drug Cortexiphan , giving her unusual abilities . Torv also plays Olivia 's counterpart in the alternate universe , dubbed by the characters of the prime universe as " Fauxlivia " , as well as William Bell .
Joshua Jackson as Peter Bishop ( seasons 1 – 5 ) : a jack @-@ of @-@ all @-@ trades who is brought in as a civilian consultant by Olivia to work with his estranged father , Walter . Peter is actually " Walternate 's " son from the alternate universe , abducted by Walter shortly after his own Peter 's death at a young age .
John Noble as Dr. Walter Bishop ( seasons 1 – 5 ) : a former government researcher in the field of fringe science who was seen as a mad scientist and institutionalized after a lab accident in which his assistant was killed . Noble also portrays the Walter 's alternate , dubbed " Walternate " by the characters in the prime universe . Walternate rose to power as the U.S. Secretary of Defense and instituted the war against the prime universe after the abduction of his son Peter .
Lance Reddick as Phillip Broyles ( seasons 1 – 4 ; recurring season 5 ) : a Homeland Security agent and Senior @-@ Agent @-@ in @-@ Charge ( SAC ) who runs Fringe Division . Reddick also portrays Broyles ' alternate ( known as Colonel Broyles ) , who finds sympathy for Olivia and sacrifices himself during the third season to allow her to escape the parallel universe . In the fourth season , in the alternate timeline , Colonel Broyles remains alive .
Jasika Nicole as Astrid Farnsworth ( seasons 1 – 5 ) : an FBI Junior Agent and assistant to Olivia and Walter . Nicole also plays Astrid 's counterpart in the alternate universe , who has symptoms similar to Asperger syndrome as tribute to Nicole 's sister who has the disorder .
Blair Brown as Nina Sharp ( season 1 – 4 ; recurring season 5 ) : the Chief Operating Officer of Massive Dynamic , a leading firm in science and technology research and longtime friend of Walter and William . She also plays her doppelganger in the parallel universe within the alternate timeline of season 4 as an agent for David Robert Jones ' plans .
Kirk Acevedo as Charlie Francis ( season 1 ; season 2 , episodes 1 – 4 , 11 ; recurring season 3 ) : An FBI senior agent , Olivia 's colleague and close friend , and the second @-@ in @-@ command of Fringe Division before his demise . Though Charlie is killed early in the second season , Acevedo reprises the role of Charlie in the alternate universe .
Mark Valley as John Scott ( season 1 , episodes 1 – 13 ) : Olivia 's former FBI partner and secret lover , whose death in " Pilot " leads Olivia to join the Fringe division .
Seth Gabel as Lincoln Lee ( recurring seasons 2 – 3 ; starring season 4 ; guest star season 5 ) : an agent of the parallel universe Fringe Division . The prime universe version of Lincoln , also played by Gabel , was introduced in the episode " Stowaway " as a special agent stationed at the FBI building in Hartford , Connecticut , later joining Fringe division within Season 4 .
= = = Recurring characters = = =
Michael Cerveris as September / the Observer / Donald ( seasons 1 – 5 ) , one of several " Observers , " a traveling chronicler and enforcer of extraordinary events . An Observer appears in one form or another , usually in an Alfred Hitchcock @-@ like cameo , in each episode .
Ari Graynor as Rachel Dunham ( seasons 1 – 2 ) , Olivia 's sister .
Lily Pilblad as Ella Blake ( seasons 1 – 3 ) , Olivia 's niece , the daughter of Rachel . Emily Meade portrays the future Ella .
Leonard Nimoy as Dr. William Bell ( seasons 1 – 4 ) , Walter 's former lab partner , the founder of Massive Dynamic , apparently killed in the season 2 finale . Nimoy , who had retired from acting after season 2 , agreed to provide the voice of Bell , allowing for the character 's reappearance via an animated character in season 3 . He reappears in season 4 after timeline is altered .
Michael Gaston as Sanford Harris ( season 1 ) , an old nemesis of Olivia 's assigned to assess Fringe Division .
Jared Harris as David Robert Jones ( seasons 1 , 4 ) , leader of the ZFT cult , and killed in the season 1 finale . In the alternate timeline Peter is projected into , it appears he is alive , and that the shapeshifters have been working for him .
Chance Kelly as Mitchell Loeb ( season 1 ) , an FBI agent and mole working for ZFT .
Ryan McDonald as Brandon Fayette ( seasons 2 – 4 ) , a scientist at Massive Dynamic . In the parallel universe , Brandon works directly for Secretary of Defense Bishop , overseeing many of his less ethical projects .
Kevin Corrigan as Sam Weiss ( seasons 2 – 3 ) , Olivia 's Yoda @-@ like amateur psychologist and manager of a Boston @-@ area bowling alley ; his family line maintains knowledge of the " First People , " a race of intelligent beings believed to have created the doomsday device .
Sebastian Roché as Thomas Jerome Newton ( seasons 2 – 3 ) , the leader of the shapeshifters , human / machine hybrids and undercover agents from the alternate universe . The character commits suicide during the third season .
Orla Brady as Elizabeth Bishop ( seasons 2 – 4 ) , Walter 's wife and Peter 's mother . Brady portrays both the prime and alternate versions .
Philip Winchester as Frank Stanton ( seasons 2 – 3 ) , a virologist for the CDC and introduced as Fauxlivia 's romantic interest in season 2 . Their relationship ends off @-@ screen in season 4 .
Michelle Krusiec as Nadine Park ( season 4 ) , a shape @-@ shifting soldier from the alternate timeline , with different features from shapeshifters seen in the normal timeline .
Georgina Haig as Henrietta ( Etta ) Bishop ( seasons 4 – 5 ) , Peter and Olivia 's adult daughter in 2036 . Though she is part of the Fringe team , loyal to the Observers , she secretly works with the human resistance to try to reclaim the earth for humans .
Michael Kopsa as Captain Windmark ( seasons 4 – 5 ) , the lead Observer in 2036 and primary antagonist of the Resistance .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception = = =
Co @-@ created by J. J. Abrams , Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman , Fringe is produced by Bad Robot in association with Warner Bros. Television , as part of a commitment that Abrams previously made with the studio . At the time , Abrams was working with Orci and Kurtzman on the Star Trek film , and met at one of the Comic @-@ Cons during Star Trek 's production to brainstorm ideas for the show . Abrams later brought Bryan Burk , a producer on several of his films , to help with developing the series .
Abrams 's inspiration for Fringe came from a range of sources , including the writings of Michael Crichton , the film Altered States , films by David Cronenberg , and the television series The X @-@ Files and The Twilight Zone . Orci stated that Fringe is a " new kind of storytelling " , combining procedural shows such as Law & Order , and an " extremely serialized and very culty " series like Lost . The procedural aspect was chosen because , at the time of its premiere , six of the ten top shows were procedural in nature ; Orci stated that " you have to be a fool not to go study what it is that they 're doing " . Abrams had originally considered naming the series The Lab , as they had envisioned Walter 's laboratory to be " the epicenter of the conversation " , and where " anything is possible " .
Though the team saw this as a way of presenting " mystery of the week " -type episodes , they wanted to focus more on how these stories were told in unpredictable ways rather than the actual mystery , recognizing that most of their target audience has seen such mysteries before through previous shows and films . Instead , they wanted their storytelling to be original and unexpected , and , as claimed by Kurtzman , one of the most challenging aspects of developing the individual episodes . Serialization of the show was important to tell their overall story with larger plot elements , but Abrams recognized the difficulties that his earlier serialized shows , such as Lost and Alias , had in attracting and maintaining viewers that had not seen these shows from the start or who missed episodes sporadically . For Fringe , Abrams instead sought to create , as stated by David Itzkoff of the New York Times , " a show that suggested complexity but was comprehensible in any given episode " . The writers aimed to balance a line between stand @-@ alone episodes , a factor requested by Fox , and a heavily serialized show ; they balanced these by moving the serialization aspect to the growth and development of their characters . This gave them the ability to write self @-@ contained episodes that still contained elements related to the overall mythos . However , as production continued , the creative staff found the show itself took on a more serialized nature and opted towards this approach in later seasons while still balancing self @-@ contained episodes .
One method was by introducing overarching themes that individual episodes could be tied to , such as " The Pattern " in Season 1 , providing information repeatedly about the larger plot over the course of several episodes or seasons . Abrams also created characters whose alliances to the larger narrative were clear , avoiding a similar problem that had occurred during the first and second seasons of Alias . A final step taken was to script out all of the major long @-@ running plot elements , including the show 's finale , prior to full @-@ time production . Abrams contrasted this to the process used in Lost , where ideas like character flashbacks and the hatch from the second season were introduced haphazardly and made difficulties in defining when they should be presented to the viewers . Instead , with Fringe , they were able to create " clearly defined goalposts " ( in Itzkoff 's words ) that could be altered as necessary with network and seasonal changes but always provided a clear target for the overarching plot . These approaches also allowed the team to introduce unique plot elements to be introduced in time that would have altered the show 's fate if known at the start . Abrams stated that " There are certain details that are hugely important that I believe , if shared , will destroy any chance of actually getting on the air . " Abrams noted that they are able to benefit from " how open Fox as a network has been to a show that is embracing the weirdness and the long @-@ term stories that we want to tell " . During the third season , executive producer Jeff Pinkner noted that " We have six to eight seasons worth of material . We see it as having certain chapters that would enrich the overall story , but aren 't necessary to tell the overall story . God willing , the network allows us the time to tell our complete story . "
As part of the larger story , the writers have placed elements in earlier episodes that are referenced in episodes seasons later . For example , in the first season episode " The Ghost Network " , the Fringe team encounters an amber @-@ like substance , which is later shown to be a critical means to combat the breakdown of the parallel universe and eventually for the same in the prime universe with the third season episode " 6B " . Pinkner compared this aspect to " planting seeds " , some which they know how they plan to use later in the show 's story , while others they can find ways of incorporating into these later episodes .
He further attributed these elements as part of the " world building " to flesh out the show beyond episodic content . The producers have stated that when the show 's mythology is introduced , it is not simply there to tie episodes together , but " to provide answers that generate consequences " .
Certain elements of the show 's mythology were established from the start . The parallel universe was always part of the original concept , though aspects of when and how to introduce it were tackled as the show proceeded . The idea of Peter being from the parallel universe came early into the show 's production , but this came to lead the team to jokingly refer to Peter as their " hatch " , one of the early mysteries in Lost , as with the hatch in Lost , they initially had no idea how to introduce this within the show . FOX 's Reilly was also initially concerned about the parallel universe aspect , but as the show progressed into the first season and found its groove , the concept was readily accepted . The most poignant introduction of the parallel universe was in the conclusion of the first season finale , " There 's More Than One of Everything " , where they showed the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center were still standing in the parallel universe , a concept introduced by writer Andrew Kreisberg as an iconic image to leave viewers with ; Jackson stated , " I don 't know that we 've ever had a better visual or a better cliff @-@ hanger . "
Other mythos elements were devised as the series progressed . The writers had originally envisioned only spending small portions of episodes within the parallel universe , but as they wrote these episodes within Season 3 , they brought out the idea of setting entire episodes within the parallel universe . This necessitated the development of the alternate versions of the main characters , which Pinkner considered " a great playground just for imagination " . The actors themselves found this concept exciting , as it allowed them to play different characters but with the same background and considered it a creative challenge . Similarly , having Peter erased from the timeline as part of the finale for Season 3 was an idea that grew over the course of that season . The writers were aware this would be a risky move but felt the idea was very appropriate for Fringe , and opted to write towards this after considering all the consequences . Pinkner noted that this gave them an opportunity to " reset the character relationships " and determine the key aspects that would remain without Peter , as well as " making the audience uncomfortable at times " . The cast was not initially sold with the idea , but came around as the fourth season progressed .
= = = Production = = =
After developing the core concepts of the show , Abrams began to seek studios to develop the show ; Abrams ' past successes led to Warner Bros. Television and the Fox Television Network to quickly jump on board the project . Peter Roth , the chief executive of Warner Bros. Television , had been actively seeking to bring any Abrams ' project to his studio , and heard Abrams ' pitch for Fringe at a dinner meeting in August 2007 . Similarly , Kevin Reilly , the entertainment chairman at Fox , knew that it was critical for him to bring the next Abrams ' project to his network , and worked with Roth to assure this would happen .
Jeff Pinkner was selected to act as the head showrunner and executive producer . Abrams noted that he trusts Pinkner after working together with him on Alias and Lost . Pinkner became interested in the show during a visit to the set of Star Trek , during which Abrams was discussing the concept of Fringe with Orci and Kurtzman , knowing that they would not be involved in the direct production of the work . Abrams pitched the idea to Pinkner , who was intrigued by the importance of characters in a science fiction drama . In season two , J.H. Wyman was brought on as executive producer and showrunner with Pinkner . Wyman had been a science fiction enthusiast but had worried that he had not written anything in that genre but after learning about the concept of the show , felt his role as an executive producer was " a match made in heaven " .
Michael Giacchino , Abrams ' frequent collaborator , composed the music for the pilot of Fringe , before handing over duties to his assistants Chad Seiter and Chris Tilton ; Tilton took over scoring duties from Season 2 onward . While Giacchino retains an on @-@ screen credit , Abrams himself wrote the series theme music .
The two @-@ hour pilot episode , filmed in Toronto , Canada , cost a total of $ 10 million to create . A basement of an old church was used for Walter 's lab set in the pilot , and this set was replicated at other film sites in New York and Vancouver when the show moved . The lab set was designed by Carol Spier , the production designer for several of Cronenberg 's films . John Noble called his character 's lab " the heart and soul of Fringe " , so consequently , " That has to remain constant . " A cow used in the pilot episode had to be recast when production of Season 1 was moved to New York , due to livestock restrictions preventing it from being brought from Canada to the United States . Other locations used in the first season included other universities to stage for the Harvard University campus , where Walter 's lab is located . These included Pratt Institute and Yale University , including its Old Campus ( particularly Phelps Hall and Durfee Hall ) , Branford College , and the exterior of Yale Law School , University of Toronto 's University College , Brooklyn College .
On February 21 , 2009 , it was reported that in the event that Fringe would be renewed for a second season , the show would move production to Vancouver from New York City as a cost @-@ cutting measure . Executive producer Jeff Pinkner explained :
We want to stay in New York , New York has been incredibly good to us . It feels like we 're being kicked out of the city . I know we 're not , but they 're making it impossible for us to afford doing the show ... Our New York crew is spectacular , they 've worked their [ butts ] off to make the show look great . But it looks like New York is not renewing a tax credit that makes it possible to make our budget in New York . So it looks like , out of necessity , we 'll have to leave New York , which is not anything we are welcoming .
Upon productions moving to Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada for season 2 , the University of British Columbia now stands in for Harvard . The area around New Westminster often serves as filming locations for Fringe stories that take place in the parallel universe .
Prior to the start of production for the fifth season , Pinkner announced that he was leaving the production of the show to pursue other projects ; Wyman would remain as the sole showrunner for the show .
= = = Casting = = =
The show 's main characters , Olivia , Peter , and Walter , were core of the concept for Fringe . The creators recognized early that " the idea that telling a father @-@ son story and a relationship story was a really compelling one and a very accessible one " , according to Kurtzman . They were able to provide the characters with backstories that , like with other long @-@ term plot elements , could be alluded to over several episodes and seasons .
The characters would also contrast with the typical procedural genre show ; rather than having clearly defined roles episode to episode , they instead " have an emotional memory and an emotional investment " , as stated by Orci . This also allowed for , as necessary , characters to be removed or introduced to the show and have a larger impact on the other characters .
The first actors cast were Kirk Acevedo and Mark Valley , who portrayed FBI agents Charlie Francis and John Scott , respectively . John Noble and Lance Reddick , who play Dr. Walter Bishop and Homeland Security agent Phillip Broyles , joined the cast later on . Casting of Anna Torv , Blair Brown , and Jasika Nicole , who play Olivia Dunham , Massive Dynamic employee Nina Sharp , and Astrid Farnsworth , a federal agent and assistant to Olivia Dunham , respectively , followed ; while Joshua Jackson , who plays Peter Bishop , was the last main character to be cast . Jackson auditioned for James T. Kirk in Abrams ' Star Trek and believed this is what impressed the producer to cast him in his television project , though Abrams later clarified that it was recalling his previous experience with working with Jackson on his television series Felicity . For the principal and recurring actors , they were all intrigued by the script for the pilot , comparing it to a two @-@ hour @-@ long movie , as well as Abrams ' reputation .
On April 8 , 2009 , it was announced that Leonard Nimoy would appear as Walter Bishop 's former lab partner , Dr. William Bell in the first season 's finale , which explores the existence of an ominous parallel universe . This choice led one reviewer to question if Fringe 's plot might be a homage to the Star Trek episode " Mirror , Mirror " , which explored the concept of an alternate reality referred to as a " mirror universe " , and an evil version of Spock distinguished by a goatee . Nimoy returned as Dr. Bell for an extended arc , and according to Orci , Bell is " the beginning of the answers to even bigger questions . " Nimoy reprised his role in the second season finale , where his character and Walter met for a " showdown " . Nimoy 's character is apparently dead after the season finale , having used himself to help Walter , Peter and the Alternate Olivia back to the prime universe . As he had retired from acting , it was thought unlikely that his character would return . In February 2011 however , he announced his definite plan to return to Fringe and reprise his role as William Bell . He returned to voice the character in the animated segments of the third season episode " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " , and appeared as a computer @-@ generated character in the fourth season episode " Letters of Transit " . In the two @-@ part finale of the fourth season , Nimoy returned to play the ultimate antagonist of the alternate timeline story arc .
= = Media = =
= = = Home video releases = = =
The first season of Fringe was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on September 8 , 2009 in region 1 . In addition to all the episodes that had been aired , extras include three commentary tracks , unaired scenes , gag reels and behind the scenes features . A " Fringe Pattern Analysis " feature is included on the Blu @-@ ray version as an exclusive . The sets were released on September 28 , 2009 in region 2 and on September 30 , 2009 in region 4 .
The second season features four commentary tracks , a gag reel , deleted scenes , behind the scenes videos , and the episode " Unearthed " , an episode , produced for the first season , which aired out of schedule during the second season . It was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on September 14 , 2010 in region 1 , on September 27 , 2010 in region 2 , and on November 10 , 2010 in region 4 .
The third season features two commentary tracks , a gag reel , behind the scenes videos , and two features exclusive to the Blu @-@ ray version . It was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on September 6 , 2011 in region 1 , on September 26 , 2011 in region 2 , and on October 26 , 2011 in region 4 .
The fourth season includes several special features , including " The Culture of Fringe " , a roundtable discussion with series writers and university professors regarding the science featured in the series ; features on how the disappearance of Peter affects the timeline , and the role of the Observers ; two features covering the Fringe comic series ; and a gag reel . It was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on September 4 , 2011 in region 1 , on September 24 , 2012 in region 2 , and on October 31 , 2012 in region 4 .
The fifth season includes featurettes titled " A Farewell to Fringe " and " Fringe Panel at Comic @-@ Con 2012 " , as well audio commentaries and a gag reel . It was released on Blu @-@ ray and DVD on May 7 , 2013 in region 1 and on May 13 , 2013 in region 2 . A complete series box set was also released on the same dates of the fifth season release in the respective regions .
= = = Games = = =
An alternate reality game , centered on the fictional Massive Dynamic corporation , was introduced during the pilot and featured " strange symbols paired with glowing dots " appearing throughout the episode and an " advertisement " for the company shown at the end with a web address for the game .
= = = Books and comics = = =
On August 27 , 2008 , a prequel comic book ( leading right up to the moment in the pilot where Olivia ' first ' meets Walter ) written by Zack Whedon was released by DC Comics under its WildStorm imprint . This was to be the first issue of a monthly 6 @-@ issue limited series but the others were delayed until January 2009 , when monthly publication resumed , with the sixth and final issue scheduled for release on June 17 . The Vice President of WildStorm , Hank Kanalz , explained the publication hiatus : " The writers of the show want to make sure the comic book is integrated into the mythology of the Fringe world , so we have decided to refocus the direction of the comic book . Unfortunately , this means that we will have some delays , but will be back in January . "
On June 23 , 2010 , the first issue of Tales From the Fringe , the second six @-@ part monthly series , was released , while the final issue was released on November 24 , 2010 .
Additionally , in September 2011 , DC released the first issue of Beyond the Fringe comic series . With the first story written by Joshua Jackson titled " Peter and the Machine " . The comic issues will alternate with an ' A ' story and a ' B ' story each . For example , " Peter and the Machine " will take place in issues one , three , and so on until the story is finished and a new ' A ' story starts up .
An encyclopedia guide , September 's Notebook — The Bishop Paradox , written by Tara Bennett and Paul Terry who had previously written the Lost Encyclopedia for Lost , was released in March 2013 . A three @-@ part series of prequel novels written by Christa Faust was released throughout 2013 and 2014 . Each novel deals with a member of the Fringe team 's past . The first is titled The Zodiac Paradox and is about Walter and his discovery of Cortexiphan . The second in the series is titled The Burning Man and is based on Olivia and how she was first exposed to Cortexiphan . The third is titled Sins of the Father and is about Peter 's life in 2008 just before the point of time when the series starts .
= = = Possible film = = =
At San Diego Comic @-@ Con 2012 , actor John Noble mentioned that a film could be made further down the line .
= = Reception = =
Early reception through the first season was generally lukewarm . The pilot episode was watched by 9 @.@ 13 million viewers , garnering 3 @.@ 2 / 9 Nielsen ratings among adults 18 – 49 , with ratings improving over the course of the episode . Ratings improved greatly for the second episode , " The Same Old Story " which 13 @.@ 27 million people watched , making it the fifth most watched show of the week . As of October 2008 , the show had achieved the first place in the 18 – 49 demographic among new shows . As a whole , the series was well received by the critics .
Barry Garron at Hollywood Reporter found it promising because " it is reminiscent of battle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ sexes charm . " Robert Bianco , of USA Today , said , " What Abrams brings to Fringe is a director 's eye for plot and pace , a fan 's love of sci @-@ fi excitement , and a story @-@ teller 's gift for investing absurd events with real emotions and relatable characters . " Travis Fickett of IGN gave it 7 @.@ 6 out of 10 , calling it " a lackluster pilot that promises to be a pretty good series " . While Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle remarked that it was " boundlessly ambitious " , Chicago Sun @-@ Times 's Misha Davenport called it an " update of The X @-@ Files with the addition of terrorism and the office of Homeland Security " . In a 2016 retrospective of the series , A.V. Club writer Joshua Alston noted that the similarities to The X @-@ Files , including the " monster of the week " approach and tepid romance between two of the series ' lead characters , as well as the relatively @-@ recent release of The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe , had turned audiences off the show since it was retreading what The X @-@ Files had already done .
In its 2008 Year in Review , Television Without Pity declared Fringe one of the year 's biggest TV disappointments , commenting that the show is " entertaining " and " the cast is largely strong " but the character development is insufficient . The show 's main character , Olivia Dunham , was considered " wooden and distant , and after half a season , we still haven 't gotten to know her . " The untrustworthy Nina Sharp is well acted but " one @-@ note and lazily written " , and Lance Reddick 's character is also " underdeveloped " .
The Daily Herald commented that Fringe is promising and " it may yet develop into a worthwhile program " but has " largely been spinning its wheels " . Meanwhile , in other articles recounting the best and worst of 2008 , The New York Times stated that Fringe " is the best of a rash of new series that toy with the paranormal " . The author goes on to praise the cast saying that " Much credit belongs to Anna Torv who stars as an F.B.I. agent investigating bizarre murders that all appear to be linked to a powerful and mysterious multinational corporation " , and " Ms. Torv is backed up ably by John Noble as a crazy but brilliant fringe scientist and his level @-@ headed but skeptical son , played by Joshua Jackson " .
Changes in the approach and storytelling of the show in the second and subsequent seasons led to more positive critical reception and made it a media favorite . Entertainment Weekly stated , " The best new show of the year took a few weeks to grow on me , but now it 's a full @-@ blown addiction . " The Los Angeles Times called Walter Bishop one of the best characters of 2008 , noting , " the role of the modern @-@ day mad scientist could so easily have been a disaster , but the ' Fringe ' writers and the masterful John Noble have conspired to create a character that seems , as trite as it sounds , more Shakespearean than sci @-@ fi . "
Chicago Tribune stated that some episodes are " distressingly predictable and formulaic " but adds that there have also been some excellent episodes . The New York Times named Fringe one of the top 10 television shows in 2010 @.@ while Television Without Pity , previously dismissive of the show , listed it amongst their 2010 " Most Memorable TV Moments " , stating " there were so many great Fringe moments this year " and " we were treated to some of the best sci @-@ fi on television this past fall " .
The A.V. Club named Fringe the 15th best show of 2010 , stated that the episode " Peter " gave " the series ' overarching storyline a devastating emotional core " , making the series a " rare blend of inventive ideas , wild ambition , and unexpected soulfulness " . IGN named Fringe the 18th best science fiction show of all time in a 2011 listing , stating that since the middle of the first season , " it 's been nothing but a series of satisfyingly jaw @-@ dropping ' holy eff ! ' moments layered with wonderful , nuanced performances from Anna Torv , Joshua Jackson and John Noble " .
In 2012 , Entertainment Weekly listed the show at # 17 in the " 25 Best Cult TV Shows from the Past 25 Years " , saying , " Fringe was conceived as a mass @-@ appeal genre procedural , with a background mythology that wouldn 't detract from monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week episodes . ... But the mythology overtook the monsters following the revelation of a parallel universe . By its third season , Fringe was overpopulated by multiple versions of every character . Unfortunately , that increasing narrative complexity has steadily pigeonholed it as a niche show . "
In 2015 , Bustle declared " White Tulip " as " one of the greatest hours in television history " . He wrote , " ' White Tulip ' is an hour of television that shouldn 't work , that technically doesn 't even exist ... but thank god it does , because it 's one of the most powerful episodes ever created — and it showcases why Fringe is one of the most criminally underrated series of our time . "
= = = U.S. Nielsen ratings and series renewal = = =
The following is a table of seasonal U.S. rankings ( based on total viewers per episode including reruns ) of Fringe on Fox .
Fringe premiered in the 2008 United States television season at a regular timeslot of 9 : 00 p.m. Eastern on Tuesdays . During Season 1 , Fringe was part of a Fox initiative known as " Remote @-@ Free TV " . Episodes of Fringe were longer than standard dramas on current network television . The show ran with half the commercials , adding about six minutes to the show 's runtime . When the show went to a commercial , a short bumper aired informing the viewer of roughly how much time commercials would consume before the program resumed . The pilot episode was leaked via BitTorrent , three months before the series premiere ; similar to leaked fellow Fox series Terminator : The Sarah Connor Chronicles . The series was renewed for a second season on May 4 , 2009 , and moved to 9 : 00 p.m. on Thursday .
It was renewed for a third season on March 6 , 2010 . As part of a reorganization of its 2010 midseason line up to capture more market for American Idol , the Fox network shifted Fringe to 9 : 00 p.m. on Fridays . This timeslot , commonly considered the " Friday night death slot " for several previous Fox shows due to cancellation shortly following the move to that slot , left critics considering the show 's fate . While The X @-@ Files originally premiered during this slot and would continue to be a highly successful series , critics were unsure if Fringe could duplicate this performance . In this slot , the show competed with Supernatural , a series that attracts similar types of viewers . Fox 's Entertainment President Kevin Reilly , in response to these concerns , stated that 45 % of Fringe 's viewership is from time shifting recording through digital video receivers , and does not expect the viewership numbers to change significantly with the change to Friday . Reilly further postulated that " If it does anywhere near what it did on Thursdays , we can glue that show to the schedule because it can be a big win for us " . Further promoted by the critical reaction to the rescheduling , the Fox network created a self @-@ deprecating promotional advertisement acknowledging the reputation of the time slot , including quotes from other media outlets concerned about the move , but asserted that the move would " re @-@ animate " the show . The network also created a music video , set to " Echoes " by the band Klaxons as a means of summarizing the third season to date prior to the first Friday broadcast . Joshua Jackson , who plays Peter Bishop on the show , cautioned that time @-@ shifted viewership may not be enough to save the show : " It 's not that not enough people are watching Fringe , it 's that not enough people are watching Fringe during the hour that it 's on the air , which is key for the network . "
Producers Pinkner and Wyman also were excited about the move to Fridays , considering the slot as " open territory that can be conquered " and that they " can actually deliver like The X @-@ Files did " . Series creator Abrams was less optimistic of the move to Friday nights , aware that the show 's likelihood to be renewed for a fourth season would be highly dependent on the number of niche viewers that continue to watch the show . Abrams did affirm that moving to Friday nights allows them to take more creative freedoms to maintain viewership in the new timeslot , but feels that if the show was not renewed for another season , they would be " hard pressed " to resolve the story by the end of the third season .
The show 's first episode at the Friday 9 : 00 p.m. timeslot ( " The Firefly " ) scored a 1 @.@ 9 in the key 18 – 49 demographic which was an increase of 12 % over its last Thursday @-@ aired episode ( " Marionette " ) which scored a 1 @.@ 7 , and maintained similar numbers in the second week for " Reciprocity " . Though viewership slipped in further weeks , the show was renewed for a fourth season in March 2011 . The move was unexpected based on these ratings , given the past performance of shows with similar viewership numbers in the Friday night slot , but several critics attribute it to the strong fanbase that the show has garnered , which contributes in part to consistently higher time @-@ shifted viewership . Fox 's Reilly stated that :
Fringe has truly hit a creative stride and has distinguished itself as one of television 's most original programs . The series ' ingenious producers , amazingly talented cast and crew , as well as some of the most passionate and loyal fans on the planet , made this fourth @-@ season pickup possible . When we moved the show to Fridays , we asked the fans to follow and they did . We 're thrilled to bring it back for another full season and keep it part of the Fox family .
Reilly further added that the renewal was also prompted by the high risk of trying to replace Fringe with another show with unknown viewership metrics ; he commented that they " have a far better shot of sticking with a show that has an audience that [ they ] think [ they ] can grow " . Prior to the onset of the fourth season , Reilly reiterated that they do not expect any significant growth in Fringe 's viewership within that season : " It ’ s a pretty complex show . If Fringe can do exactly what Fringe did last year , we ’ re going to be very happy . They ’ re right in the pocket creatively once again . " Wyman stated in an interview with the Hollywood Reporter that the Fox network had been " supportive throughout this process " , and though the show 's viewership " wasn 't exactly what they would 've hoped for " , aspects such as a loyal fan base and supportive critics were enough to take the show forward for another season . Pinkner commented that " there were no creative conditions " on the show 's renewal , nor any cuts in the show 's budget , though was unsure if the show will be moved to a different time slot . Noble , at the 2011 Comic @-@ Con Fringe panel , reiterated that the fans were responsible for the livelihood of the show , stated , " Seriously , without your efforts , your rabid support , we wouldn ’ t be here right now . You are the best fans that ever existed " . The fourth season premiered on September 23 , 2011 .
Before the renewal of the fifth season , Abrams stated some skepticism for a renewal opportunity , but hoped that if it was cancelled , that it may be picked up by another network . On the other hand , Abrams considered that if Fox did pick up the show for a fifth season , " the next year would be the great ending for the show " . Similarly , Fox 's Reilly remained cautious about a renewal , noting that while the show is one of the top shows in the Friday night slot , " it 's an expensive show . We lose a lot of money on the show . " Reilly further reiterated the dedication of the fans of the show for helping it to its fourth season and continued success . When asked about whether the writers would have enough notice to write the fourth season finale as a series finale if necessary , Reilly stated , " That 's a Peter Roth issue " ( chief executive of Warner Bros. Television ) . To which Roth responded , " We have no plans to give viewers closure this season because we expect the series to continue " . In late January 2012 , Fox and Warner Bros. Television were working on negotiating a lower licensing cost for the show to allow a fifth season to occur ; this would not only help Fox reduce its losses on the show , but would also bring the total number of episodes above 100 , giving Warner Bros. a better opportunity to syndicate reruns of the show . Before the announcement of the fifth season , Wyman and Pinkner stated that they would have created a series finale for the end of the fourth season should the show be cancelled ; Wyman stated " We want to take care of the fans . We want them to see where it would have gone , but we also know the show has been a commitment and we want everyone to be satisfied with it . "
The show was officially renewed for a fifth and final season for the 2012 – 2013 television season , consisting of a shortened set of 13 episodes , on April 26 , 2012 , with its premiere on September 28 , 2012 . Reilly , in announcing the renewal , stated that " Fringe is a remarkably creative series that has set the bar as one of television 's most imaginative dramas . Bringing it back for a final 13 allows us to provide the climactic conclusion that its passionate and loyal fans deserve " . The writing team crafted an idea for a cohesive story @-@ driven set of thirteen episodes as a means to complete the series , and to " honor the audience that had served us so well was to say a proper farewell " , according to Roth . Noble called it " the season for the fans " , with the story revisiting many of the elements from the show 's past .
= = = International broadcasts = = =
Fringe premiered in Canada on CTV simultaneous to its U.S. premiere and was the most watched program in Canada that week . The show would fluctuate between airing on CTV and A during its first two seasons . Beginning with the third season , Fringe was broadcast on City in Canada .
A version of the show ( edited for time ) premiered on the Nine Network in Australia on September 17 , 2008 . In the season one episode " In Which We Meet Mr. Jones " , the opening scene where doctors discover a parasite on Detective Loeb 's heart was cut , going straight to the opening credits . Nine Network later dropped the show from its primetime schedule . This was temporary as the show returned during the December to January non @-@ ratings period . The series later moved to Nine 's digital multi @-@ channel , GO ! , where the last few seasons were played out .
The series premiered in the United Kingdom on Sky1 on October 5 , 2008 .
= = = Syndication = = =
With 13 episodes in its final season , Fringe has a total of 100 episodes , a critical number for syndication deals for Warner Bros. , and considered part of the reason for the show 's final renewal . The show premiered in syndication on the Science Network on November 20 , 2012 .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Fringe and its cast and crew have been nominated and won several awards including Emmys , Saturn Awards , Golden Reel Awards , Satellite Awards , and Writers Guild of America Awards .
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= Hurricane Lester ( 1998 ) =
Hurricane Lester was the fifteenth tropical cyclone , twelfth named storm and eighth hurricane of the 1998 Pacific hurricane season . Lester originated from a tropical wave that emerged off the coast of Africa on September 29 . Under favorable conditions , the storm was classified as a tropical depression on October 15 . The depression was upgraded to a tropical storm later that day and a hurricane on October 16 . After undergoing fluctuations in intensity , Lester reached peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . After several days , it degenerated into a tropical storm on October 26 , and dissipated shortly after . The hurricane made its closest approach to land on October 18 , producing moderate winds and heavy rainfall . A mudslide triggered by the precipitation killed two children , although damage is unknown .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on September 29 , 1998 and on October 5 , an area of convection along the wave developed into Atlantic Hurricane Lisa . The wave axis continued westward , and after crossing Central America a low @-@ level circulation developed on October 13 , about 170 miles ( 275 km ) south of the border between El Salvador and Guatemala . The system drifted northwestward , and as convection increased around the center a banding featured began to develop . At 0000 UTC on October 15 , the National Hurricane Center designated it as Tropical Depression Fourteen @-@ E. The depression contained a large envelope of convective activity , and under favorable conditions including warm water , low vertical wind shear and good outflow , it gradually began to intensify . Initially , the exact direction of forward movement was somewhat uncertain , although a northwestward track was predicted . On the morning of October 15 , visible satellite imagery suggested that the center of circulation was located northeast of the previous estimates . Thunderstorm activity organized close to the center by 1400 UTC , and by 1800 UTC the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Lester .
Shortly thereafter , the storm took a slight jog to the west , and at the same time outflow became restricted to the southwest of the circulation . At 1400 UTC on October 16 , data from a Reconnaissance Aircraft confirmed that the storm had attained hurricane intensity with a minimum central pressure of 992 mb . The first signs of an eye began to appear embedded within a ring of deep convection by early on October 17 , while moving west @-@ northwest at about 6 mph ( 9 @.@ 7 km / h ) . Shortly after , the hurricane became nearly stationary due to a shortwave which passed north of the system , shortly before reaching Category 2 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Early on October 18 , the eye began to wobble slightly and the ring of cold cloud tops were showing signs of disorganization , slowing further intensification for several hours . At 1400 UTC , Lester 's winds increased to 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and the storm made its closest approach to land on October 18 , about 70 miles ( 110 km ) south of Puerto Angel , Oaxaca . Later that day , it weakened to Category 1 status , although quickly re @-@ intensified .
Vertical wind shear associated with a mid @-@ to @-@ upper @-@ level low pressure system developed and began to affect the storm 's circulation on October 19 , thus weakening it slightly . However , early on October 20 the hurricane regained organization and once again intensified . Lester strengthened to reach a peak intensity of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) on October 22 , about 355 miles ( 570 km ) southwest of Manzanillo , Colima . Coinciding with its peak intensity , a short @-@ wave trough caused Lester to stall before turning to the southwest and weakening . At 0200 UTC on October 23 Lester rapidly lost deep convection , and weakened to Category 1 status . Later that morning , the storm was downgraded to a tropical storm while tracking southwest . By October 24 , the low @-@ level center of circulation became exposed from the cloud structure , and at 0000 UTC on October 16 , Lester had degenerated into a tropical depression , about 500 miles ( 805 km ) southwest of the southern tip of Baja California Peninsula , shortly before dissipating .
= = Preparations and impact = =
In anticipation of the storm , the government of Mexico issued a hurricane warning from Puerto Arista to Punta Maldonaldo and later from Salina Cruz to Acapulco . A tropical storm warning was also issued from Sipacate , Guatemala to Puerto Arista , Mexico . The threat of the hurricane prompted officials to order the evacuation of 3 @,@ 000 people along the southern coast of Mexico to 500 emergency shelters .
The storm dropped heavy rainfall across southwestern Guatemala . Up to 9 inches ( 228 mm ) of rainfall was reported in localized areas along the Pacific coast of the country . Moisture brought around the northeast periphery of the Sierra Madre Occidental led to a narrow band of heavy rainfall along the upslope side of the mountain range , with a local precipitation maximum exceeding 14 inches ( 360 mm ) . It is reported that tropical @-@ storm @-@ force winds occurred along coastal areas of southern Mexico . The rainfall destroyed some houses and killed numerous livestock , and triggered a mudslide which killed two children . In Honduras , rainfall from the Lester destroyed a bridge which affected transportation for about 1 @,@ 000 people . Heavy rainfall was reported in Chiapas , causing moderate river flooding though no reported damage .
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= Rock Band ( video game ) =
Rock Band is a music video game developed by Harmonix , published by MTV Games and Electronic Arts . It is the first title in the Rock Band series . The Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions were released in the North America on November 20 , 2007 , while the PlayStation 2 version was released on December 18 , 2007 with the Wii version being released on June 22 , 2008 . The Xbox 360 version was released in Europe on May 23 , 2008 while the PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 2 , and Wii versions were released on September 12 , 2008 . All four ports of the game were released in Australia on November 7 , 2008 . The game was to be released in Japan and to be developed by Q Entertainment but it was canceled .
Rock Band allows up to four players to simulate the performance of popular rock music songs by playing with controllers modeled after musical instruments . Players can play the lead guitar , bass guitar , and drums parts to songs with " instrument controllers " , as well as sing through a USB microphone . Players are scored on their ability to match scrolling musical " notes " while playing instruments , or by their ability to match the singer 's pitch on vocals . Players with the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions can interact with players on the same platform through both online and offline multiplayer capabilities . In addition to the 58 core songs included on the game disc , over 2 @,@ 000 downloadable songs were released for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions .
At launch , the game software was made available in a bundle that packaged it together with the instrument peripherals , as well as for purchase separately . Individual instrument peripherals were released at a later date . The game has received widespread critical acclaim , with sales of four million units and global revenues of $ 600 million . Players have made over 100 million downloadable song purchases since Rock Band 's release . The game 's success prompted the release of six sequels : Rock Band 2 , The Beatles : Rock Band , Lego Rock Band , Green Day : Rock Band , Rock Band 3 and Rock Band 4 .
= = Gameplay = =
Reusing many gameplay elements from the Guitar Hero series , Rock Band players use peripherals modeled after musical instruments to simulate the performance of rock music . Players use these instruments by playing scrolling musical " notes " on @-@ screen in time with the music . Rock Band expands upon the Guitar Hero series , in that it offers gameplay for drums and vocals , in addition to lead and bass guitar .
Rock Band 's gameplay and on @-@ screen interface uses a combination of elements from Guitar Hero and Karaoke Revolution . Rock Band has up to three tracks of vertically scrolling colored music notes , one section each for lead guitar , drums , and bass . The colored notes on @-@ screen correspond to buttons on the guitar and drum peripherals . For lead and bass guitar , players play their notes by holding down colored fret buttons on the guitar peripheral and pushing the controller 's strum bar ; for drums , players must strike the matching colored drumhead , or step on the pedal to simulate playing bass drum notes . Along the top of the screen is the vocals display , which scrolls horizontally , similar to Karaoke Revolution . The lyrics display beneath green bars , which represent the pitch of the individual vocal elements . When singing vocals , the player must sing in relative pitch to the original vocals . A pitch indicator displays the singer 's accuracy relative to the original pitch . The remainder of the screen is used to display the band 's virtual characters as they perform in concert .
During cooperative play as a band , all players earn points towards a common score , though score multipliers and " Overdrive " are tracked separately for each player . Overdrive is collected during select portions of a song by successfully playing all white notes within that section ( or by using the guitar controller 's whammy bar during white sustained notes ) . Once the Energy Meter is filled halfway , players can deploy their Overdrive , resulting in the " Band Meter " ( which tracks how well each player is doing ) changing more dramatically . This allows players to strategically use Overdrive to raise the Band Meter and pass portions of a song they otherwise might have failed . Overdrive can be used to activate score multipliers , which vary based on a player 's note streak . Players can deploy Overdrive independently of each other , as well as collect additional Overdrive while it is deployed and draining .
Each band member can choose the difficulty at which they play ( spanning Easy , Medium , Hard , and Expert ) . If a player does not play well enough and falls to the bottom of the Band Meter , they will fail out of the song and their instrument will be muted from the audio mix . However , any active player can activate their Overdrive to bring failed players back into the song , " saving " the band member . However , a band member can only be saved twice ; after the third failure , they cannot be brought back for that song . Failed players continuously drag the band 's Band Meter down until they are saved . If the player is not saved before the Band Meter reaches the bottom , the band fails the song . Players can earn Overdrive bonuses from " Unison Phrases " and extra points from a " Big Rock Ending . "
Unlike the PlayStation 2 and Wii version , players with the Xbox 360 or PlayStation 3 versions can create and customize their own in @-@ game character , complete with adjustable hair , body physique , clothing , tattoos , onstage movements , and instruments . Each character is permanently locked into a specific instrument . Using cash earned within the game , the player may purchase items at the in @-@ game " Rock Shop , " with which they can customize their rock star . The game features an art maker where players can combine different clip art elements to create custom face paint , tattoos , clothing designs , instrument artwork , and band logos .
= = = Instrument peripherals = = =
The game features special Rock Band @-@ branded guitar controllers modeled after the Fender Stratocaster to be used for the lead and bass guitar gameplay . These are similar to the Guitar Hero controllers , as they feature five colored fret buttons on the neck , a strum bar , and a whammy bar . The Stratocaster controller has five additional fret buttons of smaller size located closer to the guitar 's main body . These buttons can be used to play notes in guitar solos ( denoted by the note track turning blue ) as hammer @-@ ons and pull @-@ offs , without the need to strum . Additionally , the controller features an effects pickup switch that can toggle between five different effects , which are applied in solos and when Overdrive is activated . Overdrive for guitarists can be deployed by holding the controller in a vertical position or pressing the " Select / Back " button . The controller is offered in both wired and wireless versions . Harmonix confirmed most Guitar Hero guitar controllers and additional third @-@ party controllers are compatible with the game . The Stratocaster controller is not compatible with Guitar Hero II or III .
The drum controller features four rubber drum pads and a kick pedal . The pads have colored rings around the edges that correspond to the notes on @-@ screen , representing the snare drum ( red ) , hi @-@ hat ( yellow ) , tom @-@ tom ( blue ) , and crash cymbal ( green ) . The kick pedal simulates the bass drum , with on @-@ screen notes represented as orange horizontal lines . A pair of authentic drum sticks are included with the controller . Drummers can improvise in special " freestyle drum fill " sections of songs , indicated by the columns for each note turning a solid color . Overdrive for drummers can be deployed by hitting the crash cymbal ( green note for right @-@ handed configuration ) that appears directly after a freestyle drum fill . Harmonix representatives have suggested , " If you can play the drum parts on hard , you can pretty much play the drums [ in reality ] . "
Rock Band 's USB microphone instrument is similar to the model used in the Harmonix @-@ developed Karaoke Revolution games . For the most part , singers are judged on how closely they match the relative pitch of the song 's vocalist . During " talking parts " that do not judge pitch , a phoneme detector will pick up individual vowels and consonants of the spoken lyrics . Some sections without vocals will display circle notes , allowing for the microphone to be used as a tambourine and cowbell by tapping it or making vocal cues . Overdrive for singers can be deployed by singing in freestyle vocal sections of songs , denoted by yellow artwork in the background of the vocals interface .
= = = Band World Tour mode = = =
" Band World Tour " is the game 's primary multiplayer mode . It allows any combination of 2 @-@ 4 local players to create a virtual band , play gigs , and tour a virtual representation of the world . Although online play is not supported for Band World Tour , players can use the " Band Quickplay " mode to play together as a band online . For the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions of the game , Band World Tour mode lets bands play in 41 different venues spanning 17 cities , including Los Angeles , Seattle , Boston , New York , London , Sydney , Stockholm , and Rome . After creating their band , characters , and logo , the players can begin playing concerts in small venues in their hometown until they unlock vans , tour buses and private jets , which unlock other cities and continents . Successful performances also earn the band fans , stars , and in @-@ game cash . Most cities and larger venues require the band to achieve a certain number of fans and stars before they are unlocked . In @-@ game venues are inspired by real @-@ life venues and often display local art styles from each of the represented cities .
For the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions , rather than complete predetermined lists of songs ( like in previous Guitar Hero games ) , players complete unique sets of activities at each venue . Performances consist of single songs , multiple song sets , " make your own " setlists , and mystery setlists . Players are also faced with decisions that Harmonix refers to as " risk @-@ versus @-@ reward . " For certain performances , bands are faced with an optional challenge that requires the band to average a certain amount of stars for their gig in order to reap the rewards . Bands can also choose to perform a benefit concert ( earning no in @-@ game money but gaining more fans ) or " sell @-@ out " ( earning more in @-@ game money but losing fans ) . Additionally , for certain gigs , bands can compete for band personnel , as well as a recording deal with a record label . The " Endless Setlist " provides players with all @-@ day concert experience , as the setlist requires playing the entire game disc 's setlist from start to finish .
The PlayStation 2 and Wii versions of Rock Band contain a more stripped @-@ down version of the Band World Tour mode , as 2 – 4 local players will only be able to play by completing predetermined tiers of songs ordered by difficulty . Players cannot create their own characters , nor can they choose a city , venue , or a setlist to play .
= = = Solo Tour modes = = =
" Solo Tour " is a single @-@ player mode offered for the lead guitar , drum , and microphone peripherals ( there is no support for bass ) . Rather than feature the open @-@ ended gameplay and features of the next @-@ generation versions of Band World Tour mode , Solo Tour is structured much in the same vein as the career mode in Guitar Hero games . Players choose / create their character ( on the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions only ) and complete predetermined sets of songs ordered by difficulty , with each instrument 's setlist ordered differently . By completing these sets of songs , additional songs are unlocked for play across all game modes . For the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions , players can use money earned for each performance to purchase merchandise at the " Rock Shop " . The character 's cash carries over into Band World Tour mode , and vice versa .
= = = Other modes = = =
Players can quickly play any song on any instrument individually in " Solo Quickplay " . For a competitive experience , players can individually compete against each other for each instrument type in the " Tug of War " ( much like Guitar Hero 's " Face @-@ off " , in which players trade playing sections of a song to move a meter in their favor ) and " Score Duel " ( much like Guitar Hero II 's " Pro Face @-@ off " , in which each player plays the song in its entirety on the same difficulty level to earn points ) . These head @-@ to @-@ head modes are available both online ( for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions ) and locally . " Band Quickplay " mode allows bands to quickly play any song ; the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions allow any combination of 2 – 4 local or online players to play as a band , while the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions only supports 2 – 4 local players . Also included in Rock Band are " Tutorial Mode " , which allows players to learn how to play each instrument , and " Practice Mode " , which allows players to practice songs for each instrument .
= = Soundtrack = =
All versions of Rock Band feature the same core 58 playable tracks on the game disc ; 45 of these are featured tracks in the main setlist , while the other 13 tracks are " bonus songs " by independent or lesser @-@ known bands , as well as bands made up of Harmonix employees . In total , 51 of the 58 songs are master recordings . The Wii version of the game features 5 additional songs . Featured tracks include " Dani California " by Red Hot Chili Peppers , " ( Don 't Fear ) The Reaper " by Blue Öyster Cult , " Enter Sandman " by Metallica , " Here It Goes Again " by OK Go , " Highway Star " by Deep Purple , " Learn to Fly " by Foo Fighters , " Suffragette City " by David Bowie , " Wanted Dead or Alive " by Bon Jovi , and " Won 't Get Fooled Again " by The Who . All but three songs on the Rock Band disc can be transferred to the user 's hard drive on the Xbox 360 or PlayStation 3 to be used for Rock Band 2 . Furthermore , an extra two songs from Rock Band cannot be carried over into Rock Band 3 .
Harmonix co @-@ founder Alex Rigopulos commented that the game 's soundtrack would be " covering a great breadth , from metal to classic rock to Southern rock to everything in between . " Five record labels agreed to supply most of the master recordings by their artists for use in the game , including EMI Music , Hollywood Records , Sony BMG Music Entertainment , Universal Music Group 's Universal Music Enterprises , and Warner Music Group 's Rhino Entertainment .
= = = Downloadable songs and Track Packs = = =
The PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions of the game support downloadable songs . Users can download songs on a track @-@ by @-@ track basis , with many of the tracks digitally bundled together in " song packs " or complete albums at a discounted rate . Harmonix has likened the Rock Band game to a new platform for future music releases , and the company built the library of downloadable content up to hundreds of songs within the first year of the game 's release by releasing new content on a weekly basis . Fifteen songs were made available at the game 's launch date . To date , over 1 @,@ 480 downloadable songs are available and over 100 million song purchases have been made by players . Downloadable songs are playable within every game mode , including the Band World Tour career mode . All downloadable songs released before Rock Band 3 came out are cross @-@ compatible between Rock Band and Rock Band 2 . Downloadable albums have been a major selling point for the game , with nine albums having been released to date . Currently , most song packs containing three songs are priced at $ 5 @.@ 49 / 440 Microsoft Points , while most individual songs are available for the standard price of $ 1 @.@ 99 / 160 MSP . Occasionally , certain songs are initially priced at $ 0 @.@ 99 / 80 MSP for a limited time . The prices for albums differ , depending on the amount of songs the album contains .
As both the PlayStation 2 and Wii version lack downloadable content , Harmonix released a series of " Track Pack " standalone games that are sold in retail stores . Each volume contains several of the tracks available as downloadable content for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 . Track Pack Vol . 2 saw an expanded release on the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 , as well . One Track Pack , exclusively featuring the songs of AC / DC 's 1991 Live at Donington concert , was released in November 2008 .
= = Development = =
Harmonix Music Systems was previously responsible for making the Guitar Hero series , while RedOctane manufactured the peripherals and owned the rights to the series . However , in June 2006 , RedOctane was bought by Activision , while in September 2006 , Harmonix was purchased by MTV Networks . As a result of the two purchases , Harmonix would no longer be able to develop future Guitar Hero games . Instead , Neversoft , a subsidiary of Activision , would take over development ; the company released Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock on October 28 , 2007 . According to " The Business " , Rock Band cost $ 200 million to develop . Harmonix 's Vice President of Product Development , Greg LoPiccolo , stated that the game took about 20 months to develop , already having envisioned the possibility of different instruments before they were completed with the Guitar Hero series .
In selecting the soundtrack for Rock Band , the developers recognized that they needed to select songs that were recognizable , particularly on vocals ; in contrast , when they were selecting songs for Guitar Hero , they were able to pick songs that played better even if they were less recognizable . They also consider songs that would help players come together socially , such as in The Who 's " Won 't Get Fooled Again " , where they retained the long synthesizer solo such that the band members would all start playing again after it for a big finish . The team were able to introduce songs from smaller artists that they felt were good additions , such as " Maps " by the Yeah Yeah Yeahs and " Electric Version " by the New Pornographers to help also introduce players to those classes of music . For about half the songs , they hired a studio to sing along to the lyrics as a crowd would at a stadium , such that during the game , when players are performing well , the additional crowd sing @-@ alongs would add to the performance experience .
Current Harmonix parent company MTV provided financial support to the development process , taking advantage of its stature to facilitate deals with record companies for licensing rights to songs . Several record companies pledged their support by offering master recordings . Pressed for office space , Harmonix was forced to move its offices in the middle of Rock Band 's beta period in order to support the company 's 130 @-@ person staff . However , they continued to bring on more developers in order to complete the title on time . This led to several problems in bringing the newer coders on board without any technical plan , requiring the team to redesign several parts of the game , such as online matchmaking , several times to correct . Although the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions of the game were developed in @-@ house , Harmonix outsourced development of the PlayStation 2 version to Pi Studios , as it omits certain features .
Harmonix faced difficulty in making the Xbox 360 guitar wireless , as developers are charged a licensing fee to use Microsoft 's wireless technology . Had Harmonix chosen to pay the fee , the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 bundles of Rock Band would have sold at different price points . Instead , Harmonix chose a wired technology for the Xbox 360 bundle 's guitar .
Rock Band was first announced on April 1 , 2007 . Harmonix CEO Alex Rigopulos said in the announcement that Rock Band " takes the core premise of Guitar Hero and expands it tenfold . It lets you create a complete collaborative band . " Rock Band was a featured game at the 2007 E3 convention and provided one of the exhibition 's highlights ; Harmonix employees and Microsoft executive Peter Moore played the game on @-@ stage , performing The Hives ' " Main Offender " . Moore paused the game twice when he accidentally hit the guitar 's Xbox Guide button .
A software update was released on March 21 , 2008 , which added new features to the game . The update included an in @-@ game music store with preview and sorting options , revised microphone performance , and faster downloadable content loading .
= = = Online community = = =
On October 25 , 2007 , Harmonix and MTV announced RockBand.com would be transformed into an extensive community website at the game 's launch , and that it would extend the features of the game . The community website was absent at the game 's launch in order to fix bugs and complete features , but was launched on December 19 , 2007 . The site offered leaderboards , customizable band profile pages with stats , a classified area for bands to find additional members , band blogs , online forums , and other sharing features . Many originally announced features , such as the ability for players to pose their avatars , take photo shoots and order T @-@ shirts , bumper stickers , and figurines , were eventually made available on the website for Rock Band 2 .
= = Release = =
= = = Promotion = = =
MTV and Harmonix promoted Rock Band heavily in the months leading up to the game 's release . The game made a nationwide promotional tour of the United States . Several tour buses made stops at major American cities to set up demo stations and showcase playable versions of the game for fans . Many of the locations included college campuses . Additionally , fan @-@ created " bands " were able to audition on @-@ stage by playing the game ; their performances were recorded and sent to MTV casting directors , who selected two bands to appear on Total Request Live in a " battle of the bands . " The promotional tour commenced with a featured showcase at the MTV Video Music Awards in Las Vegas on September 9 , 2007 .
MTV invested in additional promotions that totaled about $ 30 million . The game was set up within the homes of The Real World participants , allowing for on @-@ air visibility . VH1 also produced a brief spoof documentary in the style of Behind the Music titled " Rock Band Cometh : The Rock Band Band Story , " documenting a fictional band that plays the game .
The game appeared in demo kiosks at Best Buy , Wal @-@ Mart , and Sam 's Club stores . The demo contained 15 songs and supports gameplay for all 4 instruments ( although the actual in @-@ store setup varied ) . The demo 's drum set lacked a bass pedal , with the game automatically playing bass drum notes .
Other companies helped to promote Rock Band through free and reduced cost downloadable content . Best Buy offered two free downloadable tracks by the band Disturbed for customers that pre @-@ ordered their Indestructible album online ; these tracks were made available to all users in June 2008 for $ 0 @.@ 99 / 80MSP . McDonald 's sponsored a month @-@ long program that reduced the cost of two selected downloadable tracks to $ 1 ( approximately half the standard cost ) for each week during the month of May 2008 as part of their Dollar Menu promotion .
The United Kingdom release of the game took place in London , where a number of bands including The Automatic , The Whip , and The Courteeners performed short sets .
= = = Editions = = =
The " Special Edition " bundle includes the game software , as well as guitar , drum , and microphone peripherals . The PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , and Wii bundles include a wireless guitar , whereas the Xbox 360 bundle contains a wired guitar ( a separate wireless guitar is currently available for the Xbox 360 ) . Initially , a USB hub was only included in the Xbox 360 , Wii , and PlayStation 2 bundles , in order to increase the number of available USB ports on the console . The more recent PlayStation 3 bundles now include a USB hub , with a sticker on the box indicating so . MTV originally announced Rock Band would be released for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 on November 23 , 2007 , Black Friday , one of the busiest shopping days in the United States . However , the release date was eventually moved to November 20 , 2007 .
The game software was made available for purchase individually at the game 's launch , allowing players with a USB microphone or a compatible guitar controller to take advantage of the vocals , lead guitar , and bass guitar gameplay . Individual Rock Band @-@ branded instruments became available in retail stores later , starting with the drum kit on February 12 , 2008 . An individual wireless guitar became available on April 8 , 2008 .
On April 8 , 2008 , EA announced a timed Xbox 360 exclusive for a partial European launch , with other versions to follow later in the summer .
= = = Technical issues and guitar incompatibility = = =
Upon release , many players reported hardware issues with Rock Band peripherals . Many complaints stemmed from the bass drum pedal snapping in two , the Stratocaster controller 's strum bar being unresponsive , and it occasionally lagging when tilted to activate Overdrive . In response to these issues , Harmonix admitted the guitars bundled with initial shipment of the game bundles were subject to manufacturing issues and stated that they would replace all faulty peripherals . Players affected by faulty peripherals were able to take advantage of the 60 day warranty on the peripherals and obtain replacements from EA . However , a class action lawsuit was issued against Harmonix , MTV Games , Viacom , and Electronic Arts over the failures of the bass drum pedal , claiming the companies conspired to force consumers to pay for repairs or upgrade to the Rock Band 2 drum kit . Attempts were made to settle the lawsuit in 2008 , but were unsuccessful . In September 2009 , the original plaintiff dropped the lawsuit .
Other players discovered at the game 's launch that the Gibson Les Paul guitar controller bundled with the PlayStation 3 version of Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock was initially not compatible with the PlayStation 3 version of Rock Band , despite Harmonix stating that any controllers that followed the open @-@ controller standard would work . While this incompatibility could have been resolved through technical solutions , both Harmonix and Activision cited the other party as being at fault for failing to correct the incompatibility . Harmonix developed a patch to fix the issue , but it was blocked by Activision . Activision stated that MTV Games was unwilling to reach an agreement to pay Activision to use the Guitar Hero III technology in Rock Band . This incompatibility also applies to the Wii 's Les Paul peripheral . However , a patch for the PlayStation 3 version of Rock Band was eventually released on September 11 , 2008 , allowing the Guitar Hero III Les Paul controller to work with Rock Band . Nyko has released a PlayStation 3 version of their " Frontman " guitar controller that is compatible with both Guitar Hero III and Rock Band .
At a press conference at the 2008 E3 convention , Activision confirmed that the Xbox 360 version of Guitar Hero World Tour will be able to use Rock Band 's instruments , adapting the note tracks to account for the smaller number of drum pads , and that this compatibility was patched into Guitar Hero : Aerosmith as a result of additional arrangements .
= = Reception = =
Prior to release , EA CEO John Riccitielo remarked that the company would not be able to meet the high demand for Rock Band in the 2007 holiday season , stating , " We 're not going to be able to put enough inventory to meet demand in North America or Europe this calendar year or this fiscal [ year ] . " This prompted many retailers to limit the number of preorders they sold before the game was released .
Official Xbox Magazine published the first review of Rock Band , scoring the Xbox 360 version a 9 @.@ 5 / 10 and calling it " gaming 's most intensely rewarding co @-@ op experience . " OXM also commented that the game 's " payoff isn 't visceral or technical ; it 's emotional . " IGN awarded the game a 9 @.@ 4 / 10 score and an Editor 's Choice Award for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions . IGN largely praised the game , calling it " one of the must @-@ have games of the year " and suggesting it " may just be among the best party games ever released . " 1UP.com gave the next @-@ generation versions of the game an A , stating that " Rock Band unquestionably , unequivocally rocks . " GameSpot rated the next @-@ generation versions of the game a 9 @.@ 0 / 10 , calling Rock Band " one of the best party games of all time . " They also gave the game their Editor 's Choice award . The Xbox 360 version of Rock Band has an average critic score of 92 % , according to Metacritic , tying it for the 24th @-@ highest @-@ scored Xbox 360 game . Similarly , the PlayStation 3 version of Rock Band has an average critic score of 92 % on Metacritic , making it the 25th @-@ highest @-@ scored PlayStation 3 game .
Most critics have commended the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions of Rock Band for the game 's group gameplay , the depth of Band World Tour mode , and the introduction of a drum peripheral . Common complaints about the game focus on the different feel of the packaged Fender Stratocaster controller , as well as the game 's Solo Tour modes not being as enjoyable as the multiplayer offerings . IGN 's video review lamented the lack of a single player Band World Tour mode .
The PlayStation 2 version of the game was well received , but was subject to criticism for the omission of the character customization features , as well as the stripped @-@ down Band World Tour mode . GameSpot rated it an 8 @.@ 0 / 10 , stating that " Rock Band is still a lot of fun on the PS2 — it 's just nowhere near the ideal version of the experience . " IGN.com rated it an 8 @.@ 4 / 10 , noting that the removed features made the game feel like a " lessened " version , but that the game still " succeeds because it 's infinitely fun to play with your friends . "
Reviews for the Wii version of Rock Band also criticize the lack of features compared to the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions . The Wii version is basically the same as its PlayStation 2 counterpart , but IGN criticized it for its late release and their effort in completing a full game . However , IGN noted that the drum controller is an improvement over the original version , stating , " The pads are quieter and the kick pedal will withstand more abuse . "
= = = Sales = = =
By October 9 , 2008 , the game sold four million units and generated global revenues of $ 600 million . The sales of Rock Band helped Viacom to become the fifth @-@ largest video game publisher in the United States , although analysts estimated that Viacom was only breaking even on sales of the game . In a March 2011 list , the NPD Group listed Rock Band as the fifth @-@ highest @-@ grossing video game in the United States since 1995 , earning $ 670 @.@ 7 million in revenue .
By December 2008 , over 100 million downloadable songs purchases had been made from the Rock Band music store . Viacom estimated that it is averaging the sale of 1 million downloadable songs every 9 days . Sales of songs were in favor of hard rock bands ; Mötley Crüe 's single " Saints of Los Angeles " , debuting as a Rock Band track at the same time as the release of the album of the same name , saw 48 @,@ 000 Rock Band downloads and 14 @,@ 000 iTunes downloads during its first week of release . The popularity of some tracks also led to groups considering releasing more material for the game . Rush 's alternate version of " Working Man " released only for Rock Band was met with so much praise from players of Rock Band that the group released the song for download through iTunes , as well as considered making full albums available , which they went on to do for their 1981 album Moving Pictures , released for the game two months later .
= = = Awards = = =
Prior to the game 's release , Rock Band was featured at the 2007 E3 convention , garnering attention and several awards , including the Game Critics ' " Best of E3 2007 " awards for " Best of Show , " " Best Hardware / Peripheral , " and " Best Social / Casual / Puzzle , " 1UP.com 's " Best of E3 , " and GameSpot 's " Best Stage Demo " and " Best Xbox 360 Game . "
After its release , Rock Band won dozens of awards covering game releases from 2007 . The game won seven awards from IGN 's " Best of 2007 , " receiving honors for " Best Music Game " for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 , " Best Local Multiplayer Game " for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 , " Best Downloadable Content " for the PlayStation 3 , and " Best Console Peripheral , " as well as overall awards for " Best Music Game , " " Best Licensed Soundtrack , " and " Best Local Multiplayer Game . " GameSpot awarded Rock Band five awards in its " Best of 2007 , " recognizing the game for " Best Rhythm / Music Game , " " Best New Gaming Hardware , " " Best Downloadable Content , " " Best Sound Design , " and " Best Multiplayer Game . " Wired , Official Xbox Magazine , and Ars Technica all named Rock Band the " Game of the Year , " while Next Generation Magazine named it the second @-@ best game of 2007 . GamePro honored Rock Band with the " Innovation Award " for four @-@ person cooperative play , as well as the selection of " Best Party Game " of 2007 . GameSpy also recognized the game as the " Music Game of the Year " on the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 . Additionally , Rock Band was awarded " Best Multiplayer Experience ( console ) " by 1UP.com. The game won two awards at the 2007 Spike Video Game Awards , receiving honors for " Best Rhythm Game " and " Best Soundtrack , " while the game 's developer , Harmonix , won " Studio of the Year . " The game also won an award for " Best Multiplayer Game " in the X @-@ Play Best of 2007 Awards . The Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences awarded Rock Band with honors for three of the eight categories in which it was nominated ; the game won awards for " Family Game of the Year " , " Outstanding Achievement in Soundtrack " , and " Outstanding Innovation in Gaming " . Rock Band was named " Best Party Game " of the year from Game Informer Magazine . The game has also been called the best rhythm game of all time by GameTap .
= = = Cultural impact = = =
Like the Guitar Hero series , Rock Band has had a significant impact on culture . Alex Rigopulos and Eran Egozy , the founders of Harmonix , were together named in Time Magazine 's list of the 100 most influential people of 2008 for their creation of Rock Band . In the article , guitarist Steven Van Zandt claims , " in the history of rock ' n ' roll , Rock Band may just turn out to be up there with the rise of FM radio , CDs , or MTV . "
= = = Sequel = = =
Rock Band 2 was officially announced on June 30 , 2008 , and was released on September 14 , 2008 on the Xbox 360 , with other platform releases following later in the year . Original instruments from Rock Band are compatible with Rock Band 2 , which features new instruments that been described as quieter and more reliable . Furthermore , both existing and any forthcoming downloadable content will be cross @-@ compatible between Rock Band and Rock Band 2 . Rock Band 2 saw enhancements to the existing Band World Tour mode , as well as inclusions of new " Drum Trainer " and " Battle of the Bands " modes . 55 of the 58 Rock Band songs can be exported for use in Rock Band 2 , with the purchase of a $ 5 export key .
= = = Patent litigation = = =
On March 21 , 2008 , EA , MTV , and Harmonix were sued by the Gibson Guitar Corporation for violation of the 1999 U.S. Patent 5 @,@ 990 @,@ 405 , which Gibson claims covers technology that simulates a concert performance via pre @-@ recorded audio and a musical instrument ; this follows similar action that Gibson has taken against the Guitar Hero series , which was later settled out of court . The Gibson @-@ Harmonix case was put on hold shortly after its filing to allow the United States Patent and Trademark Office to open a re @-@ examination of the 405 patent . On subsequent review , the 405 patent was modified to more exactly define the type of musical instrument that the patent covers , as the original language had conflicted with U.S. Patent 5 @,@ 488 @,@ 196 . Due to the change in language , Harmonix sought to have the case go forward and requested a summary judgement , believing that the new language of the 405 patent did not include the Rock Band controllers . In mid 2010 , the case was settled between all parties under non @-@ disclosed terms .
On July 10 , 2008 , Konami filed a separate lawsuit against Harmonix , Viacom , and MTV attempting to block the sale of Rock Band , over infringement of their patents on a " musical @-@ rhythm matching game " issued in 2002 and 2003 , including U.S. Patent 6 @,@ 390 @,@ 923 . An MTV spokesperson expressed that the lawsuit was " extremely surprising " and that they intend to defend themselves against the suit . On December 2 , 2008 , Viacom issued a countersuit against Konami , claiming that Rock Band significantly improves on Konami 's original patent , and that their Rock Revolution game uses controllers that are similar to Rock Band . Both suits were settled for undisclosed terms in September 2010 .
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= Made in the Dark =
Made in the Dark is the third studio album by English indietronica band Hot Chip . The album , comprising 13 songs , was released on 4 February 2008 on the EMI label . It peaked at number four on the UK Album Chart , number 25 on the Australian album charts , and entered at number 109 on the U.S. Billboard 200 . Several singles have been released from the album , including " Shake a Fist " , " Ready for the Floor " , which reached number six on the UK Singles Chart , and " One Pure Thought " .
A defining feature of the album is the strong presence of romantic ballads . The ballad " Made in the Dark " was described as " sublime " by one critic , although not all the ballads received universal praise . Alexis Taylor , the main contributor to the lyrics , stated that he was proud of the album lyrically and felt that feelings of love and happiness , partly the result of his recent marriage , had contributed to the album 's romantic tone .
Critics stated that songs such as " Ready for the Floor " and " Bendable Poseable " were reminiscent of their previous release , The Warning . The style of the album was not considered as big a leap forward as the changes evident between Coming on Strong ( 2004 ) to The Warning ( 2006 ) . It was said that Hot Chip had honed their music by using quirks of their musical style to make more accomplished music , however , some critics felt that the album lacked focus , containing too many varied elements ; it was described as " loveable but flawed " .
= = Production = =
Hot Chip often record their music in a bedroom . However , the band took a different approach in recording Made in the Dark to make it sound " not quite so homemade " . Recording took place in a variety of locations , including in @-@ studio and live venues , to make " different acoustic spaces to be obvious to the listener " . Lead vocalist Alexis Taylor said there was tension between the band 's members , as the band did not want to continue creating music in the same way , but also did not want to " throw away a songwriting and production partnership that has worked before . " Taylor and vocalist Joe Goddard worked on some of the songs together . Several songs were overdubbed with parts of the rest of the band playing .
In regards to editing , Taylor said that Hot Chip have " never really been too good at bothering to get rid of little imperfections in the music " ; he felt they added personality and said that " it 's good not to be too dogmatic about it if that 's what suits the song " . Hot Chip used a variety of vocal structures , including layered vocals , where two takes of the same vocals were added together , changed by idiosyncrasies from the way it had been sung , and the doubling of a single performance , shifted out of beat .
Drummer Felix Martin said Made in the Dark was a " true group effort " . The process began with Taylor and Goddard creating lyrics , then Goddard would produce parts of tracks , which Alexis would then add " lyrical content and melodies and so on that he 's thought of while he 's on the bus or in the bath or wherever he happened to be " . The other three members of Hot Chip , Owen Clarke , Al Doyle , and Felix Martin would then " have some influence on the way the songs are put together . "
Some equipment used to create the album remained the same as previous albums — Goddard used Steinberg Cubase SX3 on his laptop and Doyle and Martin worked on songs using Apple Logic in their studio . To create the chorus for " Ready for the Floor " , Goddard used plug @-@ ins from Arturia , such as Moog Modular . He used two sound channels to control noise and melody , and placed the noise channel in Cubase and had it follow the melody , to make it " punchier " . With " Bendable Poseable " , Goddard recorded live percussion parts with a Shure Beta 57A mic going directly into Cubase and " fashioned them into a jittery , three @-@ minute loop " . This was emailed to Taylor , who then recorded the main vocals for the song . To create the beat in " Shake a Fist " Martin used the Elektron Machinedrum .
Hot Chip enjoy being a live band and have said it is " something [ they 've ] always tried to do " . As the group contains " a lot of different types of musicianship " , the band " have to be spontaneous whenever [ they ] can . " Doyle , the guitarist , stated that Hot Chip change the original recordings when playing their music live . At the London @-@ based studio called the Strongroom , " One Pure Thought " , " Hold On " and " Shake a Fist " were recorded live , instead of on multitrack , and were subsequently pieced together . This was the first occasion that Hot Chip had recorded music in a studio environment .
Taylor described Made in the Dark as " a real mix of different things " and said that Hot Chip was " learning how to be a different kind of band " while making the album :
Everyone around us would write songs whilst touring , then go into a studio and record [ songs ] at the end of a year 's touring . We were the opposite . We would make the songs in a short time and then would have to learn how to play them live .
= = = Album title = = =
Several titles were considered during production , including " Shot Down in Flames " and " IV " . The former was rejected because Martin thought it sounded like a title The Beta Band would use . Taylor supported the name " IV " because he liked " giving people the wrong impression all the time " , and defended his opinion , saying " if [ people ] give us any time , they would see that we 're very serious about comedy ... and serious things as well " . The album was called " Made in the Dark " because it was a title the band agreed on . Taylor considered the eponymous track to be one of his favourite songs , and thought it was nice to name the album after a thoughtful song , in contrast to Coming on Strong and The Warning , which he described as being " big , slightly jokey , macho phrases " .
= = = Artwork = = =
Darren Wall ( Wallzo ) and Owen Clarke designed the artwork after several graphical experiments . After the initial experimentation , Wall wanted to create a cover that was " more brooding and conservative " and formed a list of ideas that the band had responded positively to . The list included dual colour illustrations , circles , and verdigris — the green coating formed on copper during oxygenation . Wall amalgamated the ideas to create the image used on the album 's cover , which was named " The Artifact " . The image was embossed on metallic copper card to give a " tactile feel " that would imply the album was " an object rather than illustration @-@ based design . "
= = Musical style = =
In an interview with Pitchfork Media in October 2007 , Taylor said there would be an equal proportion of electronic elements to live material , as the band doesn 't " do things by adding one thing and taking something else away " . The album contained maximalist and minimalist songs ; several tracks on the album were influenced by rock and heavy metal music , and the track " Wrestlers " started taking a new direction because the band was " wrestling with the idea of making an R. Kelly kind of slick R and B number " and ultimately " [ sounded ] more like Randy Newman 's " Short People " . He said , " if the press release says it 's faster and rockier it doesn 't account for the fact that there are more ballads on this record than any other record . " Taylor said that feelings of happiness and love influenced the album 's romantic feel .
Goddard considered varying styles and influences a key factor in the band 's music . He explained to The Sun that creating music could be difficult because a member could introduce a different influence . Goddard and Doyle said that clashes and restlessness during recording led to " unpleasant " periods of silence , but ultimately thought the clashes created " something more interesting because you have these different voices and not one person dictating " .
Martin told The Georgia Straight that the group are " afflicted with something akin to musical attention @-@ deficit disorder " and said that the group " get bored quite easily [ ... ] with [ their ] own records at times " . He elaborated by saying that the group aren 't " really interested in reproducing the same sound " because they don 't find it exciting .
Taylor stated Hot Chip " didn 't set out to make something with one mood " and that he thought the band 's style of " jump [ ing ] all over the place stylistically " made sense as a record . In an interview with The Georgia Straight , Martin expressed that Hot Chip didn 't want to create a " ' classic ' record that would have a particular sound " as they wanted to make music that was " quite experimental and out @-@ there " . Made in the Dark was intended to represent the " whole live sound of the band " and they are " a band as much as originally having been a duo " .
= = = Influences = = =
The album is influenced by music Goddard and Taylor listened to during their childhood and adolescence , such as Prince 's Sign o ' the Times and The Beatles ' White Album . Taylor explained why Hot Chip 's albums " go from one mood to another so readily " , by saying " Eclectic music has been our first musical background " and that he and Goddard had different musical interests when they were younger . Made in the Dark is influenced by contemporary artists such as Black Dice and Will Oldham . Taylor appreciated Oldham for his minimalism of " just acoustic guitar and harmonium and voice for the whole record " and wanted Hot Chip to emulate him .
= = Lyrics = =
Taylor stated in an interview with The Sun that he was " so proud of [ the album ] lyrically " and thought the song " Made in the Dark " contained the best lyrics he had ever written . Taylor explained that it was " very easy " for him to focus on the " more serious lyrics , like a love song very dear to [ his ] heart " but stated that " Wrestlers " was " equally as important and feels like a very different style of music than we have ever got down on record before . " He discussed " Wrestlers " in the band 's interview with The Sun , explaining that the song is " musically and lyrically quite direct " because " it doesn 't have thousands of layers " , in contrast to the song " Bendable Poseable " . The concept of the song " Wrestlers " , originates from a text message from James Murphy of LCD Soundsystem . After Doyle toured with Murphy , Murphy sent a text message that said , " Sorry you can 't have Al back , I 'll wrestle you for him . And I 'll beat you because I 'm bigger and stronger than you . " Goddard explained that " the words in that song are about wrestling " , and the band " have no doubt " that Murphy would defeat them in a wrestling fight .
The song " Ready for the Floor " contains an allusion to the 1989 film , Batman , with the line , " You 're my number one guy " . In an interview with The Fader magazine , Taylor said the reference was a result of thinking about the Batman film , which has many things that Taylor is fond of , such as the Prince soundtrack . He commented that sometimes those items " seep into what we 're writing about " and said that he likes to reference " in an oblique way " . He conjectured that he had included the line to say something to " everyone in the band , particularly to Joe [ Goddard ] , ' You 're my number one guy , why is there any problems between any of us ? ' "
" Shake a Fist " was written by Taylor after Goddard took a legal herbal substance during the Glastonbury Festival which produced feelings akin to teleportation . Goddard said , " it was a brilliant time " and told Alexis to write down words to go with his experience . The song features a voice sample from Todd Rundgren .
" Out at the Pictures " is an oblique homage to inexpensive British pub chain Wetherspoons , who are thanked in the album inlay .
= = Featured collaborators = =
In March 2008 , Hot Chip re @-@ recorded several songs from Made in the Dark , with one of their " all @-@ time heroes " , Robert Wyatt . Doyle said the band had wanted it to happen " for ages " and that people would see it as a surprise collaboration . Taylor said , " I crave confusion and quite like people to be surprised . I try to do that in the words and music and try to be what people don 't think we are . Robert is someone we have liked for much longer than people realise . We feel closer to people in a different field , age or era . " The album features Emma Smith , who had previously joined with Hot Chip to play violin and saxophone on their first two albums .
= = = Kylie Minogue = = =
In October 2007 , MTV reported that Hot Chip was planning to give " Ready for the Floor " to Kylie Minogue . Other reports incorrectly suggested that Hot Chip had written Made in the Dark 's second single , " Ready for the Floor " specifically for Minogue . Taylor explained that it was a misunderstanding ; " It started because someone asked me if we would ever write for Kylie . I said that we 'd been asked to write for her but we 'd never got round to it . And I said if we had to give her one of our songs , " Ready for the Floor " would probably be the most suitable . From that , I got misquoted . We didn 't write " Ready for the Floor " for Kylie , didn 't send it to her and she never heard it . "
After the first rumour circulated , Joe Goddard created a reverse rumour , saying that Minogue had written a track for Hot Chip . He told NME , " Kylie wrote a song for us , She sent it through our management to us – it was totally bizarre . It was the beginnings of a track – I think she wrote it and just thought , ' This would be perfect for Hot Chip ' , or possibly for a collaboration . It 's a crazy song . It 's industrial and clanging and even has farmyard animal noises on it . It 's the kind of music you 'd never normally associate with Kylie . When I 'm allowed to send it around it 's going to change a few people 's ideas about her . Maybe it 's one for our next album , after Made in the Dark . " Taylor later admitted that it was a joke created to fool people because the band were tired of people phoning them up to ask why Minogue had apparently rejected a song she did not hear . Goddard said , " We 've been telling lots of lies and rumours about it because we found it quite funny . "
In January 2010 , Goddard stated that " at the beginning there was some contact . As I recall , we were going to do a session with one of her writers " but both Hot Chip and Minogue were too busy at the time . He added " there was a grain of truth in the beginning , but then it all snowballed into some big silly thing " . When asked , in 2010 , about giving a song to Minogue , he stated that it would be " amazing " .
= = Release and reception = =
Made in the Dark charted for 23 weeks in over 10 different charts , entering the UK Album Chart at number four , the Billboard Top Heatseekers chart at number one and the Billboard Top Electronic Albums chart at number two . The album , according to Nielsen SoundScan data reported by Billboard , has sold 47 @,@ 000 copies and has been certified Gold for UK sales .
" Shake a Fist " , the first single to be released from the album , was released on 12 " vinyl single at the beginning of October 2007 but did not chart . The second single released , " Ready for the Floor " , charted for 24 weeks in five different charts , peaking at number six on the UK Singles Top 75 .
= = = Promotion = = =
In January 2008 , in order to promote Made in the Dark , Hot Chip " locked [ themselves ] away " to practice in anticipation of an American tour , where material from their new album would be played . The band are not accustomed to such an intensive rehearsal regime , as they " usually just rehearse for two days and then go on tour " .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The critical reception to the album was generally favourable . Based on 40 reviews , review aggregate website Metacritic reported a rating of 78 out of 100 . There were mixed comments about the ballads ; two reviewers noted a disparity between the energy of the ballads to different songs . Drowned in Sound commented that , " ballads remain a strong suit , particularly the easy grace of the title track , but more often than not sit awkwardly next to the more toothsome numbers and feel under @-@ produced by comparison " with similar comments from AllMusic who said , " Made in the Dark 's main weakness might be its ballads , but that may just be in comparison to its many energetic moments , which are so addictive that it feels like a forced come @-@ down whenever the band slows things down . " However , The Observer gave a positive evaluation of the ballads ; " Hot Chip have had a happy way with a subliminal power ballad . And Made in the Dark can boast four of the best . " Pitchfork Media rated the album as 7 / 10 with a mixed review , describing it as a " patchy , turbulent record " due to the use of many different individual components and also said that it was a " good record but not a great one " . Martin responded to the criticism made by Pitchfork Media :
I think the fact that we 've managed to be successful , in getting good chart positions in the U.K. and at the same time making a record that is actually quite weird and confusing to even a site like Pitchfork — the guy doesn 't seem to actually get what we 're trying to do — it 's kind of cool to me .
Pitchfork Media , despite their initial rating , went on to list the album number 23 on their list of the fifty best albums of 2008 , and would later state that " its bold charms have lent it a fond longevity . " Another element that caused mixed reception was the use of a Todd Rundgren sample in " Shake a Fist " , which musicOMH.com called " delightful " but The Guardian described it as grating. musicOMH.com , whose description of the album was positive , said that tracks " Ready for the Floor " and " Bendable Poseable " had elements reminiscent of previous album The Warning . The Times said that although the execution was " novel " and the song " Made in the Dark " was " exquisite " , that much of Made in the Dark " seems to spring from sticky relationship issues " . Comparisons were also made to Paul McCartney 's McCartney II album with songs like " Wrestlers " , " Bendable Poseable " , " Whistle for Will " and " We 're Looking for a Lot of Love " , which were described as having the " airless proto @-@ electronica " of McCartney II .
In regards to lyrics , Allmusic said the album " boasts some of Hot Chip 's most kinetic music , with rhythms and melodies that are just as hyper @-@ articulate as the word play . " Rolling Stone summarised the album as having " catchy tunes , monster grooves , and lyrics resolving the heartfelt and the smartass " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Hot Chip , except where noted .
" Out at the Pictures " – 4 : 26
" Shake a Fist " ( Hot Chip , Todd Rundgren ) – 5 : 11
" Ready for the Floor " – 3 : 52
" Bendable Poseable " – 3 : 46
" We 're Looking for a Lot of Love " – 4 : 43
" Touch Too Much " – 4 : 05
" Made in the Dark " – 3 : 00
" One Pure Thought " – 4 : 53
" Hold On " – 6 : 20
" Wrestlers " – 3 : 45
" Don 't Dance " – 4 : 42
" Whistle for Will " – 2 : 23
" In the Privacy of Our Love " – 2 : 52
iTunes bonus tracks
" So Deep " – 2 : 34
" With Each New Day " – 2 : 58
iTunes deluxe version bonus tracks
" Touch Too Much " ( Fake Blood Remix ) – 5 : 52
" Hold On " ( Switch LDN Remix ) – 4 : 01
" Touch Too Much " ( Ewan Pearson Remix ) – 9 : 32
" Wrestlers " ( Video ) – 3 : 59
West Coast Tour Documentary – 17 : 25
Japanese bonus tracks
" Bubbles They Bounce " – 5 : 53
" My Brother Is Watching Me " – 3 : 49
Special edition bonus DVD
" Shake a Fist " ( Live at Melt ! )
" And I Was a Boy from School " ( Live at Melt ! )
" Hold On " ( Live at the Electric Ballroom )
" One Pure Thought " ( Live at Glastonbury Festival )
" Over and Over " ( Live at Glastonbury Festival )
= = Personnel = =
Dan Carey – mixing
Owen Clarke – design
Jonathan Digby – engineer
Ian Dowling – engineer ( assistant )
Matt Edwards – A & R
Joe Goddard – mix control
James Shaw – engineer ( assistant )
Darren Simpson – engineer ( assistant )
Alexis Smith – mixing ( assistant )
Emma Smith – violin , saxophone
Wallzo – design
Alexis Taylor – vocals , synthesizer , guitar , percussion , piano
Joe Goddard – vocals , synthesizer , percussion
Owen Clarke – guitar , bass
Al Doyle – guitar , synthesizer , percussion , backing vocals
Felix Martin – drum machines
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
" — " denotes releases that did not chart .
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= Acra ( fortress ) =
The Acra ( or Akra , Hebrew : חקרא or חקרה , Greek : Aκρα ) was a fortified compound in Jerusalem built by Antiochus Epiphanes , ruler of the Seleucid Empire , following his sack of the city in 168 BCE . The fortress played a significant role in the events surrounding the Maccabean Revolt and the formation of the Hasmonean Kingdom . It was destroyed by Simon Maccabeus during this struggle .
The exact location of the Acra , critical to understanding Hellenistic Jerusalem , had been a matter of lengthy discussions . Historians and archaeologists had proposed various sites around Jerusalem , relying mainly on conclusions drawn from literary evidence . This approach began to change in the light of excavations which commenced in the late 1960s . New discoveries had prompted reassessments of the ancient literary sources , Jerusalem 's geography and previously discovered artifacts . Yoram Tsafrir had interpreted a masonry joint in the southeastern corner of the Temple Mount platform as a clue to the Acra 's possible position . During Benjamin Mazar 's 1968 and 1978 excavations adjacent to the south wall of the Mount , features were uncovered which may have been connected with the Acra , including barrack @-@ like rooms and a huge cistern . In November 2015 the Israel Antiquities Authority announced the likely discovery of the Acra in a different location , south @-@ west of the Temple Mount and north @-@ west of the City of David .
The ancient Greek term acra was used to describe other fortified structures during the Hellenistic period . The Acra is often called the Seleucid Acra to distinguish it from references to the Ptolemaic Baris as an acra and from the later quarter in Jerusalem which inherited the name Acra .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Following Alexander the Great 's death in 323 BCE , Judea was contested between the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt , and the Seleucid Empire based in Syria and Mesopotamia . Seleucid emperor Antiochus III 's victory over Egypt in the Battle of Panium brought Judea under Seleucid control . The Jewish population of Jerusalem had aided Antiochus during his siege of the Baris , the fortified base of Jerusalem 's Egyptian garrison . Their support was rewarded with a charter affirming Jewish religious autonomy , including barring foreigners and impure animals from the Temple 's precincts , and an allocation of official funds for the maintenance of certain religious rituals in the Temple . Despite being allowed religious freedom , many Jews were enticed by and adopted elements of the prestigious and influential Greek lifestyle . The imperial culture offered a route to political and material advancement , and this led to the formation of Hellenistic elites among the Jewish population . Hellenization produced tensions between observant Jews and their brethren who had assimilated Greek culture .
Antiochus IV Epiphanes ascended the Seleucid throne in 175 BCE . Shortly afterward , Epiphanes was petitioned by Jason for appointment to the position of High Priest of Israel — an office occupied by his brother Onias III . Jason , himself thoroughly Hellenized , furthermore promised to increase the tribute paid by the city and to establish within it the infrastructure of a Greek Polis , including a gymnasium and an ephebion . Jason 's petition was granted , yet after a 42 @-@ month rule he was ousted by Antiochus and forced to flee to Ammon . In the meantime , Antiochus IV had launched two invasions of Egypt , in 170 BCE and again in 169 BCE , and routed the Ptolemaic armies . Antiochus ' victories were short @-@ lived . His intent to unify the Seleucid and Ptolemaic kingdoms alarmed the rapidly expanding Roman state , which demanded that he withdraw his forces from Egypt . With Antiochus engaged in Egypt , a false rumor spread in Jerusalem that he had been killed . In the ensuing uncertainty , Jason gathered a force of 1 @,@ 000 followers and attempted to take Jerusalem by storm . Although the attack was repulsed , when word of the fighting reached Antiochus in Egypt , he suspected his Judean subjects of exploiting his setback as an opportunity to revolt . In 168 BCE , Antiochus IV Epiphanes marched on and sacked Jerusalem , looting the temple treasury and killing thousands of its residents . Reversing his father 's policy , Antiochus IV issued decrees outlawing traditional Jewish rites and persecuting observant Jews . Temple rituals were discontinued , Jewish observance of Sabbath prohibited , and circumcision outlawed .
= = = Construction = = =
To consolidate his hold on the city , monitor events on the Temple Mount and safeguard the Hellenized faction in Jerusalem , Antiochus stationed a Seleucid garrison in the city :
And they built the city of David with a great and strong wall , and with strong towers , and made it a fortress [ Greek : Acra ] for them : And they placed there a sinful nation , wicked men , and they fortified themselves therein : and they stored up armour , and victuals , and gathered together the spoils of Jerusalem ; And laid them up there : and they became a great snare . And this was a place to lie in wait against the sanctuary , and an evil devil in Israel .
The name Acra derived from the Greek acropolis and signified a lofty fortified place overlooking a town . In Jerusalem , the word came to symbolize anti @-@ Jewish paganism : a fortress of the " impious and wicked " . Dominating both the city and the surrounding countryside , it was occupied not only by a Greek garrison but by their Jewish confederates as well .
The Seleucid suppression of Jewish religious life met with considerable resistance among the native population . While Antiochus was occupied in the east during 167 BCE , a rural priest , Mattathias of Modiin , raised a rebellion against the empire . Both the Seleucid administration and the local Hellenized faction failed to grasp the magnitude of the revolt . In 164 BCE Judas Maccabaeus liberated Jerusalem and reconsecrated the Temple . Although the surrounding city had fallen , the Acra and its inhabitants held out . Maccabaeus besieged the fortress , whose inhabitants sent an appeal to the Seleucid king ( now Antiochus V ) for assistance . A Seleucid army was dispatched to put down the revolt . When it laid siege to Beth @-@ Zur , Maccabaeus was forced to abandon his siege of the Acra and face Antiochus in battle . In the subsequent Battle of Beth @-@ Zechariah , the Seleucids won their first victory over the Maccabees , and Maccabaeus was forced to withdraw . Spared from capitulation , the Acra persisted as a Seleucid stronghold for 20 more years during which it weathered several Hasmonean attempts to oust the Greek garrison .
= = = Destruction = = =
Judas was killed in 160 BCE and succeeded by his brother Jonathan , who attempted to build a barrier to cut off the Acra 's supply line . Jonathan had already assembled the manpower required for the task when he was forced to confront the invading army of Seleucid general Diodotus Tryphon at Beth Shan ( Scythopolis ) . Having invited Jonathan to a friendly conference , Tryphon had him seized and murdered . Jonathan was succeeded by another brother , Simon , who besieged and finally captured the Acra in 141 BCE .
Two sources provide information about the ultimate fate of the Acra , although their accounts are contradictory in places . According to Josephus , Simon razed the Acra after ousting its inhabitants , and then quarried the hill on which it had stood to render it lower than the temple , purge the city of its evil memory and deny it to any future occupier of Jerusalem . The account appearing in 1 Maccabees paints a different picture :
And Simon decreed that every year they should celebrate this day with rejoicing . He strengthened the fortifications of the temple hill alongside the citadel [ Greek : Acra ] , and he and his men dwelt there .
Thus in this version , Simon did not immediately demolish the Acra , but instead had it occupied and may even have resided within it himself . 1 Maccabees does not mention its ultimate fate . The fortress had been built as an internal checkpoint to monitor and control Jerusalem and its population . If situated in the City of David as most scholars agree , its location would have added very little to Jerusalem 's defenses against external threats . It may have fallen out of use and been dismantled around the end of the 2nd century BCE following the construction of the Hasmonean Baris and Hasmonean Palace in Jerusalem 's upper city .
Bezalel Bar @-@ Kochva offers a different theory : The Acra was still standing in 139 BCE when Antiochus VII Sidetes demanded it back from Simon , along with Jaffa and Gezer , two Hellenized cities Simon had captured . Simon was willing to discuss the two cities but made no mention of the Acra . It was at this point that he must have sealed its fate , as a way to deny the Seleucids any future claim or hold on Jerusalem . Thus , when Antiochus VII subdued the city during Hyrcanus I 's reign , each and every one of his demands were met — except the one demanding the stationing of a Seleucid garrison in the city . Hyrcanus may have been able to reject , and Antiochus to drop , this demand because there was nowhere to billet the garrison , as the Acra would no longer have been standing . This explanation places the razing of the Acra somewhere in the 130s BCE .
= = Location = =
The location of the Acra is important for understanding how events unfolded in Jerusalem during the struggle between Maccabean and Seleucid forces . This has been the subject of debate among modern scholars . The most detailed ancient description of the nature and location of the Acra is found in Josephus ' Antiquities of the Jews , where it is described as residing in the Lower City , upon a hill overlooking the Temple enclosure :
... and when he had overthrown the city walls , he built a citadel [ Greek : Acra ] in the lower part of the city , for the place was high , and overlooked the temple ; on which account he fortified it with high walls and towers , and put into it a garrison of Macedonians . However , in that citadel dwelt the impious and wicked part of the multitude , from whom it proved that the citizens suffered many and sore calamities .
The location of the " lower part of the city " , elsewhere referred to as the " Lower City " , at the time of Josephus ( 1st century CE ) is accepted to be Jerusalem 's south @-@ eastern hill , the original urban center traditionally known as the City of David . Lying to the south of the Temple Mount , however , the area exposed today is significantly lower than the Mount itself . The top of the Mount is approximately 30 metres ( 98 ft ) above the ground level at the southern retaining wall of the later Herodian @-@ era expansion of the Temple enclosure . The elevation decreases to the south of this point . Josephus , a native of Jerusalem , would have been well aware of this discrepancy , yet is nevertheless able to explain it away by describing how Simon had razed both the Acra and the hill on which it had stood . Archaeological research south of the Temple Mount , however , has failed to locate any evidence for such large scale quarrying . On the contrary , excavations in the region have uncovered substantial evidence of habitation from the beginning of the first millennium BCE down to Roman times , casting doubt on the suggestion that during Hellenistic times the area was significantly higher than it was at the time of Josephus or that a large hill had been cleared away . This had led many researchers to disregard Josephus ' account and his placing of the Acra , and suggest several alternate locations . Since 1841 , when Edward Robinson proposed the area near the Church of the Holy Sepulchre as the site of the Acra , at least nine different locations in and around the Old City of Jerusalem have been put forward .
= = = Western hill = = =
Several researchers have attempted to place the Acra in the Upper City on Jerusalem 's western hill , within the area currently occupied by the Old City 's Jewish Quarter . These propositions seek to locate the Acra within Antiochia , the Hellenistic polis established in Jerusalem according to 2 Maccabees . This conjectural new city would have been hippodamic in plan and therefore would have required a flat expanse of land which only the western hill could have provided . Furthermore , the eastern edge of the hill is adjacent to the Temple Mount and higher in altitude — two characteristics attributed to the Seleucid citadel .
Opponents of this proposed location point out that there is very little archaeological or historical evidence supporting the establishment of a Hellenistic polis within Jerusalem , let alone sited on the western hill which appears to have been only sparsely populated during the Hellenistic period . Excavations in today 's Jewish Quarter display evidence of habitation from the First Temple Period , as well as renewed Hasmonean and Herodian settlement , but scant evidence of Hellenistic occupation . Research into the dispersal of stamped Rhodian amphorae handles has revealed that over 95 % of these handles found in Jerusalem were excavated from the City of David , indicating the city had not yet expanded to the western hill during Seleucid rule . Furthermore , the western hill is separated from the Temple Mount and the City of David by the steep Tyropoeon Valley — a distinct tactical disadvantage for any force that may have been required to intervene in events within the temple precincts or heavily populated eastern sectors of Jerusalem .
= = = North of the Temple = = =
The Acra was not the first Hellenistic stronghold in Jerusalem . Sources indicate that an earlier citadel , the Ptolemaic Baris , had also occupied a location overlooking the Temple 's precincts . Although the exact location of the Baris is still debated , it is generally accepted to have stood north of the Temple Mount on the site later occupied by the Antonia Fortress . The Baris fell to Antiochus III at the turn of the 2nd century BCE and is absent from all accounts of the Maccabean Revolt . Despite the narratives which have the Acra constructed within a very short time @-@ span , it was nevertheless formidable enough to weather long periods of siege . These factors , coupled with references in which the Baris was itself called an acra , have led some to suggest that the Baris and the Acra were in fact the same structure . Although both 1 Maccabees and Josephus seem to describe the Acra as a new construction , this may not have been the case . Antiquities of the Jews 12 : 253 may be translated to give the sense that the " impious or wicked " had " remained " rather than " dwelt " in the citadel , which could be taken to mean that the Acra had been standing before the revolt and that only the Macedonian garrison was new .
Koen Decoster proposes that Josephus wrote of " a citadel in the lower part of the city " to an audience that would have been familiar with the Jerusalem of the 1st century CE — a city that did feature two citadels : the Antonia Fortress and the Herodian palace . As Josephus ' Roman Jerusalem had already expanded to the higher western hill , " a citadel in the lower city " could have referred to anything located east of the Tyropoeon Valley , including the Antonia which stood north of the Temple and did indeed rise above and dominate it . In his view , this is the place Josephus must have had in mind when he wrote of the Acra .
Opponents of a northern location counter that this site is not supported by the historical sources , and that this would place the Acra away from Jerusalem 's population center . Unlike its predecessor and successor citadels , it was not meant as a defence against external threat , but rather to oversee the inhabited Jewish parts of the city , a role incompatible with a proposed northern location .
= = = A fortified compound in the City of David = = =
The available sources do indicate the Acra stood south of the temple , and because 1 Maccabees is a contemporaneous account of the Maccabean revolt , its account of the Acra ( 1 : 35 – 38 ) is considered the most reliable . Josephus provides an unlikely account of the razing of a hill on which the Acra had stood , yet his description of the end of the Great Revolt ( 70 CE ) provides additional evidence for it being located south of the Temple Mount :
... but on the next day they set fire to the repository of the archives , to Acra , to the council @-@ house , and to the place called Ophlas ; at which time the fire proceeded as far as the palace of queen Helena , which was in the middle of Acra ;
As the other buildings mentioned in the account all stood to the south in the Lower City , this also places the Acra there . This account attests to the persistence of the name " Acra " in this part of Jerusalem many years after Hellenistic rule ended and its citadels had been overthrown , and it can also be seen as referring not to a distinct building but rather to an entire region of the city . Indeed , several clauses in 1 Maccabees may be read as making a similar point :
However , two further excerpts from Flavius Josephus " The Wars of the Jews " seem to cloud the issue .
.... AND now the seditious rushed into the royal palace , into which many had put their effects , because it was so strong , and drove the Romans away from it . They also slew all the people that had crowded into it , who were in number about eight thousand four hundred , and plundered them of what they had " .
Flavius Josephus | The Wars of the Jews 7 : 1
The foundations of that royal palace have been tentatively identified in the City of David as the Stepped Stone Structure , by Eilat Mazar .
.... On the next day the Romans drove the robbers out of the lower city , and set all on fire as far as Siloam . These soldiers were indeed glad to see the city destroyed . But they missed the plunder , because the seditious had carried off all their effects , and were retired into the upper city ; for they did not yet at all repent of the mischiefs they had done , but were insolent , as if they had done well ; for , as they saw the city on fire , they appeared cheerful , and put on joyful countenances , in expectation , as they said , of death to end their miseries . Accordingly , as the people were now slain , the holy house was burnt down , and the city was on fire , there was nothing further left for the enemy to do . " .
Flavius Josephus | The Wars of the Jews 7 : 2
Reading Josephus with the benefit of knowledge gained from recent archaeological discoveries enables an alternative interpretation of his writings : " but on the next day the Romans set fire to the repository of the archives ( Benjamin Mazar noted that his excavations of Robinson 's Arch between 1968 & 1977 revealed that the same supporting pier was also the eastern external wall of a monumental building , which Mazar suggested held the archives of Jerusalem mentioned by Josephus ) , to Acra , to the council @-@ house ? and to the place called Ophel ; the fire proceeded as far as the palace of Queen Helena , which was built in the middle of & also upon the ruins of the Selucid Acra . At which time , the Jews rushed into the royal palace , into which many had put their effects , because it was so strong and drove the Romans troops away from it . They also slew all the people that had crowded into it , who were in number about eight thousand four hundred , and plundered them of what they had .
On the next day the Romans drove these robbers out of the lower city , and set all on fire as far as Siloam . ( No further mention of Acra being an entire Hellenistic quarter ) . These soldiers were indeed glad to see the city destroyed . But the Romans missed out on the plunder , because the robbers had escaped to the upper city with their booty & did not yet at all repent of the mischiefs they had done , but were insolent & cheerful ; they were thinking they had done well considering that as the City of David was on fire , the holy house was burnt down & most of the people were now slain , there was nothing further left for the Romans to do to them " .
The Israeli Antiquities Authority have not rescinded their report about identifying the remains of the Seleucid Acra underneath the palace of Queen Helena that they also identified with remains excavated in 2007 in the Gi 'vati Parking Lot digs . They are presently convinced that the ruins are separate from any part of other fortifications of the City of David in the Hellenistic period ( c . 300- 141 BC ) .
About five hundred men of the army of Nicanor fell , and the rest fled into the city of David .
And in his days things prospered in his hands , so that the Gentiles were put out of the country , as were also the men in the city of David in Jerusalem , who had built themselves a citadel [ Greek : Acra ] from which they used to sally forth and defile the environs of the sanctuary and do great damage to its purity .
These suggest that , after the sacking of Jerusalem by Antiochus IV in 168 BCE , at least part of the City of David to the south of the Temple Mount was rebuilt as a fortified Hellenistic quarter of Jerusalem . More than a citadel , it was a Macedonian colony where Jewish renegades and supporters of the new regime lived . This is also supported by archaeological evidence , including Rhodian amphorae handles and 18 box graves found on the eastern slope of the City of David . The latter are dated to the early 2nd century CE , and are uncharacteristic of Second Temple era Jewish burial practices , yet similar to other known Hellenistic graveyards such as the one in Acre ( Ptolemais ) .
= = = A citadel nevertheless = = =
Even if the name " Acra " were applied to an entire Hellenistic quarter rather than to just a fortress , it is likely that a citadel would have stood within that compound to billet the Macedonian garrison which occupied it . It was normal for a Hellenistic city to have a fortified stronghold at or near the highest point of its walled area . Thus , whether a part of a larger enclave or independent of its surroundings , a citadel probably did stand at the northern tip of the City of David just south of the Temple Mount . Archaeologists have tried to use finds from excavations conducted in the area to pinpoint this citadel 's precise location .
Yoram Tsafrir has attempted to place the Acra underneath the southeastern corner of the Temple Mount enclosure . Tsafrir points to a straight vertical seam in the enclosure 's eastern masonry wall as evidence of different periods of construction . North of the seam is an early section of the wall built of large ashlar blocks . These blocks have faces with drafted margins around a prominent boss and are laid in homogeneous header and stretcher courses , one above the other . This style of construction is Hellenistic and distinct from the Herodian construction apparent south of the seam . Although the exact dating of this construction in uncertain , Tsafrir believes it is a remnant of the Acra 's foundations which were later incorporated into Herod the Great 's extension of the Temple platform . As further proof , Tzafrir also points to significant similarity between construction methods evident north of the seam , including the use of trapezoid @-@ shaped stones , with the methods employed in the Seleucid city of Perga in Asia Minor . 1 Macabees 1 : 30 attributes construction of the Acra to Apollonius , Antiochus III 's " chief collector " ( Hebrew : שר @-@ המיסים , Sar Hamissim ) , which appears to be an ancient mistranslation or his original title as chief ( Hebrew : שר , Sar ) of the Mysians , a people of Asia Minor .
Meir Ben @-@ Dov believed that the Acra stood just south of the Huldah Gates of the southern wall of the Herodian Temple Mount platform . Benjamin Mazar 's excavations of the Ophel , the area adjoining the southern portion of the platform , have unearthed the foundations of a massive structure and a large cistern , both possibly dating to the Hellenistic period . These have been tentatively identified as remnants of the Acra , with the structure , featuring rows of small interconnected rooms , believed to be the remains of a barracks . These had been demolished and built over during the Hasmonean period , matching the descriptions in Josephus . The Hasmonean constructions were , in turn , flattened to create a public square fronting the main gates to the Temple platform during the Herodian renovations .
Several cisterns under the Temple Mount itself have also been proposed as possible remnants of the Seleucid citadel . These include a 700 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 3 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 l ; 840 @,@ 000 US gal ) cistern shaped like an E , the northern edge of which is adjacent to the proposed southern line of the Temple Mount precinct before its Herodian expansion . This has been identified as the " be 'er haqar " or " bor heqer " mentioned in the Mishnah , Erubin Tract 10 @.@ 14 , and commonly translated , perhaps incorrectly , as the " cold well " .
Additional evidence for the existence of the Acra may come from the chance discovery , published by Shimon Appelbaum , of a fragmentary Greek inscription in the Old City of Jerusalem . The inscription is part of a fragment from the top of a sandstone stele and contains what may be an oath taken by soldiers stationed in the Acra , although the reading of the name " Acra " in the text has been contested .
= = 2015 discovery = =
In November 2015 the Israel Antiquities Authority announced the probable discovery of the Acra . According to archaeologists Doron Ben @-@ Ami , Yana Tchekhanovets and Salome Cohen , excavating the Givati parking lot adjacent to the City of David , they had unearthed a complex of rooms and fortified walls they identified as the Acra . This places it slightly south of previous suggested locations on the Ophel . Finds include fortification walls , a watchtower measuring 4 by 20 meters , and a glacis . Bronze arrowheads , lead sling @-@ stones and ballista stones were unearthed at the site , stamped with a trident , the emblem of Antiochus Epiphanes . These are indicative of the military nature of the site and the efforts to take it . The excavation also yielded coins from the reigns of Antiochus IV through Antiochus VII , as well as a multitude of stamped Rhodian amphorae handles .
The Givati location has been questioned due to its being too low on the hill to overlook the Temple Mount , as described in literary sources .
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= Kinetoscope =
The Kinetoscope is an early motion picture exhibition device . The Kinetoscope was designed for films to be viewed by one individual at a time through a peephole viewer window at the top of the device . The Kinetoscope was not a movie projector but introduced the basic approach that would become the standard for all cinematic projection before the advent of video , by creating the illusion of movement by conveying a strip of perforated film bearing sequential images over a light source with a high @-@ speed shutter . A process using roll film first described in a patent application submitted in France and the U.S. by French inventor Louis Le Prince , the concept was copied by U.S. inventor Thomas Edison in 1889 , and subsequently developed by his employee William Kennedy Laurie Dickson between 1889 and 1892 . Dickson and his team at the Edison lab also devised the Kinetograph , an innovative motion picture camera with rapid intermittent , or stop @-@ and @-@ go , film movement , to photograph movies for in @-@ house experiments and , eventually , commercial Kinetoscope presentations .
A prototype for the Kinetoscope was shown to a convention of the National Federation of Women 's Clubs on May 20 , 1891 . The first public demonstration of the Kinetoscope was held at the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences on May 9 , 1893 . Instrumental to the birth of American movie culture , the Kinetoscope also had a major impact in Europe ; its influence abroad was magnified by Edison 's decision not to seek international patents on the device , facilitating numerous imitations of and improvements on the technology . In 1895 , Edison introduced the Kinetophone , which joined the Kinetoscope with a cylinder phonograph . Film projection , which Edison initially disdained as financially nonviable , soon superseded the Kinetoscope 's individual exhibition model . Many of the projection systems developed by Edison 's firm in later years would use the Kinetoscope name .
= = Development = =
An encounter with the work and ideas of photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge appears to have spurred Edison to pursue the development of a motion picture system . On February 25 , 1888 , in Orange , New Jersey , Muybridge gave a lecture that may have included a demonstration of his zoopraxiscope , a device that projected sequential images drawn around the edge of a glass disc , producing the illusion of motion . The Edison facility was very close by , and the lecture was possibly attended by both Edison and his company 's official photographer , William Dickson . Two days later , Muybridge and Edison met at Edison 's laboratory in West Orange ; Muybridge later described how he proposed a collaboration to join his device with the Edison phonograph — a combination system that would play sound and images concurrently . No such collaboration was undertaken , but in October 1888 , Edison filed a preliminary claim , known as a caveat , with the U.S. Patent Office announcing his plans to create a device that would do " for the Eye what the phonograph does for the Ear " . It is clear that it was intended as part of a complete audiovisual system : " we may see & hear a whole Opera as perfectly as if actually present " . In March 1889 , a second caveat was filed , in which the proposed motion picture device was given a name , Kinetoscope , derived from the Greek roots kineto- ( " movement " ) and scopos ( " to view " ) .
Edison assigned Dickson , one of his most talented employees , to the job of making the Kinetoscope a reality . Edison would take full credit for the invention , but the historiographical consensus is that the title of creator can hardly go to one man :
While Edison seems to have conceived the idea and initiated the experiments , Dickson apparently performed the bulk of the experimentation , leading most modern scholars to assign Dickson with the major credit for turning the concept into a practical reality . The Edison laboratory , though , worked as a collaborative organization . Laboratory assistants were assigned to work on many projects while Edison supervised and involved himself and participated to varying degrees .
Dickson and his then lead assistant , Charles Brown , made halting progress at first . Edison 's original idea involved recording pinpoint photographs , 1 / 32 of an inch wide , directly on to a cylinder ( also referred to as a " drum " ) ; the cylinder , made of an opaque material for positive images or of glass for negatives , was coated in collodion to provide a photographic base . An audio cylinder would provide synchronized sound , while the rotating images , hardly operatic in scale , were viewed through a microscope @-@ like tube . When tests were made with images expanded to a mere 1 / 8 of an inch in width , the coarseness of the silver bromide emulsion used on the cylinder became unacceptably apparent . Around June 1889 , the lab began working with sensitized celluloid sheets , supplied by John Carbutt , that could be wrapped around the cylinder , providing a far superior base for the recording of photographs . The first film made for the Kinetoscope , and apparently the first motion picture ever produced on photographic film in the United States , may have been shot at this time ( there is an unresolved debate over whether it was made in June 1889 or November 1890 ) ; known as Monkeyshines , No. 1 , it shows an employee of the lab in an apparently tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek display of physical dexterity . Attempts at synchronizing sound were soon left behind , while Dickson would also experiment with disc @-@ based exhibition designs .
The project would soon head off in more productive directions , largely impelled by a trip of Edison 's to Europe and the Exposition Universelle in Paris , for which he departed August 2 or 3 , 1889 . During his two months abroad , Edison visited with scientist @-@ photographer Étienne @-@ Jules Marey , who had devised a " chronophotographic gun " — the first portable motion picture camera — which used a strip of flexible film designed to capture sequential images at twelve frames per second . Upon his return to the United States , Edison filed another patent caveat , on November 2 , which described a Kinetoscope based not just on a flexible filmstrip , but one in which the film was perforated to allow for its engagement by sprockets , making its mechanical conveyance much more smooth and reliable . The first motion picture system to employ a perforated image band was apparently the Théâtre Optique , patented by French inventor Charles @-@ Émile Reynaud in 1888 . Reynaud 's system did not use photographic film , but images painted on gelatine frames . At the Exposition Universelle , Edison would have seen both the Théâtre Optique and the electrical tachyscope of German inventor Ottamar Anschütz . This disc @-@ based projection device is often referred to as an important conceptual source for the development of the Kinetoscope . Its crucial innovation was to take advantage of the persistence of vision theory by using an intermittent light source to momentarily " freeze " the projection of each image ; the goal was to facilitate the viewer 's retention of many minutely different stages of a photographed activity , thus producing a highly effective illusion of constant motion . By late 1890 , intermittent visibility would be integral to the Kinetoscope 's design .
The question of when the Edison lab began working on a filmstrip device is a matter of historical debate . According to Dickson , in the summer of 1889 , he began cutting the stiff celluloid sheets supplied by Carbutt into strips for use in such a prototype machine ; in August , by his description , he attended a demonstration of George Eastman 's new flexible film and was given a roll by an Eastman representative , which was immediately applied to experiments with the prototype . As described by historian Marta Braun , Eastman 's product
was sufficiently strong , thin , and pliable to permit the intermittent movement of the film strip behind [ a camera ] lens at considerable speed and under great tension without tearing ... stimulat [ ing ] the almost immediate solution of the essential problems of cinematic invention .
Some scholars — in particular , Gordon Hendricks , in The Edison Motion Picture Myth ( 1961 ) — have argued that the lab began working on a filmstrip machine much later and that Dickson and Edison misrepresented the date to establish priority for reasons of both patent protection and intellectual status . In any event , though film historian David Robinson claims that " the cylinder experiments seem to have been carried on to the bitter end " ( meaning the final months of 1890 ) , as far back as September 1889 — while Edison was still in Europe , but corresponding regularly with Dickson — the lab definitely placed its first order with the Eastman company for roll film . Three more orders for roll film were placed over the next five months .
Only sporadic work was done on the Kinetoscope for much of 1890 as Dickson concentrated on Edison 's unsuccessful venture into ore milling — between May and November , no expenses at all were billed to the lab 's Kinetoscope account . By early 1891 , however , Dickson , his new chief assistant , William Heise , and another lab employee , Charles Kayser , had succeeded in devising a functional strip @-@ based film viewing system . In the new design , whose mechanics were housed in a wooden cabinet , a loop of horizontally configured 19 mm ( 3 / 4 inch ) film ran around a series of spindles . The film , with a single row of perforations engaged by an electrically powered sprocket wheel , was drawn continuously beneath a magnifying lens . An electric lamp shone up from beneath the film , casting its circular @-@ format images onto the lens and thence through a peephole atop the cabinet . As described by Robinson , a rapidly spinning shutter " permitted a flash of light so brief that [ each ] frame appeared to be frozen . This rapid series of apparently still frames appeared , thanks to the persistence of vision phenomenon , as a moving image . " The lab also developed a motor @-@ powered camera , the Kinetograph , capable of shooting with the new sprocketed film . To govern the intermittent movement of the film in the camera , allowing the strip to stop long enough so each frame could be fully exposed and then advancing it quickly ( in about 1 / 460 of a second ) to the next frame , the sprocket wheel that engaged the strip was driven by an escapement disc mechanism — the first practical system for the high @-@ speed stop @-@ and @-@ go film movement that would be the foundation for the next century of cinematography .
On May 20 , 1891 , the first public demonstration of a prototype Kinetoscope was given at the laboratory for approximately 150 members of the National Federation of Women 's Clubs . The New York Sun described what the club women saw in the " small pine box " they encountered :
In the top of the box was a hole perhaps an inch in diameter . As they looked through the hole they saw the picture of a man . It was a most marvelous picture . It bowed and smiled and waved its hands and took off its hat with the most perfect naturalness and grace . Every motion was perfect ....
The man was Dickson ; the little movie , approximately three seconds long , is now referred to as Dickson Greeting . On August 24 , three detailed patent applications were filed : the first for a " Kinetographic Camera " , the second for the camera as well , and the third for an " Apparatus for Exhibiting Photographs of Moving Objects " . In the first Kinetograph application , Edison stated , " I have been able to take with a single camera and a tape @-@ film as many as forty @-@ six photographs per second ... but I do not wish to limit the scope of my invention to this high rate of speed ... since with some subjects a speed as low as thirty pictures per second or even lower is sufficient . " Indeed , according to the Library of Congress archive , based on data from a study by historian Charles Musser , Dickson Greeting and at least two other films made with the Kinetograph in 1891 were shot at 30 frames per second or even slower . The Kinetoscope application also included a plan for a stereoscopic film projection system that was apparently abandoned .
In the spring of the following year , steps began to make coin operation , via a nickel slot , part of the mechanics of the viewing system . By autumn 1892 , the design of the Kinetoscope was essentially complete . The filmstrip , based on stock manufactured first by Eastman , and then , from April 1893 onward , by New York 's Blair Camera Co . , was 35 mm ( 1 3 / 8 inches ) wide ; each vertically sequenced frame bore a rectangular image and four perforations on each side . Within a few years , this basic format would be adopted globally as the standard for motion picture film , which it remains to this day . The publication in the October 1892 Phonogram of cinematographic sequences shot in the format demonstrates that the Kinetograph had already been reconfigured to produce movies with the new film .
As for the Kinetoscope itself , there is a significant disagreement over the location of the shutter providing the crucial intermittent visibility effect . According to a report by inventor Herman Casler described as " authoritative " by Hendricks , who personally examined five of the six still @-@ extant first @-@ generation devices , " Just above the film , ... a shutter wheel having five spokes and a very small rectangular opening in the rim [ rotates ] directly over the film . An incandescent lamp ... is placed below the film ... and the light passes up through the film , shutter opening , and magnifying lens ... to the eye of the observer placed at the opening in the top of the case . " Robinson , on the other hand , says the shutter — which he agrees has only a single slit — is positioned lower , " between the lamp and film " . The Casler – Hendricks description is supported by the diagrams of the Kinetoscope that accompany the 1891 patent application , in particular , diagram 2 . A side view , it does not illustrate the shutter , but it shows the impossibility of it fitting between the lamp and the film without a major redesign and indicates a space that seems suitable for it between the film and the lens . Robinson 's description , however , is supported by a photograph of a Kinetoscope interior that appears in Hendricks 's own book .
On February 21 , 1893 , a patent was issued for the system that governed the intermittent movement of film in the Kinetograph . However , Robinson ( 1997 ) misleadingly stated that " patents for the Kinetograph camera and the Kinetoscope viewer were finally issued " in early 1893 ( p . 38 ) . As explained by Braun ( 1992 ) , " except for the device used to stop and start the moving film , which was granted a patent in 1893 , all the parts of the application describing the camera were ultimately disallowed because of previous inventors ' claims " ( p . 191 ) . Also , Hendricks ( 1961 ) described the outcome of the camera patent similarly to Braun ( pp. 136 – 137 ) . The facts in sum are : ( a ) a patent solely for the intermittent movement apparatus was issued in February 1893 ; ( b ) all the other elements of the original Kinetograph patent applications were successfully challenged ; and ( c ) a patent , number 589 @,@ 168 , for a complete Kinetograph camera , one substantially different from that described in the original applications , was issued on August 31 , 1897 .
The escapement @-@ based mechanism would be superseded within a few years by competing systems , in particular those based on the so @-@ called Geneva drive or " Maltese cross " that would become the norm for both movie cameras and projectors . The exhibition device itself — which , despite erroneous accounts to the contrary , never employed intermittent film movement , only intermittent lighting or viewing — was finally awarded its patent , number 493 @,@ 426 , on March 14 . The Kinetoscope was ready to be unveiled .
= = Going public = =
The premiere of the completed Kinetoscope was held not at the Chicago World 's Fair , as originally scheduled , but at the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences on May 9 , 1893 . The first film publicly shown on the system was Blacksmith Scene ( aka Blacksmiths ) ; directed by Dickson and shot by Heise , it was produced at the new Edison moviemaking studio , known as the Black Maria . Despite extensive promotion , a major display of the Kinetoscope , involving as many as twenty @-@ five machines , never took place at the Chicago exposition . Kinetoscope production had been delayed in part because of Dickson 's absence of more than eleven weeks early in the year with a nervous breakdown . Robinson argues that " [ s ] peculation that a single Kinetoscope reached the Fair seems to be conclusively dismissed by an 1894 leaflet issued for the launching of the invention in London , " which states , " the Kinetoscope was not perfected in time for the great Fair . " Hendricks , in contrast , refers to accounts in the Scientific American of July 21 and October 21 , 1893 , that constitute evidence no less " conclusive " that one Kinetoscope did make it to the fair . The weight of evidence supports Hendricks ; as fair historian Stanley Appelbaum states , " Doubt has been cast on the reports of [ the Kinetoscope 's ] actual presence at the fair , but these reports are numerous and circumstantial " ( Appelbaum does err in claiming that the device was " first shown at the Exposition " ) .
Work proceeded , though slowly , on the Kinetoscope project . On October 6 , a U.S. copyright was issued for a " publication " received by the Library of Congress consisting of " Edison Kinetoscopic Records . " It remains unclear what film was awarded this , the first motion picture copyright in North America . By the turn of the year , the Kinetoscope project would be reenergized . During the first week of January 1894 , a five @-@ second film starring an Edison technician was shot at the Black Maria ; Fred Ott 's Sneeze , as it is now widely known , was made expressly to produce a sequence of images for an article in Harper 's magazine . Never intended for exhibition , it would become one of the most famous Edison films and the first identifiable motion picture to receive a U.S. copyright . Three months later , the Kinetoscope 's epochal moment arrived .
On April 14 , 1894 , a public Kinetoscope parlor was opened by the Holland Bros. in New York City at 1155 Broadway , on the corner of 27th Street — the first commercial motion picture house . The venue had ten machines , set up in parallel rows of five , each showing a different movie . For 25 cents a viewer could see all the films in either row ; half a dollar gave access to the entire bill . The machines were purchased from the new Kinetoscope Company , which had contracted with Edison for their production ; the firm , headed by Norman C. Raff and Frank R. Gammon , included among its investors Andrew M. Holland , one of the entrepreneurial siblings , and Edison 's former business chief , Alfred O. Tate . The ten films that comprise the first commercial movie program , all shot at the Black Maria , were descriptively titled : Barber Shop , Bertoldi ( mouth support ) ( Ena Bertoldi , a British vaudeville contortionist ) , Bertoldi ( table contortion ) , Blacksmiths , Roosters ( some manner of cock fight ) , Highland Dance , Horse Shoeing , Sandow ( Eugen Sandow , a German strongman managed by Florenz Ziegfeld ) , Trapeze , and Wrestling . As historian Charles Musser describes , a " profound transformation of American life and performance culture " had begun .
Twenty @-@ five cents for no more than a few minutes of entertainment was hardly cheap diversion . For the same amount , one could purchase a ticket to a major vaudeville theater ; when America 's first amusement park opened in Coney Island the following year , a 25 @-@ cent entrance fee covered admission to three rides , a performing sea lion show , and a dance hall . The Kinetoscope was an immediate success , however , and by June 1 , the Hollands were also operating venues in Chicago and San Francisco . Entrepreneurs ( including Raff and Gammon , with their own International Novelty Co . ) were soon running Kinetoscope parlors and temporary exhibition venues around the United States . New firms joined the Kinetoscope Company in commissioning and marketing the machines . The Kinetoscope exhibition spaces were largely , though not uniformly , profitable . After fifty weeks in operation , the Hollands ' New York parlor had generated approximately $ 1 @,@ 400 in monthly receipts against an estimated $ 515 in monthly operating costs ; receipts from the Chicago venue ( located in a Masonic temple ) were substantially lower , about $ 700 a month , though presumably operating costs were lower as well . For each machine , Edison 's business at first generally charged $ 250 to the Kinetoscope Company and other distributors , which would use them in their own exhibition parlors or resell them to independent exhibitors ; individual films were initially priced by Edison at $ 10 . During the Kinetoscope 's first eleven months of commercialization , the sale of viewing machines , films , and auxiliary items generated a profit of more than $ 85 @,@ 000 for Edison 's company .
One of the new firms to enter the field was the Kinetoscope Exhibition Company ; the firm 's partners , brothers Otway and Grey Latham , Otway 's friend Enoch Rector , and their employer , Samuel J. Tilden Jr . , sought to combine the popularity of the Kinetoscope with that of prizefighting . This led to a series of significant developments in the motion picture field : The Kinetograph was then capable of shooting only a 50 @-@ foot @-@ long negative ( evidence suggests 48 feet ( 15 m ) feet was the longest length actually used ) . At 16 frames per foot , this meant a maximum running time of 20 seconds at 40 frames per second ( fps ) , the speed most frequently employed with the camera . At the rate of 30 fps that had been used as far back as 1891 , a film could run for almost 27 seconds . Hendricks identifies Sandow as having been shot at 16 fps , as does the Library of Congress in its online catalog , where its duration is listed as 40 seconds . Even at the slowest of these rates , the running time would not have been enough to accommodate a satisfactory exchange of fisticuffs ; 16 fps , as well , might have been thought to give too herky @-@ jerky a visual effect for enjoyment of the sport . The Kinetograph and Kinetoscope were modified , possibly with Rector 's assistance , so they could manage filmstrips three times longer than had previously been used .
On June 14 , a match with abbreviated rounds was staged between boxers Michael Leonard and Jack Cushing at the Black Maria . Seven @-@ hundred @-@ and @-@ fifty feet worth of images or even more were shot at the rate of 30 fps — easily the longest motion picture to date . In August 1894 , the film premiered at the Kinetoscope Exhibition Company 's parlor at 83 Nassau Street in New York . A half @-@ dozen expanded Kinetoscope machines each showed a different round of the fight for a dime , meaning sixty cents to see the complete bout . For a planned series of follow @-@ up fights ( of which the outcome of at least the first was fixed ) , the Lathams signed famous heavyweight James J. Corbett , stipulating that his image could not be recorded by any other Kinetoscope company — the first movie star contract .
Just three months after the commercial debut of the motion picture came the first recorded instance of motion picture censorship . The film in question showed a performance by the Spanish dancer Carmencita , a New York music hall star since the beginning of the decade . According to one description of her live act , she " communicated an intense sexuality across the footlights that led male reporters to write long , exuberant columns about her performance " — articles that would later be reproduced in the Edison film catalog . The Kinetoscope movie of her dance , shot at the Black Maria in mid @-@ March 1894 , was playing in the New Jersey resort town Asbury Park by summer . The town 's founder , James A. Bradley , a real estate developer and leading member of the Methodist community , had recently been elected a state senator : " The Newark Evening News of 17 July 1894 reported that [ Senator ] Bradley ... was so shocked by the glimpse of Carmencita 's ankles and lace that he complained to Mayor Ten Broeck . The showman was thereupon ordered to withdraw the offending film , which he replaced with Boxing Cats . " The following month , a San Francisco exhibitor was arrested for a Kinetoscope operation " alleged to be indecent . " The group whose disgruntlement occasioned the arrest was the Pacific Society for the Suppression of Vice , whose targets included " illicit literature , obscene pictures and books , the sale of morphine , cocaine , opium , tobacco and liquors to minors , lottery tickets , etc . , " and which proudly took credit for having " caused 70 arrests and obtained 48 convictions " in a recent two @-@ month span .
The Kinetoscope was also gaining notice on the other side of the Atlantic . In the summer of 1894 , it was demonstrated at 20 , boulevard Poissonnière in Paris ; this was one of the primary inspirations to the Lumière brothers , who would go on to develop the first commercially successful movie projection system . On October 17 , 1894 , the first Kinetoscope parlor outside the United States opened in London . Dissemination of the system proceeded rapidly in Europe , as Edison had left his patents unprotected overseas . The most likely reason was the technology 's reliance on a variety of foreign innovations and a consequent belief that patent applications would have little chance of success . An alternative view , however , used to be popular : The 1971 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica , for instance , claims that Edison " apparently thought so little of his invention that he failed to pay the $ 150 that would have granted him an international copyright [ sic ] . " As recently as 2004 , Andrew Rausch stated that Edison " balked at a $ 150 fee for overseas patents " and " saw little commercial value in the Kinetoscope . " Given that Edison , as much a businessman as an inventor , spent approximately $ 24 @,@ 000 on the system 's development and went so far as to build a facility expressly for moviemaking before his U.S. patent was awarded , Rausch 's interpretation is not widely shared by present @-@ day scholars . Whatever the cause , two Greek entrepreneurs , George Georgiades and George Tragides , took advantage of the opening . Already successfully operating a pair of London movie parlors with Edison Kinetoscopes , they commissioned English inventor and manufacturer Robert W. Paul to make copies of them . After fulfilling the Georgiades – Tragides contract , Paul decided to go into the movie business himself , proceeding to make dozens of additional Kinetoscope reproductions . Paul 's work would result in a series of important innovations in both camera and exhibition technology . Meanwhile , plans were advancing at the Black Maria to realize Edison 's goal of a motion picture system uniting image with sound .
= = Kinetophone = =
The Kinetophone ( aka Phonokinetoscope ) was an early attempt by Edison and Dickson to create a sound @-@ film system . Reports suggest that in July 1893 , a Kinetoscope accompanied by a cylinder phonograph had been presented at the Chicago World 's Fair . The first known movie made as a test of the Kinetophone was shot at Edison 's New Jersey studio in late 1894 or early 1895 , which is now referred to as the Dickson Experimental Sound Film ; this film , along with a short film from 1913 called Nursery Favorites and a 1912 demonstration film , are the only surviving movies with live @-@ recorded sound made for the Kinetophone . In March 1895 , Edison offered the device for sale ; involving no technological innovations , it was a Kinetoscope whose modified cabinet included an accompanying cylinder phonograph . Kinetoscope owners were also offered kits with which to retrofit their equipment . The first Kinetophone exhibitions appear to have taken place in April . Though a Library of Congress educational website states , " The picture and sound were made somewhat synchronous by connecting the two with a belt , " this is incorrect . As historian David Robinson describes , " The Kinetophone ... made no attempt at synchronization . The viewer listened through tubes to a phonograph concealed in the cabinet and performing approximately appropriate music or other sound . " Historian Douglas Gomery concurs , " [ Edison ] did not try to synchronize sound and image . " Leading production sound mixer Mark Ulano writes , " [ O ] nly 45 Kinetophones were made . They did NOT play synchronously other than the phonograph turned on when viewing and off when stopped . " Though the surviving Dickson test involves live @-@ recorded sound , certainly most , and probably all , of the films marketed for the Kinetophone were shot as silents , predominantly march or dance subjects ; exhibitors could then choose from a variety of musical cylinders offering a rhythmic match . For example , three different cylinders with orchestral performances were proposed as accompaniments for Carmencita : " Valse Santiago " , " La Paloma " , and " Alma @-@ Danza Spagnola " .
Even as Edison followed his dream of securing the Kinetoscope 's popularity by adding sound to its allure , many in the field were beginning to suspect that film projection was the next step that should be pursued . When Norman Raff communicated his customers ' interest in such a system to Edison , the great inventor summarily rejected the notion :
No , if we make this screen machine that you are asking for , it will spoil everything . We are making these peep show machines and selling a lot of them at a good profit . If we put out a screen machine there will be a use for maybe about ten of them in the whole United States . With that many screen machines you could show the pictures to everybody in the country — and then it would be done . Let 's not kill the goose that lays the golden egg .
Under continuing pressure from Raff , Edison eventually conceded to investigate the possibility of developing a projection system . He seconded one of his lab 's technicians to the Kinetoscope Company to initiate the work , without informing Dickson . Dickson 's ultimate discovery of this move appears to have been one of the central factors leading to his break with Edison that occurred in spring 1895 .
= = Projecting Kinetoscopes = =
Over the course of 1895 , it became clear that the Kinetoscope was going to lose out on one end to projected motion pictures and , on the other , to a new " peep show " device , the cheap , flip @-@ book @-@ based Mutoscope . In its second year of commercialization , the Kinetoscope operation 's profits plummeted by more than 95 percent , to just over $ 4 @,@ 000 . The Latham brothers and their father , Woodville , had retained the services of former Edison employee Eugene Lauste and then , in April 1895 , Dickson himself to develop a film projection system . On May 20 , in New York City , the new Eidoloscope was used for the first commercial screening of a motion picture : a boxing match between Young Griffo and Charles Barnett , four or eight minutes long . European inventors , most prominently the Lumières and Germany 's Skladanowsky brothers , were moving forward with similar systems .
By the beginning of 1896 , Edison had turned his attention to promoting a projector technology , the Phantoscope , developed by young inventors Charles Francis Jenkins and Thomas Armat . The rights to the system had been acquired by Raff and Gammon , who redubbed it the Vitascope and arranged with Edison to present himself as its creator . With Dickson having left his employ , the Kinetophone was soon mothballed and Edison suspended work on sound cinema for an extended period . Departing the Vitascope operation after little more than a year , Edison commissioned the development of his own projection systems , the Projectoscope and then multiple iterations of the Projecting Kinetoscope . In 1912 , he introduced the ambitious and expensive Home Projecting Kinetoscope , which employed a unique format of three parallel columns of sequential frames on one strip of film — the middle column ran through the machine in the reverse direction from its neighbors . It was a commercial failure . Four years later , the Edison operation came out with its last substantial new film exhibition technology , a short @-@ lived theatrical system called the Super Kinetoscope . Much of the Edison company 's most creative work in the motion picture field from 1897 on involved the use of Kinetoscope @-@ related patents in threatened or actual lawsuits for the purpose of financially pressuring or blocking commercial rivals .
As far back as the Vitascope days , some exhibitors had screened films accompanied by phonographs playing appropriate , though very roughly timed , sound effects ; in the style of the Kinetophone described above , rhythmically matching recordings were also made available for march and dance subjects . While Edison oversaw cursory sound @-@ cinema experiments after the success of The Great Train Robbery ( 1903 ) and other Edison Manufacturing Company productions , it was not until 1908 that he returned in earnest to the combined audiovisual concept that had first led him to enter the motion picture field . Edison patented a synchronization system connecting a projector and a phonograph , located behind the screen , via an assembly of three rigid shafts — a vertical one descending from each device , joined by a third running horizontally the entire length of the theater , beneath the floor . Two years later , he supervised a press demonstration at the laboratory of a sound @-@ film system of either this or a later design . In 1913 , Edison finally introduced the new Kinetophone — like all of his sound @-@ film exhibition systems since the first in the mid @-@ 1890s , it used a cylinder phonograph , now connected to a Projecting Kinetoscope via a fishing line – type belt and a series of metal pulleys . While it met with great acclaim in the short term , poorly trained operators had trouble keeping picture in synchronization with sound and , like other sound @-@ film systems of the era , the Kinetophone had not solved the issues of insufficient amplification and unpleasant audio quality . Its drawing power as a novelty soon faded and when a fire at Edison 's West Orange complex in December 1914 destroyed all of the company 's Kinetophone image and sound masters , the system was abandoned .
= = = Kinetoscope films = = =
Edison National Historic Site : Blacksmith Scene ( 1893 ) , Sandow ( 1894 ) , Serpentine Dance ( ca . 1894 – 95 ) , Edison at Work in His Chemistry Lab ( n.d. ) . Note that The Kiss ( 1896 ) was shot not for the Kinetoscope but for Vitascope projection .
Library of Congress : twenty @-@ five films from 1891 through 1895
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= Maurice Richard =
Joseph Henri Maurice " Rocket " Richard , PC CC OQ ( / rᵻˈʃɑːrd / ; French : [ ʁiʃaʁ ] ; August 4 , 1921 – May 27 , 2000 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player who played 18 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Montreal Canadiens . He was the first player in NHL history to score 50 goals in one season , accomplishing the feat in 50 games in 1944 – 45 , and the first to reach 500 career goals . Richard retired in 1960 as the league 's all @-@ time leader in goals with 544 . He won the Hart Trophy as the NHL 's most valuable player in 1947 , played in 13 All @-@ Star Games and was named to 14 post @-@ season NHL All @-@ Star Teams .
Richard , Elmer Lach and Toe Blake formed the " Punch line " , a high @-@ scoring forward line of the 1940s . Richard was a member of eight Stanley Cup championship teams , including five straight between 1955 and 1960 ; he was the team 's captain for the last four . The Hockey Hall of Fame waived its five @-@ year waiting period for eligibility and inducted Richard into the hall in 1961 . In 1975 he was inducted into Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame . The Canadiens retired his number , 9 , in 1960 , and in 1998 donated the Maurice " Rocket " Richard Trophy to the NHL , awarded annually to the league 's regular season leading goal @-@ scorer .
The eldest of eight children , Richard emerged from a poverty @-@ stricken family during the Great Depression . He was initially viewed as a fragile player . A string of injuries prevented him from joining the Canadian military during the Second World War . Outspoken and intense , he was renowned for his physical and occasionally violent style of play . Richard was involved in a vicious on @-@ ice incident late in the 1954 – 55 season during which he struck a linesman . NHL President Clarence Campbell suspended him for the remainder of the season and playoffs , which precipitated the Richard Riot in Montreal . The riot has taken on a mythical quality in the decades since and is often viewed as a precursor to Quebec 's Quiet Revolution . Richard was a cultural icon among Quebec 's francophone population ; his legend is a primary motif in Roch Carrier 's The Hockey Sweater . Richard died in 2000 and became the first non @-@ politician honoured by the province of Quebec with a state funeral .
= = Early life = =
Joseph Henri Maurice Richard was born August 4 , 1921 , in Montreal . His parents , Onésime Richard and Alice Laramée , were originally from the Gaspé region of Quebec before moving to Montreal , where they settled in the neighbourhood of Bordeaux . Maurice was the eldest of eight children ; he had three sisters : Georgette , Rollande and Marguerite ; and four brothers : René , Jacques , Henri , and Claude . Onésime was a carpenter by trade , and took a job with the Canadian Pacific Railway shortly after Maurice was born . The Richards struggled during the Great Depression ; Onésime lost his job in 1930 and the family relied on government aid until he was re @-@ hired by the railway around 1936 .
Richard received his first pair of ice skates when he was four , and grew up skating on local rivers and a small backyard ice surface his father created . Richard did not play organized hockey until he was 14 . Instead , he developed his skills playing shinny and " hog " – a game that required the puck carrier to keep the puck away from others for as long as possible . While he also played baseball and was a boxer , hockey was his passion . After he began playing in organized leagues , Richard joined several teams and used pseudonyms such as " Maurice Rochon " to circumvent rules that restricted players to one team . In one league , he led his team to three consecutive championships and scored 133 of his team 's 144 goals in the 1938 – 39 season .
At 16 , Richard dropped out of school to work with his father as a machinist . He enrolled in a technical school , intent on earning a trade certificate . At 18 , Richard joined the Verdun Juniors , though as a rookie he saw little ice time in the regular season . He scored four goals in ten regular season games , and added six goals in four playoff games as Verdun won the provincial championship . He was promoted to the Montreal Canadiens ' affiliate in the Quebec Senior Hockey League in 1940 , but suffered a broken ankle in his first game after crashing into the boards and missed the remainder of the season . The injury also aborted his hopes of joining the Canadian military : he was called to a recruitment centre in mid 1941 , but was deemed unfit for combat .
Off the ice , Richard was a quiet , unassuming youth who spoke little . He met his future wife Lucille when he was seventeen , and she nearly fourteen . She was the younger sister of one of his teammates at Bordeaux , and her bright , outgoing personality complemented Richard 's reserved nature . Lucille proved adept at guiding him through trials and disappointments he experienced in both hockey and life . They were engaged when he was 20 , and though her parents felt she was too young , married on September 12 , 1942 , when she was seventeen .
= = Playing career = =
= = = First Stanley Cup = = =
Having recovered from his broken ankle in time for the 1941 – 42 season , Richard returned to the QSHL Canadiens , with whom he played 31 games and recorded 17 points before he was again injured . He suffered a broken wrist after becoming entangled with a defenceman and crashed into the net . Richard rejoined the team for the playoffs . The skills he demonstrated in the QSHL , combined with the NHL parent club 's loss of players to the war and struggles to draw fans due to its poor record and a lack of francophone players , earned Richard a tryout with the Canadiens for the 1942 – 43 season . He signed a contract worth $ 3 @,@ 500 for the year and , wearing sweater number 15 , made his NHL debut with the team . Richard 's first goal was against the New York Rangers on November 8 , 1942 .
Injury again sidelined Richard as his rookie season ended after only 16 games when he suffered a broken leg . The string of broken bones so early in his career left observers wondering if Richard was too fragile to play at the highest levels . He made a second attempt to enlist with the military but was again turned down after x @-@ rays revealed that his bones had not healed properly ; Richard 's ankle was left permanently deformed , forcing him to alter his skating style . Humiliated by the rejection , he intensified his training and reported to Montreal 's training camp for the 1943 – 44 season fully healthy . The arrival of his daughter , Huguette , prompted Richard to change his uniform to number 9 to match his daughter 's birth weight of nine pounds .
Remaining healthy throughout the season , Richard appeared in 46 of Montreal 's 50 games . He led the Canadiens with 32 goals and tallied 54 points , third @-@ best in his team . Richard 's season not only ended the criticism about his ability to play in the league , but established him as one of the best young players in the NHL . Coach Dick Irvin shifted Richard from the left wing to right and placed him on a forward line with Toe Blake and Elmer Lach . The trio , known as the " Punch line " , formed a dominant scoring unit throughout the 1940s . The Canadiens lost only six games after October , and went on to win the franchise 's first Stanley Cup championship in 13 years . Richard led the league with 12 playoff goals , including a five @-@ goal effort against the Toronto Maple Leafs in a semi @-@ final game . He tied Newsy Lalonde 's NHL record for goals in one playoff game ( equalled by three players since ) , which resulted in his being named first , second and third star of the game . Richard was named a second team All @-@ Star following the season . It was the first of 14 consecutive years he was named a league all @-@ star .
= = = 50 goals in 50 games = = =
The 1944 – 45 NHL season was a record @-@ setting one for Richard . He first set a new mark for points in one game when he made five goals and three assists in a 9 – 1 victory over the Detroit Red Wings on December 28 , 1944 ; his eight points broke the previous record of seven held by three players , and stood for 32 years until surpassed in 1976 by Darryl Sittler . Richard achieved the feat despite arriving for the game exhausted from moving into his new home that afternoon . He continued scoring at an unprecedented rate , and by February 1945 was approaching Joe Malone 's NHL record of 44 goals in one season . Richard broke the record on February 25 , 1945 , in a 5 – 2 victory over Toronto . Malone was on hand to present Richard with the puck used to score the 45th goal .
As Richard approached 50 goals for the season , opposition players resorted to increasingly violent efforts to prevent him from scoring . He had to fight past slashes , hooks , and even players who draped themselves across his back . Richard went eight games without scoring and began Montreal 's final regular season game , March 18 , on the road against the Boston Bruins with 49 goals . He finally reached the milestone by scoring with 2 : 15 remaining in the game , a 4 – 2 Montreal win . He became the first to score 50 goals in 50 games , a standard that remains one of the most celebrated achievements in NHL history . Richard finished the season with 73 points , seven behind Lach and six ahead of Blake , as the Punch line finished first , second and third in league scoring .
Richard 's critics argued that his scoring record was the result of talent dilution brought about by the war ; when many players returned in 1945 – 46 , he won his second Stanley Cup with Montreal , but his goal output was nearly halved to 27 . Richard again reached lofty scoring totals in 1946 – 47 , leading the league with 45 goals in a 60 @-@ game season and winning the Hart Trophy as the league 's most valuable player . Opponents continued their attempts to drive Richard to anger or frustration , as they had learned he could be goaded into taking himself out of the game by violently retaliating and fighting . One such incident occurred in the 1947 Stanley Cup Final when Richard received a match penalty for striking Toronto 's Bill Ezinicki over the head with his stick in a game two loss . Richard was suspended for the third game of the series , which the Maple Leafs won .
As the reigning most valuable player , Richard sought a pay raise prior to the 1947 – 48 season . General manager Frank Selke refused , even after Richard and team captain Émile Bouchard both sat out the Canadiens ' preseason before capitulating and returning to the team when the season began . The Punch line was broken up after Blake suffered a career @-@ ending leg injury . Richard 's season also ended early as he missed the final games of the season due to a knee injury . He finished second in team scoring with 53 points in 53 games , but Montreal missed the playoffs . After recording only 38 points in 1948 – 49 , Richard posted a 65 @-@ point campaign the next season and his 43 goals led the NHL for the third time . In 1950 – 51 , Richard scored 42 goals , including his 271st career goal , making him Montreal 's all @-@ time goal leader and one of the best hockey players of all time .
= = = All @-@ time scoring leader = = =
Richard missed over 20 games of the 1951 – 52 season due to injury , but overcame another ailment in the playoffs . In the seventh and deciding game of the semi @-@ final against Boston , Richard was checked by Leo Labine and briefly knocked unconscious after he fell and struck his head on Bill Quackenbush 's knee . Though clearly dazed , Richard returned to the game late in the third period after a large cut above his eye was stitched up . Canadiens coach Dick Irvin sent Richard back onto the ice in the final minutes of the contest , despite knowing Richard had suffered a concussion . Richard scored the winning goal in a 2 – 1 victory that sent Montreal to the 1952 Stanley Cup Final . Following the game , a bloodied and still disoriented Richard was photographed shaking the hand of Boston goaltender Jim Henry , who was also showing symptoms of injuries from the series and who appeared to be bowing to Richard following the Montreal player 's " unconscious goal " . The photograph by Roger St. Jean is among the most famous images of Richard . In the final , Montreal lost to Detroit in four straight games .
The 1952 – 53 season began with Richard in close pursuit of Nels Stewart 's all @-@ time NHL record of 324 goals . Richard tied the record in Toronto on October 29 , 1952 , by scoring two goals against the Maple Leafs ; his achievement earned a rousing ovation from Montreal 's rival fans . He failed to score in his following three games as frenzied fans followed each contest in anticipation of the record @-@ breaking marker . In his fourth try , a November 8 game against Chicago , Richard scored his 325th goal at the 10 : 01 mark of the second period . According to the Montreal Gazette , the ovation Richard received from his fans " shook the rafters " of the Montreal Forum . He finished the season with team @-@ leading totals of 61 points and 28 goals – becoming the first player in NHL history to score at least 20 goals in his first ten full seasons . Aided by Richard 's 7 goals in 12 playoff games , the Canadiens defeated Boston in the 1953 Stanley Cup Final to capture Montreal 's first Stanley Cup championship since 1946 .
Richard led the league in goals for the fourth time in his career with 37 in 1953 – 54 , then for a fifth time in 1954 – 55 with 38 ( shared with Bernie Geoffrion ) . He scored his 400th career goal on December 18 , 1954 , against Chicago .
= = = Richard Riot = = =
Opposition players continued to try to stop Richard through physical intimidation , and he often retaliated with equal force . The situation led to a running feud with NHL President Clarence Campbell . Richard had been fined numerous times by Campbell for on @-@ ice incidents and at one point was forced to post a $ 1 @,@ 000 " good @-@ behaviour bond " after he criticized Campbell in a weekly column he helped author for Samedi @-@ Dimanche . Richard was among many in Quebec who believed that Campbell treated French Canadian players more harshly than their English counterparts . The simmering dispute erupted after an incident in the Canadiens ' March 13 , 1955 , game against Boston , when Hal Laycoe struck Richard in the head with his stick . Richard retaliated by slashing viciously at Laycoe 's head , then punched linesman Cliff Thompson when the official attempted to intervene . Boston police attempted to arrest Richard for assault following the incident , but Bruins officials persuaded them to withdraw on the promise that the NHL would handle the situation .
Following two days of deliberation , Campbell announced that he had suspended Richard – who was leading the NHL 's overall scoring race at the time – for the remainder of the regular season and the playoffs . In English Canada , Campbell was praised for doing what he could to control the erratic Richard . Unknown to most at the time , Campbell had long wanted to impose a lengthy suspension on Richard over his previous outbursts . As NHL president however , Campbell ultimately answered to the league 's owners and they were typically reluctant to see such severe discipline imposed against any of the league 's star players on account of their value in increasing game attendance . In French Quebec the suspension was viewed as an injustice , an unfair punishment given to a Francophone hero by the Anglophone establishment . Richard 's supporters reacted angrily to Campbell : he received several death threats and , upon taking his customary seat at the next Canadiens game , unruly fans pelted him with vegetables , eggs and other debris . One fan threw a tear gas bomb at Campbell , which resulted in the Forum 's evacuation and the game 's forfeiture in Detroit 's favour . Fans fleeing the arena were met by a large group of demonstrators who had massed outside prior to the game 's start .
The mob of over 20 @,@ 000 people developed into a riot . Windows and doors were smashed at the Forum and surrounding businesses . By the following morning , between 65 and 70 had been arrested . Over 50 stores were looted and 37 people injured . Damage was estimated at $ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 899 @,@ 291 in 2016 dollars ) . Richard had also attended the game , but left immediately following the forfeit . Frank Selke attempted to persuade him to return to try to disperse the crowd , but Richard refused , fearing that he would instead further inflame the passions of the mob . He took to the radio the next day asking for calm : " Do no more harm . Get behind the team in the playoffs . I will take my punishment and come back next year and help the club and the younger players to win the Cup . "
The suspension cost Richard the points title , which he lost to teammate Geoffrion by one point . Montreal fans booed Geoffrion when he surpassed Richard on the final day of the regular season . The fans continued to jeer Geoffrion into the following season . Montreal reached the 1955 Stanley Cup Final without Richard , and lost the championship series four games to three . The defeat was a bitter loss for Richard , who struggled to control his anger .
= = = Captain of a dynasty = = =
Richard fulfilled his promise to Canadiens ' fans as he led Montreal to a Stanley Cup championship in 1955 – 56 . The season began with the arrival of his young brother Henri to the Canadiens roster . It also marked the return of his former Punch line teammate , Toe Blake , as head coach . Along with general manager Frank Selke , Blake worked with Richard on moderating his temper and responding to the provocation of his opponents by scoring goals rather than engaging in fisticuffs . Richard finished the season with 38 goals and 71 points , second on the team in both respects to Jean Béliveau 's 47 goals and 88 points . Richard added 14 points in 10 playoff games as Montreal defeated Detroit to claim the Stanley Cup . He scored the second and ultimately Cup @-@ clinching goal in the fifth and final game , a 3 – 1 victory .
Entering his 15th NHL season in 1956 – 57 , Richard 's teammates named him captain of the Canadiens , succeeding Émile Bouchard , who had retired prior to the season . With 33 goals and 62 points , Richard again finished second on the team to Béliveau . In the playoffs , he scored the overtime @-@ winning goal in the fifth game of the semi @-@ final to eliminate New York , then scored four goals in a 5 – 1 victory over Boston in the first game of the final en route to a five @-@ game series win and second consecutive championship for Montreal .
Richard reached a major scoring milestone early in the 1957 – 58 season . During the first period of a 3 – 1 victory over Chicago on October 19 , 1957 , he became the first player in NHL history to score 500 goals in his career . As Richard celebrated with his teammates , it was announced to the Montreal Forum crowd : " Canadiens ' goal , scored by Mr. Hockey himself , Maurice Richard " . He played only 28 regular season games that season , scoring 34 points , as he missed three months due to a severed Achilles tendon . Returning in time for the playoffs , Richard led Montreal with 11 goals and 15 points as the team won its third consecutive Stanley Cup . He scored the overtime winning goal in the fifth game of the final against Boston . It was the sixth playoff overtime @-@ winning goal of his career , and the third during the finals , both NHL records .
At 37 , Richard was the oldest player in the NHL in 1958 – 59 . He scored 38 points in 42 games , but missed six weeks due to a broken ankle . Injuries again plagued Richard during the 1959 – 60 season as he missed a month due to a broken cheekbone . Montreal nonetheless won the Stanley Cup in both seasons . Richard scored no points in four games in the 1959 Stanley Cup Final , but recorded a goal and three assists in 1960 . The titles were the seventh and eighth of Richard 's career , and Montreal 's five consecutive championships remain a record . The 1956 – 60 Canadiens rank as one of eight dynasties recognized by the NHL .
The playoff goal was Richard 's last , as on September 15 , 1960 , he announced his retirement as a player . Richard had reported to Montreal 's training camp that Autumn , but Selke compelled Richard to end his playing career , fearing he was risking serious injury . In Richard 's retirement speech , he said he had been contemplating leaving the game for two years , and stated that at age 39 , the game had become too fast for him .
= = Playing style = =
Richard was nicknamed " the Comet " early in his career . When teammate Ray Getliffe remarked that Richard " went in like a rocket " as he approached the opposition goal , Richard was dubbed " The Rocket " by a local sportswriter ; both Baz O 'Meara from the Montreal Star and Dink Carroll of the Montreal Gazette have been credited for the appellation . The nickname described Richard 's play in terms of speed , strength , and determination . Teammate and coach Toe Blake said the moniker was fitting because " when he would take off , nothing got in his way that could stop him " . Goaltender Jacques Plante declared it one of the most appropriate nicknames given to an athlete , noting the fierce intensity that often showed in Richard 's eyes and comparing it to " the rocket 's red glare " referenced in " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " . Glenn Hall agreed : " What I remember most about Rocket was his eyes . When he came flying toward you with the puck on his stick , his eyes were all lit up , flashing and gleaming like a pinball machine . It was terrifying . "
The prime of Richard 's career was the era immediately following the Second World War , where battle @-@ hardened players returned to the NHL and implemented a " gladiatorial " style that featured rugged , physical and often violent play . Richard 's own temper was infamous , as illustrated by his actions that precipitated the Richard Riot .
A pure goal @-@ scorer , Richard did not play with finesse , nor was he known for his passing . One of his teammates remarked that " Maurice wouldn 't even pass you the salt " . Richard led the NHL in goals five times , but never in points . He was best known for dashing toward the net from the blue line and was equally adept at scoring from his forehand or backhand . His exploits revived a Montreal Canadiens franchise that had struggled to draw fans in the 1930s . In addition to his 14 appearances on a post @-@ season all @-@ star team ( eight on the first team , six on the second ) , Richard played in 13 consecutive NHL All @-@ Star Games between 1947 and 1959 .
Richard was still an active player when Gordie Howe overtook his career record for points . Howe surpassed Richard 's career mark of 544 goals in 1963 , while the latter 's record of 50 goals in one season stood for 20 years until broken by Bobby Hull in 1965 . The Montreal Canadiens donated the Maurice " Rocket " Richard Trophy to the NHL in 1999 as an award presented annually to the league 's leading goal scorer .
= = Personal life = =
Upon his retirement as a player , Selke offered Richard a job as a team ambassador and promised to pay him his full playing salary in the first year . After serving in the position for three years , Richard was named a vice @-@ president of the Canadiens in 1964 . He became disgruntled with a role he felt was powerless and only honorary , and resigned one year later . Richard grew estranged from the organization as his desire to be involved in the team 's operations was ignored , and the split deepened when the Canadiens forced Frank Selke to retire in 1965 . He eventually refused to allow his name to be associated with the team .
As Richard struggled both with the need to find a purpose to his post @-@ retirement life and the fear of being forgotten , he attached his name to numerous endeavours . He acted as a consulting editor for a magazine titled Maurice Richard 's Hockey Illustrated , owned the " 544 / 9 Tavern " ( named for his career goal total and sweater number ) in Montreal , and was a pitchman for dozens of products , including beer , hair dye , car batteries , fishing tackle and children 's toys . He continued to use his name as a promotional vehicle for over 30 years after his retirement . Richard briefly returned to hockey in 1972 as head coach for the Quebec Nordiques of the World Hockey Association . He lasted only two games , a win and a loss , before finding himself unable to handle the strain of coaching . Richard reconciled with the Canadiens in 1981 and resumed his team ambassador role . In March 1996 , prior to the last game played at the Montreal Forum , numerous team luminaries were presented including Richard who received a 16 @-@ minute standing ovation . He was overcome in tears as he experienced the adoration of a Forum crowd one last time , recalling his past triumphs at the venue .
Richard and his wife , Lucille , lived in Montreal where they raised seven children : Huguette , Maurice Jr . , Norman , André , Suzanne , Polo and Jean . They had 14 grandchildren . Lucille died of cancer in 1994 , two years after the Richards celebrated their 50th wedding anniversary . Richard 's companion late in his life was Sonia Raymond . It was announced in 1998 that Richard was suffering from abdominal cancer . As his health deteriorated , Richard was diagnosed with Parkinson 's disease , and doctors suspected he had Alzheimer 's disease . He died on May 27 , 2000 , of respiratory failure as a result of his cancer .
= = Legacy = =
Numerous honours were bestowed upon Richard throughout and following his career : the Canadian Press named him its male athlete of the year on three occasions , and in 1957 , Richard won the Lou Marsh Trophy as Canada 's athlete of the year . The Canadiens retired his sweater number 9 in 1960 , while the Hockey Hall of Fame waived its five @-@ year waiting period after retirement and inducted him in 1961 .
On September 16 , 1960 , the day of Richard 's retirement , Gordie Howe , who was sorry to hear of the news , had this to say about The Rocket . " He sure was a drawing card . He brought in the crowds that helped pay our wages . Richard certainly has been one of the greatest players in the game and we will miss him . "
In 1962 , Maurice Richard Arena , a 4750 @-@ seat multi @-@ purpose arena was built and named in his honor .
In 1967 , he was made one of the inaugural members of the Order of Canada , and , in 1998 , was elevated to the Companion of the Order of Canada . Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame honoured him in 1975 , and Richard was given a star on Canada 's Walk of Fame in 1999 . He was appointed to the Queen 's Privy Council for Canada in 1992 .
While he was a popular player throughout Canada , Richard was an icon within Quebec . Author Roch Carrier explained the passion Richard elicited from the fans in his 1979 Canadian @-@ classic short story The Hockey Sweater . Carrier wrote of how he and his friends all emulated Richard 's style and mannerisms : " we were five Maurice Richards against five other Maurice Richards , throwing themselves on the puck . We were ten players all wearing the uniform of the Montréal Canadiens , all with the same burning enthusiasm . We all wore the famous number 9 on our backs . " The story 's publication , and subsequent adaptation into a National Film Board animated short helped entrench Richard 's image as a pan @-@ Canadian icon . Richard 's popularity persisted late into his life : when introduced as part of the ceremonies preceding the final hockey game at the Montreal Forum , Richard was brought to tears by Canadiens ' fans , who acknowledged him with an 11 @-@ minute standing ovation . Upon his death , the province of Quebec honoured Richard with a state funeral , a first in Quebec for a non @-@ politician . Over 115 @,@ 000 people paid their respects by viewing his lying in state at the Molson Centre .
The Richard Riot has achieved a mythical place in Canadian folklore . The riot is commonly viewed as a violent manifestation of the discontent Francophones within Quebec held with their place in largely Anglophone Canada , and some historians consider the riot to be a precursor to the 1960s Quiet Revolution . In its 40th anniversary retrospective of the Riot , Montreal newspaper La Presse opened with the following passage : " Forty years ago began one of the most dramatic episodes in the history of Quebec , and of hockey . " Richard himself publicly dismissed his role as a catalyst for cultural or political change . He added in 1974 that he played with " English boys " and was largely unaware of the situation in French Quebec at the time .
In an article published four days after the riot , journalist André Laurendeau was the first to suggest that it was a sign of growing nationalism in Quebec . Laurendeau suggested the riot " betrayed what lay behind the apparent indifference and long @-@ held passiveness of French Canadians " . In contrast , in his book The Rocket : A Cultural History of Maurice Richard , Benoît Melançon disputes the importance of the riot , stating its perceived importance in history grew retroactively with Richard 's myth . Melançon wrote : " According to this popular narrative , for the first time the people of Quebec stood up for themselves ; especially English Canada delights in anachronistically announcing that this was the beginning of the 1960s Quiet Revolution . "
= = Career statistics = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= = = General = = =
Career statistics : Maurice Richard playing card , National Hockey League , retrieved 2014 @-@ 03 @-@ 03
Cameron , Steve , ed . ( 2013 ) , Hockey Hall of Fame Book of Players , Richmond Hill , Ontario : Firefly Books , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 77085 @-@ 224 @-@ 2
Carrier , Roch ( 2001 ) , Our Life With The Rocket : The Maurice Richard Story , Fischman , Sheila ( translator ) , Toronto , Ontario : Penguin Books , ISBN 0 @-@ 670 @-@ 88375 @-@ 1
Diamond , Dan ( 2013 ) , National Hockey League Official Guide & Record Book 2014 , Toronto , Ontario : Diamond Sports Data , Inc . , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 894801 @-@ 26 @-@ 3
Foran , Charles ( 2011 ) , Maurice Richard , Toronto , Ontario : Penguin Books , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 670 @-@ 06412 @-@ 0
Lavigne , Carl , ed . ( 2013 ) , 2013 – 14 Montreal Canadiens Media Guide , Montreal Canadiens Hockey Club
McKinley , Michael ( 2006 ) , Hockey : A People 's History , Toronto , Ontario : McClelland & Stewart , ISBN 0 @-@ 7710 @-@ 5769 @-@ 5
Melançon , Benoît ( 2009 ) , The Rocket : A Cultural History , Reed , Fred A. ( translator ) , Vancouver , British Columbia : Greystone Books , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55365 @-@ 336 @-@ 3
O 'Brien , Andy ( 1961 ) , Rocket Richard , Toronto , Ontario : Ryerson Press
O 'Brien , Andy ( 2001 ) , Rocket Richard , Toronto , Ontario : Ryerson Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 9686220 @-@ 4 @-@ 9
Pincus , Arthur ( 2006 ) , The Official Illustrated NHL History , Montreal , Quebec : Readers Digest , ISBN 0 @-@ 88850 @-@ 800 @-@ X
Podnieks , Andrew ( 2003 ) , Players : The ultimate A – Z guide of everyone who has ever played in the NHL , Toronto , Ontario : Doubleday Canada , ISBN 0 @-@ 385 @-@ 25999 @-@ 9
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= The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel =
The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel is a 2011 British comedy @-@ drama film , directed by John Madden . The screenplay , written by Ol Parker , is based on the 2004 novel These Foolish Things , by Deborah Moggach , and features an ensemble cast consisting of Judi Dench , Celia Imrie , Bill Nighy , Ronald Pickup , Maggie Smith , Tom Wilkinson and Penelope Wilton , as a group of British pensioners moving to a retirement hotel in India , run by the young and eager Sonny , played by Dev Patel . The movie was produced by Participant Media and Blueprint Pictures on a budget of $ 10 million .
Producers Graham Broadbent and Peter Czernin first saw the potential for a film in Deborah Moggach 's novel with the idea of exploring the lives of the elderly beyond what one would expect of their age group . With the assistance of screenwriter Ol Parker , they came up with a script in which they take the older characters completely out of their element and involve them in a romantic comedy .
Principal photography began on 10 October 2010 in India , and most of the filming took place in the Indian state of Rajasthan , including the cities of Jaipur and Udaipur . Ravla Khempur , an equestrian hotel which was originally the palace of a tribal chieftain in the village of Khempur , was chosen as the site for the film hotel .
The film was released in the United Kingdom on 24 February 2012 and received critical acclaim ; The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel opened to strong box @-@ office business in the United Kingdom and continued to build worldwide . It became a surprise box @-@ office hit following its international release , eventually grossing nearly $ 137 million worldwide .
It was ranked among the highest @-@ grossing 2012 releases in Australia , New Zealand and the United Kingdom , and as one of the highest @-@ grossing speciality releases of the year . A sequel , The Second Best Exotic Marigold Hotel , began production in India in January 2014 , and was released on 27 February 2015 .
= = Plot = =
Recently widowed housewife Evelyn ( Judi Dench ) must sell her home to cover huge debts left by her late husband . Graham ( Tom Wilkinson ) , a high @-@ court judge who had spent his first eighteen years in India , abruptly decides to retire and return there . Jean ( Penelope Wilton ) and Douglas ( Bill Nighy ) seek a retirement they can afford , having lost most of their savings through investing in their daughter 's internet business . Muriel ( Maggie Smith ) , a retired housekeeper prejudiced against Indians , needs a hip replacement operation which can be done far more quickly and inexpensively in India . Madge ( Celia Imrie ) is hunting for another husband , and Norman ( Ronald Pickup ) , an aging Lothario , is trying to recapture his youth . They each decide on a retirement hotel in India , based on pictures on its website .
When the group arrives at the picturesque hotel , they find an energetic young manager Sonny ( Dev Patel ) but a dilapidated facility , not yet what he had promised . Overwhelmed by the cultural changes , Jean often stays inside at the hotel , while her husband Douglas explores the sights . Graham finds that the area has greatly changed since his youth and disappears on long outings every day . Muriel , despite her xenophobia , starts to appreciate her doctor for his skill and the hotel maid for her good service . Evelyn gets a job advising the staff of a call centre on how to interact with older British customers . Sonny struggles to raise funds to renovate the hotel and sees his girlfriend Sunaina ( Tena Desae ) , despite his mother 's disapproval . Madge joins the Viceroy Club seeking a spouse , where she is surprised to find Norman . She introduces him to Carol ( Diana Hardcastle ) . He admits he is lonely and seeking a companion , and the two begin an affair .
Graham confides in Evelyn that he is trying to find the Indian lover he was forced to abandon as a youth . Social @-@ climber Jean is attracted to Graham , and makes a rare excursion to follow him , but is humiliated when he explains he is gay . Graham reunites with his former lover , who is in an arranged marriage of mutual trust and respect . Reconciled , the Englishman dies of an existing heart condition . Evelyn and Douglas grow increasingly close , angering his wife , which results in an outburst from Douglas denouncing this marriage . Muriel reveals that she was once housekeeper to a family who had her train her younger replacement and now , having been forced out of the home and into retirement , she feels that she has lost any purpose in her life .
Sonny 's more successful brothers each own a third of the hotel and plan to demolish it . His mother ( Lillete Dubey ) agrees and wants him to return to Delhi for an arranged marriage . Jean and Douglas prepare to return to England after money is found through their daughter 's company . Jean eagerly awaits returning to England , but Douglas is more hesitant . Now that the hotel is closing against Sonny 's wishes and pleas , Madge prepares to return to England , and Norman agrees to move in with Carol . Madge , after encouragement from Carol and Muriel , decides to keep searching for another husband .
Sonny , encouraged by Evelyn , finally tells Sunaina that he loves her . He confronts his mother , who first forbids the match but then is persuaded by Young Wasim , who speaks no English . He explains that he once knew another man who wanted to marry a smart beautiful woman against his family 's wishes . Sonny 's mother interprets for Young Wasim , realizing he is talking about her , and she finally gives the couple her blessing . She asks Sunaina to take good care of her " favourite son " . Before the remaining guests can leave , Muriel reveals that her experience running the family 's household gave her the knowledge how to balance a budget and that the hotel can make a profit . She approaches Sonny 's investor privately and then invites him to visit the hotel to discuss matters with Sonny . The investor agrees to fund Sonny 's plans for renovation so long as Muriel stays on as an assistant manager .
All the guests agree to stay — except Jean and Douglas . Due to their daughter 's long @-@ awaited success , they decide to return home but on the way to the airport , their taxi gets caught in a traffic jam . A rickshaw driver says that he can take only one of them . Jean sees it as a sign that it is time to split with Douglas ; she bids him farewell and departs . He winds up at another hotel , discovering that it 's nothing more than a brothel and drug den , and spends the rest of the night wandering the streets . He returns to the hotel just as Evelyn is leaving for work , and asks when she 'll be back . A closing montage with a voiceover shows Muriel checking in customers in an elegant renovated lobby , Madge dining with a handsome older Indian man , and Norman and Carol living happily together . Sonny and Sunaina are shown riding a motorbike and passing Douglas and Evelyn on another bike .
= = Cast = =
Judi Dench as Evelyn Greenslade , a recently widowed housewife whose house must be sold to pay off her husband 's debts . Like his father , her son wants to " care " for her , without her input . At Sonny 's home for the " elderly and beautiful " , she keeps a blog of her activities . She narrates throughout the film , from bookend to bookend , from the opening sequence to the Day 51 moral " We get up in the morning , we do our best " .
Bill Nighy as optimist Douglas Ainslie , husband of Jean for 39 years . His loyalty has kept them together when she sees they both " deserve better " . He enjoys the food and sights , going out every day .
Penelope Wilton as pessimist Jean Ainslie . After Douglas invested — and seemingly lost — all their savings in their daughter 's internet business , they can afford only a " beige bungalow " installed with a panic button and hand rails " for the future " . She hates everything about India ; the perceived noise , poverty , and smells . It is for this reason that she stays indoors often , and wishes to return to the UK .
Maggie Smith as Muriel Donnelly , an ex @-@ nanny with a head for figures , is deemed surplus to requirements by her lifelong employers after she unwittingly trains her own replacement . She has no family of her own , having devoted her life to her employers . Although racist , she chooses not to wait six months for a hip replacement , and rather be " outsourced " to India .
Tom Wilkinson as Graham Dashwood , a High Court judge who has , for many years , been retiring " any day now " . During the retirement speech of a colleague , he decides that " today 's the day " . Having lived in India for his first 18 years , he returns to seek out the love of his early life , a man .
Ronald Pickup as Norman Cousins , an aged lothario , unable to face up to his own age and consequent undesirability by younger women ; he hopes for a new start with new possibilities in India .
Celia Imrie as Madge Hardcastle , who has had several unsuccessful marriages . Like Norman , she wants fun , adventure and a new mate . Tired of her daughter 's attempts to keep her as unpaid babysitter , she flees for anywhere , choosing India .
Dev Patel as Sonny Kapoor , manager of the hotel , and one @-@ third owner with his older , more favoured brothers . Sonny is a dreamer eager for a first success , but his determination makes him unwilling to ask for help until the end .
Tina Desai as Sunaina , call centre worker , Sonny 's " modern " girlfriend . She befriends Evelyn when Evelyn gets a job at the same call centre ( see below ) .
Sid Makkar as Jay , Sunaina 's brother , manager of a call centre , hires Evelyn to teach workers British culture .
Lillete Dubey as Mrs. Kapoor , widowed mother of Sonny . She admits that Sonny is not her favourite son , and wants him to move back with her to Delhi for an arranged marriage , not to Sunaina .
Diana Hardcastle as Carol , an Englishwoman but lifelong resident of Jaipur , who asks Norman to enter into cohabitation , according to his perception , impetuously .
Seema Azmi as Anokhi , a Dalit ( lowest @-@ caste ) maid at the hotel who takes Muriel 's acknowledgement for friendship . Via an interpreter , Muriel reveals that her bitterness was caused by her employers having tossed her aside as obsolete after having devoted her life as a nanny and housekeeper , and having unwittingly prepared her replacement .
Paul Bhattacharjee as Dr. Ghujarapartidar ; this was Bhattacharjee 's final feature film appearance before his death in 2013 .
Liza Tarbuck as head nurse Karen .
Denzil Smith as Mr Dhurana , the Viceroy Club Secretary
Honey Chhaya as Young Wasim .
= = Production = =
= = = Background and script = = =
Producers Graham Broadbent and Peter Czernin were the ones who first saw the potential for a film in Deborah Moggach 's novel . The concept of outsourcing retirement , " taking our outsourcing of everyday tasks like banking and customer service one step further " , appealed to them , and they commissioned screenwriter Ol Parker to formulate this concept into a screenplay .
Parker wanted to take the older characters completely out of their element and involve them in a romantic comedy . They initially encountered difficulties finding a studio ; Working Title Films rejected their proposals , considering it unmarketable , but they eventually aligned with Participant Media , Imagination Abu Dhabi FZ , and Blueprint Pictures .
= = = Casting = = =
To helm the project , the producers Broadbent and Czernin approached John Madden , who was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director for Shakespeare in Love in 1998 . Madden considered the characters in The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel to be of " an analogous kind of geographical suspension " , which have " entered a strange world removed from their former reality , cut off from their past , where they have to invent a new life for themselves " . Dench and fellow cast members Maggie Smith , Penelope Wilton , Celia Imrie , Bill Nighy , Ronald Pickup , Tom Wilkinson , and director John Madden jumped at the opportunity to all work together for the first time in one film . Producer Broadbent considers Dench 's character to be central to the story , and that Evelyn is much like Dench herself , being " the most wonderfully sympathetic person " . John Madden considers Maggie Smith 's character Muriel to be " instinctively xenophobic , never stepping out of her comfort zone in any way " , which is not uncommon in England .
The filmmakers determined early on that the role of Sonny was crucial to the outcome of the picture , and they selected Dev Patel , who at the time was still revelling in the success of Slumdog Millionaire . Dench described Patel as a " born comedian " , and Madden considered him to be a " comic natural — a sort of Jacques Tati figure , with amazing physical presence and fantastic instincts " . Patel had personal experience of watching the elderly through his mother who had been a carer , and he was " enticed by how vivid these characters are , by their sarcasm and their wisdom " , confessing that he " fell in love with the script because every character shines in his or her own different way and you believe in each of them . " Lilette Dubey was cast as Sonny 's mother , and English @-@ language debutante Tina Desai portrayed Sunaina , Sonny 's call @-@ centre @-@ operator girlfriend .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on 10 October 2010 in India . Most of the filming took place in the Indian state of Rajasthan , including the cities of Jaipur and Udaipur . In Jaipur , filming took place around the City Palace , the Marigold market , and on crowded buses . Other scenes were shot in Kishangarh , and on the outskirts of Jaipur , footage was shot at Kanota Fort , which stood in for the Viceroy Club . The place where Sonny and Sunaina meet in the film was shot nearby at the Step Well near Amer Fort , a 10th @-@ century establishment noted for its " ten stories of pale golden stone steps . " Ravla Khempur was chosen as the site for the Best Exotic Marigold Hotel ; it is an equestrian hotel that was originally the palace of a tribal chieftain , located about an hour and a half outside of Udaipur in the village of Khempur . Madden considered the building to have a magical quality and unmistakable charm , remarking that it had " something special that could ultimately draw the characters in . It had these wonderful cool dark interiors , with glimpses of saturated light and the teeming life outside its walls . " Production designer Alan MacDonald , who won Best Art Direction in a Contemporary Film from the Art Directors Guild for his work , was brought in to embellish the interiors , intentionally making it clash with " interesting furniture inspired by colonial India , mismatched local textiles , all mixed together with modern plastic bits and pieces , with everything distressed and weather beaten . " Footage was also shot at the Lake Palace Hotel at Lake Pichola .
Madden said that challenges of filming in India included the street noise , as well as the people 's curiosity and hospitality when they saw him producing a camera . The cast and crew were well received by the locals , as was the director who , along with the cast , was invited by Arvind Singh Mewar , the Maharaja of Udaipur , to attend his lavish Diwali celebrations and firework display , as well as attend a royal wedding held at the Rambagh Palace Hotel in Jaipur . Chris Gill was the editor of the picture .
A sequel , The Second Best Exotic Marigold Hotel , began production in India in January 2014 and was released in February 2015 . Most of the cast returned , with additions including American actor Richard Gere .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack , composed by Thomas Newman , was released in the CD format in 2012 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The film was first shown at the Italian cinema trade show Le Giornate Professionali di Cinema ( " The Professional Days of Cinema " ) in Sorrento on 30 November 2011 and at the Glasgow Film Festival on 17 February 2012 , before being released widely in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 24 February 2012 . This was followed by release in a further 26 countries in March and April . From May to August , more and more nations saw the release of the film , before Japan 's February 2013 release capped off the film 's theatrical debut calendar .
In the United Kingdom , The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel came in second to The Woman in Black at the box office during its first week , earning £ 2 @.@ 2 million . It eventually topped the UK box office , with £ 2 @.@ 3 million , in its second weekend on release . By the end of its UK run , the film had grossed around US $ 31 million . Prior to its United States debut , the comedy had already grossed US $ 69 million worldwide and passed both The Queen ( 2006 ) and Calendar Girls ( 2003 ) in total international grosses . After three months of release , it was ranked the third highest @-@ grossing 2012 release in Australia and New Zealand , behind only The Avengers and The Hunger Games , and the fourth @-@ highest @-@ grossing 2012 title in the UK .
In the US and Canada , the film initially opened in 16 theatres in its first week . In its second week of release , it expanded from 16 to 178 screens in North America and grossed US $ 2 @.@ 7 million for the weekend , ending eighth on the week 's top hits . By the end of the month , Best Exotic Marigold Hotel had grossed US $ 100 million worldwide . The film had a worldwide gross of US $ 136 @,@ 836 @,@ 156 . It ranks among the highest @-@ grossing international films released by Fox Searchlight Pictures behind Black Swan ( 2010 ) , The Full Monty ( 1997 ) , and The Descendants ( 2011 ) , and among the highest @-@ grossing specialty releases of the year along with Moonrise Kingdom and To Rome with Love .
Elsewhere , The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel took in less that 58 million USD . Nations contributing sizable box office returns aside from the UK and North America included Australia ( 21 @.@ 2 million USD ) , Germany ( 6 million USD ) , New Zealand ( 4 @.@ 4 million USD ) , Spain ( 4 @.@ 3 million USD ) , France ( 1 @.@ 9 million USD ) , Sweden ( 1 @.@ 3 million USD ) , Italy ( 1 @.@ 1 million USD ) , South Africa ( 1 million USD ) , and Norway ( 797 thousand USD ) .
= = = Reception = = =
The film received positive reviews from critics . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 78 % of critics gave the film a positive rating , based on 148 reviews , with an average score of 6 @.@ 6 / 10 . Its consensus states " The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel isn 't groundbreaking storytelling , but it 's a sweet story about the senior set featuring a top @-@ notch cast of veteran actors . " On Metacritic , which uses a normalized rating system , the film holds a 62 / 100 rating , based on 35 reviews , indicating " generally favourable reviews " .
Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle remarked that the film was " a rare reminder from movies that the grand emotions are not only for the young and the middle @-@ aged " , citing it " too well made to be dismissed and contains too much truth to be scorned . " Roger Ebert , writing for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , gave The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel three and a half out of four stars . He declared the film " a charming , funny and heartwarming movie [ and ] a smoothly crafted entertainment that makes good use of seven superb veterans . " Claudia Puig from USA Today called it " a refreshing , mature fairy tale with a top @-@ notch ensemble cast . " While she felt the film was " about 15 minutes too long " , she summarized it as " a delightful , droll and entertaining comedy of manners with an estimable cast " and an " ideal low @-@ tech alternative to the special @-@ effects laden " film projects of 2012 .
Peter Travers from Rolling Stone rated the comedy three out of four stars . He found that " with a lesser cast , the movie would be a lineup of TV @-@ movie clichés . But this is a cast that never makes a false move even when the script settles for formula . " Chicago Tribune critic Michael Phillips wrote that " as two @-@ hour tours go , The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel goes smoothly . " While he felt that the film focused on " pleasantly predictable story " , he noted that the project was one of those films which " are better off concentrating on a reassuring level of actorly craft [ than ] going easy on the surprises . "
Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly graded the film with a ' B – ' rating , summarizing it as a " lulling , happy @-@ face story of retirement @-@ age self @-@ renewal , set in a shimmering , weltering , jewel @-@ colored India " , and that it succeeded in selling " something safe and sweet , in a vivid foreign setting , to an underserved share of the moviegoing market . " Peter Bradshaw , writing for The Guardian , was more igneous in his 2 / 5 star review , saying that the film " needs a Stannah chairlift to get it up to any level of watchability , and it is not exactly concerned to do away with condescending stereotypes about old people , or Indian people of any age . " Noting the luminous , prolific resumes of the cast he noted " nothing in this insipid story does anything like justice to the cast 's combined potential . " He went on to opine that the film appeared " oddly like an Agatha Christie thriller with all the pasteboard characters , 2D backstories and foreign locale , but no murder . " In further negative reviews , critics from The Guardian and the blog Marshall and the Movies criticized the film for having a colonialist and orientalist point of view towards India .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the Cinema Scapes Awards , organised on the sidelines of the 2012 Mumbai Film Festival , the film was honoured with the Best International Film accolade for showcasing Indian filming locations . The film and its cast earned five nominations from the British Independent Film Awards .
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= Walden Galleria =
Walden Galleria is an enclosed shopping mall located in the town of Cheektowaga , a suburb of Buffalo , New York located east of I @-@ 90 and New York State Thruway Exit 52 off of Walden Avenue New York State Route 952Q . The Walden Galleria comprises more than 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 square feet ( 150 @,@ 000 m2 ) of retail space , with 250 stores on two levels , including a food court and a movie theater . The Galleria has four anchors , JCPenney , Sears , Macys , and Lord & Taylor ; with additional major stores including Best Buy , Dick 's Sporting Goods , DSW Shoe Warehouse , Forever 21 , Old Navy , and a Regal Cinemas multiplex . The mall is owned and managed by The Pyramid Companies of Syracuse , New York , the same management firm that developed it .
Opened in 1989 , Walden Galleria initially featured national chains JCPenney and Sears , along with regional chain Bonwit Teller , and local chains Sibley 's , L. L. Berger , and The Sample as its major tenants ; the bankruptcies of these chains in the 1990s made way for several big @-@ box stores . Anchors Lord & Taylor and Galyan 's ( now Dick 's Sporting Goods ) were later additions to the existing mall property , opening in 1992 and 2000 , respectively . The most recent renovation to Walden Galleria comprised an extensive $ 60 million renovation between 2006 and 2008 , which added several new tenants , as well as a new theater adding 250 @,@ 000 square feet of retail .
= = History = =
Walden Galleria was developed by The Pyramid Companies , a New York @-@ based shopping center management firm . Built on a site near Exit 52 of the New York State Thruway , the mall was opened in 1989 . At the time , the mall featured six anchor stores : national chains JCPenney , and Sears , regional chain Bonwit Teller , and three Western New York chains : Sibley 's , L. L. Berger , and The Sample . Sibley 's opened in late 1988 , several months before the rest of the mall . An additional anchor space was originally built for B. Altman and Company , but it remained vacant , as the chain decided not to open the Walden Galleria store due to credit restraints . At the time , the two @-@ story mall also featured more than 150 stores , as well as a theater owned by Hoyts Cinemas .
In 1990 , Sibley 's parent , May Co . , merged operations with Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania @-@ based Kaufmann 's . That same year , local chain AM & A 's ( Adam , Meldrum & Anderson Company ) moved from the nearby Thruway Mall into the space originally planned for B. Altman . The owner of the Thruway Mall sued the AM & A 's chain , claiming breach of contract ; the chain would later be declared liable for damages to the Thruway Mall , which was subsequently torn down and rebuilt as a strip mall in the early 1990s . Finally , Hoyts sold the Walden Galleria theater complex to General Cinemas by the end of the year .
L. L. Berger declared bankruptcy in 1991 , closing all of its stores . Later that same year , three more anchor stores were added to the mall : Lechmere , Loehmann 's , and Lord & Taylor . The Sample closed in 1991 , and was soon replaced with Linens & Wares , a household goods @-@ based retailer ; also , by the end of the year , Filene 's Basement would open in the former L. L. Berger space . Both Filene 's Basement and Loehmann 's would close within three years .
= = = Mid @-@ late 1990s = = =
In 1995 , York , Pennsylvania @-@ based department store chain The Bon @-@ Ton acquired the AM & A 's chain , converting all outlets to The Bon @-@ Ton . Later that year , on December 14 , 17 @-@ year @-@ old Cynthia Wiggins of Buffalo was struck by a dump truck while trying to get to her first day of work in the mall 's food court from a NFTA Metro bus stop on Walden Avenue . The incident sparked allegations from Buffalo 's African @-@ American community that Pyramid did not want people from Buffalo 's predominantly minority East Side to have easy access to the mall . In settling a wrongful death claim against Walden Galleria and NFTA Metro and to prevent a boycott of the mall , the bus stop was soon moved to a point inside the mall , where it remains today . Bonwit Teller closed off its upper level in 1996 as part of the chain 's restructuring , with Old Navy soon opening in the store 's former upper level . By the end of the year , Bonwit Teller had closed the rest of its store as well , with the lower level becoming the area 's first Bed Bath & Beyond store in 1997 . Also in 1996 , sporting apparel retailer Finish Line opened what was then one of its largest stores , in the space vacated by Filene 's Basement two years previous .
Montgomery Ward , which acquired the Lechmere chain in 1994 , closed the last of the Lechmere stores nationwide in 1998 , as part of a corporate restructuring . After its closure , half of the former Lechmere was then converted to a home store for JCPenney , while the other half sat vacant until DSW Shoe Warehouse replaced it in 1999 . Linens ' n Wares , which closed at some point in the late 1990s , was converted to a home store for Kaufmann 's in 1999 as well . One year later , a Galyan 's Trading Company store was added onto the mall as well , with this store being renamed Dick 's Sporting Goods in 2004 following the acquisition of the Galyan 's chain .
= = = 2000s = = =
Starting in 2000 , the first of several renovation plans was announced for the mall . The initial plan called for the addition of a new , three @-@ story wing with an eighteen @-@ screen movie theater complex , as well as several upscale tenants . Under this proposal , the existing Sears store would have been converted to mall space , and a new Sears store built immediately behind it . These expansion plans never came to fruition . By 2002 , General Cinemas had sold the mall 's theater complex to AMC Theatres . One year later , Pyramid made a failed attempt to evict the theaters for a Best Buy store , although Best Buy opened a store at the mall next to Sears in 2006 . AMC closed the mall 's theaters in 2004 and only four days after closing , the theater complex was acquired and reopened by Regal Entertainment Group . The JCPenney Home Store closed in 2002 . Kaufmann 's was one of several former May Co. brands to be acquired and renamed by Macy 's in 2005 , and while the main Kaufmann 's store was converted to Macy 's , the Home Store was shuttered . Also in 2006 , The Bon @-@ Ton closed .
= = = = 2007 expansion = = = =
With the closure of The Bon @-@ Ton in 2006 , plans were once again announced to expand the Walden Galleria . Under these new plans , The Bon @-@ Ton 's former store was demolished for a concourse composed of more than 250 @,@ 000 square feet ( 23 @,@ 000 m2 ) of new retail space . The mall 's existing theater complex , which was located next to The Bon @-@ Ton , was also demolished for a newer , larger theater complex , which opened at the end of May 2008 . Barnes & Noble was planned for the former theater space , but never opened . Several new restaurants , including The Cheesecake Factory , P.F. Chang 's China Bistro and The Melting Pot , were also added , as were new tenants such as The Walking Company , Oakley , Urban Outfitters , Sephora and Coach . On January 14 , 2011 , two new stores were announced to join the lineup at the Walden Galleria-- H & M and Anthropologie , the latter of which opened up in a small location next to the former . It was announced in 2011 that Michael Kors would also open at the mall .
= = = Present @-@ day = = =
Walden Galleria is the largest mall in the Buffalo @-@ Niagara Falls area , as well as the busiest , with more than 18 million shoppers annually , from both Canada and the United States . Its anchor stores as of 2014 are Sears , JCPenney , Macy 's , and Lord & Taylor . In 2013 , new Italian Marble floors , lounge areas and lighting fixtures were installed throughout the mall . The mall also offers a valet parking service . Currently the old main entrances are being updated to reflect the newer addition to the mall . Some of the mall 's newest additions include Pole Position Raceway Indoor Go @-@ Karting , lululemon , Sperry Top Sider , and Texas De Brazil . In November 2014 , the mall was involved in a controversy regarding stores being fined for deciding not to open on Thanksgiving Day . The mall owners threatened to fine stores $ 200 an hour if they remain closed on the holiday . On November 17 , 2014 , it was announced that Dave and Buster 's will be moving into the mall from the nearby Eastern Hills Mall in the fall of 2015 , with a 30 @,@ 000 square foot addition to the mall planned to be built in between Macy 's and Lord and Taylor to accommodate the restaurant .
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= Italian ironclad Re di Portogallo =
Re di Portogallo was an ironclad warship built for the Italian Regia Marina in the 1860s , the second and final member of the Re d 'Italia class . She was laid down at the William H. Webb Shipyard in New York in December 1861 , was launched in August 1863 , and was completed a year later in August 1864 ; the two Re d 'Italia @-@ class ships were the only Italian ironclads built in the United States . The ships were broadside ironclads , armed with a battery of six 72 @-@ pounder guns and thirty @-@ two 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) guns .
Re di Portogallo saw action at the Battle of Lissa during the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866 . She engaged several Austrian wooden vessels in the melee , including ship of the line Kaiser , which rammed Re di Portogallo but inflicted no significant damage . The ship 's career after the war was very limited ; in 1871 , she was converted into a training ship . By 1875 , her wooden hull was found to have deteriorated badly , and so she was broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
Re di Portogallo was 99 @.@ 61 meters ( 326 @.@ 8 ft ) long overall ; she had a beam of 16 @.@ 76 m ( 55 @.@ 0 ft ) and an average draft of 7 @.@ 18 m ( 23 @.@ 6 ft ) . She displaced 5 @,@ 610 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 520 long tons ; 6 @,@ 180 short tons ) normally and up to 6 @,@ 082 t ( 5 @,@ 986 long tons ; 6 @,@ 704 short tons ) at full load . Her hull was built from green wood . She had a crew of 552 . The ship 's propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by four coal @-@ fired , rectangular boilers . Her engine produced a top speed of 10 @.@ 6 to 10 @.@ 8 knots ( 19 @.@ 6 to 20 @.@ 0 km / h ; 12 @.@ 2 to 12 @.@ 4 mph ) from 1 @,@ 812 to 1 @,@ 845 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 351 to 1 @,@ 376 kW ) . She could steam for about 1 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 @.@ 5 knots ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ; 12 @.@ 1 mph ) . For long @-@ distance travel , Re di Portogallo was fitted with three masts and was barque @-@ rigged .
Re di Portogallo was a broadside ironclad , and she was armed with a main battery of six 72 @-@ pounder 8 in ( 200 mm ) guns and thirty @-@ two 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The ship was equipped with a spur @-@ shaped ram at the bow . The ship 's hull was sheathed with wrought iron armor that was 4 @.@ 75 in ( 121 mm ) thick . Her rudder and propellers , however , were not protected by her armor .
= = Service history = =
The keel for Re di Portogallo was laid down at the William H. Webb Shipyard in New York City in December 1861 ; she and her sister were the only Italian ironclads to be built in the United States . She was launched on 29 August 1863 and completed just under a year later , on 23 August 1864 . Re di Portogallo then crossed the Atlantic and joined the Italian fleet . In June 1866 , Italy declared war on Austria , as part of the Third Italian War of Independence , which was fought concurrently with the Austro @-@ Prussian War . The Italian fleet commander , Admiral Carlo Pellion di Persano , initially adopted a cautious course of action ; he was unwilling to risk battle with the Austrian Navy , despite the fact that the Austrian fleet was much weaker than his own . Persano claimed he was simply waiting on the ironclad ram Affondatore , en route from Britain , but his inaction weakened morale in the fleet , with many of his subordinates openly accusing him of cowardice .
Rear Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff brought the Austrian fleet to Ancona on June 27 , in attempt to draw out the Italians . At the time , many of the Italian ships were in disarray ; several ships did not have their entire armament , and several others had problems with their engines , including Re di Portogallo , which could not get underway . Persano held a council of war aboard the ironclad Principe di Carignano to determine whether he should sortie to engage Tegetthoff , but by that time , the Austrians had withdrawn , making the decision moot . The Minister of the Navy , Agostino Depretis , urged Persano to act and suggested the island of Lissa , to restore Italian confidence after their defeat at the Battle of Custoza the previous month . On 7 July , Persano left Ancona and conducted a sweep into the Adriatic , but encountered no Austrian ships and returned on the 13th .
= = = Battle of Lissa = = =
On 16 July , Persano took the Italian fleet out of Ancona , bound for Lissa , where they arrived on the 18th . With them , they brought troop transports carrying 3 @,@ 000 soldiers ; the Italian warships began bombarding the Austrian forts on the island , with the intention of landing the soldiers once the fortresses had been silenced . In response , the Austrian Navy sent the fleet under Tegetthoff to attack the Italian ships . Re di Portogallo was at that time in the 3rd Division , along with the ironclads Terribile , Formidabile , and Regina Maria Pia , and the coastal defense ship Varese . After spending the 18th unsuccessfully bombarding the Austrian fortresses , the Italians withdrew late in the day , preparing to launch another attack the following morning . Persano sent most of his ships to bombard the town of Vis , but he was unable to effect the landing .
The next morning , Persano ordered another attack ; four ironclads would force the harbor defenses at Vis while Re di Portogallo and the rest of the fleet would attempt to suppress the outer fortifications . This second attack also proved to be a failure , but Persano decided to make a third attempt the next day . Re di Portogallo and the bulk of the fleet would again try to disable the outer forts in preparation for the landing . Before the Italians could begin the attack , the dispatch boat Esploratore arrived , bringing news of Tegetthoff 's approach . Persano 's fleet was in disarray ; the three ships of Admiral Giovanni Vacca 's 1st Division were three miles to the northeast from Persano 's main force , and three other ironclads were further away to the west . Persano immediately ordered his ships to form up with Vacca 's , first in line abreast formation , and then in line ahead formation . Re di Portogallo initially had trouble getting her engines running , but after repairs were quickly made , she joined the rest of the fleet . She was one of the last ships in the line .
Shortly before the action began , Persano decided to leave his flagship and transfer to Affondatore , though none of his subordinates on the other ships were aware of the change . They were thus left to fight as individuals without direction . More dangerously , by stopping Re d 'Italia , he allowed a significant gap to open up between Vacca 's three ships and the rest of the fleet . Tegetthoff took his fleet through the gap between Vacca 's and Persano 's ships , in an attempt to split the Italian line and initiate a melee . He failed to ram any Italian vessels on the first pass , so he turned back toward Persano 's ships , and took Re d 'Italia , San Martino , and Palestro under heavy fire . The Austrians quickly inflicted serious damage on Re d 'Italia and Palestro , eventually sinking both ships . After Palestro withdrew , the Austrian ironclads turned their attention to the 3rd Division , including Re di Portogallo .
Re di Portogallo initially attacked the unarmored ships Erzherzog Friedrich and Kaiserin Elizabeth before the ship of the line Kaiser rammed Re di Portogallo in an attempt to save them . Kaiser struck only a glancing blow , however , and inflicted little damage . Re di Portogallo fired her light guns into the ship in response , starting a fire , and killing or wounding a number of Austrian gunners before Kaiser could break free . By this time , Re d 'Italia had been rammed and sunk , and Palestro had been set on fire , soon to be destroyed by a magazine explosion . Persano broke off the engagement , and though his ships still outnumbered the Austrians , Persano refused to counter @-@ attack with his badly demoralized forces . In addition , the fleet was low on coal and ammunition . The Italian fleet began to withdraw , followed by the Austrians ; as night began to fall , the opposing fleets disengaged completely , heading for Ancona and Pola , respectively . Re di Portogallo emerged from the battle relatively unscathed , though many of her iron plates had been loosened in the collision with Kaiser .
= = = Later career = = =
After the battle , Vacca replaced Persano ; he was ordered to attack the main Austrian naval base at Pola , but the war ended before the operation could be carried out . The damage to Re di Portogallo was repaired after the battle , but the ship was rapidly made obsolete by the development of casemate ships and shortly thereafter turret ships . As a result , her postwar career was very limited . In 1870 , the ship 's armament was modified ; twenty of her 164 mm guns were removed and two 10 in ( 250 mm ) guns were added . The following year , she was converted into a gunnery training ship , and was again re @-@ equipped , now with twenty 8 in guns , two 4 @.@ 7 in ( 120 mm ) guns , and eight 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) guns . The ship did not serve long in this capacity ; the ageing of the unseasoned wood used to build the ship , coupled with several flaws in the ship 's construction cut her career short . She was stricken from the naval register on 31 March 1875 and subsequently broken up for scrap . The Navy discarded Re di Portogallo and the three Principe di Carignano @-@ class ironclads between 1875 and 1880 to remove the cost of maintaining them from the naval budget , as part of an effort to reduce the financial impact of the new Caio Duilio and Italia @-@ classes then under construction .
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= Meadowbrook State Parkway =
The Meadowbrook State Parkway ( also known as the Meadowbrook , the Meadowbrook Parkway or the MSP ) is a 12 @.@ 52 @-@ mile ( 20 @.@ 15 km ) parkway in Nassau County , New York , in the United States . Its southern terminus is at a full cloverleaf interchange with the Bay and Ocean parkways in Jones Beach State Park . The parkway heads north , crossing South Oyster Bay and intersecting Loop Parkway before crossing onto the mainland and connecting to the Southern State Parkway in North Merrick . It continues north to the village of Carle Place , where the Meadowbrook Parkway ends at exit 31A of the Northern State Parkway . The Meadowbrook Parkway is designated New York State Route 908E ( NY 908E ) , an unsigned reference route . Most of the road is limited to non @-@ commercial traffic , like most parkways in the state of New York ; however , the portion south of Merrick Road is open to commercial traffic .
The Meadowbrook State Parkway was first envisioned in 1924 as part of the Long Island State Park Commission ( LISPC ) and Robert Moses 's system to connect several parks in Nassau and Suffolk counties . One park included in the proposal was Jones Beach State Park , which opened along with the Ocean Parkway in 1929 . Construction of the Meadowbrook and Loop causeways began in July 1933 , and was slated for completion in January 1935 . The Reconstruction Finance Corporation loaned $ 5 @,@ 050 @,@ 000 toward the project , which was completed in October 1934 . Nassau County acquired the right @-@ of @-@ way for an extension to the Northern State Parkway in 1936 , and the highway was originally intended to be finished for the 1939 World 's Fair in Flushing Meadows , Queens . The start of construction was ultimately delayed until December 1953 , and the $ 10 million ( 1953 USD ) highway was completed in October 1956 .
Reconstruction projects in the later parts of the 20th century have caused local protests by entities such as the town of Hempstead and the village of Westbury . The latter was concerned about construction affecting the way of life in Westbury , and the mayor and citizens wanted confirmation that the reconstruction of Northern State Parkway exit 31 — the Meadowbrook State Parkway 's northern terminus — would not lead to environmental disruption . In August 1998 , the Meadowbrook was dedicated as the Senator Norman J. Levy Memorial Parkway in honor of Norman J. Levy , a state senator who helped sponsor the first seat belt law in the United States .
= = Route description = =
The Meadowbrook State Parkway begins at a cloverleaf interchange with the Ocean Parkway and Bay Parkway on Jones Beach Island in the town of Hempstead . The parkway briefly proceeds northwest through Jones Beach before turning northward and crossing South Oyster Bay on a six @-@ lane causeway . After crossing the bay , the Meadowbrook reaches exit M10 , a trumpet interchange with Loop Parkway . In the middle of exit M10 is a southbound @-@ only toll barrier used to charge for access to Jones Beach . After Loop Parkway , the Meadowbrook heads northwest across another water channel and becomes a divided highway with a large center median . A third bridge over a waterway soon follows , bringing the Meadowbrook Parkway onto the mainland part of Long Island near the Norman J. Levy Park and Preserve .
As the highway heads north from the channels surrounding the west end of South Oyster Bay , it runs along the west side of the Norman J. Levy Park and Preserve and the Merrick Road Park Golf Course , both of which are separated from the Meadowbrook by a small creek . The golf course leads to nearby exit M9 , a cloverleaf interchange with Merrick Road ( unsigned County Route 27 or CR 27 ) in the Freeport section of Hempstead . Not far to the north is exit M8 , another cloverleaf serving NY 27 ( East Sunrise Highway ) . After crossing the adjacent Babylon Branch of the Long Island Rail Road , the parkway continues north across East Meadow Park to reach exit M7 , a cloverleaf interchange with the Babylon Turnpike ( unsigned CR 7A ) . After exit M7 , the Meadowbrook makes a slight turn to the northwest as it traverses Roosevelt Preserve County Park .
At the northern edge of the park , the Meadowbrook enters exit M6 , a partial cloverleaf interchange with several flyover ramps connecting to the Southern State Parkway . After the Southern State interchange , the Meadowbrook continues north through a narrow park known as Barnum Woods , which separates the heavily developed neighborhoods of Uniondale to the west and East Meadow to the east . The highway passes over NY 102 ( Front Street ) with no connection before leaving Barnum Woods and bending northward near exit M5 and the northbound half of exit M4 , which serve NY 24 ( Hempstead Turnpike ) and several other local streets by way of a series of service roads in the vicinity of Eisenhower Park , Nassau Coliseum , and Mitchel Field . After another mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , the Meadowbrook makes a turn to the west and enters exit M4 southbound and exit M3 , which connect to Stewart Avenue ( unsigned CR 177 ) via Merchants Concourse . Exit M3 also serves Nassau Community College , located just southwest of the Meadowbrook Parkway .
Continuing west , the Meadowbrook State Parkway enters exit M2 , a cloverleaf interchange with Zeckendorf Boulevard ( unsigned CR 260 ) adjacent to nearby Roosevelt Field Mall . Both directions of Zeckendorf Boulevard are accessible southbound , with exit M2E using part of Dibblee Drive ; the northbound direction of the parkway has only one exit , exit M2W for Zeckendorf Boulevard westbound . Past the cloverleaf , the parkway winds back to the northwest as it approaches exit M1 , a partial cloverleaf interchange with Old Country Road ( unsigned CR 25 ) on the border between the towns of Hempstead and North Hempstead . The Meadowbrook Parkway continues northwest across Old Country Road into North Hempstead , passing under the Long Island Rail Road 's Main Line as it traverses the village of Carle Place . Just north of the community , the Meadowbrook reaches exit 31A of the Northern State Parkway , a semi @-@ directional T interchange that serves as the north end of the Meadowbrook State Parkway .
According to annual average daily traffic counts compiled by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) in 2011 , the most @-@ traveled part of the parkway is the section north of the Southern State Parkway . This portion carries an average of 106 @,@ 800 vehicles daily , with the segment between Zeckendorf Boulevard and Old Country Road serving the most at 139 @,@ 500 vehicles per day . South of the Southern State Parkway , the Meadowbrook Parkway sees only an average of about 54 @,@ 000 vehicles daily . The busiest part in this stretch lies between the Babylon Turnpike and the Southern State Parkway , which handles 95 @,@ 600 vehicles on an average day . The section between the Ocean and Loop parkways is the least @-@ traveled part of the Meadowbrook Parkway , as only 15 @,@ 400 vehicles use the segment per day on average , although as the gateway to Jones Beach , it is busily traveled during the summer months .
= = History = =
= = = Design and construction = = =
The Meadowbrook State Parkway was part of the original design for the Long Island Parkway System , developed by Robert Moses and LISPC in 1924 to alleviate congestion on " unattractive " local roads . The system was designed to connect several parks that were under construction at the time , including Jones Beach State Park , Bethpage State Park and Sunken Meadow State Park . In 1927 , the parkway system was linked to parkways in New York City 's boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens . Jones Beach State Park and the Ocean Parkway opened in 1929 , with access to the mainland via the Jones Beach Causeway ( now part of the Wantagh State Parkway ) .
Construction of the Meadowbrook Causeway began in May 1933 with a $ 5 @,@ 050 @,@ 000 loan ( 1933 USD ) given from the Reconstruction Finance Corporation to the Long Island State Park Commission in April 1933 . In order to repay this loan , the Long Island State Park Commission , working with the Jones Beach State Parkway Authority , would institute a 25 @-@ cent toll on the Meadowbrook and Jones Beach causeways . The 50 @-@ cent parking fee on Jones Beach would be reduced to 25 cents in order to keep the total charged to motorists at 50 cents . It was proposed that the loan would be repaid in 25 years . The Meadowbrook Causeway was designed as a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) road from the Southern State Parkway in Freeport to Jones Beach with six bridges across channels of South Oyster Bay . Three grade @-@ separating structures would be designed as well by the State of New York Department of Public Works and the LISPC . A trumpet interchange with the Lido Beach Loop Causeway ( current @-@ day Loop Parkway ) was constructed as well . Designs also included 10 @.@ 1 million cubic yards of hydraulic fill , and a new water channel for boats . Proposed completion of the project was set for January 1 , 1935 . The road was constructed by 3 @,@ 800 people and completed in October 1934 , six months ahead of schedule .
On October 27 , 1934 , the Meadowbrook and Lido Beach Loop causeways were opened to vehicular traffic by LISPC . A motorcade of cars was led across the new roadways by Robert Moses , then a Republican Party candidate for Governor of New York . The event was preceded by parades in Freeport and Rockville Centre . During a speech Moses cited praises to the Reconstruction Finance Corporation for donating the money and letting the LISPC and Jones Beach State Parkway Authority do the work without interference . Other speakers that afternoon praised Moses and the LISPC , and New York City Mayor Fiorello La Guardia showed up late to give his congratulations . Despite the opening ceremony , two @-@ way traffic was not permitted on the Meadowbrook between the Southern State and Merrick Road until June 1 , 1935 . Prior to that time , motorists had to use the renamed Wantagh Causeway to access Jones Beach .
= = = Extension to the Northern State Parkway = = =
Moses announced during the opening of the Bethpage State Parkway in November 1936 that the land for extending the Meadowbrook from the Southern State Parkway to the Northern State Parkway had been acquired by Nassau County and plans for the road were being designed by the State Division of Highways . Moses stated that the funds would be requested at the next session of the New York State Legislature , with a completion date of 1939 to coincide with the opening of the 1939 World 's Fair in Flushing , Queens . This would make it plausible for motorists to go from Flushing to Jones Beach State Park directly . The new extension would also alleviate congestion along several north – south highways in Nassau County and provide quicker access to Jones Beach . However , construction on the $ 10 million ( 1956 USD ) highway was delayed until December 1953 .
On October 13 , 1956 , Governor Averell Harriman officially opened the new extension of the Meadowbrook State Parkway with a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony at 11 : 30 a.m. near the Jerusalem Avenue overpass . Robert Moses , Hempstead Town Supervisor Edward Larkin , and Nassau County Executive Holly Patterson also attended the event . After the ceremony , a motorcade led by Moses traveled from the Northern State Parkway south to Roosevelt Field Shopping Center . At Roosevelt Field , the board chairman for Roosevelt Field , Inc . , William Zeckendorf , honored Moses and Harriman with brand new tankards made of sterling silver . On July 5 , 1962 , the New York State Assembly announced the opening of bids on the widening of a 4 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 1 km ) section of the Meadowbrook between Merrick Road and the Southern State Parkway . Bids were to be accepted on the project in August , with a price tag of $ 3 @.@ 851 million ( 1962 USD ) . The construction would widen the segment from four lanes to six and add a new center median . The widening was prompted by the frequency of accidents along the stretch , and efforts to develop the project were sped up as a result . Completion was set for 1964 , and the reconstruction and repaving was finished on November 18 , 1964 .
= = = Reconstruction concerns = = =
The interchange constructed between the Meadowbrook and Northern state parkways in 1956 was undergoing a new $ 61 million ( 1989 USD ) reconstruction project in the late 1980s . Although it was previously redesigned in 1968 , it was still the site of about 180 accidents per year — over six times the statewide average for accident frequency . The junction was to be rebuilt with three lanes in each direction for the Northern State in the middle of exit 31A , a direct ramp between the westbound Northern State Parkway and the southbound Meadowbrook , connections from Glen Cove Road to both parkways , and the relocation of exit and entrance ramps within the interchange . Construction began in May 1988 , and the project was expected to be completed on October 31 , 1991 . It was proceeding on schedule until the village of Westbury filed a suit against NYSDOT in February 1989 . The lawsuit claimed that NYSDOT did not follow proper environmental guidelines while designing the project because their environmental impact report failed to consider the impacts of a nearby future widening project on the Northern State Parkway . This widening project , considered a second phase of the interchange reconstruction , had no intended date of construction .
The Appellate Division of the New York State Supreme Court ruled that NYSDOT had to provide a new environmental report by May 12 , 1989 or face having the reconstruction shut down . The order by the court reversed a decision by the New York State Supreme Court that determined that a revised report was unnecessary . Residents of Westbury claimed that the project would bring noise concerns to the village , along with a spillover of diverted traffic to local roads . Concerns were also stated by then @-@ mayor Ernest Strada about Westbury 's water supply and potential impacts from the project . NYSDOT claimed that no disruption would be caused by the project , but Strada insisted there were still concerns . Strada also stated that the village had no interest in shutting down the project ; rather , they wanted to ensure that their community would be protected from any disruptions caused by the reconstruction . On April 24 , NYSDOT announced they had appealed the stoppage of work on the interchange , which had been suspended pending a ruling by the Court of Appeals , the highest court in the state .
On December 19 , 1989 , the Court of Appeals announced their decision on the case of Village of Westbury v. Department of Transportation of the State of New York , et al . , ruling in favor of Westbury . In its decision , the court stated NYSDOT should have issued a joint report for the interchange and widening projects because both projects improved the flow of traffic on the Northern State Parkway and thus were related . The ruling made by the previous court was affirmed , and NYSDOT was advised to consider the environmental impacts of projects on other nearby projects in the future . While the village of Westbury was praising Ernest Strada for taking on the state , residents of the village of Carle Place felt they were being taken hostage by his actions and that the stoppage of work was hurting their community more than Westbury . Editorials in Newsday also called the mayor " parochial and overzealous " .
While Carle Place was complaining about the inability to access their section of town , a January 1990 article in The New York Times mentioned that the Court 's decision put Westbury alone against the state , then @-@ Governor Mario Cuomo and regional planners , who were worried about the safety of the roughly 140 @,@ 000 drivers who used the interchange daily . Local business leaders claimed that Westbury was being selfish in opposing inconvenient construction . Even after the ruling , Strada continued to claim that they wanted to be informed on the impacts of a nearby widening project on the Northern State . NYSDOT officials worried that this would add more bureaucratic levels to getting approval for local road projects and that it could set the project back three years . Officials also went out of their way to call this a simple " not in my backyard " case . NYSDOT continued to claim that the projects were separate , and filed three years apart , despite the court 's ruling that they were similar projects . Cuomo , worried about the safety of drivers , invited Strada to come to Albany to meet with NYSDOT Commissioner Franklin White and State Senator Norman J. Levy to make an agreement . Strada , however , felt that in order to compromise , they would have to continue the original " violation " of not giving a report .
Westbury and NYSDOT came to a deal allowing construction to resume in February 1990 , with lane changes and other modifications being made by the end of the month . This truce , made by Governor Cuomo , allowed work to resume at a normal pace , with nearly 200 workers doing daily work on the project by April 1990 . The speed of progress on the reconstruction put the project back on track to meet the original October 1991 deadline . Mayor Strada , however , stated that he thought NYSDOT would not advance any work that would " need to be ripped up " . The interchange reconstruction project was ultimately completed in 1991 as expected .
= = = Recent changes = = =
In 1947 , the LISPC approved $ 37 @,@ 000 ( 1947 USD ) to construct a stone ornate gasoline station along the Meadowbrook in Jones Beach State Park . The gas station , one of eight constructed by Robert Moses throughout Long Island , would serve drivers , when there were fewer stations throughout the area . After 1975 , NYSDOT , who took control of the parkways from the LISPC , started demolishing some of the stations , including the Meadowbrook , which ended up being one of the first buildings to go . The stations , which were once useful , would fork from the left lane into the median . However , according to NYSDOT , with the change in traffic patterns , the entrances to these stations became dangerous . By 1997 , over two decades after demolition , the station site became a problematic place for people parking and walking up the Meadowbrook and Loop to fish on the bridges . According to the New York State Police , the site is legal for use as a repair stop or for emergencies . However , not for use of dropping people off for fishing , which is also illegal to fish from atop the bridge , except it is around and under the bridges .
In August 1998 , signs were installed along the Meadowbrook State Parkway dedicating the road in honor of State Senator Norman J. Levy , who died in February 1998 after brain surgery . Levy had served on the State Senate Transportation Committee since 1982 and sponsored the first seat belt law in the United States , and had also been part of the negotiations that helped work resume on the Meadowbrook – Northern State interchange . The new signs were unveiled in a ceremony in the median of the parkway just south of Merrick Road . Dignitaries at the honoring ceremony included then @-@ Governor George Pataki , Senator Charles Fuschillo and Levy 's widow , Joy Levy . Signs were erected at both ends of the Meadowbrook Parkway and at a point near the Babylon Turnpike interchange .
The Long Island Transportation Plan 2000 , a study of how to handle Long Island traffic issues in 2020 , was started in 1997 by engineers from NYSDOT . The preferred alternative in the study would widen several parkways on the island , inserting high @-@ occupancy vehicle lanes ( HOV lanes ) for buses and carpools . The Meadowbrook would receive a new HOV lane between the Southern and Northern state parkways , while everything south of the Southern State Parkway would remain the same . The Northern State Parkway would get lanes from the Long Island Expressway to the Meadowbrook , and the Southern State would get lanes from the Meadowbrook to the Sunrise Highway .
In October 2008 , Nassau County Legislator David Denenberg demonstrated with ten civic leaders in front of the NYSDOT building in East Meadow about the slow progress of construction on the NY 102 ( Front Street ) overpass . Construction was causing rush hour traffic to back up for miles near the Hempstead Turnpike ( NY 24 ) exit , and evidence showed no work had been done for several months . After residents and commuters started demanding answers , NYSDOT stated that a project that began as just basic bridge repair had become a larger @-@ scale project that required a redesign due to the fact that the bridge had more damage than initially realized .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Nassau County .
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= Agneepath ( 2012 film ) =
Agneepath ( English : The Path of Fire ) is a 2012 Indian action drama film produced by Hiroo Yash Johar and Karan Johar under the banner of Dharma Productions . It is a retelling of the 1990 film of the same name and was directed by Johar 's former assistant Karan Malhotra . The screenplay was written by Malhotra along with Ila Dutta Bedi . Johar pays tribute to his father , Yash Johar , the producer of the original , through the film . The music of the film was composed by Ajay @-@ Atul , with lyrics written by Amitabh Bhattacharya . Though publicised as a remake , the film borrows only the basic plot of the original , while making the characters and incidents completely different . The film 's title was taken from a poem of the same name by Harivansh Rai Bachchan , which forms a thematic link through the film , both literally and metaphorically .
Hrithik Roshan plays the lead role of Vijay Deenanath Chauhan and Sanjay Dutt plays the role of the antagonist Kancha , originally played by Amitabh Bachchan and Danny Denzongpa respectively , with Rishi Kapoor portraying the newly introduced character of Rauf Lala . The supporting cast include Om Puri as Commissioner Gaitonde , Priyanka Chopra as Kaali Gawde and Zarina Wahab as Suhasini Chauhan , with Katrina Kaif featuring in an item number . The film follows the struggle of a common man , Vijay Chauhan , as he seeks revenge from Kancha , for wrongly framing and murdering his father in the island village of Mandwa . In the process he befriends an underworld drug lord Rauf Lala and falls in love with a loquacious girl , Kaali Gawde .
Principal photography of Agneepath took place in Diu and Mumbai , with several accidents taking place on the sets . After several issues such as plagiarism charges and release @-@ date postponement , Agneepath released on 26 January 2012 in 2650 screens worldwide , coinciding with the Republic Day celebrations . Made on a budget of ₹ 600 million ( US $ 8 @.@ 9 million ) , the film broke the highest opening day collections record in India and became a major critical and commercial success with a worldwide gross of ₹ 1 @.@ 93 billion ( US $ 29 million ) . It has since emerged as one of the highest grossing films of all time in Bollywood . The following year Agneepath received five nominations at the annual Filmfare Awards ceremony , and won five IIFA Awards and four Zee Cine Awards .
= = Plot = =
In the island village of Mandwa , the school teacher Dinanath Chauhan ( Chetan Pandit ) , highly respected by the villagers , tries to dissuade them from giving away their lands on lease to Kancha ( Sanjay Dutt ) , the son of the village head who plans to start a drug mafia . Knowing this , Kancha decides to get rid of the school teacher . He ambushes and murders a young girl inside the school , framing Chauhan for the murder . With the support of the villagers , Kancha then kills Chauhan by hanging him to death from a tree which is witnessed by young Vijay Chauhan ( Arish Bhiwandiwala ) , the son of the teacher . Vijay Chauhan along with his pregnant mother Suhasini Chauhan ( Zarina Wahab ) leave the village . Destitute , they find shelter in the city of Mumbai but Vijay harbours intentions to go back to Mandwa and kill Kancha . While in Mumbai , Vijay 's mother delivers a baby girl named Shiksha . Vijay is attracted to Rauf Lala ( Rishi Kapoor ) , a local girl @-@ trafficker and importantly an enemy of Kancha and wants to get into his company . He earns his favour and joins his gang . Meanwhile , his mother along with his baby sister leave Vijay 's side as he resorts to violence .
A grown @-@ up Vijay ( Hrithik Roshan ) now works for Rauf Lala and finds himself as his trusted wing @-@ man . Once inspector and now commissioner , Gaitonde ( Om Puri ) acts as a silent guardian for Vijay and tries to eliminate crime in Mumbai . During the time when Rauf 's influence over the drug business in Mumbai is falling , Kancha decides to grow his influence as a drug lord in the city and sends his aid , Shantaram ( Ravi Jhankal ) over to Mumbai for the process . Vijay with the help of the commissioner disrupts this plan and is lauded by Lala . He further gains the trust of Lala by taking a bullet shot which was aimed for Lala 's son , Mazhar ( Rajesh Tandon ) ; but is later revealed as a conspiracy involving Vijay and Shantaram to eliminate Mazhar .
After murdering both Mazhar and Shantaram , Vijay brings Mazhar 's corpse to Lala , who falls sick and is admitted into a hospital . In the meantime , Vijay takes over Lala 's empire and stops all the crimes committed by Lala 's gang . He is then contacted by Kancha and offers to go to Mandwa for a business agreement . While in Mandwa , Vijay tries to strike a deal with Kancha to hand over the drug business in Mumbai over to Kancha and in return taking Mandwa . Though Kancha initially suspects this deal , he later agrees on the condition that Gaitonde must be killed .
Meanwhile , back in Mumbai , Lala regains health and finds out the truth behind Mazhar 's death . He gets hold of Shiksha ( Kanika Tiwari ) and tries to sell her off . Vijay is notified of this by Kancha and he flees back to Mumbai and kills Lala . Soon after , Kancha sends a man to assassinate Gaitonde . This man identifies Vijay to be the son of the teacher killed by Kancha and reports this to Kancha . However , while he tries to assassinate Gaitonde , he is killed by Vijay . Vijay , meanwhile marries his love interest Kaali Gawde ( Priyanka Chopra ) , who is killed right after during a shooting spree by Kancha 's men .
Vijay leaves for Mandwa to avenge the death of his father and his wife and after an intense battle with Kancha , kills him by hanging him from the same tree in which his father was hanged . However , Vijay dies due to his severe injuries .
= = Cast = =
Hrithik Roshan as Vijay Deenanath Chauhan , a man seeking to avenge the murder of his father .
Rishi Kapoor as Rauf Lala , an underworld Don . He runs a meat business and simultaneously deals in drugs and prostitution .
Sanjay Dutt as Kancha Cheena . An unscrupulous man , often mocked for his hairless appearance ; he runs Mandwa as a concentration camp and exploits the villagers in order to deal in cheap cocaine .
Om Puri as Commissioner Gaitonde . He is a brutally honest cop who develops a close bond with Vijay .
Priyanka Chopra as Kaali Gawde , a talkative girl . She loves Vijay and provides moral support in his quest for revenge .
Zarina Wahab as Suhasini Chauhan , Vijay 's mother . She tries hard to dissuade Vijay against choosing a path of violence .
Chetan Pandit as Master Deenanath Chauhan , Vijay 's father . A morally upright man , he is wrongly framed for the rape and murder of a young girl and is subsequently killed by Kancha .
Sachin Khedekar as Mr. Borkar . He is the Home Secretary of Maharashtra and an aide of Kancha .
Rajesh Tandon as Mazhar Lala , Rauf Lala 's elder son . He is suspicious of Vijay 's loyalties .
Deven Bhojani as Azhar Lala , a mentally challenged younger son of Rauf Lala .
Rajesh Vivek as Mr. Bakshi , a police inspector who doubles as Kancha 's informer .
Banwarilal Taneja as Kancha 's father .
Ravi Jhankal as Shantaram , Kancha 's aid who conspires with Vijay .
Kanika Tiwari as Shiksha Deenanath Chauhan , Vijay 's sister . She lives with her mother and is unaware of Vijay 's existence .
Pankaj Tripathi as Surya .
Brijendra Kala as Muneem .
Katrina Kaif as " Chikni Chameli " ( special appearance ) .
Madhurjeet Sarghi as Lachhi , Kaali 's mother .
Arish Bhiwandiwala as the younger Vijay Chauhan .
Vraddhi Sharma as a journalist .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In an interview with The Times of India , Karan Johar explained that he harboured intentions of remaking the original Agneepath ever since the film released in 1990 . Though the film had received critical acclaim over the years , its commercial failure had devastated his father , producer Yash Johar . The idea of a possible remake materialised on the sets of Johar 's directorial My Name Is Khan , in which Karan Malhotra was an assistant director . Johar told Malhotra of his desire to remake the original film and asked him to revisit it again . On not directing the film himself , Johar commented , " I am happy directing films on love , romance and drama . That 's what I do best . I don 't think I will be good at an action film . So I am not taking the reins of the film in my hand " . However , Johar maintained that the new film would belong to a different milieu as compared to the original . He stated , " We are adapting the film from the original but ours would be a new age version that would fit in well with today 's time . We really hope that we are able to do justice to the original and make the remake exciting for today 's generation . " In an interview with Filmfare , he added that the protagonist of the film would be " more of an underdog " , while the antagonist would be " more flamboyant and menacing " than the older version .
Several changes were made to the story @-@ line of the original film , including the omission of certain characters and addition of new ones . The characters of Krishnan Iyer MA , played by Mithun Chakraborty and Nurse Mary Matthew , played by Madhavi were done away with and new characters such as Rauf Lala and Kaali Gawde were introduced in the screenplay . Moreover , the characterisation of Vijay Chauhan was changed , unlike the original which was inspired by Al Pacino 's role in Scarface ( 1983 ) . In an interview with The Calcutta Telegraph , director Karan Malhotra explained the adaptation by saying , " The similarity ( between the original and this film ) lies only in the fact that it is a revenge film ; a son seeking revenge for his father ’ s death . Unlike Mr. ( Amitabh ) Bachchan ’ s film , my film starts and ends in Mandwa and is primarily about the conflict between the mother and the son . It ’ s a completely new film with a lot of new characters . " He additionally termed Agneepath to be a " crazily dramatic masala Bollywood film " .
= = = Casting = = =
While media reports initially suggested that Abhishek Bachchan was being considered to portray the role of Vijay Chauhan , director Karan Malhotra approached Hrithik Roshan for the role . Roshan , however was sceptical on taking up a role earlier played by Amitabh Bachchan and agreed to star in the film only after months of deliberation . He said , " The script had so much passion that I felt very emotional and I made up my mind to do it " . On casting Hrithik , Malhotra explained , " Hrithik has the charm of a boy and the attitude of a man . Also , he has a certain vulnerability , which I was looking in my characterisation of Vijay Dinananth Chauhan . " While explaining the character of Vijay Chauhan , Malhotra added , " Nobody can play Vijay the way Amitabh Bachchan did , and I would have wanted my Vijay to be subtle even if it wasn 't Hrithik . I wanted the negative characters in my film to be bigger . This made Hrithik 's victory seem bigger . " In preparation for the film , Roshan did not look up Bachchan 's performance in the original for inspiration , as he considered his role to be completely different . Roshan , however , faced several difficulties while filming . He suffered from a severe back injury , which caused him considerable pain , throughout the shooting schedule . In an interview with Filmfare he quoted , " Agneepath is the hardest I ’ ve ever worked in my life . I didn ’ t know what the film had in store for me . I ’ ve never been so tired in my life . I have exhausted my body completely . "
Actor Rishi Kapoor was subsequently cast as Rauf Lala , an underworld Don . Kapoor , who had never played a completely negative character in his entire career , was initially hesitant to sign the film . In an interview with Daily News and Analysis he stated that when Malhotra had offered him the role , he considered it to be a joke and thought that he would be the reason for the film 's failure . Kapoor subsequently insisted on a test look before principal photography could begin , so that he could comfortably fit into the Muslim character of Lala , who wears kohl in his eyes , a karakul cap and is dressed in traditional kurta @-@ pajamas . While shooting for the action sequences , Kapoor suffered several bad falls and bruises , but continued shooting and was thereby praised by co @-@ star Hrithik Roshan for his professionalism .
For the role of Kancha , the antagonist , Sanjay Dutt was cast . According to Malhotra , the script of Agneepath demanded that the villain be more powerful than the hero , and due to Dutt 's bulky frame , he was considered perfect for the role . The character of Kancha demanded that Dutt go bald , but due to a prior commitment to the film Son of Sardar , which was being shot simultaneously , he could not do so for the sake of continuity . Therefore , Hollywood make up artist Robin Slater created a " bald " look for Dutt , with the use of prosthetics . However , due to the summer heat in Diu , the make @-@ up would eventually drip down Dutt 's face , which impelled him to finally shave his head . Director Malhotra admitted to being inspired by Marlon Brando 's bald look in the film Apocalypse Now ( 1979 ) while designing Dutt 's character . Dutt explained his look by saying , " Kancha is suffering from an ailment that leaves him hairless . I shaved my head for the role , not once but twice , and the eye @-@ brows and eye @-@ lashes have been digitally removed . " Furthermore , Dutt worked out in the gym twice a day in order to bulk up for the role .
During pre @-@ production , media reports suggested that several actresses including Genelia D 'Souza , Priyanka Chopra and Kareena Kapoor were being considered for the role of Kaali Gawde . However , Chopra was approached over the others , who agreed to do the film instantly . While initial reports suggested that Chopra would be playing the role of a sex worker in the film , they were later denied as rumours . In an interview with Rediff.com , she clarified that she was playing a prostitute 's daughter . On Chopra 's character , Malhotra commented , " Despite being a male dominated film , the part played by Priyanka is very prominent . It isn 't that of a simple or ordinary lover . She is there for Vijay unconditionally and without any expectations . With all the dangerous people around her , she is like this pretty flower standing there with a smile on her face . " In preparation for her role , Chopra wanted to visit a brothel , but Malhotra insisted that she doesn 't for safety reasons .
For the supporting roles , Zarina Wahab was cast as Suhasini Chauhan , Vijay 's mother ; a role originally played by Rohini Hattangadi . Wahab agreed to do the film , due to her close association with producer , Johar . For the role of Shiksha Chauhan , newcomer Kanika Tiwri was auditioned and cast among 6500 girls . In order to feature an item number in the film , producer Johar wanted to sign Kareena Kapoor , who refused the offer and Katrina Kaif was eventually contracted . Filming for the song was demanding on Kaif , as she ended up with cuts and blisters on her feet , due to the long , stretched @-@ out schedules .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography of Agneepath took place in the union territory of Diu , which was used to double as the village of Mandwa . Johar had to complete several formalities before shooting could begin , due to the sensitive nature of the territory . Director Malhotra , however did not shoot in the port of Mandwa itself , as it was " too congested " . While shooting for the film in Mumbai , a picture of Hrithik Roshan , filming a dahi handi sequence was leaked to the media . Worried over this , Johar increased the security on the sets and banned the use of cell phones . Additionally , Priyanka Chopra faced difficulties in allocating dates to shoot for the film , as she was simultaneously shooting for Anurag Basu 's Barfi ! .
According to Malhotra , most of the action stunts in the film were shot by Roshan and Dutt themselves , while body doubles were used to film a few scenes . Several accidents took place during the filming of Agneepath . Priyanka Chopra 's lehenga caught fire , while shooting for an elaborate Ganpati festival song . Hrithik Roshan too scalded his hands while shooting for the same scene . Roshan also suffered from an eye injury during the shoot of a song , when holi colours were flung into his eyes by some junior artists . In October , Roshan suffered from a major back injury while lifting a man weighing 110 kilograms , which was a part of an elaborate action sequence . Shooting was stalled for some time following the incident , while Roshan recuperated in a hospital .
While Ravi K. Chandran was assigned as the cinematographer of Agneepath , he opted out of the film after filming certain portions , for unknown reasons . Kiran Deohans was later contracted to replace him . Sabu Cyril was contracted as the production designer for the film , along with a team of 200 people . He explained the creation of Kancha 's den by saying that he built a haveli @-@ like structure with tantric paintings on the walls , resembling an old fort built by the Portuguese ( who had historically occupied Diu ) . Vijay 's home , on the other hand , was a " small sack @-@ like thing " on the terrace of a chawl , which was built on an open ground with a hundred houses . Cyril added , " We wanted a tree to be at the edge of a hillside , protruding out due to erosion , with not enough soil . We made this banyan tree with fibre as we wanted it to have a particular look . " This tree forms a visual thread to represent Kancha 's atrocities in the film . The song " Chikni Chameli " featuring Katrina Kaif was shot in Film City , Mumbai , where the entire set of Dutt 's villa was recreated .
= = = Marketing = = =
The first official trailer of Agneepath was launched at a press conference in Mumbai on 29 August 2011 . Dharma Productions streamed the event live on the production house 's YouTube channel . The event was attended by the entire cast : Roshan , Kapoor , Dutt and Chopra . The trailer of the film was the third most watched trailer in India , behind the films , Don 2 and Ra.One.
The film associated itself with McDonald 's to provide a discount of ₹ 50 ( 74 ¢ US ) to customers buying a meal at the joint . Additionally , few winners were offered a chance to win a lunch date with Roshan . As part of the promotional campaign , Roshan , Dutt and Chopra visited Dubai on 19 January 2012 , to interact with fans at a shopping mall , followed by an invitational high tea party . The actors travelled to several places in India including New Delhi , Nagpur and other cities to promote the film .
= = Soundtrack = =
The music of Agneepath was composed by Ajay @-@ Atul , with lyrics written by Amitabh Bhattacharya . Sony Music acquired the rights to the album for ₹ 90 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) and released its digital version on 16 December 2011 , followed by mass release on 19 December 2011 . Sanujeet Bhujabel , the marketing director of Sony Music , revealed that live instruments would be extensively used on the soundtrack . While explaining the process involved in composing the soundtrack , Ajay said that director Karan Malhotra narrated the story to them for over four hours , whilst humming the background score that he wanted . This was followed by innumerable discussions which made them " understand each other well " . He also mentioned that the song " Chikni Chameli " was a remake of their own Marathi song " Kombdi Palali " from the film Jatra ( 2006 ) .
In January 2012 , a plagiarism suit was filed against Sony Music and Dharma Productions by a Mumbai @-@ based engineer , for lifting and featuring the song " O Saiyyan " in the album . The Nagpur High Court ordered Johar to release the film , only after truncating the use of the song in it .
The song Chikni Chameli was extremely well received and topped the music charts .
= = = Track listing = = =
= = = Reception = = =
The music of Agneepath received positive reviews from critics . Joginder Tuteja praised the compositions and added that " Chikni Chameli " would be responsible for the rise in sales of the album . Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com gave the album 3 out of 5 stars and said that the film 's soundtrack was better than that of the original , while praising the composition of the songs " Deva Shree Ganesha " and " O Saiyyan " . A review carried by BBC UK summed up , " Blessedly free of unnecessary remixes , Agneepath is a well @-@ crafted , evocative collection of songs that proves the adage that , when it comes to Indian music composers , sometimes two heads can be better than one .
= = Release and reception = =
Prior to its theatrical release , the Central Board of Film Certification ( CBFC ) certified the film with a UA certificate after demanding a few cuts , due to a high proportion of violence present in the film . Explaining the certificate , Pankaja Thakur , CEO of CBFC stated , " Agneepath has a lot of bloodshed but none of us felt disturbed by it . The violence is not the type that can psychologically damage a child and the softer scenes of the film managed to offset the darker part of it " . The film 's posters subsequently featured disclaimers reading , " This film is certified U / A. We advise parental guidance due to violence in the film . " The board , consequently praised Johar for the step .
Initially scheduled to release on 13 January 2012 , Agneepath was postponed by a week to 26 January to coincide with the Republic Day celebrations . The film eventually released at around 2650 screens worldwide . The satellite rights of the film were sold to Zee Network for a sum of ₹ 410 million ( US $ 6 @.@ 1 million ) , a month before the theatrical release . Dharma Productions released the DVD of Agneepath on 13 March 2012 across all regions in the NTSC format , with a censor rating of PG @-@ 13 . The DVD includes special features such as the " making of the film " and " deleted scenes and songs " . It is available in Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 and Stereo format with English and Arabic subtitles presented in 16 : 9 anamorphic widescreen .
= = = Critical reception = = =
= = = = India = = = =
Upon release , Agneepath received mostly positive reviews from film critics in India . Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the film a score of 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , and said , " Agneepath is an uncomplicated story of revenge , is hard @-@ hitting yet entertaining , dwells on strong emotions and aggressive and forceful action , yet is dissimilar from the original . It is a fitting tribute to the masterwork . " Subhash K.Jha of IANS gave it 4 out of 5 stars , while commenting , " Every component of the film falls into place , with a resounding thump . Agneepath is brilliant in its brutality . It 's a riveting and hectic homage to the spirit of the cinema when revenge reigned supreme . And content was king . This new Agneepath takes us back to the era when there was no computer or cellphones . And communication with the audience was immediate and electrifying . " Kaveree Bamzai of India Today rated the film 4 out of 5 , noting , " Melodramatic , choir @-@ inducing sentiment , ecstatic . Agneepath is that rare mainstream movie written well . "
Aniruddha Guha of Daily News and Analysis gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 , reviewing , " An adaptation rather than a remake , the film assumes a life of its own once the central plot has been established . The film then charts a journey of his own . " Piyali Dasgupta of NDTV gave it 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 , stating " Watch this film because this one is unadulterated Bollywood entertainment . " Daily Bhaskar gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , while adding , " On the whole , Agneepath totally rests on star power which will lure the cine @-@ goers to halls but how far will it impress them remains to be seen . "
Avijit Ghosh of The Times of India gave the film 3 stars out of 5 , and said , " Try to wipe out the movie 's earlier version from your mind . You might find it more enjoyable . " Sukanya Verma of Rediff gave it 3 out of 5 , while commenting , " Agneepath , less of a remake , more of a tribute . The makers of Agneepath should have just called it Dharmapath . " Kunal Guha of Yahoo.com gave the film 3 out of 5 stars , saying that , " The biggest dilemma of remaking a movie is how much to retain and what to retain . If the new story takes violent shifts , you lose the audience who came to revisit the original . If you photocopy scene @-@ by @-@ scene , you risk failing to connect with the audience who is accustomed to present sensibilities . The only safe bet : a ‘ khichdi ’ of the past and the present , like this one . " Mayank Shekhar of Hindustan Times gave the film 3 out of 5 stars while remarking , " This is the kind of genuine theatre experience , now getting rare , which remains most precious in the life of a film @-@ goer . Reason can take over later . I had a ball ! " Sonia Chopra of Sify gave it 3 out of 5 , and mentioned , " Debut director Karan Malhotra shows great promise in making the film visually arresting and maintaining the consistency of performances . But remaking a cult film means you have big shoes to fill . If you ’ re a loyalist of the late Mukul Anand ’ s Agneepath , you ’ re likely to have reservations with this one . But if you leave the comparisons aside and are willing to forgive the faults , Agneepath is worth a watch essentially to savor Hrithik ’ s performance . " Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN gave Agneepath 3 out of 5 and said , " It is in the end , an old @-@ fashioned revenge drama treated in that melodramatic , over @-@ the @-@ top style . You 're not likely to be bored by the intense action and the solid performances , but prepare to be exhausted by just how long this film plays on . "
= = = = Overseas = = = =
Overseas , the film received positive reviews . Russel Edwards of Variety reviewed , " Debuting helmer Karan Malhotra stokes up a fiery revenge tale in Agneepath , an expensively pumped @-@ up , relentlessly energetic retelling of the 1990 Amitabh Bachchan cult favorite of the same name . Toplining Bollywood hunk Hrithik Roshan and veteran actor Sanjay Dutt donning the hat as the antagonist , this dynamic Hindi action extravaganza boosts its potent story with an aggressive style that will ensure audiences feel every blow . " Farah Andrews of Gulf News praised the film while saying , " Fans of the 1990 original starring Amitabh Bachchan and Danny Denzongpa as Vijay and Kancha may be wary about the remake , but take it from us , the revamped flick is well worth a watch . " Rabina A. Khan of The First Post wrote , " Director Karan Malhotra has made an impressive film under the able guidance of his mentor , Karan Johar . It scores on all directorial aspects – design , sound , edit , costumes , camera , phenomenal cast , dialogues and a very gripping screenplay . "
= = = Themes and analysis = = =
Agneepath derives its name from a poem of the same name written by Harivansh Rai Bachchan . The poem , which is recited through the film provides a metaphorical link to represent Vijay 's quest for vengeance .
Several critics consider Agneepath to be a homage to the era of the melodramatic , over @-@ the @-@ top action films of the 1980s and 90s . Critic Rajeev Masand analysed , " Agneepath is a throwback to those heightened action dramas of the 90s , so every dialogue is delivered as a punch @-@ line ; our hero may be battered and stabbed , yet he 'll rise like the phoenix , and the women are flung around to be raped or sold as sex slaves . " He added , " The film is enhanced by uncompromising , brutal action , and by its striking camerawork , especially those scenes framed against a monsoon sky , heavy with dark clouds . " Writing for Hindustan Times , Mayank Shekhar explained that the film , like several other Bollywood films was inspired by the Indian mythological tale of the Ramayana . He also added that " the external logic of a star driven , fantasy fed film " would " not be easy to gulp for many . " While writing a critique for Deccan Chronicle , Suparna Sharma quoted , " Agneepath is more than a remake or a homage to the original . It ’ s about a son righting a wrong and this emotion makes us connect with the film immediately . "
= = = Box office = = =
Agneepath broke the record of the highest opening day collections , with a nett of ₹ 217 @.@ 6 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 2 million ) on its opening day , surpassing the previous record held by Bodyguard . Subsequently , the film netted ₹ 621 @.@ 1 million ( US $ 9 @.@ 2 million ) over its extended four @-@ day weekend . The film 's collections sustained well on its first Monday and it netted around ₹ 75 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 1 million ) , taking its five @-@ day total to ₹ 695 million ( US $ 10 million ) nett . It netted ₹ 65 million ( US $ 970 @,@ 000 ) on Tuesday and another ₹ 50 million ( US $ 740 @,@ 000 ) nett on Wednesday . The movie brought its first @-@ week total to ₹ 858 @.@ 8 million ( US $ 13 million ) nett , thereby emerging as a major commercial success .
The film collected ₹ 231 @.@ 2 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 4 million ) in its second week , thus taking its two @-@ week total to ₹ 1 @.@ 09 billion ( US $ 16 million ) nett . The film collected ₹ 75 @.@ 9 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 1 million ) nett in its third week , taking its three @-@ week nett collections to ₹ 1 @.@ 17 billion ( US $ 17 million ) . It collected ₹ 26 @.@ 1 million ( US $ 390 @,@ 000 ) in its fourth week , taking its four @-@ week nett collections to ₹ 1 @.@ 19 billion ( US $ 18 million ) . Agneepath was thus declared a " superhit " . Agneepath has collected ₹ 1 @.@ 20 billion ( US $ 18 million ) in its lifetime run in India . Its final distributor share was ₹ 655 million ( US $ 9 @.@ 7 million ) .
After a successful opening in the domestic market , Agneepath made ₹ 165 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 5 million ) in its four @-@ day weekend , overseas . At the time of release , the film holds the record for the twelfth largest opening ever internationally . The film has grossed around $ 6 million in overseas markets .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
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= Raid on Genoa =
The Raid on Genoa was a minor naval engagement fought in the harbour of the Italian city of Genoa during the first year of the French Revolutionary Wars . French Republican forces in the Mediterranean , under pressure from Austrian and Spanish armies , Royalist uprisings and British blockade had suffered the loss of their principal naval base and the fleet stationed there when British forces under Lord Hood seized Toulon at the invitation of the city 's Royalist faction . The survivors of the French fleet were scattered across the Mediterranean , several sheltering in neutral Italian harbours , including the frigates Modeste at Genoa and Impérieuse at Leghorn .
To eliminate the threat these isolated frigates posed , Hood ordered a squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral John Gell to investigate the harbour at Genoa . The squadron arrived on 5 October and discovered Modeste and two smaller warships at anchor . Later in the day , three ships of the squadron launched their ship 's boats and instigated a boarding action against the anchored ships , in defiance of Genoese neutrality . The French crews resisted , but the British boarding parties successfully captured all three vessels without suffering any casualties . Six days later the detached HMS Captain also seized the abandoned Impérieuse , which had fled to La Spezia . The action had strategic consequences : the Republican faction in Genoa was strong and they successfully barred Austrian reinforcements from sailing to join the Allied garrison at the developing Siege of Toulon . The outnumbered defenders of the port were overwhelmed and driven into the sea by a Republican assault on 17 December .
= = Mediterranean in 1793 = =
The French Revolutionary Wars , which began in 1792 as a conflict between the new French Republic and the Austrian Empire following the French Revolution , spread in 1793 to involve a number of other European nations , including Spain and Great Britain . In addition to these external threats , political tensions within France led to a series of uprisings against the Republic in the summer of 1793 , particularly in the south of the country . One of the centres of Royalist activity was the city of Toulon , the major naval base and home port for the powerful French Mediterranean Fleet . On 28 August , after fighting between Republican forces and British troops for control of the heights overlooking the city , Toulon surrendered to Lord Hood , commander of the British Royal Navy 's Mediterranean Fleet . Hood 's forces occupied the city , seized the French fleet in harbour and called for reinforcements to defend Toulon against the inevitable Republican counterattack , receiving Spanish , Neapolitan and Sardinian contingents over the following weeks as the Siege of Toulon developed .
Austrian troops were also promised , to be dispatched from the Austrian Army fighting the French in Northern Italy . These troops could only reach Toulon by sea , scheduled to embark from the city port of Genoa , capital of the Italian state of the Republic of Genoa , which at this stage of the war was officially neutral . Genoa was however , in common with other Northern Italian cities , in a state of political upheaval . The French Revolution had inspired similarly @-@ minded revolutionaries in Italy to support Republican ideas , and there was a substantial Republican faction in the Genoese government which supported France 's cause . Food supplies were regularly shipped from Genoa to the Republican armies in Southern France , and the demands of Francis Drake , Ambassador to Genoa , that this trade cease went unheeded .
The situation at Genoa was compounded by the presence of French warships in Genoese waters . Those parts of the French fleet which had not been seized at Toulon were now deprived of a home port and so had taken refuge in neutral Italian ports , relying on Italian neutrality to protect them from attack by the more numerous enemy fleets operating in the Ligurian Sea . Two of the largest such ships were the 36 @-@ gun frigate Modeste and 40 @-@ gun Impérieuse , which had taken shelter at Genoa and Leghorn , in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany , respectively . They presented both a threat to Allied shipping and an impediment to the movement of reinforcements through the Italian ports , but despite strong protests from Drake and Lord Hervey , Ambassador to Tuscany , the Republican sympathisers in Genoa and Leghorn refused to compel the French ships to leave . In consequence , Hood resolved that the frigates be eliminated so that the Republicans in Genoa would be coerced into withdrawing their support .
= = Raid = =
To confront the French frigates , Hood diverted a powerful squadron from his fleet at Toulon . This force was led by Rear @-@ Admiral John Gell in the 98 @-@ gun ship of the line HMS St George and included the 74 @-@ gun HMS Bedford under Captain Robert Mann , and HMS Captain under Captain Samuel Reeve , as well as the French Royalist Scipion . Smaller warships accompanied the larger warships : HMS Mermaid , HMS Tartar , HMS Alerte , HMS Eclair , HMS Vulcan , HMS Conflagration , and HMS Speedy under Commander Charles Cunningham . This force was ordered to sail to Genoa and eliminate Modeste . The squadron arrived off the port on 5 October .
Modeste was clearly visible in the harbour , anchored at the mole near two tartanes ( small Mediterranean sailing craft here armed with four guns and carrying crews of around 70 men ) . The senior officers of the squadron held a council to determine the best course of action , and decided that since diplomatic options had failed and the Genoese appeared to support the French , the British would resort to a military solution . On the afternoon of 5 October Bedford was slowly warped into the harbour and alongside Modeste , as Reeve launched the ship 's boats from Captain and brought them close to the other side of the French frigate .
The British arrival was reportedly greeted with derision by the French sailors , until a boarding party clambered onto the frigate from Bedford 's deck , to be met by resistance from the French crew . Mann then ordered his ship 's Royal Marines to fire into the French sailors , killing one and wounding several more . This attack broke their resolve and the French surrendered , several leaping into the sea to escape capture , only to be collected by the boats of Captain . As Modeste was subdued , the boats of Speedy approached the tartanes . As the boat parties boarded the small French warships , the crew of one surrendered while the other resisted the British boarders . A short melee broke out on the deck of the tartane , resulting in the captain and one other French sailor wounded and the tartane firmly in British hands . The raid completed , the British squadron withdrew from Genoa with their prizes . One French sailor had been killed in the operation and ten wounded , while the British boarding parties had survived unscathed .
= = = La Spezia = = =
Alarmed by the raid on Genoa , the authorities in Leghorn ordered Impérieuse to leave immediately . The frigate sailed north and took shelter in a cove near the port of La Spezia . Six days after the capture of Modeste , Captain reached La Spezia , acting on reports that Impérieuse was in the bay . Reeve discovered the French ship sheltering under the guns of the Santa Maria shore battery , and the following morning , 12 October , used his ship 's boats to tow Captain alongside Impérieuse . At 08 : 00 boat parties from the ship of the line boarded the frigate , discovering that the French crew had abandoned their ship during the night and scuttled her in shallow water . The British were able to take possession of Impérieuse without opposition from the battery . Reeve instructed his carpenters to make the frigate seaworthy again , refloating the ship and completing temporary repairs on 13 October before sailing back to Toulon with his prize .
= = Aftermath = =
Modeste and Impérieuse were high @-@ quality modern ships and were both immediately recommissioned into the Royal Navy , Modeste with the same name and Impérieuse as HMS Unite as there was already a ship with a similar name in service . The repercussions of this operation were severe however . Gell , acting on instructions from Hood , had violated Genoese neutrality in a deliberate attempt to intimidate the pro @-@ Republican faction in the city , but their actions were readily seized upon by French propagandists such as Nicolas Ozanne , who portrayed the raid as a massacre of unarmed sailors in print form . The Genoese government broke off diplomatic relations with Britain and the 5 @,@ 000 Austrian reinforcements destined for Toulon were unable to embark . Drake and all British inhabitants of Genoa were expelled , and Gell initiated a blockade of the city , seizing neutral merchant shipping destined for the port . Three ships were stationed at Leghorn to watch the more quiescent Tuscan government , including the Royalist Scipion . On 26 November , Scipion , which was carrying 150 prisoners taken in the raid on Genoa , caught fire , possibly the result of arson , and was destroyed , although other accounts suggest that a barrel of brandy was ignited accidentally by a candle . The blaze killed 390 of the Royalist crew , many of whom were classed as unfit for duty .
Without the Austrian reinforcements the defenders of Toulon were outnumbered and outflanked , coming under sustained attack by French troops directed by 24 @-@ year @-@ old artillery officer Captain Napoleon Bonaparte . On 17 December , French troops seized the high ground over the city and the allies were forced into a chaotic withdrawal . As Hood 's ships removed the garrison and more than 14 @,@ 000 refugees from the city , boat parties led by Sir Sidney Smith attempted to destroy the French fleet and dockyards with fireships . These efforts were only partially successful : fifteen ships of the line and five frigates survived the conflagration to form the nucleus of the French Mediterranean Fleet in the war to come . By the evening of 18 December Toulon was firmly in Republican hands .
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= Nasib al @-@ Bakri =
Nasib al @-@ Bakri ( 1888 – 1966 ) was a Syrian politician and nationalist leader in the first half of the 20th century . He played a major role in establishing al @-@ Fatat , an underground organization which sought the independence and unity of the Ottoman Empire 's Arab territories . As the chief envoy between al @-@ Fatat and the Hejaz @-@ based Hashemites , al @-@ Bakri became a close aide to Emir Faisal when the latter became King of Syria following the success of the 1916 Arab Revolt . Al @-@ Bakri opposed the establishment of the French Mandate of Syria and became one of the chief commanders of the Great Syrian Revolt , leading the rebels ' brief capture of Damascus . He escaped a death warrant in Syria in 1927 , but returned the following year after being amnestied .
Al @-@ Bakri served as a representative of Damascus in the Syrian Parliament between 1932 and 1946 . He was one of the main coordinators of the 1936 general strike and became Vice President of the National Bloc . He defected to join Abd al @-@ Rahman Shahbandar 's party in 1938 . During the post @-@ independence period , al @-@ Bakri was appointed Syria 's ambassador to Jordan but resigned in 1953 in protest against Adib al @-@ Shishakli 's seizure of power . The following year , he became President of the People 's Party , but retired in 1957 .
= = Early life = =
Nasib was born in Damascus in 1888 to father ' Ata al @-@ Bakri . Nasib was the second oldest of five sons . ' Ata was an influential official in the city and district councils of Damascus between the 1890s and 1914 , and was one of the most prominent Arabs to serve in the imperial Ottoman court of Sultan Abdul Hamid II in Constantinople . The al @-@ Bakri family were Sunni Muslims and claimed descent from the Islamic prophet Muhammad . They were landowners , possessing lands , homes and commercial venues in their native al @-@ Shaghour quarter and in al @-@ Qabun , a village in the Ghouta countryside of Damascus . They also owned land in Jaramana , a Druze village outside of Damascus and maintained good relations with the local Druze chiefs .
When Abdul Hamid II was overthrown during the Young Turk Revolution in 1908 , ' Ata lost his favor from the central authorities because of his closeness with the deposed sultan and criticized the revolutionary officers . Consequently , the al @-@ Bakri family realigned itself with Arab nationalists in Syria who opposed the increased Turkish nationalist efforts in the Arabic @-@ speaking territories of the empire . ' Ata had also developed close ties with the Hashemites of the Hejaz . In 1909 he hosted the Sharif of Mecca , Hussein bin Ali , his brother Nasir , and Abdullah , Sharif Hussein 's son , in his Damascus home .
Nasib attended Maktab Anbar , a preparatory school in Damascus that attracted the children of the elite and produced several future Arab nationalists . In 1912 , Nasib graduated from the al @-@ Sultaniya School of Beirut . When Sharif Hussein 's son , Faisal , visited Syria in early 1916 , he lodged in the al @-@ Bakris ' summer house in al @-@ Qabun , outside of Damascus . Prior to this , Nasib and his brothers Fawzi and Sami had joined the budding al @-@ Fatat movement , an underground society advocating Arab independence from the Ottomans . Nasib had become the movement 's secretary .
= = Leader in Syrian independence movement = =
= = = Ally of the Hashemites = = =
In 1915 , Nasib hosted Faisal at his Ghouta country house and invited him join al @-@ Fatat , which he reportedly agreed to . At the same time , al @-@ Bakri organized a meeting between him , some members of al @-@ Fatat , and the Druze chiefs of the Hauran , Hussein and Sultan al @-@ Atrash with the intention of gaining Druze support for the planned Arab rebellion against the Ottomans ( the Druze had launched several uprisings against the Ottomans prior ) . The meeting concluded with the Druze offering Faisal and the nationalists their backing , though short of any military support . The meeting was the first of its kind between the Hashemites and the Druze , and afterward Faisal appointed al @-@ Bakri to be his personal secretary and his envoy to the Druze , a post he would serve until 1920 .
In the summer of 1916 , amid World War I , Sharif Hussein launched the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottomans from Mecca with the backing of the British military . Al @-@ Bakri joined the revolt and moved to the Hejaz where he served as a channel between al @-@ Fatat based in Damascus and the Hashemite forces leading the uprising . When the Ottomans were defeated in 1918 and Arab and British forces reached Damascus , Faisal would soon become the King of Syria and al @-@ Bakri served as one of his advisers . The next year al @-@ Bakri co @-@ founded the first legal political party in Faisal 's Syria , the pan @-@ Arabist al @-@ Istiqlal ( " Independence " ) which sought to unify all the former Ottoman @-@ held Arab territories under the leadership of the Hashemites . During this period until 1920 , al @-@ Bakri was a member of the Syrian National Congress as a representative of Damascus .
France invaded and began occupying Syria in 1919 and following the Battle of Maysalun in July 1920 , Faisal was exiled and the kingdom annulled . Al @-@ Bakri left for Amman in Transjordan , which was under the authority of Faisal 's brother King Abdullah . Al @-@ Bakri would later serve as Abdullah 's aide in 1921 , a position he held for about two years before returning to Syria after the French issued amnesty for political exiles . On his return , he became a member of al @-@ Shahbandar 's People 's Party and actively sought to topple the French authorities in Syria and align the country with the ruling Hashemites in Iraq , Transjordan and the Hejaz . The Hashemites were driven out of the latter in 1925 by the Saudis .
= = = Role in Great Syrian Revolt = = =
The summer of 1925 also saw the beginning of the Great Syrian Revolt , launched by Sultan Pasha al @-@ Atrash in the Jabal al @-@ Arab region in southern Syria . After Atrash 's men destroyed a French column at al @-@ Kafr , al @-@ Bakri received a letter from al @-@ Atrash on 23 July calling on the nationalists in Damascus to join the revolt ; al @-@ Bakri subsequently joined . Following the French defeat at the Battle of Mazraa on 3 August , al @-@ Bakri began working with Abd al @-@ Ghaffar al @-@ Atrash , the Druze chief of al @-@ Suwayda , to advance the revolt to other parts of the country outside of Hauran . Al @-@ Bakri set up a meeting between the Damascus @-@ based nationalists and Sultan al @-@ Atrash at his home in al @-@ Qabun , after which the two sides agreed to work together to uproot the French from Syria .
Following the meeting , al @-@ Bakri conferred with al @-@ Shahbandar , who agreed to bring Damascus into the revolt , although this initial attempt did not materialize . As al @-@ Atrash 's men headed towards Damascus to launch their attack against French forces there , al @-@ Bakri assembled some 260 armed volunteers from various neighborhoods and villages in and around Damascus , including al @-@ Shaghour , Bab Musalla , al @-@ Midan , and Jaramana . Al @-@ Bakri maintained particularly close ties to Hasan al @-@ Kharrat , the local boss ( qabaday ) of al @-@ Shaghur and a friend of the al @-@ Bakri family . In early August , upon al @-@ Bakri 's urging , al @-@ Kharrat formed a militia , which would become one of the most effective rebel bands in the country . When the French authorities were informed of nationalist rebel plans , they began a wide @-@ scale arrest campaign in the city on 27 August , detaining nearly all of Damascus 's nationalist leaders and spokesmen , although al @-@ Bakri , his brothers , and al @-@ Shahbandar managed to evade arrest .
He participated in attacks alongside Druze warriors against French positions and offices in the Hauran , and of all the rebel commanders from Damascus , al @-@ Bakri was the most respected among the Druze . As fighting between rebels and French forces in the Ghouta escalated , al @-@ Bakri devised an operation to wrest control of Damascus from the French by capturing the citadel and the Azm Palace . The former housed the city 's French garrison , while the latter housed the French Mandate High Commissioner Maurice Sarrail . Al @-@ Bakri requested reinforcements from al @-@ Atrash and his men , but they were occupied by fighting in the Hauran and notified al @-@ Bakri that any help would be delayed . Al @-@ Bakri decided to move ahead nonetheless . On 17 October , he assembled al @-@ Kharrat 's group and another group of rebels from al @-@ Midan and Jaramana inside Damascus . The next day al @-@ Kharrat launched the operation .
While al @-@ Kharrat 's men managed to capture the Azm Palace and the police station in Bab Saghir , al @-@ Bakri led a band of 200 fighters from their base in al @-@ Midan to raid an Armenian refugee camp in al @-@ Qadam , killing several Armenian refugees . The rebels accused the Armenians — who along with the Circassians were typically allied with the French authorities — of participating in the French military assaults against several Ghouta villages in the preceding weeks . After attacking al @-@ Qadam , al @-@ Bakri 's forces swept through the city , capturing the police stations at Bab al @-@ Jabiyah , Bab Musalla and Qanawat . With each captured neighborhood , their forces increased in size as enthusiastic bystanders joined in the attacks .
Sarrail , who was not in Damascus at the time of the rebel assault , ordered aerial bombardment of the city , leading to the destruction of whole neighborhoods and the deaths of hundreds of Damascus residents . By 24 October , the rebels were routed , and al @-@ Bakri escaped . He became the target of criticism among other rebel leaders , namely Said al- ' As . Al- ' As stated that al @-@ Bakri sought personal glory when he decided to prematurely launch a mostly uncoordinated attack with small numbers of armed volunteers , instead of waiting for the arrival of al @-@ Atrash 's reinforcements , who numbered around 1 @,@ 000 . Al @-@ Bakri was the only member of the Damascus nationalist elite to directly participate in the fighting on the ground .
In early December , al @-@ Bakri chaired a meeting of rebel leaders in the Ghouta village of Saqba . During the meeting , he launched scathing criticism of Ramadan al @-@ Shallash , the rebel commander from Deir ez @-@ Zor , condemning him for levying heavy fines and other fees against the residents of the villages of Douma , al @-@ Qisa , Harran al @-@ Awamid and al @-@ Midaa which had been captured by the rebels . However , these taxes were almost entirely directed at the major landowners and city elites , rather than the commoners or peasants . ' As defended al @-@ Shallash as a skilled commander , criticized al @-@ Bakri 's leadership and accused him of holding " secret hatreds and ambitions " . Nonetheless , al @-@ Bakri and his ally al @-@ Kharrat managed to have al @-@ Shallash " expelled from the rebellion " during the meeting , and stripped of his arms and insignia . However , subsequent French bombardment of Saqba allowed al @-@ Shallash to escape punishment . Al @-@ Kharrat was killed in a French raid two weeks later , while al @-@ Shallash defected to the French following his expulsion . Al @-@ Bakri 's younger brother As 'ad was killed in action in 1926 .
= = = Politician during French Mandatory rule = = =
The revolt dissipated by June 1927 . Al @-@ Bakri was sentenced to death in absentia by French military tribunal . Consequently , he fled to Amman in Transjordan . In March 1928 , al @-@ Bakri , his brother Fawzi , and Fares al @-@ Khoury were amnestied by the French authorities and the al @-@ Bakri family 's properties , which had been bombed by the French during the revolt , were restored to them . According to historian Peter A. Shambrook , al @-@ Bakri 's inclusion on the amnesty list was surprising for two reasons : he maintained a strong relationship with France 's chief rivals in the region , the Hashemites and their British patrons , and he held " unrivaled " influence among the bosses of " the popular quarters of Damascus " . The French sought to divide the ranks of the rebels and the nationalist politicians by pardoning some leaders and blacklisting others like al @-@ Atrash , al @-@ Shahbandar , and Shukri al @-@ Quwatli . Al @-@ Bakri 's relations with the latter two subsequently grew tense as he accused them of diverting funds for the revolt to their personal ventures .
He and Hashim al @-@ Atassi founded the National Bloc political party . It sought to use diplomatic means to end French rule . He was a part of the 1928 Constitutional Assembly , helping draft a constitution for the Syrian Republic . Al @-@ Atassi appointed him Vice President of the National Bloc in 1930 . Al @-@ Bakri successfully ran for parliament as a representative of Damascus on the National Bloc 's ticket in 1932 , after winning a run @-@ off vote by a large margin .
In January 1936 , Syrian nationalist sentiments became incensed as the French authorities suspended parliament and appointed the pro @-@ French president Taj al @-@ Din al @-@ Hasani . Following the arrest of some nationalist leaders , a general strike was declared against the French Mandate and President al @-@ Hasani . Speeches denouncing the arrests and colonialism were made at the Umayyad Mosque , after which demonstrators , including students and local youths , gathered at al @-@ Bakri 's home where they coordinated a march to the Serail ( French government headquarters ) . The protests were led by al @-@ Bakri , al @-@ Quwatli and Jamil Mardam Bey , but they were confronted by the security forces before leaving al @-@ Bakri 's street .
On 24 January , al @-@ Bakri led a sermon at the mosque calling for calm among the 3 @,@ 000 demonstrators in attendance . Nonetheless , some 300 left to attack French roadblocks and the police station at Souq al @-@ Hamidiyya , before withdrawing back into the mosque . One protester was killed and the following day , al @-@ Bakri led the funeral procession , which was attended by thousands of mourners . By mid @-@ February , unrest spread throughout Syria and the authorities clashed with Syrian protesters in several cities . The commander of the French Army of the Levant declared martial law and forbade public assemblies . Al @-@ Bakri was arrested and deported on 11 February .
He went on to win the election for his seat in 1936 , 1943 and 1947 . When al @-@ Atassi became president in 1936 , al @-@ Bakri became the chief leader of the National Bloc . The following year , he was appointed by al @-@ Atassi to serve as Governor of Jabal al @-@ Arab . In 1938 , he defected from the National Bloc to join the rival People 's Party led by his former colleague al @-@ Shahbandar . In the short @-@ lived 1939 cabinet of Prime Minister Lutfi al @-@ Haffar , Bakri was made justice minister , while in Prime Minister Khalid al @-@ Azm 's cabinet he served as national economy and agriculture minister .
= = Post @-@ independence career = =
After Syria became independent in 1946 , al @-@ Bakri joined the pro @-@ Western and Arab nationalist People 's Party . President al @-@ Atassi assigned him ambassador to Jordan , ruled by the Hashemites , after al @-@ Bakri refused the ambassadorial post to Saudi Arabia , a government that he opposed ideologically . Following Adib al @-@ Shishakli 's seizure of the presidency in 1953 , al @-@ Bakri resigned . After al @-@ Shishakli stepped down in 1954 , al @-@ Bakri became president of the People 's Party . He was unsuccessful in establishing a significant support base in Damascus and resigned from political life in April 1957 . He died in 1966 .
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= Chemetco =
Chemetco was formerly one of the largest United States refiners of copper from recycled or residual sources .
Its maximum output of 120 @,@ 000 tons per year was approximately half of the entire U.S. copper output from so @-@ called " secondary copper refining . " The company website described Chemetco as one of the world 's largest copper refiners and reported an estimated revenue in 1999 of $ 500 m . It was listed in 2000 as the 23rd @-@ largest privately held company in the United States .
The company had a history of environmental problems over its entire career , along with problems managing its wastes and by @-@ products . Eventually , it was convicted of water pollution offences spanning a decade , which contravened US federal law . The company 's former site is now a Superfund site on the National Priorities List .
= = History = =
The company originated on June 9 , 1969 as an Illinois corporation , Chemico Metals Corporation . On 23 March 1970 , it became a Delaware corporation . In 1973 , the company changed its name to Chemetco . By 1980 , it employed around 200 staff . By 2000 , Chemetco was a member of the St Louis Minority Business Council .
On November 13 , 2001 , the company filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy ( liquidation ) following conviction in a U.S. federal court and a fine of $ 3 @.@ 86 million . Chemetco and former CEO , Denis L. Feron were charged on four felony counts : Conspiracy to violate the Clean Water Act , violation of the Clean Water Act , and two counts of making false statements . The plant , which closed on Nov 1 , 2001 , was promptly sealed by the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) and tagged for an assessment of public health hazards .
= = Location = =
The Chemetco site is in a flood plain near the Mississippi River in Madison County , Illinois . The village of Hartford , Illinois ( population approximately 1 @,@ 545 ) is approximately 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the site . The nearest residential area is Mitchell , a small community approximately ½ mile to the southeast . The Lewis and Clark State Memorial Park is within sight of Chemetco 's former premises .
The Chemetco site is above an aquifer used for domestic , agricultural and industrial water consumers in several nearby communities , including Edwardsville , Hartford , Roxana and Wood River . Parts of the wider area enclosing the Chemetco site to the south are also known as Chouteau Island .
Main site operations were conducted within a 41 @-@ acre ( 17 ha ) area , but Chemetco also owned hundreds of acres of farm land . The ATSDR has described how " … Over the 30 years of plant operations , some of this was acquired to settle disputes with nearby farmers . "
The Mississippi River and two tributaries , the Cahokia Canal and Long Lake , are within 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of the site . Some local properties are served by wells . The wetlands area to the south of the site is popular with recreational fishermen .
= = Operation = =
= = = Production = = =
Under Denis L. Feron , Chemetco had been a major producer of high @-@ purity copper derived from secondary sources – recycled and residual materials .
These were received at the plant in large quantities from wholesalers , and in smaller quantities from the corporation 's own network of warehouses that spanned the United States and Canada . These enabled material to be graded and pre @-@ sorted locally before refining at the plant .
Copper anodes ( 98 % Cu purity ) emerged from the furnace as an intermediate product . For a number of years , these were electrolyzed by Chemetco to produce a higher @-@ purity copper cathode ( 99 @.@ 98 % Cu purity . ) However , the company later discontinued electrolysis of its own copper and sold copper anodes , each weighing 740 lb ( 340 kg ) to Asarco .
= = = Refining process = = =
Copper @-@ bearing material was smelted to produce black copper , containing impurities such as lead , tin and zinc . Black copper was refined using oxygen , producing 98 % copper , along with a zinc oxide residue and a slag containing lead , tin , nickel and a number of heavy metals .
What Chemetco described as " zinc oxide " was extracted from furnace flue gases using a scrubber system . The zinc oxide , along with the slag , became a waste product . The term " zinc oxide " was something of a misnomer , as lead , cadmium and other elements were also present .
The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ( ATSDR ) has noted how the generation and management of waste by @-@ products was a long @-@ term issue for Chemetco , but also that Chemetco seemed to be unwilling to recognize its wastes as a problem :
" Chemetco company literature and statements have often emphasized that the facility recycled most materials and that waste streams were not generated . But the end result of this recycling activity was piled feedstock residues , smelting and solid residues , and accumulated liquids . Much of the material was stored directly on the ground , with little attempt to provide barriers or work practices to limit exposures . "
= = Prosecution and conviction = =
On 18 September 1996 , an enforcement officer for the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency ( IEPA ) discovered a hidden pipe , discharging toxic waste from the refinery into Long Lake , a tributary of the Mississippi River .
Investigations showed that the secret pipe had been active for ten years . A large area of wetland was contaminated with zinc oxide , lead , cadmium and other pollutants at several times the threshold for a public health hazard . Visible evidence of contamination extended five feet down into the bed of Long Lake on property owned by Chemetco .
During Grand Jury testimony , one witness estimated that the plant discharged waste through the pipe for 330 days out of 365 . Thirteen employees testified to using the pipe to discharge contaminated water .
Additionally , Chemetco discharged contaminated storm water every time it rained on the plant . A pump was automatically triggered , discharging pollutant @-@ laden storm water through the secret pipe . The prosecution calculated that this automatic process had occurred 948 times over a ten @-@ year period . It was also calculated that even if only 0 @.@ 01 inches ( 0 @.@ 25 mm ) of rain fell , 1620 gallons of water would gather into a collection basin . From there , this large volume of contaminated water would be pumped into Long Lake .
Chemetco hampered the investigation of its illegal activity by making materially false statements . Before sentencing , the court described Chemetco 's conduct as " willful and egregious " .
On 12 December 2008 , Denis L. Feron , the former president of Chemetco , was placed on the federal EPA 's ' most wanted ' list . He had fled the USA before trial . Eventually , he paid a half @-@ million dollars in restitution and all charges were dropped against him .
= = Air @-@ borne dioxin production = =
A scientific study by the Centre for the Biology of Natural Systems ( CBNS ) Queens College of the City of New York , individually names Chemetco as one of the top ten individual contributors of dioxins deposition at eight Nunavut land receptors , from a total of 44 @,@ 000 potential sources in the United States . As the report puts it :
" … the effort detailed in this report is a response to the evidence that Nunavut is especially vulnerable to the long @-@ range air transport of dioxin . Although there are no significant sources of dioxin in Nunavut or within 500 kilometers of its boundaries , dioxin concentrations in Inuit mothers ’ milk are twice the levels observed in southern Quebec . This is due to the elevated dioxin content of the indigenous diet — traditional foods such as caribou , fish and marine mammals . "
The source of the air @-@ borne dioxin produced by Chemetco 's refining process was coated wire , including PVC @-@ covered wire , plastics and computer parts . These were routinely used as part of the mix of grades of scrap copper used to charge the furnaces . Citing Buekens et al . 1997 , an EPA report notes : " The presence of chlorinated plastics in copper scraps as a feed to smelters is believed to increase the CDD / CDF formation . " ( CDD 's are dioxins and CDFs are polychlorinated dibenzofurans ) .
The ATSDR describes how " Because Chemetco had accepted material from a firm known to have dioxin contamination , USEPA investigated dioxin . On April 12 , 1987 , USEPA sampled an area of the Chemetco plant which was used to manage zinc oxide collected from the venturi scrubber system . "
EPA testers found a dioxin concentration of 3 @.@ 4 parts per billion . As a result , their toxological assessment unit ‘ raised concerns about dioxins and furans in Long Lake sediments and the fish population . ’ However , the ATSDR reports that these initial fears proved unfounded :
" In the summer of 1999 , staff from the Illinois Department of Natural Resources and Illinois EPA collected fish samples from two sections of Long Lake . Buffalo and carp were collected closest to … the northern part of the lake where the illegal pipe discharged . Buffalo and crappie were collected from the southern section through Pontoon Beach . Fillet portions were analyzed for pesticides , polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ) , dioxins , and furans . No elevated levels of these chemicals were found . "
This finding , in conjunction with those of Commoner et al. shows that Chemetco 's dioxins were almost entirely released as smokestack emissions ( also called flue gas stack ) emissions .
= = Other known environmental problems = =
Chemetco had a long history of violations . For example , in August and September 1992 , while taking air emission readings , Chemetco was caught using semi @-@ articulated trucks and water sprinklers as a buffer in front of the air emission monitors . This was in contravention of the Clean Air Act , 42 .
For a period , Chemetco was the single biggest producer of atmospheric lead in the United States .
In 1999 , the United States made a civil claim against Chemetco under the Clean Air Act , 42 . : " … Chemetco will pay a civil penalty of $ 305 @,@ 267 … " Chemetco was also required to provide injunctive relief " … including installation of a Continuous Particulate Mass Monitor System .
Chemetco produced high @-@ purity cathodes using electrolysis . This electrolytic process used large amounts of sulfuric acid and according to the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ( ATSDR ) would at times " … reportedly release a visible " acid mist " drifting onto nearby farm fields . "
The ATSDR also notes how the electrolytic refining process also required the management of large amounts of acidic waste capable of dissolving heavy metals :
" … According to a 1983 Illinois EPA memo , the strong @-@ acid electrolytic bath was believed to have been releasing material . Through the years , during many of the sampling events liquids were measured with low pH values ( acidic ) or very high pH values ( caustic ) . The high pH levels may have resulted from the company using caustic materials to attempt to neutralize standing acidic surface water . Acidic conditions typically increase the solubility of metals , and allow more mobility of the metal contaminants " .
Other hazardous liquids used at the site included halogenated solvents that may have been used for cleaning machine parts .
= = Postscript = =
= = = Remediation = = =
Three and a half years after the discovery of the secret pipe , Chemetco had failed to present an approvable plan for remediating the contaminated area .
When Chemetco shut down , the site was sealed and remediation began . However , the process was to prove protracted and several years later , it had not been possible to fully complete the process .
When interviewed in early 2005 , the Illinois EPA inspector who discovered the secret pipe in 1996 was pessimistic about the chances of rapid remediation of the site . He suggested that the clear @-@ up could take twenty years or so .
In 2006 , it was reported that a Canadian firm wanted to tackle the challenge of safely extracting metallic content from the wastes on site . Under a proposed plan needing feasibility study approval , the contractor outlined a deal under which it could extract valuable metals such as copper , zinc , tin , lead and aluminium from the site . One report describes how the bidder for this work would " … design , provide and install equipment at the site for about $ 10 million and provide another $ 3 million for other cleanup while Chemetco [ Estate ] would operate the plant and pay royalties and lease payments … "
The IEPA spoke approvingly of this proposed scheme under which non @-@ recyclables would remain on site . If given a green light to go ahead , the work was estimated to take around ten years to complete .
= = = Superfund Site = = =
On March 4 , 2010 , the Chemetco site was added to the Superfund National Priorities List because of the lead , cadmium and zinc contamination at the site and of nearby wetlands and Long Lake . The lack of available resources at the bankrupt Chemetco or at the State of Illinois necessitated proposal of this site to the National Priorities List ( NPL ) . This will enable the use of Federal funds to build a CERCLA enforcement case and ensure clean up the site . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency will oversee the clean up of the site and affected areas . After the site was listed on the NPL , U.S. EPA , with the support of Illinois EPA , began the search for potentially responsible parties ( PRPs ) who may be liable for the clean up . In November 2011 , U.S. EPA issued a General Notice of potential liability to a group of PRPs , and is currently working with a subgroup of them . U.S. EPA plans to negotiate a settlement with PRPs for performance of the Remedial Investigation and Feasibility Study ( RI / FS ) for the site , which will define the nature and extent of contamination associated with the site and present options for the long @-@ term remediation of affected areas . Upon completion of the RI / FS Report , U.S. EPA will select a remedy for the site , with input from the community and stakeholders .
= = = Copper industry = = =
A trade magazine covering metals industry news has noted that " The closing of the Chemetco Inc. secondary smelter in Hartford , Ill . , in 2001 marked the end of large @-@ scale secondary copper smelting in the United States . "
Brian Taylor , writing for Recycling Today in 2007 , goes on to observe how
" .. in its 2006 report on National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants ( NESHAP ) to the Federal Register , the U.S. EPA notes , ' The secondary copper smelting plants that served as the basis for emissions estimates have all shut down , and no similar secondary copper smelters have been constructed . ' "
Taylor notes that Chemetco was one of five smelters used by the EPA to establish its standards . The others were : Cerro Copper Products in Sauget , Ill . ; Franklin Smelting in Philadelphia ; Gaston Recycling Industries in Gaston , S.C. ; and the Southwire Co. plant in Carrollton , Ca .
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= Sultan Ali of Johor =
Sultan Ali Iskandar Shah ibni Hussein Muazzam Shah was the 19th Sultan of Johor , who succeeded his father , Sultan Hussein after the latter died of natural cause in 1835 . Over the next twenty years , Sultan Ali 's claims to the office of Sultan of Johor were only recognised by some merchants and a few Malays . Like his father , Sultan Ali 's was much of a puppet monarch and played a minimal role in the administrative affairs of the state , which came under the charge of the Temenggong and the British . In 1855 , Sultan Ali ceded the sovereignty rights of Johor ( except Kesang in Muar ) to Temenggong Daing Ibrahim , in exchange for a formal recognition as the " Sultan of Johor " by the British and a monthly allowance . Following the secession of Johor , Sultan Ali was granted administrative charge over Muar until his death in 1877 , and in most administrative matters , was often styled as the " Sultan of Muar " .
= = Sultan of Johor = =
= = = Early years = = =
Tengku Ali succeeded his father in 1835 as the Sultan of Johor , but was not recognised as the Sultan of Johor for the first few years of his reign . A proclamation by the British colonial government in September 1840 granted him the right as the legitimate heir as his father 's successor , but not amounting to a recognition as the " Sultan of Johor " .
In the 1840s , Johor began to receive the first Chinese settlers ( mainly immigrants from Swatow and Chaozhou ) , the young Temenggong , Tun Daeng Ibrahim took up the administrative tasks of the state . He imposed taxes upon these settlers , which went to the Temenggong 's charge . However , unlike the Temenggong , Sultan Ali was unwilling to involve himself with the affairs of the state but at the same time complained of receiving insufficient allowance from the British . He was well known for his penchant for an extravagant lifestyle , and was chalking up considerable debts by the 1850s .
Meanwhile , loyalty among the local Malays in Johor to the ruling classes became increasingly divided between the royalty and the nobility . In 1852 , Thomas Church , the Resident Councillor of Singapore , sums up the situation of the Malays along the East Coast of the Malay Peninsula :
In this neighbourhood , there are two parties , on one side , the Sultan of Lingga , the Sultan of Trengganu , and the young princes of Johore ; on the other , the Raja Bendahara of Pahang , and the Temenggong Sri Maharaja .
Nevertheless , there was no major hostility as a result of the division of loyalty between the royalty and the nobility . In the same year , an English merchant , W.H. Read , controlled Sultan Ali 's royal seal in exchange for a promise to liquidate his debts . Read had been an active supporter of Sultan Ali 's claims for recognition as the legitimate ruler of Johor and the states ' revenue , with the Temenggong as his vassal . As a result of economic and political pressure from these traders , the Governor did consider granting a formal recognition to Sultan Ali as the legitimate ruler of Johor , but in the process , he received a strong protest from the Temenggong and his young son , Abu Bakar .
By the early 1850s , Johor was effectively under the control of the Temenggong ; followers who attempted to act in Sultan Ali 's interests were quickly expelled by force by the Temenggong 's followers .
= = = Secession of Johor = = =
A series of negotiations between Sultan Ali and the Temenggong ensued with the British colonial government acting as the intermediary , after Sultan Ali had questioned the Temenggong 's rights of keeping the state revenue to himself . Initially , the Temenggong proposed to split the trade revenue of Johor on condition that Sultan Ali surrendered his claims of sovereignty over Johor . The term was declined by Sultan Ali . Both parties agreed to seek the direct intervention of the British government , among which , the British Governor of the Straits Settlement , Colonel William Butterworth , and his successor , Edmund Blundell were roped in to act as meditators .
The British favoured the prospect of the Temenggong in taking over the administration of Johor from the Sultan . Sultan Ali 's claims to sovereignty were quickly refuted by the British and the Temenggong , who was quick to point out that the Sultan 's late father , Sultan Hussein had never pursued active claims to his sovereignty rights over Johor in spite of his recognition by the British in the 1824 Anglo @-@ Dutch Treaty . At that time , Johor came under the effective charge of the Temenggong 's late father , Abdul Rahman , as with Pahang , which was under the control of the Bendahara . Further documents revealed that if Johor were to be under the control of a monarch , de jure sovereignty would have been laid under the charge of the Sultan of Lingga , Sultan Mahmud Muzaffar Shah and not with Sultan Ali .
The Temenggong and Sultan Ali submitted their proposals to the British Governor in April 1854 . The Temenggong agreed to the Sultan 's request of his titular recognition as the Sultan of Johor , but was adamant of maintaining absolute charge over the whole of Johor . On the other hand , Sultan Ali had expressed his wish to the governor that the Kesang territory ( around Muar ) should be directly governed by him , citing reasons that some of his ancestors were buried there . The British persuaded the Temenggong to concede to Sultan Ali 's request and accepted after much consideration .
A treaty was concluded on 10 March 1855 , in which Sultan Ali formally ceded his sovereignty rights of Johor to the Temenggong permanently with the exception of the Kesang territory ( around Muar ) . In exchange , Sultan Ali was guaranteed the recognition the title of " Sultan " by the Temenggong and the British government and received a lump sum of $ 5000 as compensation . Sultan Ali was also promised a further incentive of a monthly allowance of $ 500 from the Temenggong , under the pressure of Governor Edmund Blundell ( the British Governor of Singapore ) , who hoped to put an end to Sultan Ali 's financial complaints and problems .
= = Sultan of Muar = =
= = = Administration in Muar = = =
Sultan Ali delegated the administrative affairs of Muar to the Raja Temenggung of Muar ( also known by the title of Temenggong Paduka Tuan of Muar ) and spent most of his time in Malacca . Muar was sparsely populated in 1855 and had a population of 800 and no formal structure of government was formed . In 1860 , Sultan Ali reportedly borrowed $ 53 @,@ 600 from a Chettiar money lender , Kavana Chana Shellapah . Sultan Ali signed an agreement with Shellapah to contribute a portion of his monthly allowance to repay his debt . However , Sultan Ali found himself unable to settle his debts in time , and an angry Shellapah wrote to the British government in 1866 . Pressured to liquidate his debts in time , Sultan Ali granted Shellapah the right to trade off Muar to the Temenggong of Johor as mortgage if he is unable to pay off his debts in time .
His relations with Temenggong Daing Ibrahim remained strained ; in 1860 , Sultan Ali allowed a Bugis adventurer , Suliwatang , the chiefs of Rembau and Sungei Ujong to settle in Muar and prepare themselves for an attack on Johor . Such bad blood between the Sultan and Temenggong Daing Ibrahim passed down to the Temenggong 's son , Abu Bakar , who succeeded his father after the former died in 1862 . Shortly after Abu Bakar became the Temenggong of Johor , he sent a letter to Sultan Ali to reassert of Johor 's sovereignty over Segamat . Continued disputes over the sovereignty of Segamat led to an outbreak of a war between the Temenggong 's men with the Sultan 's . Eleven years later in 1873 , attempts made by Suliwatang to collect custom taxes from inhabitants at the Muar estuary led to further conflict with Abu Bakar 's ( who became Maharaja in 1868 ) men .
During the remaining years of Sultan Ali 's reign , there was no visible economic activity in Muar . Nevertheless , he delegated the duty of collecting Muar 's revenues to Suliwatang and his agents , all of whom were later poisoned and killed by the Temenggong Paduka Tuan of Muar . In 1868 , Sultan Ali appointed Babu Ramasamy , a Tamil schoolmaster the duty collect the Muar revenues . A European miner approached Sultan Ali in 1872 , in which he was granted exclusive mining rights over the entire Kesang territory for five years . Three years later , an American trader approached the Sultan , in which he gave the American the concessionary grant of purchasing 45 square miles ( 120 km2 ) of land within the Kesang territory .
= = = Death and succession dispute = = =
Sultan Ali spent his last years in Umbai , Malacca , and supported himself with a small monthly stipend which the British East India Company had granted him . He built a palace for himself and lived with his third wife , Cik ' Sembuk until his death in June 1877 , and was buried in a Mausoleum within the confines of the Umbai mosque . Shortly before his death , Sultan Ali willed the Kesang territory to Tengku Mahmood , his 11 @-@ year @-@ old son with Cik ' Sembuk . His decision was met with considerable disproval among the some Malays in Singapore , who felt that Tengku Alam should be the heir to the Kesang territory as he was the oldest son with Daing Siti , who was the daughter of a Bugis nobleman , while Cik ' Sembuk was a commoner . At the time of Sultan Ali 's death , custody of the Kesang territory lay in the hands of Ungku Jalil , Sultan Ali 's elder brother . Ungku Jalil handed over the custodianship of the Kesang territory to Maharaja Abu Bakar , after the British government held an election for the Temenggong Paduka Tuan of Muar and the territory 's chieftains to decide on the destiny of the Kesang territory , and voted unanimously for Maharaja Abu Bakar as their leader . The British Governor handed over administrative charge of the Kesang territory over to the Maharaja , which upset Tengku Alam and many of his supporters . Their continued claims to the Kesang territory led to the instigation of the Jementah Civil War in 1879 .
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= John Fenn ( chemist ) =
John Bennett Fenn ( June 15 , 1917 – December 10 , 2010 ) was an American research professor of analytical chemistry who was awarded a share of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2002 . Fenn shared half of the award with Koichi Tanaka for their work in mass spectrometry . The other half of the 2002 award went to Kurt Wüthrich . Fenn 's contributions specifically related to the development of electrospray ionization , now a commonly used technique for large molecules and routine liquid chromatography @-@ tandem mass spectrometry . Early in his career , Fenn did research in the field of jet propulsion at Project SQUID , and focused on molecular beam studies . Fenn finished his career with more than 100 publications , including one book .
Fenn was born in New York City , and moved to Kentucky with his family during the Great Depression . Fenn did his undergraduate work at Berea College , and received his Ph.D. from Yale . He worked in industry at Monsanto and at private research labs before moving to academic posts including Yale and Virginia Commonwealth University .
Fenn 's research into electrospray ionization found him at the center of a legal dispute with Yale University . He lost the lawsuit , after it was determined that he misled the university about the potential usefulness of the technology . Yale was awarded $ 500 @,@ 000 in legal fees and $ 545 @,@ 000 in damages . The decision pleased the university , but provoked mixed responses from some people affiliated with the institution , who were disappointed with the treatment of a Nobel Prize winner with such a long history at the school .
= = Early life and education = =
Fenn was born in New York City , and grew up in Hackensack , New Jersey . In the years preceding the Great Depression , Fenn 's father worked several different jobs , including briefly working as a draftsman at the Fokker Aircraft Company . During this time , Charles Lindbergh 's plane The Spirit of St. Louis was briefly stored at one of the company 's hangars . Fenn recalls sitting in the cockpit as a ten @-@ year @-@ old , pretending to pilot the famous plane . When his family 's fortunes took a turn for the worse with the advent of the Depression , they moved to Berea , Kentucky . Fenn completed his education at Berea College and Allied Schools , formally finishing his high school education at the age of 15 , but he took extra classes for another year rather than start college at such a young age . He earned his bachelor 's degree from Berea College in his new hometown , with the assistance of summer classes in organic chemistry at the University of Iowa , and physical chemistry at Purdue .
When Fenn was considering graduate school , he was advised to take additional mathematics courses by Henry Bent , then a chemistry professor at Harvard University . His undergraduate program in chemistry had required minimal math courses , and he had been excused from these due to high marks in his high school courses . Due to Bent 's advice , Fenn added math classes to his schedule . Despite his future success , Fenn always felt that his lack of mathematical skills were a hindrance in his career . After submitting several applications , Fenn received offers for teaching assistantships from Yale and Northwestern , and accepted the position at Yale . Fenn did his graduate studies in physical chemistry under Gosta Akerlof . He obtained his Ph.D. in chemistry from Yale in 1940 and his thesis was 45 pages long , with only three pages of prose .
= = Research career and academic posts = =
After completing graduate school , Fenn 's first job was with Monsanto , working in the Phosphate Division and producing polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ) . Fenn and his colleague James Mullen became disenchanted with the direction of work at Monsanto , and they resigned together in 1943 . Fenn worked briefly at a small company named Sharples Chemicals that focused on the production of amyl chloride derivatives . In 1945 , he joined Mullen at his new startup , Experiment , Inc , focusing on research and development . Fenn 's first publication came in 1949 as a result of his work with Mullen . That this publication came ten years after he completed graduate school made Fenn somewhat of a rarity amongst academics .
In 1952 , Fenn moved to Princeton University as Director of Project SQUID , a program to support research related to jet propulsion that was funded by the Office of Naval Research . During this period , Fenn started his work developing supersonic atomic and molecular beam sources , which are now widely used in chemical physics research . After working with Project SQUID , Fenn returned to Yale University in 1967 . He held a joint appointment in the chemistry and engineering departments until 1987 , conducting much of his research in Mason Laboratory . In 1987 , Fenn had reached Yale 's mandatory retirement age . He became a professor emeritus , entitling him to office space at the university , but costing him most of his laboratory space and research assistants .
After a dispute with Yale over his forced retirement and the rights to his invention of electrospray ionization , Fenn moved to Richmond , Virginia to join Virginia Commonwealth University 's ( VCU ) Department of Chemistry as an analytical chemistry professor . VCU established an engineering department in the late 1990s , and Fenn held a joint professorship between the two departments until his death . Even in his 80s , Fenn enjoyed the opportunity to be in the lab doing research , saying , " I like to mingle and exchange with the young people . It gets me out from underfoot at home . "
= = Research interests = =
While Fenn was working with Monsanto , the company 's research was focused on the production of phosphoric acid and polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ) . Fenn and his colleagues at Monsanto were largely unaware of the health hazards posed by PCBs , indeed because of their inertness , they " practically bathed in the stuff " . After spending several more years doing various industrial research , Fenn was looking to get back into the academic world . He had the opportunity to go to Princeton University , where he became the director of Project SQUID .
Fenn did not start his Nobel @-@ winning research until later in his career . He was semi @-@ retired when he first published his research on electrospray ionization for mass spectrometry . Fenn felt that his work in electrospray ionization received " a kick in the pants " when proteomics emerged . In 2001 , more than 1700 papers on proteomics were published , many using electrospray ionization . Electrospray ionization provides a way to get accurate information about the mass of a large molecule very quickly , even when it is in a mixture of other molecules . The liquid sample is introduced into an electrospray source ( at atmospheric pressure ) and desolvated with a flow of heated nitrogen gas . This forms small droplets which evaporate in a region under vacuum , which increases the charge on the droplets . For large molecules like proteins , this often results in multiply charge species . Increasing the charge on the molecules , decreased the mass to charge ratio , which allows the mass to be more easily determined .
Despite getting a late start in publishing his research ( he did not publish a paper until 10 years after finishing graduate school ) , Fenn had over 100 publications at the time of his death . He also wrote a book , entitled Engines , Energy , and Entropy : A Thermodynamics Primer . The Chemical Heritage Foundation Museum in Philadelphia , PA has the instrument Fenn and his graduate students built while they were developing electrospray ionization on display , after receiving it as a gift from Fenn .
= = = Lawsuit = = =
Fenn 's work with electrospray ionization was at the center of a lawsuit pitting him against his alma mater and former employer , Yale University . His initial dispute with the university began in 1987 , when he turned 70 - Yale 's mandatory retirement age . Per university policy , Fenn was made an emeritus professor , which resulted in a reduction to his lab space . Emeritus professors at Yale are still provided with an office , but cannot conduct their own research , nor manage their own labs . In 1989 , when Yale University inquired about the progress and potential about his electrospray work , he downplayed its potential scientific and commercial value . Fenn believed he had the rights to the invention under the Bayh @-@ Dole Act . Fenn patented the technology on his own , and sold licensing rights to a company he partly owned - Analytica . In 1993 , a private company seeking to license the use of electrospray technology traced its invention to Yale , when the university discovered that Fenn held the patent . Yale 's policy regarding patents generated by faculty or students requires that a percentage of any royalties generated from the patent are used by the university to fund future research . They do not claim the rights to patents that are produced away from university facilities or not related to the researcher 's " designated activities . " Fenn claimed that he owned the technology because the work was completed after he had been forced to downsize at the university 's mandatory retirement age .
Yale University entered into its own licensing agreement with a private company , leading Fenn to file a lawsuit against the school in 1996 . Yale countersued , requesting damages and reassignment of the patent . The two parties did not reach an out of court settlement , despite repeated attempts at mediation . In 2005 , U.S. District Judge Christopher Droney ruled against Fenn , awarding Yale $ 545 @,@ 000 in royalties and $ 500 @,@ 000 in legal fees . Judge Droney was critical of Fenn , saying " Dr. Fenn only obtained the patent through fraud , civil theft , and breach of fiduciary duty . " Evidence presented in the case indicated that Fenn had served on panels at Yale University that reviewed the institution 's policy on intellectual property .
A spokesperson for Yale said , " We are pleased by the result in this case and , in particular , by the court 's vindication of the Yale patent policy . " The ruling , and Yale 's response produced a mixed reaction from some of Fenn 's colleagues and former students , who wrote a letter to the Yale Daily News stating , " " Vindicating the Yale patent policy " is a poor excuse for treating a Nobel Laureate with a 68 @-@ year association with and dedicated service to the University , in such a contemptible manner . "
= = Awards and honors = =
= = = Nobel Prize = = =
Fenn shared the 2002 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Koichi Tanaka and Kurt Wüthrich " for the development of methods for identification and structure analyses of biological macromolecules . " Fenn and Tanaka split half of the award for their work in developing ionization techniques for using mass spectrometry to analyze large biological molecules . Wüthrich was honored for his work in developing nuclear magnetic resonance techniques to analyze similar molecules in solution . Fenn was honoured largely for his contributions to the development of electrospray ionization , which made the analysis of large molecules by mass spectrometry feasible . Fenn 's Nobel lecture after being presented with the award was entitled " Electrospray Wings for Molecular Elephants . ' He was surprised by his selection as a Nobel winner , saying " It 's like winning the lottery , I 'm still in shock . " At the time of his award , Fenn was working at Virginia Commonwealth University .
= = = Other awards = = =
Fenn received his Nobel Prize fairly late in his career . Prior to being honored by the Nobel Foundation , Fenn had received numerous other awards . Early in his career , Fenn 's research was focused on molecular beams , leading him to be named an honorary president of the Sixth International Symposium on Molecular Beams in 1977 , and the first fellow of the International Molecular Beam Symposium in 1985 . In 1982 , the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation presented him with their U.S. Senior Scientist Award .
Fenn 's work in mass spectrometry earned him another spate of awards later in his career . In 1992 , the American Society for Mass Spectrometry presented him with their Award for Distinguished Contributions in Mass Spectrometry . The International Society of Mass Spectrometry honored him with the Thomson Medal in 2000 , and in the same year the American Chemical Society presented him with the Award for Advancements in Chemical Instrumentation . He was awarded the Association of Biomolecular Resource Facilities Award for outstanding contributions to Biomolecular Technologies in 2002 . In 2003 , Fenn was honored by his alma mater with the Wilbur Cross Medal , the Yale Graduate School Alumni Association 's highest honor .
Fenn maintained numerous professional affiliations , including membership in the American Chemical Society , the American Society for Mass Spectrometry , Sigma Chi , the American Association of University Professors and the Alexander von Humboldt Association of America . In 2000 , Fenn was made a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and in 2003 he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences .
= = Personal life = =
Fenn married Margaret Wilson at the end of his second year of graduate studies . Together , they had three children - two daughters and a son . Margaret was killed in a car accident in New Zealand in 1992 . Fenn remarried , his second wife was named Frederica . He died in Richmond , Virginia on December 10 , 2010 , at the age of 93 , exactly 8 years to the day after receiving his Nobel Prize . Fenn was survived by Frederica , his three children , seven grandchildren , and seven great @-@ grandchildren .
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= The Mikado ( Millennium ) =
" ' The Mikado " is the thirteenth episode of the second season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on February 6 , 1998 . The episode was written by Michael R. Perry and directed Roderick J. Pridy . " The Mikado " featured a guest appearance by Allan Zinyk as Brian Roedecker .
After a group of boys witness a murder via a live webcam feed , Millennium Group profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) realizes that the culprit is an old adversary who has learned to exploit the internet to continue his killing spree while avoiding capture .
Perry was inspired to write the episode after considering the " dark side " of the internet , drawing influence from Jennifer Ringley 's JenniCam website . Avatar , the episode 's antagonist , was based on real @-@ life murderer the Zodiac Killer . " The Mikado " was seen by over five million households in its initial broadcast , and has received positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
A group of friends browse the internet for pornography , finding a live stream of a woman bound to a chair . Behind her a number is painted on the wall ; when the feed 's web counter reaches the painted number , a masked man appears and cuts the girl 's throat . The boys quickly print an image of the feed as proof of what they have seen , just before the website disappears .
Millennium Group member Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) finds that police across the United States have received calls from witnesses to the killing . The police believe it to be a hoax but Black is convinced of its authenticity . He and fellow Group members Brian Roedecker ( Allan Zinyk ) and Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) identify the victim as Rebecca Damsen . Damsen 's email correspondence leads them to a San Jose address ; Watts finds the bodies of both the owner and Damsen in a nearby graveyard . By the bodies is another number , which they determine to be an IP address .
The IP address leads to another live feed similar in nature to the first one . However , the chair is empty this time . There is another number painted on the wall , which Black recognizes as a case file number from his time in the FBI — the case concerned Avatar , a serial killer who was able to evade all attempts at capture . Avatar sends Black a coded message twice , and places a woman in the chair on the feed , keeping her face hidden . Roedecker realizes that , through image differencing , the two messages contain additional information — a sound clip from The Mikado , known to be Avatar 's favourite operetta .
Black determines that another set of numbers visible on the feed are latitude and longitude co @-@ ordinates for San Francisco . The San Francisco Police Department are uncooperative , however . After Black , Roedecker and Watts attempt to keep the feed counter from rising by recreating the live feed and substituting it , the second girl is murdered before the feed 's counter reaches the allotted number . Avatar leaves another clue after the killing , which leads to two further video feeds — one shows a third set like the others , again with an empty chair , while the other shows the exterior of a mobile home . Police are able to locate the mobile home , but an officer is killed by a shotgun rigged to the front door , before the trailer is obliterated by a series of explosions . Black travels to San Francisco , finding an abandoned theater whose marquee is displaying The Mikado . He is shot at by a masked gunman and give chase ; however , he soon sees that the attacker is another kidnap victim , a gun tied to her arm in an attempt to trick Black into shooting her . Watts tells Black that they found a charred body in the remains of the trailer , but Black tells him it is just another victim , and Avatar will most likely fall silent again - for a while .
= = Production = =
" The Mikado " is the first episode of Millennium to have been written by Michael R. Perry , who would go on to pen a further four episodes in the third season . The episode is the final one helmed by director Roderick J. Pridy , who had also taken the reins on " Covenant " in the first season .
Perry was inspired to write the episode upon wondering whether the internet , about which he had only heard positive remarks , had a " dark side " . He was shown Jennifer Ringley 's JenniCam website , which provided a constant webcam view of her daily life , and wondered what sort of investigations would arise if a murder were witnessed on a similar broadcast . The other main inspiration for the episode was the real @-@ life Zodiac Killer , who formed the basis for the fictional Avatar . Perry 's script was later given a " polish " by executive producer James Wong , with Perry stating that roughly ninety percent of the material is his own work . Several women in the episode , including possible murder victims investigated by Black and Roedecker , are named after Perry 's sisters .
After principal photography had finished for the episode , additional inserts were shot to add more variety to scenes featuring a lot of dialogue ; Perry noted that this was something he had learned about from Wong and felt the technique was put to " great use " . Filming several of the episode 's scenes , including the webcam feeds and footage Black watches of police officers investigating suspects was filmed in a deliberately low @-@ resolution manner , on handheld cameras , as Perry felt footage that was too clean and high @-@ quality would lessen the episode 's tension , citing The Blair Witch Project as an example of how this approach has later been put to use . " The Mikado " featured Allan Zinyk 's last appearance as Group member Brian Roedecker . Wong and fellow executive producer Glen Morgan wanted to sign Zinyk on for further appearances , but actor declined in order to pursue a career in the theatre in Toronto .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Mikado " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on February 6 , 1998 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5 @.@ 4 during its original broadcast , meaning that 5 @.@ 4 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 5 @.@ 29 million households , and left the episode the seventy @-@ eighth most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
The episode received positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a A − , calling it " one of the strongest episodes of the season " . VanDerWerff felt that the episode accurately depicted the general unease about the growing role of the internet in the late 1990s ; he also reflected that it follows the " serial killer of the week " formula of the series ' first season while retaining the second season 's " more mystical , supernatural bent " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 4 out of 5 , calling it " very compelling " . Gibron compared the episode to the films Seven and 8mm ; he also felt that the unresolved plot helped to temper concerns about Black 's seeming infallibility . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " The Mikado " three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . Shearman felt that although the episode 's details seem dated , its verisimilitude and enthusiasm helps to overcome this ; he noted that the episode " turns us all into spectators , and turns death into performance art " .
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= Roger Mowry Tavern =
The Roger Mowry Tavern , also known variously as the Roger Mowry House , Olney House and Abbott House , was a historic stone ender house , built around 1653 , in Providence , Rhode Island . Roger Mowry was a constable and operated the only tavern in the town . The tavern also served as a government meeting place , church , and jail . It was originally constructed as a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half story single room house with a chamber upstairs . By 1711 the house was expanded with a two @-@ story lean @-@ to by 1711 . At unknown later date , the top of the roof of the original house was raised up further . The original portion of the house was restored by Norman Isham by 1895 . The Roger Mowry Tavern was the oldest house in Providence until it was demolished in 1900 .
= = Roger Mowry = =
The first American records of Roger Mowry appear in Boston , Massachusetts . On May 18 , 1631 , a document stated Mowry 's desire to be a freeman . Mowry would move to Plymouth , Massachusetts and later Salem , Massachusetts before arriving in Providence , Rhode Island . Mowry lived in Salem between 1636 and 1649 , with his wife Mary , the eldest daughter of John Johnson of Roxbury . In 1637 , Mowry acquired 50 acres ( 0 @.@ 20 km2 ) of land some two miles from the Salem settlement and built his house on the lot which was to be the corner of Essex and Flint Street . About 1653 , Mowry constructed a house which would come to be known as the Roger Mowry Tavern . In 1655 , Mowry became a freeman in Providence and resided there until his death on January 5 , 1666 . Records show that Roger Mowry was the tavernkeeper and constable . A family monument lists Mowry as having twelve children , with one child , Benjamin , reportedly having been found and baptized by Mowry .
= = Design = =
The original architect of the Roger Mowry Tavern is not known for certain . Robert A. Geake 's book Historic Taverns of Rhode Island suggests it may have been the work of William Carpenter and the mason John Smith . The original house began as a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half story stone ender with a single 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) by roughly 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) fire room . Running lengthwise across the middle of the room is a large summer beam . On the right side of the fireplace was the stairs or ladder that lead to the upstairs chamber . At an unknown date , the roof of the original house was extended higher , as evidenced by the original beams ending about 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) above the floor . By 1711 , the house had a two @-@ story lean @-@ to . By the late 19th century the house had been greatly altered , but the original structure was restored by Robert Isham . Isham found and restored the house , which still featured the original posts and beams . The large fireplace remained intact , but was concealed behind a fireboard and closet , that was itself behind a stove . The result was that stone fireplace was completely concealed prior to restoration . Less than a decade later after Isham restored the original part of the house , the whole structure was demolished .
= = History = =
Roger Mowry was licensed to operate a " house of entertainment " in May 1655 . The tavern may have been a contributing reason for the passage of a law that mandated no alcoholic drinks be served after 9 p.m. under penalty of a fine , unless a satisfactory reason was given to the constable or magistrate .
Roger Mowry 's Tavern was reportedly the site of civil rally to free a man taken prisoner by a Massachusetts constable . The constable , whose intention was to extradite his prisoner back to Massachusetts for prosecution was staying at the nearby Roger Pray 's tavern when concerned citizens gathered at Mowry 's tavern . The citizens summoned the town council , and a messenger was sent to the Massachusetts constable to demand by what authority he held his prisoner . The end result was the release of the prisoner . Another story surrounding the tavern was the murder of John Clawson , a Dutch carpenter , who was found dying one December morning in 1661 . A native Indian , Waumanitt , was charged with the crime and held at Mowry 's tavern until the matter could be resolved , but it is unknown what fate befell Waumanitt . According to locals , Clawson was roused and accused his neighbor , Hearndon , for his murder . Clawson then cursed the family before dying . The house was also reported to have been used by the Town Council for meetings , with a record of payment in 1657 from the Town Treasurer .
Upon Mowry 's death , his wife retained the house until selling it to Stephen Paine on September 5 , 1671 . Paine conveyed it to Samuel Whipple who resided in the house until his death in 1711 . Upon his death the house was recorded as having a two @-@ story lean @-@ to . Whipple transferred the property to his wife and upon her death , which passed to their daughters Abigail and Hope Whipple . Hope Whipple would marry Robert Currie and upon her death , Robert Currie would marry her sister Abigail Whipple , and upon her death fell to Robert Currie 's ownership . In 1737 , Currie sold the house to William Smith , Job Whipple and John Whipple . It remained in the Whipple family until 1761 when it was sold to Captain Joseph Owen . The house would take its final name , the Abbott House , from Thomas Abbott who married Joseph Owen 's daughter and resided in the house until his death in 1826 . The Mowry Tavern was allegedly one of only five buildings not burned by the Indians during King Philip 's War . It is believed that it was spared because Roger Williams , a friend of the Indians , held Christian worship services in the building . The house was located on Abbott Street adjacent to the North Burial Ground . The entire structure was demolished in 1900 to construct a triple decker tenement house . At the time of its demolition , it was the oldest house in Providence .
= = Gallery = =
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= Haven ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =
" Haven " is the 11th episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , originally aired on November 30 , 1987 , in broadcast syndication in the United States . Directed by Richard Compton , the story was originally created by Lan O 'Kun , and developed into the final script by Tracy Tormé .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise @-@ D. In this episode , Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) deals with the commitment of an arranged marriage after the arrival of the wedding party , including her mother Lwaxana ( Majel Barrett ) . Meanwhile , the Enterprise must deal with a plague ship approaching a paradisical planet .
The episode marked the first appearance of several guest actors in The Next Generation , including Barrett , Carel Struycken and Armin Shimerman . Tormé disliked the final version of the episode , and the critical response to the episode was mixed , with the performance of Barrett both praised and criticised .
= = Plot = =
The Federation starship Enterprise arrives at the planet Haven , where the ship 's Betazoid Counselor Deanna Troi has been summoned by her mother Lwaxana . Troi had previously been set into a pre @-@ arranged marriage to the young human doctor , Wyatt Miller ( Robert Knepper ) , and his parents have since tracked down Lwaxana to enforce the marriage . After Lwaxana and the Millers are welcomed aboard the Enterprise , the parents argue over whose racial traditions will be honored at the ceremony . Troi and Wyatt attempt to get to know each other but find it difficult , as Troi is still in love with Commander William Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) . Wyatt has had numerous dreams of another woman with whom he has fallen in love , and had initially believed her to be Troi communicating telepathically with him .
The Enterprise then learns of an unmarked vessel approaching Haven . Captain Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) recognizes it as Tarellian , a race that they had thought to be wiped out by a highly lethal and contagious virus . When they contact the ship , they find a handful of Tarellian refugees that have been travelling at sub @-@ light speeds to Haven in hopes of finding an isolated location to live out the rest of their lives in peace . Picard insists they cannot go to the planet for fear of spreading the virus , and has the Tarellian vessel placed in a tractor beam . Wyatt recognizes one of the Tarellians , Ariana ( Danitza Kingsley ) , from his dreams , and she too recognizes Wyatt . Wyatt tells Dr. Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) that he will transport some medical supplies to them , but transports himself along with the supplies . When the crew discovers this , Wyatt 's parents demand Picard bring Wyatt back to the Enterprise , but Picard insists that he cannot return , as Wyatt would now carry the Tarellian virus . Wyatt promises his parents , Troi , and the rest of the crew that he knew that this would be destiny , and is happy to try to help cure the Tarellian virus . Wyatt convinces the Tarellians to leave Haven and search for help elsewhere . Picard orders the tractor beam to be dropped and allows the vessel to depart the system .
= = Production = =
The episode 's plot originated from one which Lan O 'Kun submitted entitled " Love Beyond Time and Space " , although at one point , the episode was called " Eye of the Beholder " . O 'Kun 's script was on the verge of being cut from the show when it was handed to Tracy Tormé for re @-@ writes . Tormé later described it as a " no @-@ lose " situation as he felt that O 'Kun 's script was so bad anything would be an improvement . Tormé changed the script from O 'Kun 's serious outline to something more comedic , although he felt that a lot of the comedy elements were later removed before filming . He didn 't like the overall result , saying " I didn 't particularly like the episode when it first aired . It 's still one of my least favourite shows that I 've been involved with " . Because of the work on the episode , Tormé was recruited as executive story editor .
The episode was directed by Richard Compton , who had previously appeared as Lieutenant Washburn in The Original Series episode " The Doomsday Machine " . " Haven " began filming twenty years to the day after Compton filmed his scenes in " The Doomsday Machine " . Dennis McCarthy composed the music for " Haven " , which was so strongly disliked by executive producer Rick Berman that McCarthy thought he might be fired . " Haven " was the fifth episode to be filmed , but was broadcast as the eleventh episode .
" Haven " marked the first appearance of Majel Barrett as Lwaxana Troi . She had previously appeared as Number One in the first Star Trek pilot , " The Cage " , and as Christine Chapel in Star Trek : The Original Series and movies . She would go on to re @-@ appear as Lwaxana on average once per season for the rest of the run of The Next Generation . Dutch actor Carel Struycken also made his first appearance as Mr. Homn in " Haven " , which also marked the only time during his several appearances alongside Barrett that he had a line of dialogue . Robert Ellenstein appeared as Steven Miller ; he had previously appeared as the Federation President in Star Trek IV : The Voyage Home . " Haven " also marked the first filmed appearance of another actor who would regularly appear in the Star Trek franchise . Armin Shimerman appeared as the face of the Betazoid gift box in this episode . This was his first filmed appearance , but his first broadcast appearance was as the Ferengi Letek in " The Last Outpost " . He would later appear as the Ferengi Bractor in the season two episode " Peak Performance " before being cast once more as a Ferengi , but this time in the main cast , as Quark in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine .
= = Reception = =
" Haven " aired in broadcast syndication during the week commencing November 29 , 1987 . It received Nielsen ratings of 10 @.@ 3 , reflecting the percentage of all households watching the episode during its timeslot . This was the lowest ratings received by the series since " The Last Outpost " six episodes earlier .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Cast member Wil Wheaton watched the episode for AOL TV in May 2007 , saying that " this could have been an absolutely dreadful ' shotgun wedding ' episode that was as predictable as it was tedious , but Tracy 's script , aided by very good guest star casting and great acting from everyone involved , made it one of the better episodes in season one . " He gave the episode a grade of B. James Hunt for the website Den of Geek , watched the episode in November 2012 . While he was mostly negative of the episode , saying that " Troi episodes tend to test the patience of even the most devoted Trek fan " , he said that " Haven " marked the first time that the series would " properly execute the idea that TNG episodes can have an A and B plot which dovetail nicely in the final act " .
Keith DeCandido reviewed the episode for Tor.com in June 2011 . He described the episode as " painful to watch " and one that where " all the worst sci @-@ fi TV show clichés are in evidence " . He criticised the out of date sexist values of the plot in which Troi would have been forced to leave the ship to be with Wyatt . He did praise the appearance of Majel Barett , describing her as " ever @-@ radiant " and the " saving grace of the episode " . He gave it a score of three out of ten . Zack Handlen watched the episode for The A.V. Club in April 2010 . He described Majel Barrett as " agonizing " and the episode was " full of lazy shoulder shrugs and half @-@ finished ideas " . He gave the episode a grade of D.
= = Home media release = =
The first home media release of " Haven " was on VHS cassette , appearing on April 1 , 1992 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 , and then released as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
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= Irene ( play ) =
Irene is a Neoclassical tragedy written between 1726 and 1749 by Samuel Johnson . It has the distinction of being the work Johnson considered his greatest failure . Since his death , the critical consensus has been that he was right to think so .
Irene was Johnson 's only play , and was first performed on 6 February 1749 in a production by his friend and former pupil , David Garrick . The play was a commercial success and earned Johnson more money than anything else he had written up to that point . It was never revived during his lifetime , and there is no subsequent evidence of any other full @-@ scale productions of Irene anywhere until 1999 , making it one of the most unsuccessful plays ever written by a major author .
= = Background = =
Johnson began writing Irene around 1726 when he first began to work in his father 's bookshop . While in the bookshop he befriended Gilbert Walmesley , the Registrar of the Ecclesiastical Court of Lichfield . Johnson would discuss Irene with Walmesley , and read him some of the early drafts . At one point , Walmesley told Johnson that " he was making Irene suffer so much in the first part of the play that there would be nothing left for her to suffer in the later part " . Johnson joked that there was " enough in reserve ... I intend to put my heroine into the ecclesiastical court of Lichfield which will fill up the utmost measure of human calamity " .
Johnson wrote a considerable part of Irene in 1737 while teaching at Edial Hall School , the academy he had founded in 1735 . Johnson spent his evenings working on his play while ignoring his wife Elizabeth ( known as Tetty ) . This provoked David Garrick , his student , to perform a skit mocking the incidents , although the incidents he portrayed were more than likely his own fabrications . However , the play was written mostly for Mrs. Johnson ; she was fond of it and hoped it would be a success . Her belief in the play inspired Johnson to finish it and push to have it performed . When Edial Hall failed , Johnson travelled to London and brought the unfinished manuscript with him . In 1737 , Johnson tried to submit Irene to Charles Fleetwood , the owner @-@ manager of the Theatre Royal Drury Lane , but Fleetwood rejected it on the grounds that there was no patron and his theatre was catering to other types of performances . Johnson tried in 1741 to have the unperformed play printed , but this too failed . He seems to have continued to revise it over the next several years , since a manuscript notebook contains draft material made not earlier than June 1746 .
It was not until Garrick took over as manager of Drury Lane Theatre that the play was guaranteed a production . By this point Johnson was hard at work on his Dictionary , but he found time for further work on Irene .
= = Play = =
Johnson 's main source for the story of Irene was Richard Knolles 's Generall Historie of the Turkes ( 1603 ) , although he also made some use of George Sandys 's Relation of a Journey ... containing a Description of the Turkish Empire ( 1615 ) , Herbelot 's Bibliothèque Orientale ( 1697 ) and Humphrey Prideaux 's Life of Mahomet ( 1697 ) .
In Knolles 's work , the Sultan Mahomet conquers Constantinople in 1453 and captures a Greek Christian named Irene . He decides to take her as his mistress , and while pursuing her romantically he ignores his duties as a monarch . Soon , the kingdom is falling apart from neglect and the subjects begin to riot , so Mahomet kills Irene to prove his dedication to his people . Johnson alters the story to emphasise the theme of Irene 's temptation . His Mahomet offers Irene a deal : if she becomes a Muslim , he will preserve her life and give her power at his court .
IRENE :
Forbear — O do not urge me to my ruin !
MAHOMET :
To state and pow 'r I court thee , not to ruin :
Smile on my wishes , and command the globe .
Security shall spread her shield before thee ,
And Love infold thee with his downy wings .
( Irene II. vii ll . 79 – 83 )
Johnson goes on to emphasise how the pursuit of worldly power tends to corrupt . After Irene has accepted the Sultan 's offer and abandoned her religious faith , she falls out with her virtuous friend Aspasia :
ASPASIA :
Ah ! let me rather seek the convent 's cell ;
There where my thoughts , at intervals of pray 'r ,
Descend to range these mansions of misfortune ,
Oft ' shall I dwell on our disastrous friendship ,
And shed the pitying tear for lost Irene .
IRENE :
Go , languish on in dull obscurity ;
Thy dazzled soul with all its boasted greatness ,
Shrinks at th ' o 'erpow 'ring gleams of regal state ,
Stoops from the blaze like a degenerate eagle ,
And flies for shelter to the shades of life .
( Irene III. viii. ll . 93 – 102 )
As a result of her decision to become Mahomet 's queen , Irene becomes ensnared in a complex power struggle between his various advisors : the First Visier Cali Bassa , the Aga Mustapha , and the officer Abdalla , who is suffering from unrequited love for Aspasia . Mahomet becomes convinced that Bassa , with Irene 's complicity , is plotting against him . Two of Abdalla 's captains kill Irene , but with her dying words she reveals that Bassa 's true accomplice was the Greek soldier Demetrius , Aspasia 's lover , who has safely escaped with his loved one . On learning that Irene had not been conspiring against him , Mahomet is distraught :
MAHOMET :
Robb 'd of the maid , with whom I wish 'd to triumph ,
No more I burn for fame or for dominion ;
Success and conquest now are empty sounds ,
Remorse and anguish seize on all my breast ;
Those groves , whose shades embower 'd the dear Irene ,
Heard her last cries , and fann 'd her dying beauties ,
Shall hide me from the tasteless world for ever .
( Irene V. xii. ll . 42 – 48 )
The play is written in blank verse but , as Walter Jackson Bate claims , " reads like heroic couplets from which the rhyme has been removed , and couplets in which the poet has so much anxiety to keep a strict regularity of meter that other considerations – even of style and rhythm alone – become sacrificed . " It is evident from the scansion of the above lines that Johnson pronounced " Irene " in its Classical form with three syllables , / aɪˈriːniː / eye @-@ REE @-@ nee , and not in the contemporary form / ˈaɪəriːn / EYE @-@ reen .
= = = Stage history = = =
David Garrick 's acceptance of Irene for production prompted Johnson to finish rewriting the play . Garrick changed the play 's title to Mahomet and Irene , and requested changes that would make the play more acceptable to his sense of theatrical style . Johnson was initially opposed to the changes and complained that Garrick " wants me to make Mahomet run mad , that he may have an opportunity of tossing his hands and kicking his heels " . Johnson 's friend John Taylor resolved the dispute and Johnson ultimately carried out Garrick 's suggestions , which included revising Irene 's death scene so that she would be strangled onstage , instead of offstage as originally written .
Mahomet and Irene opened on 6 February 1749 . Elizabeth Johnson was unable to attend the performance because of illness . Johnson arrived at the theatre in the kind of clothing he considered as the " distinction of dress " required of a playwright ; he wore " a scarlet waistcoat with gold lace and a gold @-@ laced hat " . The Prologue " soothed the audience , and the play went off tolerably , till it came to the conclusion " . The conclusion in question was Irene 's onstage strangulation , which upset the audience and provoked shouts of " Murder ! " . The actress quickly left the stage ; for all successive performances Garrick restored Johnson 's original ending .
The play was performed for nine nights , by the standards of 18th century London a very respectable run . Johnson received £ 195 17s. for the performances . Robert Dodsley published the playscript on 16 February 1749 and Johnson received an additional £ 100 . Perhaps ironically , in view of its later eclipse , this made Irene the most financially lucrative work Johnson had yet written : during this period of his career , only the Dictionary earned him more money .
= = = Cast = = =
Hannah Pritchard played the role of Irene and Garrick cast himself in the role of Demetrius . Other notable actors in the play 's original cast were Susannah Maria Arne ( using her professional name " Mrs. Cibber " ) as Aspasia and Spranger Barry as Mahomet .
The complete cast list , according to the first edition , is as follows :
Mahomet , Emperor of the Turks — Mr. Barry
Cali Bassa , First Visier — Mr. Berry
Mustapha , A Turkish Aga — Mr. Sowden
Abdalla , An Officer — Mr. Harvard
Hasan , Turkish Captain — Mr. Usher
Caraza , Turkish Captain — Mr. Burton
Demetrius , Greek Nobleman — Mr. Garrick
Leontius , Greek Nobleman — Mr. Blakes
Murza , A Eunuch — unlisted
Aspasia , Greek Lady — Mrs. Cibber
Irene , Greek Lady — Mrs. Pritchard
Attendants on Irene — unlisted
= = Critical response = =
Irene has never been the most admired of Johnson 's works . Even James Boswell found it wanting :
Analysed into parts , it will furnish a rich store of noble sentiments , fine imagery , and beautiful language ; but it is deficient in pathos , in that delicate power of touching the human feelings , which is the principle end of the drama . Indeed Garrick has complained to me , that Johnson not only had not the faculty of producing the impressions of tragedy , but that he had not the sensibility to perceive them .
Johnson 's friend Bennet Langton recorded the author 's own later disenchantment with the piece :
At another time , when one was reading his tragedy Irene to a company at a house in the country , he [ Johnson ] left the room ; and somebody having asked him the reason of this , he replied , " Sir , I thought it had been better . " '
The early 20th century consensus of opinion was summed up by George Sampson in 1941 : " Of his early tragedy Irene [ ... ] it is enough to say that its moral dialogues , its correctness of plan and its smoothness of verse do not suffice to give it any rank as drama . " T. S. Eliot suggested an explanation for the play 's unpopularity and neglect :
His verse has none of the dramatic qualities ; it is correct , but correctness in such isolation becomes itself a fault . The play would be more readable to @-@ day , if he had written it in rhyme ; the whole would be more easily declaimed , and the good things more easily remembered ; it would lose none of its excellence of structure , thought , vocabulary and figures of speech . What would be mellifluous in rhyme , is merely monotonous without it .
F.R. Leavis argued that Boswell 's criticisms of the play – " that [ Johnson ] has no sense of the theatre , and worse , cannot present or conceive his themes dramatically " – were " obvious " , and that Irene was a failure because Johnson 's best poetry ( such as The Vanity of Human Wishes ) was " a poetry of statement , exposition and reflection : nothing could be remoter from the Shakespearean use of language [ ... ] than the Johnsonian . " Like Eliot , Leavis suggested that the play might have been better if Johnson had not been determined to write it in blank verse :
He is clearly determined that his verse shall not be changed into the ' periods of a declaimer ' , and that it shall not be said that the audience cannot easily perceive ' where the lines end or begin ' ( see his remarks on blank @-@ verse in the Life of Milton ) . In couplets , of course , he couldn 't have written so dismally . With the absence of rhyme and of the movement goes the absence of wit . And without the wit he is without the Johnsonian weight .
Johnson biographer Walter Jackson Bate has attempted to defend Irene , arguing that the reason why it is considered so bad is that the reader cannot help being aware that " it is by one of the masters of English prose style ( who also had a powerful command of one kind of poetic style ) , and it is also by one of the supreme critics of literature in whatever language " . Bate claims that if contemporary readers were able to encounter the play without knowing who had written it , " it would not seem too bad " ; but since we cannot forget Johnson 's achievements in other fields of literature , reading Irene is an especially depressing experience : " the heart begins after a while to sink except in the most resolute Johnsonian , and sometimes even then . "
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= Blackwall Tunnel =
The Blackwall Tunnel is a pair of road tunnels underneath the River Thames in east London , England linking the London Borough of Tower Hamlets with the Royal Borough of Greenwich , and part of the A102 road . The northern portal lies just south of the East India Dock Road ( A13 ) in Blackwall ; A the southern entrances are just south of The O2 on the Greenwich Peninsula.B The road is managed by Transport for London ( TfL ) .
The tunnel was originally opened as a single bore in 1897 by the then Prince of Wales , as a major transport project to improve commerce and trade in London 's East End , and supported a mix of foot , cycle , horse @-@ drawn and vehicular traffic . By the 1930s , capacity was becoming inadequate , and consequently a second bore opened in 1967 , handling southbound traffic while the earlier 19th century tunnel handled northbound .
The northern approach takes traffic from the A12 and the southern approach takes traffic from the A2 , making the tunnel crossing a key link for both local and longer @-@ distance traffic between the north and south sides of the river . It forms part of a key route into Central London from South East London and Kent and was the easternmost all @-@ day crossing for vehicles before the opening of the Dartford Tunnel in 1963 . It remains the easternmost free fixed road crossing of the Thames , and regularly suffers congestion , to the extent that tidal flow schemes were in place from 1978 until controversially removed in 2007 . Proposals to solve the traffic problems have included building a third bore , constructing alternative crossings of the Thames such as the now cancelled Thames Gateway Bridge or the Silvertown Tunnel , and providing better traffic management , particularly for heavy goods vehicles .
The tunnels are no longer open to pedestrians , cyclists or other non @-@ motorised traffic , and the northbound tunnel has a 4 @.@ 0 @-@ metre ( 13 @.@ 1 ft ) height limit . London Buses route 108 runs through the tunnels .
= = History = =
= = = Old tunnel = = =
A tunnel in the Blackwall area was originally proposed in the 1880s . According to Robert Webster , then MP for St Pancras East , a tunnel would " be very useful to the East End of London , a district representing in trade and commerce a population greater than the combined populations of Liverpool , Manchester and Birmingham . " By this time , all road bridges in London east of the ferry at Chiswick were toll @-@ free , but these were of little use to the two fifths of London 's population that lived to the east of London Bridge . The Thames Tunnel ( Blackwall ) Act was created in August 1887 , which provided the legal framework necessary to construct the tunnel . The initial proposal , made by Sir Joseph Bazalgette , called for three parallel tunnels , two for vehicular traffic and one for foot , with an expected completion date of works within seven years . It was originally commissioned by the Metropolitan Board of Works but , just before the contract was due to start , responsibility passed to the London County Council ( LCC ) when the former body was abolished in 1889 and Bazalgette 's work on the tunnel ended .
The original tunnel as built was designed by Sir Alexander Binnie and built by S. Pearson & Sons , between 1892 and 1897 . It was constructed using tunnelling shield and compressed air techniques and a Greathead shield ( named after its inventor , James Henry Greathead ) . It was lit by three rows of incandescent street lights . To clear the site in Greenwich , more than 600 people had to be rehoused , and a house reputedly once owned by Sir Walter Raleigh had to be demolished . The tunnel was officially opened by the Prince of Wales on 22 May 1897 . The total cost of the tunnel was £ 1 @.@ 4 M and 800 men were employed in its construction , during which seven deaths were recorded .
The southern entrance gateway to the tunnel , also known as Southern Tunnel House , was designed by LCC architect Thomas Blashill and was built just before the tunnel was completed . It comprises two floors with an attic .
Today the western bore is only used for northbound traffic and is not accessible to vehicles taller than 4 m ( 13 ft ) . The tunnel itself has several sharp bends , whose purpose was to prevent horses from bolting once they saw daylight . The tunnel carries two lanes of traffic , though higher vehicles need to keep to the left @-@ hand lane so that they do not hit the tunnel 's inner lining .
= = = New tunnel = = =
Due to the increase in motor traffic in the early 20th century , the capacity of the original tunnel was soon perceived as inadequate . In 1930 , John Mills , MP for Dartford , remarked that HGVs delivering from Essex to Kent could not practically use any crossing of the Thames downstream of the tunnel . The LCC obtained an act to construct a new tunnel in 1938 , but work did not start due to the outbreak of World War II . Construction eventually started in 1958 with preliminary work on the northern approach road . By this time , traffic had become progressively worse . In 1960 , Richard Marsh , MP for Greenwich complained that vehicles could spend 30 to 45 minutes stuck in tunnel traffic .
The new eastern tunnel , 8 @.@ 59 metres ( 28 ft 2 in ) in diameter , was accepted into the roads programme in March 1959 , and construction started in March 1960 . It was opened on 2 August 1967 by Desmond Plummer , Leader of the Greater London Council ( GLC ) . It was wider and usable by vehicles up to 4 @.@ 72 m ( 15 @.@ 5 ft ) . During construction , transport minister Ernest Marples clarified that unlike the Dartford Tunnel , also then under construction , tolls would not be imposed as the tunnel was already an established route . At the time of opening , the strip lighting in the tunnel was commended as " a big improvement " on the standard provided in the original tunnel . In contrast with the Victorian northbound tunnel , the eastern tunnel had no sharp bends , and emergency telephones were provided . Its distinctive ventilation towers were designed in 1964 by GLC architect Terry Farrell .
In the late 1960s , proposals were made to connect the tunnel with a free @-@ flow , grade @-@ separated motorway system as part of the London Ringways project . Aside from the construction of the A102 ( M ) Blackwall Tunnel approach roads , opened in 1973 , these plans were abandoned .
The entrance gateway to the northbound tunnel was Grade II listed in 1973 , while the ventilation towers were listed in 2000 . In April 1986 , the tunnel became part of the UK trunk road network . It was detrunked and control handed to TfL in September 1999 .
= = = Provisional IRA bombing = = =
On 18 January 1979 , an anonymous caller to the Press Association informed them that the Provisional IRA had planted a bomb in the tunnel that was scheduled to detonate at midnight . While the Metropolitan Police were searching the tunnel , the bomb detonated at 12 : 40am , causing an explosion in a gasholder near the southern exit . This resulted in a fire on another gasholder approximately an hour later . No injuries were reported . Home Secretary Merlyn Rees hoped " the House will join me in condemning these attacks and will support the Government in their determination not to be swayed by such methods . " A Belfast man was subsequently jailed for 17 years in May 1983 for his role in the bombing .
= = Nearest alternative crossings = =
The nearest alternative road crossings are the Rotherhithe Tunnel 2 mi ( 3 km ) to the west , Tower Bridge 3 mi ( 5 km ) to the west , and the Dartford Crossing 16 mi ( 26 km ) to the east . The Woolwich Free Ferry is 2 mi ( 3 km ) to the east , but is closed overnight , often reduced to one boat in operation , or completely closed at weekends . Variable message signs ( VMS ) near the tunnel inform drivers if the ferry is available . When open , queuing for the ferry causes significant congestion around Woolwich town centre .
Underground railway links include the Jubilee line from North Greenwich ( TfL ) to Canning Town on the east and Canary Wharf on the west . The Docklands Light Railway also passes under the Thames between Island Gardens at the southern end of the Isle of Dogs and Cutty Sark in the centre of Greenwich .
Horse @-@ drawn traffic was partially banned from the tunnel during peak hours in July 1939 and completely banned in August 1947 . Pedestrians have been banned from using the Blackwall Tunnels since May 1969 , but pedestrians and cyclists may also use the foot tunnels at Greenwich ( close to Island Gardens and Cutty Sark stations ) and Woolwich ( close to the Woolwich Ferry ) .
The London Buses route 108 ( Stratford – Lewisham ) runs through the tunnels . On occasion in the past , the bus service has been escorted through the tunnel when it has been closed .
= = Traffic management = =
The northbound Blackwall Tunnel is a traffic bottleneck with tailbacks . A TfL study in 2009 revealed that the 1 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 7 km ) approach to the northbound tunnel took around 19 minutes in rush hour traffic , or a delay of approximately 11 minutes per kilometre . To relieve the congestion , a tidal flow system was introduced in 1978 , allowing northbound traffic to use the eastern tunnel . The congestion is not limited to weekday rush hours . There is often congestion with tailbacks at the weekends , especially on Sunday evenings . Due to its sharp turns with restricted headroom , high @-@ sided vehicles can only use the left @-@ hand lane of the western tunnel , so it was not possible to reverse the tidal flow in the evening . On 20 April 2007 the morning tidal flow was discontinued , after reports by TfL and the Metropolitan Police ( MPS ) of an increase in dangerous motoring behaviour ; these blamed poor driving , such as overtaking , for the decrease in safety during counterflow operations . The decision to end the counterflow was controversial , particularly as TfL and the MPS had been considering it since 2005 , without properly informing affected borough councils , and an independent committee was set up to evaluate the decision . The ending of the counterflow system has brought protests from users of the tunnel and those experiencing increased congestion due to the change .
In November 2007 , the Mayor of London , Ken Livingstone responded to complaints from Greenwich Council about congestion in the area , with the possibility of setting up a small congestion charging zone . He clarified that this would not extend to the Blackwall Tunnel , stating " I have given that commitment right the way through my period as Mayor , and there cannot be anything that impacts on the A2 because the impact then on Lewisham is unacceptable . " In 2012 , TfL announced their intention to toll the tunnels to pay for the Silverton Link crossing , suggesting it was the " most appropriate way " . Responding to this , Paul Watters from the AA said " We ’ ve already seen the Western extension of the congestion charge dropped because it was hugely unpopular and I think tolling on the Blackwall Tunnel will be as controversial as that . "
In June 2013 , TfL announced they would send registration details of any broken @-@ down or over @-@ height commercial vehicle in the tunnel to the Vehicle and Operator Services Agency ( VOSA ) , and set up a new automatic recognition system to detect unsuitable heavy goods vehicles heading towards it . TfL commissioner Sir Peter Hendy said that " this partnership working will help improve traffic flow on one of the busiest routes in the capital . "
= = Maintenance and closures = =
The Blackwall Tunnel has attracted criticism in the past for its perceived lack of safety . In 2002 , a survey by major motoring organisations rated the tunnel 's safety record as " very poor " , and concluded it was one of the least safe tunnels in Europe . In 2010 , the northbound tunnel was refurbished in order to meet current safety standards . Fire detection systems have been installed in response to new European regulations in the light of recent tunnel fires .
In 2010 , the southbound tunnel was affected by planned closures for maintenance from 10 pm to 5 am , Thursday to Sunday inclusive , and over a number of whole weekends . The tunnel was only closed six full weekends instead of the planned ten , but it is still being regularly closed to traffic for maintenance as of March 2013 .
The tunnel also suffers regular problems with strikes from over @-@ height traffic , and vehicles running out of fuel . On 10 December 1996 , a man drove a Mercedes truck supporting a crane towards the southbound tunnel , ignored warnings that his vehicle was over @-@ height , and struck a gantry , breaking a steel reinforcement frame in the process . The entire tunnel was immediately closed , not only to retrieve the vehicle , but to perform additional safety checks . Because the Limehouse Link tunnel , which runs near to the north end of the Blackwall Tunnel , and the Queen Elizabeth II Bridge , part of the Dartford Crossing , were also closed on the same day , the accident caused one of the worst traffic jams in the capital . In February 2011 , TfL reported that the tunnel had been closed 1 @,@ 200 times in the previous year for a total of 157 hours , while New Civil Engineer magazine claimed it shut 1 @,@ 448 times in 2010 . To try to prevent closures of this nature , an LED noticeboard was set up in the northbound approach , counting the number of breakdowns and accidents per month occurring inside the tunnel .
= = Future = =
The continual congestion and requirements for closures and refurbishments are unlikely to change , as the Blackwall Tunnel remains the only major road crossing of the Thames in east London for the short @-@ term future . The proposed Thames Gateway Bridge , a new crossing between the Woolwich Ferry and the Dartford Crossing , was cancelled by Boris Johnson when he replaced Livingstone as mayor in 2008 .
A third bore of the tunnel , replacing the old Victorian northbound bore , was proposed by Transport Secretary Cecil Parkinson in 1989 , but had yet to see any progress towards construction over a decade later . This option is not currently favoured by TfL due to technical problems with construction and engineering , difficulty tying in with the existing road network , and concern about increased traffic on the A12 .
Other schemes proposed by TfL that would allow tunnel traffic to cross the Thames elsewhere are the Silvertown Tunnel between Silvertown and the Greenwich Peninsula and the Gallions Reach Ferry between Beckton and Thamesmead .
= = Maps = =
A. ^ Blackwall Tunnel , northern end , 51 ° 30 ′ 32 @.@ 87 ″ N 000 ° 00 ′ 24 @.@ 85 ″ W
B. ^ Blackwall Tunnel , southern end of south tunnel , 51 ° 29 ′ 56 @.@ 17 ″ N 000 ° 00 ′ 04 @.@ 92 ″ E and the southern end of the north tunnel , 51 ° 30 ′ 01 @.@ 84 ″ N 000 ° 00 ′ 06 @.@ 7 ″ E
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= Edwin Maxwell ( attorney general ) =
Edwin Maxwell ( July 16 , 1825 – February 5 , 1903 ) was an American lawyer , judge , and politician in the U.S. state of West Virginia . Maxwell served as Attorney General of West Virginia in 1866 and was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia from 1867 until 1872 . He was elected to the West Virginia Senate ( 1863 – 1866 ; 1886 – 1893 ) and the West Virginia House of Delegates ( 1893 – 1895 ; 1903 ) .
Maxwell was born in 1825 in Weston , Virginia ( present @-@ day West Virginia ) and raised on a farm until the age of 21 . Despite his father 's plans for him to become a carpenter , Maxwell studied jurisprudence under his uncle Lewis Maxwell , a U.S. Representative . Maxwell was admitted to the bar in 1848 , and relocated to West Union , where he served two terms as the Commonwealth 's attorney for Doddridge County . In 1857 , Maxwell moved to Clarksburg and established a law partnership with Burton Despard , which was later joined by Nathan Goff , Jr .
He was resolute in his support of the Union during the American Civil War and of the statehood movement for West Virginia . Following the state 's creation in 1863 , Maxwell began his political career when he was elected to serve in the inaugural session of the West Virginia Senate . He also served as chairman of the Judiciary Committee . In 1865 , Maxwell chaired a senate committee that proposed a state constitutional amendment known as the " Maxwell amendment " which aimed to remove citizenship rights from former Confederates returning to West Virginia . Governor Arthur I. Boreman appointed Maxwell as the Attorney General of West Virginia in 1866 . In the fall of 1866 , Maxwell was elected as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia , on which he served until 1872 . He ran unsuccessfully for re @-@ election to the bench in 1880 , and was an unsuccessful Greenback @-@ Labor Party gubernatorial candidate in 1884 . During his gubernatorial campaign , he was known by the moniker " Old Honesty . "
In 1886 , Maxwell was elected a member of the West Virginia Senate , representing the Third Senatorial District , serving until 1893 . He was subsequently twice elected to the West Virginia House of Delegates representing Harrison County in 1893 and 1903 , and served as chairman of the Judiciary Committee during both terms . Maxwell died in 1903 from pneumonia while serving in a session of the House of Delegates in Charleston . At the time of his death at the age of 77 , he was the oldest member of the West Virginia Legislature .
= = Early life and law career = =
Edwin Maxwell was born on July 16 , 1825 in Weston , Virginia ( present @-@ day West Virginia ) . He was the son of Levi Maxwell and his wife Sarah Haymond Maxwell . Through his father , he was a grandson of Thomas and Jane Lewis Maxwell and was of English and Scottish ancestry . Through his mother , he was the grandson of Col. John Haymond and Mary Wilson Haymond . Maxwell had five siblings : Angelica , John , Rufus , Semira , and Jane . Through his brother Rufus , Maxwell was an uncle of West Virginia historian Hu Maxwell .
Maxwell 's father was a carpenter and a farmer , and he initially selected the carpentry trade for his son . His father regularly relied upon Maxwell 's acumen during his residential construction projects . In 1827 , his family relocated to a farm 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from Weston , and he remained there until he was 21 years old . Maxwell received his primary education in local schools . Despite his father 's initial plans for him to become a carpenter , he studied jurisprudence under his uncle Lewis Maxwell , a United States House Representative from Virginia .
Maxwell was admitted to the Harrison County bar on June 1 , 1848 and began to practice law soon after . During the early years of his legal career , he provided legal services in Braxton , Gilmer , Lewis , and Upshur counties . He relocated to Doddridge County in 1852 and established a law practice in West Union . While practicing in West Union , he served two terms as the Commonwealth 's attorney for Doddridge County . Maxwell was named as an authorized superintendent to receive capital stock when the assembly permitted the establishment of a bank branch in West Union on March 15 , 1856 and March 27 , 1858 . Maxwell , seeking to expand his law practice , and wanting greater opportunities for advancement , moved to Clarksburg in 1857 , where he established a law partnership with Burton Despard creating the law practice of Despard and Maxwell . Despard and Maxwell offered their legal services to clients in Doddridge , Harrison , Lewis , Ritchie , and Taylor counties . In 1865 , Nathan Goff , Jr. joined their law partnership , after which it was known as Despard , Maxwell , and Goff . Goff later became a United States Circuit Judge and served as a United States Senator from West Virginia .
= = Political and judicial careers = =
Despite his early resolution not to allow politics to impede upon his legal career , Maxwell 's resolute support of the Union during the American Civil War , and of the statehood movement for West Virginia , refocused his priorities . Maxwell 's political affiliation had been Republican , and he became actively involved in the formation of the state of West Virginia in 1863 . Just weeks prior to the state 's creation on June 20 of that year , he began his political career when he was elected to represent the Third Senatorial District in the inaugural session of the West Virginia Senate in June 1863 . During his tenure in the senate , which lasted until 1866 , Maxwell served as the chairman of the Judiciary Committee . In his position as the chairman of the Judiciary Committee , he played a prominent role in the passage of the state 's earliest legislation .
In 1865 , Maxwell was chairman of a senate committee that drafted a proposed amendment to the Constitution of West Virginia , known as the " Maxwell amendment , " which aimed to remove the citizenship rights of former Confederates returning to West Virginia following the war . While he favored banning former Confederates from voting , he was opposed to complete disfranchisement . The " Maxwell amendment , " as it came to be known , became notable because it uncovered the increasing tensions between moderates and radicals within West Virginia 's Unionist coalition in the West Virginia Legislature .
On January 1 , 1866 , Maxwell was appointed Attorney General of West Virginia by Republican West Virginia Governor Arthur I. Boreman to replace Ephraim B. Hall . He served as the state 's attorney general until December 31 of that year . On March 27 , 1866 , Boreman also appointed him to replace Hall as a circuit judge . He served in this capacity until January 1 , 1869 .
The law partnership of Despard , Maxwell , and Goff was in operation until the autumn of 1866 , when Maxwell was elected as an Associate Justice on the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia . Maxwell and the other three justices were chosen because of their early statehood leadership , and because they could be depended upon to defend the new state from Virginia sympathies and uphold the Unionist cause . While serving on the court , the major issues that faced Maxwell and the justices primarily involved post @-@ war reconstruction and sectional acrimonies across the state . He served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court from January 1 , 1867 until December 31 , 1872 .
In 1870 , the Democrats were swept into power . The state constitution was rewritten in 1872 and went into effect that year . The state 's new constitution meant that Maxwell 's term finished at the end of 1872 , and the Unionist court on which he served as an associate justice was short @-@ lived . In 1871 , Maxwell administered the oath of office to the state 's first Democratic Governor , John Jeremiah Jacob . During his term as an associated justice , Maxwell ruled on the state 's first cases which involved questions regarding West Virginia 's earliest statutes . Following his tenure on the state 's Supreme Court , Maxwell returned to the practice of law in 1873 . He ran unsuccessfully for election to represent the Third Senatorial District in the West Virginia Senate in 1876 .
At the state convention of the West Virginia Republican Party in Grafton on July 1 , 1880 , Maxwell was again nominated as a candidate for an associate supreme court justiceship . He was unsuccessful in his electoral bid . Following a vacancy on the bench of the Supreme Court of the United States in December 1880 , Maxwell was named as a possible candidate for an associate justiceship , but was not nominated .
In 1884 , Maxwell ran for election as the Greenback @-@ Labor Party candidate in West Virginia 's gubernatorial election against Democrat Emanuel Willis Wilson . During his gubernatorial campaign , Maxwell was dubbed " Old Honesty " by the media . Wilson defeated Maxwell by 5 @,@ 289 votes . His election results mirrored those of other Republican candidates for state office who lost by margins varying between five and six thousand votes during the 1884 election .
Maxwell was again elected to serve in the West Virginia Senate in 1886 , representing the Third Senatorial District comprising Calhoun , Doddridge , Gilmer , Harrison , and Ritchie counties . He received the most votes - 6 @,@ 693 , compared to his Democratic opponent with 6 @,@ 347 . Maxwell was re @-@ elected to his position in 1888 , and served in the senate from 1889 until 1893 . During his tenure in the senate , Maxwell was again elected as the chairman of the Judiciary Committee . He also served on the Roads and Navigation and Public Printing committees during this term . On December 28 , 1888 , he was selected by his former opponent Governor Wilson as one of the commissioners to represent West Virginia at the centennial celebration of the first inauguration of George Washington .
Maxwell was elected as a member of the West Virginia House of Delegates alongside Henry Wickenhoover in 1892 representing Harrison County from 1893 until 1895 . While serving in the House of Delegates , Maxwell served as chairman of the Judiciary Committee . He was re @-@ elected to the House of Delegates in 1902 alongside Jasper S. Kyle and served in the house until his death in 1903 . He served on the following standing committees of the House of Delegates : Taxation and Finance , Judiciary , Human Institutions and Public Buildings , and Rules .
On January 19 , 1893 , Maxwell was nominated by the West Virginia Republican Party caucus to fill the short term vacancy created by the death of U.S. Senator John E. Kenna . Stephen Benton Elkins was nominated by the party to fill the long term of the vacant senate seat . Democrat Johnson N. Camden was subsequently elected to fill the remainder of McKenn 's term .
= = Later life and death = =
Following his graduation from the West Virginia University College of Law , Maxwell 's son Haymond joined him in a law practice in Clarksburg in 1901 . After a brief bout of pneumonia , Maxwell died on February 5 , 1903 at 20 : 00 local time . At the time of his death , Maxwell was in Charleston during a session of the West Virginia Legislature . He was the oldest member of the West Virginia Legislature at the age of 77 . His son Haymond Maxwell ran for election to his father 's House of Delegates seat in 1905 and served in the position until 1907 .
= = Personal life and family = =
Maxwell married on April 16 , 1872 , to Loretta M. Shuttleworth in Harrison County . Loretta was the daughter of Captain John H. Shuttleworth and his wife Louisa Shuttleworth . Following their marriage , they resided in Clarksburg . She predeceased Maxwell in 1895 . Maxwell and his wife had two sons :
Edwin Maxwell , Jr . , married Mary Francis Farland on March 11 , 1896 in Harrison County
Haymond Maxwell ( October 24 , 1879 – December 18 , 1958 ) , married Carrie Virginia Maxwell on June 28 , 1905 in Harrison County
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= German cruiser Admiral Hipper =
Admiral Hipper , the first of five ships of her class , was the lead ship of the Admiral Hipper class of heavy cruisers which served with Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine during World War II . The ship was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg in July 1935 and launched February 1937 ; Admiral Hipper entered service shortly before the outbreak of war , in April 1939 . The ship was named after Admiral Franz von Hipper , commander of the German battlecruiser squadron during the Battle of Jutland in 1916 and later commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the German High Seas Fleet .
Admiral Hipper saw a significant amount of action during the war . She led the assault on Trondheim during Operation Weserübung ; while en route to her objective , she sank the British destroyer HMS Glowworm . In December 1940 , she broke out into the Atlantic Ocean to operate against Allied merchant shipping , though this operation ended without significant success . In February 1941 , Admiral Hipper sortied again , sinking several merchant vessels before eventually returning to Germany via the Denmark Strait . The ship was then transferred to northern Norway to participate in operations against convoys to the Soviet Union , culminating in the Battle of the Barents Sea on 31 December 1942 , where she sank the destroyer Achates and the minesweeper Bramble but was in turn damaged and forced to withdraw by the light cruisers HMS Sheffield and HMS Jamaica .
Disappointed by the failure to sink merchant ships in that battle , Adolf Hitler ordered the majority of the surface warships scrapped , though Admiral Karl Dönitz was able to convince Hitler to retain the surface fleet . As a result , Admiral Hipper was returned to Germany and decommissioned for repairs . The ship was never restored to operational status , however , and on 3 May 1945 , Royal Air Force bombers severely damaged her while she was in Kiel . Her crew scuttled the ship at her moorings , and in July 1945 , she was raised and towed to Heikendorfer Bay . She was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1948 – 1952 and her bell is currently on display at the Laboe Naval Memorial .
= = Construction = =
Admiral Hipper was ordered by the Kriegsmarine from the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg . Her keel was laid on 6 July 1935 , under construction number 246 . The ship was launched on 6 February 1937 , and was completed on 29 April 1939 , the day she was commissioned into the German fleet . The Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Kriegsmarine , Großadmiral ( Grand Admiral ) Erich Raeder , who had been Franz von Hipper 's chief of staff during World War I , gave the christening speech and his wife Erika Raeder performed the christening . As built , the ship had a straight stem , though after her launch this was replaced with a clipper bow . A raked funnel cap was also installed .
Admiral Hipper was 202 @.@ 8 meters ( 665 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 21 @.@ 3 m ( 70 ft ) and a maximum draft of 7 @.@ 2 m ( 24 ft ) . After the installation of a clipper bow during fitting out , her overall length increased to 205 @.@ 9 meters ( 676 ft ) . The ship had a design displacement of 16 @,@ 170 t ( 15 @,@ 910 long tons ; 17 @,@ 820 short tons ) and a full load displacement of 18 @,@ 200 long tons ( 18 @,@ 500 t ) . Admiral Hipper was powered by three sets of geared steam turbines , which were supplied with steam by twelve ultra @-@ high pressure oil @-@ fired boilers . The ship 's top speed was 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) , at 132 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 98 @,@ 000 kW ) . As designed , her standard complement consisted of 42 officers and 1 @,@ 340 enlisted men .
Admiral Hipper 's primary armament was eight 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 60 guns mounted in four twin gun turrets , placed in superfiring pairs forward and aft . Her anti @-@ aircraft battery was to have consisted of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) L / 65 guns , twelve 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and eight 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns . The ship also would have carried a pair of triple 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo launchers abreast of the rear superstructure . The ship was to have been equipped with three Arado Ar 196 seaplanes and one catapult . Admiral Hipper 's armored belt was 70 to 80 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick ; her upper deck was 12 to 30 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 to 1 @.@ 18 in ) thick while the main armored deck was 20 to 50 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 97 in ) thick . The main battery turrets had 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) thick faces and 70 mm thick sides .
= = History = =
Kapitän zur See ( Captain at Sea ) Hellmuth Heye was given command of the ship at her commissioning . After her commissioning in April 1939 , Admiral Hipper steamed into the Baltic Sea to conduct training maneuvers . The ship also made port calls to various Baltic ports , including cities in Estonia and Sweden . In August , the ship conducted live fire drills in the Baltic . At the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , the ship was still conducting gunnery trials . She was briefly used to patrol the Baltic , but she did not see combat , and was quickly returned to training exercises . In November 1939 , the ship returned to the Blohm & Voss dockyard for modifications ; these included the replacement of the straight stem with a clipper bow and the installation of the funnel cap .
Sea trials in the Baltic resumed in January 1940 , but severe ice restrained the ship to port . On 17 February , the Kriegsmarine pronounced the ship fully operational , and on the following day , Admiral Hipper began her first major wartime patrol . She joined the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau and the destroyers Karl Galster and Wilhelm Heidkamp in a sortie into the North Sea off Bergen , Norway . A third destroyer , Wolfgang Zenker , was forced to turn back after sustaining damage from ice . The ships operated under the command of Admiral Wilhelm Marschall . The ships attempted to locate British merchant shipping , but failed and returned to port on 20 February .
= = = Operation Weserübung = = =
Following her return from the North Sea sortie , Admiral Hipper was assigned to the forces tasked with the invasion of Norway , codenamed Operation Weserübung . The ship was assigned as the flagship of Group 2 , along with the destroyers Paul Jakobi , Theodor Riedel , Friedrich Eckoldt , and Bruno Heinemann . KzS Heye was given command of Group 2 during the operation . The five ships carried a total of 1 @,@ 700 Wehrmacht mountain troops , whose objective was the port of Trondheim ; the ships loaded the troops in Cuxhaven . The ships steamed to the Schillig roadstead outside Wilhelmshaven , where they joined Group 1 , consisting of ten destroyers , and the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , which were assigned to cover Groups 1 and 2 . The ships steamed out of the roadstead at midnight on the night of 6 – 7 April .
While steaming off the Norwegian coast , Admiral Hipper was ordered to divert course to locate the destroyer Bernd von Arnim , which had fallen behind Group 1 . In the mist , the destroyer encountered the British destroyer HMS Glowworm ; the two destroyers engaged each other until Bernd von Arnim 's commander requested assistance from Admiral Hipper . Upon arriving on the scene , Admiral Hipper was initially misidentified by Glowworm to be a friendly vessel , which allowed the German ship to close the distance and fire first . Admiral Hipper rained fire on Glowworm , scoring several hits . Glowworm attempted to flee , but when it became apparent she could not break away from the pursuing cruiser , she turned toward Admiral Hipper and fired a spread of torpedoes , all of which missed . The British destroyer scored one hit on Admiral Hipper 's starboard bow before a rudder malfunction set the ship on a collision course with the German cruiser .
The collision with Glowworm tore off a 40 @-@ meter ( 130 ft ) section of Admiral Hipper 's armored belt on the starboard side , as well as the ship 's starboard torpedo launcher . Minor flooding caused a four degree list to starboard , though the ship was able to continue with the mission . Glowworm 's boilers exploded shortly after the collision , causing her to sink quickly . Forty survivors were picked up by the German ship . Admiral Hipper then resumed course toward Trondheim . The British destroyer had survived long enough to send a wireless message to the Royal Navy headquarters , which allowed the battlecruiser Renown time to move into position to engage Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , though the German battleships used their superior speed to break off contact .
One of Admiral Hipper 's Arado seaplanes had to make an emergency landing in Eide , Norway on 8 April . After trying to purchase fuel from locals , the aircrew were detained and handed over to the police . The Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service captured the Arado , which was painted in Norwegian colors and used by the Norwegians until 18 April when it was evacuated to Britain .
After arriving off Trondheim , Admiral Hipper successfully passed herself off as a British warship long enough to steam past the Norwegian coastal artillery batteries . The ship entered the harbor and docked shortly before 05 : 30 to debark the mountain troops . After the ground troops seized control of the coastal batteries , the ship left Trondheim , bound for Germany . She was escorted by Friedrich Eckoldt ; she reached Wilhelmshaven on 12 April , and went into drydock . The dockyard workers discovered the ship had been damaged more severely by the collision with Glowworm than had previously been thought . Nevertheless , repairs were completed in the span of two weeks .
Admiral Marschall organized a mission to seize Harstad in early June 1940 ; Admiral Hipper , the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , and four destroyers were tasked with the operation . The ships departed on 4 June , and while en route , Admiral Hipper encountered and sank the empty troopship Orama on 9 June . Before they reached Harstad , the Germans learned that the Allies had already abandoned the port . Marschall 's squadron was then tasked with intercepting an Allied convoy that was reported to be in the area . The ships failed to find the convoy , and returned to Trondheim to refuel .
On 13 June , the ship 's anti @-@ aircraft gunners shot down an attacking British bomber . On 25 July , Admiral Hipper steamed out on a commerce raiding patrol in the area between Spitzbergen and Tromsø ; the cruise lasted until 9 August . While on the patrol , Admiral Hipper encountered the Finnish freighter Ester Thorden , which was found to be carrying 1 @.@ 75 t ( 1 @.@ 72 long tons ; 1 @.@ 93 short tons ) of gold . The ship was seized and sent to occupied Norway with a prize crew .
= = = Atlantic operations = = =
Admiral Hipper left the Norwegian theater in September 1940 for an overhaul in Wilhelmshaven . After the routine maintenance was completed toward the end of the month , the ship attempted to break out into the Atlantic Ocean to raid merchant traffic . The engine oil feed system caught fire and was severely damaged . The fire forced the crew to shut down the ship 's propulsion system until the blaze could be brought under control ; this rendered Admiral Hipper motionless for several hours on the open sea . British reconnaissance failed to locate the ship , and after the fire was extinguished , the ship returned to Hamburg 's Blohm & Voss shipyard , where repairs lasted slightly over a week .
The ship made a second attempt to break out into the Atlantic on 30 November ; she successfully navigated the Denmark Strait undetected on 6 December . Admiral Hipper intercepted a convoy of 20 troopships on 24 December , some 700 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ; 810 mi ) west of Cape Finisterre . Five of the twenty ships were allocated to Operation Excess . The convoy was protected by a powerful escort composed of the aircraft carriers Furious and Argus , the cruisers Berwick , Bonaventure , and Dunedin , and six destroyers . Admiral Hipper did not initially spot the escorting warships , and so began attacking the convoy . With her main guns she badly damaged two ships , one of which was the 13 @,@ 994 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 14 @,@ 219 t ) transport Empire Trooper , before spotting the heavy cruiser Berwick and destroyers steaming toward her . She quickly withdrew , using her main guns to keep the destroyers at bay .
Ten minutes later , Berwick reappeared off Admiral Hipper 's port bow ; the German cruiser fired several salvos from her forward turrets and scored hits on the British cruiser 's rear turrets , waterline , and forward superstructure . Admiral Hipper then disengaged , to prevent the British destroyers from closing to launch a torpedo attack . By now , the ship was running low on fuel , and so she put into Brest in occupied France on 27 December . While en route , Admiral Hipper encountered and sank the isolated 6 @,@ 078 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 6 @,@ 176 t ) cargo ship Jumna . Another round of routine maintenance work was effected while the ship was in Brest , readying her for another sortie into the Atlantic shipping lanes .
On 1 February 1941 , Admiral Hipper embarked on her second Atlantic sortie . The Kriegsmarine had initially sought to send the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau to operate in concert with Admiral Hipper , but Gneisenau suffered storm damage in December that prevented the participation of the two ships . Repairs were effected quickly , however , and the two battleships broke out into the Atlantic in early February . Admiral Hipper rendezvoused with a tanker off the Azores to top up her fuel tanks . On 11 February , the ship encountered and sank an isolated transport from convoy HG 53 , which had been dispersed by U @-@ boat and Luftwaffe attacks . That evening , she picked up the unescorted convoy SLS 64 , which contained nineteen merchant ships . The following morning , Admiral Hipper closed in and sank several of the ships . The British reported only seven ships were lost , totaling 32 @,@ 806 long tons ( 33 @,@ 332 t ) , along with damage to two more . The Germans claimed Admiral Hipper had sunk thirteen of the nineteen freighters , while some survivors reported fourteen ships of the convoy were sunk .
Following the attack on convoy SLS 64 , Admiral Hipper 's fuel stocks were running low . She therefore returned to Brest on 15 February . British bombers were regularly attacking the port , however , and the Kriegsmarine therefore decided Admiral Hipper should return to Germany , where she could be better protected . Before the ship could leave , damage caused to the ship 's hull by wrecks in the harbor had to be repaired . On 15 March , the ship slipped out of Brest , unobserved , and passed through the Denmark Strait eight days later . While en route , Admiral Hipper stopped to refuel in Bergen . By 28 March , the cruiser was docked in Kiel , having made the entire journey without being detected by the British . Upon arrival , the ship went into the Deutsche Werke shipyard for an extensive overhaul , which lasted for seven months . After completion of the refit , Admiral Hipper conducted sea trials in the Baltic before putting into Gotenhafen on 21 December for some minor refitting . In January 1942 , the ship had her steam turbines overhauled at the Blohm & Voss shipyard ; a degaussing coil was fitted to the ship 's hull during this overhaul . By March , the ship was again fully operational .
= = = Deployment to Norway = = =
On 19 March 1942 , Admiral Hipper steamed to Trondheim , escorted by the destroyers Z24 , Z26 , and Z30 and the torpedo boats T15 , T16 , and T17 . Several British submarines were patrolling the area , but failed to intercept the German flotilla . Admiral Hipper and her escorts reached their destination on 21 March . There , they joined the heavy cruisers Lützow and Prinz Eugen , though the latter soon returned to Germany for repairs after being torpedoed . On 3 July , Admiral Hipper joined the cruisers Lützow and Admiral Scheer and the battleship Tirpitz for Operation Rösselsprung , an attack on convoy PQ 17 . Escorting the convoy were the battleships HMS Duke of York and USS Washington and the aircraft carrier HMS Victorious . Admiral Hipper , Tirpitz , and six destroyers sortied from Trondheim , while a second task force consisting of Lützow , Admiral Scheer , and six destroyers operated out of Narvik . Lützow and three of the destroyers struck uncharted rocks while en route to the rendezvous and had to return to port . Swedish intelligence had meanwhile reported the German departures to the British Admiralty , which ordered the convoy to disperse . Aware that they had been detected , the Germans aborted the operation and turned over the attack to U @-@ boats and the Luftwaffe . The scattered vessels could no longer be protected by the convoy escorts , and the Germans sank 21 of the 34 isolated transports .
The British submarine Tigris unsuccessfully attempted to torpedo Admiral Hipper on 10 September , while the ship was patrolling with Admiral Scheer and the light cruiser Köln . The cruiser escorted the destroyers Z23 , Z28 , Z29 , and Z30 on 24 – 28 September to lay a minefield off the north @-@ west coast of Novaya Zemlya . The goal of the operation was to funnel merchant traffic further south , closer to the reach of German naval units in Norway . After her return to port , Admiral Hipper was transferred to Bogen Bay near Narvik for repairs to her propulsion system . On 28 – 29 October , Admiral Hipper and the destroyers Friedrich Eckoldt and Richard Beitzen were transferred further north from Narvik to the Altafjord . Starting on 5 November , Admiral Hipper and the 5th Destroyer Flotilla , composed of Z27 , Z30 , Richard Beitzen , and Friedrich Eckoldt , patrolled for Allied shipping in the Arctic . Vizeadmiral Oskar Kummetz commanded the squadron from Admiral Hipper . On 7 November , the cruiser 's Arado Ar 196 floatplane located the 7 @,@ 925 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 8 @,@ 052 t ) Soviet tanker Donbass and its escort , the auxiliary warship BO @-@ 78 . Kummetz dispatched the destroyer Z27 to sink the two Soviet ships .
= = = = Battle of the Barents Sea = = = =
In December 1942 , convoy traffic to the Soviet Union resumed . Großadmiral Raeder ordered a plan , Operation Regenbogen , to use the available surface units in Norway to launch an attack on the convoys . The first convoy of the month , JW 51A , passed to the Soviet Union without incident . However , the second , convoy JW 51B , was spotted by the submarine U @-@ 354 south of Bear Island . Raeder ordered the forces assigned to Operation Regenbogen into action . Admiral Hipper , again served as Kummetz 's flagship ; the squadron comprised Lützow and the destroyers Friederich Eckoldt , Richard Beitzen , Theodor Riedel , Z29 , Z30 , and Z31 . The force left Altafjord at 18 : 00 on 30 December , under orders to avoid confrontation with even an equal opponent .
Kummetz 's plan was to divide his force in half ; he would take Admiral Hipper and three destroyers north of the convoy to attack it and draw away the escorts . Lützow and the remaining three destroyers would then attack the undefended convoy from the south . At 09 : 15 on the 31st , the British destroyer Obdurate spotted the three destroyers screening for Admiral Hipper ; the Germans opened fire first . Four of the other five destroyers escorting the convoy rushed to join the fight , while Achates laid a smoke screen to cover the convoy . Admiral Hipper fired several salvos at Achates , raining shell splinters on the destroyer that severed steam lines and reduced her speed to 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Kummetz then turned back north to draw the destroyers away . Captain Robert Sherbrooke , the British escort commander , left two destroyers to cover the convoy while he took the remaining four to pursue Admiral Hipper .
Rear Admiral Robert Burnett 's Force R , centered on the cruisers Sheffield and Jamaica , standing by in distant support of the Allied convoy , raced to the scene . The cruisers engaged Admiral Hipper , which had been firing to port at the destroyer Obedient . Burnett 's ships approached from Admiral Hipper 's starboard side and achieved complete surprise . In the initial series of salvos from the British cruisers , Admiral Hipper was hit three times . One of the hits damaged the ship 's propulsion system ; the No. 3 boiler filled with a mix of oil and water , which forced the crew to turn off the starboard turbine engine . This reduced her speed to 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . The other two hits started a fire in her aircraft hangar . She fired a single salvo at the cruisers before turning toward them , her escorting destroyers screening her with smoke .
After emerging from the smoke screen , Hipper was again engaged by Burnett 's cruisers . Owing to the uncertainty over the condition of his flagship and the ferocity of the British defense , Kummetz issued the following order at 10 : 37 : " Break off action and retire to the west . " Mistakenly identifying Sheffield as Admiral Hipper , the destroyer Friederich Eckoldt approached too closely and was sunk . Meanwhile , Lützow closed to within 3 nmi ( 5 @.@ 6 km ; 3 @.@ 5 mi ) of the convoy , but due to poor visibility , she held her fire . She then received Kummetz 's order , and turned west to rendezvous with Admiral Hipper . Lützow inadvertently came alongside Sheffield and Jamaica , and after identifying them as hostile , engaged them . The British cruisers turned toward Lützow and came under fire from both German cruisers . Admiral Hipper 's firing was more accurate and quickly straddled Sheffield , though the British cruiser escaped unscathed . Burnett quickly decided to withdraw in the face of superior German firepower ; his ships were armed with 6 in ( 150 mm ) guns , while Admiral Hipper and Lützow carried 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) and 28 cm ( 11 in ) guns , respectively .
Based on the order issued at the outset of the operation to avoid action with a force equal in strength to his own , poor visibility , and the damage to his flagship , Kummetz decided to abort the attack . In the course of the battle , the British destroyer Achates was sunk by the damage inflicted by Admiral Hipper . The Germans also sank the minesweeper Bramble and damaged the destroyers Onslow , Obedient , and Obdurate . In return , the British sank Friederich Eckoldt and damaged Admiral Hipper , and forced the Germans to abandon the attack on the convoy . In the aftermath of the failed operation , a furious Hitler proclaimed that the Kriegsmarine 's surface forces would be paid off and dismantled , and their guns used to reinforce the fortifications of the Atlantic Wall . Admiral Karl Dönitz , Raeder 's successor , convinced Hitler to retain the surface fleet , however . After returning to Altafjord , emergency repairs to Admiral Hipper were effected , which allowed her to return to Bogen Bay on 23 January 1943 . That day , Admiral Hipper , Köln , and the destroyer Richard Beitzen left the Altafjord to return to Germany . The three ships stopped in Narvik on 25 January , and in Trondheim from 30 January to 2 February . After resuming the voyage south , the ships searched for Norwegian blockade runners in the Skagerrak on 6 February before putting into port at Kiel on 8 February . On 28 February , the ship was decommissioned in accordance with Hitler 's decree .
= = = Fate = = =
Despite being decommissioned , repair work on the ship continued . The ship was moved in April to Pillau in the Baltic , to put Admiral Hipper out of the reach of Allied bombers . A year later , the ship was moved to Gotenhafen ; the Kriegsmarine intended to re @-@ commission the ship so she could be used in the Baltic . Over the next five months , Admiral Hipper ran a series of sea trials in the Baltic , but failed to reach operational status . As the Soviet army pushed the Germans back on the Eastern Front , her crew was drafted into construction work on the defenses of the city , further impairing Admiral Hipper 's ability to enter active service . The Royal Air Force also laid an extensive minefield around the port , which forced the ship to remain in the harbor .
By the end of 1944 , the ship was due for another overhaul ; work was to have lasted for three months . The Soviet Army had advanced so far , however , that it was necessary to move the ship farther away from the front , despite the fact that she had only one working turbine . On 29 January 1945 , the ship left Gotenhafen , arriving in Kiel on 2 February . She entered the Germaniawerft shipyard for refitting . On 3 May , RAF bombers attacked the harbor and severely damaged the ship . Her crew scuttled the wrecked ship at her moorings at 04 : 25 on 3 May . In July 1945 , after the end of the war , Admiral Hipper was raised and towed to Heikendorfer Bay and subsequently broken up for scrap in 1948 – 1952 . Her bell was on display at the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich . The bell has since been returned to Germany and is on display at the Laboe Naval Memorial .
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= PHP =
PHP is a server @-@ side scripting language designed for web development but also used as a general @-@ purpose programming language . Originally created by Rasmus Lerdorf in 1994 , the PHP reference implementation is now produced by The PHP Group . PHP originally stood for Personal Home Page , but it now stands for the recursive backronym PHP : Hypertext Preprocessor .
PHP code may be embedded into HTML code , or it can be used in combination with various web template systems , web content management systems and web frameworks . PHP code is usually processed by a PHP interpreter implemented as a module in the web server or as a Common Gateway Interface ( CGI ) executable . The web server combines the results of the interpreted and executed PHP code , which may be any type of data , including images , with the generated web page . PHP code may also be executed with a command @-@ line interface ( CLI ) and can be used to implement standalone graphical applications .
The standard PHP interpreter , powered by the Zend Engine , is free software released under the PHP License . PHP has been widely ported and can be deployed on most web servers on almost every operating system and platform , free of charge .
The PHP language evolved without a written formal specification or standard until 2014 , leaving the canonical PHP interpreter as a de facto standard . Since 2014 work has gone on to create a formal PHP specification .
During the 2010s there have been increased efforts towards standardisation and code sharing in PHP applications by projects such as PHP @-@ FIG in the form of PSR @-@ initiatives as well as Composer dependency manager and the Packagist repository .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
PHP development began in 1995 when Rasmus Lerdorf wrote several Common Gateway Interface ( CGI ) programs in C , which he used to maintain his personal homepage . He extended them to work with web forms and to communicate with databases , and called this implementation " Personal Home Page / Forms Interpreter " or PHP / FI .
PHP / FI could be used to build simple , dynamic web applications . To accelerate bug reporting and improve the code , Lerdorf initially announced the release of PHP / FI as " Personal Home Page Tools ( PHP Tools ) version 1 @.@ 0 " on the Usenet discussion group comp.infosystems.www.authoring.cgi on June 8 , 1995 . This release already had the basic functionality that PHP has as of 2013 . This included Perl @-@ like variables , form handling , and the ability to embed HTML . The syntax resembled that of Perl but was simpler , more limited and less consistent .
Early PHP was not intended to be a new programming language , and grew organically , with Lerdorf noting in retrospect : " I don ’ t know how to stop it , there was never any intent to write a programming language [ … ] I have absolutely no idea how to write a programming language , I just kept adding the next logical step on the way . " A development team began to form and , after months of work and beta testing , officially released PHP / FI 2 in November 1997 .
The fact that PHP was not originally designed but instead was developed organically has led to inconsistent naming of functions and inconsistent ordering of their parameters . In some cases , the function names were chosen to match the lower @-@ level libraries which PHP was " wrapping " , while in some very early versions of PHP the length of the function names was used internally as a hash function , so names were chosen to improve the distribution of hash values .
= = = PHP 3 and 4 = = =
Zeev Suraski and Andi Gutmans rewrote the parser in 1997 and formed the base of PHP 3 , changing the language 's name to the recursive acronym PHP : Hypertext Preprocessor . Afterwards , public testing of PHP 3 began , and the official launch came in June 1998 . Suraski and Gutmans then started a new rewrite of PHP 's core , producing the Zend Engine in 1999 . They also founded Zend Technologies in Ramat Gan , Israel .
On May 22 , 2000 , PHP 4 , powered by the Zend Engine 1 @.@ 0 , was released . As of August 2008 this branch reached version 4 @.@ 4 @.@ 9 . PHP 4 is no longer under development nor will any security updates be released .
= = = PHP 5 = = =
On July 14 , 2004 , PHP 5 was released , powered by the new Zend Engine II . PHP 5 included new features such as improved support for object @-@ oriented programming , the PHP Data Objects ( PDO ) extension ( which defines a lightweight and consistent interface for accessing databases ) , and numerous performance enhancements . In 2008 PHP 5 became the only stable version under development . Late static binding had been missing from PHP and was added in version 5 @.@ 3 .
Many high @-@ profile open @-@ source projects ceased to support PHP 4 in new code as of February 5 , 2008 , because of the GoPHP5 initiative , provided by a consortium of PHP developers promoting the transition from PHP 4 to PHP 5 .
Over time , PHP interpreters became available on most existing 32 @-@ bit and 64 @-@ bit operating systems , either by building them from the PHP source code , or by using pre @-@ built binaries . For the PHP versions 5 @.@ 3 and 5 @.@ 4 , the only available Microsoft Windows binary distributions were 32 @-@ bit x86 builds , requiring Windows 32 @-@ bit compatibility mode while using Internet Information Services ( IIS ) on a 64 @-@ bit Windows platform . PHP version 5 @.@ 5 made the 64 @-@ bit x86 @-@ 64 builds available for Microsoft Windows .
= = = PHP 6 and Unicode = = =
PHP received mixed reviews due to lacking native Unicode support at the core language level . In 2005 , a project headed by Andrei Zmievski was initiated to bring native Unicode support throughout PHP , by embedding the International Components for Unicode ( ICU ) library , and representing text strings as UTF @-@ 16 internally . Since this would cause major changes both to the internals of the language and to user code , it was planned to release this as version 6 @.@ 0 of the language , along with other major features then in development .
However , a shortage of developers who understood the necessary changes , and performance problems arising from conversion to and from UTF @-@ 16 , which is rarely used in a web context , led to delays in the project . As a result , a PHP 5 @.@ 3 release was created in 2009 , with many non @-@ Unicode features back @-@ ported from PHP 6 , notably namespaces . In March 2010 , the project in its current form was officially abandoned , and a PHP 5 @.@ 4 release was prepared containing most remaining non @-@ Unicode features from PHP 6 , such as traits and closure re @-@ binding . Initial hopes were that a new plan would be formed for Unicode integration , but as of 2014 none have been adopted .
= = = PHP 7 = = =
During 2014 and 2015 , a new major PHP version was developed , which was numbered PHP 7 . The numbering of this version involved some debate . While the PHP 6 Unicode experiment had never been released , several articles and book titles referenced the PHP 6 name , which might have caused confusion if a new release were to reuse the name . After a vote , the name PHP 7 was chosen .
The foundation of PHP 7 is a PHP branch that was originally dubbed PHP next generation ( phpng ) . It was authored by Dmitry Stogov , Xinchen Hui and Nikita Popov , and aimed to optimize PHP performance by refactoring the Zend Engine while retaining near @-@ complete language compatibility . As of 14 July 2014 , WordPress @-@ based benchmarks , which served as the main benchmark suite for the phpng project , showed an almost 100 % increase in performance . Changes from phpng are also expected to make it easier to improve performance in the future , as more compact data structures and other changes are seen as better suited for a successful migration to a just @-@ in @-@ time ( JIT ) compiler . Because of the significant changes , the reworked Zend Engine is called Zend Engine 3 , succeeding Zend Engine 2 used in PHP 5 .
Because of major internal changes in phpng , it must receive a new major version number of PHP , rather than a minor PHP 5 release , according to PHP 's release process . Major versions of PHP are allowed to break backward @-@ compatibility of code and therefore PHP 7 presented an opportunity for other improvements beyond phpng that require backward @-@ compatibility breaks . In particular , it involved the following changes :
Many fatal- or recoverable @-@ level legacy PHP error mechanisms were replaced with modern object @-@ oriented exceptions
The syntax for variable dereferencing was reworked to be internally more consistent and complete , allowing the use of the operators - > , [ ] , ( ) , { } , and : : with arbitrary meaningful left @-@ hand @-@ side expressions
Support for legacy PHP 4 @-@ style constructor methods was deprecated
The behavior of the foreach statement was changed to be more predictable
Constructors for the few classes built @-@ in to PHP which returned null upon failure were changed to throw an exception instead , for consistency
Several unmaintained or deprecated server application programming interfaces ( SAPIs ) and extensions were removed from the PHP core , most notably the legacy mysql extension
The behavior of the list ( ) operator was changed to remove support for strings
Support for legacy ASP @-@ style PHP code delimiters ( < % and % > , < script language = php > and < / script > ) was removed
An oversight allowing a switch statement to have multiple default clauses was fixed
Support for hexadecimal number support in some implicit conversions from strings to number types was removed
The left @-@ shift and right @-@ shift operators were changed to behave more consistently across platforms
Conversions between integers and floating point numbers were tightened and implemented more consistently across platforms
PHP 7 also included new language features . Most notably , it introduces return type declarations for functions , which complement the existing parameter type declarations , and support for the scalar types ( integer , float , string , and boolean ) in parameter and return type declarations .
= = = Release history = = =
Beginning on June 28 , 2011 , the PHP Group implemented a timeline for the release of new versions of PHP . Under this system , at least one release should occur every month . Once per year , a minor release should occur which may include new features . Every minor release should at least be supported for two years with security and bug fixes , followed by at least one year of only security fixes , for a total of a three @-@ year release process for every minor release . No new features , unless small and self @-@ contained , are to be introduced into a minor release during the three @-@ year release process .
= = Mascot = =
The mascot of the PHP project is the elePHPant , a blue elephant with the PHP logo on its side , designed by Vincent Pontier in 1998 . The elePHPant is sometimes differently colored when in plush toy form .
= = Syntax = =
The following " Hello , World ! " program is written in PHP code embedded in an HTML document :
However , as no requirement exists for PHP code to be embedded in HTML , the simplest version of Hello , World ! may be written like this , with the closing tag omitted as preferred in files containing pure PHP code
The PHP interpreter only executes PHP code within its delimiters . Anything outside its delimiters is not processed by PHP , although non @-@ PHP text is still subject to control structures described in PHP code . The most common delimiters are < ? php to open and ? > to close PHP sections . The shortened form < ? also exists . This short delimiter makes script files less portable , since support for them can be disabled in the local PHP configuration and it is therefore discouraged . However , there is no recommendation against the use of the echo short tag < ? = . Prior to PHP 5 @.@ 4 @.@ 0 , this short syntax for echo ( ) only works with the short _ open _ tag configuration setting enabled , while for PHP 5 @.@ 4 @.@ 0 and later it is always available . The purpose of all these delimiters is to separate PHP code from non @-@ PHP content , such as JavaScript code or HTML markup .
The first form of delimiters , < ? php and ? > , in XHTML and other XML documents , creates correctly formed XML processing instructions . This means that the resulting mixture of PHP code and other markup in the server @-@ side file is itself well @-@ formed XML .
Variables are prefixed with a dollar symbol , and a type does not need to be specified in advance . PHP 5 introduced type hinting that allows functions to force their parameters to be objects of a specific class , arrays , interfaces or callback functions . However , before PHP 7 @.@ 0 , type hints could not be used with scalar types such as integer or string .
Unlike function and class names , variable names are case sensitive . Both double @-@ quoted ( " " ) and heredoc strings provide the ability to interpolate a variable 's value into the string . PHP treats newlines as whitespace in the manner of a free @-@ form language , and statements are terminated by a semicolon . PHP has three types of comment syntax : / * * / marks block and inline comments ; / / as well as # are used for one @-@ line comments . The echo statement is one of several facilities PHP provides to output text , e.g. , to a web browser .
In terms of keywords and language syntax , PHP is similar to the C style syntax. if conditions , for and while loops , and function returns are similar in syntax to languages such as C , C + + , C # , Java and Perl .
= = = Data types = = =
PHP stores integers in a platform @-@ dependent range , either a 64 @-@ bit or 32 @-@ bit signed integer equivalent to the C @-@ language long type . Unsigned integers are converted to signed values in certain situations ; this behavior is different from that of other programming languages . Integer variables can be assigned using decimal ( positive and negative ) , octal , hexadecimal , and binary notations .
Floating point numbers are also stored in a platform @-@ specific range . They can be specified using floating point notation , or two forms of scientific notation . PHP has a native Boolean type that is similar to the native Boolean types in Java and C + + . Using the Boolean type conversion rules , non @-@ zero values are interpreted as true and zero as false , as in Perl and C + + .
The null data type represents a variable that has no value ; NULL is the only allowed value for this data type .
Variables of the " resource " type represent references to resources from external sources . These are typically created by functions from a particular extension , and can only be processed by functions from the same extension ; examples include file , image , and database resources .
Arrays can contain elements of any type that PHP can handle , including resources , objects , and even other arrays . Order is preserved in lists of values and in hashes with both keys and values , and the two can be intermingled . PHP also supports strings , which can be used with single quotes , double quotes , nowdoc or heredoc syntax .
The Standard PHP Library ( SPL ) attempts to solve standard problems and implements efficient data access interfaces and classes .
= = = Functions = = =
PHP defines a large array of functions in the core language and many are also available in various extensions ; these functions are well documented in the online PHP documentation . However , the built @-@ in library has a wide variety of naming conventions and associated inconsistencies , as described under history above .
Custom functions may be defined by the developer , e.g. :
In 2016 , the output of the above sample program is ' I am currently 35 years old.'
In lieu of function pointers , functions in PHP can be referenced by a string containing their name . In this manner , normal PHP functions can be used , for example , as callbacks or within function tables . User @-@ defined functions may be created at any time without being prototyped . Functions may be defined inside code blocks , permitting a run @-@ time decision as to whether or not a function should be defined . There is a function _ exists function that determines whether a function with a given name has already been defined . Function calls must use parentheses , with the exception of zero @-@ argument class constructor functions called with the PHP operator new , in which case parentheses are optional .
Until PHP 5 @.@ 3 , support for anonymous functions and closures did not exist in PHP . While create _ function ( ) exists since PHP 4 @.@ 0 @.@ 1 , it is merely a thin wrapper around eval ( ) that allows normal PHP functions to be created during program execution . PHP 5 @.@ 3 added syntax to define an anonymous function or " closure " which can capture variables from the surrounding scope :
In the example above , getAdder ( ) function creates a closure using passed argument $ x ( the keyword use imports a variable from the lexical context ) , which takes an additional argument $ y , and returns the created closure to the caller . Such a function is a first @-@ class object , meaning that it can be stored in a variable , passed as a parameter to other functions , etc .
Unusually for a dynamically typed language , PHP supports type declarations on function parameters , which are enforced at runtime . This has been supported for classes and interfaces since PHP 5 @.@ 0 , for arrays since PHP 5 @.@ 1 , for " callables " since PHP 5 @.@ 4 , and scalar ( integer , float , string and boolean ) types since PHP 7 @.@ 0 . PHP 7 @.@ 0 also has type declarations for function return types , expressed by placing the type name after the list of parameters , preceded by a colon . For example , the getAdder function from the earlier example could be annotated with types like so in PHP 7 :
By default , scalar type declarations follow weak typing principles . So , for example , if a parameter 's type is int , PHP would allow not only integers , but also convertible numeric strings , floats or booleans to be passed to that function , and would convert them . However , PHP 7 has a " strict typing " mode which , when used , disallows such conversions for function calls and returns within a file .
= = = Object @-@ oriented programming = = =
Basic object @-@ oriented programming functionality was added in PHP 3 and improved in PHP 4 . This allowed for PHP to gain further abstraction , making creative tasks easier for programmers using the language . Object handling was completely rewritten for PHP 5 , expanding the feature set and enhancing performance . In previous versions of PHP , objects were handled like value types . The drawback of this method was that code had to make heavy use of PHP 's " reference " variables if it wanted to modify an object it was passed rather than creating a copy of it . In the new approach , objects are referenced by handle , and not by value .
PHP 5 introduced private and protected member variables and methods , along with abstract classes , final classes , abstract methods , and final methods . It also introduced a standard way of declaring constructors and destructors , similar to that of other object @-@ oriented languages such as C + + , and a standard exception handling model . Furthermore , PHP 5 added interfaces and allowed for multiple interfaces to be implemented . There are special interfaces that allow objects to interact with the runtime system . Objects implementing ArrayAccess can be used with array syntax and objects implementing Iterator or IteratorAggregate can be used with the foreach language construct . There is no virtual table feature in the engine , so static variables are bound with a name instead of a reference at compile time .
If the developer creates a copy of an object using the reserved word clone , the Zend engine will check whether a _ _ clone ( ) method has been defined . If not , it will call a default _ _ clone ( ) which will copy the object 's properties . If a _ _ clone ( ) method is defined , then it will be responsible for setting the necessary properties in the created object . For convenience , the engine will supply a function that imports the properties of the source object , so the programmer can start with a by @-@ value replica of the source object and only override properties that need to be changed .
The following is a basic example of object @-@ oriented programming in PHP :
The visibility of PHP properties and methods is defined using the keywords public , private , and protected . The default is public , if only var is used ; var is a synonym for public . Items declared public can be accessed everywhere. protected limits access to inherited classes ( and to the class that defines the item ) . private limits visibility only to the class that defines the item . Objects of the same type have access to each other 's private and protected members even though they are not the same instance . PHP 's member visibility features have sometimes been described as " highly useful . " However , they have also sometimes been described as " at best irrelevant and at worst positively harmful . "
= = Implementations = =
The original , only complete and most widely used PHP implementation is powered by the Zend Engine and known simply as PHP . To disambiguate it from other implementations , it is sometimes unofficially referred to as " Zend PHP " . The Zend Engine compiles PHP source code on @-@ the @-@ fly into an internal format that it can execute , thus it works as an interpreter . It is also the " reference implementation " of PHP , as PHP has no formal specification , and so the semantics of Zend PHP define the semantics of PHP itself . Due to the complex and nuanced semantics of PHP , defined by how Zend works , it is difficult for competing implementations to offer complete compatibility .
PHP 's single @-@ request @-@ per @-@ script @-@ execution model , and the fact the Zend Engine is an interpreter , leads to inefficiency ; as a result , various products have been developed to help improve PHP performance . In order to speed up execution time and not have to compile the PHP source code every time the web page is accessed , PHP scripts can also be deployed in the PHP engine 's internal format by using an opcode cache , which works by caching the compiled form of a PHP script ( opcodes ) in shared memory to avoid the overhead of parsing and compiling the code every time the script runs . An opcode cache , Zend Opcache , is built into PHP since version 5 @.@ 5 . Another example of a widely used opcode cache is the Alternative PHP Cache ( APC ) , which is available as a PECL extension .
While Zend PHP is still the most popular implementation , several other implementations have been developed . Some of these are compilers or support JIT compilation , and hence offer performance benefits over Zend PHP at the expense of lacking full PHP compatibility . Alternative implementations include the following :
HipHop Virtual Machine ( HHVM ) – developed at Facebook and available as open source , it converts PHP code into a high @-@ level bytecode ( commonly known as an intermediate language ) , which is then translated into x86 @-@ 64 machine code dynamically at runtime by a just @-@ in @-@ time ( JIT ) compiler , resulting in up to 6 × performance improvements .
Parrot – a virtual machine designed to run dynamic languages efficiently ; Pipp transforms the PHP source code into the Parrot intermediate representation , which is then translated into the Parrot 's bytecode and executed by the virtual machine .
Phalanger – compiles PHP into Common Intermediate Language ( CIL ) bytecode
HipHop – developed at Facebook and available as open source , it transforms the PHP scripts into C + + code and then compiles the resulting code , reducing the server load up to 50 % . In early 2013 , Facebook deprecated it in favor of HHVM due to multiple reasons , including deployment difficulties and lack of support for the whole PHP language , including the create _ function ( ) and eval ( ) constructs .
= = Licensing = =
PHP is free software released under the PHP License , which stipulates that :
Products derived from this software may not be called " PHP " , nor may " PHP " appear in their name , without prior written permission from group @ php.net. You may indicate that your software works in conjunction with PHP by saying " Foo for PHP " instead of calling it " PHP Foo " or " phpfoo " .
This restriction on use of " PHP " makes the PHP License incompatible with the General Public License ( GPL ) , while the Zend License is incompatible due to an advertising clause similar to that of the original BSD license .
= = Development and community = =
PHP includes various free and open @-@ source libraries in its source distribution , or uses them in resulting PHP binary builds . PHP is fundamentally an Internet @-@ aware system with built @-@ in modules for accessing File Transfer Protocol ( FTP ) servers and many database servers , including PostgreSQL , MySQL , Microsoft SQL Server and SQLite ( which is an embedded database ) , LDAP servers , and others . Numerous functions familiar to C programmers , such as those in the stdio family , are available in standard PHP builds .
PHP allows developers to write extensions in C to add functionality to the PHP language . PHP extensions can be compiled statically into PHP or loaded dynamically at runtime . Numerous extensions have been written to add support for the Windows API , process management on Unix @-@ like operating systems , multibyte strings ( Unicode ) , cURL , and several popular compression formats . Other PHP features made available through extensions include integration with IRC , dynamic generation of images and Adobe Flash content , PHP Data Objects ( PDO ) as an abstraction layer used for accessing databases , and even speech synthesis . Some of the language 's core functions , such as those dealing with strings and arrays , are also implemented as extensions . The PHP Extension Community Library ( PECL ) project is a repository for extensions to the PHP language .
Some other projects , such as Zephir , provide the ability for PHP extensions to be created in a high @-@ level language and compiled into native PHP extensions . Such an approach , instead of writing PHP extensions directly in C , simplifies the development of extensions and reduces the time required for programming and testing .
The PHP Group consists of ten people ( as of 2015 ) : Thies C. Arntzen , Stig Bakken , Shane Caraveo , Andi Gutmans , Rasmus Lerdorf , Sam Ruby , Sascha Schumann , Zeev Suraski , Jim Winstead , Andrei Zmievski .
Zend Technologies provides a PHP Certification based on PHP 5 @.@ 5 exam for programmers to become certified PHP developers .
= = Installation and configuration = =
There are two primary ways for adding support for PHP to a web server – as a native web server module , or as a CGI executable . PHP has a direct module interface called Server Application Programming Interface ( SAPI ) , which is supported by many web servers including Apache HTTP Server , Microsoft IIS , Netscape ( now defunct ) and iPlanet . Some other web servers , such as OmniHTTPd , support the Internet Server Application Programming Interface ( ISAPI ) , which is a Microsoft 's web server module interface . If PHP has no module support for a web server , it can always be used as a Common Gateway Interface ( CGI ) or FastCGI processor ; in that case , the web server is configured to use PHP 's CGI executable to process all requests to PHP files .
PHP @-@ FPM ( FastCGI Process Manager ) is an alternative FastCGI implementation for PHP , bundled with the official PHP distribution since version 5 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 . When compared to the older FastCGI implementation , it contains some additional features , mostly useful for heavily loaded web servers .
When using PHP for command @-@ line scripting , a PHP command @-@ line interface ( CLI ) executable is needed . PHP supports a CLI SAPI as of PHP 4 @.@ 3 @.@ 0 . The main focus of this SAPI is developing shell applications using PHP . There are quite a few differences between the CLI SAPI and other SAPIs , although they do share many of the same behaviors .
PHP has a direct module interface called SAPI for different web servers ; in case of PHP 5 and Apache 2 @.@ 0 on Windows , it is provided in form of a DLL file called php5apache2.dll , which is a module that , among other functions , provides an interface between PHP and the web server , implemented in a form that the server understands . This form is what is known as a SAPI .
There are different kinds of SAPIs for various web server extensions . For example , in addition to those listed above , other SAPIs for the PHP language include the Common Gateway Interface ( CGI ) and command @-@ line interface ( CLI ) .
PHP can also be used for writing desktop graphical user interface ( GUI ) applications , by using the PHP @-@ GTK extension . PHP @-@ GTK is not included in the official PHP distribution , and as an extension it can be used only with PHP versions 5 @.@ 1 @.@ 0 and newer . The most common way of installing PHP @-@ GTK is compiling it from the source code .
When PHP is installed and used in cloud environments , software development kits ( SDKs ) are provided for using cloud @-@ specific features . For example :
Amazon Web Services provides the AWS SDK for PHP
Windows Azure can be used with the Windows Azure SDK for PHP .
Numerous configuration options are supported , affecting both core PHP features and extensions . Configuration file php.ini is searched for in different locations , depending on the way PHP is used . The configuration file is split into various sections , while some of the configuration options can be also set within the web server configuration .
= = Use = =
PHP is a general @-@ purpose scripting language that is especially suited to server @-@ side web development , in which case PHP generally runs on a web server . Any PHP code in a requested file is executed by the PHP runtime , usually to create dynamic web page content or dynamic images used on websites or elsewhere . It can also be used for command @-@ line scripting and client @-@ side graphical user interface ( GUI ) applications . PHP can be deployed on most web servers , many operating systems and platforms , and can be used with many relational database management systems ( RDBMS ) . Most web hosting providers support PHP for use by their clients . It is available free of charge , and the PHP Group provides the complete source code for users to build , customize and extend for their own use .
PHP acts primarily as a filter , taking input from a file or stream containing text and / or PHP instructions and outputting another stream of data . Most commonly the output will be HTML , although it could be JSON , XML or binary data such as image or audio formats . Since PHP 4 , the PHP parser compiles input to produce bytecode for processing by the Zend Engine , giving improved performance over its interpreter predecessor .
Originally designed to create dynamic web pages , PHP now focuses mainly on server @-@ side scripting , and it is similar to other server @-@ side scripting languages that provide dynamic content from a web server to a client , such as Microsoft 's ASP.NET , Sun Microsystems ' JavaServer Pages , and mod _ perl . PHP has also attracted the development of many software frameworks that provide building blocks and a design structure to promote rapid application development ( RAD ) . Some of these include PRADO , CakePHP , Symfony , CodeIgniter , Laravel , Yii Framework , Phalcon and Zend Framework , offering features similar to other web frameworks .
The LAMP architecture has become popular in the web industry as a way of deploying web applications . PHP is commonly used as the P in this bundle alongside Linux , Apache and MySQL , although the P may also refer to Python , Perl , or some mix of the three . Similar packages , WAMP and MAMP , are also available for Windows and OS X , with the first letter standing for the respective operating system . Although both PHP and Apache are provided as part of the Mac OS X base install , users of these packages seek a simpler installation mechanism that can be more easily kept up to date .
As of April 2007 , over 20 million Internet domains had web services hosted on servers with PHP installed and mod _ php was recorded as the most popular Apache HTTP Server module . As of October 2010 , PHP was used as the server @-@ side programming language on 75 % of all websites whose server @-@ side programming language was known ( as of February 2014 , the percentage had reached 82 % ) , and PHP was the most @-@ used open source software within enterprises . Web content management systems written in PHP include MediaWiki , Joomla , eZ Publish , eZ Platform , SilverStripe , WordPress , Drupal , Moodle , the user @-@ facing portion of Facebook , and Digg .
For specific and more advanced usage scenarios , PHP offers a well defined and documented way for writing custom extensions in C or C + + . Besides extending the language itself in form of additional libraries , extensions are providing a way for improving execution speed where it is critical and there is room for improvements by using a true compiled language . PHP also offers well defined ways for embedding itself into other software projects . That way PHP can be easily used as an internal scripting language for another project , also providing tight interfacing with the project 's specific internal data structures .
PHP received mixed reviews due to lacking support for multithreading at the core language level , though using threads is made possible by the " pthreads " PECL extension .
As of January 2013 , PHP was used in more than 240 million websites ( 39 % of those sampled ) and was installed on 2 @.@ 1 million web servers .
= = Security = =
In 2013 , 9 % of all vulnerabilities listed by the National Vulnerability Database were linked to PHP ; historically , about 30 % of all vulnerabilities listed since 1996 in this database are linked to PHP . Technical security flaws of the language itself or of its core libraries are not frequent ( 22 in 2009 , about 1 % of the total although PHP applies to about 20 % of programs listed ) . Recognizing that programmers make mistakes , some languages include taint checking to automatically detect the lack of input validation which induces many issues . Such a feature is being developed for PHP , but its inclusion into a release has been rejected several times in the past .
There are advanced protection patches such as Suhosin and Hardening @-@ Patch , especially designed for web hosting environments .
There are certain language features and configuration parameters ( primarily the default values for such runtime settings ) that make PHP applications prone to security issues . Among these , magic _ quotes _ gpc and register _ globals configuration directives are the best known ; the latter made any URL parameters become PHP variables , opening a path for serious security vulnerabilities by allowing an attacker to set the value of any uninitialized global variable and interfere with the execution of a PHP script . Support for " magic quotes " and " register globals " has been deprecated as of PHP 5 @.@ 3 @.@ 0 , and removed as of PHP 5 @.@ 4 @.@ 0 .
Another example for the runtime settings vulnerability comes from failing to disable PHP execution ( via engine configuration directive ) for the directory where uploaded images are stored ; leaving the default settings can result in execution of malicious PHP code embedded within the uploaded images . Also , leaving enabled the dynamic loading of PHP extensions ( via enable _ dl configuration directive ) in a shared web hosting environment can lead to security issues .
Also , implied type conversions that result in incompatible values being treated as identical against the programmer 's intent can lead to security issues . For example , the result of the comparison 0e1234 = = 0 comparison is true because the first compared value is treated as scientific notation having the value ( 0 × 101234 ) , i.e. zero . This feature resulted in authentication vulnerabilities in Simple Machines Forum , Typo3 and phpBB when MD5 password hashes were compared . Instead , either the function strcmp or the identity operator ( = = = ) should be used ; 0e1234 = = = 0 results in false .
In a 2013 analysis of over 170 @,@ 000 website defacements , published by Zone @-@ H , the most frequently ( 53 % ) used technique was exploitation of file inclusion vulnerability , mostly related to insecure usage of the PHP functions include , require , and allow _ url _ fopen .
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= If ( magazine ) =
If was an American science fiction magazine launched in March 1952 by Quinn Publications , owned by James L. Quinn .
The magazine was moderately successful , though it was never considered to be in the first tier of science fiction magazines . It achieved its greatest success under editor Frederik Pohl , winning the Hugo Award for best professional magazine three years running from 1966 to 1968 . If published many award @-@ winning stories over its 22 years , including Robert A. Heinlein 's novel The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress , and Harlan Ellison 's short story " I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream " . Several well @-@ known writers sold their first story to If ; the most successful was Larry Niven , whose story " The Coldest Place " appeared in the December 1964 issue .
If was merged into Galaxy Science Fiction after the December 1974 issue , its 175th issue overall .
= = Publication history = =
Although science fiction had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . By the end of the 1930s the field was undergoing its first boom , but World War II and its attendant paper shortages led to the demise of several titles . By the late 1940s the market began to recover again . From a low of eight active magazines in 1946 , the field expanded to 20 in 1950 , and a further 22 had commenced publication by 1954 . If was launched in the middle of this second publishing boom .
= = = Origins and 1950s = = =
If 's origins can be traced to 1948 and 1949 , when Raymond Palmer founded two magazines while working at Ziff @-@ Davis in Chicago : Fate and Other Worlds . Fate published articles about occult and supernatural events , while Other Worlds was a science fiction magazine . The two were sufficiently successful to attract the notice of James L. Quinn , a New York publisher . When Ziff @-@ Davis moved to New York City in late 1950 , Paul W. Fairman , a prolific writer , went with them , and was soon in touch with Quinn , who decided to found a pair of magazines modelled after Palmer 's . One was a non @-@ fiction magazine entitled Strange ; the other was If .
The first issue of If was dated March 1952 , with Fairman as editor ; it featured stories by Richard Shaver , Raymond Palmer , and Howard Browne , all writers who were regulars of the Ziff @-@ Davis magazines . By the time the third issue reached the news stands , the disappointing sales figures for the first issue were in , and Quinn decided to let Fairman go . Quinn persevered with himself as editor . His first issue was dated July 1952 , and he continued as editor on the masthead for some years . Quinn brought in Ed Valigursky as the art editor ; he designed striking covers , including some wraparound artwork — an unusual feature — which helped improve circulation . Quinn began searching for a replacement editor : writer Lester del Rey turned down the job ( a decision he is reported to have later regretted ) but Quinn was able to engage Larry T. Shaw , an active science fiction fan who had sold a few stories . Shaw joined in May 1953 as associate editor and soon began writing editorials ( beginning with the September 1953 issue ) and assisting with story selection . The magazine 's quality quickly improved and soon Quinn felt able to switch to a monthly schedule , instead of bi @-@ monthly . Shaw left after only a year , and Quinn resumed full editorial responsibilities .
In late 1953 , Quinn decided to run a competition for short fiction from new writers . The competition was only open to college students who had not sold a story before . The first prize was $ 1 @,@ 000 , the second prize $ 500 , and there were five runner @-@ up prizes of $ 100 each . Entries came in from writers who were later to become well @-@ known , including Harlan Ellison , Roger Zelazny , and Andrew J. Offutt , whose story " And Gone Tomorrow " , about a man unexpectedly sent a hundred years into the future , won first prize and appeared in the December 1954 issue of If . The only other one of the seven announced winners who had a career as a science fiction writer was Leo P. Kelley . Quinn decided to move If to a monthly schedule with the March 1954 issue , perhaps because the competition had increased readership . It reverted to a bimonthly schedule with the June 1956 issue , as circulation dropped again .
In 1957 , American News Company , by far the largest magazine distributor , was liquidated . Almost all the science fiction magazines had to find a new distributor , and the smaller independent companies remaining in the market often demanded monthly publication and a larger format from the magazines they took on . Many of the magazines did not have the advertising revenue required to support these changes , and within two or three years many of them had disappeared : the number of science fiction magazines being published dropped from a high of forty @-@ six in 1953 to less than a dozen by the end of the decade . For a while If was hard to find on the news stands , but it survived . Quinn did try the slick format ( using glossy paper , unlike the cheaper paper used for pulps and digests ) for a companion magazine , Space Age , which he launched in November 1958 ; the experiment was unsuccessful , however . In an attempt to improve If 's circulation , Quinn hired writer Damon Knight , whose first issue was October 1958 . Circulation failed to increase , though this was at least partly due to the problems with distribution , and by early 1959 Quinn decided to sell the magazine . Knight 's last issue was his third , dated February 1959 .
= = = Early 1960s = = =
If 's new owner was Robert Guinn , of Galaxy Publishing . The change of ownership was abrupt and led to a delay in publication , with the first issue under new editorship not appearing until July 1959 . The editor was Horace Gold , who was also the editor of Galaxy Science Fiction ; Galaxy had gone from a monthly to a bimonthly schedule at the start of 1959 , and If and Galaxy appeared in alternate months for the next few years . In a 1975 retrospective article , Gold commented that his policy with If was to experiment , using new writers that had not yet established themselves . In the judgement of science fiction historian Mike Ashley , the effect was that If became the weaker of the two magazines , printing stories that were of lower quality than those Gold selected for Galaxy .
Frederik Pohl took over the editorship of both If and Galaxy in 1961 . Gold had had a car accident with sufficiently severe health consequences to prevent him from being able to continue as editor . Pohl , who had been intermittently helping Gold with editorial duties for some time prior to the car accident , is first listed as editor of If on the masthead of the November 1961 issue , and as editor of Galaxy for the December 1961 issue , but he had been acting as editor of both magazines for at least six months before the end of the year . Pohl paid one cent per word for the stories he bought for If , whereas Galaxy paid three cents per word , and like Gold he regarded Galaxy as the leading magazine of the two , whereas If was somewhere he could work with new writers , and try experiments and whims . This developed into a selling point when a letter from a reader , Clayton Hamlin , prompted Pohl to declare that he would publish a new writer in every single issue of the magazine , though he was also able to attract well @-@ known writers . When Pohl began his stint as editor , both magazines were operating at a loss ; despite If 's lower budget Pohl found it more fun to edit , and commented that apparently the readers thought so too : he was able to make If show a profit before Galaxy , adding " What was fun for me seemed to be fun for them . "
In April 1963 , Galaxy Publishing brought out the first issue of Worlds of Tomorrow , another science fiction magazine , also edited by Pohl . The magazine published some well @-@ received material and was profitable , but Guinn , the publisher and owner , decided in 1967 that it would be better to have Galaxy resume a monthly schedule ; both Worlds of Tomorrow and Galaxy were bimonthly at that time , while If was monthly . With the August 1967 issue Worlds of Tomorrow was merged with If , though it was another year before Galaxy actually switched to a monthly schedule . By this time If had become monthly again , starting with the July 1964 issue ( though the schedule had an initial hiccup , omitting September 1964 ) .
The circulation rose from 64 @,@ 000 in 1965 to 67 @,@ 000 in 1967 ; the modest 5 % increase was exceeded only by Analog among the other science fiction magazines , and If won the Hugo Award for best professional SF magazine three years running during this period . However , in March 1969 , Robert Guinn sold all four of his magazines , including Galaxy and If , to Arnold Abramson at Universal Publishing and Distribution Corporation ( UPD ) . Pohl was in Rio de Janeiro when he heard the news , and decided to resign his position as editor rather than continue under the new management . He had been considering a return to a writing career for some time and the change in ownership precipitated his decision to leave .
= = = Decline and merger with Galaxy = = =
The new editor was Ejler Jakobsson , though Pohl continued to be listed as editor emeritus on the masthead until the July – August 1970 issue . Much of the editorial work was actually done by Judy @-@ Lynn Benjamin , who was hired by Pohl in 1969 as an editorial assistant . The new regime failed to impress readers , and circulation dropped from over 67 @,@ 000 for the year ending October 1968 to under 45 @,@ 000 the following year , a drop of over 30 % . If went bimonthly in May 1970 , as Abramson attempted to juggle the frequency of publication of several of his titles to maximize profits ; the page count and price were also adjusted more than once over the next year , again increasing profitability . Abramson also began a British distribution of If , reprinted with a separate cover , priced in British currency . Circulation figures of the time show an increase of about 6 @,@ 000 copies , but it is not clear if this includes sales in the UK .
In May 1973 , Judy @-@ Lynn Benjamin ( Judy @-@ Lynn del Rey since her 1971 marriage to Lester del Rey ) resigned . She was briefly replaced by Albert Dytch , but within four months Dytch in turn left , and in August 1973 James Baen joined UPD . He was made managing editor of If with effect from the January 1974 issue , and full editor one issue later ; Jakobsson was listed as editor emeritus until the August 1974 issue . Baen had little opportunity to work with If , however , as financial problems at UPD combined with the increasing cost of paper ( a consequence of the rising price of oil ) led to a decision to combine If with Galaxy . Despite the fact that in 1974 If 's circulation had exceeded Galaxy 's for the first time , it was Galaxy that was retained , and If was merged with it beginning with the January 1975 issue .
In 1986 an attempt was made to revive If as a semi @-@ professional magazine . The only issue , dated September – October 1986 , was edited by Clifford Hong .
= = Contents and reception = =
The first issue of If , dated March 1952 , went on sale on 7 January of that year . The lead story was Howard Browne 's " Twelve Times Zero " , a murder mystery with a science @-@ fictional resolution ; other stories were from Ray Palmer , Richard Shaver , and Rog Phillips , all writers associated with the Ziff @-@ Davis magazines . Browne was the editor of Ziff @-@ Davis 's Amazing Science Fiction , a leading magazine of the time , and had given Fairman his start in the field in the late 1940s . Fairman was familiar with Ziff @-@ Davis 's stable of writers , and his preference for them was a reflection of his experience , though this did not necessarily serve the magazine well — he referred to the acquisition of Browne 's story as " the scoop of the century " and spoke in glowing terms of him in an introductory note despite the fact that Browne was reputed to detest science fiction . In addition to the fiction and the editorial by Fairman , there was a letter column , a profile of Wilson Tucker , a selection of science news , a guest editorial by Ken Slater , a well @-@ known British fan , and an approving review of the TV show Tales of Tomorrow .
After Quinn dismissed Fairman and engaged Larry Shaw , the magazine improved significantly , and published several well @-@ received stories , including James Blish 's " A Case of Conscience " in the September 1953 issue , later to become the first part of Blish 's Hugo Award @-@ winning novel of the same name , about a Jesuit priest on a planet of aliens who have no religion but appear free of sin . The dominant science fiction magazines of the 1950s were Astounding , Galaxy , and Fantasy and Science Fiction , but If was in the next rank in terms of quality : SF historian Frank M. Robinson , for example , describes If as the " most major of the minors " . Well @-@ known writers who appeared in If in the 1950s include Harlan Ellison and Arthur C. Clarke : the original short story version of Clarke 's novel The Songs of Distant Earth appeared in the June 1958 issue . Isaac Asimov 's widely reprinted story " The Feeling of Power " appeared in February 1958 .
The period under Pohl is regarded as the magazine 's heyday ; the three consecutive Hugo Awards won from 1966 to 1968 broke a long period in which the award had been monopolized by Analog ( the name to which Astounding changed in 1960 ) and Fantasy and Science Fiction . Frank Robinson commented that " Pohl was the only one who was surprised when he won three Hugos in a row for editing IF . It had been fun , and the fun had showed . " Niven 's " Neutron Star " appeared in 1967 , and Harlan Ellison 's " I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream " appeared in 1968 ; both won Hugo Awards . Pohl also managed to secure a new Skylark novel , Skylark DuQuesne , from E.E. Smith ; the series had been started in the 1920s and was still popular with readers . Pohl also bought A.E. van Vogt 's " The Expendables " ; the story was van Vogt 's first sale in 14 years and attracted long @-@ time readers to the magazine . Another coup was the serialization of three novels by Robert A. Heinlein , including the award @-@ winning The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress , which ran in five parts from December 1965 to April 1966 .
Pohl 's policy of publishing a story by a new writer in every issue led to a series called " If @-@ firsts " ; the first one , Joseph L. Green 's " Once Around Arcturus " , about the courtship between a man and woman of different planets , appeared in the September 1962 issue . Several of the writers featured in the If @-@ first series , which were published from 1962 through 1965 , became well @-@ known , including Alexei Panshin ; the most prominent was Larry Niven , whose first story , " The Coldest Place " , appeared in December 1964 . Niven later remarked that the story was immediately outdated ; the plot relied on the discovery that the dark side of Mercury was the coldest place in the universe , but space probes had recently discovered that Mercury did in fact rotate asynchronously . Gardner Dozois also made his first sale to If , with " The Empty Man " , about a man possessed by an alien , in the September 1966 issue , and Gene Wolfe 's " Mountains Like Mice " , about an abandoned group of colonists on Mars , appeared in the May 1966 issue . Technically this was not Wolfe 's first sale , as he had already had " The Dead Man " published in the October 1965 issue of Sir ! , but " Mountains Like Mice " had been written earlier .
If 's covers during the 1960s were typically action @-@ oriented , showing monsters and aliens ; and several of the stories Pohl published were directed at a younger audience . For example , Blish 's Welcome to Mars , serialized under the title The Hour Before Earthrise in July to September 1966 , was about a teenage genius whose antigravity device stranded him and his girlfriend on Mars . Ashley has suggested that If was attempting to acquire readership from the many new fans of science fiction who had been introduced to the genre through television , in particular via the popular 1960s shows Doctor Who and Star Trek . If also ran a friendly letter column , with more fan @-@ oriented discussions than the other magazines , and between 1966 and 1968 a column by Lin Carter introduced readers to various aspects of science fiction fandom . These features are also likely to have appealed to a younger audience .
= = Bibliographic details = =
If was a digest @-@ sized magazine throughout its life . It began at 164 pages and with only the fifth issue , November 1952 , dropped to 124 pages . The page count increased again to 134 pages with the July 1959 issue , and to 164 pages with the September 1965 issue ; it stayed at this length until the September – October 1970 issue . The page count was then increased to 180 with the June 1971 issue , and to 164 for the very last issue , December 1974 . It was priced at 35 cents to begin with , and increased to 40 cents with the March 1963 issue , to 50 cents with the December 1964 issue , to 60 cents with the August 1967 issue , and finally to 75 cents with the September – October 1970 issue . With the April 1972 issue , UPD began using card stock for the covers , rather than paper , and continued to do so until the magazine ceased publication .
The magazine was bimonthly until the March 1954 issue , which was followed by April 1954 , inaugurating a monthly period that ran until June 1955 . This was followed by August 1955 , resuming a bimonthly schedule that ran until July 1964 , with only one irregularity , when the February 1959 issue was followed by July 1959 . After July 1964 , If ran a monthly schedule until April 1970 , with three omissions : there were no issues dated September 1964 , June 1969 , or August 1969 . From May – June 1970 , the issues were bimonthly and bore the names of two months . This bimonthly sequence ran through the last issue at the end of 1974 . The date the magazine printed on the cover reverted to a single month with the June 1971 issue , though the contents page still used two months to identify the issue . The volume numbering began with six issues to a volume : there were three errors on the magazine contents page , with volume 8 number 1 incorrectly printed as volume 7 number 6 ; volume 9 number 3 printed as volume 8 number 6 ; and volume 10 number 1 printed as volume 10 number 6 . Volume 14 , which began in March 1964 , ran through the end of the year , with seven numbers ; the remaining volumes had 12 numbers each except for volume 19 which had 10 and volume 22 which had 8 .
Several British editions of If were produced . In 1953 and 1954 , Strato Publications reprinted 15 issues , numbering them from 1 to 15 ; another 18 were reprinted between 1959 and 1962 , with the issue numbers started at 1 again . Between January and November 1967 a UK edition appeared from Gold Star Publications ; these were identical to the US edition dated ten months previously . Between 1972 and 1974 , 15 of the UPD editions of If were imported , renumbered and repriced for UK distribution . The numbering , inexplicably , ran from 1 to 9 , and then 11 , 1 , 13 , 3 , 4 and 5 .
The editorial succession at If was as follows :
Paul W. Fairman : March – September 1952 .
James L. Quinn : November 1952 – August 1958 . From May 1953 to March 1954 , Larry T. Shaw was Associate Editor ; he wrote editorials for at least three issues , beginning with September 1953 , and generally did most of the editorial work .
Damon Knight : October 1958 – February 1959 .
H.L. Gold : July 1959 – November 1961 .
Frederik Pohl , January 1962 – May 1969 .
Ejler Jakobsson : October 1969 – January / February 1974
Jim Baen : March / April – December 1974 .
Clifford Hong : September / November 1986 .
Eight selections of stories from If have been published . Two were edited by Quinn : The First World of If ( 1957 ) and The Second World of If ( 1958 ) ; four by Pohl : The Best Science Fiction from If ( 1964 ) , The If Reader of Science Fiction ( 1966 ) , The Second If Reader of Science Fiction ( 1968 ) , and Worlds of If ( 1986 ) ; and two by Jakobsson , both published as by " The Editors of If " : The Best from If ( 1973 ) and The Best from If Vol II ( 1974 ) . In addition , two anthologies drew all their contents from If without mentioning the magazine : The 6 Fingers of Time and 5 Other Science Fiction Novelets ( 1965 ) and The Frozen Planet and Other Stories ( 1966 ) . Both were edited by Samuel H Post , who was not credited .
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= Crohn 's disease =
Crohn 's disease is a type of inflammatory bowel disease ( IBD ) that may affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract from mouth to anus . Signs and symptoms often include abdominal pain , diarrhea ( which may be bloody if inflammation is severe ) , fever , and weight loss . Other complications may occur outside the gastrointestinal tract and include anemia , skin rashes , arthritis , inflammation of the eye , and feeling tired . The skin rashes may be due to infections as well as pyoderma gangrenosum or erythema nodosum . Bowel obstruction also commonly occurs and those with the disease are at greater risk of bowel cancer .
Crohn 's disease is caused by a combination of environmental , immune and bacterial factors in genetically susceptible individuals . It results in a chronic inflammatory disorder , in which the body 's immune system attacks the gastrointestinal tract possibly directed at microbial antigens . While Crohn 's is an immune related disease , it does not appear to be an autoimmune disease ( in that the immune system is not being triggered by the body itself ) . The exact underlying immune problem is not clear ; however , it may be an immunodeficiency state . About half of the overall risk is related to genetics with more than 70 genes found to be involved . Tobacco smokers are two times more likely to develop Crohn 's disease than nonsmokers . It also often begins after gastroenteritis . Diagnosis is based on a number of findings including biopsy and appearance of the bowel wall , medical imaging and description of the disease . Other conditions that can present similarly include irritable bowel syndrome and Behçet 's disease .
There are no medications or surgical procedures that can cure Crohn 's disease . Treatment options can only help with symptoms , maintain remission , and prevent relapse . In those newly diagnosed , a corticosteroid may be used for a brief period of time to quickly improve the disease with another medication such as either methotrexate or a thiopurine used to prevent recurrence . An important part of treatment is the stopping of smoking among those who do . One in five people with the disease are admitted to hospital each year , and half of those with the disease will require surgery for the disease at some point over a ten @-@ year period . While surgery should be used as little as possible , it is necessary to address some abscesses , certain bowel obstructions , and cancers . Checking for bowel cancer via colonoscopy is recommended every few years , starting eight years after the disease has begun .
Crohn 's disease affects about 3 @.@ 2 per 1 @,@ 000 people in Europe and North America . It is less common in Asia and Africa . It has historically been more common in the developed world . Rates have , however , been increasing , particularly in the developing world , since the 1970s . Inflammatory bowel disease resulted in 35 @,@ 000 deaths in 2010 and those with Crohn 's disease have a slightly reduced life expectancy . It tends to start in the teens and twenties , although it can occur at any age . Males and females are equally affected . The disease was named after gastroenterologist Burrill Bernard Crohn , who , in 1932 , together with two other colleagues at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York , described a series of patients with inflammation of the terminal ileum of the small intestine , the area most commonly affected by the illness .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
= = = Gastrointestinal = = =
Many people with Crohn 's disease have symptoms for years prior to the diagnosis . The usual onset is between 15 and 30 years of age , but can occur at any age . Because of the ' patchy ' nature of the gastrointestinal disease and the depth of tissue involvement , initial symptoms can be more subtle than those of ulcerative colitis . People with Crohn 's disease experience chronic recurring periods of flare @-@ ups and remission .
Abdominal pain may be the initial symptom of Crohn 's disease usually in the lower right area . It is often accompanied by diarrhea , especially in those who have had surgery . The diarrhea may or may not be bloody . The nature of the diarrhea in Crohn 's disease depends on the part of the small intestine or colon involved . Ileitis typically results in large @-@ volume , watery feces . Colitis may result in a smaller volume of feces of higher frequency . Fecal consistency may range from solid to watery . In severe cases , an individual may have more than 20 bowel movements per day and may need to awaken at night to defecate . Visible bleeding in the feces is less common in Crohn 's disease than in ulcerative colitis , but may be seen in the setting of Crohn 's colitis . Bloody bowel movements typically come and go , and may be bright or dark red in color . In the setting of severe Crohn 's colitis , bleeding may be copious . Flatulence and bloating may also add to the intestinal discomfort .
Symptoms caused by intestinal stenosis are also common in Crohn 's disease . Abdominal pain is often most severe in areas of the bowel with stenoses . Persistent vomiting and nausea may indicate stenosis from small bowel obstruction or disease involving the stomach , pylorus , or duodenum . Although the association is greater in the context of ulcerative colitis , Crohn 's disease may also be associated with primary sclerosing cholangitis , a type of inflammation of the bile ducts .
Perianal discomfort may also be prominent in Crohn 's disease . Itchiness or pain around the anus may be suggestive of inflammation , fistulization or abscess around the anal area or anal fissure . Perianal skin tags are also common in Crohn 's disease . Fecal incontinence may accompany perianal Crohn 's disease . At the opposite end of the gastrointestinal tract , the mouth may be affected by non @-@ healing sores ( aphthous ulcers ) . Rarely , the esophagus , and stomach may be involved in Crohn 's disease . These can cause symptoms including difficulty swallowing ( dysphagia ) , upper abdominal pain , and vomiting .
= = = Systemic = = =
Crohn 's disease , like many other chronic , inflammatory diseases , can cause a variety of systemic symptoms . Among children , growth failure is common . Many children are first diagnosed with Crohn 's disease based on inability to maintain growth . As it may manifest at the time of the growth spurt in puberty , up to 30 % of children with Crohn 's disease may have retardation of growth . Fever may also be present , though fevers greater than 38 @.@ 5 ° C ( 101 @.@ 3 ° F ) are uncommon unless there is a complication such as an abscess . Among older individuals , Crohn 's disease may manifest as weight loss , usually related to decreased food intake , since individuals with intestinal symptoms from Crohn 's disease often feel better when they do not eat and might lose their appetite . People with extensive small intestine disease may also have malabsorption of carbohydrates or lipids , which can further exacerbate weight loss .
= = = Extraintestinal = = =
In addition to systemic and gastrointestinal involvement , Crohn 's disease can affect many other organ systems . Inflammation of the interior portion of the eye , known as uveitis , can cause blurred vision and eye pain , especially when exposed to light ( photophobia ) . Inflammation may also involve the white part of the eye ( sclera ) , a condition called episcleritis . Both episcleritis and uveitis can lead to loss of vision if untreated .
Crohn 's disease that affects the ileum may result in an increased risk for gallstones . This is due to a decrease in bile acid resorption in the ileum and the bile gets excreted in the stool . As a result , the cholesterol / bile ratio increases in the gallbladder , resulting in an increased risk for gallstones .
Crohn 's disease is associated with a type of rheumatologic disease known as seronegative spondyloarthropathy . This group of diseases is characterized by inflammation of one or more joints ( arthritis ) or muscle insertions ( enthesitis ) . The arthritis in Crohn 's disease can be divided into two types . The first type affects larger weight @-@ bearing joints such as the knee ( most common ) , hips , shoulders , wrists , or elbows . The second type symmetrically involves five or more of the small joints of the hands and feet . The arthritis may also involve the spine , leading to ankylosing spondylitis if the entire spine is involved or simply sacroiliitis if only the sacroiliac joint is involved . The symptoms of arthritis include painful , warm , swollen , stiff joints , and loss of joint mobility or function .
Crohn 's disease may also involve the skin , blood , and endocrine system . The most common type of skin manifestation , erythema nodosum , presents as raised , tender red nodules usually appearing on the shins . Erythema nodosum is due to inflammation of the underlying subcutaneous tissue , and is characterized by septal panniculitis . Another skin lesion , pyoderma gangrenosum , is typically a painful ulcerating nodule . Crohn 's disease also increases the risk of blood clots ; painful swelling of the lower legs can be a sign of deep venous thrombosis , while difficulty breathing may be a result of pulmonary embolism . Autoimmune hemolytic anemia , a condition in which the immune system attacks the red blood cells , is also more common in Crohn 's disease and may cause fatigue , a pale appearance , and other symptoms common in anemia . Clubbing , a deformity of the ends of the fingers , may also be a result of Crohn 's disease . Finally , Crohn 's disease increases the risk of osteoporosis , or thinning of the bones . Individuals with osteoporosis are at increased risk of bone fractures .
People with Crohn 's disease often have anemia due to vitamin B12 , folate , iron deficiency , or due to anemia of chronic disease . The most common is iron deficiency anemia from chronic blood loss , reduced dietary intake , and persistent inflammation leading to increased hepcidin levels , restricting iron absorption in the duodenum . As Crohn 's disease most commonly affects the terminal ileum where the vitamin B12 / intrinsic factor complex is absorbed , B12 deficiency may be seen . This is particularly common after surgery to remove the ileum . Involvement of the duodenum and jejunum can impair the absorption of many other nutrients including folate . If Crohn 's disease affects the stomach , production of intrinsic factor can be reduced .
Crohn 's disease can also cause neurological complications ( reportedly in up to 15 % ) . The most common of these are seizures , stroke , myopathy , peripheral neuropathy , headache and depression .
People with Crohn 's often also have issues with small bowel bacterial overgrowth syndrome , which has similar symptoms .
In the oral cavity people with Crohn 's may develop cheilitis granulomatosa and other forms of orofacial granulomatosis , pyostomatitis vegetans , recurrent aphthous stomatitis , geographic tongue , and migratory stomatitis in higher prevalence than the general population .
= = Cause = =
While the exact cause is unknown , Crohn 's disease seems to be due to a combination of environmental factors and genetic predisposition . Crohn 's is the first genetically complex disease in which the relationship between genetic risk factors and the immune system is understood in considerable detail . Each individual risk mutation makes a small contribution to the overall risk of Crohn 's ( approximately 1 : 200 ) . The genetic data , and direct assessment of immunity , indicates a malfunction in the innate immune system . In this view , the chronic inflammation of Crohn 's is caused when the adaptive immune system tries to compensate for a deficient innate immune system .
= = = Genetics = = =
Crohn 's has a genetic component . Because of this , siblings of known people with Crohn 's are 30 times more likely to develop Crohn 's than the general population .
The first mutation found to be associated with Crohn 's was a frameshift in the NOD2 gene ( also known as the CARD15 gene ) , followed by the discovery of point mutations . Over thirty genes have been associated with Crohn 's ; a biological function is known for most of them . For example , one association is with mutations in the XBP1 gene , which is involved in the unfolded protein response pathway of the endoplasmatic reticulum . Other well documented genes which increase the risk of developing Crohn disease are ATG16L1 , IL23R , IRGM , and SLC11A1 . There is considerable overlap between susceptibility loci for IBD and mycobacterial infections . Recent genome @-@ wide association studies have shown that Crohn ’ s disease is genetically linked to coeliac disease .
= = = Immune system = = =
There was a prevailing view that Crohn 's disease is a primary T cell autoimmune disorder , however , a newer theory hypothesizes that Crohn 's results from an impaired innate immunity . The later hypothesis describes impaired cytokine secretion by macrophages , which contributes to impaired innate immunity and leads to a sustained microbial @-@ induced inflammatory response in the colon , where the bacterial load is high . Another theory is that the inflammation of Crohn 's was caused by an overactive Th1 and Th17 cytokine response .
In 2007 , the ATG16L1 gene has been implicated in Crohn 's disease , which may induce autophagy and hinder the body 's ability to attack invasive bacteria . Another study has theorized that the human immune system traditionally evolved with the presence of parasites inside the body , and that the lack thereof due to modern hygiene standards has weakened the immune system . Test subjects were reintroduced to harmless parasites , with positive response .
= = = Microbes = = =
Current thinking is that microorganisms are taking advantage of their host 's weakened mucosal layer and inability to clear bacteria from the intestinal walls , which are both symptoms of Crohn 's . Different strains found in tissue and different outcomes to antibiotics therapy and resistance suggest Crohn 's Disease is not one disease , but an umbrella of diseases related to different pathogens .
A number of studies have suggested a causal role for Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis ( MAP ) , which causes a similar disease , Johne 's disease , in cattle .
NOD2 is a gene involved in Crohn 's genetic susceptibility . It is associated with macrophages ' diminished ability to phagocize MAP . This same gene may reduce innate and adaptive immunity in gastrointestinal tissue and impair the ability to resist infection by the MAP bacterium . Macrophages that ingest the MAP bacterium are associated with high production of TNF @-@ α .
Other studies have linked specific strains of enteroadherent E. coli to the disease . Adherent @-@ invasive Escherichia coli ( AIEC ) , are more common in people with CD , have the ability to make strong biofilms compared to non @-@ AIEC strains correlating with high adhesion and invasion indices of neutrophils and the ability to block autophagy at the autolysosomal step , which allows for intracellular survival of the bacteria and induction of inflammation . Inflammation drives the proliferation of AIEC and dysbiosis in the ileum , irrespective of genotype . AIEC strains replicate extensively into macrophages inducing the secretion of very large amounts of TNF @-@ α .
Mouse studies have suggested some symptoms of Crohn 's disease , ulcerative colitis , and irritable bowel syndrome have the same underlying cause . Biopsy samples taken from the colons of all three patient groups were found to produce elevated levels of a serine protease . Experimental introduction of the serine protease into mice has been found to produce widespread pain associated with irritable bowel syndrome , as well as colitis , which is associated with all three diseases . Regional and temporal variations in those illnesses follow those associated with infection with the protozoan Blastocystis .
The " cold @-@ chain " hypothesis is that psychrotrophic bacteria such as Yersinia and Listeria species contribute to the disease . A statistical correlation was found between the advent of the use of refrigeration in the United States and various parts of Europe and the rise of the disease .
There is an apparent connection between Crohn 's disease , Mycobacterium , other pathogenic bacteria , and genetic markers . In many individuals , genetic factors predispose individuals to Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection . This bacterium then produces mannins , which protect both itself and various bacteria from phagocytosis , which causes a variety of secondary infections .
Still , this relationship between specific types of bacteria and Crohn 's disease remains unclear .
= = = Environmental factors = = =
The increased incidence of Crohn 's in the industrialized world indicates an environmental component . Crohn 's is associated with an increased intake of animal protein , milk protein and an increased ratio of omega @-@ 6 to omega @-@ 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids . Those who consume vegetable proteins appear to have a lower incidence of Crohn 's disease . Consumption of fish protein has no association . Smoking increases the risk of the return of active disease ( flares ) . The introduction of hormonal contraception in the United States in the 1960s is associated with a dramatic increase in incidence , and one hypothesis is that these drugs work on the digestive system in ways similar to smoking . Isotretinoin is associated with Crohn 's . Although stress is sometimes claimed to exacerbate Crohn 's disease , there is no concrete evidence to support such claim . Dietary microparticles , such as those found in toothpaste , have been studied as they produce effects on immunity , but they were not consumed in greater amounts in patients with Crohn 's .
= = Pathophysiology = =
During a colonoscopy , biopsies of the colon are often taken to confirm the diagnosis . Certain characteristic features of the pathology seen point toward Crohn 's disease ; it shows a transmural pattern of inflammation , meaning the inflammation may span the entire depth of the intestinal wall . Ulceration is an outcome seen in highly active disease . There is usually an abrupt transition between unaffected tissue and the ulcer — a characteristic sign known as skip lesions . Under a microscope , biopsies of the affected colon may show mucosal inflammation , characterized by focal infiltration of neutrophils , a type of inflammatory cell , into the epithelium . This typically occurs in the area overlying lymphoid aggregates . These neutrophils , along with mononuclear cells , may infiltrate the crypts , leading to inflammation ( crypititis ) or abscess ( crypt abscess ) . Granulomas , aggregates of macrophage derivatives known as giant cells , are found in 50 % of cases and are most specific for Crohn 's disease . The granulomas of Crohn 's disease do not show " caseation " , a cheese @-@ like appearance on microscopic examination characteristic of granulomas associated with infections , such as tuberculosis . Biopsies may also show chronic mucosal damage , as evidenced by blunting of the intestinal villi , atypical branching of the crypts , and a change in the tissue type ( metaplasia ) . One example of such metaplasia , Paneth cell metaplasia , involves development of Paneth cells ( typically found in the small intestine and a key regulator of intestinal microbiota ) in other parts of the gastrointestinal system .
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis of Crohn 's disease can sometimes be challenging , and a number of tests are often required to assist the physician in making the diagnosis . Even with a full battery of tests , it may not be possible to diagnose Crohn 's with complete certainty ; a colonoscopy is approximately 70 % effective in diagnosing the disease , with further tests being less effective . Disease in the small bowel is particularly difficult to diagnose , as a traditional colonoscopy allows access to only the colon and lower portions of the small intestines ; introduction of the capsule endoscopy aids in endoscopic diagnosis . Multinucleated giant cells , a common finding in the lesions of Crohn 's disease , are less common in the lesions of lichen nitidus .
= = = Classification = = =
Crohn 's disease is one type of inflammatory bowel disease ( IBD ) . It typically manifests in the gastrointestinal tract and can be categorized by the specific tract region affected . A disease of both the ileum ( the last part of the small intestine that connects to the large intestine ) , and the large intestine , Ileocolic Crohn 's accounts for fifty percent of cases . Crohn 's ileitis , manifest in the ileum only , accounts for thirty percent of cases , while Crohn 's colitis , of the large intestine , accounts for the remaining twenty percent of cases and may be particularly difficult to distinguish from ulcerative colitis . Gastroduodenal Crohn 's disease causes inflammation in the stomach and first part of the small intestine , called the duodenum . Jejunoileitis causes spotty patches of inflammation in the top half of the small intestine , called the jejunum . The disease can attack any part of the digestive tract , from mouth to anus . However , individuals affected by the disease rarely fall outside these three classifications , with presentations in other areas .
Crohn 's disease may also be categorized by the behavior of disease as it progresses . These categorizations formalized in the Vienna classification of the disease . There are three categories of disease presentation in Crohn 's disease : stricturing , penetrating , and inflammatory . Stricturing disease causes narrowing of the bowel that may lead to bowel obstruction or changes in the caliber of the feces . Penetrating disease creates abnormal passageways ( fistulae ) between the bowel and other structures , such as the skin . Inflammatory disease ( or nonstricturing , nonpenetrating disease ) causes inflammation without causing strictures or fistulae .
= = = Endoscopy = = =
A colonoscopy is the best test for making the diagnosis of Crohn 's disease , as it allows direct visualization of the colon and the terminal ileum , identifying the pattern of disease involvement . On occasion , the colonoscope can travel past the terminal ileum , but it varies from person to person . During the procedure , the gastroenterologist can also perform a biopsy , taking small samples of tissue for laboratory analysis , which may help confirm a diagnosis . As 30 % of Crohn 's disease involves only the ileum , cannulation of the terminal ileum is required in making the diagnosis . Finding a patchy distribution of disease , with involvement of the colon or ileum , but not the rectum , is suggestive of Crohn 's disease , as are other endoscopic stigmata . The utility of capsule endoscopy for this , however , is still uncertain . A " cobblestone " -like appearance is seen in approximately 40 % of cases of Crohn 's disease upon colonoscopy , representing areas of ulceration separated by narrow areas of healthy tissue .
= = = Radiologic tests = = =
A small bowel follow @-@ through may suggest the diagnosis of Crohn 's disease and is useful when the disease involves only the small intestine . Because colonoscopy and gastroscopy allow direct visualization of only the terminal ileum and beginning of the duodenum , they cannot be used to evaluate the remainder of the small intestine . As a result , a barium follow @-@ through X @-@ ray , wherein barium sulfate suspension is ingested and fluoroscopic images of the bowel are taken over time , is useful for looking for inflammation and narrowing of the small bowel . Barium enemas , in which barium is inserted into the rectum and fluoroscopy is used to image the bowel , are rarely used in the work @-@ up of Crohn 's disease due to the advent of colonoscopy . They remain useful for identifying anatomical abnormalities when strictures of the colon are too small for a colonoscope to pass through , or in the detection of colonic fistulae ( in this case contrast should be performed with iodate substances ) .
CT and MRI scans are useful for evaluating the small bowel with enteroclysis protocols . They are also useful for looking for intra @-@ abdominal complications of Crohn 's disease , such as abscesses , small bowel obstructions , or fistulae . Magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) is another option for imaging the small bowel as well as looking for complications , though it is more expensive and less readily available .
= = = Blood tests = = =
A complete blood count may reveal anemia , which commonly is caused by blood loss leading to iron deficiency ( a microcytic anemia ) or by vitamin B12 deficiency ( a macrocytic anemia ) , usually caused by ileal disease impairing vitamin B12 absorption . Rarely autoimmune hemolysis may occur . Ferritin levels help assess if iron deficiency is contributing to the anemia . Erythrocyte sedimentation rate ( ESR ) and C @-@ reactive protein help assess the degree of inflammation , which is important as ferritin can also be raised in inflammation . Serum iron , total iron binding capacity and transferrin saturation may be more easily interpreted in inflammation . Anemia of chronic disease results in a normocytic anemia . Other causes of anemia include medication used in treatment of inflammatory bowel disease , like azathioprine , which can lead to cytopenia , and sulfasalazine , which can also result in folate deficiency . Testing for Saccharomyces cerevisiae antibodies ( ASCA ) and antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies ( ANCA ) has been evaluated to identify inflammatory diseases of the intestine and to differentiate Crohn 's disease from ulcerative colitis . Furthermore , increasing amounts and levels of serological antibodies such as ASCA , antilaminaribioside [ Glc ( β1,3 ) Glb ( β ) ; ALCA ] , antichitobioside [ GlcNAc ( β1,4 ) GlcNAc ( β ) ; ACCA ] , antimannobioside [ Man ( α1,3 ) Man ( α ) AMCA ] , antiLaminarin [ ( Glc ( β1,3 ) ) 3n ( Glc ( β1,6 ) ) n ; anti @-@ L ] and antichitin [ GlcNAc ( β1,4 ) n ; anti @-@ C ] associate with disease behavior and surgery , and may aid in the prognosis of Crohn 's disease .
Low serum levels of vitamin D are associated with Crohn 's disease . Further studies are required to determine the significance of this association .
= = = Comparison with ulcerative colitis = = =
The most common disease that mimics the symptoms of Crohn 's disease is ulcerative colitis , as both are inflammatory bowel diseases that can affect the colon with similar symptoms . It is important to differentiate these diseases , since the course of the diseases and treatments may be different . In some cases , however , it may not be possible to tell the difference , in which case the disease is classified as indeterminate colitis .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
Other conditions with similar symptoms as Crohn 's disease includes intestinal tuberculosis , Behçet ’ s disease , ulcerative colitis , nonsteroidal anti @-@ inflammatory drug enteropathy , irritable bowel syndrome and celiac disease . Irritable bowel syndrome is excluded when there are inflammatory changes . Celiac disease can 't be excluded if specific antibodies ( anti @-@ transglutaminase antibodies ) are negative , nor in absence of intestinal villi atrophy .
= = Management = =
There is no cure for Crohn 's disease and remission may not be possible or prolonged if achieved . In cases where remission is possible , relapse can be prevented and symptoms controlled with medication , lifestyle and dietary changes , changes to eating habits ( eating smaller amounts more often ) , reduction of stress , moderate activity and exercise . Surgery is generally contraindicated and has not been shown to prevent remission . Adequately controlled , Crohn 's disease may not significantly restrict daily living . Treatment for Crohn 's disease is only when symptoms are active and involve first treating the acute problem , then maintaining remission .
= = = Lifestyle changes = = =
Certain lifestyle changes can reduce symptoms , including dietary adjustments , elemental diet , proper hydration , and smoking cessation . Diets that include higher levels of fiber and fruit are associated with reduced risk , while diets rich in total fats , polyunsaturated fatty acids , meat , and omega @-@ 6 fatty acids may increase the risk of Crohn 's . Smoking may increase Crohn 's disease ; stopping is recommended . Eating small meals frequently instead of big meals may also help with a low appetite . To manage symptoms have a balanced diet with proper portion control . Fatigue can be helped with regular exercise , a healthy diet , and enough sleep . A food diary may help with identifying foods that trigger symptoms . Some people should follow a low dietary fiber diet to control symptoms especially if fibrous foods cause symptoms . Some find relief in eliminating casein ( protein found in cow 's milk ) and gluten ( protein found in wheat , rye and barley ) from their diets . They may have specific dietary intolerances ( not allergies ) .
= = = Medication = = =
Acute treatment uses medications to treat any infection ( normally antibiotics ) and to reduce inflammation ( normally aminosalicylate anti @-@ inflammatory drugs and corticosteroids ) . When symptoms are in remission , treatment enters maintenance , with a goal of avoiding the recurrence of symptoms . Prolonged use of corticosteroids has significant side @-@ effects ; as a result , they are , in general , not used for long @-@ term treatment . Alternatives include aminosalicylates alone , though only a minority are able to maintain the treatment , and many require immunosuppressive drugs . It has been also suggested that antibiotics change the enteric flora , and their continuous use may pose the risk of overgrowth with pathogens such as Clostridium difficile .
Medications used to treat the symptoms of Crohn 's disease include 5 @-@ aminosalicylic acid ( 5 @-@ ASA ) formulations , prednisone , immunomodulators such as azathioprine ( given as the prodrug for 6 @-@ mercaptopurine ) , methotrexate , infliximab , adalimumab , certolizumab and natalizumab . Hydrocortisone should be used in severe attacks of Crohn 's disease . Biological therapies are medications used to avoid long @-@ term steroid use , decrease inflammation , and treat people who have fistulas with abscesses .
The gradual loss of blood from the gastrointestinal tract , as well as chronic inflammation , often leads to anemia , and professional guidelines suggest routinely monitoring for this . Adequate disease control usually improves anemia of chronic disease , but iron deficiency may require treatment with iron supplements . Guidelines vary as to how iron should be administered . Besides other , problems include a limitation in possible daily resorption and an increased growth of intestinal bacteria . Some advise parenteral iron as first line as it works faster , has fewer gastrointestinal side effects , and is unaffected by inflammation reducing enteral absorption .
Other guidelines advise oral iron as first line with parenteral iron reserved for those that fail to adequately respond as oral iron is considerably cheaper . All agree that severe anemia ( hemoglobin under 10g / dL ) should be treated with parenteral iron . Blood transfusion should be reserved for those who are cardiovascularly unstable , due to its relatively poor safety profile , lack of long term efficacy , and cost .
= = = Surgery = = =
Crohn 's cannot be cured by surgery , as the disease eventually recurs , though it is used in the case of partial or full blockage of the intestine . Surgery may also be required for complications such as obstructions , fistulas , or abscesses , or if the disease does not respond to drugs . After the first surgery , Crohn 's usually comes back at the site where the diseased intestine was removed and the healthy ends were rejoined , however it can come back in other locations . After a resection , scar tissue builds up , which can cause strictures , which form when the intestines become too small to allow excrement to pass through easily , which can lead to a blockage . After the first resection , another resection may be necessary within five years . For patients with an obstruction due to a stricture , two options for treatment are strictureplasty and resection of that portion of bowel . There is no statistical significance between strictureplasty alone versus strictureplasty and resection in cases of duodenal involvement . In these cases , re @-@ operation rates were 31 % and 27 % , respectively , indicating that strictureplasty is a safe and effective treatment for selected people with duodenal involvement .
Postsurgical recurrence of Crohn 's disease is relatively common . Crohn 's lesions are nearly always found at the site of the resected bowel . The join ( or anastomosis ) after surgery may be inspected , usually during a colonoscopy , and disease activity graded . The " Rutgeert 's score " is an endoscopic scoring system for post @-@ operative disease recurrence in Crohn 's disease . Mild postsurgical recurrences of Crohn 's disease are graded i1 and i2 , moderate to severe recurrences are graded i3 and i4 . Fewer lesions result in a lower grade . Based on the score , treatment plans can be designed to give the patient the best chance of managing recurrence of the disease .
Short bowel syndrome ( SBS , also short gut syndrome or simply short gut ) is caused by the surgical removal of part of the small intestine . It usually develops in those patients who have had half or more of their small intestines removed . Diarrhea is the main symptom , but others may include weight loss , cramping , bloating , and heartburn . Short bowel syndrome is treated with changes in diet , intravenous feeding , vitamin and mineral supplements , and treatment with medications . In some cases of SBS , intestinal transplant surgery may be considered ; though the number of transplant centres offering this procedure is quite small and it comes with a high risk due to the chance of infection and rejection of the transplanted intestine .
Bile acid diarrhea is another complication following surgery for Crohn 's disease in which the terminal ileum has been removed . This leads to the development of excessive watery diarrhea . It is usually thought to be due to an inability of the ileum to reabsorb bile acids after resection of the terminal ileum and was the first type of bile acid malabsorption recognized .
= = = Alternative medicine = = =
More than half of people with Crohn 's disease have tried complementary or alternative therapy . These include diets , probiotics , fish oil and other herbal and nutritional supplements . Some scientists have suggested more research into these is needed to discriminate between effective therapies and those that have not been found to be effective .
Acupuncture is used to treat inflammatory bowel disease in China , and is being used more frequently in Western society . At this time , evidence is insufficient to recommend the use of acupuncture .
Homeopathy is frequently used in Germany as a treatment for Crohn 's disease , though no clinical trials exist that demonstrate homeopathy is effective .
There are contradicting studies regarding the effect of medical cannabis on inflammatory bowel disease .
= = Prognosis = =
Crohn 's disease is a chronic condition for which there is no cure . It is characterised by periods of improvement followed by episodes when symptoms flare up . With treatment , most people achieve a healthy weight , and the mortality rate for the disease is relatively low . It can vary from being benign to very severe and people with CD could experience just one episode or have continuous symptoms . It usually reoccurs , although some people can remain disease free for years or decades . Most people with Crohn 's live a normal lifespan . However , Crohn 's disease is associated with a small increase in risk of small bowel and colorectal carcinoma ( bowel cancer ) .
= = = Complications = = =
Crohn 's disease can lead to several mechanical complications within the intestines , including obstruction , fistulae , and abscesses . Obstruction typically occurs from strictures or adhesions that narrow the lumen , blocking the passage of the intestinal contents . A fistulae can develop between two loops of bowel , between the bowel and bladder , between the bowel and vagina , and between the bowel and skin . Abscesses are walled off concentrations of infection , which can occur in the abdomen or in the perianal area . Crohn 's is responsible for 10 % of vesicoenteric fistulae , and is the most common cause of ileovesical fistulae .
Crohn 's disease also increases the risk of cancer in the area of inflammation . For example , individuals with Crohn 's disease involving the small bowel are at higher risk for small intestinal cancer . Similarly , people with Crohn 's colitis have a relative risk of 5 @.@ 6 for developing colon cancer . Screening for colon cancer with colonoscopy is recommended for anyone who has had Crohn 's colitis for at least eight years . Some studies suggest there is a role for chemoprotection in the prevention of colorectal cancer in Crohn 's involving the colon ; two agents have been suggested , folate and mesalamine preparations .
Individuals with Crohn 's disease are at risk of malnutrition for many reasons , including decreased food intake and malabsorption . The risk increases following resection of the small bowel . Such individuals may require oral supplements to increase their caloric intake , or in severe cases , total parenteral nutrition ( TPN ) . Most people with moderate or severe Crohn 's disease are referred to a dietitian for assistance in nutrition .
The major significant complications of Crohn 's disease include bowel obstruction , abscesses , free perforation and hemorrhage , which in rare cases may be fatal .
Crohn 's disease can be problematic during pregnancy , and some medications can cause adverse outcomes for the fetus or mother . Consultation with an obstetrician and gastroenterologist about Crohn 's disease and all medications facilitates preventative measures . In some cases , remission occurs during pregnancy . Certain medications can also lower sperm count or otherwise adversely affect a man 's fertility .
= = Epidemiology = =
The percentage of people with Crohn 's disease has been determined in Norway and the United States and is similar at 6 to 7 @.@ 1 : 100 @,@ 000 . The Crohn 's and Colitis Foundation of America cites this number as approx 149 : 100 @,@ 000 ; NIH cites 28 to 199 per 100 @,@ 000 . Crohn 's disease is more common in northern countries , and with higher rates still in the northern areas of these countries . The incidence of Crohn 's disease is thought to be similar in Europe but lower in Asia and Africa . It also has a higher incidence in Ashkenazi Jews and smokers .
Crohn 's disease begins most commonly in people in their teens and 20s , and people in their 50s through to their 70s . It is rarely diagnosed in early childhood . It usually affects female children more severely than males . However , only slightly more women than men have Crohn 's disease . Parents , siblings or children of people with Crohn 's disease are 3 to 20 times more likely to develop the disease . Twin studies find that if one has the disease there is a 55 % chance the other will too .
The incidence of Crohn 's disease is increasing in Europe .
= = History = =
Inflammatory bowel diseases were described by Giovanni Battista Morgagni ( 1682 – 1771 ) and by Scottish physician T. Kennedy Dalziel in 1913 .
Ileitis terminalis was first described by Polish surgeon Antoni Leśniowski in 1904 , although it was not conclusively distinguished from intestinal tuberculosis . In Poland , it is still called Leśniowski @-@ Crohn 's disease ( Polish : choroba Leśniowskiego @-@ Crohna ) . Burrill Bernard Crohn , an American gastroenterologist at New York City 's Mount Sinai Hospital , described fourteen cases in 1932 , and submitted them to the American Medical Association under the rubric of " Terminal ileitis : A new clinical entity " . Later that year , he , along with colleagues Leon Ginzburg and Gordon Oppenheimer , published the case series as " Regional ileitis : a pathologic and clinical entity " . However , due to the precedence of Crohn 's name in the alphabet , it later became known in the worldwide literature as Crohn 's disease .
= = Research = =
Some evidence supports the hypothesis that the bacterium Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis ( MAP ) is a cause of Crohn ’ s disease ( see also Johne 's disease ) . As a result , researchers are looking at the eradication of MAP as a therapeutic option . Treating MAP using antibiotics has been examined and the results are unclear but tentatively beneficial . Vaccination against MAP is also being studied . An anti @-@ MAP vaccine appears effective in mice and cattle with MAP with no apparent side effects . Trials in human are pending .
Crohn 's is common in parts of the world where helminthic colonisation is rare and uncommon in those areas where most people carry worms . Infections with helminths may alter the autoimmune response that causes the disease . Trials of extracts from the worm Trichuris suis showed promising results when used in people with IBD .
Numerous preclinical studies demonstrate that activation of the CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors exert biological functions on the gastrointestinal tract . Activation of CB1 and CB2 receptors in animals has shown a strong anti @-@ inflammatory effect . Cannabinoids and / or modulation of the endocannabinoid system is a novel therapeutic means for the treatment of numerous GI disorders , including inflammatory bowel diseases like Crohn 's disease . A few small trials have looked at medical cannabis but further evidence is required to determine its usefulness .
There is no good evidence that thalidomide or lenalidomide is useful to bring about or maintain remission .
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= At Folsom Prison =
At Folsom Prison is a live album and 27th overall album by Johnny Cash , released on Columbia Records in May 1968 . After his 1955 song " Folsom Prison Blues " , Cash had been interested in recording a performance at a prison . His idea was put on hold until 1967 , when personnel changes at Columbia Records put Bob Johnston in charge of producing Cash 's material . Cash had recently controlled his drug abuse problems , and was looking to turn his career around after several years of limited commercial success . Backed with June Carter , Carl Perkins and the Tennessee Three , Cash performed two shows at Folsom State Prison in California on January 13 , 1968 . The resulting album consisted of fifteen tracks from the first show and two tracks from the second .
Despite little initial investment by Columbia , the album was a hit in the United States , reaching number one on the country charts and the top 15 of the national album chart . The lead single from the album , a live version of " Folsom Prison Blues " , was a top 40 hit , Cash 's first since 1964 's " Understand Your Man " . At Folsom Prison received good reviews upon its release and the ensuing popularity revitalized Cash 's career , leading to the release of a second prison album , At San Quentin . The album was re @-@ released with additional tracks in 1999 and as a three @-@ disc set in 2008 . It was certified three times Platinum on March 27 , 2003 by the Recording Industry Association of America for US sales exceeding three million .
= = Background = =
Johnny Cash first took interest in Folsom State Prison while serving in the United States Air Force Security Service . In 1953 , his unit watched Crane Wilbur 's film Inside the Walls of Folsom Prison . The film inspired Cash to write a song that reflected his perception of prison life . The result was " Folsom Prison Blues " , Cash 's second single on Sun Records . After its release , the song became popular among inmates , who would sometimes write to Cash , requesting him to perform at their prisons . Cash 's first prison performance was at Huntsville State Prison in 1957 . Satisfied by the favorable reception of the concert , he performed at several other prisons in the years leading up to the Folsom performance in 1968 .
A few years after attaining commercial success from songs such as " I Walk the Line " , " Understand Your Man " , and " Ring of Fire " , Cash 's popularity waned . This was due in no small part to his increasing dependence on drugs . In 1967 , Cash sought help for his escalating drug problems ; by the end of the year , his drug use decreased and he sought to turn his career around . Concurrently , the country portion of Columbia Records underwent major personnel changes . Frank Jones and Don Law , who had produced several of Cash 's albums , were ousted in favor of Bob Johnston , who was known for his erratic behavior and willingness to disagree with studio executives . Cash saw this as an opportunity to pitch his idea of recording a live album at a prison ; Johnston enthusiastically supported the concept . Johnston called San Quentin State Prison and Folsom , with the latter being the first to respond .
= = Recording = =
On January 10 , 1968 , Cash and June Carter checked into the El Rancho Motel in Sacramento , California . They were later accompanied by the Tennessee Three , Carl Perkins , The Statler Brothers , Johnny 's father Ray Cash , Reverend Floyd Gressett , pastor of Avenue Community Church in Ventura , California ( where Cash often attended services ) , who regularly counseled inmates at Folsom and helped facilitate the concert , and producer Johnston . The performers rehearsed for two days , an uncommon occurrence for them , sometimes with two or more songs being rehearsed concurrently by various combinations of the musicians . A fashion show taking place in an adjacent ballroom provided an unneeded distraction , and during the rehearsal sessions on January 12 , California governor Ronald Reagan , who was at the hotel for an after @-@ dinner speech , visited the band and offered his encouragement . One focus of the sessions was to learn " Greystone Chapel " , a song written by inmate Glen Sherley . Sherley recorded a version of the song , which he passed on to Rev. Gressett via the prison 's recreation director . On January 13 , the group traveled to Folsom , meeting up with Los Angeles Times writer Robert Hilburn and Columbia photographer Jim Marshall , who were paid to document the album for the liner notes .
Cash decided to hold two performances on January 13 , one at 9 : 40 AM and one at 12 : 40 PM , in case the first performance was unsatisfactory . After an introduction by MC Hugh Cherry , who encouraged the prisoners to " respond " to Cash 's performance , Carl Perkins took the stage . Perkins performed his hit song " Blue Suede Shoes " . Following this song , The Statler Brothers sang their hit " Flowers on the Wall " and the country standard " This Old House " . Cherry again took the stage and instructed the inmates not to cheer for Cash until he introduced himself ; they obliged . Cash opened both shows with a rendition of " Folsom Prison Blues " and the concerts contained many songs about prison , including " The Wall " , " Green , Green Grass of Home " , and the gallows humor tune " 25 Minutes to Go " . The singer also included other songs of despair , such as the Merle Travis song " Dark as a Dungeon " . Following " Orange Blossom Special " , Cash included a few " slow , ballad @-@ type songs " , including " Send a Picture of Mother " and " The Long Black Veil " , and then followed with three novelty songs from his album Everybody Loves A Nut , " Dirty Old Egg @-@ Sucking Dog " , " Flushed from the Bathroom of Your Heart " , and " Joe Bean " . June Carter joined Cash on stage to perform a pair of duets . After a seven @-@ minute version of a song from his " Blood , Sweat and Tears " album , " The Legend of John Henry 's Hammer " , Cash took a break and Carter recited a poem . Cash ended both concerts with Sherley 's " Greystone Chapel " . The second concert was not as fruitful as the first ; the musicians were fatigued from the earlier show . Only two songs from the second concert , " Give My Love to Rose " and " I Got Stripes , " made it onto the LP release .
= = Reception and impact = =
The album release of At Folsom Prison was prepared in four months . Despite the recent success of " Rosanna 's Going Wild " , a Cash single released just before the Folsom concerts that reached number two on the country charts , Columbia initially invested little in the album or its single " Folsom Prison Blues " . This was due partially to Columbia 's efforts to promote pop stars instead of country artists . Nevertheless , the single charted on the Billboard Hot 100 on May 25 , 1968 ; it also hit the country charts a week later . The single suffered a setback , however , when Sirhan Sirhan assassinated Senator Robert F. Kennedy on June 5 , 1968 . Radio stations ceased playing the single due to the macabre line : " I shot a man in Reno / Just to watch him die " . Reeling in the success prior to the assassination , Columbia demanded that Johnston remix the single with the line removed . Despite protests from Cash , the single was edited and re @-@ released . The new version became a success , hitting number one on the country charts and the top forty on the national charts . The successful single prompted the album to climb the album charts , eventually reaching number one on the Top Country Albums chart and number thirteen on the Pop Albums chart — the forerunner to the Billboard 200 . By August 1968 , Folsom had shipped over 300 @,@ 000 copies ; two months later it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipping over 500 @,@ 000 .
At Folsom Prison received rave reviews upon its release . Al Aronowitz of Life stated that Cash sang the songs like " someone who has grown up believing he is one of the people that these songs are about . " For The Village Voice , Ann Fisher wrote that " every cut is special in its own way " and Richard Goldstein noted that the album was " filled with the kind of emotionalism you seldom find in rock . " Fredrick E. Danker of Sing Out ! praised At Folsom Prison as " an album structured an aural experience for us . "
The success of At Folsom Prison revitalized Cash 's career ; according to Cash , " that 's where things really got started for me again " . Sun Records re @-@ dubbed Cash 's previous B @-@ side " Get Rhythm " with applause similar to Folsom 's , and it became successful enough to enter the Hot 100 . Cash returned to the prison scene in 1969 when he recorded At San Quentin at San Quentin State Prison . At San Quentin became Cash 's first album to hit number one on the Pop chart and produced the number two hit " A Boy Named Sue " . The ensuing popularity from the Folsom concert also prompted ABC to give Cash his own television show .
The album was re @-@ released on October 19 , 1999 with three extra tracks excluded from the original LP : " Busted " , " Joe Bean " , and " The Legend of John Henry 's Hammer " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic praised the new version , calling it " the ideal blend of mythmaking and gritty reality . " On May 27 , 2003 , At Folsom Prison was certified triple platinum by the RIAA for shipping over three million units . Since its release , it has been acknowledged as one of the greatest albums of all time by several sources . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 88 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . Also that year , it was one of 50 recordings chosen by the Library of Congress to be added to the National Recording Registry . Country Music Television named it the third greatest album in country music in 2006 . Blender listed the album as the 63rd greatest American album of all time and as one of the " 500 CDs You Must Own " . In 2006 , Time listed it among the 100 greatest albums of all time .
In 2008 , Columbia and Legacy Records re @-@ issued At Folsom Prison as a two CD , one DVD set . This so @-@ called " Legacy Edition " contained both concerts uncut and remastered . The included DVD , produced by Bestor Cram and Michael Streissguth of Northern Light Productions , featured pictures and interviews relevant to the concert . Pitchfork Media lauded the collection , claiming that it had " the force of empathic endeavors , as if he were doing penance for his notorious bad habits . " Christian Hoard wrote for Rolling Stone that the Legacy edition " makes for an excellent historical document , highlighting Cash 's rapport with prison folk . "
= = Track listing = =
= = = Re @-@ release ( 1999 ) = = =
= = = Legacy Edition ( 2008 ) = = =
= = Personnel = =
Johnny Cash – vocal , guitar , harmonica
June Carter – vocal
Marshall Grant – bass guitar
W.S. Holland – drums
Carl Perkins – electric guitar
Luther Perkins – electric guitar
The Statler Brothers ( Lew DeWitt , Don Reid , Harold Reid , Phil Balsley ) – vocals
Bob Johnston – producer
Bob Breault , Bill Britain – engineers
Jim Marshall – photography
Credited on 1999 re @-@ issue
Bob Irwin – producer
Steven Berkowitz – producer , A & R
Vic Aneseni – mixing
Howard Fritzson – art direction
Darcy Proper – mastering
John Henry Jackson – product manager
Randall Martin – packaging manager
Darren Salmieri , Tim Smith – A & R
Nick Shaffran – consultant
= = Charts = =
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= Only a Northern Song =
" Only a Northern Song " is a song by the English rock group the Beatles from their 1969 album Yellow Submarine . Written by George Harrison , it was recorded mainly in February 1967 during the sessions for Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band but the Beatles chose not to include it on that album . Instead , it was one of the four new songs that the band provided for the 1968 animated film Yellow Submarine , to meet their contractual obligations to United Artists .
Harrison wrote " Only a Northern Song " out of dissatisfaction with his status as a junior songwriter with the Beatles ' publishing company , Northern Songs . The lyrics and music convey his disenchantment at how the company retained the copyright for the songs it published , and at how , following its public listing in 1965 , the major shareholders profited more from his compositions than he did . The recording features Hammond organ , played by Harrison , and an overdubbed montage of assorted sounds including trumpet blasts and spoken voices , anticipating John Lennon 's 1968 sound collage " Revolution 9 " . Due to the difficulty in assembling the completed track from two tape sources , " Only a Northern Song " remained a rare song from the Beatles ' post @-@ 1963 catalogue that was unavailable in true stereo until 1999 . That year , it was remixed for inclusion on the album Yellow Submarine Songtrack .
The song has received a varied response from reviewers ; while Ian MacDonald dismisses the track as a " self @-@ indulgent dirge " , the website Ultimate Classic Rock identifies it as one of the Beatles ' best works in the psychedelic rock genre . A version of the song with a different vocal part , and omitting the sound collage overdubs , was issued on the Beatles ' 1996 outtakes compilation Anthology 2 . Gravenhurst and Yonder Mountain String Band are among the artists who have covered " Only a Northern Song " .
= = Background and inspiration = =
George Harrison said that the subject matter for " Only a Northern Song " related to both his city of birth , Liverpool , in Merseyside , and the fact that the copyright for the composition belonged to the Beatles ' publishing company , Northern Songs . The company was floated on the London Stock Exchange in February 1965 , as a means of saving John Lennon and Paul McCartney , the Beatles ' principal songwriters , the tax liability generated through the international success of their catalogue . Harrison had formed his own publishing company , Harrisongs , in late 1964 ; despite the financial advantages offered by his 80 per cent stake in that company , he agreed to remain with Northern Songs , to aid the flotation scheme . Among the four Beatles , Lennon and McCartney were major shareholders in Northern Songs , each owning 15 per cent of the public company 's shares , and the pair earned considerable wealth over the first year of the flotation . Harrison and Ringo Starr , as contracted songwriters , owned 0 @.@ 8 per cent each . This arrangement ensured that , in addition to the company retaining the copyright of all its published songs , Lennon and McCartney profited more from Harrison 's compositions than he did .
Author Brian Southall describes " Only a Northern Song " as Harrison 's " personal denunciation of the Beatles ' music publishing business " . When discussing the song in two late 1990s interviews with Billboard editor @-@ in @-@ chief Timothy White , Harrison commented that the main target of his complaints was Dick James , the managing director of Northern Songs . Having been signed by James in 1963 , at the age of twenty , Harrison said that the publisher had failed to explain that by signing the contract , he was also signing away the ownership of his compositions . Harrison added that he only understood the consequences after the 1965 flotation , when the major shareholders were " making all this money out of this catalog " . With reference to the Rutles ' 1978 parody of the Beatles ' history , All You Need Is Cash , he also told White : " I think [ the message behind ' Only a Northern Song ' ] was put better in the make @-@ believe TV documentary … where it said , ' Dick Jaws , an out @-@ of @-@ work music publisher of no fixed ability ' signed them up for the rest of their lives . "
In author Ian MacDonald 's estimation , " Only a Northern Song " suggests that Harrison " had yet to recover his enthusiasm for being a Beatle " after he had threatened to leave the group following their final concert tour , in August 1966 . Before the band regrouped in November that year to begin recording their album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , Harrison spent six weeks in India with his sitar teacher , Ravi Shankar , a visit that heightened his disinterest in the Beatles ' project . MacDonald considers that Harrison 's link with northern England in " Only a Northern Song " was influenced by the Beatles working on songs about growing up in Liverpool , which was the concept under consideration at the start of the Sgt. Pepper sessions .
= = Composition and musical structure = =
Harrison wrote " Only a Northern Song " on a Hammond organ , which became his preferred instrument for songwriting during 1967 , replacing the guitar . The song is in the key of A major , although MacDonald gives B minor as a secondary key . The opening organ part ends with a preview of the melody over which the song title appears in the song proper . After this short introduction , the composition is structured into two portions consisting of two verses and a chorus each , which are followed by a single verse , a final chorus and an outro , with some of these sections rendered as instrumental passages .
The composition is a meta @-@ song , in that its subject is the work itself . While commenting on the pointlessness of writing for Northern Songs , Harrison employs musical dissonance to express his dissatisfaction with the company , through the use of what musicologist Walter Everett terms " ill @-@ behaved tones " and " wrong @-@ mode " chords .
From the verse 's opening A major chord , the melody moves to a ii minor voicing , rendered as B minor 7 / 11 through the inclusion of a low @-@ register E note . In his lyrics , Harrison acknowledges the apparent awkwardness of such a change , singing " You may think the chords are going wrong " and , in the final verse , that the harmony might be " a little dark and out of key " . Musicologist Alan Pollack considers the song 's music and lyrical message to be " uncannily in tune " with one another , a combination that is accentuated by surprising and irregular phrase @-@ lengths in the verses .
Contrasting with the drawn @-@ out melody over the verses , the choruses present a fast progression of chords – specifically , E major , B minor 7 , G major , C ♯ 7 and F ♯ 7 . In the first chorus , Harrison comments that , given the inadequacy of his publishing arrangement , " It doesn 't really matter what chords I play " . Author Ian Inglis interprets this line as mirroring the singer 's complaint to Beatles biographer Hunter Davies in the late 1960s , regarding the futility of the band 's live performances when their screaming fans never listened to the music the Beatles were playing . Harrison biographer Simon Leng describes " Only a Northern Song " as the first example of its composer " pushing back at the Beatles as an organization he found wanting " , a theme Harrison returned to in 1968 with " Not Guilty " , with his comments on the group 's internal discord .
= = Production = =
= = = Recording = = =
The Beatles taped the basic track for " Only a Northern Song " at EMI 's Abbey Road Studios on 13 February 1967 , during the sessions for Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . As was typical with his new compositions , Harrison had yet to give the song a title , so it was instead referred to as " Not Known " . The line @-@ up on the track comprised Harrison on organ , Lennon on tambourine , McCartney on bass and Starr on drums . The band recorded nine takes of the song before selecting take 3 for further work . The following day , after the studio engineers had carried out a reduction mix , Harrison added two tracks of lead vocals .
The song was disliked by the Beatles ' producer , George Martin , and the band elected to omit it from the album . As his sole writing contribution to Sgt. Pepper , Harrison instead offered the Indian @-@ styled " Within You Without You " , which , in Martin 's recollection , was welcomed with " a bit of a relief all round " . " Only a Northern Song " then became the first track the group provided for the soundtrack to the Yellow Submarine animated film ( 1968 ) , in line with their contractual obligation to United Artists to supply four new songs . Described by Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn as a " myth " , a story later circulated that Harrison had rush @-@ written the composition for United Artists in early 1968 , after Al Brodax , the film 's producer , approached the band for a final song .
= = = Overdubbing = = =
The group returned to " Only a Northern Song " on 20 April 1967 , within an hour of completing the final mixing on Sgt. Pepper . In addition to replacing the original bass guitar and vocal parts , the overdubs carried out that day included trumpet and piano , played by McCartney and Lennon , respectively , together with glockenspiel and percussion . A second 4 @-@ track tape recorder was used for the song , so allowing the various instrumental parts and studio effects to be spread across eight available channels .
The Beatles performed much of the overdubs in a seemingly haphazard manner ; MacDonald describes the result as " a consciously sloven piece of work " . Tom Maginnis of AllMusic finds the recording " heavily steeped in the psychedelic sounds of the period , using liberal amounts of loose instrumentation " , particularly " chaotic bursts of trumpet " . In Pollack 's description , these later additions constitute a " noise track " , which further heightens the theme of discordance and is used to fill the song 's instrumental sections , becoming especially prominent during the outro . With its inclusion of reversed tape loops and spoken voices , Inglis has cited the sound collage effect as a precedent for Lennon 's 1968 avant @-@ garde track " Revolution 9 " and an early example of the electronic music genre .
= = = Mixing = = =
The Beatles completed a final mix of the song on 21 April 1967 . Due to the difficulty in getting the two 4 @-@ track machines to play at exactly the same time , only a mono mix was attempted . In October 1968 , while preparing the Yellow Submarine soundtrack album for release , EMI 's engineers created a mock @-@ stereo ( duophonic ) mix from this mono mix , instead of returning to the master tapes . For the monaural version of the album , originally available only in the UK , the engineers combined the two channels from the duophonic mix , rather than using the April 1967 mono mix .
= = Appearance in Yellow Submarine film = =
In the Yellow Submarine film , the song appears during a scene when the submarine carrying the Beatles travels through the Sea of Science , one of the seven seas around Pepperland . Referring to the psychedelic imagery in the animation , author Stephen Glynn considers that this segment " only ' makes sense ' when read as attempting an audio @-@ visual recreation of the hallucinogenic state " . Jeremiah Massengale , an academic in the field of visual communication , highlights the sequence as one of many technical innovations introduced by the 1968 film , saying : " accompanying multi @-@ colored , square portrait paintings of the Beatles during ' Only a Northern Song ' , there 's a creative use of an oscillator picking out the sound waves of the track . " Glynn cites the drug @-@ inspired imagery of this and two other song sequences as the true reason that Rank pulled Yellow Submarine from its UK cinema run , rather than the company 's official reasoning that the film had performed poorly at the box office .
The " Only a Northern Song " segment was the only clip shown in a feature about Yellow Submarine on the television show How It Is . Produced by Tony Palmer and including portions of the stage play based on Lennon 's book In His Own Write , the show was broadcast on BBC1 two days after the film 's world premiere in London , on 19 July 1968 .
= = Release = =
In January 1969 , " Only a Northern Song " was issued as the second track on side one of the Yellow Submarine LP , with George Martin 's orchestral score for the film occupying the whole of side two . The soundtrack was viewed as a secondary release by the Beatles , who delayed its release to allow for their 1968 self @-@ titled double album , also known as " the White Album " . Although Harrison 's contract with James had expired in March 1968 , the copyright for " Only a Northern Song " and his second contribution to the film , " It 's All Too Much " , remained with Northern Songs rather than being assigned to Harrisongs as his four White Album compositions had been . The song 's release coincided with a period of acrimony between James and the Beatles , particularly Lennon and McCartney , about whom Lewisohn writes : " If John and Paul still thought they owned their songs [ following the flotation of Northern Songs ] they were deluding themselves . " In March 1969 , wary of the disharmony within the band and the problems affecting their Apple Corps business empire , James sold his majority shareholding in Northern Songs to Lew Grade 's ATV Music , thereby selling on the ownership of the Beatles catalogue .
In a contemporary review of Yellow Submarine , Beat Instrumental lamented that it offered little new material by the band , but described " Only a Northern Song " and " It 's All Too Much " as " superb pieces " that " redeem " side one . Recalling the release in his 1977 book The Beatles Forever , however , Nicholas Schaffner dismissed the track as one of the " trifling baubles " the Beatles provided for a film project they had little interest in originally . While adhering to Brodax 's account of the song 's creation , NME critic Bob Woffinden found " considerable merit " in " Only a Northern Song " , and suggested that Harrison 's divergence from his usual , methodical approach to songwriting was one he should pursue more often .
In January 1996 , the song was issued as the B @-@ side to " It 's All Too Much " on a blue @-@ vinyl jukebox single , as part of a series of Beatles releases by Capitol Records ' CEMA Special Markets division . By 1999 , " Only a Northern Song " remained one of only two post @-@ 1963 Beatles songs not to have been made unavailable in true stereo ( the other being " You Know My Name ( Look Up the Number ) " ) . That year , a stereo version became available when the track was remixed for inclusion on the album Yellow Submarine Songtrack .
= = Retrospective assessment and legacy = =
Among more recent reviews of the Yellow Submarine album , David Gassman of PopMatters admires the song for its " mordant humor " and interprets the lyrics as a possible " dig " at Lennon and McCartney . Gassman adds , with reference to the superior " It 's All Too Much " : " as long as songs like this were being relegated to throwaway projects , George could be excused for sniping at John and Paul in ' Only a Northern Song ' . " Discussing the same two tracks , Pitchfork Media 's Mark Richardson writes that they offer little of interest aside from their " swirling " psychedelic effects , although he considers that " Only a Northern Song " " at least has a good joke going for it , simultaneously alluding to the North of England and the Beatles ' Lennon @-@ McCartney @-@ dominated publishing company " .
As with most of the Beatles ' post @-@ Sgt. Pepper 1967 recordings , their contributions to Yellow Submarine have traditionally been held in low regard by the band 's biographers . Lewisohn describes the group 's 20 April overdubs on " Only a Northern Song " as " a curious session " and writes that their work over this period " display [ s ] a startling lack of cohesion and enthusiasm " . Mark Hertsgaard considers that " Only a Northern Song " was " understandably … rejected as not good enough for Sgt Pepper " , while MacDonald dismisses the track as " dismal " and a " self @-@ indulgent dirge " .
More impressed , Alex Young of Consequence of Sound identifies the song as " lyrically the [ album 's ] quintessential track , as it perfectly defines Yellow Submarine in two verses alone , while coming out sonically like a Pink Floyd b @-@ side from the Obscured By Clouds sessions " . In a 2003 review , in Mojo , Peter Doggett said that Harrison 's two contributions " did much to rescue the album from oblivion " , and he described " Only a Northern Song " as " gloriously ironic " . Writing for Ultimate Classic Rock in 2013 , Dave Swanson ranked the track third on his list of the " Top 10 Beatles Psychedelic Songs " ( following " Tomorrow Never Knows " and " I Am the Walrus " ) and concluded : " Would ' Sgt. Pepper ' have been even greater had this mind @-@ melter been included in favor of , say , ' When I 'm Sixty Four ? ' All signs point to a positive affirmation . " In 2006 , " Only a Northern Song " was ranked 75th in Mojo 's list " The 101 Greatest Beatles Songs " , where Glenn Tilbrook described it as " a wonderfully unexpected tune " and suggested that Harrison 's " lovely and sardonic lyric … could be the inspiration for a thousand Rutles songs " .
While noting Yellow Submarine 's status as the Beatles ' only " inessential " album , Bruce Eder of AllMusic describes " Only a Northern Song " as " an odd piece of psychedelic ersatz , mixing trippiness and some personal comments " . Referring to the revelations offered in the song , Eder adds : " they present Harrison 's vision of how music and recording sounded , from the inside @-@ out and the outside @-@ in , during the psychedelic era – the song thus provided a rare glimpse inside the doors of perception of being a Beatle ( or , at least , one aspect of being this particular Beatle ) circa 1967 . " Writing for Billboard in 2001 , Bill Holland grouped " Only a Northern Song " with the Byrds ' " So You Want to Be a Rock ' n ' Roll Star " and early @-@ 1970s releases by the Kinks and Joni Mitchell , as songs that constitute the first wave of musical statements in which artists " accuse or indict their industry 's business policies " . Inglis views " Only a Northern Song " as the Beatles ' " first ' postmodern ' song " , due to the " deliberate ironic intent " evident in the subject matter and in the use of tape effects and scattered conversation .
= = Other versions = =
An alternative edit of the song appeared on the Beatles ' Anthology 2 out @-@ takes compilation in 1996 . Slightly sped up , and mixed in stereo , this version comprises the song 's basic track without most of the April 1967 overdubs , and with a vocal take that contains some changes to the lyrics .
Coinciding with the popularity of " It 's All Too Much " among acid @-@ rock bands of the early 1990s , Sun Dial released a cover of " Only a Northern Song " as the B @-@ side of their 1991 single " Fireball " . In 2009 , Greg Davis and jazz singer @-@ songwriter Chris Weisman named their psychedelic folk partnership , Northern Songs , after the Beatles track . Their 2010 album Northern Songs similarly honoured the song , as well as including a cover version of " It 's All Too Much " .
When Mojo released the CD Yellow Submarine Resurfaces in July 2012 , " Only a Northern Song " was covered by Gravenhurst . Yonder Mountain String Band included the song in their live performances during 2013 and 2015 .
= = Personnel = =
According to Ian MacDonald :
George Harrison – vocals , Hammond organ , tape effects , noises
John Lennon – piano , glockenspiel , tape effects , noises
Paul McCartney – bass guitar , trumpet , tape effects , noises
Ringo Starr – drums
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= Chimes of Freedom ( song ) =
" Chimes of Freedom " is a song written and performed by Bob Dylan and featured on his 1964 album Another Side of Bob Dylan ( see 1964 in music ) , produced by Tom Wilson . It was written in early 1964 and was influenced by the symbolist poetry of Arthur Rimbaud . The song depicts the feelings and thoughts of the singer and his companion as they wait out a lightning storm under a doorway . The singer expresses his solidarity with people who are downtrodden or otherwise treated unjustly , and believes that the thunder is tolling in sympathy for them . Music critic Paul Williams has described the song as Dylan 's Sermon on the Mount . The song has been covered many times by different artists , including The Byrds , Jefferson Starship , Youssou N 'Dour , Bruce Springsteen and U2 .
= = Bob Dylan 's version = =
" Chimes of Freedom " was written shortly after the release of " The Times They Are a @-@ Changin ' " album in early 1964 during a road trip that Dylan took across America with musician Paul Clayton , journalist Pete Karman , and road manager Victor Maimudes . It was written at about the same time as " Mr. Tambourine Man " , which is similarly influenced by the symbolism of Arthur Rimbaud . There are conflicting stories about exactly when during the trip this song was written . One story is that Dylan wrote the song on a portable typewriter in the back of a car the day after visiting civil rights activists Bernice Johnson and Cordell Reagon in Atlanta , Georgia . However , a handwritten lyric sheet from the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in Toronto , Canada that was reproduced in The Bob Dylan Scrapbook 1956 @-@ 1966 indicates that this story cannot be entirely true . Dylan was in Toronto , Canada in late January and early February , before the road trip on which the song was supposedly written . So , although parts of the song may have been written on the road trip , Dylan had started working on the song earlier . The first public performance of the song took place in early 1964 , either at the Civic Auditorium in Denver on February 15 , or at the Berkeley Community Theater in Berkeley , California , on February 22 . " Chimes of Freedom " was an important part of Dylan 's live concert repertoire throughout most of 1964 , although by the latter part of that year he had ceased performing it and would not perform it again until 1987 , when he revived the song for concerts with the Grateful Dead and with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers .
The master take of the song was recorded by Dylan , with Tom Wilson producing , during the recording sessions for the Another Side of Bob Dylan album on June 9 , 1964 . It took seven takes before Dylan got the song right , even though it was one of only three songs that he recorded during the session that he had already performed in front of a concert audience .
Music critic Paul Williams has described the song as Dylan 's Sermon on the Mount . The song is a lyrical expression of feelings evoked while watching a lightning storm . The singer and a companion are caught in a thunderstorm in mid @-@ evening and the pair of them duck into a doorway , where they are both transfixed by one lightning flash after another . The natural phenomena of thunder and lightning appear to take on auditory and ultimately emotional aspects to the singer , with the thunder experienced as the tolling of bells and the lightning bolts appearing as chimes . Eventually , the sights and sounds in the sky become intermixed in the mind of the singer , as evidenced by the lines :
As majestic bells of bolts struck shadows in the sounds ,
Seeming to be the chimes of freedom flashing .
Over the course of the song the sun slowly rises and the lyrics can be interpreted as a proclamation of the hope that as the sky clears after a difficult night , all the world 's people will rise together to proclaim their survival to the sound of the church bells .
In Chimes of Freedom : The Politics of Bob Dylan 's Art , author Mike Marqusee notes that the song marks a transition between Dylan 's earlier protest song style ( a litany of the down @-@ trodden and oppressed , in the second half of each verse ) and his later more free @-@ flowing poetic style ( the fusion of images of lightning , storm and bells in the first half ) . In this later style , which is influenced by 19th century French symbolist poet Arthur Rimbaud , the poetry is more allusive , filled with " chains of flashing images . " In this song , rather than support a specific cause as in his earlier protest songs , he finds solidarity with all people who are downtrodden or otherwise treated unjustly , including unwed mothers , the disabled , refugees , outcasts , those unfairly jailed , " the luckless , the abandoned and forsaked , " and , in the final verse , " the countless confused , accused , misused , strung out ones and worse " and " every hung @-@ up person in the whole wide universe . " By having the chimes of freedom toll for both rebels and rakes , the song is more inclusive in its sympathies than previous protest songs , such as " The Times They Are A @-@ Changin ' " , written just the prior year . After " Chimes of Freedom " , Dylan 's protest songs no longer depicted social reality in the black and white terms he renounces in " My Back Pages " but rather use satirical surrealism to make their points .
The assassination of U.S. President , John F. Kennedy , is one possible inspiration for Dylan starting the song . Although Dylan has denied that this is the case , he did draft a number of poems in the fall of 1963 in the aftermath of Kennedy 's death and one of those poems in particular , a short six @-@ line piece , appears to contain the genesis for " Chimes of Freedom " :
the colors of friday were dull
as the cathedral bells were gently burnin'
strikin for the gentle
strikin for the kind
strikin for the crippled ones
and strikin for the blind .
Kennedy was killed on a Friday , and the cathedral bells in the poem would have been the church bells heralding his death . Using a storm as a metaphor for the death of a president is similar to Shakespeare 's use of a storm in King Lear . By the time Dylan wrote the first draft of " Chimes of Freedom " the following February , it contained many of the elements of this poem , except that the crippled ones and the blind were changed to " guardians and protectors of the mind . " In addition , the cathedral bells had become the " chimes of freedom flashing " , as seen by two lovers finding shelter in a cathedral doorway .
Besides Rimbaud 's symbolism , the song is also influenced by the alliterative poetry of Gerard Manley Hopkins , the poetic vision of William Blake and the violent drama , mixed with compassion and romantic language , of William Shakespeare . In addition , Dylan had used rain as a symbol in earlier songs , such as " A Hard Rain 's A @-@ Gonna Fall " . In his memoir , folk musician Dave Van Ronk claimed that the song was influenced by an old sentimental ballad , " Chimes of Trinity " by Michael J. Fitzpatrick , which Dave Van Ronk had introduced to Dylan .
Despite the song 's appeal to cover artists , it has appeared sparingly on Dylan 's compilation and live albums . It was , however , included on the 1967 European compilation album Bob Dylan 's Greatest Hits 2 . A recording of Dylan performing the song at the 1964 Newport Folk Festival was included on the compilation album , The Bootleg Series Vol . 7 : No Direction Home : The Soundtrack . The same performance can also be seen on the 2007 DVD The Other Side of the Mirror : Live at Newport Folk Festival 1963 @-@ 1965 . A version sung by Dylan and Joan Osborne in 1999 appears on the original television soundtrack album of the film titled The 60 's .
As of 2009 , Dylan continues to perform " Chimes of Freedom " in concert , although he did not play the song live during the 23 years between late 1964 and 1987 . In 1993 Dylan played the song in front of the Lincoln Memorial as part of Bill Clinton 's first inauguration as U.S. president .
= = Cover versions = =
= = = The Byrds ' version = = =
The Byrds included a recording of " Chimes of Freedom " on their 1965 debut album , Mr. Tambourine Man . The song was the last track to be recorded for the album but the session was marred by conflict and drama . After the band had completed the song 's instrumental backing track , guitarist and harmony vocalist David Crosby announced that he wasn 't going to sing on the recording and was instead leaving the studio for the day . The precise reason for Crosby 's refusal to sing the song has never been adequately explained but the ensuing fracas between the guitarist and the band 's manager , record producer Jim Dickson , ended with Dickson sitting on Crosby 's chest , telling him " The only way you 're going to get through that door is over my dead body ... You 're going to stay in this room until you do the vocal . " According to a number of people present in the studio that day , Crosby burst into tears but eventually completed the song 's harmony part with sterling results . Dickson himself noted in later years that his altercation with Crosby was a cathartic moment in which the singer " got it all out and sang like an angel . "
The song went on to become a staple of The Byrds ' live concert repertoire , until their final disbandment in 1973 . The band also performed the song on the television programs Hullabaloo and Shindig ! , as well as including it in their performance at the Monterey Pop Festival . The Byrds ' performance of " Chimes of Freedom " at Monterey can be seen in the 2002 The Complete Monterey Pop Festival DVD box set . The song was also performed by a reformed line @-@ up of The Byrds featuring Roger McGuinn , David Crosby , and Chris Hillman in January 1989 . In addition to its appearance on Mr. Tambourine Man , " Chimes of Freedom " has appeared on several Byrds ' compilation albums , including The Byrds ' Greatest Hits , The Byrds Play Dylan , The Very Best of The Byrds , and The Essential Byrds .
= = = Other covers = = =
" Chimes of Freedom " has also been covered by artists as diverse as Phil Carmen , Jefferson Starship , Youssou N 'Dour , Martyn Joseph , Joan Osborne , Bruce Springsteen , Warren Zevon and The West Coast Pop Art Experimental Band . Although U2 have never released a recording of the song , they played it live in concert during the late 1980s . Bruce Springsteen 's cover version managed to reach # 16 on the Billboard Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart in 1988 , although it was never released as a single . It was recorded in Stockholm , Sweden , on July 3 , 1988 , when Springsteen performed it during his Tunnel of Love Express tour . Springsteen used the performance to announce before a worldwide radio audience his role in the upcoming Human Rights Now ! tour to benefit Amnesty International and mark the fortieth anniversary of the signing of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . The song was subsequently released as the title track of the live Chimes of Freedom EP . Springsteen 's performance is rousing and fervent , transforming the song into a ringing anthem for the full E Street Band , without losing the power of the words evident in Dylan 's own solo performance . On the Human Rights Now ! tour itself , Springsteen led a group performance of " Chimes of Freedom " featuring the other artists on the tour : Tracy Chapman , Sting , Peter Gabriel , and Youssou N 'Dour , with each taking turns on the song 's verses .
Jefferson Starship covered the song on their 2008 release , Jefferson 's Tree of Liberty , with Paul Kantner , David Freiberg and Cathy Richardson on vocals . Additionally , the Senegalese musician Youssou N 'Dour recorded an unusual cover version of the song , in which he treated the song as an anthem for the many people in Africa struggling to survive . The melody of " Chimes of Freedom " was deliberately borrowed by Billy Bragg for the song " Ideology " , from his third album , Talking with the Taxman about Poetry , with Bragg 's chorus " above the sound of ideologies clashing " echoing Dylan 's " we gazed upon the chimes of freedom flashing " . In addition , the Bon Jovi song " Bells of Freedom " , from their Have a Nice Day album , is somewhat reminiscent of " Chimes of Freedom " in structure . Neil Young 's song " Flags of Freedom " from his Living with War album mentions Dylan by name and melodically recalls the tune and verse structure of " Chimes of Freedom " , though Young is listed as the song 's only writer . The British band Starry Eyed and Laughing took their name from the opening line of the song 's final verse .
" Chimes of Freedom " is one of seven Dylan songs whose lyrics were reset for soprano and piano ( or orchestra ) by John Corigliano for his song cycle Mr. Tambourine Man : Seven Poems of Bob Dylan .
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= Constance Stokes =
Constance Stokes ( née Parkin , 22 February 1906 – 14 July 1991 ) was a modernist Australian painter who worked in Victoria . She trained at the National Gallery of Victoria Art School until 1929 , winning a scholarship to continue her study at London 's Royal Academy of Arts . Although Stokes painted few works in the 1930s , her paintings and drawings were exhibited from the 1940s onwards . She was one of only two women , and two Victorians , included in a major exhibition of twelve Australian artists that travelled to Canada , the United Kingdom and Italy in the early 1950s .
Influenced by George Bell , Stokes was part of the Melbourne Contemporary Artists , a group Bell established in 1940 . Her works continued to be well @-@ regarded for many years after the group 's formation , in contrast to those by many of her Victorian modernist colleagues , with favourable reviews from critics such as Sir Philip Hendy in the United Kingdom and Bernard William Smith in Australia .
Her husband 's early death in 1962 forced Stokes to return to painting as a career , resulting in a successful one @-@ woman show in 1964 , her first in thirty years . She continued to paint and exhibit through the 1970s and 1980s , and was the subject of a retrospective exhibition that toured Victorian regional galleries including Swan Hill Regional Art Gallery and Geelong Art Gallery in 1985 . She died in 1991 and is little @-@ known in comparison to some other women artists including Grace Cossington Smith and Clarice Beckett , but her fortunes were revived somewhat as a central figure in Anne Summers ' 2009 book The Lost Mother . Her art is represented in most major Australian galleries , including the National Gallery of Australia and the National Gallery of Victoria ; the Art Gallery of New South Wales is the only significant Australian collecting institution not to hold one of her works .
= = Early life and training = =
Constance Parkin was born in 1906 in the hamlet of Miram , near Nhill in western Victoria . The family moved to Melbourne in 1920 , where she completed her schooling at Genazzano convent in the suburb of Kew . Constance was short , just under five feet tall , and had dark hair . She trained between 1925 and 1929 at the National Gallery of Victoria Art School in Melbourne . Over the summer of 1925 – 1926 the Gallery held a competition for its students , who were asked to paint " holiday subjects " ; Constance won the prize for a landscape . The competition was judged by artist George Bell , who would have a continuing influence over her artistic career .
In 1930 , Stokes was among artists who exhibited at a Melbourne gallery , the Athenaeum . Her painting , Portrait of Mrs. W. Mortill , was one of only two to draw praise from prominent member of the Heidelberg School , Arthur Streeton , who described the work as a " rare attraction " that was " liquid and luminous " . At the end of her studies , Stokes won the National Gallery of Victoria Art School 's prestigious National Gallery Travelling Scholarship , which allowed her to continue her training at the Royal Academy of Arts in London . In addition to her education at the Royal Academy , she studied under the French cubist painter and sculptor André Lhote in Paris in 1932 . The following year she returned to Australia , where she married businessman Eric Stokes . The family settled in Collins Street , Melbourne , and Stokes had three children between 1937 and 1942 . In later years , Stokes had a studio in the family home in Toorak , a modernist house designed by architect Edward Billson .
= = Artistic career = =
= = = Early career : 1934 to 1952 = = =
Stokes returned from a European honeymoon in 1934 , but she produced few works in the years immediately following . Although the Collins Street apartment had become a full @-@ time studio for Stokes , only two paintings and two sketches from the period are known . The most notable is The Village ( c.1933 – 1935 ) , influenced , according to Stokes ' own account , by the post @-@ impressionist and portraitist Augustus John . This work was hung in the inaugural exhibition of the Contemporary Art Society , held at the National Gallery of Victoria . It was included in a travelling exhibition that appeared in New York 's Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1941 and later in Canada . In 1946 , Stokes presented the work to the National Gallery of Victoria .
In the mid @-@ twentieth century , there were divisions in the Melbourne art scene , which became intertwined with the complex cultural politics of the Cold War era . In the late 1940s , there was a move against modernism in art , and tonalism came into favour . Partly as a reaction to this development , artist George Bell established an exhibiting group called the Melbourne Contemporary Artists in 1940 . Bell was a former war artist and influential member of the Victorian artistic establishment , who after World War II was appointed to teach at the National Gallery of Victoria 's painting school . Influenced by Bell , Stokes was among the artists for whom modernism was a strong influence , and who exhibited with the Melbourne Contemporary Artists . Other members of the group included Russell Drysdale and Sali Herman .
Stokes ' artistry endured , while that of some of her modernist colleagues did not . By 1945 , when the Melbourne Contemporary Artists held one of their exhibitions , art critic Alan McCulloch observed that the works were increasingly lacking in originality and that the former standards of the group were being maintained by only a few members . One of those was Stokes , whose work The Family he praised as " strongly designed and sensitively modelled " . The following year , though , McCulloch was more upbeat , describing the show as their best to date , while again complementing Stokes on her " rich and opulent pictures " . Six years later , when the group exhibited in 1952 , the critic for Melbourne 's Argus was as unimpressed as had been McCulloch in 1945 . Suggesting that the show demonstrated that Melbourne 's art scene lacked innovation , he nevertheless singled out a small number of works for praise . One of these was Stokes ' Christ with Simon and Andrew , which he thought showed " richness and feeling " .
While Stokes was being praised at home in Melbourne , one of her portraits was among six paintings owned by the National Gallery of Victoria that were loaned for an exhibition on the other side of the country , in Perth . The city 's newspaper , The West Australian , chose Stokes ' picture to illustrate its story on the exhibition . Calling it Girl Drying Her Hair , the paper described the work as " notable for its patient handling , use of bright colour and skilful blending of figure and background " . The National Gallery of Victoria refers to the work as Woman Drying Her Hair , which it had acquired in 1947 at the behest of curator and artist Daryl Lindsay . It was soon to travel a great deal further than to Perth .
= = = Later career : 1953 to 1989 = = =
In 1953 , at the request of Prime Minister Robert Menzies and the British Arts Council , an exhibition of the works of twelve Australian artists was assembled . It was shown in London , five regional British cities , and at the Venice Biennale . Of the twelve artists selected for inclusion , only two were from Victoria , the rest being from New South Wales ; Stokes was one of the Victorians . Her three works , including Woman Drying Her Hair , hung alongside those of Australia 's most prominent mid @-@ twentieth @-@ century artists , including Arthur Boyd , Russell Drysdale , William Dobell , Sidney Nolan , Lloyd Rees , Donald Friend and Frank Hinder . Despite these prominent painters being selected for inclusion , when the exhibition appeared in London , Stokes ' Girl in Red Tights drew critical attention and acclaim . Admired by the director of the National Gallery Sir Philip Hendy , the work was proclaimed by the art critic at The Times as the " best picture in London that week " . Some artists in Sydney were not so impressed . A meeting of the Royal Art Society of New South Wales urged Prime Minister Menzies to intervene , members describing the paintings as " the worst ever gathered in one place " . However , the Commonwealth Art Advisory Board member who announced the exhibition considered that it would represent the most substantial promotion Australian art would have experienced to that time . The following year , Joseph Burke , Professor of Fine Arts at the University of Melbourne , praised Stokes ' painting , making particular reference to her work that had so entranced viewers at the 1953 exhibition . " Constance Stokes " , he wrote , was a painter who " announced the pursuit of the classical ideal as [ her ] aim . [ Her ] Girl in Red Tights , with its Venetian richness of colouring , ably sustains the monumental harmony of the classical tradition . "
Religious subjects appear regularly in Stokes ' paintings ; one such work , The Baptism , is in the collection of the National Gallery of Victoria . Despite her recurring attention to such subjects , however , the artist entered the Blake Prize for Religious Art only once , in 1953 . Esmond George , critic at Adelaide newspaper The Mail , admired the ( unidentified ) work as having " strong art interest " . Stokes ' interest in the Prize was not so strong as to prompt her to enter again . She told an interviewer that " abstract painting took over " .
Eric Stokes died unexpectedly in 1962 , an experience which left Constance bereft ; a long @-@ time friend said that she never really recovered . Faced with a substantial mortgage to service , Stokes returned to work : painting . Two years later , she opened her first one @-@ woman show in over thirty years . It comprised 43 works , with the 27 paintings priced dearly , at upwards of 150 guineas . The exhibition was a success both financially and critically : Stokes earned over 4000 guineas , and the exhibition attracted praise from art historian and critic Bernard William Smith . Throughout the 1960s , 1970s and 1980s , she painted and held shows ; this later phase of her work was based on a stronger , if lighter , colour palette and reflected the influence of the art of Henri Matisse , whom Stokes admired . There was also a change in her subject matter , from " classically conceived " still lifes , groups of figures and nudes , to more decorative themes . Stokes ' works continued to be well received , having been included in the 1975 exhibition Australian women artists at the University of Melbourne , and the Regional Galleries Association of Victoria 's 1977 touring exhibition The heroic years of Australian painting , 1940 – 1965 . Stokes ' last painting was Alice Tumbling Down the Rabbit Hole , painted around 1989 ; she died in Melbourne in 1991 .
= = Legacy = =
The standard reference work , McCulloch 's Encyclopedia of Australian Art , describes Stokes as " a leading figure in the modernist movement in Victoria " . Not all critics regard Stokes ' work so favourably , however . Art historian Christopher Heathcote acknowledges the recognition of Stokes ' work by her contemporaries , but goes on to say that " strong staff support [ at Melbourne University ] for a few lesser practitioners , such as Constance Stokes ... hardly aided the appreciation of the better local work . " Though she appears in McCulloch 's guide , few other reviews of Australian art recognise Stokes . Exceptions , according to feminist writer Anne Summers , include Ursula Hoff 's Masterpieces of the National Gallery of Victoria and Janine Burke 's Australian Women Artists . One Hundred Years 1840 – 1940 , both of which refer to the well @-@ travelled painting Woman Drying Her Hair . While academic artists and art historians such as Bernard William Smith and Joseph Burke praised Stokes ' work during her lifetime , she faded into relative obscurity . There is , however , a strong market for resale of her works .
Stokes returned to some prominence through a book by Anne Summers , published in 2009 , called The Lost Mother , in which Stokes and her paintings are central to a narrative about Summers ' own family . Summers contrasts Stokes ' ongoing obscurity with the dramatic resurrection of the oeuvre of artists Grace Cossington Smith and Clarice Beckett , both brought to attention by well @-@ regarded gallery curators . Summers considers a number of factors to be involved in Stokes ' fate , including her association with George Bell , whose destruction of many of his early pictures , propensity to keep reworking his old pieces , and artistic conservatism , all limited his subsequent reputation . Summers also points to the lack of a high @-@ profile champion of Stokes ' work , and her Melbournian identity in a time when " Sydney was where the ideas and the experimentation were and the place where reputations were made " . Historian Helen Topliss takes a slightly different view , emphasising that Stokes was " deflected " from her career by raising a family .
A retrospective exhibition of Stokes ' paintings toured Victorian regional galleries including Swan Hill Regional Gallery and Geelong Art Gallery in 1985 . The next year , an exhibition of her work toured several state galleries and the S.H. Irvin gallery in Sydney . In 1992 , her works were displayed in the National Gallery of Victoria 's exhibition Classical Modernism : The George Bell Circle , while in 1993 the same gallery curated an exhibition of her paintings and drawings .
Most major Australian collections hold works by Stokes : The Village is one of thirteen in the collection of the National Gallery of Victoria . Closely associated with Victoria , and in particular the cultural milieu of Melbourne , Stokes is well represented in the galleries of that state . These include the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery , Benalla Art Gallery , Geelong Art Gallery , Mornington Peninsula Regional Gallery , and Swan Hill Regional Gallery . Other public galleries holding works by Stokes include the National Gallery of Australia , the Art Gallery of South Australia , the Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory , and the Queensland Art Gallery . The Art Gallery of New South Wales is alone among the major Australian institutions in not holding any of her paintings or drawings .
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= Jerusalem and Dopesmoker =
Jerusalem and Dopesmoker are the final albums by the American heavy metal band Sleep . The albums were released in 1999 and 2003 respectively . The music for these albums was written during a four @-@ year period when the group was working on a single song that was around an hour in length . Sleep had signed with London Records , which financed the album . When recording had finished , London Records was unhappy with the finished product and refused to release it . The album was later released in various forms by different record labels . All versions of the album received very positive reception from music critics , who described it as a high @-@ water mark in both the stoner metal and doom metal genres .
= = Production = =
After positive reviews from the heavy metal press and the release of the album Sleep 's Holy Mountain ( 1993 ) on Earache Records , Sleep 's label announced that they would release their follow @-@ up record . Sleep had been touring in Europe with Cathedral and in the United States with Hawkwind in support of Sleep 's Holy Mountain when the group felt they had to write new material . The new album was going to be an hour @-@ long song . This song was written and practiced at sound checks , motel rooms and in friends ' houses . Matt Pike said the songwriting process was long and that they were " working on [ the song ] for like four years . We also had two other songs that were working on that were really long , too — like 15 and 20 minutes . But we never recorded them . " Al Cisneros stated that smoking cannabis was important to the song 's creative process : " I was really dependent on the space I got into when I was using it , and some of the lyrics are about that ... The line , ' Drop out of life [ with bong in hand ] , ' was kind of a creed at that point . " The song was originally known and performed live under the title " Dopesmoker " . After their tour , the group began to be interested in a Middle Eastern desert theme which led to Sleep referring to the song as " Jerusalem " during later practice sessions .
Sleep were ready to record the album in 1995 but did not record it until 1996 as the band was still contracted with Earache . Cisneros said that there was " about a year and half of legal wrangling between their managers and lawyers at Earache " and that Earache owner Digby Pearson " waited to make the most prime conditions for himself before he let [ Sleep 's ] contract [ go ] . " Sleep were in talks with both London Records and Elektra Records to release their next album . They chose to sign to London , as they were promised complete artistic freedom and more money , and since the label did not have any metal bands , Sleep felt they would receive special treatment . The members of Sleep were poor , and used the majority of money they received from London Records to cover for the debt they were in at that time .
The song was recorded at Record Two Studio in Comptche , California . While recording the song , it began to develop differently from the original vision . Pike stated that the " song was getting slower and slower and then it got weird . We started tripping out and second guessing ourselves . " Recording the album was difficult . Pike recalled that " there was so much to memorize for that album , and we had to do it in like three different sections because a reel @-@ to @-@ reel only holds 22 minutes . It was really cool , but it was one of the hardest things I 've ever done in in my life . " Sleep were in the studio for one month then went home to rehearse and returned for another month . Pike noted that they ended up with two or three different versions of the song .
= = Release = =
Within a few weeks of signing with London , the A & R member who was negotiating with Sleep had been transferred and replaced . After sending the finished album to London Records , the label told Sleep that they were not going to release the album in its current format . London Records had David Sardy remix the album but the label were still confused as to what to do with the album . Sleep refused to have the album released in any edited form which led to a deadlock between London and the band . The members of Sleep have mixed feelings whether the album should have been released in general . Cisneros felt it should not have been released while Pike was content with its release , saying " We did all the work so why leave it sitting around ? "
By 2009 , there had been four versions of the album released : a rare London Records promotional disc , a bootleg with cover art by Arik Roper , the Rise Above / Music Cartel Records album , and a release by Tee Pee Records . The Rise Above / Music Cartel release was an unauthorized edited version , released in 1999 under the title Jerusalem . Jerusalem runs at 52 minutes and is a single composition split into six identically named tracks . The version of the album titled Dopesmoker was released on April 22 , 2003 , by Tee Pee Records on compact disc and vinyl with a 63 @-@ minute running time . Cisneros spoke most positively about the 2003 Dopesmoker release , saying " I don 't think the Dopesmoker thing is the exact version that we submitted , but that 's the closest one that 's come out of the four . If I had to pick a favorite , that would be it . " Parts of the song were used in the film Broken Flowers by Jim Jarmusch . Jarmusch stated that he was a fan of Sleep and listed them along with Earth and Sunn O ) ) ) as an influence for creating the film : " I love these kind of visual landscapes they make , and they really inspired things for me for my film The Limits of Control " .
= = Reissue = =
In March 2012 , Southern Lord Records announced plans for a deluxe reissue of the album , adding of the pending release that " The audio is clearer , louder , and at last brings a true representation of Sleep 's hour @-@ plus Weedian chronicle " . The reissue features new artwork by the band 's artist Arik Roper , a recording mastered from the original studio tapes by From Ashes Rise guitarist Brad Boatright , and a live version of the song " Holy Mountain " , recorded at the I @-@ Beam in San Francisco in 1994 . This version of the album reached number 14 on the Top Heatseekers chart .
= = Reception = =
Both Dopesmoker and early releases of the album received positive reviews from the music press . In the December 2000 issue of Spin the album was referred to as " brilliant " and as a " stoner touchstone " . CMJ New Music Monthly wrote positively about the song , saying that the " monotony rarely becomes tedious , because Al Cisneros and company are unpredictable and sensual in their drug @-@ induced pounding of early Sabbath terrain . " Online music database AllMusic gave the Jerusalem album four stars out of five stating that " Either version is worth investigating for adventurous metal enthusiasts , but Dopesmoker is clearly the final and definitive presentation of this work " . In 2006 , the extreme metal magazine Decibel included the album in their hall of fame of " extreme metal masterpieces " .
The album continued to receive praise after the release of Dopesmoker . Eduardo Rivadavia of online music database AllMusic gave the album four and a half stars out of five stating " Dopesmoker is [ ... ] an instant doom metal classic — some might even say a masterpiece " . The British music magazine Mojo gave the album a rating of five out of five stars proclaiming that Dopesmoker is " A benchmark by which all that dares call itself stoner rock must surely be judged . " Exclaim ! praised Dopesmoker 's production value and noted that the album was " ultimately better version of 1999 's stoner opus Jerusalem . " Stylus Magazine 's Stewart Voegtlin defined Dopesmoker as " a 60 @-@ minute song about the spliff , a monstrous rock ode to stinky buds " . Voegtlin pointed out that London Records ' refusal to " share Sleep 's affection or vision , [ led the band to ] disbanding in disgust . Matt Pike went on to form High on Fire ; Al Cisneros and Chris Hakius contemplate the universe 's navel with Om . " A New York Times critic wrote : " What seems disorienting and monochromatic at first grows richer and more rewarding upon repeated exposure . It ’ s like a Mark Rothko painting hitting you over the head with a bag of hammers . "
The 2012 Southern Lord Records re @-@ issue was also praised . On Metacritic , it has a score of 94 out of 100 , based on 9 reviews . Exclaim ! noted that this issue was " cleaner and more powerful , the guitars sound heavier , with a much larger presence , and the mesmerizing complexity of the track has been reinvigorated . " Pitchfork Media gave the album an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 and listed it as one of " the best new reissues " noting that " It 's an hour of adventure and momentum , where the lumber and the repetition somehow always push ahead . " Consequence of Sound gave the album three and a half stars out of five , stating that " It 's not for everybody , certainly ; all but the biggest potheads / metalheads may burn out after so much grinding . It 's no showcase for songwriting , either , but it makes up for that with heady atmosphere . "
= = Track listing = =
All music written and composed by Sleep .
= = Personnel = =
Sleep
Al Cisneros – vocals , bass
Matt Pike – guitar
Chris Hakius – drums
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= 2010 – 11 York City F.C. season =
The 2010 – 11 season was the eighty @-@ ninth season of competitive association football and seventh season in the Football Conference played by York City Football Club , a professional football club based in York , North Yorkshire , England . Their fifth @-@ place finish in 2009 – 10 meant it was their seventh successive season in the Conference Premier . The season covers the period from 1 July 2010 to 30 June 2011 .
Ahead of Martin Foyle 's second start to a season as manager , six signings were made before the summer transfer window closed . With York fifteenth in the table ten games into the season Foyle resigned , and was succeeded by Tamworth 's Gary Mills in October 2010 . Under his guidance , York enjoyed an unbeaten run at home in the league that lasted until April 2011 , when they were beaten by Mills ' former side . York 's push for a play @-@ off place was ended late in the season and they finished eighth in the table . They reached the third round of the 2010 – 11 FA Cup , being beaten 2 – 0 away by Bolton Wanderers , and were knocked out in the first round of the 2010 – 11 FA Trophy after losing 1 – 0 at home to Boston United .
Thirty @-@ two players made at least one appearance in nationally organised first @-@ team competition , and there were twenty different goalscorers . Goalkeeper Michael Ingham and defender James Meredith missed only one of the fifty @-@ two competitive matches played over the season . Michael Rankine finished as leading scorer with fourteen goals , of which twelve came in league competition and two came in the FA Cup . The winner of the Clubman of the Year award , voted for by the club 's supporters , was Danny Parslow for the second time in three seasons .
= = Background and pre @-@ season = =
The 2009 – 10 season was Martin Foyle 's first full season as manager of York City and the team reached the play @-@ offs after finishing fifth in the Conference Premier table . After defeating Luton Town 2 – 0 on aggregate in the semi @-@ final , York were beaten 3 – 1 by Oxford United in the 2010 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley Stadium . Jamie Clarke , Kevin Gall , Josh Mimms , Craig Nelthorpe , Alan O 'Hare , Richard Pacquette and Simon Russell were released by York following the play @-@ off defeat , with Luke Graham , Ben Purkiss and Adam Smith leaving for Kettering Town , Oxford and Mansfield Town respectively . Andy McWilliams was loaned out to Stalybridge Celtic . Levi Mackin and Djoumin Sangaré signed new contracts with the club .
Goalkeeper David Knight was brought in on a season @-@ long loan from Histon before the start of the season , while two defenders , Duane Courtney and Greg Young , signed from Kidderminster Harriers and Altrincham respectively . Midfielder Jonathan Smith was signed from Forest Green Rovers , with wingers David McDermott and Peter Till joining from Kidderminster and Walsall respectively . Striker George Purcell was signed from Braintree Town for an undisclosed fee . Defender Dean Lisles and winger Jamie Hopcutt entered the first team squad from the youth team after agreeing professional contracts .
The team adopted a new home kit , which featured red shirts with white collars , white trims on the shoulders and white sleeves that included red trims . York started the season wearing red shorts with white trims , but these were replaced later in the season with navy blue shorts with white trims . The home kit also included red shorts with white trims . The away kit , retained from the previous season , comprised light blue shirts with white horizontal stripes , light blue shorts and light blue socks . Pryers Solicitors continued as shirt sponsors for the second successive season .
= = Review = =
= = = August = = =
York started the season with a 2 – 1 defeat at home to Kidderminster , who opened the scoring with a goal direct from a corner kick . After Michael Rankine equalised on eighty @-@ six minutes with a penalty , Kidderminster won the game with a penalty three minutes later . Hopcutt was loaned out to Northern Premier League Premier Division side Whitby Town for a month . The team 's first away game of the season was against Grimsby Town , with the match finishing a 0 – 0 draw . This was followed by another away draw , with Michael Gash and Till scoring against Bath City as the match finished 2 – 2 . York then drew 0 – 0 at home to Barrow and the team 's first victory of the season came after Rankine and Richard Brodie scored to beat Altrincham at home 3 – 0 . The team were defeated 2 – 1 away by Fleetwood Town , where Young made his debut and scored York 's only goal . Brodie joined fellow Conference Premier side Crawley Town for an undisclosed fee , believed to be around £ 300 @,@ 000 , with the transfer being completed three minutes before the transfer deadline .
= = = September = = =
Following Brodie 's departure , two strikers were signed ; Leon Constantine joined on a contract until the end of the season after leaving Hereford United and youth team coach Steve Torpey was registered as a player . Till and debutant Constantine scored in the space of two minutes in a 2 – 0 home win over Rushden & Diamonds . Striker David Dowson , defender Jamal Fyfield and midfielder Danny Racchi joined the club on trial and played for the reserve team in a 1 – 1 draw with Chesterfield . Having fallen a goal behind , York earned a 1 – 1 draw away to Wrexham after Till scored the equalising goal . Ahead of York 's home game against Hayes & Yeading United , the club signed Fyfield from Maidenhead United for a nominal fee and Racchi from Wrexham , where he had been on non @-@ contract terms . The same day , York beat Hayes & Yeading 2 – 0 with goals from Rankine and Constantine , the latter making his first start for the club . York were defeated 5 – 0 away at Mansfield , with Jonathan Smith being sent off on thirty @-@ four @-@ minutes after receiving a second yellow card . Hopcutt and Lisles were loaned out to Stokesley of the Northern League Division One . Manager Foyle resigned ten games into the season , with the team fifteenth in the table , and assistant manager Andy Porter was appointed caretaker manager . Porter 's first game in charge was a 3 – 1 away victory over Tamworth , York 's first away win of the season , with goals scored from Rankine , Alex Lawless and debutant Fyfield . Ahead of this game , Dowson was signed and made his debut as an eighty @-@ fifth @-@ minute substitute . The first home game of Porter 's tenure was a 0 – 0 draw with Darlington , which was York 's first televised appearance on sports channel Premier Sports .
= = = October = = =
A 2 – 1 defeat away by Eastbourne Borough followed , with Lawless scoring York 's only goal . McDermott was released having made four appearances for the club after his month @-@ to @-@ month contract was not extended . Striker Mark Beesley was signed on a one @-@ month loan from Fleetwood before the game against Kettering Town . York lost this game 1 – 0 at home and the following day Porter left the club after four games in charge , with Torpey being appointed caretaker manager . He led the team for a 4 – 0 away loss to Newport County before Tamworth manager Gary Mills was appointed as manager , with Darron Gee following as assistant manager . Mills ' first game in charge was a 1 – 1 draw at home to Bath , with York taking the lead through a first @-@ half penalty scored by Rankine before Bath equalised in the second half . McDermott rejoined the club on another month @-@ to @-@ month contract to become Mills ' first signing . Former York defender Chris Smith , who played under Mills at Tamworth , was signed from Mansfield on a three @-@ month loan , with a view to a permanent transfer . With Mills stating his desire to reduce the size of a squad that was " too big " , Dowson , Hopcutt and Lisles were released by the club . The first victory under Mills ' management was a 2 – 0 win away to Kidderminster in the fourth qualifying round of the FA Cup , with Racchi and Jonathan Smith scoring their first goals for the club . Courtney was made available for loan having made seven appearances for the club . Mills ' first defeat came in a 2 – 1 away loss against Forest Green Rovers , with former Forest Green player Lawless scoring York 's only goal .
= = = November = = =
Beesley returned to Fleetwood after Mills decided to terminate his loan . York drew 0 – 0 away to League Two side Rotherham United in the first round of the FA Cup , which resulted in a replay at home . Lawless joined divisional rivals Luton on loan until January 2011 , when a permanent transfer for an undisclosed fee would take place . Two loan signings were subsequently made ; Leicester City striker Ashley Chambers joined until January 2011 and Sunderland midfielder Robbie Weir joined on a one @-@ month deal . Rankine scored York 's equaliser in a 1 – 1 home draw against Wrexham with a second @-@ half penalty . York beat Rotherham 3 – 0 in their FA Cup first round replay , with Chris Smith opening the scoring before Rankine scored twice . David McGurk handed in a transfer request having expressed his desire to join Luton , after they had a number of bids for him rejected and he had turned down a contract extension with York . York recorded their first league win under Mills with a 4 – 0 victory away to Rushden with Racchi , Rankine , Chambers and Neil Barrett scoring . Purcell was loaned out to Conference South team Dartford until January 2011 to regain match fitness following his return from injury . The Rushden win was followed by the season 's first successive league victory , after York beat Southport 2 – 0 at home with late goals from Constantine and McDermott . Midfielder Andre Boucaud was signed from Kettering on loan until January 2011 , with a view to a permanent transfer . York progressed to the third round of the FA Cup for the second season running after beating Darlington 2 – 0 away in the second round . The team 's run of three straight wins came to an end after a 0 – 0 away draw against Kidderminster .
= = = December = = =
Weir 's loan from Sunderland was extended until January , with Mills commenting " He 's a fit lad who 's totally committed in what he does and I 've been impressed with him " . Mills was named the Conference Premier Manager of the Month for November 2010 after leading York to a seven @-@ match unbeaten run , while Michael Ingham picked up the Player of the Month award after he kept six clean sheets and conceded one goal in this period . York were knocked out of the FA Trophy in the first round after being beaten 1 – 0 by Conference North club Boston United , which was the team 's first home defeat under Mills . Racchi 's contract with York expired , although Mills stated his intention to re @-@ sign him once the January 2011 transfer window opened . York 's away game with Luton was abandoned after fifty @-@ five @-@ minutes due to heavy snow , with the score at the time being 0 – 0 . Sangaré agreed to sign for Moroccan Botola champions Wydad Casablanca pending the expiry of his York contract at the end of December 2010 , although after the transfer fell through he signed for Oxford . McDermott and Racchi agreed to sign new contracts with York once the January 2011 transfer window opened , which would keep them at the club until the end of the season . Having failed to establish a place in the team under Mills , Gash agreed to join Rushden in January 2011 on loan for the rest of the season .
= = = January = = =
York started the New Year with a 3 – 0 victory away to Gateshead , with Jonathan Smith , Barrett and Constantine scoring in the second half . Chambers ' loan at the club was extended until the end of the season . Boucaud signed a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for a fee of £ 20 @,@ 000 and Chris Smith signed a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract to join the club permanently , while Lawless departed for Luton permanently . Jamie Reed was signed from Welsh Premier League side Bangor City for an undisclosed fee , on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract , after York had a bid for him rejected in November 2010 . York were defeated 2 – 0 away by Premier League side Bolton Wanderers in the FA Cup third round , with Kevin Davies and Johan Elmander scoring late in the match . Weir returned to Sunderland after his loan expired , although Mills wanted to re @-@ sign the player . Constantine scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 victory at home to Grimsby with a lob over goalkeeper Kenny Arthur . York came from behind to beat Histon 2 – 1 away after Constantine and Till scored in the last fifteen minutes . A 5 – 0 defeat at Luton followed after Ingham was sent off in the fifteenth @-@ minute , with Chris Smith subsequently playing in goal until half time when Young took over .
Following a trial with League Two club Cheltenham Town , Courtney was released by the club after having his contract cancelled . Mackin scored the winning goal in the eighty @-@ fifth @-@ minute of a 2 – 1 home victory over Forest Green , in which Reed scored his first goal for the club . Leeds United midfielder Will Hatfield was signed on a one @-@ month loan following a trial . York were beaten 4 – 0 at Southport , with McGurk being sent off in the second @-@ minute . On transfer deadline day , former Leeds defender Liam Darville signed a contract until the end of the season and former Lincoln City midfielder Scott Kerr signed a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract , following their release by their respective clubs . Fyfield joined former club Maidenhead on a one @-@ month loan and Purcell joined Eastbourne on loan until the end of the season .
= = = February = = =
Danny Parslow , James Meredith , Rankine and Chambers scored as York beat league leaders AFC Wimbledon 4 – 1 at home . Young returned to Altrincham on an emergency loan for the rest of the season . York played a second consecutive match against Wimbledon , being beaten 1 – 0 away . This was followed by a 1 – 0 victory at home to Fleetwood , with Reed scoring the only goal of the game in the second half . York drew 0 – 0 away to Altrincham , which was the team 's first draw since November 2010 , before Jonathan Smith and Rankine scored as York won 2 – 1 away to Hayes & Yeading .
= = = March = = =
Jonathan Smith scored in a second successive match to give York the lead at home to Gateshead , although the winning goal of a 2 – 1 victory was scored by Constantine from the penalty spot . Hatfield 's loan from Leeds was extended until the end of the season , after he made two appearances during his first month at the club . McGurk signed a new contract with York , which contracted him to the club until the summer of 2013 . York drew 0 – 0 away at Barrow . Fyfield opted not to extend his loan at Maidenhead , to fight for a place in the team . Rankine scored the only goal to give York a 1 – 0 victory at home to Eastbourne , with a header from a Till cross during the first half . Reed came off the bench to score both goals as York came from behind to beat Mansfield 2 – 1 at home . He scored for a second successive game away to Cambridge United , although York lost 2 – 1 . Winger Aidan Chippendale was signed on loan from Huddersfield Town for the rest of the season . Reed scored his fourth goal in three games as York beat Histon 1 – 0 at home .
= = = April and May = = =
Rankine missed an eighty @-@ seventh @-@ minute penalty for York away at Kettering , with Reed scoring the team 's goal in a 1 – 1 draw . Jonathan Smith scored in the first half for York at home to league @-@ leaders Crawley , who equalised in the second half , with the match finishing a 1 – 1 draw . Racchi was released from his contract with immediate effect after requesting a transfer , having failed to establish himself in the team . York beat Newport 2 – 1 at home , with Rankine opening the scoring before assisting Reed for the second goal . During this match McGurk picked up an ankle ligament injury , which ruled him out for the rest of the season . York suffered their first defeat at home since December 2010 after losing 2 – 1 to Tamworth , in which Constantine scored a consolation goal in the eighty @-@ ninth @-@ minute . Having not made any appearances for the club , Chippendale was recalled by Huddersfield . Reed scored the only goal to give York a 1 – 0 victory at home to Luton . Young was recalled from his loan at Altrincham after Parslow suffered a head injury during the match against Luton .
York were beaten 2 – 1 away to Darlington , in which Chris Carruthers scored a consolation goal in the eighty @-@ seventh @-@ minute . York 's hopes of making the play @-@ offs were ended after drawing 0 – 0 with Cambridge in the last home match of the season . The last match of the season was a 1 – 1 draw away to champions @-@ elect Crawley ; York took the lead in the fifth @-@ minute through an own goal scored by David Hunt , before the home side equalised with a Matt Tubbs penalty in the sixty @-@ eighth @-@ minute . York finished the season in eighth place in the Conference Premier table , seven points adrift of a play @-@ off spot . The Clubman of the Year award , voted for by the club 's supporters , was won by Parslow for the second time in three seasons . He was presented with the trophy at an awards ' ceremony held at Bootham Crescent .
= = Summary and aftermath = =
York spent most of the season in mid @-@ table , and having been as low as nineteenth in the table in November went on to reach sixth place during the last month of the season . The team 's goals scored tally of fifty @-@ five was the lowest of any team in the top half of the table , and the sixth lowest of any team in the division . Ingham and Meredith made the highest number of appearances during the season , each appearing in fifty @-@ one of York 's fifty @-@ two games . Rankine was York 's top scorer in the league and in all competitions , with twelve league goals and fourteen in total . He was the only player to reach double figures , and was followed by Reed with nine goals .
Before the start of the new season York released Barrett , Carruthers , Constantine , Darville , Gash , Mackin and McWilliams , with Purcell , Rankine , Jonathan Smith , Till and Young leaving for Dover Athletic , Aldershot Town , Swindon Town , Fleetwood and Alfreton Town respectively . Fyfield , Ingham and Meredith signed new contracts with York , and McDermott was retained on non @-@ contract terms . The club 's new arrivals were goalkeeper Paul Musselwhite from Lincoln , defender Lanre Oyebanjo from Histon , midfielders Patrick McLaughlin from Newcastle United , Adriano Moké from Jerez Industrial and Michael Potts from Blackburn Rovers , winger Matty Blair from Kidderminster and strikers Chambers from Leicester , Liam Henderson from Watford and Jason Walker from Luton .
= = Match details = =
League positions are sourced by Statto , while the remaining information is referenced individually .
= = = Conference Premier = = =
= = = League table ( part ) = = =
= = = FA Cup = = =
= = = FA Trophy = = =
= = Transfers = =
= = = In = = =
Brackets around club names denote the player 's contract with that club had expired before he joined York .
= = = Out = = =
Brackets around club names denote the player joined that club after his York contract expired .
= = = Loans in = = =
= = = Loans out = = =
= = Appearances and goals = =
Source :
Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute .
Players with names struck through and marked left the club during the playing season .
Players with names in italics and marked * were on loan from another club for the whole of their season with York .
Players listed with no appearances have been in the matchday squad but only as unused substitutes .
Key to positions : GK – Goalkeeper ; DF – Defender ; MF – Midfielder ; FW – Forward
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= Barbara L =
Barbara L ( 1947 – 1977 ) was an American Quarter Horse that raced during the early 1950s and often defeated some of the best racehorses of the time . She earned $ 32 @,@ 836 ( about $ 290 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) on the race track in 81 starts and 21 wins , including six wins in stakes races . She set two track records during her racing career . After retiring from racing in 1955 , she went on to become a broodmare and had 14 foals , including 11 who earned their Race Register of Merit with the American Quarter Horse Association ( AQHA ) . Her offspring earned more than $ 200 @,@ 000 in race money . She died in 1977 and was inducted into the AQHA 's American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame in 2007 .
= = Early life = =
Barbara L was foaled in 1947 , a bay daughter of a Thoroughbred stallion named Patriotic and a Quarter Horse broodmare named Big Bess . She was registered with the AQHA as number 146 @,@ 954 . Her sire , or father , was a grandson of Man o ' War , while her dam , or mother , descended from the Quarter Horse Peter McCue . Barbara L was registered as bred by James Hunt of Sonora , Texas , and her owner at the time of registration was A. B. Green , of Purcell , Oklahoma .
As a yearling , Barbara L was sold at auction for $ 140 ( approximately $ 1 @,@ 400 as of 2016 ) to a Mr. Lumpkin , who sold horse trailers for a living . She spent the next period of her life demonstrating trailers across Texas before someone suggested that Lumpkin race her . Lumpkin changed her name from " Anthem " to " Barbara L " in honor of his daughter Barbara , who was the filly 's first trainer .
= = Racing career = =
Barbara L 's first race was in 1949 at Del Rio , Texas , where she came in fourth and only rated a B speed index ( a measure of how fast a horse ran in a race ) . She did not win a race until her third start that year , completing a 440 yards ( 400 m ) course in 23 @.@ 4 seconds . In the following years , she raced at Centennial Race Track in Colorado ; at Raton in New Mexico ; at Albuquerque , New Mexico ; at Phoenix , Arizona ; at Los Alamitos Race Track in California ; and at Bay Meadows Race Track . She raced for Lumpkin until 1952 , when she was sold to A. B. Green . Green raced her until May 1955 , when her last start was recorded with the AQHA .
Barbara L raced for seven years , starting 81 times . She ended her career on the track with 21 victories , 23 seconds and nine third @-@ place finishes . During her racing career , she beat a number of the top racehorses of her time : Stella Moore , Blob Jr , Bart BS , Johnny Dial , and Monita . She won six stakes races , placed second in four , and came in third in three . Her earnings on the racetrack were $ 32 @,@ 836 ( approximately $ 290 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) . The stakes wins were the Speedwell Handicap , the Del Rio Feature , the Bart BS Stakes , the Miss Princess Invitational Handicap , Maddon 's Bright Eyes Handicap , and the Pima County Fair Premier Stakes . She set two track records — one at Centennial for 400 yards ( 370 m ) with 20 @.@ 2 seconds , the other at Los Alamitos for 400 yards ( 370 m ) with 20 @.@ 5 seconds — and equaled the 350 @-@ yard ( 320 m ) track record at Los Alamitos with an 18 @.@ 5 second run . The AQHA awarded her a Race Register of Merit and a Superior Race Horse award .
= = Broodmare career = =
As a broodmare , Barbara L produced eleven foals who earned their Race Register of Merit with the AQHA . Four of her foals earned speed ratings of AAAT , which would translate to speed indexes of 100 or better in current usage . She had 14 foals ; collectively , they started 230 times on the racetrack , winning 52 races and earning $ 262 @,@ 042 ( approximately $ 1 @.@ 97 million as of 2016 ) in races . Two of her foals won Superior Race Horse Awards : Cuter Yet , and Mr Walt . Her leading money earner was Barbara 3 , who earned more than $ 100 @,@ 000 .
Barbara L 's first foal was Mr. Bruce , a chestnut stallion foaled in 1956 and sired by the Thoroughbred stallion Three Bars . He started 25 races , of which he won six , earning $ 8 @,@ 283 ( approximately $ 67 @,@ 200 as of 2016 ) on the track . He earned an AAA speed index and placed second once and third once in stakes races . Barbara L 's next foal was Miss Olene , a bay mare sired by Leo and foaled in 1957 . She started 33 races and won 11 times , including one stakes race . She earned an AAAT speed index and finished third in the 1959 All American Futurity while earning $ 31 @,@ 022 ( approximately $ 245 @,@ 700 as of 2016 ) in total racing earnings . Polly Jane , a bay mare sired by Go Man Go , was Barbara L 's 1958 foal . Polly Jane started 21 times , winning four races , achieving an AAA speed index , and earning $ 3 @,@ 961 ( approximately $ 31 @,@ 400 as of 2016 ) . In 1959 , Barbara L 's foal was Mr. Walt , a bay stallion by Vandy . Mr. Walt started 55 times and had a AAAT speed index . He won nine races , including one stakes race , earning him $ 9 @,@ 417 ( approximately $ 68 @,@ 700 as of 2016 ) . In 1960 , Barbara L produced Barbara 2 , a sorrel mare by Leo . Barbara 2 raced 11 times , winning 2 races with $ 2 @,@ 847 ( approximately $ 22 @,@ 300 as of 2016 ) in earnings and a AAAT speed index .
Barbara L 's next two foals , Go Doctor and Barbara 1 , did not race , but the foal born in 1963 , Barbara L 's Boy , started 12 times and won twice . He was sired by Depth Bars and won $ 1 @,@ 312 ( approximately $ 9 @,@ 300 as of 2016 ) and earned a AAA speed index . In 1964 , Barbara L had Barbara 3 , a sorrel mare sired by the Thoroughbred Top Deck . Barbara 3 started 19 races and won seven times , including one stakes race . Her best speed index was AAAT and she earned $ 100 @,@ 692 ( approximately $ 714 @,@ 600 as of 2016 ) . Barbara L 's next foal , in 1965 , was Top Decker , a brown stallion also by Top Deck . He started five times and earned a AAA speed index and $ 98 ( approximately $ 630 as of 2016 ) . Barbara L did not have a foal in 1966 , but in 1967 she had a bay mare named Cuter Yet by Jet Deck . Cuter Yet started 27 races and won 5 times , including 2 stakes races . Cuter Yet 's race earnings were $ 98 @,@ 806 ( approximately $ 602 @,@ 100 as of 2016 ) , and her highest speed index was 98 . In 1968 , Barbara L had Barbara Meyers , a bay mare by Kid Meyers . Barbara Meyers started six times and earned an 89 speed index and $ 1 @,@ 082 ( approximately $ 6 @,@ 300 as of 2016 ) . Barbara L 's 1969 foal , Peggy Rollins , did not race , but her last foal , Barbara El , a bay mare also by Kid Meyers , started 16 times and won 3 races . Barbara El won $ 4 @,@ 522 ( approximately $ 24 @,@ 100 as of 2016 ) and an 80 speed index .
= = Death and legacy = =
Barbara L died in 1977 . A stakes race was named in her honor and run at Ruidoso Downs , New Mexico , in 1956 . In 2006 , she earned a Dam of Distinction award from the AQHA ; she was inducted into the AQHA Hall of Fame in 2007 .
= = Pedigree = =
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= The Experiment ( Dane Rumble album ) =
The Experiment is the first solo studio album by New Zealand singer @-@ songwriter Dane Rumble . Released by Rumble Music and Warner Music on 29 March 2010 , it follows two years after the split of his hip hop group Fast Crew . Rumble found it difficult to write music for himself , and therefore deviated to the pop rock genre . The Experiment includes elements of dance @-@ pop and pop rap , and lyrically focusses on personal issues . Rumble produced the album with Jonathan Campbell . In July 2010 Rumble embarked on The Edge Winter Jam : The Experiment Tour , which had him perform in Auckland , Wellington and Christchurch .
The Experiment received mixed to positive reviews from music critics ; some praised its catchiness while others labelled it " chart fodder " . The record received nominations in four categories at the 2010 New Zealand Music Awards , and won the Rumble the award for Best Male Solo Artist . The Experiment debuted at number one on the New Zealand Albums Chart , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) . Five singles were released from the album : top @-@ ten hits " Don 't Know What to Do " and " Cruel " , and " Always Be Here " , " Everything ( Take Me Down ) " and " What Are You Waiting For ? " .
= = Background = =
Rumble 's hip hop group , Fast Crew , released their second studio album , Truth , Lies & Red Tape , in 2008 . The band split soon afterwards , and Rumble decided to pursue a solo musical career , and taught himself to play the guitar . He began writing material for his album , but he found that he could no longer write hip hop . " Hip hop was just wearing really thin for me because it 's really quite macho . ' I 'm wicked because of this . I 'm the best because of that ' . It 's a lot of talking yourself up , " Rumble said . He began to write songs inspired by his own experiences and emotions , which allowed him to explore other musical genres . He explained that when he wrote songs for the album , he began by creating a chord progression using his guitar , which evolved into the tune 's basic melody , after which he would determine its theme . Other songs were conceived by Rumble humming a tune during everyday activities , then recording it onto his iPhone so as to not forget it . The tune would later be refined to a full @-@ fledged song . According to Rumble , writing music was the hardest component of the album 's making . " Always Be Here " was the first song Rumble completed , which he sent to record label Warner Music NZ , thereby commencing his solo career .
Rumble organised a band of his friends , rather than the standard practice of contracting out to professional studio musicians . Scott Nicholls played drums , Ben White played guitar , Alistair Wood played keyboard instruments and Rumble 's brother Josh played bass . White and Wood had previously played music with Fast Crew . The band spent three months recording the album 's music ; drums were recorded at York Street Studio , Auckland , while the remainder of the recording took place at Beaver Studios , Auckland . Rumble co @-@ produced The Experiment with Jonathan Campbell , who also engineered the record . Rumble said he put a lot of time and effort into the album ; " I really wanted to write a world class record , I didn 't want to come out with some half @-@ pie thing . "
= = Composition = =
The Experiment is a pop rock album , featuring guitar and synth riffs , and incorporates elements of dance @-@ pop , pop rap and power pop . Some parts of the album contain auto @-@ tuned vocals , and the record has been described as having an " international " feel . Rumble said that this was because he and Campbell made sure that the album " sounded big [ so that ] it could compete on the world stage " . Thematically , The Experiment is " about love , heartbreak , getting what he wants and knowing he is in charge of his own destiny " , although " Let You Down " is " quite dark and weighty " . Many of the song 's discuss Rumble 's own life experiences ; some are reflective while others " just try to get other people enthused about what they 're doing with their lives " . " Always Be Here " discusses maintaining a romantic relationship while constantly travelling , and " What Are You Waiting For ? " is " about being motivated and assessing your own life , which is exactly what happened to [ Rumble ] " .
= = Release and promotion = =
On 26 March 2010 , Rumble performed a free album launch concert at the Sky Tower in Auckland . The Experiment was released in New Zealand on 29 March 2010 by Rumble Music — Rumble 's own record label — and Warner Music New Zealand . An Australian release followed on 1 April 2011 , by Rumble Music and Hussle Recordings . Rumble embarked on The Edge Winter Jam : The Experiment Tour . Sponsored by radio station The Edge , it also featured appearances by J.Williams , Kidz in Space and Ivy Lies ; it was later announced that American rapper B.o.B would join the line @-@ up . The tour commenced on 15 July 2010 at Telstra Events Centre , Auckland . The second stop was at TSB Bank Arena , Wellington on 16 July , while the final show was on 17 July at Christchurch 's Westpac Arena . The Wellington and Christchurch dates were rescheduled ; the shows were originally booked for 8 and 9 July , respectively .
= = = Singles = = =
" Always Be Here " was released on 16 February 2009 , becoming Rumble 's debut solo single . It peaked at number thirteen on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and was certified gold by the RIANZ in December 2009 . It also entered the ARIA Dance Chart at number nineteen . On 16 December 2009 " Don 't Know What to Do " was released , which reached number ten on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and was also certified gold .
" Cruel " became the third single from The Experiment on 23 November 2009 . A version of the song featuring a rapped interlude was released the same day , and is used in its music video . Reaching number three on the New Zealand Singles Chart and receiving a platinum certification from the RIANZ , " Cruel " became Rumble 's most commercially successful single . Following the album 's release " Everything ( Take Me Down ) " was released on 12 April 2010 ; it peaked at number twenty on the New Zealand Singles Chart . " What Are You Waiting For ? " was released on 30 August 2010 as The Experiment 's final single , but failed to chart .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Jacqueline Smith of The New Zealand Herald gave The Experiment four out of five stars , and praised its mainstream appeal and the variation within the album . Rip It Up 's Matt Ruys awarded The Experiment four out of five stars , calling it " arguably one of the best New Zealand male pop records of the new millenium " . The Press ' Vicki Anderson wrote , " This is one experiment that seems to have worked out for Dane Rumble " . Kristin Macfarlane from the Bay of Plenty Times was very favourable in her review of the album , and lauded its catchy tunes . She noted that many radio @-@ friendly songs become repetitive , however that does not apply to those on The Experiment . Conversely , The Nelson Mail 's Nick Ward gave the album two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars , dismissing the radio @-@ friendly nature of the album and describing it as " chart fodder " . Simon Sweetman of The Dominion Post gave The Experiment one star out of five and wrote , " This [ album ] will be shoved down people 's faces as being great new music from New Zealand and it 's not . It 's horrible . "
The Experiment was nominated in four categories at the 2010 New Zealand Music Awards : Album of the Year , Breakthrough Artist of the Year , Best Male Solo Artist and Best Pop Album . It won the award for Best Male Solo Artist , while Gin Wigmore 's Holy Smoke took out the other three categories .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The Experiment debuted atop the New Zealand Albums Chart on 5 April 2010 , replacing Lady Gaga 's The Fame Monster . In its second charting week it slipped to number three , with Slash 's self @-@ titled album taking the number one spot , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) on 11 April 2010 , denoting shipments of 7 @,@ 500 units . The album 's last week in the chart was on 30 August 2010 , having lasted twenty weeks on the top forty chart , including four in the top ten .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits for The Experiment , adapted from Allmusic :
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= María Santos Gorrostieta Salazar =
María Santos Gorrostieta Salazar ( 1976 – 15 November 2012 ) was a Mexican physician and politician of the Party of the Democratic Revolution ( PRD ) . From 2008 to 2011 , she served as mayor of Tiquicheo , a small town in the Mexican state of Michoacán . In spite of three failed assassination attempts during her tenure as mayor , Gorrostieta Salazar continued to be outspoken in the fight against organized crime . In a fourth attack , Gorrostieta Salazar was kidnapped and assassinated by suspected drug traffickers on 15 November 2012 . Michoacán is home to several violent drug trafficking organizations such as La Familia Michoacana and the Knights Templar Cartel .
= = Career = =
Gorrostieta Salazar was born in 1976 in Tiquicheo , a small town in the state of Michoacán , Mexico . She attended the Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo in Morelia and earned a PhD in medicine .
She began her political career by joining the Institutional Revolutionary Party ( PRI ) , and from 2008 to 2011 , she served as the mayor of Tiquicheo . While in office , she survived three assassination attempts . She ran for the Chamber of Deputies of the Congress of the Union , but she did not get elected and returned to her office as mayor . After some differences with the PRI , which had urged her to resign , Gorrostieta Salazar left the party and joined the Party of the Democratic Revolution ( PRD ) in August 2010 . She said her Catholic faith influenced her approach to her duties as a politician . She has been described as a " heroine of the 21st century " for her opposition to Mexico 's drug cartels and for refusing to take bribes .
She had three children with her first husband , José Sánchez Chávez . After he was killed in the October 2009 attack , Gorrostieta Salazar later married Nereo Patiño Delgado .
= = Assassination attempts = =
= = = Background = = =
In 2008 , Gorrostieta Salazar was elected mayor of Tiquicheo . Several drug trafficking organizations , particularly the La Familia Michoacana and the Knights Templar Cartel , are based in the area . Michoacán is a leading producer of marijuana and opium poppy , making it a lucrative route for smugglers taking narcotics into the United States . Despite receiving threats , Gorrostieta Salazar publicly denounced the activities of these groups . The drug cartels , which are constantly fighting each other for territorial control , often target mayors who confront them . Other mayors , however , are corrupted and bribed by the cartels . Mexico has more than 2 @,@ 500 municipalities , many of which are far from the capital cities and lack amenities available in other parts of the country . Many of these areas are plagued with drug @-@ related violence , so the political parties have faced difficulties finding people interested in holding the post of mayor .
It was in Michoacán that Felipe Calderón launched the country 's first military @-@ led operation in the ongoing drug war , just ten days after he took office on 11 December 2006 . The military campaign spread to other states in Mexico , eventually including over 50 @,@ 000 federal agents . After years of past administrations taking a passive stance against the drug cartels , Calderón had decided it was time for the government to " flex its muscles . " Violence exploded in Michoacán and across the country , leaving a death toll of about 60 @,@ 000 ( perhaps even more than 100 @,@ 000 ) in six years . Numerous journalists and mayors have been killed since the start of the drug war , and some members of the Mexican Armed Forces and the Federal police have been accused of human rights abuses and causing forced disappearances . The organized crime groups have diversified their criminal agendas , no longer focusing solely on drug trafficking ; many of them operate kidnapping rings and extortion and protection rackets , and engage in piracy , and human trafficking . The cartels in Michoacán force the local population to pay for " protection " , spy , and report suspicious activities and law enforcement presence .
Calderón argued that if he had not acted , Mexico would have become a " narco @-@ state , " where the drug trafficking organizations impose law at their will . " I am sure that the Mexicans of tomorrow will remember these days as the moment when the country took the decision to defend itself , with all its force , against a voracious criminal phenomenon of translational dimensions , " Calderón said on 20 November 2012 at a ceremony for fallen soldiers . His successor , Enrique Peña Nieto , has pledged to continue the fight , but plans to adjust the strategy to reduce the level of violence .
= = = 2009 attacks = = =
In January 2008 , three months after Gorrostieta Salazar took office , she and her husband were travelling near the rural community of Las Mojarras when an automobile ran them off the road . In that incident , the gunmen only threatened Gorrostieta Salazar by shooting in the air and warning her to resign " before it was too late . " On 16 January 2009 , in the rural area of El Limón de Papatzindán , the couple was attacked by armed assailants and received minor injuries that did not prevent them from continuing their public lives . The next attack occurred on 15 October 2009 , when Gorrostieta Salazar was ambushed while driving through El Limón de Papatzindán with her husband . A group of armed men opened fire on Sánchez Chávez when he left the vehicle to make a phone call . Gorrostieta Salazar ran to protect her husband and was shot as well . Sánchez Chávez died that day from three gunshot wounds , but Gorrostieta Salazar survived because the gunmen believed she was dead .
A few months later , Gorrostieta Salazar announced that she was still willing to work and returned to her duties as mayor . By then , she contacted the leaders of the PRI to ask for protection , but she encountered difficulties , including unanswered phone calls .
= = = 2010 attack = = =
On 23 January 2010 , Gorrostieta Salazar was attacked by armed men in Ciudad Altamirano , Guerrero , while returning from a local event with four other people . Severely injured by bullet wounds in the abdomen , chest , and leg , she was taken to a local hospital . Also injured were the driver of the vehicle , who was shot twice ; Marbella Reyes Ortoño , head of the Institute of Women in Tiquicheo ; and Fanny Almazán Gómez , a journalist from El Sol de Morelia . In addition to the bullet wounds , Gorrostieta Salazar suffered further injuries when the vehicle crashed after the shooting . Her wounds left her in constant pain and she had to use a colostomy bag , but she refused to resign her post as mayor . She publicly displayed her wounds in photographs published in an issue of Contacto Ciudadano magazine , and repeated her statement that she would continue her work .
" I wanted to show you my wounded , mutilated , humiliated body because I am not ashamed of it , because it is the result of the misfortunes that have marked my life ... it is the living testimony that I am a whole and strong woman , who , despite my physical and mental wounds , continues standing . "
Gorrostieta Salazar left the PRI and joined the PRD in August 2010 , stating that the PRI had not supported her after the attacks . She ran for election to the National Congress with the PRD , but failed to get elected . At the end of her term as mayor , Gorrostieta Salazar retired from politics . She returned to private life , remarried , and dedicated her time to raise her three children : Malusi , José , and Deysi . Her police protection came to an end when her mayoral term expired in 2011 .
= = Assassination = =
On 12 November 2012 , Gorrostieta Salazar was driving her daughter to school in Morelia at around 8 : 30 a.m. when a vehicle ran them off the road . Two armed men descended from their vehicle and forced her out of her car as onlookers watched . Gorrostieta Salazar pleaded with her abductors to let her daughter go unharmed , and then agreed to go with the kidnappers . The family of the former mayor initially thought it was a ransom kidnapping . After not hearing from Gorrostieta Salazar or her abductors for two days , they notified the police . On 15 November , police identified the body after farm workers from the rural community of San Juan Tararameo in Cuitzeo found the corpse on their way to work .
Post @-@ mortem reports indicated that she died of a traumatic brain injury , the result of severe blows to the head . The governor of Michoacán said that organized crime was undoubtedly involved . Gorrostieta Salazar was buried alongside her husband José Sánchez Chávez in a tomb at a local cemetery in Tiquicheo , her hometown .
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= Rock Lee =
Rock Lee ( Japanese : ロック ・ リー , Hepburn : Rokku Rī ) is a fictional character in the anime and manga series Naruto created by Masashi Kishimoto . Kishimoto considers Lee his favorite character to draw , and at first designed Lee to symbolize human weakness . In the anime and manga , Lee is a ninja affiliated with the village of Konohagakure , and is a member of Team Guy , which consists of himself , Neji Hyuga , Tenten , and Might Guy — the team 's leader . Unable to use most ninja techniques , Lee dedicates himself to using solely taijutsu , ninja techniques similar to martial arts . Lee dreams of becoming a " splendid ninja " despite his inabilities . Lee has appeared in several pieces of Naruto media , including the third and fourth featured films in the series , the third original video animation , and multiple video games .
Numerous anime and manga publications have commented on Lee 's character . IGN compared Lee to Bruce Lee and Noel Gallagher , and Anime News Network called Lee the " goofiest looking character " in the series . Among the Naruto reader base , Lee has been popular , placing high in several popularity polls . Numerous pieces of merchandise have been released in Lee 's likeness , including figurines and plush dolls .
= = Creation and conception = =
In an interview in Weekly Shōnen Jump 's Naruto Anime Profiles Episodes 1 @-@ 37 , Masashi Kishimoto stated that he enjoys drawing Lee more than any other character in the series . When designing Lee 's appearance , Kishimoto intended to have Lee wield a variety of weapons , including nunchaku ; however , due to time constraints while creating the series , he was unable to do so . Kishimoto has noted that he originally designed Lee to symbolize human weakness ; Kishimoto 's design of Sakura Haruno was also intended to carry the same symbolism . Kishimoto was surprised by Lee 's popularity within fans . He intended to write more about him but the timing was never right .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Naruto = = =
Rock Lee is a ninja from Konohagakure part of Team Guy , a four @-@ man cell of ninja led by Might Guy . Inspired by Lee 's determination to become stronger despite his inability to perform basic ninja techniques , Guy takes a personal interest in him , deciding to help him achieve his dream of becoming a powerful ninja by using only taijutsu that is primary hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . This relationship with Guy causes Lee to acquire many of Guy 's traits . Lee believes he can surpass the natural talents of others through hard work and passion ; throughout the series , he attempts to surpass Neji Hyuga , who is labeled a " genius " . Lee first appears in the series as a participant in the Chunin Exams , twice a year exams for ninja who wish to increase their rank . During the Chunin Exams , Lee battles Gaara , a ninja from the village of Sunagakure . In the fight , Lee uses the eight chakra gates , limits on the body 's ability to use chakra , increasing his natural abilities at the cost of his health . Despite his effort , Gaara cripples Lee by crushing his left arm and leg , injuring Lee to the point that he must abandon being a ninja .
When Tsunade , a Konohagakure medical ninja , returns to lead the village as the Fifth Hokage , she offers to operate on him . Despite the procedure 's fifty percent chance of failure , Guy encourages Lee to have the operation . Ultimately , Lee undergoes the surgery , which succeeds in healing his arm and leg . Immediately after the operation , Lee follows a team of ninja led by Shikamaru Nara who attempt to stop Sasuke Uchiha from defecting from Konohagakure to the village of Otogakure . Lee battles the Otogakure ninja Kimimaro through using the Potion Punch ( 酔拳 , Suiken , literally " Drunken Fist " , English TV : " Loopy Fist " ) fighting style in which he becomes inebriated with unpredictable attacks . When Kimimaro is on the verge of defeating Lee , Gaara intervenes , continuing the battle .
In Part II , Lee obtains the rank of Chunin , and is dispatched with his team to help save Gaara following his abduction by the criminal organization Akatsuki . During the events of the Fourth Shinobi War Lee is assigned to the Third Division , Lee helps in fighting the Kabuto Yakushi 's reanimated army and later aids Naruto in the fight against Obito Uchiha and Madara Uchiha . Years after the war , Lee marries an unknown woman and has a son named Metal Lee . In the epilogue , Lee is last seen many years later , training with his son . In Boruto : Naruto the Movie , Lee hosts the third stage of the Chunin Exam .
= = = Appearances in other media = = =
Lee has made several appearances outside of the Naruto anime and manga . In the third featured film in the series , Naruto the Movie 3 : The Animal Riot of Crescent Moon Island , Lee acts as a member of Team 7 for the duration of the film . In the fourth film , which is set in Part II , Naruto Uzumaki , Sakura Haruno , Neji Hyuga , and Lee are assigned to escort the maiden Shion , who needs to perform a ritual to seal a demonic army . Lee also appears in the third original video animation , participating in a tournament .
Lee is a playable character in nearly every Naruto video game , including the Clash of Ninja series and the Ultimate Ninja series . In some games , he utilizes variations of his techniques not seen in the anime or manga . Naruto Shippūden : Gekitō Ninja Taisen ! EX marks his first appearance in a video game set in Part II . Rock Lee is also the main character of a spin @-@ off manga by Kenji Taira that follows his training in comical misadventures . The manga was adapted into an anime series titled Rock Lee and his Ninja Pals .
= = Reception = =
Lee has ranked highly in the Shōnen Jump popularity polls for the series , initially continuously placing in top ten and reaching fifth place once . In later polls , Lee lost his top ten status . In an interview , Brian Donovan , the voice actor for Rock Lee in the English adaptation of the anime , commented that he likes Lee because he felt he was attempting to be a " knight in shining armor but bumbling and stumbling at the same time " . Due to the popularity Lee garnered over the course of the series , Kishimoto tends to place him towards the front of promotional artwork in which he appears . Also , several pieces of merchandise based on Lee have also been released , including action figures of his Part I and Part II appearances , plush dolls , and keychains .
Several publications for manga , anime , video games , and other media have provided commentary on Lee 's character . IGN 's A.E. Sparrow called Lee one of his favorite characters in the series and compared his personality to that of Bruce Lee and Noel Gallagher . Fellow editor Ramsey Isler ranked him as the eight best character on the series and said he " was the true underdog of the series . " Isler added , " Perhaps a little too intense , but always fiercely devoted to his cause , Rock Lee added all sorts of flavor to the series . " However , Rock Lee 's profile on IGN describes him as " kind of stiff " because of his very polite demeanor . Active Anime celebrated Lee 's introduction in the series as a comedic relief to the growing tension of the story at that point . Anime Insider listed him in their top five list for " pure @-@ hearted heroes " from anime and manga publications , ranking at number five . Insider praised him for " never [ giving ] up , even in the face of people with actual ninja powers . "
Anime News Network referred to Lee as the " star of [ the Chunin Exam arc ] " , and claimed that he " almost single @-@ handedly rescues this arc from being tossed into the ' entertaining but disposable ' bin " . His fight against Gaara in the exams was listed as second best one in anime by AnimeCentral . Anime News Network also called Lee the " goofiest looking character " in the series and praised Kishimoto 's " ninja @-@ punk visual sensibilities " that allowed him to make Lee " damn cool when the action starts " . In the NEO Awards 2007 from Neo , Rock Lee won in the category " Best Anime Character " . He was also listed as one of the three " Honorable Mentions " from Naruto by Wizard Entertainment 's Danica Davidson with comments from the article being focused on Lee 's determination .
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= Interstate 195 ( New Jersey ) =
Interstate 195 ( abbreviated I @-@ 195 ) is an auxiliary route of the Interstate Highway System located in the U.S. state of New Jersey . Its western end is at I @-@ 295 and Route 29 just south of Trenton , New Jersey in Hamilton Township , Mercer County while its eastern end is at the Garden State Parkway , Route 34 and Route 138 in Wall Township . I @-@ 195 is 34 @.@ 17 miles ( 54 @.@ 99 km ) in length . The route is mostly a four @-@ lane highway that runs through wooded areas in the center of New Jersey . It has an interchange with the New Jersey Turnpike ( I @-@ 95 ) at Exit 7A in Robbinsville Township and serves as a main access road to Six Flags Great Adventure ( which is off the CR 537 exit in Jackson Township ) and the Jersey Shore . I @-@ 195 is occasionally referred to as the Central Jersey Expressway . On April 6 , 1988 , President Ronald Reagan signed H.R. 4263 naming Interstate 195 in New Jersey the James J. Howard Interstate Highway , in honor of the late James J. Howard .
The current I @-@ 195 was initially planned as a toll road called the Trenton @-@ Asbury Park Expressway in the 1950s . In the 1960s , the road became part of the proposed Route 37 and Route 38 freeways that were to cross the central part of the state . A compromise between these two freeways was planned between Trenton and Belmar and would get Interstate Highway funding , becoming I @-@ 195 . This freeway was built in several stages during the 1970s and 1980s . Between 2005 and 2015 , a plan existed to extend the I @-@ 195 designation west to the planned interchange between the Pennsylvania Turnpike ( I @-@ 276 ) and I @-@ 95 in Bristol Township , Pennsylvania . Under this plan , I @-@ 195 would have followed present I @-@ 95 and I @-@ 295 to the north of Trenton . It was instead decided to extend the I @-@ 295 designation west and south , along existing I @-@ 95 , to the new interchange .
= = Route description = =
= = = Mercer County = = =
I @-@ 195 's western terminus is at a modified cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 295 in Hamilton Township , Mercer County , located southeast of the city of Trenton . From this end , the freeway continues north into Trenton as Route 29 . I @-@ 195 serves as the southern continuation of Route 29 , continuing east from I @-@ 295 as a six @-@ lane expressway , passing between suburban neighborhoods to the north and the Crosswicks Creek to the south . After the exit for US 206 , the highway narrows to four lanes and turns northeast as it interchanges with CR 524 and CR 620 . Following this , I @-@ 195 passes near more neighborhoods and runs to the northwest of Gropp Lake before turning more to the east . The route has a cloverleaf interchange with Yardville @-@ Hamilton Square Road before passing near business parks and reaching a cloverleaf junction with US 130 . After US 130 , the road enters Robbinsville Township as the settings start to become more rural , with a few areas of suburban development . In Robbinsville Township , there is a ramp that provides access to the New Jersey Turnpike ( I @-@ 95 ) . Shortly after passing over the New Jersey Turnpike , I @-@ 195 reaches the exit for CR 526 . The highway runs to the north of Allentown before briefly forming the border between Robbinsville Township to the north and Upper Freehold Township , Monmouth County to the south as it reaches the interchange with CR 524 / CR 539 .
= = = Monmouth and Ocean counties = = =
Upon passing under CR 524 / CR 539 , I @-@ 195 fully enters Upper Freehold Township in Monmouth County and continues east through a mix of woodland and farmland . The next interchange the highway reaches is with CR 43 . Past this exit , the highway passes through more rural areas and crosses into Millstone Township . In this area , I @-@ 195 turns to the southeast and enters more forested areas as it comes to a cloverleaf interchange with CR 537 . This exit off I @-@ 195 provides access to Six Flags Great Adventure and the Jackson Premium Outlets . Due to the presence of Six Flags , this exit off I @-@ 195 can become busy during the summer months since it provides access to the park from both the New Jersey Turnpike and the Garden State Parkway , which lies just east of I @-@ 195 's eastern terminus . Upon crossing CR 537 , the highway enters Jackson Township in Ocean County and continues east through heavy woods . The road comes to an exit with CR 527 , where there is a park and ride lot for motorists . The median of I @-@ 195 widens past the CR 527 junction before narrowing as it comes to the CR 638 interchange . The road runs through more woodland , with nearby residential development increasing .
After crossing the North Branch Metedeconk River , I @-@ 195 continues into Howell Township , Monmouth County and turns northeast , reaching a cloverleaf interchange with US 9 . At this point , the road turns east again and soon heads back into dense woods . After crossing the Manasquan River , the expressway interchanges with CR 547 , which provides access to CR 524 and CR 549 . Shortly after CR 547 , I @-@ 195 enters Wall Township and passes through Allaire State Park . The eastern end of I @-@ 195 is located at Exit 35 , its junction with Route 34 that has access to the southbound Garden State Parkway from the eastbound direction . At the exit for Route 34 , I @-@ 195 ends and Route 138 begins , but the highway and exit numbering continue onto Route 138 , marking the interchange with the Garden State Parkway as Exit 36 . Past this interchange , Route 138 continues east to Belmar on the Jersey Shore as an arterial boulevard , making connections with Route 18 and Route 35 .
= = History = =
What would become I @-@ 195 was first proposed in the late 1950s as a toll road called the Trenton @-@ Asbury Park Expressway that was to be operated by the New Jersey Highway Authority , the owner of the Garden State Parkway at the time . In 1965 , this road would be incorporated into a planned Central Jersey Expressway System . The western portion would become a part of the Route 37 freeway that was to run from Trenton to Seaside Heights while the eastern portion would become a part of the Route 38 freeway that was to run from Camden to Belmar . The two freeways were to meet near Fort Dix . By 1967 , plans for the Route 38 freeway were canceled , leaving Route 37 as the only planned east @-@ west freeway through central New Jersey . The routing of this freeway , which was to be called the Central Jersey Expressway , was changed to run from the Trenton area east to Wall Township In addition , officials pushed for Interstate Highway funding for the freeway , with funds to be diverted from the canceled I @-@ 278 in Union County . The proposed freeway would cost $ 60 million .
By 1970 , construction took place on the route between CR 539 near Allentown and CR 527 in Jackson Township . The portion of I @-@ 195 between the New Jersey Turnpike and CR 527 was opened by 1973 and construction on the section between White Horse and the New Jersey Turnpike began . In 1979 , I @-@ 195 was completed east to Squankum . By 1983 , the length of I @-@ 195 was completed .
When it was planned , I @-@ 195 did not intersect I @-@ 95 at all ; it instead connected to I @-@ 295 at its west end . When I @-@ 95 was re @-@ routed to the New Jersey Turnpike after the cancellation of the Somerset Freeway , I @-@ 195 was connected to I @-@ 95 . Since I @-@ 95 abruptly ends at I @-@ 295 and US 1 in Lawrence Township , motorists must take I @-@ 295 southbound to I @-@ 195 east in order to access I @-@ 95 / New Jersey Turnpike .
On April 6 , 1988 , President Ronald Reagan signed H.R. 4263 naming I @-@ 195 in New Jersey the James J. Howard Interstate Highway , in honor of the late James J. Howard , a U.S. Representative from New Jersey who advocated improving the highways of the United States . In the late 1990s , the New Jersey Department of Transportation considered the possibility of widening I @-@ 195 to six lanes between the New Jersey Turnpike and CR 537 in order to accommodate traffic going to Six Flags Great Adventure . The interchange with CR 537 was improved in 1997 by adding separate ramps to westbound and eastbound CR 537 from I @-@ 195 and by making the westbound ramp two lanes for Six Flags traffic .
I @-@ 195 , like many other highways in New Jersey , once had solar powered emergency call boxes every 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . With the advent of cell phones , the call boxes saw limited use . To save on maintenance costs , the NJDOT removed the call boxes in 2005 .
On April 30 , 2010 , NJDOT started a project to repave the expressway both eastbound and westbound from just east of the Turnpike overpasses near Exit 7 in Robbinsville Township to Exit 11 in Upper Freehold Township . This was completed in late autumn of 2010 .
From December 2004 until November 2014 , the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 95 ) was widened with the construction of new outer roadways ( " truck lanes " ) that extended the " dual @-@ dual " roadways south to Interchange 6 in Mansfield Township from its former end at Interchange 8A in Monroe Township . As part of this project , the overpasses carrying I @-@ 195 over the Turnpike ( I @-@ 95 ) were reconstructed , the Interchange 7A toll gate was widened , and all the ramps connecting directly to the mainline of the Turnpike were rebuilt which included building a new high @-@ speed ramp over I @-@ 195 to enter the northbound lanes of the Turnpike .
In preparation for the completion of the Pennsylvania Turnpike / Interstate 95 Interchange Project and simultaneous rerouting of I @-@ 95 in 2017 , plans were made to extend I @-@ 195 west from its present @-@ day western terminus along I @-@ 295 and I @-@ 95 , continuing counterclockwise to the north , west and south around Trenton to the new interchange . I @-@ 295 would have been truncated to the current interchange with I @-@ 195 . Officials from New Jersey and Pennsylvania had agreed to submit the I @-@ 195 request to American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials , as no route designation is official until approved by them . Had it been approved , approximately 27 @.@ 1 miles ( 43 @.@ 6 km ) would have been added to I @-@ 195 . Interchange renumbering would have also taken place in concert with the future I @-@ 195 designation in Pennsylvania and both the planned and current I @-@ 195 designation in New Jersey . This proposal had received conditional approval from AASHTO . However , on May 20 , 2015 , the original plan of extending I @-@ 295 west and south into Pennsylvania to the new interchange was approved instead , leaving the western terminus of I @-@ 195 at its current location .
= = Future = =
The New Jersey Department of Transportation ( NJDOT ) has studied proposals to expand I @-@ 195 from Exit 16 near Six Flags to the New Jersey Turnpike from 4 to 6 total lanes , which would eliminate the grass median in the process .
= = Exit list = =
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= Chetro Ketl =
Chetro Ketl is an Ancestral Puebloan great house and archeological site located in Chaco Culture National Historical Park , New Mexico , United States . Construction on Chetro Ketl began c . 990 and was largely complete by 1075 , with significant remodeling occurring in the early and mid @-@ 1110s . Following the onset of a severe drought , most Chacoans emigrated from the canyon by 1140 ; by 1250 Chetro Ketl 's last inhabitants had vacated the structure .
The great house was rediscovered in 1823 by the Mexican governor of New Mexico , José Antonio Vizcarra , and in 1849 Lieutenant James Simpson of the United States Army Corps of Engineers documented the major ruins in Chaco Canyon . Edgar L. Hewett , the director of the first archeological field school in the canyon , conducted excavations of Chetro Ketl during 1920 and 1921 , and again between 1929 and 1935 .
Chaco scholars estimate that it required more than 500 @,@ 000 man @-@ hours , 26 @,@ 000 trees , and 50 million sandstone blocks to erect Chetro Ketl . The great house is a D @-@ shaped structure ; its east wall is 280 feet ( 85 m ) long , and the north wall is more than 450 feet ( 140 m ) ; the perimeter is 1 @,@ 540 feet ( 470 m ) , and the diameter of the great kiva is 62 @.@ 5 feet ( 19 @.@ 1 m ) . Chetro Ketl contained approximately 400 rooms and was the largest great house by area in Chaco Canyon , covering nearly 3 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) . Chetro Ketl lies 0 @.@ 4 miles ( 0 @.@ 64 km ) from Pueblo Bonito , in an area that archeologists call downtown Chaco ; they theorize that the area may be an ancestral sacred zone . Chetro Ketl contains architectural elements , such as a colonnade and tower kiva , that appear to reflect a Mesoamerican influence .
Chetro Ketl 's purpose is widely debated but many archeologists believe the building was a place of large @-@ scale ceremony that held an important position within the larger Chacoan system . It may have been occupied primarily by groups of priests and , during times of ritual , pilgrims from outlying communities . Archeologist Stephen H. Lekson believes Chetro Ketl was a palace inhabited by Chacoan royalty , and the scale of its construction was motivated by what architects call " massing " : building imposing structures with the intent to impress onlookers . The building has deteriorated significantly since its rediscovery in the early 19th century , and its usefulness as a source of information about Chacoan culture is slowly diminishing .
= = Background = =
During the 10th to 8th millennia BCE , the San Juan Basin was occupied by Paleo @-@ Indians known as the Clovis culture ( c . 9 @,@ 300 ) and the Folsom tradition ( 8 @,@ 500 to 7 @,@ 500 ) . Projectile points found in the vicinity of Chaco Canyon suggest that hunters may have been active in the region as early as 10 @,@ 000 . By 6 @,@ 000 the Picosa culture had developed from within the Paleolithic population , as environmental changes caused the eastward movement of animals and people to the Southern Plains , bringing Southwestern and northern Mexican cultures into the San Juan Basin . Cynthia Irwin @-@ Williams proposed that the first human presence in Chaco Canyon dates to a hunter @-@ gatherer society that she named the Oshara Tradition , which developed within the local Archaic ( c . 6 @,@ 000 to 800 ) Picosa population . The Oshara occupied portions of northwestern New Mexico , northeastern Arizona , southeastern Utah , and central and southwestern Colorado . They harvested jackrabbits in the basin as early as 5500 . Irwin @-@ Williams divided the Oshara Tradition into six phases , and during the Armijo phase ( 1800 to 800 ) the Arroyo Cuervo area east of Chaco Canyon saw the introduction of maize and the use of rock shelters . She hypothesized that this period saw the beginning of seasonal gatherings of people from around the San Juan Basin , who eventually began to aggregate into larger social units .
By 200 BCE , the Basketmaker culture had begun to develop from the Oshara Tradition . At least two groups of transitional Basketmaker II people inhabited the San Juan Basin during this period , as increased rainfall allowed for sustained agriculture and permanent settlements by 1 CE , when the water table rose and intermittent streams became more reliable . During the first four centuries CE , the Basketmaker II people established pit @-@ houses at elevated locations near sources of water and arable land . Brian M. Fagan notes that the development of pottery in the area during the 4th century permitted the boiling of maize and beans for the first time , and " must have brought a revolution in cooking " . This period also marked the introduction of the bow and arrow to the region .
Parts of the San Juan Basin saw plentiful rainfall during the 5th to 8th centuries , leading to significant expansion of pit @-@ house communities . Population increases during the 6th century led to the settlement of the area 's lowlands , including Chaco Canyon , as the Basketmaker II people changed from a primarily hunter @-@ gatherer society to one based on farming . This culture is known as Basketmaker III , and by 500 at least two such settlements had been established in Chaco Canyon . An important phase of Basketmaker III people is known as the La Plata . One of the earliest La Plata phase sites , Shabik 'eshchee Village , was continuously occupied until the early 8th century , when the canyon was home to a few hundred people . Several clusters of Basketmaker III sites have been identified in the vicinity of Chetro Ketl .
As the Basketmaker III people improved their farming techniques during the 8th century , the well @-@ watered areas of the San Juan Basin became densely populated . Greater crop yields necessitated the construction of above @-@ ground storage facilities , which were the first large @-@ scale construction projects in the region . Fagan identifies this as the beginning of the first pueblos , " ushering in a period of profound social tension , population movements , and political change . " In his opinion , " by 800 , there was no going back . The people of Chaco and elsewhere were locked completely into economies based on maize and bean cultivation . " Archeologists refer to the period starting c . 800 as the Pueblo I Period . By the early 10th century the large pit @-@ house settlements had been supplanted by modular construction that later served as the foundation for the Ancestral Puebloan great houses . This marks the beginning of the Bonito Phase . During the 10th century , Chaco 's population was swelled by a steady influx of immigrants from the San Juan River , approximately 100 miles ( 160 km ) north . Fagan notes , " Within a few centuries , as rainfall became more irregular and life less predictable , the Chacoans embarked on a cultural trajectory that melded ancient traditions with new ideas that were to crystalize into a brilliant and short @-@ lived Southwestern society . "
= = Location and alignment = =
Chaco Canyon lies at the geographic center of the San Juan Basin . It is located in northwestern New Mexico 60 miles ( 97 km ) north of Interstate 40 and 130 miles ( 210 km ) from Gallup , the nearest city . The continental divide is 20 miles ( 32 km ) east . Chaco Canyon was created by the Chaco River , which cut several hundred feet into Chacra Mesa . The elevation of the sandstone canyon and the surrounding high @-@ desert terrain is approximately 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) . Though most of the Chacoan sites are located at the bottom of the canyon , the group also includes some ruins not in the canyon proper , extending 35 miles ( 56 km ) from Kin Ya 'a in the south to Pueblo Alto in the north , and 20 miles ( 32 km ) from Pueblo Pintado to the northeast and Peñasco Blanco in the southwest . In terms of water drainage and cultural affinity , the area is part of the San Juan Basin , which includes Mesa Verde in Colorado and Kayenta , Arizona .
Chetro Ketl lies 0 @.@ 4 miles ( 0 @.@ 64 km ) east of Pueblo Bonito , in an area that archeologists call downtown Chaco . Scholars theorize that the area may be an ancestral sacred zone demarcated by a low masonry wall that encloses Chetro Ketl , Pueblo Bonito , and Pueblo del Arroyo . Chetro Ketl 's position is symmetrical to Pueblo Bonito ; the buildings are equidistant from a north @-@ south axis that runs across the canyon . Anna Sofaer proposed that many of the great houses in Chaco Canyon were constructed to emphasize astronomical alignments ; during the minor lunar standstill , the full moon rises along Chetro Ketl 's back wall .
Chetro Ketl is located opposite a large opening in the canyon known as South Gap , which helped maximize the building 's exposure to the sun while increasing visibility and access to the south . Its rear wall runs parallel to the canyon , and at less than 100 feet ( 30 m ) from the cliffs its proximity allowed inhabitants to benefit from passive solar energy emanating from the rocks . Chetro Ketl is not perfectly aligned to the cardinal directions , but its nominal southerly orientation further enhanced solar exposure to its tiered rooms .
= = Construction = =
Like other great houses in Chaco Canyon , Chetro Ketl was built over an extended period , during which the Ancestral Puebloans quarried large amounts of sandstone from the surrounding canyon . W. James Judge describes the period from 1030 to 1130 as " Chaco 's golden century , a period virtually unmatched elsewhere in the pre @-@ Columbian Southwest " . By 1085 , the Chacoans had constructed great houses at Chetro Ketl , Pueblo Alto , and Pueblo del Arroyo , during what Fagan describes as " a time of extraordinary growth and outreach " .
= = = Timber = = =
In 1983 , dendrochronology of wood samples from Chetro Ketl provided information on species selected , season of cutting , wood modification and use , as well as an estimate of the number of trees required to build the great house . Trees were harvested for construction at Chetro Ketl annually , which contrasts with the sporadic patterns found at other sites in the canyon . Whereas a late summer and early fall harvesting time has been documented at other Chacoan sites , the tree felling for Chetro Ketl was undertaken primarily during the spring and early summer . This may indicate that enough in @-@ house labor was available during the farming season , or that specialized groups of Chacoans were dedicated to tree felling irrespective of the agriculture cycle , when most others were busy with field preparation and planting . One particularly well sampled room suggests that wood was cut during the relatively short span of a couple of weeks per season .
The most commonly harvested tree species was ponderosa pine ; the Chacoans felled approximately 16 @,@ 000 of them for use at Chetro Ketl , and the species is now absent from the canyon . Archeologists Florence M. Hawley and Neil Judd proposed that a plentiful forest may have existed in and around the canyon during the 10th and 11th centuries , but was eventually destroyed by over @-@ harvesting . Dean and Warren believe this is unlikely , but the presence of trees in the canyon during the 20th century " suggests that some pines may have been locally available for use in the large towns " . In their opinion , " the harvesting of trees for Chacoan construction must have decimated ponderosa pine stands and forests for many miles in every direction from Chaco Canyon . " Archeologists believe the trees were processed where they were cut , then carried , not dragged , back to Chaco Canyon .
A 2001 analysis of strontium isotopes indicates that after 974 the Chacoans harvested architectural timbers primarily from two locations : the Chuska Mountains and Mount Taylor , in the San Mateo Mountains , both located approximately 47 miles ( 76 km ) distant . Despite their equal proximity , they did not harvest from the Nacimiento Mountains . The selection of timbers from the Chuska and San Mateo ranges , and the avoidance of those from the Nacimiento Mountains , suggests that " regional socioeconomic ties " factored more heavily into timber procurement than " resource depletion with distance and time " .
Nearly 78 percent of the estimated 26 @,@ 000 trees harvested for use at Chetro Ketl were felled between 1030 and 1060 . More than 7 @,@ 000 trees were felled for kiva ( round room ) construction alone , with approximately 750 used in the great kiva . Roofs typically consisted of primary beams , secondary beams , and one or two layers of split shakes , probably of a juniper species or pinyon pine , which were locally available . Most of the primary and secondary construction beams were of ponderosa pine . In addition to bulk materials , construction required other items in smaller quantities . Cordage was used for lashing roof elements together , and baskets and wood frames were needed for transporting mortar and rock . Other tools , such as digging sticks and hammerstones , were used in quantity ; many discarded hammerstones have been found built into the wall interiors .
= = = Stone and mortar = = =
Chetro Ketl 's walls were constructed using three bulk materials : stone , clay @-@ sand , and water . Two types of stone were used : a hard gray @-@ brown tabular sandstone that forms the bench above Chaco Canyon 's cliffs , and a softer , tan , massively bedded sandstone that forms the cliffs themselves . Chacoans preferred the harder , tabular stone as it was easier to shape , but much of it had to be dug up and levered out of the ground with wooden poles . Because the massive tan stone of the cliff faces was easier to procure , but much more difficult to work , the Chacoans probably used it only after the more easily quarried gray @-@ brown stone beds had been depleted .
The Chacoans used clay or clay @-@ sand and water to make mud mortar . They obtained most of the material from canyon deposits , but some of the clays may have been collected from the base of the cliffs . Clay and clay @-@ sand in soils or stream deposits were accessed by digging large pits , then mixing mortar in the pits and carrying the mix to the construction site in baskets . Water is scarce in Chaco Canyon and construction probably took place primarily during the late summer and early fall rainy season , when it was more readily available . Water was also collected from small reservoirs in the slick rock and deep wells in the bed of Chaco Wash .
= = = Masonry = = =
Only the most highly skilled Chacoans shaped and set stone ; others carried supplies and mixed mortar . The width of a given wall was determined by its place in a structure . The first story of a two @-@ story wall is always wider than the second . Chacoan walls are often called core @-@ and @-@ veneer , but only the widest walls had cores . The Chacoans tried to build walls with two flush faces , but because the stones were typically quite small , to build a wider wall they built up a space between the two faces ; this spacing is often called the core . In most walls , the core consisted of roughly shaped stone or rubble laid at the same time as the two faces . In others , the faces were built up independently , and the core packed between them . Chacoan walls derive their stability from the degree of contact between stones in the faces and the width of the wall itself , not from the strength of the core .
Chacoan wall faces are typically called " veneers " , but they were integral load @-@ bearing elements rather than decorative overlays . The veneers are known for their attention to coursing and detail , and various styles have become synonymous with Chacoan building . Depending on the facing style , the joints between the stones would be filled with spalls or chinks , set in mud mortar ; or the coursing could alternate between larger stones and several courses of smaller tablets . Good veneer minimized the amount of exposed mortar , which reduced maintenance , maximized stone contact , and increased the strength of the wall . It also reduced the possibility of structural failure . Aside from structural considerations , some veneers are the result of highly skilled masons working within well @-@ developed craft traditions . Recurring veneer patterns may indicate a widespread style used during a particular period , or they may suggest the work of a specific social group or line of builders .
Doors and vents often had sills of carefully ground flat stone slabs and lintels constructed from a row of thin wood beams . Chacoan masons also frequently included intramural beams – horizontal logs completely enclosed in the wall core – which were probably intended to reduce horizontal deformation of the wall . The interior walls of great houses were typically covered in a rock veneer . Judd identified four distinct types , and his typology is the most commonly accepted in the region . Chetro Ketl 's interior walls , particularly those in the eastern wing , were covered in a Type IV veneer characterized by uniform pieces of sandstone with little to no exposed mortar . Judd excluded a fifth type of masonry , called McElmo style , from his typology .
= = = Phases = = =
In 1934 , Florence Hawley used 143 tree @-@ ring dates and a comparative masonry analysis to assemble a construction history of Chetro Ketl in three major periods : 945 – 1030 , from which no significant elements are observable ; 1030 – 90 , when construction and remodeling produced most of the building 's extant features ; and 1100 – 16 , which saw renovation of existing features . In 1983 , comprehensive architectural studies by Lekson and McKenna and dendrochronological reanalysis by Dean and Warren largely verified Hawley 's construction phases , with significant additions and clarifications . Lekson , Thomas C. Windes , and Patricia Fournier , authors of " The Changing Faces of Chetro Ketl " , date the beginning of construction to 990 – 1000 ; they based their estimate on 1 @,@ 285 dated elements from the great house . In their opinion , Chetro Ketl was largely complete by 1075 , with periodic construction occurring there until the mid @-@ 1110s , when the great kiva was remodeled .
Hawley 's first period ( 945 – 1030 ) was suggested by tree ring dates scattered throughout later parts of Chetro Ketl . Archeologists subsequently discovered that her second period ( 1030 – 90 ) structure was built directly over an earlier ( 990 – 1030 ) one @-@ story @-@ tall , two @-@ room @-@ wide row of rooms . Lekson shortened Hawley 's second period to 1030 – 75 , and subdivided it into at least eight different construction events , including the successive additions of upper stories along the main room block , running the length of the building . After 1075 , construction consisted of minor additions and alternations , with the exception of a row of three large , Chaco @-@ style second- and third @-@ story round rooms that were added to the plaza @-@ facing center of the main room block during 1075 – 95 . Much of the later construction , including the large Chaco @-@ style kivas , was in McElmo style masonry , using shaped blocks of relatively soft tan colored sandstone instead of the previously preferred harder , denser dark brown sandstone , which may have been quarried out in the central canyon after 1075 . Chetro Ketl required an estimated 50 million sandstone blocks and more than 500 @,@ 000 man @-@ hours to complete .
= = = = McElmo = = = =
The McElmo Phase was a period in the late 11th and early 12th centuries , when major changes in ceramics and masonry techniques appeared in Chaco Canyon . Chacoans started using painted black @-@ on @-@ white pottery , and the masonry and layout of great houses built during the period , which was the last major construction era in the canyon , differs significantly from those built during the Bonito Phase ( 850 to 1140 ) . Archeologists initially believed that the McElmo style was brought to Chaco Canyon by immigrants from Mesa Verde , but subsequent research suggests the developments were of local origin . McElmo black @-@ on @-@ white pottery was abundant in later contexts at Chetro Ketl , and the problematic McElmo style masonry was used in several later additions to the building , including very characteristic Chaco @-@ style kivas .
Chetro Ketl 's Kiva G complex was constructed using McElmo @-@ type masonry , and ceramic evidence uncovered from refuse found in the great house indicates a significant McElmo presence . Much of the masonry in North Block F also appears to be McElmo style . A smaller square building known as the Talus Unit lies just west of Chetro Ketl ; it contains some McElmo style features . R. Gwinn Vivian ( son of Gordon Vivian ) notes , " The jury is still out on this question , a problem that poses intriguing possibilities for future work . "
= = Abandonment = =
The Ancestral Puebloans relied on regular rainfall to sustain their agricultural society . This proved challenging in Chaco Canyon , even with consistent precipitation . By 1130 , the rains had diminished and the maize crops that the Chacoans depended on had begun to fail , as the region increasingly suffered from the effects of a devastating , fifty @-@ year drought . After a continuous occupation of more than six hundred years , the Chacoans began to migrate from the canyon . Fagan states that by 1140 " Chaco was finished " . A study of 12th @-@ century burials in the Gallup , New Mexico , area indicates as many as half of the people who lived during the drought died before the age of eighteen , with sixty percent of all deaths occurring before age thirty @-@ five . The study estimated that for every woman , four children were needed to sustain the agriculture workforce .
The turning point for Chacoan culture prior to the widespread crop failures of 1130 to 1180 was the especially dry period from 1090 to 1095 . Emigration from Chaco Canyon increased significantly during this period , and Puebloan construction in outlying communities such as Mesa Verde , Salmon , and Aztec , began to flourish . Despite rapid depopulation in the canyon , Chetro Ketl 's great kiva may have been remodeled and used during the early 13th century . A haphazardly applied layer of rubble veneer to ceremonial areas in the great kiva are thought to have been added during an " organized closure " that probably included a " termination ceremony " . Ancient potsherds indicate that the last inhabitants of Chetro Ketl vacated the structure by 1250 .
= = Rediscovery = =
In the years following the Ancestral Puebloan 's departure from Chaco Canyon , several migrations to the region occurred . During the 15th century , Navajo people emigrated to the area from northwestern Canada , and in the 18th century Spanish explorers and settlers came from the south . The Spanish investigated parts of the San Juan Basin , but there is no record of them ever finding Chaco Canyon . When cartographer Bernardo de Miera y Pacheco drew a map in 1774 of Spanish land holdings in the region , he labeled Chaco Canyon with the word Chaca , but it is unlikely he ever visited the area . In 1823 the governor of New Mexico , José Antonio Vizcarra , discovered ancient ruins in the canyon during a military campaign against the Navajo . Vizcarra 's account is the first historical record of the Chacoan great houses that were " of such antiquity that their inhabitants were not known to Europeans " . In 1844 , Josiah Gregg made the first published reference to Chaco Canyon in his popular book , Commerce of the Prairies .
The United States started exploring the region following the Mexican – American War of 1846 – 48 and the acquisition of the New Mexico Territory . During a military campaign against the Navajo in 1849 , Lieutenant James Simpson of the United States Army Corps of Engineers became interested in the canyon 's ruins . A group led by the governor of Jemez Pueblo , Francisco Hosta , explored the canyon ; its members included Simpson and the brothers Richard and Edward Kern , who were respectively an artist and a cartographer . Simpson was impressed by Chetro Ketl 's masonry , which he described as " a combination of science and art which can only be referred to a higher stage of civilization and refinement than is discoverable in the works of Mexicans or Pueblos of the present day . " Simpson and company documented their findings , noting the location and style of the great houses , taking measurements , and sketching the canyon 's major ruins . They described the kivas as " circular apartments sunk in the ground " . Simpson briefly explored Chetro Ketl , documenting six of its round rooms and 124 rooms on the ground floor of the four @-@ story building . He noted an especially well preserved room where " the stone walls still have their plaster upon them in a tolerable state of preservation . " Vivian credits Simpson 's 1850 report detailing their brief exploration of the canyon and Richard H. Kern 's lithographs as the beginning of Chacoan archeology . The scientific investigation of Chaco Canyon started when Richard Wetherill began his exploration of the canyon in 1895 . Wetherill was well known for his discovery of some of the largest Ancestral Puebloan dwellings in Mesa Verde , and after an invitation from amateur archeologist Sidney Palmer to survey Chaco Canyon , organized a one @-@ month expedition to the region . He secured financial backing for a full season soon afterward , and in 1896 full @-@ scale excavations began at Pueblo Bonito .
= = = Etymology = = =
The true origin and meaning of " Chetro Ketl " is unknown . Lekson and Peter J. McKenna note that , although most of the names given to Chacoan ruins are either Spanish or Navajo , " Chetro Ketl is neither . " A Mexican guide who worked for the first American expedition in 1849 translated it as " rain town " . In 1889 , Navajo historian Washington Mathews reported that in Navajo mythology the building is referred to as Kintyél or Kintyéli , which means " broad @-@ house " . Other Navajo translations include " house in the corner " and " shining house " .
= = Excavation = =
The first formal excavation of Chetro Ketl was conducted during 1920 and 1921 by Edgar L. Hewett , director of Chaco Canyon 's first archeological field school . He visited the canyon in 1902 , and in 1916 he arranged for the School of American Research to participate in excavations at Chetro Ketl with the Royal Ontario Museum and the Smithsonian Institution . He made some preliminary studies at the end of 1916 , but World War I caused the delay of his plans . When work resumed in 1920 , financial considerations forced the Smithsonian to withdraw its support .
Hewett suspended his research during Judd 's 1924 – 27 excavation of Pueblo Bonito , financed by the National Geographic Society , but returned to Chetro Ketl in 1929 with graduate students from his newly founded Department of Archaeology and Anthropology at the University of New Mexico . He studied the canyon until 1935 , and several Chaco scholars worked for or with him during this period , including Gordon Vivian ( father of R. Gwinn Vivian ) , Edwin Ferdon , Paul Reiter , and Florence M. Hawley . Hewett 's methods have been widely criticized , and his work judged to have been substandard , particularly in comparison to the work done by the National Geographic Project . He spent several years excavating Chetro Ketl , but never published a detailed account of his research there . Despite this , much is known about his studies from the theses and dissertations written by students who worked with him .
Hawley began her studies with Hewett in 1929 , focusing primarily on dendrochronology and ceramic dating . She spent two summers excavating Chetro Ketl 's refuse mound , and demonstrated that charcoal found in it could be used for tree @-@ ring dating . Her 1933 doctoral dissertation showed that the mound 's layers represent a reverse stratigraphy . Material from older refuse mounds was often moved and placed on top of contemporary debris . It was then covered by layers of daily waste before still more older debris was piled on top . This resulted in newer material accumulating at the base of the pile , and older material accruing near the top . Subsequent excavations indicated that the mound was likely created by more than typical household waste ; numerous layers of it are composed of refuse from large @-@ scale feasts that included the ritualistic smashing of pottery . Hawley worked at the site through 1933 , and in Fagan 's opinion her comparison dating of masonry walls and potsherds significantly enhanced the study of Chacoan culture . He credits her with aiding the establishment of one of archeology 's most accurate chronologies . In 1983 , as the only surviving member of Hewett 's 1929 – 33 group of researchers , Hawley noted the difficulties of excavating Chaco Canyon during the Great Depression : " The young archeologists and dendrochronologists of today , struggling to reconstruct Chetro Ketl from the notes , maps , and too scanty publications and incomplete collections of the past , know little of the exigencies which have made their task difficult . "
In 1921 , Hewett excavated Chetro Ketl 's great kiva , where he discovered a more ancient one buried 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) below . He also found several macaw feathers , but no copper bells like those found at Pueblo Bonito . Hewett was surprised at the lack of exotic items at the site , where no human burials have been found . In 1931 and 1932 , Reiter and Gordon Vivian discovered caches of turquoise beads and pendants while digging in the great kiva . In all , 17 @,@ 454 beads were recovered from the kiva 's buried niches . In 1947 , when flood waters from Chaco Wash encroached on Chetro Ketl , Vivian rescued a stash of wooden artifacts from an unexcavated room . Archeologists consider the wooden figures , some of which depict birds , unique in the region . Several black @-@ and @-@ white stone necklaces was also uncovered . Barbara J. Mills , author of Key Debates in Chacoan Archaeology , believes the items represent " evidence of intense ceremonial activity " at Chetro Ketl . Lekson notes that after " spectacular amounts of material " were recovered at Pueblo Bonito , " expectations for Chetro Ketl were undoubtedly high " , and although Hewett and his students were ultimately disappointed , he describes the wooden artifacts as " an extraordinary collection " . Despite this , scholars continue to regard Chetro Ketl as a place where relatively few items of archeological interest have been uncovered .
Several minerals used for paint pigments were excavated from Chetro Ketl , including charcoal , shale , malachite , iron oxides , hematite , limonite , gypsum , and azurite . Twined sandals , and bones from the ferruginous hawk and the great horned owl have been found there . The relative lack of exotic material uncovered at Chetro Ketl , such as shells , copper bells , and macaw feathers , may indicate its lesser importance compared to Pueblo Bonito , where those items have been found in abundance . Because Chetro Ketl has only been partially excavated definitive conclusions remain elusive . In 1937 , W. W. Postlethwaite , who had for three seasons directed Hewett 's excavation of Chetro Ketl 's great kiva , oversaw the final work at the site conducted by the University of New Mexico and the School of American Research .
= = = Artifacts = = =
Lekson describes Chetro Ketl as " notoriously sterile " , and states that " it is impossible to say how much material was recovered during the many seasons " of excavation there . Field notes indicate that while several major artifacts , including baskets , sandals , painted wood fragments , digging sticks , arrow heads , and crushed pots were found at the great house , the whereabouts of most of these items is " one of the great archaeological mysteries of the Southwest " . He ascribes the " almost total disappearance " of the Chetro Ketl artifacts , which were viewed as unimpressive in comparison to those found at Pueblo Bonito , as a consequence of Hewett 's flippant treatment of the collection . The Museum of New Mexico holds several items excavated from Chetro Ketl , including pieces of turquoise , a black @-@ on @-@ white pottery canteen , and a fourteen @-@ foot @-@ long stone and shell necklace .
= = Description = =
Chetro Ketl contained approximately 400 rooms and was the largest great house by area in Chaco Canyon ; sections of it reached four stories , three of which remain . The building covers nearly 3 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) , with approximately half of that in the enclosed plaza , which was lined by wings of rooms to the north , east , and west . Chetro Ketl 's perimeter is 1 @,@ 540 feet ( 470 m ) . The great house is a D @-@ shaped structure ; its east @-@ facing wall is 280 feet ( 85 m ) long , and the north wall is more than 450 feet ( 140 m ) long . Rooms were constructed three @-@ deep and three or four stories tall , and terraced so that the ground level that faced the plaza in the center of the building was one @-@ story .
Chetro Ketl had twelve kivas : two large ones in the west wing plaza , one of which is a great kiva , and ten in the central room block , including one known as a tower kiva . The refuse mound was 205 feet ( 62 m ) long , 120 feet ( 37 m ) wide , and 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) tall ; it contained between 219 @,@ 000 and 275 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 6 @,@ 200 and 7 @,@ 800 m3 ) of debris . Chetro Ketl 's plaza is raised above the surrounding land by 5 @.@ 75 feet ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) , a feature that is unique in the canyon , where the plazas of all other great houses are level with the surrounding landscape .
At the front of the building is a mysterious feature consisting of two closely spaced parallel walls that archeologists call " the moat " . The long and narrow chamber runs along the outside wall , and appears to have been backfilled around the same time that the plaza was raised , c . 1070 . The original purpose of the feature is unknown , but tunnels between rooms are found in more northerly Puebloan sites , and the moat would have facilitated movement between Chetro Ketl 's wings .
A narrow slit along the north wall 's outside surface indicates the presence of an ancient balcony . There are several rooms attached to the rear of the structure that lack direct access to the main building ; these are believed to have been dedicated to community storage . Chetro Ketl and Pueblo Bonito are the only two great houses in Chaco Canyon with corner doorways .
= = = Great kiva = = =
Great kivas are always much larger and deeper than Chaco @-@ style kivas . Whereas the walls of great kivas always extend above the surrounding landscape , the walls of Chaco @-@ style kivas are flush with the surrounding landscape . Chaco @-@ style kivas are often found incorporated into the central room blocks of great houses , but great kivas are always separate from core structures . Great kivas almost always have a bench that encircles the inner space , but this feature is not found in Chaco @-@ style kivas . Great kivas also tend to include floor vaults , which may have served as foot drums for ceremonial dancers , but Chaco @-@ style kivas do not .
Whereas many of the great kivas in Chaco Canyon are located adjacent to or isolated from their associated great house , Chetro Ketl 's , which is 62 @.@ 5 feet ( 19 @.@ 1 m ) in diameter , lies within the pueblo 's walls . The earliest and lowest floor lies 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) below the current plaza surface . The present floor of the kiva is on average 9 @.@ 25 feet ( 2 @.@ 82 m ) below . Several peripheral rooms abutted the structure , which is located in the southeast corner of the space ; a smaller round room , known as the Court Kiva , lies 98 feet ( 30 m ) to the west , in the plaza 's south @-@ central area . The Court Kiva began as a Chaco @-@ style kiva , but was later remodeled to include several of the defining features of a great kiva .
The outer walls of the great kiva are 2 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) thick , and date to 1062 – 90 . Hawley identified the masonry as Type III , with a crude Type IV veneer covering the bench that postdates the final construction period ( 1100 – 16 ) . An 18 foot ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) by 10 foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) antechamber is attached to the north end of the space ; the passageway between them contained a stairway that rose 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) in nine steps from the kiva floor .
Though few remains of it were found , the great kiva 's roof was most likely flat rather than domed , as was typical of smaller kivas in the canyon . It was supported by four large posts , upon which four more beams were attached . This formed the roof 's main structure , which was covered with a layer of secondary beams , then juniper splints and bark , before being finished with clay . It is not known if the roofs of great kivas were constructed level with the exterior walls or raised above them , but it is believed that the space between the floor and the roof in Chetro Ketl 's great kiva was probably not much more than what would be required for average standing height , approximately 5 to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 8 m ) .
Thirty @-@ nine crypts , measuring approximately 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) in height , 1 @.@ 1 feet ( 0 @.@ 34 m ) wide , and 1 @.@ 25 feet ( 0 @.@ 38 m ) deep , have been uncovered in the great kiva . They are spaced approximately 5 @.@ 3 feet ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) apart and located around the inner circumference of the outer wall . Some artifacts have been recovered from the crypts , but their purpose is unknown ; they may have been shelves or specialized altars . A large bench , measuring 3 @.@ 33 feet ( 1 @.@ 01 m ) wide by 2 @.@ 75 feet ( 0 @.@ 84 m ) tall , encircles the inside of the space . A firebox , measuring 4 @.@ 83 feet ( 1 @.@ 47 m ) by 5 @.@ 3 feet ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) and 1 @.@ 6 feet ( 0 @.@ 49 m ) tall , was located 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) south of the center of the kiva , and a fire screen that helped supply draft air was located 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) away from the firebox .
= = = Colonnade = = =
The site contains a colonnade that Lekson , Windes , and Fournier describe as " prominent , even dominating within the plaza " , and " possibly the defining form at Chetro Ketl or even at Chaco . " It is not only unique to Chaco Canyon , but also to Ancestral Puebloan architecture as a whole . The nearest similar structure is located more than five hundred miles away at Casas Grandes , in northwestern Mexico . Constructed sometime after 1105 , the plaza @-@ facing columns were among the last additions to Chetro Ketl . The colonnade 's placement and orientation to the canyon indicate that it was intended to be viewed from inside the building . It was later filled in with masonry to accommodate additional living space . It was 93 feet ( 28 m ) long and contained thirteen columns .
Several scholars have detected a Mesoamerican influence in the feature ; Ferdon described it as a " column @-@ fronted gallery " that was " wholly untraditional " in Ancestral Puebloan architecture . He proposed that it was inspired by a Quetzalcoatl cult whose traditions were brought to the region by pochteca traders . In his opinion the influence can also be seen in the site 's tower kiva . Lekson , Windes , and Fournier believe the architectural parallels between the colonnade at Chetro Ketl and structures in Mexico " are probably attributable to the adoption of Mesoamerican symbols appropriated by the flow of ideas carried by merchants " . In their opinion , the connection " may have been the result of an interaction mechanism of indirect contact between nuclear Mesoamerica and Chaco though northwestern Mexico . " They believe the colonnade " is a local architectural interpretation of Mexican models , modified to suit local materials and techniques . "
= = = Agriculture and pottery = = =
Chaco Canyon is watered by winter storms and localized summer rains that fill the arroyos . Chaco Wash is deep , and it drains to the water table located 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) below the canyon floor . Farming terraces on the mesa wall behind Chetro Ketl may have been used for growing specialized crops such as tobacco , and canals running from Pueblo Bonito to Chetro Ketl probably carried rain water . Chetro Ketl 's position in downtown Chaco and its proximity to South Gap further aided agricultural efforts near the great house , as summer storms tended to linger in the opening , funneling moisture to the area .
There is no obvious visual evidence of the linear features usually associated with farm fields in the land surrounding Chetro Ketl , but in 1929 aerial black @-@ and @-@ white images by Charles Lindbergh revealed what appeared to be a rectangular plot . In the early 1970s the National Park Service ( NPS ) developed a remote sensing program to further investigate the area using color video imagery . When enhanced and viewed in black @-@ and @-@ white , the video revealed a well @-@ defined grid pattern within a larger rectangular section of land near Chetro Ketl . The NPS employed two types of ground level remote sensing devices to search for magnetic and soil anomalies in the alluvium of the canyon floor . A soil density study proved inconclusive , but a magnetometer identified a rectangular feature 50 by 65 feet ( 15 by 20 m ) , roughly the same size as those seen in Lindbergh 's aerial photographs . The NPS researchers proposed that water had deposited iron @-@ bearing clays in the plots , with the center showing the strongest magnetic evidence . Subsequent comparisons with older data reinforced their conclusion . They determined that had the plots been under heavy alluvium they would not have been detected .
In Vivian 's opinion , the Chetro Ketl field represents one of the best examples of Chacoan farming . Approximately 20 acres ( 8 @.@ 1 ha ) of land were divided into 42 plots measuring 75 by 45 feet ( 23 by 14 m ) , with parallel irrigation canals that supplied water to individual parcels . Several scholars have disputed this interpretation , suggesting that the area may instead be the location of an unfinished great house , or it could have been used for mixing mortar or raising frogs and freshwater shrimp . Soil analysis indicates that the field received water from both Chaco Wash and side canyons . Twenty @-@ three similar fields have been detected in Chaco Canyon , but Chetro Ketl 's is the only one that has been extensively surveyed . Archeologists estimate that between 2 @,@ 600 and 3 @,@ 600 acres ( 1 @,@ 100 and 1 @,@ 500 ha ) of arable land was available to Chacoan farmers , whose crops could support approximately 4 @,@ 000 people . Archeomagnetic analysis indicates the Chetro Ketl field was last used in 1250 .
Studies of ancient corn cobs found at Pueblo Bonito suggest that large quantities of the foodstuff were imported to the canyon from the Chuska Mountains , 50 miles ( 80 km ) west , and the San Juan and Animas River areas , 56 miles ( 90 km ) north . Archeologists believe the corn was imported to help feed groups of laborers during large @-@ scale construction projects . The corn cobs are longer , with more rows of kernels , than most examples from the region . This may indicate genetic differences , superior growing conditions , or " preferential watering " of crops intended for consumption at Chaco Canyon .
The black @-@ on @-@ white painted pottery found at Chaco Canyon originated from various places throughout the Four Corners region , including the Red Mesa Valley , northeastern Arizona , the San Juan River , and the Chuska Valley , forty miles distant . Whereas most of the gray ware , non @-@ decorative or utility , pottery uncovered at Puebloan sites was produced locally , more than half of the vessels found in the canyon were imported from places like the Chuska Valley , which supplied the majority of utility pottery found in the region .
Red wares were imported from southeastern Utah until c . 1000 , when the Chacoans switched to orange ware products originating from northeastern Arizona , near Kayenta . After 1000 , almost no pottery was fired in the canyon , but was instead produced in outlying communities with access to a steady supply of firewood for their kilns . During the period from 1030 to 1100 , significantly more pottery was imported to the canyon than before . The extensive Puebloan trade network that dispersed stoneware products throughout the region suggests that , although evidence of large @-@ scale production is lacking , proficient local artisans supplied distant communities as well as their own .
= = = Purpose = = =
Lekson believes that Chetro Ketl was most likely not occupied by scores of families , and in that sense was not a pueblo as early archeologists had concluded . He also notes that , while most if not all round rooms in the canyon have traditionally been labeled as kivas , the smaller ones found at Chetro Ketl were most likely not kivas , " but the final and most elaborate form of the pit @-@ house " , which had served as the region 's primary housing structure during the five hundred years prior to the settlement of Chaco Canyon . He proposed that Chacoan great houses were royal palaces ; Chetro Ketl was a residence for the elite , but also a central location for governance , storage , craftworks , ritual , and bureaucracy . Many scholars disagree because they assume " palaces imply states " , and " it is generally accepted that no Native state ever existed " north of Mexico . In his opinion , the view that palaces cannot exist outside states is misguided , and societies like Chaco may have achieved comparable political complexity on a smaller than typical scale . He considers the political " glass celling " an " almost racist " remnant of early archeologists who assumed Native American political sophistication was , by definition , limited to " chiefdoms " and not capable of attaining statehood .
The consistent lack of artifacts and features in excavated Chacoan rooms suggests they were used primarily for grain storage , but because their combined areas appear to exceed what would reasonably have been needed for foodstuffs – a large crop of corn from all the arable land near Chaco would fit into two rows of rooms at Chetro Ketl – this interpretation lacks support amongst archeologists . Because so many of these rooms are featureless interior spaces that lie below several stories , the scale of their construction may have been motivated by what architects call " massing " ; building structures with the primary intention of impressing onlookers .
The rooms of Chetro Ketl may have served as storage space for ritual objects , and the great house may have been occupied primarily by groups of priests , also housing pilgrims during community events , when the population of the canyon increased dramatically . Judge notes that these pilgrims probably assisted in the construction of Chetro Ketl , thus " confirming their affiliation with the larger ritual alliance " . The area between Chetro Ketl and Pueblo Bonito may have served as a central location for ceremonies . Because water was crucial to their survival , Chacoan rituals most likely focused on prayers for rain .
= = Chacoan system = =
A long @-@ distance communication system that used smoke and mirrors existed in the region , and direct lines of sight have been established between Pueblo Alto , Huérfano Mountain in northern New Mexico , and Chimney Rock Pueblo in southern Colorado . Messages could have been relayed between these three points within minutes . On the mesa behind Chaco Canyon is an ancient road that runs north from Chetro Ketl , then northward along the east side of Pueblo Alto before joining with the Great North Road . The Pueblo Alto road network functioned between 1050 and 1140 . It facilitated access to watering holes , terraced farming areas , and enabled interaction between Pueblo Alto and great houses like Pueblo Bonito and Chetro Ketl . It also led to a community along Escavada Wash . It may have served an important function in the transport of household goods , construction timber , and people throughout the San Juan Basin . Several road segments appear to be related to a row of Chetro Ketl 's exterior rooms , which are thought to have been community storage space .
In 1982 Robert Powers theorized that the road network " suggests an intercommunity organization and settlement system of regional extent " . Because " Chaco Canyon is the convergence point of all presently documented extra @-@ canyon roads " , the area may represent a locus of regional control , or " the apex of the hierarchical system " . Powers believes that great houses like Chetro Ketl were involved in civic coordination between the canyon sites and outlying communities . In 1993 David R. Wilcox proposed that a state @-@ level society developed at Chaco , with an administrative center at Pueblo Bonito or Chetro Ketl . In a 2003 study of Chacoan artifacts , Frances Joan Mathien stated that the number of warrior @-@ class individuals that would have been needed to support such a state – Wilcox estimated 500 – 1 @,@ 000 – precludes his theory , and Wilcox is assuming a " greater Chacoan organizational complexity than any other scholar to date " .
Lekson developed a theory called the Chaco Meridian , which is based on architectural similarities between the Ancestral Puebloan sites at Aztec Ruins and Chaco Canyon , and Paquime at Casas Grandes in northern Mexico . He believes the sites were intentionally located on the same approximate line of longitude ( 107 ° 57 ' 25 " ) , and this indicates a ceremonial connection between them . The Great North Road roughly follows the Chaco Meridian , and many of the ancient roads in the area appear to follow it towards key sites in the basin .
Judge notes that " virtually all researchers recognize a strong ritual component to Chacoan authority and view the Chacoans as having formed a regional center with a compelling and integrating body of ceremony at its core . " Preliminary population estimates for the canyon ranged as high as ten thousand people , but in his opinion a figure closer to two thousand is more likely . He views Chaco as a ceremonial center and a " place of ritual architecture " , which pilgrims from throughout the San Juan Basin 's two hundred great house communities would visit . These pilgrims brought large quantities of goods and raw materials to the canyon , including exotics such as turquoise and shell beads , and also ceramics , timber , and food .
Neutron activation analysis linked an artifact from Chetro Ketl to the Cerrillos Turquoise Mines , located 20 miles ( 32 km ) south of Santa Fe , New Mexico . Analysis of chipped stone from Chetro Ketl 's trash mound indicates that more than fifty percent of the chert found there was imported from Washington Pass in the Chuska Mountains , 47 miles ( 76 km ) away . The Chacoans enjoyed a bounty of imports from throughout the San Juan Basin , but little evidence of exports from the canyon has been found . This suggests they were consumers , but not producers or distributors of goods .
Scholars continue to debate whether Chacoan organization was based on primarily political or primarily ritual considerations . Archeological evidence suggests that the residents of great houses like Chetro Ketl were of a higher social class than those living in smaller settlements , which may indicate a systemic inequality that is considered a hallmark of hierarchal political systems . Others view Chaco as an egalitarian society , with an economy driven by its function as the region 's ceremonial center . Because there has been little to no modern excavation in the canyon , the question remains largely unanswered . Lynne Sebastian suggests that any analysis based on a strict dichotomy of ritual versus political purpose is inherently misguided , because the Chacoans were most likely deeply influenced by both .
Lekson believes that by the later period ( 1075 to 1140 ) " Pueblo Bonito , Chetro Ketl and Pueblo del Arroyo ... together with the numerous other structures in the central canyon , should be considered a coherent analytical settlement unit . " He views the structures near South Gap " as a larger settlement of significant complexity " that " when coupled with Chaco 's regional centrality and relatively high population density " should be considered " nearly urban " . He notes that by the mid @-@ 12th century , " Chaco was much closer to being a city than simply a canyon full of independent agricultural towns and villages . " At its peak , the Chacoan system covered an estimated 30 @,@ 000 to 40 @,@ 000 square miles ( 78 @,@ 000 to 104 @,@ 000 km2 ) , an area roughly the size of Portugal . The population of the region at the beginning of the 11th century was approximately 55 @,@ 000 people .
= = Deterioration and preservation = =
Lekson and McKenna note that following the rediscovery of Chetro Ketl in the early 19th century , the building 's " pace of dissolution increased alarmingly ... [ it ] has deteriorated at a faster rate over the last century and a half than in the previous six . " Chetro Ketl 's wooden elements have proven especially vulnerable in a region that lacks timber , with soldiers , cattlemen , and transients scavenging them from the structure . The rear balcony was present in 1901 , but by 1921 the beams had been removed by people scouring the canyon for wood . The process of uncovering beams during excavation has further hastened their deterioration . Chaco Wash , which deepens and widens during summer rain showers , also threatens the canyon 's ruins . The once prominent refuse mound has been all but destroyed by repeated trenching and by diverting arroyos near Chetro Ketl . Treasure hunting , livestock grazing , and early National Park Service stabilization efforts also contributed to the degradation of the structure , as have deep excavations that left Chaco Wash prone to flooding . Archeology was responsible for the catastrophic effects of a 1947 flood that destroyed the walls of twenty rooms and collapsed 40 feet ( 12 m ) of the north wall . It also toppled Chetro Ketl 's tallest remnants .
During the late 1980s , a reburial program was undertaken at Chetro Ketl that sought to preserve the structure 's original timbers by backfilling portions of the site with soil . Because only a thin layer of overburden was applied , specialized geosynthetic materials were added to help keep the area dry . The program also developed techniques that facilitate the sampling of ancient wood for assessment of deterioration . Lekson and McKenna note , " the visible building is far from pristine . Most walls have undergone generations of structural and cosmetic treatment ... Chetro Ketl is an artifact deteriorating before our eyes . If the reader is inspired to questions that cannot be answered by the present study , be advised that Chetro Ketl 's ability to answer in detail is slowly , but surely , disappearing . "
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= Alpine ibex =
The Alpine ibex ( Capra ibex ) , also known as the steinbock or bouquetin , is a species of wild goat that lives in the mountains of the European Alps . It is a sexually dimorphic species with larger males who carry larger , curved horns . The coat colour is typically brownish grey . Alpine ibex tend to live in steep , rough terrain above the snow line . They are also social , although adult males and females segregate for most of the year , coming together only to mate . Four distinct groups exist ; adult male groups , female @-@ offsping groups , groups of young individuals , and mixed sex groups .
During the breeding season , males fight for access to females and use their long horns in agonistic behaviours . After being extirpated from most areas by the 19th century , the Alpine ibex was successfully reintroduced to parts of its historical range and all individuals living today descend from the stock in Gran Paradiso National Park in Aosta Valley and from the neighbouring French valley of Maurienne , now part of the Vanoise National Park linked to the former . These two national parks are connected and have been especially created to help the ibex to thrive . The ibex is the emblem of both the Gran Paradiso National Park and the Vanoise National Park . The species is currently listed as of least concern by the IUCN .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The Alpine ibex was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 . It is classified in the genus Capra ( Latin for " goat " ) with at least seven other species of wild goat . Both Capra and Ovis ( sheep ) descended from a goral @-@ like animal from the Miocene and early Pliocene , whose fossils are found in Kenya , China and Slovenia . The genus Tossunnoria appears in China during the late Miocene and appears to have been intermediate between gorals and goats . Fossils of Alpine ibex date back to the late Pleistocene , when it and the Spanish ibex probably evolved from the extinct Pleistocene species Capra camburgensis . The Nubian ( C. nubiana ) , Walia ( C. walie ) and Siberian ibex ( C. sibirica ) are sometimes considered to be subspecies of the Alpine ibex , giving populations in the Alps the trinomial of C. i. ibex .
= = Appearance = =
Compared with other members of its genus , the Alpine ibex has a short , broad head and a duller coat . It has brownish grey hair over most of the body , a pale abdomen and slightly darker markings on the chin and throat and in a stripe along the back . They moult twice a year , firstly in April or May , and then again in September , when they replace the short summer coat with thicker hair and a woolly undercoat .
Males commonly grow to a height of 90 to 101 centimetres ( 35 to 40 in ) at the withers , with a body length of 149 to 171 centimetres ( 59 to 67 in ) and weigh from 67 to 117 kilograms ( 148 to 258 lb ) . Females are noticeably smaller , with a shoulder height of 73 to 84 centimetres ( 29 to 33 in ) , a body length of 121 to 141 centimetres ( 48 to 56 in ) , and a weight of 17 to 32 kilograms ( 37 to 71 lb ) . Both male and female Alpine ibexes have large , backwards @-@ curving , horns with numerous ridges along their length . At 69 to 98 centimetres ( 27 to 39 in ) , those of the males are substantially larger than those of females , which reach only 18 to 35 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 1 to 13 @.@ 8 in ) in length .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
The Alpine ibex was , at one point , restricted only to the Gran Paradiso National Park in northern Italy , and in the Maurienne Valley in the French Alps but in recent years it was both reintroduced to and recolonised most of the European Alps , and is now found in most of all the Italian and French alpine ranges , southern Germany , Switzerland and Austria . It was also introduced to Bulgaria and Slovenia .
An excellent climber , its preferred habitat is the rocky region along the snow line above alpine forests , where it occupies steep , rough terrain at elevations of 1 @,@ 800 to 3 @,@ 300 metres ( 5 @,@ 900 to 10 @,@ 800 ft ) . Alpine ibex are typically absent from woodland areas although adult males in densely populated areas may stay in larch and mixed larch @-@ spruce woodland if there is no snow . Males spend the winter in coniferous forests . For most of the year , males and females occupy different habitat . Females rely on steep terrain more so than males . Males use lowland meadows during the spring , which is when snow melts and green grass appears . They then climb to alpine meadows during the summer . When winter arrives , both sexes move to steep rocky slopes that amass little snow . They prefer slopes of 30 – 45 ° and use small caves and overhangs for shelter . Home ranges are highly variable , depending on the availability of resources , and vary in size throughout the year . Figures of anything from 180 to 2 @,@ 800 hectares ( 0 @.@ 69 to 10 @.@ 81 sq mi ; 1 @.@ 8 to 28 @.@ 0 km2 ) have been recorded . Home ranges tend to be largest during summer and autumn , smallest in winter and intermediate in spring . Female home ranges are usually smaller than those of males . Alpine ibexes appear to have a low rate of predation and typically die of age , starvation or disease in Gran Paradiso .
= = = Foraging = = =
Alpine ibexes are strictly herbivorous , with over half of their diet consisting of grasses , and the remainder being a mixture of moss , flowers , leaves , and twigs . If leaves and shoots are out of reach , they often stand on their rear legs to reach this food . Grass genera that are the most commonly eaten are Agrostis , Avena , Calamagrostis , Festuca , Phleum , Poa , Sesleria and Trisetum . The climbing ability of the Alpine ibex is such that it has been observed standing on the sheer face of a dam , where it licks the stonework to obtain mineral salts .
= = Life history = =
Although the Alpine ibex is a social species , they segregate sexually and spatially depending on the season . Four types of groups exist . Adult male groups , female @-@ offspring groups , groups of young individuals 2 – 3 years old , and mixed sex groups . Young groups are numerous at the beginning of summer but are expelled by females at the end of their gestation period . Female and offspring groups occur year @-@ round , at least in an area of the French Alps . Mixed sex groups of adult males and females occur during breeding , which lasts from December to January . By April and May , the adults separate . The largest aggregations of either sex occur during June and July . Gatherings of males begin to decrease during October and November , and are lowest from the rut from December to March . The males then leave their separate wintering areas and gather again .
There is a linear dominance hierarchy among males . In small populations , which are more cohesive , male ibex know their place in the hierarchy based on memories of past encounters while in mobile and large groups , where encounters with strangers are common , rank is based on horn size . Antagonistic behavior in males can come in the form of " direct " or " indirect " aggression . With direct aggression , one male bumps another with its horns or places itself in front of its opponent . It stands on its hind legs and comes down on his opponent with its horns . This may signal that it is ready to clash or it may be attempting a real clash . Indirect aggression is mostly intimidation displays .
= = = Reproduction and growth = = =
The breeding season starts in December , and typically lasts around six weeks . During this time , male herds break up into smaller groups that search for females . The rut takes place in two phases . In the first phase , the male groups interact with the females who are all in oestrous . The higher the male 's rank , the closer he can get to a female . Males perform courtship displays . In the second phase of the rut , one male separates from his group to follow an individual female . He displays to her and guards her from other males . Before copulation , the female moves her tail and courtship becomes more intensive . They copulate and then he rejoins his group and reverts to the first phase . Gestation lasts around 167 days , and results in the birth of one or two kids , with twins making up about 20 % of births .
Alpine ibex reach sexual maturity at eighteen months , but females do not reach their maximum body size for five to six years , and males not for nine to eleven years . The horns grow throughout life , growing most rapidly during the second year of life , and thereafter by about 8 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) a year , eventually slowing to half that rate once the animal reaches ten years of age . Alpine ibex live for up to nineteen years in the wild .
= = Conservation status = =
The Alpine ibex historically ranged through France , Italy , Switzerland , Liechtenstein , Bavaria , Austria and Slovenia . Starting in the early 1500s and with firearms becoming common , the overall population declined due to overexploitation and poaching . The ibex became extinct in Switzerland and Germany by the 18th century , and was extinct in Austria and northeastern Italy by the 19th century . They remained only in and around the adjacent Gran Paradiso and Vanoise Massifs , then both part of the Kingdom of Piedmont . Located in the western Italian Alps and the Maurienne valley in the north eastern French alps , bordering the Vanoise and Gran Paradiso Massif , the park was declared a royal hunting reserve in 1854 by Vittorio Emanuele II .
Ibex were protected from poaching and their numbers increased , reaching 3 @,@ 020 in 1914 . The ibex enjoyed further protection when Gran Paradiso was made into a national park in 1922 . Animals from this stock both drifted naturally and were introduced to other areas . By 1976 , the number of populations of ibex numbered 104 . Today , the total population of Alpine ibex is over 20 @,@ 000 and is considered to be of Least Concern by the IUCN . However , introduced populations of ibex appear to have low genetic diversity .
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= Mauro De Mauro =
Mauro De Mauro ( born September 6 , 1921 – disappeared September 16 , 1970 ) was an Italian investigative journalist . Originally a supporter of the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini he eventually became a journalist with the left @-@ leaning newspaper L 'Ora in Palermo . He disappeared in September 1970 and his body has not yet been found . The disappearance and probable death of the " inconvenient journalist " ( giornalista scomodo ) – as he became known as a result of his investigative reporting – remains one of the unsolved mysteries in Italian history .
Several explanations for his disappearance are current . One is related to the death of the president of Italy 's state @-@ owned oil and gas conglomerate ENI , Enrico Mattei . Another is that De Mauro had discovered drug trafficking between Sicily and the United States . A third explanation links his disappearance with the Golpe Borghese , a planned right @-@ wing coup d 'état ( the plan failed in December 1970 ) . Apparently De Mauro was convinced that he had got hold of a story of a lifetime . Before his disappearance he told colleagues at the newspaper L 'Ora , " I have a scoop that is going to shake Italy . "
= = Fascist past = =
De Mauro was born in 1921 in Foggia , Apulia . His father Oscar De Mauro belonged to a reputable family of doctors and pharmacists that had been living in Foggia for several generations . His mother Clementina Rispoli came from Naples and was a math teacher . His younger brother Tullio De Mauro ( born March 31 , 1932 ) is a linguist and politician , who became Minister of Education in 2000 @-@ 2001 .
De Mauro was a supporter of the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini . After the armistice with the Allied Forces in September 1943 , he choose to follow the hard @-@ line fascist regime of the Italian Social Republic ( Repubblica Sociale Italiana – RSI ) in German @-@ held northern Italy . During the German military occupation of Rome in 1943 @-@ 1944 , he was vice @-@ commander of Police under the Commander Caruso , informant of the SS Captain Erich Priebke and of the Colonel Herbert Kappler . He was also a member of the Koch Band , a special unit of the Home Security in the Italian Social Republic . Using a variety of aliases ( Roberto Marini , Mauro Mauri , Mariani , etc . ) , De Mauro managed to infiltrate several resistance organizations ( in Rome and Milan ) to hunt the partisans .
He and his wife Elda volunteered to join the Decima MAS , a brutal anti @-@ partisan force under the command of prince Junio Valerio Borghese , also known as the " Black Prince " . De Mauro worked for the journal La Cambusa ( The Galley ) of the propaganda unit of the military formation . He was arrested during the liberation in Milan in April 1945 . He escaped from the prison camp Coltano ( Tuscany ) in December 1945 and took refuge in Naples with his young wife ( where he also had two daughters , Junia and Franca Valeria , named after Junio Valerio Borghese ) Accused of having participated in the Fosse Ardeatine massacre in March 1944 in which 335 people were executed , he was absolved by the court in 1948 .
= = Journalist in Sicily = =
In 1948 , De Mauro moved to Palermo in Sicily under an assumed name , and worked for local newspapers such as Il Tempo di Sicilia , and Il Mattino di Sicilia . In 1959 he started working for L 'Ora , a Communist @-@ oriented paper . Other journalists were puzzled about De Mauro 's presence at the newspaper : he had been a supporter of Mussolini until the bitter end and fought in the brutal war against the anti @-@ Fascist partisans . Rumour had it that his nose had been broken by partisans .
At L 'Ora , De Mauro joined a group of crack investigative reporters . From the mid @-@ 1950s to the 1970s the left @-@ leaning newspaper often hit the national spotlight for its investigations and denunciations about the ties between the Sicilian Mafia and corrupt politicians . These were the golden years of investigations , signed by journalists like Mauro De Mauro , Felice Chilanti and Mario Farinella . De Mauro could exercise his skills as a successful investigative reporter . He wrote on drug trafficking and the Sack of Palermo , the construction boom in the 1950s and 1960s that led to the destruction of the city 's green belt and ancient villas . He also published articles about the collusion between the Mafia and politics . In 1960 he was among the winners of the Premiolino , one of the most important Italian journalism awards , for his crime investigations .
In 1962 , he was the first to publish a detailed map of the Sicilian Mafia , which was confirmed 22 years later by the Mafia pentito ( turncoat ) Tommaso Buscetta in his testimony to Judge Giovanni Falcone . In January 1962 he published a series of articles in L 'Ora disclosing the testimony of Melchiorre Allegra , a medical doctor and a member of the Mafia from 1916 until his arrest in 1937 . Upon being arrested , Allegra disclosed his membership and testified about Mafia activities . It was one of the first testimonies about the Mafia from within , but the document had been neglected until De Mauro republished it .
After these and other revelations De Mauro became a target for the Mafia . " De Mauro was a walking corpse , " said Buscetta . " Cosa Nostra had been forced to ' forgive ' the journalist because his death would arouse too much suspicion , but at the first opportunity he would have to pay for the scoop . The death sentence had only been temporarily suspended . "
= = Mattei affair = =
In 1962 he investigated the mysterious death of Enrico Mattei , the powerful president of Italy 's state @-@ owned oil and gas conglomerate ENI who died in suspicious circumstances in a plane crash on October 27 , 1962 . During his controversial tenure of ENI , Mattei had made many enemies . He tried to break the oligopoly of the ' Seven Sisters ' ( a term Mattei coined to refer to the dominant oil companies of the mid @-@ 20th century ) , and brokered an oil import deal with the Soviet Union in the middle of the Cold War over intense protests from NATO and the U.S. in 1959 , while supporting independence movements against colonial powers such as Algeria .
The U.S. National Security Council described Mattei as an irritation and an obstacle in a classified report from 1958 . The French could not forgive him for doing business with the pro @-@ independence movement in Algeria . Responsibility for his death has been attributed to the CIA , to the French extreme @-@ nationalist group , the OAS , and to the Sicilian Mafia .
In September 1970 , De Mauro was again investigating the case , upon request of the movie director Francesco Rosi for the movie Il caso Mattei ( The Mattei Affair ) , which would be released in 1972 . He was convinced that Mattei 's aircraft had been sabotaged and looked into possible links of the Mafia with the crash . Two days before his disappearance , De Mauro interviewed Graziano Verzotto , a Christian Democrat politician and former right @-@ hand man of Mattei on Sicily . Verzotto had been head of public relations of ENI and knew De Mauro quite well . Verzotto also knew Mafia boss Giuseppe Di Cristina quite well ; he had been best man at De Cristina ’ s wedding . Verzotto had been with Mattei on his airplane the day before it crashed . De Mauro was convinced that he had got hold of a story of a lifetime . Before his disappearance he told colleagues at the newspaper L 'Ora , “ I have a scoop that is going to shake Italy . ”
= = Disappearance = =
De Mauro was kidnapped on the evening of September 16 , 1970 , while coming back home from work , in the via delle Magnolie in Palermo . Thousands of police and Carabinieri with helicopters and dogs combed Sicily in vain in search of the reporter . De Mauro ’ s body has never been found , a victim of the so @-@ called lupara bianca , despite intensive search efforts by Palermo police assisted by top @-@ level forces from Rome and even a special investigative committee of the Italian Parliament .
Over the years , the investigations into the disappearance of De Mauro by the Carabinieri and the police followed widely divergent leads . Colonel Carlo Alberto Dalla Chiesa and Captain Giuseppe Russo of the Carabinieri were are among the first to work on his case . Years later , and in different circumstances , both were murdered by the Mafia . They focused on the lead of drug trafficking . According to them , the journalist would have been a victim of lupara bianca after discovering leads on drug trafficking by the Mafia between Sicily and the United States .
The first inquiries of the police by Bruno Contrada and Boris Giuliano instead focused on the lead of De Mauro ’ s investigations into the death of Mattei , prompted by the disappearance a few pages of notes and a tape with the last speech given by Mattei from De Mauro ’ s office . The investigations were seriously hampered due to deviations by people within the Italian police forces and secret services . According to police inspector Boris Giuliano there was " someone at the ministry in Rome that does not want to go to the bottom of the death of De Mauro . " According to Giuliano an order to scale down the investigation was issued by the head of the secret service , Vito Miceli , allegedly involved in the Borghese coup . Miceli had been in contact with the mafiosi Giuseppe Calderone and Giuseppe Di Cristina who wanted to support the coup , scheduled for December 1970 .
= = Italian mystery = =
The disappearance of De Mauro remained a mystery and a matter for many speculations . In May 1994 Mafia turncoat Tommaso Buscetta declared that the Sicilian Mafia had been involved in the murder of Mattei . He also claimed that De Mauro was killed because of his investigations into the death of Mattei . According to Buscetta , Mattei was killed at the request of the American Cosa Nostra because his oil policies had damaged important American interests in the Middle East . The American Mafia in turn was possibly doing a favour to the large oil companies .
Buscetta claimed that the killing was organized by Mafia bosses Salvatore Greco " Ciaschiteddu " , Stefano Bontade and Giuseppe Di Cristina on the request of Angelo Bruno , a Sicilian born Mafia boss from Philadelphia . Gaetano Iannì , another pentito , declared that a special agreement had been achieved between Cosa Nostra and " some foreigners " for the elimination of Mattei which was organized by Giuseppe Di Cristina . These statements triggered new inquiries , including the exhumation of Mattei 's corpse .
Buscetta claimed that Mafia boss Stefano Bontade organized De Mauro ’ s kidnap , because his investigations into the death of Mattei came very close to the Mafia , and Bontade ’ s own role in the affair . Another pentito , Francesco Di Carlo , declared in 2001 that De Mauro was killed because he had learned that one of his former fascist friends , Prince Junio Valerio Borghese , was planning a coup d 'état ( the so @-@ called Golpe Borghese ) with like @-@ minded army officers determined to stop what they considered as Italy 's drift to the left . Yet another pentito , Rosario Naimo , who started to collaborate with the Italian authorities after his arrest in October 2010 , said that the journalist was killed because of his investigative reporting that damaged the Mafia .
The order for the killing of De Mauro came from the heads of the Sicilian Mafia Commission , Stefano Bontade , Gaetano Badalamenti and Salvatore Riina , according to Di Carlo and Buscetta . Both Di Carlo and Naimo say that De Mauro was kidnapped by Emanuele D 'Agostino , a mafioso from Bontade ’ s Santa Maria di Gesù Family .
According to Di Carlo , the remains of De Mauro were buried under a bridge over the Oreto river near Palermo . However , the police , after a search , did not find the body . The pentito Francesco Marino Mannoia later explained why . He had been ordered by Bontade in 1977 or 1978 to dig up several bodies at the bridge and dissolve them in acid . According to the new testimony of the pentito Naimo , De Mauro was taken to a terrain in Pallavicino neighbourhood in Palermo where the Mafia boss Francesco Madonia owned a chicken farm . He was killed there and dumped in a pit .
= = 2006 murder trial = =
In 2001 , as a result of the declarations of Di Carlo , the judicial inquiry was reopened . In April 2006 , more than 35 years after De Mauro ’ s disappearance , the trial on his murder started at the Court of Palermo with the former Mafia boss of bosses Riina as the only remaining defendant . ( D 'Agostino and Bontate were killed by Riina ’ s Corleonesi in the Second Mafia War ; Badalamenti died in a US prison in April 2004 . ) In 2011 the new Mafia turncoat Naimo testified at the trial saying that the journalist was killed by the Mafia on the orders of Riina .
The " inconvenient journalist " ( giornalista scomodo ) – as De Mauro had become known – was kidnapped and killed because the Mafia and their backers wanted to know his sources of confidential and potentially devastating information , public prosecutor Antonio Ingroia told the court in his closing speech in March 2011 . " The death sentence on De Mauro was passed because of a convergence of two elements , " Ingroia said . Riina , Bontade and Badalamenti decided to eliminate De Mauro because he was about to go public about Mattei 's 1962 murder as a result of research for Francesco Rosi 's landmark movie , as well as the fact the journalist had uncovered the plans for staging the Mafia @-@ backed far @-@ right Borghese coup d 'état , thanks to his former wartime Fascist connections .
" De Mauro was very busy piecing together the elements of the plot , and his death stopped it being uncovered , " according to Ingroia . " The other ' convergent ' element in his death was the fact that he knew , from its inception , about the subversive project involving spies , neofascists and Mafia groups , " to stage the Borghese Coup , " Ingroia said . " From his sources in neofascist circles , from his past in Prince Junio Valerio Borghese 's crack Decima Mas unit , as well as from tip @-@ offs from Mafia boss Emanuele D 'Agostino , he knew something was in the offing " .
The " preventive crime " might even have had other motives , such as other events that concerned the " friends in Rome " of the Corleonesi headed by Riina , as emerged from documents retrieved from the former mayor of Palermo , Vito Ciancimino . Cosa Nostra was behind the murder of De Mauro , but there were other backgrounds and individuals , allied with the Mafia , such as deviated freemasons and corrupt public officials . " De Mauro was not killed out of revenge , but to prevent harm to the Mafia . The Mafia did not just execute instructions of others , but also because his investigations affected Cosa Nostra itself and other powers associated with it , " according to Ingroia . He said the investigations for the trial had unearthed an " institutional cover @-@ up " in the initial probe into De Mauro 's disappearance .
= = Mystery continues = =
On June 10 , 2011 , Riina was acquitted of charges for ordering the kidnap and killing of De Mauro by the Court in Palermo because of insufficient evidence . " It 's certainly a surprise , but we 'll see the reasons for this ruling , " said Franca De Mauro , daughter of the journalist . " I am very upset because after 40 years we still have no answer about what happened that day . " In their explanation of the ruling that became public in August 2012 , the judges of the Court of Palermo decided that De Mauro had died because he had gone too far in his quest for the truth about the last hours of Mattei in Sicily . They pointed to Graziano Verzotto as a possible man behind the killing of De Mauro and Mattei , but without a clear conviction . Verzotto had died in June 2010 .
The prosecution , which had requested a further life term for Riina , appealed against the acquittal . The appeal trial began in April 2013 . On January 27 , 2014 , the Palermo Appeal Court confirmed the acquittal of Riina . The court considered was convinced of the involvement of Cosa Nostra in De Mauro ’ s murder , but attributed the murder to the group that was headed by Stefano Bontade and identified the likely motive in the discovery by the journalist of important facts about the death of ENI president Enrico Mattei . There was insufficient evidence for the involvement of Riina , due to contradictory evidence , lack of clarity of the evidence gathered and conflicting statements by government witnesses , in particular those of Di Carlo . The prosecution is expected to appeal to the court of last instance , the supreme Court of Cassation .
De Mauro ’ s disappearance and likely death remains one of the unsolved mysteries in Italian history . The Sicilian writer Leonardo Sciascia once summarized the puzzle of De Mauro ’ s death : " He said the right thing to the wrong man and the wrong thing to the right man . "
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= Sing Like Me =
" Sing Like Me " is a song by American recording artist Chris Brown . It was released as a promotional single from his third studio album , Graffiti , on November 24 , 2009 in the United States . The number was written by Brown , Big Makk , Keith Thomas , Lorenza " Big Lo " Lennon and Atozzio Towns , and produced by Makk , Thomas and Lennon . A pop and R & B ballad , the song contains lyrics about Brown leaving a nightclub with several women . " Sing Like Me " received mixed response from critics , and charted for two weeks on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs in 2010 , peaking at number eighty @-@ four .
= = Background and composition = =
" Sing Like Me " was written by Chris Brown , Big Makk , Keith Thomas , andf Lorenza " Big Lo " Lennon , with Makk , Thomas and Lennon producing the track . It was recorded at The Compound — a recording studio in Orlando , Florida — and Tony Maserati mixed the tune at The Record Plant — a studio in Los Angeles , California . The cover art of the song 's promotional release is styled similarly to the cover of Graffiti . It has a retro look , showing Brown wearing black clothes and a red cardigan and sunglasses . " Sing Like Me " was released by Jive Records and RCA Records via the United States iTunes Store on November 24 , 2009 .
" Sing Like Me " is a slow jam pop and R & B ballad , featuring 808 drum beats and a string arrangement featuring Asian influences . Billboard 's Sarah MacRory likened the tune 's beat to R. Kelly 's " Feelin ' on Yo Booty " ( 2001 ) . Lyrically , the track is about Brown leaving a nightclub with several women , none of whom Brown wants to marry . The song 's chorus features the hook " I gotta girl singin ' like me " . Yahoo ! Music 's reviewer said that the song has lyrics where Brown " boasts about the girls who can 't get enough of him " , and described the lyrics as Brown raving about " his celebrity status and his skills with women " . A writer for Rap @-@ Up wrote that on the song Brown " make [ s ] the ladies sing his praises . "
= = Reception = =
" Sing Like Me " was noted as one of the best tracks on Graffiti by a Yahoo ! Music critic . That Grape Juice 's review called the song " ridiculously catchy " , and appreciated the subtlety with which Brown gave the lyrics , comparing the technique to Janet Jackson . The Associated Press described it as " cocky but alluring " . Time Out New York 's reviewer disliked the fact that " Sing Like Me " and " Crawl " were placed adjacently on Graffiti , but called both tunes " otherwise strong songs " . The Boston Globe 's Sarah Rodman called the song " skeevy " , and compared it to the " sex stuff and braggadocio " of R. Kelly . Melinda Newman of HitFix noted its lack of creativity , while Nathan S. from the DJ Booth wrote that there is " nothing particularly remarkabl [ e ] " about " Sing Like Me " and Graffiti 's lead single , " I Can Transform Ya " . Roxana Hadadi of Express Night Out was unimpressed with the selfish adult lyrics on " Sing Like Me " .
While it was not officially sent to radio , " Sing Like Me " entered the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs at number ninety @-@ six on March 6 , 2010 . The next week it rose to its peak position of number eighty @-@ four , before falling off the chart the following week .
= = Personnel = =
Source :
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= Hurricane Floyd ( 1987 ) =
Hurricane Floyd was the only hurricane to make landfall in the United States in the 1987 Atlantic hurricane season . The final of seven tropical storms and three hurricanes , Floyd developed on October 9 just off the east coast of Nicaragua . After becoming a tropical storm , it moved northward and crossed western Cuba . An approaching cold front caused Floyd to turn unexpectedly to the northeast , and late on October 12 it attained hurricane status near the Florida Keys . It moved through southern Florida , spawning two tornadoes and leaving minor damage . The hurricane also produced rip tides that killed a person in southern Texas . Floyd maintained hurricane status for only 12 hours before the cold front imparted hostile conditions and caused weakening . It passed through the Bahamas before becoming extratropical and later dissipating on October 14 .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Floyd were from a low pressure area in the Gulf of Honduras on October 5 . Over the subsequent few days , it drifted eastward and later southward to a position off the east coast of Nicaragua . On October 9 , a Hurricane Hunters flight confirmed the development of an organized circulation , which indicated that Tropical Depression Thirteen had developed . After continuing a southward drift , the depression turned to the north and later northwest due to a building ridge to its east . With an anticyclone aloft , the depression gradually organized , intensifying into Tropical Storm Floyd on October 10 .
After reaching tropical storm status , Floyd accelerated to the north in the western Caribbean Sea , due to an approaching cold front . Steadily intensifying , the storm moved over extreme western Cuba early on October 12 . Initially it was forecast to make landfall between Naples and Fort Myers , Florida . Unexpectedly the storm turned sharply northeastward into the southeastern Gulf of Mexico . Based on reports from the Hurricane Hunters , Floyd briefly attained hurricane status on October 12 . Around the same time , the nearby cold front spawned a low pressure area that cut off the hurricane 's inflow . While moving through the Florida Keys , Floyd became the only hurricane to affect the United States that year . However , its convection was rapidly decreasing over the center due to the front , and shortly thereafter Floyd weakened to tropical storm status . The circulation became nearly impossible to track on satellite imagery , although surface observations indicated it passed just south of Miami , Florida . The storm underwent extratropical transition as it weakened over the Bahamas , and Floyd was no longer a tropical cyclone by late on October 18 . The circulation dissipated within the cold front early the next day .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Around when Floyd first attained tropical storm status , a tropical storm warning was issued for the Swan Islands as well as Grand Cayman . Shortly thereafter , a tropical storm warning and hurricane watch was issued for the northeast Yucatán Peninsula before the storm dropped heavy rainfall along the coast . A tropical storm warning and hurricane watch were also issued for Cuba west of Havana . In preparation for the storm , Cuban officials in Pinar del Río Province evacuated 100 @,@ 000 people , as well as 40 @,@ 000 head of cattle . In addition , international flights were canceled for a day during Floyd 's passage . Despite passing over western Cuba as a tropical storm , Floyd left no serious damage or fatalities in the country .
When Floyd was a tropical storm located over Cuba , the National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane warning for the Florida Keys as well as the southwest Florida coast to Venice . It was the first warning in the state related to the storm , and was issued due to the anticipated intensification to hurricane status as well as short notice . A tropical storm watch , and later warning , was issued for eastern Florida . After the track became more easterly , a hurricane warning was issued for southeastern Florida , as well as the northwestern Bahamas . Officials in southern Florida closed schools due to the storm , and a few flights were canceled at Miami International Airport . Roughly 100 F @-@ 4 and F16 fighter jets were transported out of Homestead Air Force Base to safer facilities . The American Red Cross opened 55 shelters in 10 Florida counties , housing about 2 @,@ 000 people at some point , primarily in Lee County . People in the hurricane 's path prepared by purchasing supplies from supermarkets , gassing up their vehicles , and securing loose outside items .
Floyd was the first named storm to strike southern Florida since Hurricane Bob in 1985 . While passing south of Florida , Floyd produced its strongest winds over water away and from land . The strongest wind in the Florida Keys was 59 mph ( 94 km / h ) at Duck Key , although wind gusts were stronger . The Air Force station on Cudjoe Key reported an unofficial gust of 92 mph ( 152 km / h ) . Rainfall directly from Floyd 's rainbands produced minimal rainfall less than 1 in ( 25 mm ) . However , the interaction between the hurricane and the approaching cold front produced much heavier rainfall . Precipitation reached as far north as Daytona , peaking at 10 @.@ 07 in ( 256 mm ) in Fort Pierce . While bypassing the Florida Keys , Floyd spawned a waterspout that moved ashore in Rock Harbor . It damaged a few boats and homes . The hurricane produced rip tides as far west as the Texas coast , killing one person along South Padre Island .
Across southern Florida , the hurricane left minor damage of around $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 1987 USD ) , largely due to downed trees and power lines , as well as minor crop damage in Dade County . The rainfall flooded roads in southern Florida , which caused several vehicles to fail on the Florida Turnpike . After affecting Florida , Floyd caused minor wind damage in the Bahamas . In the country , the highest reported gust was 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) at Freeport , Grand Bahama . Freeport International Airport reported sustained winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) from the remnants of Floyd .
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= The Killers =
The Killers is an American rock band formed in Las Vegas , Nevada in 2001 , by Brandon Flowers ( lead vocals , keyboards ) and Dave Keuning ( guitar , backing vocals ) . Mark Stoermer ( bass guitar , backing vocals ) and Ronnie Vannucci Jr . ( drums , percussion ) would complete the current line @-@ up of the band in 2002 . The name The Killers is derived from a logo on the bass drum of a fictitious band , portrayed in the music video for the New Order song " Crystal " .
The group has released four chart topping studio albums : Hot Fuss ( 2004 ) , Sam 's Town ( 2006 ) , Day & Age ( 2008 ) and Battle Born ( 2012 ) . They have also released a B @-@ sides and rarities compilation , Sawdust ( 2007 ) ; a live album , Live from the Royal Albert Hall ( 2009 ) ; and a greatest hits album Direct Hits ( 2013 ) .
The Killers are seen as one of the biggest rock bands of the 21st century , and the most successful rock act to ever emerge from the state of Nevada , having sold an estimated 22 million albums worldwide . They have achieved worldwide success as a live band , performing in over fifty countries and on six continents , headlining venues such as Madison Square Garden and Wembley Stadium .
= = History = =
= = = 2001 – 03 : Origins and formation = = =
In 2001 , Brandon Flowers was fired by his first band , a Las Vegas synthpop trio known as Blush Response who subsequently relocated to Los Angeles . After attending an Oasis concert at the Hard Rock Hotel during The Tour of Brotherly Love , Flowers realized his calling was to be in a rock band and began searching for like @-@ minded musicians . He eventually came across an ad posted in a Las Vegas newspaper by Dave Keuning , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old guitarist who had moved to Vegas from Iowa a year earlier . The pair shared similar musical influences and soon began writing songs together in Keuning 's apartment . By the end of 2001 , they had recorded a demo at Kill The Messenger Studio in Henderson , Nevada ; the demo featured four tracks , " Desperate " , " Replaceable " and early versions of " Mr. Brightside " and " Under the Gun " .
Keuning and Flowers played their first live show together at an open mic night at the Cafe Espresso Roma in Las Vegas in January 2002 ; the pair , joined by Neal and Norcross , began playing venues around the city where they would also hand out free copies of their demo . The Killers brought a unique style to the small Vegas music scene which was predominately filled with punk , nu metal , and rap bands ; one local reviewer stated , " The Killers , thankfully , don 't come across like any other band in town " and described their sound as a mix between the " pop styles of British music and the lo @-@ fi fuzz of modern indie rock . "
Ronnie Vannucci Jr joined the Killers shortly before Neal 's departure , Vannucci was well known on the Las Vegas music scene , having played in numerous bands since a young age . It was while he was drumming for a band called Romance Fantasy in 2002 that he and the Killers developed a mutual appreciation for each other . Ronnie 's first show with the band was on August 30 , 2002 at a club called The Junkyard , playing bass for the Killers that night was Mark Stoermer who was at this point the lead guitarist for local progressive rock band The Negative Ponies , the band were keen on Stoermer joining them on a permanent basis with full commitment but he was reluctant to leave The Negative Ponies . The band continued as a three piece trying out other bassists until November 2002 when Stoermer agreed to join and the band 's current line up was complete .
The four of them would get together in Vannucci 's garage to work on song ideas . They would also sneak into the band room at the University of Nevada , Las Vegas ( where Vannucci was studying Classical percussion ) at night to practice . It was during this period that the band wrote much of their debut album Hot Fuss including hit singles " Somebody Told Me " and " Smile Like You Mean It " . The band continued playing at small venues around their hometown , often playing Sunday nights at a transvestite bar named Sasha 's ( later renamed Tramps ) . It wasn 't long before they caught the attention of Braden Merrick , an A & R rep for Warner Bros. Records who had come across their demo on a website dedicated to unsigned bands in the Las Vegas area ; after attending a live show he offered to help the band find a record deal and eventually became their manager . He took the band to the San Francisco area , to Berkeley , California , to record demos with former Green Day manager Jeff Saltzman , they then sent the demo tapes out to major record labels in the US . The band was invited to perform at a number of showcases but were ultimately not signed , the band however did catch the eye of Alex Gilbert , who was an A & R rep from the United Kingdom . Gilbert took a demo with him back to the UK and showed it to his friend Ben Durling , who worked at the newly formed Independent label Lizard King Records in London . Despite not yet meeting the band in person , Lizard King were quick to offer the band a deal based on the strength of the five song demo . The Killers signed with the British label in July 2003 .
= = = 2003 – 06 Hot Fuss = = =
On August 19 , 2003 , the song " Mr. Brightside " premiered on DJ Zane Lowe 's BBC Radio 1 show in the UK . The Killers travelled to London the following month to spend a week playing at influential live music venues across the city . On September 29 , 2003 , the song " Mr. Brightside " was released in the UK on a limited number of CDs and vinyl records , critical reviews of both the song and the shows were positive , NME magazine noted the band 's retro sound commenting " The Killers steal so smartly , and with such mind @-@ boggling variety . " As a result of the buzz generated in the UK , a number of major labels in the US began showing strong interest in the band and they were invited to play at the ASCAP CMJ Music Marathon in New York City . They eventually signed with the record company Island Def Jam .
The band finished recording Hot Fuss in November 2003 with Jeff Saltzman , they decided to keep many of the previously recorded demos as they felt they had a spontaneity that re @-@ recordings would not have . Shortly afterwards they returned to London having been invited to support British Sea Power on their UK tour , the band also worked with Alan Moulder at Eden Studios and Townhouse Studios mixing tracks for their upcoming album . They continued playing support slots during the first half of 2004 most notably touring both the US & UK with Stellastarr and opening for Morrissey on two separate occasions . The band filmed their first music video for the Spring 2004 release of " Somebody Told Me " which was to be the band 's debut single in the US and second single in the UK . The band 's first headline tour started in the UK in May 2004 . During the spring and summer of 2004 , the group played well @-@ received sets at festivals across Europe and North America which helped add to their growing fanbase .
The Killers released their debut album Hot Fuss on June 7 , 2004 in the United Kingdom on Lizard King Records and a week later in the United States on Island Records . The track listing differed depending on territory , in the UK and Australia " Glamorous Indie Rock and Roll " replaces " Change Your Mind " as track eight . Upon release Hot Fuss received generally favorable reviews from critics . Extensive touring and the success of the Grammy Award nominated singles " Somebody Told Me " , " All These Things That I 've Done " and " Mr. Brightside " led to the album becoming a huge commercial success . Hot Fuss reached number one in the UK in January 2005 , seven months after its release , and has been certified 7x Platinum in both the UK and Ireland . It went on to spend more weeks on the UK Albums chart than any other that decade , 173 weeks in total . In the US the album reached its peak position of number seven in April 2005 and has been certified 3x Platinum It reached the top spot in Australia in March 2005 , where it was certified 3x Platinum , it has also been certified 3x Platinum in Canada , Platinum in New Zealand and Gold in Argentina , Belgium , Germany and France .
The Killers were named The World 's Best Selling New Group at the 2005 World Music Awards , the same year they won the MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist and were also nominated for three Grammy Awards with Hot Fuss being nominated for Best Rock Album , in the UK they picked up an NME Award for Best International Band . The band was recognized by Rolling Stone Magazine as the " best @-@ selling new rock band of the past year " in June 2005 . Lead singer Brandon Flowers had also gained media attention , being named both Sexiest and Best Dressed Man at the NME Awards , he had also caused controversy due to some outspoken views on other bands .
In July 2005 , the Killers performed on the London stage of the Live 8 concert , playing " All These Things That I 've Done " . Robbie Williams incorporated the song 's refrain " I 've got soul but I 'm not a soldier " into his own performance . Coldplay and U2 followed suit and , at their separate concerts played in Las Vegas , with the Killers in the crowd , incorporated the line into their songs " God Put a Smile Upon Your Face " and " Beautiful Day " , respectively .
The band fired manager Braden Merrick in 2006 , Merrick later filed a lawsuit against the band , and their new manager and lawyer Robert Reynolds for $ 16 million each . The band counter sued citing that Merrick 's poor management had cost them millions . The case was settled in 2009 .
= = = 2006 – 07 : Sam 's Town and Sawdust = = =
Shortly after finishing touring for Hot Fuss , the Killers headed back into the studio to start recording their highly anticipated second studio album with producers Alan Moulder and Flood , who were working together for the first time in a decade . Sam 's Town was mostly recorded at Studio at the Palms in Las Vegas , with finishing touches added to the album at Criterion Studios , London in June 2006 . Upon completion of the album , Flowers claimed he felt the band had made " one of the best albums of the past twenty years " and that he wanted the album to capture " everything important that got me to where I am today " . In July 2006 , the lead single " When You Were Young " was premiered and it became a hit , gaining another two Grammy Award nominations and mostly positive reviews with many bringing attention to the influence of Heartland rock on the song .
The Killers ' second album , Sam 's Town , was released in October 2006 under Island Def Jam Music Group . It received a varied response with some critics praising the album and the evolution of the band and others criticizing and mocking it , most notably it received a scathing review from Rolling Stone magazine . The album sold over 706 @,@ 000 copies worldwide in the first week of release , reaching number two on the US Billboard chart and number one on the UK chart . The record has since been certified 5x Platinum in the United Kingdom , 4x Platinum in Ireland , 2x Platinum in Australia , Canada and New Zealand , Platinum in the United States and Gold in Argentina , Belgium , Germany and Russia .
The Killers recorded a live session at Abbey Road Studios for Live from Abbey Road on November 29 , 2006 . They performed an almost totally unplugged set , which included stripped back versions of the album 's title track " Sam 's Town " , " When You Were Young " and a rendition of the Dire Straits hit " Romeo and Juliet " . In December 2006 the band released a Christmas charity song , " A Great Big Sled " , which benefited Product Red . This has since become an annual tradition .
In February 2007 , the Killers attended the BRIT Awards in the United Kingdom , where they performed " When You Were Young " . The band won two awards — Best International Group & International Album . In the same month the band 's Tim Burton @-@ directed video for the album 's second single " Bones " won Best Video at the NME Awards .
The band recorded the video for third single " Read My Mind " in Tokyo , Japan during a break in their Sam 's Town Tour , the single release was accompanied by a remix of the song by the Pet Shop Boys . Due to high ticket demand the Killers began headlining arenas including Madison Square Garden for the first time , they also headlined a number of major European festivals during 2007 including Glastonbury Festival .
The band released a compilation album called Sawdust , containing B @-@ sides , rarities and unreleased material in November 2007 . Sawdust has been classified Platinum in the UK . The album 's first single " Tranquilize " , a collaboration with Lou Reed , was released in October 2007 . The album also featured a cover of " Shadowplay " by Joy Division which was recorded for the soundtrack to the Anton Corbijn directed biopic Control .
= = = 2007 – 2011 : Day & Age and hiatus = = =
The band enlisted Stuart Price to produce their third studio album , he had previously remixed their songs under his Jacques Lu Cont moniker , the most notable being the remix of " Mr. Brightside " . They first met Price at his London home in 2007 to discuss the possibility of him producing some unreleased tracks for their b @-@ sides album Sawdust , however that same night they ended up in Price 's home studio recording a demo of " Human " a new song that would become the eventual lead single from Day & Age . The band took six months apart following the completion of their Sam 's Town tour , during this period they would send song ideas between each other and Price via Logic Pro . The band finished recording the album with Price at the band 's newly acquired Battle Born Studios in Las Vegas .
" Human " was released in October 2008 with Brandon Flowers describing the song as " Johnny Cash meets the Pet Shop Boys " . The song went on to become a huge hit worldwide , the lyric " Are we human , or are we dancer ? " created much confusion and debate due to its grammar and ambiguity , with some believing the lyric was " dancers " or " denser " rather than " dancer " , Flowers explained that the line was inspired by a Hunter S. Thompson quote where he stated America was raising " a generation of dancers " . It has since been voted by one poll as the most confusing song lyric of all time .
The Killers ' third album , Day & Age , was released on November 25 , 2008 . Brandon Flowers stated that " Day & Age " was " like looking at Sam 's Town from Mars " , the band have called it their " most playful record " with the album making use of saxophones , steel drums , harpsichord & tribal chanting . The album also saw the band write some of their most personal and challenging lyrics to date , closing track " Goodnight , Travel Well " was written about the death of guitarist Dave Keuning 's mother . While " A Dustland Fairytale " was written as a tribute to frontman Brandon Flowers ' parents , his mother had recently been diagnosed with terminal cancer . Day & Age became the band 's third studio album to reach number one in both the UK and Ireland , it reached number six on the Billboard 200 album chart . It has also been certified 4x Platinum in the UK and Ireland , Platinum in Germany , Australia , New Zealand and Canada and Gold in the US , Mexico , Sweden , Norway , Austria , Switzerland , Greece and the Middle East .
The band embarked on the Day & Age World Tour , during which they performed on every continent except Antarctica and headlined US festivals Lollapalooza and Coachella for the first time . The tour was named one of the top fifty worldwide concert tours of 2009 . On July 5 – 6 , 2009 at the Royal Albert Hall , London the Killers recorded their first live DVD , " Live from the Royal Albert Hall " . It was released in November and played at various cinemas across the globe . Live from Royal Albert Hall was certified 2x Platinum in the UK , Platinum in the US and Australia and Gold in Ireland and Brazil .
In January 2010 , the band announced that they would take a short break after being on the road for the better part of six years . The break lasted for about a year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half , during which band members devoted themselves on solo projects , while the band made sporadic other contributions .
In late February 2010 , Flowers ' mother died after a two @-@ year fight with brain cancer . This resulted in the cancellation of dates in Asia . Two Australian dates in Sydney and Perth were also cancelled ; however , both the Gold Coast and Melbourne concerts went ahead , with the Day & Age tour finally coming to a close in Melbourne on February 21 as the headline act at the Good Vibrations Festival at Flemington Racecourse .
Invited by U.S. President Barack Obama , the band played on the White House South Lawn on July 4 , 2010 for the second annual " Salute To The Military " United Service Organizations concert as part of Independence Day celebrations , which Flowers described as a " monumental honor " . Despite their hiatus , the band got together to play " Human " , " Somebody Told Me " , " Mr. Brightside " , " A Dustland Fairytale " , " God Bless America / Read My Mind " and " When You Were Young " .
= = = 2011 – 13 : Return and Battle Born = = =
The band returned to the stage in 2011 when they headlined the new International Lollapalooza Festival in Santiago , Chile on April 2 , 2011 . They also performed at the season closing Top of the Mountain concert in Ischgl , Austria on April 30 , 2011 . They headlined Hard Rock Calling for the second time in Hyde Park , London on June 24 , 2011 . The Killers were also the inaugural headliner of the new Orlando Calling Festival in Orlando , FL on November 12 , 2011 .
In April 2012 , Tommy Marth , who had played saxophone on the band 's Sam 's Town and Day & Age albums , toured with the band during their Day & Age World Tour and can be seen performing with the band on the Live From The Royal Albert Hall DVD , was found dead at his Las Vegas home . His death was officially ruled as a suicide .
The band headed back into the studio to record their fourth studio album in 2011 , during the recording they worked with five different producers Steve Lillywhite , Damian Taylor , Brendan O 'Brien , Stuart Price and Daniel Lanois . In June 2012 A short trailer was released on the Killers official VEVO page , revealing the album 's name Battle Born , named after the Flag of Nevada . This was followed by the release of lead single " Runaways " in July . That same month , they headlined Saturday night at the inaugural Firefly Music Festival in Dover , Delaware .
The Killers ' fourth studio album Battle Born was released on September 18 , 2012 . The album became the Killers ' fourth consecutive No. 1 album in the UK and Ireland and has been certified Platinum in the UK and Gold in Ireland , Mexico and Australia .
The band 's Battle Born World Tour proved their most widespread yet with the band visiting new territories including Russia and China . The tour was named the 43rd highest grossing worldwide during 2013 . On June 22 , 2013 , the band played their biggest show to date at the 90 @,@ 000 capacity Wembley Stadium ; the band performed a song specifically written for the occasion . Reviews of the show were extremely positive .
The band once again headlined festivals across Europe , Australia , South America & North America . In October 2013 the Killers headlined the inaugural Life Is Beautiful Festival in hometown Las Vegas , concluding their Battle Born World Tour .
= = = 2013 – 14 : Direct Hits = = =
On September 11 , 2013 , the band tweeted a picture , which contained six lines of Morse code . The code was translated to " The Killers Shot at the Night " . On September 16 , 2013 , exactly ten years to the day of their first show in London , the Killers released " Shot at the Night " which was produced by Anthony Gonzalez . It was also revealed that they would be releasing their first greatest hits compilation , Direct Hits released on November 11 , 2013 , celebrating a decade together as a band and fulfilling a contractual requirement with their record label . The album featured songs from all four studio albums , the new single " Shot At The Night " and another new song " Just Another Girl " .
The release of Direct Hits was followed by a short promotional tour , the band also played a number of festivals in 2014 .
On December 1 , 2014 , the band released " Joel the Lump of Coal " . The single features late night talk show host Jimmy Kimmel . The song marks the ninth consecutive year in which the band has released a Christmas song . All proceeds went to AIDS charities as part of the Product Red campaign .
= = = 2015 – present : Return and fifth studio album = = =
In 2015 the Killers headlined the inaugural Kaaboo Festival in San Diego as well as the Firefly Music Festival in Delaware . In September 2015 , the Killers played at the iHeartRadio Music Festival in Las Vegas , the Killers ' home town .
In an October 2015 interview with Jo Whiley on BBC Radio 2 , Brandon Flowers remarked that in a ‘ perfect world ’ the band would be releasing new material in late 2016 , and appeared to indicate that the Killers would follow a schedule similar to that of Battle Born . According to Flowers in a later interview with Loaded , the band are currently working with Flood and Alan Moulder on their fifth studio album , and had been working on a potential new track titled " Look Alive " . The frontman has spoken of developing a ‘ powerful rock vibe ’ for the group 's fifth album . In February 2016 , Elton John revealed he plans to go to Las Vegas and write with the band for their upcoming album .
On May 24 , 2016 , the band announced that Mark Stoermer was taking a break from touring " to pursue other educational goals and releasing a solo album . " The statement emphasized that Stoermer was still involved in working on the band 's fifth album , and that he may still occasionally perform live with them in the future .
= = Battle Born Studios and solo work = =
Since 2008 , the Killers have owned and operated Battle Born Studios ( formerly Studio Vegas ) in Winchester , Nevada .
Brandon Flowers released the chart @-@ topping albums Flamingo ( 2010 ) and The Desired Effect ( 2015 ) .
Ronnie Vannucci 's side project Big Talk released albums Big Talk ( 2011 ) and Straight In No Kissin ' ( 2015 ) .
Mark Stoermer released album Another Life ( 2011 ) .
= = Musical style = =
The Killers have been referred to as various genres , including alternative rock , indie rock , post @-@ punk revival , new wave and heartland rock .
= = Activism and philanthropy = =
= = = Political relations = = =
Invited by U.S. President Barack Obama , the band played on the White House South Lawn on July 4 , 2010 for the second annual " Salute To The Military " United Service Organizations concert as part of Independence Day celebrations , which Flowers described as a " monumental honor " . Despite their hiatus , the band got together to play " Human " , " Somebody Told Me " , " Mr. Brightside " , " A Dustland Fairytale " , " God Bless America / Read My Mind " and " When You Were Young " . Flowers , Keuning and Stoermer also played at a campaign rally on July 8 , 2010 in Nevada for Obama and U.S. Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid who was up for re @-@ election . The Killers played an acoustic version of " Read My Mind " and did a folksy rendition of the state song , " Home Means Nevada " . In February 2011 , Flowers had a private lunch with Mitt Romney during Romney 's visit to the Republican Party convention in Nevada . In 2012 , the band remained neutral in the election . In 2015 , Flowers performed a folksy rendition of the state song , " Home Means Nevada " for Obama and U.S. Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid at the National Clean Energy Summit .
= = = Annual Christmas singles = = =
Since 2006 , the Killers have released annual Christmas themed singles and videos in aid of the charity Product Red , supporting The Global Fund to Fight AIDS , Tuberculosis and Malaria . To date they have released ten Christmas themed songs and music videos : " A Great Big Sled " ( 2006 ) , " Don 't Shoot Me Santa " ( 2007 ) , " Joseph , Better You Than Me " ( 2008 ) , " Happy Birthday Guadalupe ! " ( 2009 ) , " Boots " ( 2010 ) , " The Cowboys ' Christmas Ball " ( 2011 ) , " I Feel It In My Bones " ( 2012 ) , " Christmas In LA " ( 2013 ) , " Joel the Lump of Coal " ( 2014 ) , and " Dirt Sledding " ( 2015 ) . On November 30 , 2011 they released the ( RED ) Christmas EP on iTunes which features all six songs that had been released up to that point . Over the years they have enlisted the help of other musicians and celebrities including Elton John , Neil Tennant ( Pet Shop Boys ) , Toni Halliday ( Curve ) , Wild Light , Mariachi El Bronx , Dawes , Owen Wilson , Jimmy Kimmel & Richard Dreyfuss . All proceeds from the songs have been donated to Product Red campaign and the fight against AIDS in Africa and as of 2015 they have raised over $ 850 @,@ 000 for the charity .
= = = Additional contributions = = =
The Killers song " Goodnight , Travel Well " was used in an effort to promote awareness for sex trafficking headed by UNICEF , MTV EXIT : End Exploitation And Trafficking and the US Agency for International Development . The song " Hotel California " was covered by the Killers and Rhythms del Mundo with proceeds benefiting climate crisis and natural disaster relief . The song " Ultraviolet ( Light My Way ) " was covered by the Killers with proceeds benefiting famine @-@ stricken areas .
= = Awards and accolades = =
The Killers have been nominated for seven Grammy Awards , seven BRIT Awards , and twenty @-@ four NME Awards .
The Killers have won four NME Awards for " Best International Band " in 2005 , 2008 , 2009 , and 2013 . The band has won a BRIT Award for " Best International Band " in 2006 as well as a MTV Europe Music Award for " Best Rock Group " in 2006 . Also in 2006 , the band won for " Best Video " for " When You Were Young " at the Q Awards . To date , the band has received six nominations for " Best International Band " at the NME Awards , three nominations for " Best International Group " at the BRIT Awards , and three nominations for " Best Rock Group " at the MTV Europe Music Awards .
= = = Additional honors = = =
University of Nevada , Las Vegas College of Fine Arts Hall of Fame Inductee ( 2008 )
ASCAP Vanguard Award Recipient ( 2010 )
= = Band members = =
Timeline
= = Discography = =
Hot Fuss ( 2004 )
Sam 's Town ( 2006 )
Day & Age ( 2008 )
Battle Born ( 2012 )
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= Pennsylvania Route 546 =
Pennsylvania Route 546 ( PA 546 ) is an 3 @.@ 586 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 5 @.@ 771 km ) state highway in the northernmost regions of McKean County , Pennsylvania . The route , known locally as Oil Valley Road , begins at an intersection with PA 346 in the community of Duke Center ( located in Otto Township ) . The highway heads northward , through mountainous regions before crossing the state line and into New York , where it continues as Duke Center Road to New York State Route 16 ( NY 16 ) .
PA 546 was designated in the 1928 numbering of state highways in the commonwealth . The route was under construction and unpaved for two years afterward , and by 1930 , the route was complete and has remained virtually intact since .
= = Route description = =
PA 546 begins at an intersection with PA 346 in the community of Duke Center . The highway , known locally as Oil Valley Road , progresses to the northeast , intersecting with a short connector back to PA 346 ( SR 9112 ) . Duke Center is small and PA 546 runs along the center of the community . The community and PA 546 run along the base of the 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) mountain . PA 546 parallels the Knapp Creek , and after an intersecting with Galespie Hollow Road , the highway leaves Duke Center .
Continuing northward , the highway enters the community of Oil Valley , which the road is named for . At an intersection with Bootleg Hollow , Knapp Creek turns off PA 546 . A short distance later , the highway passes through several taller mountains , some reaching as high as 2 @,@ 200 feet ( 670 m ) tall . The route crosses the state line and continues northward as Duke Center Road , which heads northward to an intersection with NY 16 in Knapp Creek , New York .
= = History = =
PA 546 began in the 1928 numbering of state highways in the commonwealth of Pennsylvania . The route was assigned at the time on its current alignment , but the highway was not completely constructed . At the time , the sections of PA 546 from the community of Duke Center to a location 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north were incomplete . By 1929 , this missing piece was completed , and was paved . However , the road was not complete , as there was an unpaved piece of PA 546 from that point This unpaved area was finished by the next year . PA 546 , although , has remained intact in terms of alignment since its assignment in 1928 .
Duke Center Road , the road that continues north into New York , was originally designated as County Route 45 in Cattaraugus County , but the designation was decommissioned and turned over to the town of Allegany .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Otto Township , McKean County .
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= Simon Byrne =
Simon Byrne ( 1806 – 2 June 1833 ) , nicknamed " The Emerald Gem " , was an Irish bare @-@ knuckle prize fighter . The heavyweight boxing champion of Ireland , he was drawn to England by the larger sums of prize money on offer and his hopes of becoming the heavyweight champion there as well . He became one of only six fighters ever to have been involved in fatal fights as both survivor and deceased since records began in 1741 .
Byrne fought in an era when English boxing , although illegal , was patronised by many powerful individuals . Its patronage and popularity did not , however , free it from corruption , heavy betting , and staged fights . Byrne fought eight recorded matches , but accounts of his career focus on the last three , against the Scottish champion Alexander McKay , the English champion Jem Ward , and James Burke for the vacant championship of England . The injuries McKay received in his fight with Byrne resulted in his death the following day , and rioting in his home country of Scotland . Byrne went on to lose his next match against Jem Ward , which some commentators believed he was not sufficiently in condition to fight . His final contest in May 1833 was a gruelling 99 rounds against James Burke that lasted for 3 hours and 6 minutes , the longest ever recorded prize fight . Byrne died three days later as the result of damage to his brain caused by the beating he had received . Burke was arrested and tried for manslaughter but was acquitted . Following the death in 1838 of another fighter , William Phelps , also known as Brighton Bill , the London Prize Ring Rules were introduced to more clearly define the rules of prize fighting and to introduce certain safety measures , rules that still form the basis for the modern sport of boxing .
= = Early 19th @-@ century English boxing = =
During the first half of the 19th century pugilism , better known as prize @-@ fighting , held a curious position in British society . Although supported by members of the establishment from the royal princes downwards , it was considered illegal under the terms of the Riot Act of 1715 , which defined a riot as " a tumultuous disturbance of the peace by three or more persons assembling together , of their own authority , with intent mutually to execute a violent enterprise to the terror of the people " .
The boxer George Stevenson had died a few days after his 35 @-@ minute fight with the English champion Jack Broughton in 1741 , an event that triggered Broughton to draw up a set of rules with the help of some of his patrons to prevent a recurrence . Published on 16 August 1743 , Broughton 's Rules outlawed hitting or seizing any part of an opponent 's body below the waist , or striking him when he was down , but otherwise left much to the discretion of referees . Rounds were not of a fixed length but continued until one of the fighters was knocked or thrown to the ground , after which those in his corner were allowed 30 seconds to return him to the " scratch " – the middle of the ring – failing which his opponent was declared the victor .
The sport enjoyed an unprecedented surge in popularity during the Regency period when it was openly patronised by the Prince Regent ( later George IV ) and his brothers . Championship boxing matches acquired a louche reputation as the places to be seen by the wealthy upper classes . Thus a match would often be attended by thousands of people , many of whom had wagered money on the outcome . The Duke of Cumberland ( an uncle of King George III ) was reported to have bet thousands of pounds on Jack Broughton , who was the English champion for 18 years .
Boxing had become a nest of " gambling related corruption " by the 1820s . The epitome of this era was the championship reign of Jem Ward , a fighter who on one occasion admitted taking £ 100 , equivalent to several thousand pounds today , to lose a contest . By 1830 the sport had become widely known for its corruption , and blatant cheating was commonplace . It was against this background that Simon Byrne earned his living .
= = Early life = =
Very little is known of Byrne 's early life beyond the fact that he was born in Ireland in 1806 . His first fight , in 1825 , was a loss to Mike Larking ; it lasted 138 rounds spread over two and a half hours — despite the fact that at this time a round could vary in length , and usually only ended when a man was knocked down . His second fight was a draw against Jack Manning in 1826 , earning Byrne £ 100 . Next was Byrne 's first match against the Scottish boxer Alexander McKay , which Byrne won easily in five rounds , earning him a further £ 100 . This match was McKay 's first ever prize @-@ fight . This victory was soon followed by a win against Bob Avery , earning a further £ 50 , then another win over Phil Samson in 1829 , earning him £ 200 . By the standards of the day these latter sums were enormous ; it is therefore surprising that he was then offered £ 200 for a rematch , regardless of whether he won or not , against the less experienced McKay , whom he had beaten so easily on the first occasion . As of 2008 that would be the equivalent of about £ 13 @,@ 600 .
= = Byrne versus McKay = =
The fight against Alexander McKay was Byrne 's first brush with notoriety . On 2 June 1830 , Byrne , billed as " Champion of Ireland " , fought McKay , the " Champion of Scotland " , for the right to challenge Jem Ward , the heavyweight champion of England . The match had been organized at Tom Spring 's " Castle Tavern " , in Holborn . The former champion boxer Tom Spring , as treasurer of the " Fair Play Club " – the organization which oversaw boxing – was immensely influential in the boxing world . Along with two other well @-@ known boxers , Gentleman Jackson and Tom Cribb ( who also acted as Byrne 's manager ) , he was Byrne 's sponsor for the match . Cribb was considered to be one of the greatest fighters of the era ; more than 20 @,@ 000 people attended one of his fights .
Contracts were signed at Spring 's tavern and it was arranged for the fight to take place at Hanslope , Buckinghamshire . But as a vast crowd of spectators began pouring into Hanslope the venue was switched at the last minute to Salcey Green , just inside Northamptonshire , thus rendering the Buckinghamshire constables powerless to prevent it .
Despite the publicity and billing this was only McKay 's fifth prize @-@ fight . Since his defeat at the hands of Byrne two @-@ and @-@ half years earlier McKay had fought and won just three matches , earning him £ 180 , while Byrne had earned £ 200 . Both men were promised £ 200 for the match whatever its outcome . McKay had earned £ 100 for his previous fight against Paul Spencer , the most he had ever received ; the promised payment was a huge improvement in his fortunes .
McKay 's boxing relied on brute strength rather than scientific pugilistic theory , but the fight still lasted for 47 rounds before McKay collapsed under a left @-@ handed punch to the throat that did not seem particularly powerful . He was carried to his corner where he regained consciousness , complaining of severe headache . He was bled by a surgeon on the scene and taken to a local inn , the Watts Arms , where he died at 9 : 00 pm the following evening . A post mortem examination found the cause of death to be brain damage . McKay was buried in Hanslope Churchyard with the following inscription on his headstone :
Strong and athletic was my frame
Far from my native home I came
And bravely fought with Simon Byrne
Alas , but never to return .
Stranger take warning from my fate
Lest you should rue your case too late
If you have ever fought before
Determine now to fight no more
McKay 's death attracted widespread publicity and led to rioting in the streets of his homeland . In Dundee , three people died and 200 were injured in the fracas . In Glasgow , four people died , and the Dragoons were called out to quell rioting after a Roman Catholic church was burned and looted ( the mob would have assumed Byrne , an Irishman , to be a Roman Catholic ) . Byrne was arrested three days later on board the ferry to Ireland as he tried to leave the country . He was incarcerated in Buckingham Gaol to await his trial and the prospect of the gallows .
= = Trial = =
The trial was held at the Assizes in the small rural market town of Buckingham . More used to the trials of local poachers and sheep thieves , Buckingham had never before seen such a spectacle . The town was inundated with journalists and the merely curious . Byrne was charged with manslaughter . Tom Cribb , Reuben Martin , Thomas Reynolds , and George Cooper were charged with aiding and abetting manslaughter . With such illustrious names as Cribb 's , Jackson 's and Spring 's involved , the trial had the potential to turn into a huge establishment scandal . People of all classes had bet hundreds of pounds on the outcome of the boxing match . Despite being banned , prize fighting enjoyed huge public support and patronage from levels up to the younger male members of the Royal family , some of whom Jackson had taught to box . The support received by Byrne at his trial is testimony to the wealth of his backers . The establishment rallied to his support ; Byrne was represented by three barristers and five solicitors , and twelve witnesses journeyed from London to give evidence on his behalf .
The defence produced a witness who claimed to have seen McKay fall and strike his head on some stones several hours before the fight , and the Glasgow Free Press began a rumour that McKay had been drugged by " a sleeping draught " introduced into his water bottle . That the fight was illegal , as was the public assembly of spectators does not seem to have been considered in court . This benign neglect is surprising because as recently as 1825 , in the case of Rex v. Billingham , Savage and Skinner , it had been deemed that anyone even attending a fight was guilty of an offence .
At the trial Byrne was described by a Bow Street Runner as a " very human kind man " , and McKay as " a very large muscular man – a magnificent man " . The jury came to a verdict after only ten minutes of deliberation : " Not guilty " . Byrne was once again a free man , but the image of the sport had been damaged . The Times of 5 June 1830 condemned the " barbarous , filthy and swindling exhibitions called prize fights " and expressed the hope that " an example will be made of the more wealthy monsters in this affair of blood – the sanguinary cowards who stood by and saw a fellow creature beaten to death for their sport and gain ! "
As the " wealthy monsters " patronising boxing included King George IV ( who had asked Gentleman Jackson and the country 's leading pugilists to act as pages at his coronation in 1821 ) and his heir , the Duke of Clarence , The Times 's words fell on deaf ears , and the sport continued unabated . The following year a similar legal case occurred when another boxer was killed . However , in this instance less wealthy patrons and illustrious names were involved , and the manager of the convicted boxer , unlike Tom Cribb , was found guilty of abetting manslaughter and sentenced to 14 years transportation .
= = Byrne versus Ward = =
Cleared of any responsibility for McKay 's death , Byrne collected his £ 200 prize money , and as the winner earned the right to fight the English heavyweight champion Jem Ward . The fight was originally scheduled to take place at Leicester on 10 March 1829 , but at the last minute Ward claimed that he was unfit and too ill to fight , much to the disapproval of his backers and friends . Rumours circulated that Ward had refused to enter the ring unless he received a prize money of £ 250 plus an additional £ 250 if he lost ; the event became known in some quarters as the Leicester Hoax . Ward did not fight again for two years , but he and Byrne finally met on 12 July 1831 at Willeycott , near Stratford upon Avon . Each fighter was paid £ 200 . Although Ward was the older man he prevailed in the contest after one hour and seventeen minutes , when Byrne 's seconds , Tom Spring and Tom Reynolds , withdrew their man in the 33rd round .
An observer commented that Byrne may not have been in the best of condition for the fight , as " his appearance failed to favour the impression that he possessed active vigour " ; boxing historian Gilbert Odd describes the fight as " disgraceful " . Another commentator noted that " it is a singular fact that neither of the men had a black eye ; neither had an external cut worth mentioning " .
= = Byrne versus Burke = =
Jem Ward announced his retirement from the ring in a letter published in the 29 January edition of Bell 's Life in London . He was succeeded as champion of England by James Burke , although some disputed Burke 's right to the title as Ward had refused to fight him before retiring . Standing 6 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) tall , weighing 200 lb ( 90 kg ) , and handicapped by deafness , Burke had assumed the championship after defeating Harry Macone in one of the prolonged and brutal fights for which he was known . Ward , who had faced public criticism for his refusal to fight Burke , felt that Byrne was the better fighter and promised to acknowledge the victor of a fight between Burke and Byrne as the new champion . The match took place on 30 May 1833 on Nomansland , a tract of common land between the villages of Sandridge and Wheathampstead in Hertfordshire , for a prize of £ 100 to each man . To get himself into condition for the fight Byrne had reduced his weight from 210 pounds ( 95 kg ) to 186 pounds ( 84 kg ) , an effort that " as it was effected by hard work and sweating , somewhat impaired his natural stamina , especially as , his habits being far from abstemious when in Ireland , he was scarcely fitted to undergo the necessary amount of labour " . Despite his hard work Byrne looked " fleshy " , with " no special show of muscle " , compared to Burke 's " perfect condition " , although he did have a slight height advantage . Burke weighed in at 172 pounds ( 78 kg ) , and started the contest as the marginal favourite at odds of 5 – 4 .
Tom Spring was once again in Byrne 's corner , as was Jem Ward . In true Burke style the match lasted for 3 hours and 6 minutes , during which time 99 rounds were fought the longest ever recorded prize fight . For the most part Byrne seemed to be in control in the early stages of the fight ; in the 30th round he trapped Burke against the ropes and battered him severely around the body before throwing him to the ground . Burke fell on his face , vomiting and throwing up blood , and for the next few rounds Byrne looked the more likely winner . By the 49th round however , Burke had recovered sufficiently to knock Byrne to the ground , whose hands by then were so swollen that he was unable to deliver a finishing blow . By the 93rd round Byrne was " scarcely able to stand , and rolled before the Deaf 'un like a ship in a storm " . Although both men were utterly exhausted Burke continued to " pepper away at [ Byrne 's ] body and head " , until in the 99th round Byrne collapsed unconscious and could not be revived to take his place once again at the scratch . A contemporary newspaper report of the day describes a blow @-@ by @-@ blow account of a fair match .
Byrne was carried to " The Woolpack " inn in nearby St Albans , where he was attended to by Tom Spring . On the evening of the fight Byrne was considered to be close to death , but over the course of the following two days he seemed to be recovering , and was sufficiently conscious to thank his friends for their ministrations . But his condition worsened during the afternoon of Saturday 1 June 1833 , and he died the following day ; the cause of death was given as " congestion of blood in the brain " . Byrne himself was reportedly of a different opinion , telling a chambermaid shortly before his death that " If I should die , it will not be from the beating I received but from mortification . I would rather have died than been beaten in that fight . " He left behind a wife and four children in Dublin .
= = Aftermath = =
One contemporary view of Byrne 's fatal fight , and of his earlier contest against Ward , was expressed in a popular poem written by James Catnach , the catchpenny publisher of Seven Dials , London :
On Thursday , 30 May day , Brave Simon took the ring ,
Back 'd by Jem Ward the champion , likewise by Gallant Spring ,
To fight Burke for two hundred pounds , a man of courage bold ,
To stop reports that with Ward the battle he had sold .
Burke was arrested and tried for manslaughter . He was acquitted on 11 July 1833 , but avoided competitive fights for some time afterwards , only taking part in exhibition matches . He retired in 1843 and died of tuberculosis less than two years later in 1845 , having by then been reduced to poverty .
Following the death in 1838 of another fighter , William Phelps , also known as Brighton Bill , in a match against Owen Swift , the London Prize Ring Rules were introduced by the Pugilists 's Protective Association to more clearly define the range of fouls and to introduce certain safety measures . Butting , gouging , biting , scratching , kicking were all forbidden as was the use of stones or any hard object in the hand . Thirty @-@ second breaks were introduced between rounds , at the end of which each fighter had to walk to the scratch unaided within 8 seconds . The wearing of spiked boots was prohibited , and boxers who went to ground without being hit were disqualified . These rules still form the basis for the modern sport of boxing .
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= East Stirlingshire F.C. =
East Stirlingshire Football Club is a Scottish association football club based in the town of Falkirk . The club was founded in 1881 and competes in the Lowland Football League , in the fifth tier of the Scottish football league system . The club 's origins can be traced to 1880 when a local cricket club formed a football team under the name Britannia , based in the village of Bainsford .
The club was elected to the Scottish Football League in 1900 – 01 and has competed in the league system for most of its existence . East Stirlingshire has won the second tier of Scottish football once and finished runners @-@ up once , earning promotion to the top @-@ flight on both occasions . The club 's highest league ranking came during the two solitary seasons it competed in the top flight in 1932 – 33 and 1963 – 64 . In 2016 , East Stirlingshire became the first club ever to be relegated out of the national league system .
East Stirlingshire first entered in the Scottish Cup in 1882 , its best result reaching the quarter @-@ finals on three occasions , the last in 1981 . The club 's best result in a national cup competition was in the 2000 – 01 season when it reached the semi @-@ finals of the Scottish Challenge Cup , losing to Livingston for a place in the final . In 2008 , the club left Firs Park and moved to Ochilview Park to ground @-@ share with local rivals Stenhousemuir .
= = History = =
East Stirlingshire 's official date of formation was in 1881 , but its origins can be traced to the previous year when a local cricket club called Bainsford Bluebonnets formed a football team under the name Britannia . The team 's first recorded match was a friendly against Falkirk 's second eleven in December 1880 and resulted in a 7 – 0 defeat while its first match as East Stirlingshire was against the same opponent in August 1881 . The club 's nickname is " The Shire " , which refers to the Stirlingshire part of the club name . After joining the Scottish Football Association , the club became eligible to compete in the Scottish Cup , Scotland 's main association football knock @-@ out competition , eliminated in its first game in 1882 . In December 1883 , the Stirlingshire Football Association was founded , with membership open to clubs exclusively from the county of Stirlingshire . It resulted in the establishment of a new regional tournament called the Stirlingshire Cup , with the club reaching the final in its first season . East Stirlingshire dominated the tournament in its early years , winning it for a record four years in a row between 1885 and 1889 , including an emphatic 9 – 0 victory against Falkirk in the 1888 final . Two goals came from Lawrence McLachlan who was an influential goalscorer in the club 's early successes ; scoring more times than any other East Stirlingshire player with 135 known goals .
The latter years of the 19th century was East Stirlingshire 's most successful era in the Scottish Cup . In the 1888 – 89 and 1890 – 91 tournaments , the club reached the quarter @-@ finals in what was to be the last time for 91 years , losing to Celtic and Hearts respectively . In the 1888 – 89 tournament , the club recorded its highest win and equalled it in successive rounds with a 10 – 1 victory against local rivals Stenhousemuir in the first round and an 11 – 2 win over Vale of Bannock in the second round . It was during this period that four East Stirlingshire players earned international caps for their countries . The first was the Wales national team captain , Humphrey Jones , who earned five caps whilst with the club . Three other players , David Alexander , Archibald Ritchie , and James McKie made appearances for the Scotland national team from 1891 to 1898 .
Between 1891 and 1899 , the club competed in regional leagues , including winning the Midland Football League and Central Football Combination , before being elected to the second tier of Scotland 's main national league competition – the Scottish Football League – in 1900 – 01 , ending its first season ranked 7th from ten . In March 1905 , a proposal was raised for the club to merge with neighbours Falkirk with an aim to creating a bigger and more financially stable club , which Falkirk accepted in a vote . However , East Stirlingshire 's vote was not in favour and the club rejected the proposal . The years following included finishing bottom of the league in 1905 – 06 , recording only one win from 22 games , contrasting with finishing as high as third in table in 1912 – 13 , narrowly missing out on winning the championship by two points . The club remained in Division Two until 1914 – 15 when it , and the Scottish Cup , were both suspended due to World War I.
At the end of World War I , the club was re @-@ elected to the old Division Two which was re @-@ established in the 1921 – 22 season . The year beforehand saw the club move to Firs Park after leaving their old ground of Merchiston Park in 1920 . In the same year , a record home attendance of 12 @,@ 000 was set when the club played eventual champions , Partick Thistle , in the Scottish Cup in February 1921 . The club was relegated to the newly created , but short lived , Division Three in 1922 – 23 , earning promotion back to Division Two after one season ; setting a record of 23 home games without a loss . A decade later , East Stirlingshire won promotion to Division One , Scotland 's top flight , for the first time . En route to promotion , the club spent 32 weeks at the top of Division Two , ending the season equal on 55 points with St Johnstone , with East Stirlingshire winning the championship on a superior goal average . East Stirlingshire spent one season in its first spell in the top flight , ending the year bottom of the league in 20th with seventeen points . Back in Division Two in the 1935 – 36 season , the club 's heaviest league defeat of 12 – 1 was inflicted by Dundee United in April 1936 . In 1938 – 39 , the final season before the league was suspended due to World War II , East Stirlingshire finished second @-@ bottom of the league , ahead of only Edinburgh City , but despite finishing low , Malcolm Morrison became the club 's highest league goalscorer in a single season with 36 goals .
The club was excluded from a wartime league in 1939 and was also denied re @-@ entry to the Scottish Football League Division Two at the end of World War II , along with six other small league clubs . As a result , the clubs competed in a newly created Division C along with the reserve teams of some of Scotland 's top clubs . In the second season in Division C , East Stirlingshire won the league and was promoted back to Division Two , now renamed " Division B " , but finished last after one season in 1948 – 49 , and failed re @-@ election to compete for another year . At the same time , Division C was abolished and the club was forced leave the Scottish Football League to play in regional leagues for six years before rejoining Division Two in 1955 – 56 when the number of teams was expanded . The club sold many young players to larger clubs , including defender Eddie McCreadie to Chelsea in 1962 who earned 23 international caps for Scotland and is tenth in Chelsea 's all @-@ time appearance list with 410 . The money earned from the transfer helped attract new players and in the 1962 – 63 season , the club won promotion to the top flight for a second time , as runners @-@ up in Division Two behind St Johnstone . Like the previous occasion in 1932 – 33 , East Stirlingshire spent one solitary season in the top tier before being relegated .
After relegation from Scotland 's top flight , East Stirlingshire was controversially merged with Clydebank Juniors in 1964 . The new club was renamed East Stirlingshire Clydebank – often E.S. Clydebank for short – and relocated to Kilbowie Park in Clydebank against fans ' wishes . However , the merge lasted only one season , with East Stirlingshire shareholders winning several court cases against it and thus the club reverted to its original legal status and moved back to Falkirk . During the single season as E.S. Clydebank , the club set a record attendance at Kilbowie Park when 14 @,@ 900 spectators attended a Scottish Cup first round replay against Hibernian in February 1965 .
In 1966 , Lawrence Binnie became the club 's first official manager , prior to his appointment the board of directors took responsibility for management roles . After de @-@ merging with Clydebank Juniors , the club spent ten seasons in Division Two before being moved by league reconstruction to a new Second Division for the 1975 – 76 season , now the third tier with the creation of the Premier Division at the top of the Scottish Football League . During this period , the club progressed past the group stage of Scottish League Cup for the first time since it was inaugurated in 1947 . The year beforehand saw the club appoint its most famous manager , Alex Ferguson , who was at the club during 1974 before moving to St Mirren . In 1979 – 80 , East Stirlingshire won promotion to the First Division , which is the last time the club was promoted in the league . Managed by Billy Lamont , the club finished runners @-@ up by one point to rivals Falkirk in the Second Division . The clubs shared the top two spots in the league for most of the season and entered the final match equal on points , with East Stirlingshire required to better Falkirk 's result to win the championship due to an inferior goal difference . However , Falkirk won its match and East Stirlingshire drew and so finished second .
In the 1994 – 95 season , the Scottish Football League was again restructured and East Stirlingshire was moved to a new Third Division , now the fourth @-@ tier . The club finished its first season in the Third Division ranked fourth from ten and repeated it again in 1997 – 98 . With these exceptions East Stirlingshire generally finished below mid @-@ table , including a final day victory against Arbroath in the 1996 – 97 season to avoid finishing last . In 2000 – 01 , the club reached the semi @-@ final of a national cup competition for the first time in its history , losing 2 – 1 to Livingston for a place in the final of the Scottish Challenge Cup .
At the start of the 21st century the club struggled financially , paying players £ 10 @-@ a @-@ week and manager Dennis Newall became the first unpaid manager at senior level in Scottish football . As a result , the club ranked last in the Scottish Football League for five consecutive seasons from 2002 – 03 to 2006 – 07 , losing 24 consecutive league games in the 2003 – 04 season , recording only 8 points from two wins and two draws in 36 games . From the 2005 – 06 season , it was determined if a club finished bottom of the Third Division twice in successive years , it would face the risk of being reduced to associate member status , meaning the loss of voting rights . In East Stirlingshire 's case , a league vote was held and concluded in favour of the club retaining full member status with the condition that it did not finish last the following season in 2008 . The club won its final game of the season to move off the bottom of the table in a 3 – 1 win against Montrose , which was also the last game at Firs Park . The following season , retaining full member status , the club moved to Ochilview Park in a ground @-@ share agreement with neighbours Stenhousemuir .
Under manager Jim McInally , the club finished third in successive years to qualify for the promotion play @-@ offs to the Second Division . However , a second @-@ bottom place finish in the 2010 – 11 season saw McInally sacked and replaced by John Coughlin . The club would subsequently post another two bottom @-@ place finishes in the seasons to follow , which could have again put them in danger of reduction to associate member status , but due to ongoing negotiations about league restructuring for the 2013 – 14 season , the league opted not to enforce the rule . The negotiations ultimately saw the formation of a new governing body , the Scottish Professional Football League , following the merger of the Scottish Football League and Scottish Premier League . East Stirlingshire joined the Scottish League Two , the successor to the old Third Division . Having finished bottom of 2015 – 16 Scottish League Two , East Stirlingshire faced a play @-@ off against Edinburgh City for a place in 2016 – 17 Scottish League Two . Edinburgh City won 2 – 1 on aggregate , relegating East Stirlingshire to the Lowland League and ending their 61 @-@ year tenure in the Scottish national league set @-@ up .
= = Colours and crest = =
East Stirlingshire 's home colours have been black and white hoops for most of its existence since 1882 . The club 's first strip was thin blue and white hoops between 1880 and 1882 , before changing to colours similar to the present day . An all @-@ black shirt was introduced between 1960 and 1962 , and again between 2008 and 2010 , while the club 's centenary strip in 1981 was all @-@ white . In 1996 – 97 , the stripes were changed from horizontal to vertical for a full season ; a similar design featured for one month in August 1982 before changing back .
The first company to supply kits for East Stirlingshire was Bukta between 1979 and 1987 . For the 1998 – 99 season , the club signed a deal with French kit supplier Le Coq Sportif who failed to deliver the kits in time for the start of the season so sent a set of Queen 's Park strips with East Stirlingshire 's crest and sponsors ironed on top of the original . The supplier for the 2012 – 13 season is Jako . Past suppliers include Hummel , Umbro and Joma .
The club crest is a shield with black and white stripes and a stylised football , with a banner displaying the club name at the top . It has several variations with the football and banner coloured black , white or orange in different versions .
= = = Sponsorship and manufacturers = = =
= = Grounds = =
East Stirlingshire has played at several grounds over its history . In the club 's early existence as Britannia , it played one of its first known matches at Burnhouse against a Falkirk 2nd XI , which ended in a 7 – 0 defeat for the team . Burnhouse is thought to be the location that was to become Merchiston Park , where the club played many of its matches in the late 19th century . Some home matches were also played at Randyford Park in the town .
Merchiston Park was a football ground located in the village of Bainsford , approximately 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Falkirk . It was situated on the northern bank of the Forth and Clyde Canal near to present day Main Street in Bainsford . The ground hosted East Stirlingshire 's first Scottish Football League match in 1900 – 01 which ended in a 3 – 2 defeat to Airdrieonians . Merchiston Park remained the club 's home until 1921 when a nearby iron works acquired the ground for expansion and the club moved to Firs Park .
Firs Park was located to the south of the canal in the centre of Falkirk , named after the street in which it was situated , Firs Street . The club moved to the ground in 1921 and in the same year , the club 's record attendance was set at a Scottish Cup match against Partick Thistle when 12 @,@ 000 spectators attended . Firs Park was East Stirlingshire 's home for 87 years , except a solitary season in 1964 when the club played at Kilbowie Park in Clydebank after being controversially merged with Clydebank Juniors . As a result of the merger , Firs Park was closed , however , after only one season , the merger was disbanded and East Stirlingshire moved back to the ground , where it remained until the end of the 2007 – 08 season . The decision was taken by the club to close Firs Park due to the prohibitive costs of potential refurbishing to meet new Scottish Football Association stadium criteria . At the time of closure , the ground had a capacity of 1 @,@ 800 with 200 seated in the main stand .
East Stirlingshire plays its home matches at Ochilview Park which is the home ground of local rivals Stenhousemuir . After leaving Firs Park in 2008 , the club entered a ground @-@ share agreement with Stenhousemuir , originally intended to be for a period of five years during which the club planned to develop a new stadium in Falkirk . In May 2014 East Stirlinghire FC entered into a partnership with LK Galaxy Sports and others to develop a new playing facility at the former BP Club site at Little Kerse , Grange Road , Grangemouth . The site will also host other sports in due course . Planning has recently been approved by Falkirk Council .
= = Rivalries = =
East Stirlingshire 's traditional rival is Falkirk . The club 's first match known as both Britannia and East Stirlingshire were friendly games against Falkirk in 1880 and 1881 . Both clubs are based in Falkirk and have competed against each other in competitions such as Stirlingshire Cup since the late 19th century . East Stirlingshire was elected to the bottom tier of the Scottish Football League in 1900 , closely followed by Falkirk two seasons later in 1902 – 03 . The first competitive league meeting between the clubs ended in a 2 – 0 win for Falkirk at Merchiston Park in August 1902 . The two clubs ' old grounds of Firs Park and Brockville Park were geographically close , separated by less than half a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) .
On a regional scale , East Stirlingshire has rivalries with football clubs from the historical county of Stirlingshire , who have competed in the Stirlingshire Cup against each other since the early 1880s such as Stenhousemuir and since 1945 , Stirling Albion and Alloa Athletic . East Stirlingshire plays its home matches in a ground @-@ share agreement with rivals Stenhousemuir at their Ochilview Park home .
= = Club officials = =
= = Current squad = =
As of 10 July 2016 .
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = Notable players = =
Gordon Russell holds the record for the most number of Scottish Football League appearances for East Stirlingshire with 415 between 1983 and 2002 . He also went on to become the manager of the club for a short period in 2002 .
East Stirlingshire players have been capped for their country at full international level 9 times by four different players . The first person to do so was Humphrey Jones , who captained the Wales national team four times out of the five caps he earned whilst at East Stirlingshire . His first came in a British Home Championship match against England in 1889 . The three other players to make an appearance for their country are Archibald Ritchie , David Alexander and James McKie , all for the Scotland national team at the British Championship . Each of them made their début against Wales , although in different seasons . Archibald Ritchie 's one and only Scotland cap came in March 1891 against Wales , who were captained by former East Stirlingshire player Humphrey Jones . David Alexander made two appearances , one against Ireland and scoring against Wales at the 1894 British Home Championship which Scotland won . James McKie scored twice during his only appearance for Scotland , in a 5 – 2 victory over Wales in 1898 . He is the last East Stirlingshire player to be capped by his country .
= = Notable managers = =
East Stirlingshire did not officially appoint a manager until 1966 . Before then , all management decisions were taken by the board of directors at the club . The first person to manage the club was Lawrence Binnie in 1966 . The club 's most famous manager is former Manchester United manager , Sir Alex Ferguson , who in his first position as manager , stayed at East Stirlingshire during 1974 before moving to St Mirren .
No manager has won a league title with the club , however , Billy Lamont managed East Stirlingshire to promotion to the 1980 – 81 Scottish First Division after finishing runners @-@ up in Division Two , one point behind rivals Falkirk . He also took East Stirlingshire to the quarter @-@ finals of the Scottish Cup , the furthest stage of the tournament the club has reached since reaching the same stage 91 years beforehand in 1889 – 90 .
After five consecutive seasons finishing bottom of the Scottish Football League in the mid @-@ 2000s , Jim McInally also changed fortunes at the club , managing East Stirlingshire to successive third place finishes in the Third Division between 2008 and 2010 to qualify for the promotion play @-@ offs . John Coughlin was appointed head coach of the club in May 2011 as successor to Jim McInally .
= = Honours = =
League
Division Two ( before 1975 ) and First Division ( after 1975 ) :
Winners ( 1 ) : 1931 – 32
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1962 – 63
Division Three ( 1923 to 1926 ) , Division C ( 1946 to 1949 ) and Second Division ( after 1975 ) :
Winners ( 1 ) : 1947 – 48
Runners @-@ up ( 2 ) : 1923 – 24 , 1979 – 80
Cup
Scottish Qualifying Cup : Winners ( 2 ) : 1888 – 89 , 1910 – 11
Runners @-@ up ( 3 ) : 1895 – 96 , 1897 – 98 , 1900 – 01
Scottish Qualifying Cup Midlands : Runners @-@ up ( 2 ) : 1946 – 47 , 1947 – 48
= = Records and statistics = =
The club 's record Scottish Football League victory is 8 – 0 against Arthurlie in August 1927 in Division Two and its record defeat is 12 – 1 to Dundee United in April 1936 in the same division . In the Scottish Cup , the club 's record winning margin is 9 goals which it achieved in consecutive rounds of the 1888 – 89 Scottish Cup tournament : 10 – 1 against Stenhousemuir in the first round on 1 September 1888 and 11 – 2 against Vale of Bannock in the second round on 22 September 1888 . In only its second season of competing in the cup , East Stirlingshire recorded its greatest loss : 2 – 10 to Renton in October 1884 .
East Stirlingshire 's record home attendance is 12 @,@ 000 for a third round Scottish Cup match against Partick Thistle on 19 February 1921 at Firs Park .
Gordon Russell holds the record for East Stirlingshire league appearances , playing 445 first @-@ team matches between 1983 – 84 and 2000 – 01 . The record for most league goals in a single season is 36 by Malcolm Morrison and Henry Morris in the 1938 – 39 and 1947 – 48 seasons respectively . Humphrey Jones holds the record number of international caps earned as an East Stirlingshire player with 5 for the Wales national football team between 1889 and 1890 .
The highest transfer fee received for an East Stirlingshire player is £ 35 @,@ 000 from English club Chelsea for Jim Docherty in 1978 , while the most paid by the club for a player is £ 6 @,@ 000 for the transfer of Colin McKinnon from Falkirk in 1991 .
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= Manchester =
Manchester ( local / ˈmæntʃɪstə / ) is a major city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester , England , with a population of 514 @,@ 417 as of 2013 . It lies within the United Kingdom 's second @-@ most populous urban area , with a population of 2 @.@ 55 million . Manchester is fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south , the Pennines to the north and east and an arc of towns with which it forms a continuous conurbation . The local authority is Manchester City Council .
The recorded history of Manchester began with the civilian settlement associated with the Roman fort of Mamucium or Mancunium , which was established in about 79 AD on a sandstone bluff near the confluence of the rivers Medlock and Irwell . It was historically a part of Lancashire , although areas of Cheshire south of the River Mersey were incorporated during the 20th century . Throughout the Middle Ages Manchester remained a manorial township but began to expand " at an astonishing rate " around the turn of the 19th century . Manchester 's unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution , and resulted in it becoming the world 's first industrialised city .
Manchester achieved city status in 1853 . The Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1894 , creating the Port of Manchester and linking the city to sea , 36 miles ( 58 km ) to the west . Its fortunes declined after the Second World War , owing to deindustrialisation . The city centre was devastated in a bombing in 1996 , but it led to extensive investment and regeneration that has since helped it turn into a thriving ' reborn ' modern city .
In 2014 , the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Manchester as a beta world city , the highest @-@ ranked British city apart from London . Manchester is the third @-@ most visited city in the UK . It is notable for its architecture , culture , musical exports , media links , scientific and engineering output , social impact , sports clubs and transport connections . Manchester Liverpool Road railway station was the world 's first inter @-@ city passenger railway station and in the city scientists first split the atom and developed the stored @-@ program computer .
= = Name = =
The name Manchester originates from the Latin name Mamucium or its variant Mancunium and the citizens are still referred to as Mancunians ( / mæŋkˈjuːnɪənz / ) . These are generally thought to represent a Latinisation of an original Brittonic name , either from mamm- ( " breast " , in reference to a " breast @-@ like hill " ) or from mamma ( " mother " , in reference to a local river goddess ) . Both meanings are preserved in languages derived from Common Brittonic , mam meaning " breast " in Irish and " mother " in Welsh . The suffix -chester is a survival of Old English ceaster ( " fort ; fortified town " ) .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The Brigantes were the major Celtic tribe in what is now Northern England ; they had a stronghold in the locality at a sandstone outcrop on which Manchester Cathedral now stands , opposite the banks of the River Irwell . Their territory extended across the fertile lowland of what is now Salford and Stretford . Following the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century , General Agricola ordered the construction of a fort named Mamucium in the year 79 to ensure that Roman interests in Deva Victrix ( Chester ) and Eboracum ( York ) were protected from the Brigantes . Central Manchester has been permanently settled since this time . A stabilised fragment of foundations of the final version of the Roman fort is visible in Castlefield . The Roman habitation of Manchester probably ended around the 3rd century ; its civilian settlement appears to have been abandoned by the mid @-@ 3rd century , although the fort may have supported a small garrison until the late 3rd or early 4th century . After the Roman withdrawal and Saxon conquest , the focus of settlement shifted to the confluence of the Irwell and Irk sometime before the arrival of the Normans after 1066 . Much of the wider area was laid waste in the subsequent Harrying of the North .
Thomas de la Warre , lord of the manor , founded and constructed a collegiate church for the parish in 1421 . The church is now Manchester Cathedral ; the domestic premises of the college house Chetham 's School of Music and Chetham 's Library . The library , which opened in 1653 and is still open to the public today , is the oldest free public reference library in the United Kingdom .
Manchester is mentioned as having a market in 1282 . Around the 14th century , Manchester received an influx of Flemish weavers , sometimes credited as the foundation of the region 's textile industry . Manchester became an important centre for the manufacture and trade of woollens and linen , and by about 1540 , had expanded to become , in John Leland 's words , " The fairest , best builded , quickest , and most populous town of all Lancashire . " The cathedral and Chetham 's buildings are the only significant survivors of Leland 's Manchester .
During the English Civil War Manchester strongly favoured the Parliamentary interest . Although not long @-@ lasting , Cromwell granted it the right to elect its own MP . Charles Worsley , who sat for the city for only a year , was later appointed Major General for Lancashire , Cheshire and Staffordshire during the Rule of the Major Generals . He was a diligent puritan , turning out ale houses and banning the celebration of Christmas ; he died in 1656 .
Significant quantities of cotton began to be used after about 1600 , firstly in linen / cotton fustians , but by around 1750 pure cotton fabrics were being produced and cotton had overtaken wool in importance . The Irwell and Mersey were made navigable by 1736 , opening a route from Manchester to the sea docks on the Mersey . The Bridgewater Canal , Britain 's first wholly artificial waterway , was opened in 1761 , bringing coal from mines at Worsley to central Manchester . The canal was extended to the Mersey at Runcorn by 1776 . The combination of competition and improved efficiency halved the cost of coal and halved the transport cost of raw cotton . Manchester became the dominant marketplace for textiles produced in the surrounding towns . A commodities exchange , opened in 1729 , and numerous large warehouses , aided commerce . In 1780 , Richard Arkwright began construction of Manchester 's first cotton mill . In the early 1800s , John Dalton formulated his atomic theory in Manchester .
= = = Industrial Revolution = = =
Manchester 's history is concerned with textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution . The great majority of cotton spinning took place in the towns of south Lancashire and north Cheshire , and Manchester was for a time the most productive centre of cotton processing , and later the world 's largest marketplace for cotton goods . Manchester was dubbed " Cottonopolis " and " Warehouse City " during the Victorian era . In Australia , New Zealand and South Africa , the term " manchester " is still used for household linen : sheets , pillow cases , towels , etc . The industrial revolution brought about huge change in Manchester and was key to the increase in Manchester 's population .
Manchester began expanding " at an astonishing rate " around the turn of the 19th century as people flocked to the city for work from Scotland , Wales , Ireland and other areas of England as part of a process of unplanned urbanisation brought on by the Industrial Revolution . It developed a wide range of industries , so that by 1835 " Manchester was without challenge the first and greatest industrial city in the world . " Engineering firms initially made machines for the cotton trade , but diversified into general manufacture . Similarly , the chemical industry started by producing bleaches and dyes , but expanded into other areas . Commerce was supported by financial service industries such as banking and insurance .
Trade , and feeding the growing population , required a large transport and distribution infrastructure : the canal system was extended , and Manchester became one end of the world 's first intercity passenger railway — the Liverpool and Manchester Railway . Competition between the various forms of transport kept costs down . In 1878 the GPO ( the forerunner of British Telecom ) provided its first telephones to a firm in Manchester .
The Manchester Ship Canal was built between 1888 and 1894 , in some sections by canalisation of the Rivers Irwell and Mersey , running 36 miles ( 58 km ) from Salford to Eastham Locks on the tidal Mersey . This enabled oceangoing ships to sail right into the Port of Manchester . On the canal 's banks , just outside the borough , the world 's first industrial estate was created at Trafford Park . Large quantities of machinery , including cotton processing plant , were exported around the world .
A centre of capitalism , Manchester was once the scene of bread and labour riots , as well as calls for greater political recognition by the city 's working and non @-@ titled classes . One such gathering ended with the Peterloo Massacre of 16 August 1819 . The economic school of Manchester capitalism developed there , and Manchester was the centre of the Anti @-@ Corn Law League from 1838 onward .
Manchester has a notable place in the history of Marxism and left @-@ wing politics ; being the subject of Friedrich Engels ' work The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 ; Engels spent much of his life in and around Manchester , and when Karl Marx visited Manchester , they met at Chetham 's Library . The economics books Marx was reading at the time can be seen in the library , as can the window seat where Marx and Engels would meet . The first Trades Union Congress was held in Manchester ( at the Mechanics ' Institute , David Street ) , from 2 to 6 June 1868 . Manchester was an important cradle of the Labour Party and the Suffragette Movement .
At that time , it seemed a place in which anything could happen — new industrial processes , new ways of thinking ( the Manchester School , promoting free trade and laissez @-@ faire ) , new classes or groups in society , new religious sects , and new forms of labour organisation . It attracted educated visitors from all parts of Britain and Europe . A saying capturing this sense of innovation survives today : " What Manchester does today , the rest of the world does tomorrow . " Manchester 's golden age was perhaps the last quarter of the 19th century . Many of the great public buildings ( including Manchester Town Hall ) date from then . The city 's cosmopolitan atmosphere contributed to a vibrant culture , which included the Hallé Orchestra . In 1889 , when county councils were created in England , the municipal borough became a county borough with even greater autonomy .
Although the Industrial Revolution brought wealth to the city , it also brought poverty and squalor to a large part of the population . Historian Simon Schama noted that " Manchester was the very best and the very worst taken to terrifying extremes , a new kind of city in the world ; the chimneys of industrial suburbs greeting you with columns of smoke " . An American visitor taken to Manchester 's blackspots saw " wretched , defrauded , oppressed , crushed human nature , lying and bleeding fragments " .
The number of cotton mills in Manchester itself reached a peak of 108 in 1853 . Thereafter the number began to decline and Manchester was surpassed as the largest centre of cotton spinning by Bolton in the 1850s and Oldham in the 1860s . However , this period of decline coincided with the rise of city as the financial centre of the region . Manchester continued to process cotton , and in 1913 , 65 % of the world 's cotton was processed in the area . The First World War interrupted access to the export markets . Cotton processing in other parts of the world increased , often on machines produced in Manchester . Manchester suffered greatly from the Great Depression and the underlying structural changes that began to supplant the old industries , including textile manufacture .
= = = Manchester Blitz = = =
Like most of the UK , the Manchester area was mobilised extensively during the Second World War . For example , casting and machining expertise at Beyer , Peacock and Company 's locomotive works in Gorton was switched to bomb making ; Dunlop 's rubber works in Chorlton @-@ on @-@ Medlock made barrage balloons ; and just outside the city in Trafford Park , engineers Metropolitan @-@ Vickers made Avro Manchester and Avro Lancaster bombers and Ford built the Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin engines to power them . Manchester was thus the target of bombing by the Luftwaffe , and by late 1940 air raids were taking place against non @-@ military targets . The biggest took place during the " Christmas Blitz " on the nights of 22 / 23 and 24 December 1940 , when an estimated 474 tonnes ( 467 long tons ) of high explosives plus over 37 @,@ 000 incendiary bombs were dropped . A large part of the historic city centre was destroyed , including 165 warehouses , 200 business premises , and 150 offices . 376 were killed and 30 @,@ 000 houses were damaged . Manchester Cathedral was among the buildings seriously damaged ; its restoration took 20 years .
= = = Post @-@ Second World War = = =
Cotton processing and trading continued to fall in peacetime , and the exchange closed in 1968 . By 1963 the port of Manchester was the UK 's third largest , and employed over 3 @,@ 000 men , but the canal was unable to handle the increasingly large container ships . Traffic declined , and the port closed in 1982 . Heavy industry suffered a downturn from the 1960s and was greatly reduced under the economic policies followed by Margaret Thatcher 's government after 1979 . Manchester lost 150 @,@ 000 jobs in manufacturing between 1961 and 1983 .
Regeneration began in the late 1980s , with initiatives such as the Metrolink , the Bridgewater Concert Hall , the Manchester Arena , and ( in Salford ) the rebranding of the port as Salford Quays . Two bids to host the Olympic Games were part of a process to raise the international profile of the city .
Manchester has a history of attacks attributed to Irish Republicans , including the Manchester Martyrs of 1867 , arson in 1920 , a series of explosions in 1939 , and two bombs in 1992 . On Saturday 15 June 1996 , the Provisional Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) carried out the 1996 Manchester bombing , the detonation of a large bomb next to a department store in the city centre . The largest to be detonated on British soil , the bomb injured over 200 people , heavily damaged nearby buildings , and broke windows 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 800 m ) away . The cost of the immediate damage was initially estimated at £ 50 million , but this was quickly revised upwards . The final insurance payout was over £ 400 million ; many affected businesses never recovered from the loss of trade .
Spurred by the investment after the 1996 bomb , and aided by the XVII Commonwealth Games , Manchester 's city centre has undergone extensive regeneration . New and renovated complexes such as The Printworks and The Triangle have become popular shopping and entertainment destinations . The Manchester Arndale is the UK 's largest city centre shopping centre .
Large sections of the city dating from the 1960s have been either demolished and re @-@ developed or modernised with the use of glass and steel . Old mills have been converted into modern apartments , Hulme has undergone extensive regeneration programmes , and million @-@ pound lofthouse apartments have since been developed . The 169 @-@ metre tall , 47 @-@ storey Beetham Tower , completed in 2006 , is the tallest building in the UK outside London and when finished was the highest residential accommodation in Europe . In January 2007 , the independent Casino Advisory Panel awarded Manchester a licence to build the only supercasino in the UK , however plans were officially abandoned in February 2008 .
Since around the turn of the 21st century , Manchester has been regarded by sections of the international press , British public , and government ministers as being the second city of the United Kingdom . The BBC reports that redevelopment of recent years has heightened claims that Manchester is the second city of the UK . Manchester and Birmingham have traditionally competed as frontrunners for this unofficial title .
= = Governance = =
The City of Manchester is governed by the Manchester City Council . The earlier Greater Manchester County Council was abolished in 1986 so it is effectively a unitary authority . Manchester has been a member of the English Core Cities Group since its inception in 1995 .
The town of Manchester was granted a charter by Thomas Grelley in 1301 , but lost its borough status in a court case of 1359 . Until the 19th century local government was largely in the hands of manorial courts , the last of which was dissolved in 1846 .
From a very early time , the township of Manchester lay within the historic or ceremonial county boundaries of Lancashire . Pevsner wrote " That [ neighbouring ] Stretford and Salford are not administratively one with Manchester is one of the most curious anomalies of England " . A stroke of a Norman baron 's pen is said to have divorced Manchester and Salford , though it was not Salford that became separated from Manchester , it was Manchester , with its humbler line of lords , that was separated from Salford . It was this separation that resulted in Salford becoming the judicial seat of Salfordshire , which included the ancient parish of Manchester . Manchester later formed its own Poor Law Union using the name " Manchester " . In 1792 , Commissioners — usually known as " Police Commissioners " — were established for the social improvement of Manchester . Manchester regained its borough status in 1838 , and comprised the townships of Beswick , Cheetham Hill , Chorlton upon Medlock and Hulme . By 1846 , with increasing population and greater industrialisation , the Borough Council had taken over the powers of the " Police Commissioners " . In 1853 , Manchester was granted " city status " in the United Kingdom .
In 1885 , Bradford , Harpurhey , Rusholme and parts of Moss Side and Withington townships became part of the City of Manchester . In 1889 , the city became a county borough as did many larger Lancashire towns , and therefore not governed by Lancashire County Council . Between 1890 and 1933 , more areas were added to the city which had been administered by Lancashire County Council , including former villages such as Burnage , Chorlton @-@ cum @-@ Hardy , Didsbury , Fallowfield , Levenshulme , Longsight , and Withington . In 1931 , the Cheshire civil parishes of Baguley , Northenden and Northen Etchells from the south of the River Mersey were added . In 1974 , by way of the Local Government Act 1972 , the City of Manchester became a metropolitan district of the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester . That year , Ringway , the town where the Manchester Airport is located , was added to the City .
In November 2014 it was announced that Greater Manchester would receive a new directly elected Mayor . The Mayor would have fiscal control over health , transport , housing and police in the area . The move was dubbed " Devo Manc " , a play on the phrase Devo Max .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 28 ′ 0 ″ N 2 ° 14 ′ 0 ″ W , 160 miles ( 260 km ) northwest of London , Manchester lies in a bowl @-@ shaped land area bordered to the north and east by the Pennines , a mountain chain that runs the length of northern England , and to the south by the Cheshire Plain . Manchester is 35 @.@ 0 miles ( 56 @.@ 3 km ) north @-@ east of Liverpool and 35 @.@ 0 miles ( 56 @.@ 3 km ) north @-@ west of Sheffield , making the city the halfway point between the two . The city centre is on the east bank of the River Irwell , near its confluences with the Rivers Medlock and Irk , and is relatively low @-@ lying , being between 35 to 42 metres ( 115 to 138 feet ) above sea level . The River Mersey flows through the south of Manchester . Much of the inner city , especially in the south , is flat , offering extensive views from many highrise buildings in the city of the foothills and moors of the Pennines , which can often be capped with snow in the winter months . Manchester 's geographic features were highly influential in its early development as the world 's first industrial city . These features are its climate , its proximity to a seaport at Liverpool , the availability of water power from its rivers , and its nearby coal reserves .
The name Manchester , though officially applied only to the metropolitan district within Greater Manchester , has been applied to other , wider divisions of land , particularly across much of the Greater Manchester county and urban area . The " Manchester City Zone " , " Manchester post town " and the " Manchester Congestion Charge " are all examples of this .
For purposes of the Office for National Statistics , Manchester forms the most populous settlement within the Greater Manchester Urban Area , the United Kingdom 's third @-@ largest conurbation . There is a mixture of high @-@ density urban and suburban locations in Manchester . The largest open space in the city , at around 260 hectares ( 642 acres ) , is Heaton Park . Manchester is contiguous on all sides with several large settlements , except for a small section along its southern boundary with Cheshire . The M60 and M56 motorways pass through the south of Manchester , through Northenden and Wythenshawe respectively . Heavy rail lines enter the city from all directions , the principal destination being Manchester Piccadilly station
= = = Climate = = =
Manchester experiences a temperate Oceanic climate , like much of the British Isles , with mild summers and cool winters . Summer daytime temperatures regularly top 20 Celsius , typically reaching 25 Celsius on sunny days throughout July and August in particular . In more recent years , temperatures now reach over 30 Celsius on occasions . In Winter , temperatures rarely dip below freezing anymore . There is regular but generally light precipitation throughout the year . The city 's average annual rainfall is 806 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 31 @.@ 76 in ) compared to the UK average of 1 @,@ 125 @.@ 0 millimetres ( 44 @.@ 29 in ) , and its mean rain days are 140 @.@ 4 per annum , compared to the UK average of 154 @.@ 4 . Manchester however has a relatively high humidity level and this , along with the abundant supply of soft water , was one of the factors that led to the localisation of the textile industry in the area . Snowfalls are not common in the city , due to the urban warming effect . However , the Pennine and Rossendale Forest hills that surround the city to its east and north receive more snow and roads leading out of the city can be closed due to snow. notably the A62 road via Oldham and Standedge , the A57 ( Snake Pass ) towards Sheffield , and the M62 over Saddleworth Moor .
= = Demography = =
Historically the population of Manchester began to increase rapidly during the Victorian era , peaking at 766 @,@ 311 in 1931 . From then the population began to decrease rapidly , due to slum clearance and the increased building of social housing overspill estates by Manchester City Council after the Second World War such as Hattersley and Langley .
The 2012 Mid @-@ Year Estimate for the population of Manchester was 510 @,@ 700 . This was an increase of 7 @,@ 900 , or 1 @.@ 6 % , since the 2011 MYE . Since 2001 , the population has grown by 87 @,@ 900 , or 20 @.@ 8 % . Manchester was the third fastest @-@ growing of the areas in the 2011 census . The city experienced the greatest percentage population growth outside London , with an increase of 19 % to over 500 @,@ 000 . Manchester 's population is projected to reach 532 @,@ 200 by 2021 , an increase of 5 @.@ 8 % from 2011 . This represents a slower rate of growth than the previous decade .
The Greater Manchester Built @-@ up Area had a population of 2 @,@ 553 @,@ 400 ( 2011 est . , ) . An estimated 2 @,@ 702 @,@ 200 people live in Greater Manchester ( 2012 est . , ) . 6 @,@ 547 @,@ 000 people live within 30 miles ( 50 km ) of Manchester ( 2012 est . , ) and 11 @,@ 694 @,@ 000 within 50 miles ( 80 km ) ( 2012 est . , ) .
Between the beginning of July 2011 and end of June 2012 ( Mid @-@ Year Estimate date ) , births exceeded deaths by 4 @,@ 800 . Migration ( internal and international ) and other changes accounted for a net increase of 3 @,@ 100 people between July 2011 and June 2012 . Compared to Greater Manchester and England , Manchester has a younger population , with a particularly large 20 – 35 age group .
There were 76 @,@ 095 under- and post @-@ graduate students at the Manchester Metropolitan University , the University of Manchester and Royal Northern College of Music during the academic year 2011 / 12 .
Since the 2001 census , the proportion of Christians in Manchester has decreased by 22 % from 62 @.@ 4 % to 48 @.@ 7 % . The proportion of people with no religious affiliation increased by 58 @.@ 1 % from 16 % to 25 @.@ 3 % , whilst the proportion of Muslims increased by 73 @.@ 6 % from 9 @.@ 1 % to 15 @.@ 8 % . The size of the Jewish population in Greater Manchester is the largest in Britain outside London .
Manchester has a disproportionately high number of gay and lesbian people . Of all households in Manchester , 0 @.@ 23 % were Same @-@ Sex Civil Partnership couple households , compared to the English national average of 0 @.@ 16 % in 2011 .
In terms of ethnic composition , the City of Manchester has the highest non @-@ white proportion of any district in Greater Manchester . Statistics from the 2011 census showed that 66 @.@ 7 % of the population was White ( 59 @.@ 3 % White British , 2 @.@ 4 % White Irish , 0 @.@ 1 % Gypsy or Irish Traveller , 4 @.@ 9 % Other White – although those of mixed European and British ancestry is unknown ; there are reportedly over 25 @,@ 000 Mancunians of at least partial Italian descent alone which represents 5 @.@ 5 % of the city 's population ) . 4 @.@ 7 % were mixed race ( 1 @.@ 8 % White and Black Caribbean , 0 @.@ 9 % White and Black African , 1 @.@ 0 % White and Asian , 1 @.@ 0 % Other Mixed ) , 17 @.@ 1 % Asian ( 2 @.@ 3 % Indian , 8 @.@ 5 % Pakistani , 1 @.@ 3 % Bangladeshi , 2 @.@ 7 % Chinese , 2 @.@ 3 % Other Asian ) , 8 @.@ 6 % Black ( 5 @.@ 1 % African , 1 @.@ 6 % Other Black ) , 1 @.@ 9 % Arab and 1 @.@ 2 % of other ethnic heritage .
Kidd identifies Moss Side , Longsight , Cheetham Hill , Rusholme , as centres of population for ethnic minorities . Manchester 's Irish Festival , including a St Patrick 's Day parade , is one of Europe 's largest . There is also a well @-@ established Chinatown in the city with a substantial number of oriental restaurants and Chinese supermarkets . The area also attracts large numbers of Chinese students to the city who , in attending the local universities , contribute to Manchester having the third @-@ largest Chinese population in Europe .
The Manchester Larger Urban Zone , a Eurostat measure of the functional city @-@ region approximated to local government districts , has a population of 2 @,@ 539 @,@ 100 in 2004 . In addition to Manchester itself , the LUZ includes the remainder of the county of Greater Manchester . The Manchester LUZ is the second largest within the United Kingdom , behind that of London .
= = Economy = =
The Office for National Statistics does not produce economic data for the City of Manchester alone , but includes four other metropolitan boroughs , Salford , Stockport , Tameside , Trafford , in an area named Greater Manchester South , which had a GVA of £ 34.8bn. The economy grew relatively strongly between 2002 and 2012 , where growth was 2 @.@ 3 % above the national average . With a GDP of $ 88.3bn ( 2012 est . , PPP ) the wider metropolitan economy is the third @-@ largest in the United Kingdom . It is ranked as a beta world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network .
As the UK economy continues to recover from the downturn experienced in 2008 – 10 , Manchester compares favourably to other geographies according to the latest figures . In 2012 it is shown the strongest annual growth in business stock ( 5 % ) of all the Core Cities . The city experienced a relatively sharp increase in the number of business deaths , the largest increase of all the Core Cities , however this was offset by strong growth in new businesses which resulted in a strong net growth .
Manchester 's civic leadership has a reputation for business acumen . It owns two of the country 's four busiest airports and uses its earnings to fund local projects . Meanwhile , KPMG 's competitive alternative report found that in 2012 Manchester had the 9th lowest tax cost of any industrialised city in the world , and fiscal devolution has come earlier to Manchester than to any other British city : it can keep half the extra taxes it gets from transport investment .
KPMG 's competitive alternative report also found that Manchester was Europe 's most affordable city featured , ranking slightly better than Dutch cities , Rotterdam and Amsterdam , who all have a cost of living index less than 95 .
Manchester is a city of contrast , where some of the country 's most deprived and most affluent neighbourhoods can be found . According to the 2010 Indices of Multiple Deprivation Manchester is the 4th most deprived local council in the England . Unemployment throughout 2012 – 13 averaged 11 @.@ 9 % , which was above the national average , but lower than some of the country 's other comparable large cities . On the other hand , Greater Manchester is home to more multi @-@ millionaires than anywhere outside London , with the City of Manchester taking up most of the tally . In 2013 Manchester was ranked 6th in the UK for quality of life , according to a rating of the UK 's 12 largest cities .
Women fare better in Manchester than the rest of the country in terms of equal pay to men . The per hours worked gender pay gap is 3 @.@ 3 % , in contrast to 11 @.@ 1 % for Great Britain . 37 % of the working @-@ age population in Manchester have degree level qualifications in contrast to the average of 33 % across other Core Cities , although schools under @-@ perform slightly when compared to the national average .
Manchester has the largest UK office market outside London according to GVA Grimley with a quarterly office uptake ( averaged over 2010 – 14 ) of approximately 250 @,@ 000 square ft – equivalent to the quarterly office uptake of Leeds , Liverpool and Newcastle combined and 90 @,@ 000 square feet more than the nearest rival Birmingham . The strong office market in Manchester has been partly attributed to ' Northshoring ' , ( from offshoring ) which entails the relocation or alternative creation of jobs away from the overheated South to areas where office space is possibly cheaper and workforce market may not be as saturated .
= = Landmarks = =
Manchester 's buildings display a variety of architectural styles , ranging from Victorian to contemporary architecture . The widespread use of red brick characterises the city , much of the architecture of which harks back to its days as a global centre for the cotton trade . Just outside the immediate city centre is a large number of former cotton mills , some of which have been left virtually untouched since their closure while many have been redeveloped into apartment buildings and office space . Manchester Town Hall , in Albert Square , was built in the Gothic revival style and is considered to be one of the most important Victorian buildings in England .
Manchester also has a number of skyscrapers built during the 1960s and 1970s , the tallest of which was the CIS Tower located near Manchester Victoria station until the Beetham Tower was completed in 2006 ; it is an example of the new surge in high @-@ rise building and includes a Hilton hotel , a restaurant , and apartments . It remains the tallest building outside London and has been described as the United Kingdom 's only true skyscraper outside the capital . The Green Building , opposite Oxford Road station , is a pioneering eco @-@ friendly housing project , while the recently completed One Angel Square , is one of the most sustainable large buildings in the world . The award @-@ winning Heaton Park in the north of the city borough is one of the largest municipal parks in Europe , covering 610 acres ( 250 ha ) of parkland . The city has 135 parks , gardens , and open spaces .
Two large squares hold many of Manchester 's public monuments . Albert Square has monuments to Prince Albert , Bishop James Fraser , Oliver Heywood , William Ewart Gladstone , and John Bright . Piccadilly Gardens has monuments dedicated to Queen Victoria , Robert Peel , James Watt and the Duke of Wellington . The cenotaph in St Peter 's Square , by Edwin Lutyens , is Manchester 's main memorial to its war dead . The Alan Turing Memorial in Sackville Park commemorates his role as the father of modern computing . A larger @-@ than @-@ life statue of Abraham Lincoln by George Gray Barnard in the eponymous Lincoln Square ( having stood for many years in Platt Fields ) was presented to the city by Mr. and Mrs. Charles Phelps Taft of Cincinnati , Ohio , to mark the part that Lancashire played in the cotton famine and American Civil War of 1861 – 1865 . A Concorde is on display near Manchester Airport .
Manchester has six designated Local Nature Reserves which are Chorlton Water Park , Blackley Forest , Clayton Vale and Chorlton Ees , Ivy Green , Boggart Hole Clough and Highfield Country Park .
= = Transport = =
= = = Rail = = =
Manchester Liverpool Road was the world 's first purpose @-@ built passenger and goods railway station , and served as the Manchester terminus on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway – the world 's first inter @-@ city passenger railway . Today the city is well served by the rail network , and is at the centre of an extensive countywide railway network , including the West Coast Main Line , with two mainline stations : Manchester Piccadilly and Manchester Victoria . The Manchester station group – comprising Manchester Piccadilly , Manchester Victoria , Manchester Oxford Road and Deansgate – is the fourth busiest in the United Kingdom , with 41 @.@ 7 million passengers recorded in 2013 . On 7 February 2014 , construction of the £ 600m Northern Hub project , which aims to increase capacity and reduce journey times across the North , began with construction work commencing on a 4th platform at Manchester Airport railway station . The High Speed 2 link to Birmingham and London is also planned , which , if built , will include a 12 km ( 7 mi ) tunnel under Manchester on the final approach into an upgraded Piccadilly station .
= = = Metrolink ( tram ) = = =
Manchester became the first city in the UK to acquire a modern light rail tram system when the Manchester Metrolink opened in 1992 . 25 million passenger journeys were made on the system in 2012 / 13 . The present system mostly runs on former commuter rail lines converted for light rail use , and crosses the city centre via on @-@ street tram lines . The 45 @.@ 6 mi ( 73 @.@ 4 km ) -network consists of six lines with 69 stations ( including five on @-@ street tram stops in the centre ) . An expansion programme is underway which will create four new lines to add to the current three and will be at least 99 stops , 62 more than in 2010 . Manchester city centre is also serviced by over a dozen heavy and light rail @-@ based park and ride sites .
= = = Bus = = =
The city has one of the most extensive bus networks outside London with over 50 bus companies operating in the Greater Manchester region radiating from the city . In 2011 , 80 % of public transport journeys in Greater Manchester were made by bus , amounting to 220 million passenger journeys by bus each year . Following deregulation in 1986 , the bus system was taken over by GM Buses , which after privatisation was split into GM Buses North and GM Buses South and at a later date these were taken over by First Greater Manchester and Stagecoach Manchester respectively . First Greater Manchester also operates a three route zero @-@ fare bus service , called Metroshuttle , which carries 2 @.@ 8 million commuters a year around Manchester 's business districts . Stagecoach Manchester is the Stagecoach Group 's largest subsidiary and operates around 690 buses . One of its services is the 192 bus service , the busiest bus route in the UK .
= = = Air = = =
Manchester , Northern England and North Wales are served by Manchester Airport . The airport is the third busiest in the United Kingdom and the largest outside the London region . Airline services exist to many destinations in Europe , North America , the Caribbean , Africa , the Middle East and Asia ( with more destinations from Manchester than any other airport in Britain ) . A second runway was opened in 2001 and there have been continued terminal improvements . The airport has the highest rating available : " Category 10 " , encompassing an elite group of airports which are able to handle " Code F " aircraft including the Airbus A380 and Boeing 747 @-@ 8 . From September 2010 the airport became one of only 17 airports in the world and the only UK airport other than Heathrow Airport to operate the Airbus A380 .
A smaller airfield , City Airport Manchester , also exists 9 @.@ 3 km ( 6 mi ) to the west of Manchester city centre . It was Manchester 's first municipal airport , and became the site of the first Air traffic control tower in the UK , and the first municipal airfield in the UK to be licensed by the Air Ministry . Today , private charter flights and general aviation use the airfield , it also has a flight school , and both the Greater Manchester Police Air Support Unit and the North West Air Ambulance have helicopters based at the airfield .
= = = Canal = = =
An extensive canal network , including the Manchester Ship Canal , was built to carry freight from the Industrial Revolution onward ; the canals are still maintained , though now largely repurposed to leisure use . In 2012 , plans were approved to introduce a water taxi service between Manchester city centre and MediaCityUK at Salford Quays .
= = Culture = =
= = = Music = = =
Bands that have emerged from the Manchester music scene include The Smiths , Buzzcocks , Joy Division and its successor group New Order , The Fall , 10cc , Oasis , Elbow , Doves , The Charlatans , M People and Take That . Manchester was credited as the main regional driving force behind indie bands of the 1980s including Happy Mondays , Inspiral Carpets , James , and The Stone Roses . These groups came from what became known as the " Madchester " scene that also centred on The Haçienda nightclub developed by founder of Factory Records Tony Wilson . Although from southern England , The Chemical Brothers subsequently formed in Manchester . Ex @-@ Smiths Morrissey continues a successful solo career . Notable Manchester acts of the 1960s include The Hollies , Herman 's Hermits , and Davy Jones of the Monkees ( famed in the mid @-@ 1960s for not only their albums but also their American TV show ) and the earlier Bee Gees , who grew up in Chorlton . Another notable contemporary band from Manchester is The Courteeners consisting of Liam Fray and four close friends . Singer @-@ songwriter Ren Harvieu is also from Greater Manchester .
Its main pop music venue is the Manchester Arena with over 21 @,@ 000 seats , the largest arena of its type in Europe which was voted International Venue of the Year in 2007 . In terms of concert goers , it is the busiest indoor arena in the world ahead of Madison Square Garden in New York and The O2 Arena in London , the second and third busiest respectively . Other major venues include the Manchester Apollo , Albert Hall and the Manchester Academy . Smaller venues are the Band on the Wall , the Night and Day Café , the Ruby Lounge , and The Deaf Institute .
Manchester has two symphony orchestras , the Hallé and the BBC Philharmonic . There is also a chamber orchestra , the Manchester Camerata . In the 1950s , the city was home to the so @-@ called " Manchester School " of classical composers , which comprised Harrison Birtwistle , Peter Maxwell Davies , David Ellis and Alexander Goehr . Manchester is a centre for musical education , with the Royal Northern College of Music , which celebrates its 40th Anniversary since its merger , and Chetham 's School of Music . Forerunners of the RNCM were the Northern School of Music ( founded 1920 ) and the Royal Manchester College of Music ( founded 1893 ) , which were merged in 1973 . One of the earliest instructors and classical music pianists / conductors at the RMCM , shortly after its founding was the famous Russian @-@ born Arthur Friedheim , ( 1859 – 1932 ) , who later had the music library at the famed Peabody Institute conservatory of music in Baltimore , Maryland , named for him . The main classical music venue was the Free Trade Hall on Peter Street , until the opening in 1996 of the 2 @,@ 500 seat Bridgewater Hall .
Brass band music , a tradition in the north of England , is an important part of Manchester 's musical heritage ; some of the UK 's leading bands , such as the CWS Manchester Band and the Fairey Band , are from Manchester and surrounding areas , and the Whit Friday brass band contest takes place annually in the neighbouring areas of Saddleworth and Tameside .
= = = Performing arts = = =
Manchester has a thriving theatre , opera and dance scene , and is home to a number of large performance venues , including the Manchester Opera House , which feature large @-@ scale touring shows and West End productions ; the Palace Theatre ; and the Royal Exchange Theatre in Manchester 's former cotton exchange . The Royal Exchange is the largest theatre in the round space in the UK .
Smaller performance spaces include the Contact Theatre ; Z @-@ arts in Hulme and Studio Salford . The Dancehouse on Oxford Road is dedicated to dance productions . In 2014 , HOME , a new custom built arts complex opened in the City . Housing two theatre spaces , five cinemas and an art exhibition space , it replaced the Cornerhouse and The Library Theatre
Since 2007 the city has hosted the Manchester International Festival , a biennial international arts festival with a specific focus on original new work , which has included major new commissions by artists including Bjork . In Chancellor George Osborne 's 2014 autumn statement he announced a £ 78 million grant to fund a new " large @-@ scale , ultra @-@ flexible arts space " for the city . The theatre , to be called The Factory , after Manchester 's Factory Records , will provide a permanent home for the Manchester International Festival .
= = = Museums and galleries = = =
Manchester 's museums celebrate Manchester 's Roman history , rich industrial heritage and its role in the Industrial Revolution , the textile industry , the Trade Union movement , women 's suffrage and football . A reconstructed part of the Roman fort of Mamucium is open to the public in Castlefield . The Museum of Science and Industry , housed in the former Liverpool Road railway station , has a large collection of steam locomotives , industrial machinery , aircraft and a replica of the world 's first stored computer program ( known as The Baby ) . The Museum of Transport displays a collection of historic buses and trams . Trafford Park in the neighbouring borough of Trafford is home to Imperial War Museum North . The Manchester Museum opened to the public in the 1880s , has notable Egyptology and natural history collections .
The municipally owned Manchester Art Gallery on Mosley Street houses a permanent collection of European painting , and has one of Britain 's most significant collections of Pre @-@ Raphaelite paintings .
In the south of the city , the Whitworth Art Gallery displays modern art , sculpture and textiles and was recently voted Museum of the Year in 2015 . Other exhibition spaces and museums in Manchester include Islington Mill in Salford , the National Football Museum at Urbis , Castlefield Gallery , the Manchester Costume Gallery at Platt Fields Park , the People 's History Museum and the Manchester Jewish Museum .
The works of Stretford @-@ born painter L. S. Lowry , known for his " matchstick " paintings of industrial Manchester and Salford , can be seen in both the city and Whitworth Manchester galleries , and at the Lowry art centre in Salford Quays ( in the neighbouring borough of Salford ) devotes a large permanent exhibition to his works .
= = = Literature = = =
Manchester is known for possessing a " radical literary history " . In the 19th century , Manchester featured in works highlighting the changes that industrialisation had brought to Britain . These included Elizabeth Gaskell 's novel Mary Barton : A Tale of Manchester Life ( 1848 ) , and studies such as The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 , written by Friedrich Engels while living and working in Manchester . Manchester was the meeting place of Engels and Karl Marx . The two began writing The Communist Manifesto in Chetham 's Library . The library was founded in 1653 and lays claim to being the oldest public library in the English @-@ speaking world . Elsewhere in the city , the John Rylands Library holds an extensive collection of early printing . The Rylands Library Papyrus P52 , believed to be the earliest extant New Testament text , is on permanent display in the library .
Charles Dickens is reputed to have set his novel Hard Times in the city , and while it is partly modelled on Preston , it shows the influence of his friend Mrs Gaskell . Gaskell penned all her novels , with the exception of Mary Barton , at her residence on Plymouth Grove . On numerous occasions Gaskell 's house played host to influential authors including Dickens , Charlotte Brontë , Harriet Beecher Stowe and Charles Eliot Norton . It is now open as a literary museum . Also closely associated with the city is Victorian poet and novelist Isabella Banks , most famed for her 1876 novel The Manchester Man . Anglo @-@ American author Frances Hodgson Burnett was born in the city 's Cheetham Hill district in 1849 , and wrote much of her classic children 's novel The Secret Garden while visiting nearby Salford 's Buile Hill Park .
Among 20th century writers from Manchester is Anthony Burgess , who wrote the dystopian satire A Clockwork Orange in 1962 . Dame Carol Ann Duffy , the current Poet Laureate , moved to the city in 1996 and lives in West Didsbury . Poet , novelist and academic Jackie Kay also lives in the city .
= = = Nightlife = = =
The night @-@ time economy of Manchester has expanded significantly since about 1993 , with investment from breweries in bars , public houses and clubs , along with active support from the local authorities . The more than 500 licensed premises in the city centre have a capacity to deal with more than 250 @,@ 000 visitors , with 110 – 130 @,@ 000 people visiting on a typical weekend night . The night @-@ time economy has a value of about £ 100 million and supports 12 @,@ 000 jobs .
The Madchester scene of the 1980s , from which groups including New Order , The Smiths , The Stone Roses , the Happy Mondays , Inspiral Carpets , 808 State , James and The Charlatans emerged , was based on clubs such as the world famous The Haçienda . The period was the subject of the film 24 Hour Party People . Many of the big clubs suffered problems with organised crime at that time ; Haslam describes one where staff were so completely intimidated that free admission and drinks were demanded ( and given ) and drugs were openly dealt . Following a series of drug @-@ related violent incidents , The Hacienda closed in 1998 . In 1988 , Manchester was often referred to as Madchester for its rave scene . Owned by Tony Wilson 's Factory Records , it was given the catalogue number FAC51 and official club name , FAC51 The Hacienda . Known for developing many talented 80s influential acts , it also influenced the graphic design industry via Factory artists such as Peter Saville ( PSA ) , Octavo ( 8vo ) , Central Design Station , etc . The memorabilia from this club holds a high value among collectors and fans of these artists and the club . Peter Saville was most notable for his minimalistic influence that still affects contemporary graphic design everywhere .
= = = Gay village = = =
Public houses in the Canal Street area have had a gay clientele since at least 1940 , and now form the centre of Manchester 's gay community . Since the opening of new bars and clubs , the area attracts 20 @,@ 000 visitors each weekend and has hosted a popular festival , Manchester Pride , each August since 1991 .
= = Education = =
There are three universities in the City of Manchester . The University of Manchester , Manchester Metropolitan University and Royal Northern College of Music . The University of Manchester is the largest full @-@ time non @-@ collegiate university in the United Kingdom and was created in 2004 by the merger of Victoria University of Manchester founded in 1904 and UMIST , founded in 1956 , though the university 's logo appears to claim it was established in 1824 . It includes the Manchester Business School , which offered the first MBA course in the UK in 1965 . Manchester Metropolitan University was formed as Manchester Polytechnic on the merger of three colleges in 1970 . It gained university status in 1992 , and in the same year absorbed Crewe and Alsager College of Higher Education in South Cheshire . The University of Law , the largest provider of vocation legal training in Europe , has a campus in the city .
The three Universities are grouped around Oxford Road on the southern side of the city centre , which forms Europe 's largest urban higher education precinct . Together they have a combined population of 76 @,@ 025 students in higher education as of 2015 , although almost 6 @,@ 000 of them were based at Manchester Metropolitan University 's campuses at Crewe and Alsager in Cheshire .
One of Manchester 's most notable secondary schools is the Manchester Grammar School . Established in 1515 , as a free grammar school next to what is now the Cathedral , it moved in 1931 to Old Hall Lane in Fallowfield , south Manchester , to accommodate the growing student body . In the post @-@ war period , it was a direct grant grammar school ( i.e. partially state funded ) , but it reverted to independent status in 1976 after abolition of the direct @-@ grant system . Its previous premises are now used by Chetham 's School of Music . There are three schools nearby : William Hulme 's Grammar School , Withington Girls ' School and Manchester High School for Girls .
In 2010 , the Manchester Local Education Authority was ranked last out of Greater Manchester 's ten LEAs – and 147th out of 150 in the country LEAs – based on the percentage of pupils attaining at least five A * -C grades at General Certificate of Secondary Education ( GCSE ) including maths and English ( 38 @.@ 6 % compared with the national average of 50 @.@ 7 % ) . The LEA also had the highest occurrence of absences , with 11 @.@ 11 % of " half @-@ day sessions missed by pupils " , above the national average of 5 @.@ 8 % . Of the schools in the LEA with 30 or more pupils , four had 90 % or more pupils achieving at least five A * – C grades at GCSE including maths and English : ( Manchester High School for Girls , St Bede 's College , Manchester Islamic High School for Girls , and The King David High School ) while three managed 25 % or below ( Plant Hill Arts College , North Manchester High School for Boys , Brookway High School and Sports College ) .
= = Sport = =
Manchester is well known for being a city of sport . Two Premier League football clubs bear the city name – Manchester United and Manchester City . Manchester United play its home games at Old Trafford , in the neighbouring Greater Manchester borough of Trafford , the largest club football ground in the United Kingdom . Manchester City 's home ground is the City of Manchester Stadium ( also known as the Etihad Stadium for sponsorship purposes ) ; its former ground , Maine Road was demolished in 2003 . The City of Manchester Stadium was initially built as the main athletics stadium for the 2002 Commonwealth Games and was subsequently reconfigured into a football stadium before Manchester City 's arrival . Manchester has hosted domestic , continental and international football competitions at Fallowfield Stadium , Maine Road , Old Trafford and the City of Manchester Stadium . Competitions hosted in city include the FIFA World Cup ( 1966 ) , UEFA European Football Championship ( 1996 ) , Olympic Football ( 2012 ) , UEFA Champions League Final ( 2003 ) , UEFA Cup Final ( 2008 ) , four FA Cup Finals ( 1893 , 1911 , 1915 , 1970 ) and three League Cup Finals ( 1977 , 1978 , 1984 ) .
First class sporting facilities were built for the 2002 Commonwealth Games , including the City of Manchester Stadium , the National Squash Centre and the Manchester Aquatics Centre . Manchester has competed twice to host the Olympic Games , beaten by Atlanta for 1996 and Sydney for 2000 . The National Cycling Centre includes a velodrome , BMX Arena and Mountainbike trials and is the home of British Cycling , UCI ProTeam Team Sky and Sky Track Cycling . The Manchester Velodrome was built as a part of the bid for the 2000 games and has become a catalyst for British success in cycling . The velodrome hosted the UCI Track Cycling World Championships for a record third time in 2008 . The National Indoor BMX Arena ( 2 @,@ 000 capacity ) adjacent to the velodrome opened in 2011 . The Manchester Arena hosted the FINA World Swimming Championships in 2008 . Manchester Cricket Club evolved into Lancashire County Cricket Club and play at Old Trafford Cricket Ground . Manchester also hosted the World Squash Championships in 2008 , and also hosted the 2010 World Lacrosse Championship in July 2010 . Recent sporting events hosted by Manchester include the 2013 Ashes series , 2013 Rugby League World Cup and the 2015 Rugby World Cup .
= = Media = =
The ITV franchisee Granada Television is partially headquartered in the old Granada Studios site on Quay Street and the new location at MediaCityUK as part of the initial phase of its migration to Salford Quays . It produces Coronation Street , local news and programmes for North West England . Although its influence has waned Granada had been described as ' the best commercial television company in the world ' .
Manchester was one of the BBC 's three main centres in England . Programmes including Mastermind , and Real Story , were made at New Broadcasting House . The Cutting It series set in the city 's Northern Quarter and The Street were set in Manchester as was Life on Mars . The first edition of Top of the Pops was broadcast from a studio in Rusholme on New Year 's Day 1964 . Manchester was the regional base for BBC One North West Region programmes before it relocated to MediaCityUK in nearby Salford Quays . The Manchester television channel , Channel M , owned by the Guardian Media Group operated from 2000 but closed in 2012 . Manchester is also covered by two internet television channels : Quays News and Manchester.tv. The city will also have a new terrestrial channel from January 2014 when YourTV Manchester , who won the OFCOM licence bid in February 2013 begins its first broadcast but in 2015 when That 's Manchester took over to air on 31 May and launched on the freeview channel 8 service slot .
The city has the highest number of local radio stations outside London including BBC Radio Manchester , Key 103 , Galaxy , Piccadilly Magic 1152 , Real Radio North West , 100 @.@ 4 Smooth FM , Capital Gold 1458 , 96 @.@ 2 The Revolution , NMFM ( North Manchester FM ) and Xfm . Student radio stations include Fuse FM at the University of Manchester and MMU Radio at the Manchester Metropolitan University . A community radio network is coordinated by Radio Regen , with stations covering Ardwick , Longsight and Levenshulme ( All FM 96 @.@ 9 ) and Wythenshawe ( Wythenshawe FM 97 @.@ 2 ) . Defunct radio stations include Sunset 102 , which became Kiss 102 , then Galaxy Manchester ) , and KFM which became Signal Cheshire ( now Imagine FM ) . These stations and pirate radio played a significant role in the city 's house music culture , the Madchester scene , which was based in clubs like The Haçienda .
The Guardian newspaper was founded in 1821 as The Manchester Guardian . Its head office is still in the city , though many of its management functions were moved to London in 1964 . Its sister publication , the Manchester Evening News , has the largest circulation of a UK regional evening newspaper . It is free in the city centre on Thursdays and Fridays , but paid for in the suburbs . Despite its title , it is available all day . The Metro North West is available free at Metrolink stops , rail stations and other busy locations . The MEN group distributes several local weekly free papers . For many years most of the national newspapers had offices in Manchester : The Daily Telegraph , Daily Express , Daily Mail , The Daily Mirror , The Sun . Only The Daily Sport remains based in Manchester . At its height , 1 @,@ 500 journalists were employed , though in the 1980s office closures began and today the " second Fleet Street " is no more . An attempt to launch a Northern daily newspaper , the North West Times , employing journalists made redundant by other titles , closed in 1988 . Another attempt was made with the North West Enquirer , which hoped to provide a true " regional " newspaper for the North West , much in the same vein as the Yorkshire Post does for Yorkshire or The Northern Echo does for the North East ; it folded in October 2006 .
= = Twin cities and consulates = =
Manchester has formal twinning arrangements ( or " friendship agreements " ) with several places . In addition , the British Council maintains a metropolitan centre in Manchester . Although not an official twin city , Tampere , Finland is known as " the Manchester of Finland " – or " Manse " for short . Similarly , Osaka is nicknamed as " The Manchester of Japan " , Joinville , Brazil is known as " the Manchester of Santa Catarina ( state ) " . Being centres of textile industries Ahmedabad is known as " the Manchester of India " and Coimbatore is known as " the Manchester of South India " .
Aydın , Turkey
Bilwi , Nicaragua
Chemnitz , Germany ( 1983 )
Córdoba , Spain
Leskovac , Serbia
Faisalabad , Pakistan ( 1997 )
Los Angeles , United States ( 2009 )
Rehovot , Israel
Amsterdam , ( 2007 )
Saint Petersburg , Russia ( 1962 )
Wuhan , China ( 1986 )
Manchester is home to the largest group of consuls in the UK outside London . The expansion of international trade links during the Industrial Revolution led to the introduction of the first consuls in the 1820s and since then over 800 , from all parts of the world , have been based in Manchester . Manchester has remained ( in consular terms at least ) the second city of the UK for two centuries , and hosts consular services for most of the north of England .
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= Loud Tour Live at the O2 =
Loud Tour Live at the O2 is the second live long @-@ form video by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna . It was released on December 13 , 2012 by SRP and Def Jam Recordings . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc release feature her concert at The O2 Arena in London , England as part of the Loud Tour ( 2011 ) , in support of her fifth studio album Loud ( 2010 ) . Directed by Nick Wickham and produced by Ciarra Pardo and Emer Patten , it was filmed during the last three shows in London .
The concert consists of five sets including the encore and feature songs from Loud as well as Rihanna 's previous albums including Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) and Rated R ( 2009 ) . Loud Tour Live at the O2 debuted within the top ten on over ten national music video charts . It was most successful in France and Belgium ( Wallonia ) where the release peaked at number two . On the US Billboard Music Video Sales chart , the album peaked at number 11 .
= = Background = =
In November 2010 , Rihanna released her fifth studio album Loud . Recording sessions for the album began in February 2010 and continued for six months , overlapping with her Last Girl on Earth Tour ( 2010 — 11 ) and filming for her debut feature film Battleship ( 2012 ) . Rihanna and L.A. Reid assembled a group of songwriters and record producers at several recording studios in Los Angeles for two weeks to write songs for Rihanna ; they wrote approximately 200 songs , eleven of which were included on the album . Upon its release , Loud received generally positive reviews from most music critics and earned Rihanna a Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording for the lead single " Only Girl ( In the World ) " . It became a huge commercial success and produced seven singles that attained chart success .
To further promote the album , Rihanna embarked on her third worldwide and fourth overall tour entitled Loud Tour ( 2011 ) . The tour was officially announced on February 9 , 2011 , when North American dates were revealed . Critics gave the tour a positive response , with Jon Brean of the Star Tribune noting , " The Barbadian singer is more visually and vocally dynamic than she has ever been before . " During an interview with Ryan Seacrest after Rihanna performed " California King Bed " on American Idol , April 14 , 2011 , the singer spoke about the tour 's development . Rihanna addressed rumors about a special performance to be included on the setlist in order to fully incorporate her fans into the experience . When asked by Seacrest about the fan experience , she explained , " Right now , we just designed the stage . I 'm really not supposed to say this , but I want to get you excited ... We 're building two sections on the stage [ for the fans . They 'll be ] closer than they 've ever been . It 's real VIP . "
= = Release = =
Apart from North America , Rihanna also performed two legs in Europe and one in South America . Loud Tour Live at the O2 was filmed at the O2 Arena show in London . During the tour , Rihanna performed 10 shows in London 's O2 Arena . Via her official Twitter account , she announced that she was to film the final three outsold shows of the Loud Tour in London ( held from December 20 – 22 , 2011 ) for a live DVD , " Big news Navy ! You ’ ve been begging for it & Rihanna heard you ! The last three dates of the LOUD Tour at the O2 in London will be filmed for a concert DVD coming out in 2012 ! " . On November 19 , 2012 , Rihanna released her seventh studio album Unapologetic ( 2012 ) in both standard and deluxe editions . The deluxe edition of the album contains a special footage from the Loud Tour entitled First Look : Loud Tour Live at the O2 Arena . Rihanna posted the official trailer for the video album on her official YouTube channel , on December 6 , 2012 . Loud Tour Live at the O2 was released in DVD and Blu @-@ ray disc formats in Germany on December 14 , 2012 , and in Portugal and Spain on December 17 , 2012 and the following day in Canada , Italy and the United States . The video album was directed by Nick Wickham and produced by Ciarra Pardo and Emer Patten . The editor of the video was Guy Harding .
= = Concert synopsis = =
Loud Tour Live at the O2 begins with Rihanna and her team arriving with a ferryboat on a dock . Rihanna continues to walk through and explains how it 's a very sad day because the Loud Tour just finished and she is so emotional about that right now . The singer starts crying and further explains that she and her team have done very good things this year and she believes those things wouldn 't happen without the support of her fans . However , now she has to go back to Los Angeles where she doesn 't have any friends , her " very best " friends travel with her around the world . Before getting into a van , Rihanna says that the tour was one of her best experiences of her life and talks how she will miss her fans the next upcoming year . Scenes are intercut with the start of the show at The O2 Arena . After the interlude Rihanna starts the show with the opening song " Only Girl ( In the World ) " . Emerging from a purple ball , the singer performs the song while wearing a blue electric dress and is surrounded by four backup dancers . As " Disturbia " starts she removes the dress and reveals a colorful daisy duke . For the performance of " Shut Up and Drive " a car is present during the scene , to which Rihanna climbs to its top while performing . The set finishes with a rendition of " Man Down " .
Scenes are intercut with Rihanna heading to her show within a metro , together with her audience . As she gets into the arena , scenes are intercut and show the singer and her crew how they are preparing for the start of the show and shouting the name of the cities in which they performed . The scenes are intercut with Rihanna talking about her love towards Miami , and how she moved first in the city when she got signed to the label . Scenes of her and friends taking shots and having fun are further shown . Then , Rihanna explains how the second section of the Loud Tour is called " Le Sex Shoppe " ; the director of the tour Jamie King was inspired for creating the section , after he saw online the pictures of the singer visiting a sex shop in Australia . A scene of an early rehearsal for the tour is also shown , before seeing Rihanna performing " S & M " live on the concert . After the song , she performs " Skin " ; during the performance the singer takes two girls from the audience and performs lap dance as the set finishes with Nuno Bettencourt having a guitar solo . The scenes are intercut with Rihanna getting ready for the shoot of her We Found Love music video . Several scenes of the singer several scenes of Rihanna including getting off plane , choosing clothes , getting ready for a shoot and greeting her fans are shown . The next parts of the video show her at the studio , while recording her sixth studio album Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) . Scenes are intercut with her doing the photo session for the album . Rihanna is shown at an Armani design meeting in London . She is talking about the commercial which they are preparing to shoot for the design company . Black @-@ and @-@ white scenes of Rihanna getting ready to go on stage again are shown before she starts performing " Raining Men " . The performance of the song features her performing the song on a top of a pink tank . Then , she gets off the tank and performs " Hard " and " Breakin ' Dishes " .
After the performances , scenes of Rihanna and her team are shown choosing the artwork for Talk That Talk , as well as Rihanna preparing for her appearance on Ellen DeGeneres Show . She also discusses the breakdown she had during the tour . After the interlude , the singer is back on the stage wearing a yellow dress , performing " Unfaithful " on a platform . Then , she sings " Hate That I Love You " while sitting on a chair and then " California King Bed " as the last song from the set . Scenes of Rihanna having fun with her fans and making a birthday party for her manager Jay Brown is shown . Scenes of the singer in Madrid , one week before Christmas are shown ; she takes a tour in the bus with which they are traveling around Europe . Rihanna is then shown getting ready for the show before starting to perform " What 's My Name ? " in daisy duke accompanied with four female dancers . She performs " Rude Boy " and is accompanied with male dancers wearing colorful outfits . Before performing " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " she takes a shot of a drink . The set is followed with " Don 't Stop the Music " and finishes with Rihanna performing " Take a Bow " together with the audience . Before the encore starts , scenes of Rihanna preparing for the show are shown . She is arguing with the tour director how the set should arranged , because she wants to add " We Found Love " to it . She then rehearses for the choreography of the latter song alongside with her dancers and explains how she learned the whole dance for 30 minutes . Her choreographer Tunisha praises and calls her " a dope " . Then , the last set starts with a man who wears glasses performing on a piano . Rihanna then emerges and sits on the top of it . At one point of the performance the piano started levitating and when the songs ends the piano is again on the background . The music then transitions to " Umbrella " ; the performance features golden drops on the LED screens . Loud Tour Live at the O2 finishes with Rihanna performing " We Found Love " as the final song ; the end of the performance features red confetti flying around .
= = Commercial performance = =
Loud Tour Live at the O2 debuted at number 12 on the Flemish Belgian Music DVD Chart for the week dated December 22 , 2012 . The next weak it climbed six places to number six . On January 19 , 2013 , the album reached its peak on the chart at number three . On the Wallonian Belgian Music DVD Chart , the album debuted at number three for the week dated December 29 , 2012 . After three weeks on the chart , it reached its peak of number two on January 19 , 2013 . The release also peaked at number three on the Swiss Music DVD Chart and number seven on the Dutch Music DVD Chart . For the last week of December 2012 , Loud Tour Live at the O2 debuted at number 12 on the Czech Music DVD Chart . The following week it stayed on the same position , while in the second week of January 2013 , it peaked at number six . In the last week of January it reached its peak of number five on the chart . The DVD debuted at peaked at number eighton the UK Music Video Chart and number nine on the Irish Music DVDs Chart . The album was more successful in France where debuted and peaked at number two on the French Music DVD Chart . Loud Tour Live at the O2 debuted at number 11 on the US Billboard Music Video Sales chart which was also its peak . Additionally , it peaked at number eight on the Australian Music DVD Chart .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the ending notes of Loud Tour Live at the O2 , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= If It 's Lovin ' that You Want =
" If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " is a song recorded by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna , from her debut studio album Music of the Sun ( 2005 ) . It was written by Samuel Barnes , Scott La Rock , Makeba Riddick , Jean @-@ Claude Oliver , Lawrence Parker , and produced by Poke & Tone . It was released on September 13 , 2005 , as the second and final single from the album . The lyrics revolve around " basically telling a guy , ' If it 's lovin ' that you want , you should make me your girl because I 've got what you need " .
The song received mixed reviews from music critics , many of whom praised and criticised Rihanna 's vocal performance ; its composition was also complimented . " If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " achieved moderate success around the world , reaching the top forty in few European countries , while reaching the top ten in Australia , Ireland and New Zealand . In the United States , the song failed to match the commercial success of Rihanna 's previous single , " Pon de Replay " , peaking at number 36 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It managed , however , to reach number nine on the Pop Songs chart . The song 's accompanying music video , directed by Marcus Raboy , was shot on a beach in California , and features the singer enjoying various activities , such as dancing and riding jet skis with her friends .
= = Background and composition = =
Following the release and commercial success of " Pon de Replay " , the lead single from Music of the Sun and Rihanna 's debut in the music industry , " If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " was released as the second single from the album . In an interview with MTV News , Rihanna explained the lyrical meaning behind the song , saying " The song is basically telling a guy , ' If it 's lovin ' that you want , you should make me your girl because I 've got what you need " . A sequel to the song entitled " If It 's Lovin ' That You Want – Part 2 " , which features rap vocals by Cory Gunz , was included as a bonus track on Rihanna 's sophomore album , A Girl Like Me ( 2006 ) . The song was written by Samuel Barnes , Scott LaRock , Makeba Riddick , Jean @-@ Claude Oliver , Lawrence Parker and was produced by the latter two under their production name , Poke & Tone of Trackmasters . According to the digital music sheet published at musicnotes.com , " If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " is written in the key of A @-@ flat major and is set in common time with a moderate dance goove with a metronome of 98 beats per minute . Rihanna 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of F3 to the high note of G5 .
= = Critical reception = =
The song was met with generally mixed reviews from music critics , who both praised and criticised Rihanna 's vocal performance . Bill Lamb of About.com wrote that although the singer provides " simple , pleasant vocals " , her voice sounds " too light " and " thin " . Lamb continued to comment about the song , writing that although the song is " pleasurable " and " summery " to listen to and is not " offensive " , it fails to re @-@ capture the " killer hook of ' Pon de Replay ' " . However , A. Vishnu of The Hindu had contrasting opinions with regard to Rihanna 's vocal performance , writing the song further " exposes her versatility and vocal range " . A reviewer for Billboard praised the song 's composition and beat , writing " [ ' If It 's Lovin ' that You Want ' ] reinforces Rihanna 's tropical reggae signature with an itchy hook that , albeit monotonous , cannot miss . " A reviewer of Take40 and Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times were brief in their reviews of " If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " , with the former writing that the song is more " low @-@ key " compared to Rihanna 's previous release , " Pon de Replay " , and the latter simply writing that it is a " pretty good " song .
= = Chart performance = =
" If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " failed to match the commercial success of Rihanna 's previous single , " Pon de Replay " , only peaking within the top ten of three national charts . In the United States , the song debuted at ninety six on October 22 , 2005 and managed to peak at number 36 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart on December 31 , 2005 , and number 99 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart on October 29 , 2005 . In Australia , the song debuted and peaked on the Australian Singles Chart at number 9 on February 6 , 2006 . The song fell one position the following week to number ten , but managed to peak at number 9 again in its third week . In total , the song spent two non @-@ consecutive weeks at number 9 and fourteen weeks on the chart . In New Zealand , the song debuted at number 12 on the New Zealand Singles Chart on December 19 , 2005 . During " If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " ' s first four weeks of charting , it fluctuated in the top twenty , but managed to peak at number 9 in its fifth week for one week . In total , the song spent 12 weeks on the chart .
In Europe , " If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " debuted on the Austrian Singles Chart at number 40 on December 16 , 2005 . During the song 's first five weeks on the chart , it struggled to stay inside the top forty , but in its sixth week , managed to peak at number 31 for one week , and spent a total of 11 weeks on the chart . In Switzerland , the song debuted at number 25 on December 18 , 2005 , and peaked at number 19 . The song spent a total of 12 weeks on the chart . In The Netherlands , the song debuted at number 76 on February 4 , 2006 , and peaked at number 13 the following week . The song spent a total of 7 weeks on the chart . In the Flanders region of Belgium , the song debuted at number 50 December 31 , 2005 , but dropped out of the chart the following week , but re @-@ entered the chart at number 38 on January 21 , 2006 , and peaked at number 25 the following week . The song spent a total of 10 weeks on the chart . In the United Kingdom , the song debuted and peaked on the UK Singles Chart at number 11 on December 10 , 2005 , and dropped out of the Official UK Top 40 after five weeks on the chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for the song was shot on a stretch of beach on the coast of California in Malibu and directed by Marcus Raboy . In an interview with MTV News , Rihanna spoke about the development of the shoot for the video , saying " The water was so cold ... but oh my gosh , we had so much fun ... We were bumping each other off the Jet Skis and just had a ball " . During the interview , the singer elaborated further upon the content of the video and the meaning behind it , saying " This video is about having fun , giving off the vibe of the Caribbean ... we did some mermaid @-@ looking stuff down on the sand ... and I 'm just [ performing ] to the camera as if it were my boyfriend . Now we 're going to do [ some scenes with ] the Tiki torches . It 's going to be incredible " . The dance routines in the video were choreographed by noted choreographer Fatima Robinson .
The video begins with scenes of Rihanna dancing and walking along the beach and riding jet ski 's with her friends during the first chorus and continues into the first verse . Halfway through the first verse , a new scene of the singer is introduced , where she is dancing on a platform with four other female dancers , wearing a " short , flowing white skirt and a cropped tee " , with the ocean as the backdrop behind her . During the second chorus , the previous scenes are intercut with each other , and continue into the second verse , where a new scene of the singer wearing a different outfit and lying on the beach , whilst also interacting with some male extras . For the third chorus , which is repeated twice , another new scene of Rihanna is shown with four other female dancers who belly dance in the middle of a Tiki torch circle during the night . The chorus is repeated for a final time , where scenes from throughout the video are intercut with each other .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= The Dark Knight ( film ) =
The Dark Knight is a 2008 superhero action film directed , produced , and co @-@ written by Christopher Nolan . Featuring the DC Comics character Batman , the film is the second part of Nolan 's The Dark Knight Trilogy and a sequel to 2005 's Batman Begins , starring an ensemble cast including Christian Bale , Michael Caine , Heath Ledger , Gary Oldman , Aaron Eckhart , Maggie Gyllenhaal and Morgan Freeman . In the film , Bruce Wayne / Batman ( Bale ) , James Gordon ( Oldman ) and Harvey Dent ( Eckhart ) form an alliance to dismantle organised crime in Gotham City , but are menaced by a criminal mastermind known as the Joker ( Ledger ) who seeks to undermine Batman 's influence and create chaos .
Nolan 's inspiration for the film was the Joker 's comic book debut in 1940 , the 1988 graphic novel The Killing Joke , and the 1996 series The Long Halloween , which retold Two @-@ Face 's origin . The nickname " the Dark Knight " was first applied to Batman in Batman # 1 ( 1940 ) , in a story written by Bill Finger . The Dark Knight was filmed primarily in Chicago , as well as in several other locations in the United States , the United Kingdom , and Hong Kong . Nolan used IMAX 70 mm film cameras to film some sequences , including the Joker 's first appearance in the film . The film is dedicated to Heath Ledger , who died on January 22 , 2008 , some months after the completed filming and six months before the film 's release , from a toxic combination of prescription drugs , leading to intense attention from the press and movie @-@ going public . Warner Bros. initially created a viral marketing campaign for The Dark Knight , developing promotional websites and trailers highlighting screenshots of Ledger as the Joker .
A co @-@ production of the United States and the United Kingdom , The Dark Knight was released on July 16 , 2008 in Australia , on July 18 , 2008 in North America , and on July 24 , 2008 in the United Kingdom . Considered by film critics to be one of the best films of the 2000s and one of the best superhero films ever , the film received highly positive reviews and set numerous records during its theatrical run . The Dark Knight appeared on more critics ' top ten lists ( 287 ) than any other film of 2008 with the exception of WALL @-@ E , and more critics ( 77 ) named The Dark Knight the best film of 2008 than any other film released that year . With over $ 1 billion in revenue worldwide , it is the 25th @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of all time , unadjusted for inflation . The film received eight Academy Award nominations ; it won the award for Best Sound Editing and Ledger was posthumously awarded Best Supporting Actor . The Dark Knight Rises , the final film in the trilogy , was released on July 20 , 2012 .
= = Plot = =
A gang of criminals rob a Gotham City mob bank , double @-@ crossing and murdering each other until there is only one left : The Joker , who escapes with the money .
Batman , District Attorney Harvey Dent and Lieutenant Jim Gordon form an alliance to rid Gotham of organized crime . Bruce Wayne is impressed with Dent 's idealism and offers to support his career ; he believes that , with Dent as Gotham 's protector , he can give up being Batman and lead a normal life with Rachel Dawes — even though she and Dent are dating .
Mob bosses Sal Maroni , Gambol and the Chechen hold a videoconference with corrupt accountant Lau , who has taken their funds and fled to Hong Kong . The Joker interrupts , warns them that Batman is unhindered by the law , and offers to kill him in exchange for half of their money . Gambol puts a bounty on the Joker , but the Joker kills him instead and takes over his gang . The mob ultimately decides to take the Joker up on his offer .
Dent arrests the entire mob , while Batman finds Lau in Hong Kong and brings him back to Gotham to testify against them . The Joker threatens to keep killing people unless Batman reveals his identity , and starts by murdering Police Commissioner Gillian B. Loeb and the judge presiding over the mob trial . The Joker also tries to kill Mayor Anthony Garcia , but Gordon sacrifices himself to stop the assassination . Dent learns that Rachel is the next target .
Bruce decides to reveal his secret identity . Before he can , however , Dent announces that he is Batman . Dent is taken into protective custody , but the Joker appears and attacks the convoy . Batman comes to Dent 's rescue and Gordon , who faked his death , arrests the Joker and is promoted to Commissioner . Rachel and Dent are escorted away by policemen on the mob 's payroll . Batman interrogates the Joker , who reveals that Rachel and Dent have been trapped in separate locations rigged with explosives . Batman races to save Rachel , while Gordon goes to save Dent . Batman arrives at the building , realizing that the Joker sent him to Dent 's location instead . Both buildings explode , killing Rachel and disfiguring half of Dent 's face . The Joker escapes the jail with Lau .
Coleman Reese , an accountant at Wayne Enterprises , deduces that Bruce is Batman and tries to go public with the information . After observing the unpredictability of the Joker , Maroni informs the Joker 's location to commissioner Gordon . The Joker sets fire to the mob 's money , burning Lau alive in the process and kills the Chechen . He then threatens to destroy a hospital unless someone kills Reese . Gordon orders the evacuation of all the hospitals in Gotham and goes to secure Reese . The Joker finds Harvey Dent in a hospital and manipulates him into seeking revenge for Rachel 's death . The Joker destroys the hospital and escapes with a busload of hostages . Dent goes on a killing spree based on a coin flip , targeting people he holds responsible for Rachel 's death . This includes two corrupt cop @-@ detectives ( Michael Wuertz and Anna Ramirez ) who worked for Maroni in kidnapping Dent and Rachel . While in car with Maroni , Dent kills his driver , which could have supposedly killed Maroni as well .
The Joker rigs two ferries with explosives ; one containing civilians and the other containing prisoners . He says that he will blow them both up by midnight , but will let one live if the passengers of anyone blows up the other . Batman finds the Joker with a sonar device that spies on the entire city , with the reluctant help of Lucius Fox . The passengers refuse to kill each other , and Batman apprehends the Joker after a fight . Before the police arrive to take the Joker into custody , he gloats that Gotham 's citizens will lose hope once Dent 's rampage becomes public knowledge .
Gordon arrives at the building where Rachel died , where Dent judges his fate , along with his own and Batman 's , by flipping a coin . He spares himself , shoots Batman , and tries to kill Gordon 's son . Batman , who was wearing body armor , tackles Dent off the building to his death . Batman persuades Gordon to preserve Dent 's heroic image by holding Batman responsible for the killing spree . As the police launch a manhunt for Batman , Gordon destroys the Bat @-@ signal , Fox watches as the sonar device self @-@ destructs , and Alfred Pennyworth burns a letter from Rachel about her choice to marry Dent .
= = Cast = =
Christian Bale as Bruce Wayne / Batman :
A billionaire socialite who dedicates himself to protecting Gotham City from its criminal underworld as a bat @-@ masked vigilante hailed as its " Dark Knight " at night . Bale said he was confident in his choice to return in the role because of the positive response to his portrayal in Batman Begins . He continued training in the Keysi Fighting Method and performed many of his own stunts , but did not gain as much muscle as in the previous film because the new Batsuit allowed him to move with greater agility . Bale described Batman 's dilemma as whether " [ his crusade is ] something that has an end . Can he quit and have an ordinary life ? The kind of manic intensity someone has to have to maintain the passion and the anger that they felt as a child , takes an effort after a while , to keep doing that . At some point , you have to exorcise your demons . " He added , " Now you have not just a young man in pain attempting to find some kind of an answer , you have somebody who actually has power , who is burdened by that power , and is having to recognize the difference between attaining that power and holding on to it . " Bale felt Batman 's personality had been strongly established in the first film , so it was unlikely his character would be overshadowed by the villains , stating : " I have no problem with competing with someone else . And that 's going to make a better movie . "
Heath Ledger as The Joker :
A psychotic criminal mastermind portraying himself as an " agent of chaos " , who rises to dominant power by terrorizing Gotham and plunging it into anarchy . Before Ledger was confirmed for the role in July 2006 , Paul Bettany , Lachy Hulme , Adrien Brody , Steve Carell , and Robin Williams publicly expressed interest in it . However , Nolan had wanted to work with Ledger on a number of projects in the past ( including unsuccessfully approaching Ledger for the role of Batman in Batman Begins ) and was agreeable to Ledger 's chaotic interpretation of the character . When Ledger saw Batman Begins , he had realized a way to make the character work that was consistent with the film 's tone : he described his Joker as a " psychopathic , mass murdering , schizophrenic clown with zero empathy . " In the film , the Joker has a Glasgow smile , and his trademark chalk @-@ white skin and red lips are makeup rather than the result of chemical bleaching , as in the traditional portrayal of the character . Throughout the film , the Joker states his desire to upset social order through crime , and comes to define himself by his conflict with Batman . To prepare for the role , Ledger lived alone in a hotel room for a month , formulating the character 's posture , voice , and personality , and kept a diary , in which he recorded the Joker 's thoughts and feelings . While he initially found it difficult , Ledger eventually generated a voice unlike Jack Nicholson 's character in Tim Burton 's 1989 Batman film . He was also given Batman : The Killing Joke and Arkham Asylum : A Serious House on Serious Earth , which he " really tried to read and put it down . " Ledger also cited A Clockwork Orange and Sid Vicious as " a very early starting point for Christian [ Bale ] and I. But we kind of flew far away from that pretty quickly and into another world altogether . " " There 's a bit of everything in him . There 's nothing that consistent , " Ledger said , and added , " There are a few more surprises to him . " Ledger was allowed to shoot and mostly direct the videos the Joker sends out as warnings . Each take Ledger made was different from the last . Nolan was impressed enough with the first video shoot that he chose to not be present when Ledger shot the video with a kidnapped reporter ( Anthony Michael Hall ) . On January 22 , 2008 , after he had completed filming The Dark Knight , Ledger died of an accidental prescription drug overdose , leading to intense press attention and memorial tributes . " It was tremendously emotional , right when he passed , having to go back in and look at him every day [ during editing ] , " Nolan recalled . " But the truth is , I feel very lucky to have something productive to do , to have a performance that he was very , very proud of , and that he had entrusted to me to finish . " All of Ledger 's scenes appear as he completed them in the filming ; in editing the film , Nolan added no " digital effects " to alter Ledger 's actual performance posthumously . Nolan has dedicated the film in part to Ledger 's memory .
Gary Oldman as Lt. James Gordon :
A lieutenant in the Gotham City Police Department and one of the city 's few honest police officers , who forms a tenuous , unofficial alliance with Batman and Dent and is given the position of Police Commissioner by the city 's mayor following the recent commissioner 's assassination . Oldman described his character as " incorruptible , virtuous , strong , heroic , but understated . " Nolan explained that " The Long Halloween has a great , triangular relationship between Harvey Dent and Gordon and Batman , and that 's something we very much drew from . " Oldman added that " Gordon has a great deal of admiration for him at the end , but [ Batman ] is more than ever now the dark knight , the outsider . I 'm intrigued now to see : If there is a third one , what he 's going to do ? " On the possibility of another sequel , he said that " returning to [ the role ] is not dependent on whether the role was bigger than the one before . "
Aaron Eckhart as Harvey Dent :
Gotham 's district attorney , hailed as the city 's " White Knight " . Nolan and David S. Goyer had originally considered using Dent in Batman Begins , but they replaced him with the new character Rachel Dawes when they realized they " couldn 't do him justice . " Before Eckhart was cast in February 2007 , Liev Schreiber , Josh Lucas , and Ryan Phillippe had expressed interest in the role , while Mark Ruffalo auditioned . Matt Damon stated that he was considered for the role , but could not accept due to scheduling conflicts . Hugh Jackman was also considered for the part . Nolan chose Eckhart , whom he had considered for the lead role in Memento , citing his " extraordinary " ability as an actor , his embodiment of " that kind of chiselled , American hero quality " projected by Robert Redford , and his subtextual " edge . " Eckhart was " interested in good guys gone wrong , " and had played corrupt men in films such as The Black Dahlia , Thank You for Smoking , and In the Company of Men . Whereas Two @-@ Face is depicted as a crime boss in most characterizations , Nolan chose to portray him as a twisted vigilante to emphasize his role as Batman 's counterpart . Eckhart explained , " [ He ] is still true to himself . He 's a crime fighter , he 's not killing good people . He 's not a bad guy , not purely . " For Dent , Eckhart " kept on thinking about the Kennedys , " particularly Robert F. Kennedy , who was " idealistic , held a grudge and took on the Mob . " He had his hair lightened and styled to make him appear more dashing . Nolan told Eckhart to not make Dent 's Two @-@ Face persona " jokey with slurping sounds or ticks . "
Maggie Gyllenhaal as Rachel Dawes :
Gotham City 's assistant district attorney and Bruce 's childhood friend , who is one of the few people to know Batman 's true identity . Gyllenhaal took over the role from Katie Holmes , who played the part in Batman Begins . In August 2005 , Holmes was reportedly planning to reprise the role , but she eventually turned it down to do Mad Money with Diane Keaton and Queen Latifah . By March 2007 , Gyllenhaal was in " final talks " for the part . Gyllenhaal has acknowledged her character is a damsel in distress to an extent , but says Nolan sought ways to empower her character , so " Rachel 's really clear about what 's important to her and unwilling to compromise her morals , which made a nice change " from the many conflicted characters whom she has previously portrayed .
Michael Caine as Alfred Pennyworth :
Bruce 's trusted butler and confidant , who supplies useful advice to Bruce and likeness as a father figure , leading him to be labeled " Batman 's batman " .
Morgan Freeman as Lucius Fox :
The recently promoted CEO of Wayne Enterprises who , now fully aware of his employer 's double life , serves more directly as Bruce 's armorer for the Batsuit in addition to his corporate duties .
Monique Gabriela Curnen as Detective Anna Ramirez :
A cop in Gordon 's unit who starts working for the mob to pay her mother 's hospital bills . She betrays Rachel Dawes to the Joker .
Ron Dean as Detective Michael Wuertz :
A corrupt cop in Gordon 's unit who betrays Dent to the Joker .
Nestor Carbonell as Mayor Anthony Garcia :
The mayor of Gotham , who appoints Gordon Police Commissioner for saving his life and arresting the Joker .
Chin Han as Lau :
A corrupt Chinese LSI Holdings accountant at Wayne Enterprises secretly operating as a Triad boss in charge of money @-@ laundering deals for the mob .
Eric Roberts as Sal Maroni :
An Italian mafia boss who takes over Carmine Falcone 's mob . Bob Hoskins and James Gandolfini auditioned for the role .
Ritchie Coster as the Chechen :
A Chechen mafia boss in charge of drug @-@ trafficking for the mob .
Anthony Michael Hall as Mike Engel :
A Gotham Cable News reporter who is kidnapped from the destroyed hospital by the Joker and used to broadcast his plan for anarchy within Gotham .
Keith Szarabajka as Detective Gerard Stephens :
An honest cop in Gordon 's unit who the Joker holds captive during his escape from the police station .
Joshua Harto as Coleman Reese :
An M & A law accountant at Wayne Enterprises who deduces Bruce 's persona of Batman from Fox and plans to reveal it to Gotham on Gotham Cable News until the Joker threatens his life .
Melinda McGraw as Barbara Gordon :
Gordon 's wife , who is worried that her husband is risking his life in his war on crime .
Nathan Gamble as James Gordon , Jr . :
Gordon 's 10 @-@ year @-@ old son , whom Dent tries to kill to punish Gordon for Rachel 's death .
Michael Jai White as Gambol :
A Nigerian mafia boss in charge of illegal gambling and extortion for the mob . He places a bounty on the Joker , who kills him instead . David Banner auditioned for the role .
Colin McFarlane as Commissioner Gillian Loeb :
The Police Commissioner of Gotham until his murder at the hands of the Joker .
The film 's supporting cast include Nydia Rodriguez Terracina as Judge Janet Surrillo , and Tom " Tiny " Lister , Jr. as a prison inmate on one of the bomb @-@ rigged ferries . William Fichtner played the Gotham National Bank manager , and Cillian Murphy returns in a cameo as Dr. Jonathan Crane / Scarecrow , who is apprehended early on in the film by Batman .
Musician Dwight Yoakam was approached for the roles of either the manager or a corrupt cop , but he chose instead to focus on his album Dwight Sings Buck . United States Senator Patrick Leahy — a fan of Batman comics who was previously an extra in the 1997 film Batman & Robin and also was a guest voice actor on Batman : The Animated Series — appears as a guest at Bruce Wayne 's party . Matt Skiba , lead singer of Chicago punk band Alkaline Trio , made a small appearance in the film .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Before the release of Batman Begins , screenwriter David S. Goyer wrote a treatment for two sequels which introduced the Joker and Harvey Dent . His original intent was for the Joker to scar Dent during the Joker 's trial in the third film , turning Dent into Two @-@ Face . Goyer , who penned the first draft of the film , cited the DC Comics 13 @-@ issue comic book limited series Batman : The Long Halloween as the major influence on his storyline . According to veteran Batman artist Neal Adams , he met with David Goyer in Los Angeles , and the story would eventually look to Adams and writer Denny O 'Neil 's 1971 story " The Joker 's Five @-@ Way Revenge " that appeared in Batman # 251 , in which O 'Neil and Adams re @-@ introduced the Joker . While initially uncertain of whether or not he would return to direct the sequel , Nolan did want to reinterpret the Joker on screen . On July 31 , 2006 , Warner Bros. officially announced initiation of production for the sequel to Batman Begins titled The Dark Knight ; it is the first live @-@ action Batman film without the word " Batman " in its title , which Bale noted as signaling that " this take on Batman of mine and Chris ' is very different from any of the others . "
After much research , Nolan 's brother and co @-@ writer , Jonathan , suggested the Joker 's first two appearances , published in the first issue of Batman ( 1940 ) , as the crucial influences . Christopher had Jonathan watch Fritz Lang 's 1933 crime film The Testament of Dr. Mabuse prior to writing the Joker , with the Joker resembling Mabuse 's characteristics . Christopher Nolan referred to Lang 's film as " essential research for anyone attempting to write a supervillain . " Jerry Robinson , one of the Joker 's co @-@ creators , was consulted on the character 's portrayal . Nolan decided to avoid divulging an in @-@ depth origin story for the Joker , and instead portray his rise to power so as to not diminish the threat he poses , explaining to MTV News , " the Joker we meet in The Dark Knight is fully formed ... To me , the Joker is an absolute . There are no shades of gray to him – maybe shades of purple . He 's unbelievably dark . He bursts in just as he did in the comics . " Nolan reiterated to IGN , " We never wanted to do an origin story for the Joker in this film , " because " the arc of the story is much more Harvey Dent 's ; the Joker is presented as an absolute . It 's a very thrilling element in the film , and a very important element , but we wanted to deal with the rise of the Joker , not the origin of the Joker . " Nolan suggested Batman : The Killing Joke influenced a section of the Joker 's dialogue in the film , in which he says that anyone can become like him given the right circumstances . Nolan also cited Heat as " sort of an inspiration " for his aim " to tell a very large , city story or the story of a city " : " If you want to take on Gotham , you want to give Gotham a kind of weight and breadth and depth in there . So you wind up dealing with the political figures , the media figures . That 's part of the whole fabric of how a city is bound together . "
According to Nolan , an important theme of the sequel is " escalation , " extending the ending of Batman Begins , noting " things having to get worse before they get better . " While indicating The Dark Knight would continue the themes of Batman Begins , including justice vs. revenge and Bruce Wayne 's issues with his father , Nolan emphasized the sequel would also portray Wayne more as a detective , an aspect of his character not fully developed in Batman Begins . Nolan described the friendly rivalry between Bruce Wayne and Harvey Dent as the " backbone " of the film . He also chose to compress the overall storyline , allowing Dent to become Two @-@ Face in The Dark Knight , thus giving the film an emotional arc the unsympathetic Joker could not offer . Nolan acknowledged the title was not only a reference to Batman , but also the fallen " white knight " Harvey Dent .
= = = Filming = = =
While scouting for shooting locations in October 2006 , location manager Robin Higgs visited Liverpool , concentrating mainly along the city 's waterfront . Other candidates included Yorkshire , Glasgow , and parts of London . In August 2006 , one of the film 's producers , Charles Roven , stated that its principal photography would begin in March 2007 , but filming was pushed back to April . For its release in IMAX theaters , Nolan shot four major sequences in that format , including the Joker 's opening bank robbery and the car chase midway through the film , which marked the first time that a feature film had been even partially shot in the format . The cameras used for non @-@ IMAX 35 mm scenes were Panavision 's Panaflex Millennium XL and Platinum .
For fifteen years Nolan had wanted to shoot in the IMAX format , and he also used it for " quiet scenes which pictorially we thought would be interesting . " The use of IMAX cameras provided many new challenges for the filmmakers : the cameras were much larger and heavier than standard cameras , and produced noise which made recording dialogue difficult . In addition , the cameras had short film loads ranging from 30 seconds to two minutes and the cost of the film stock was much greater than standard 35mm film . Nevertheless , Nolan said that he wished that it were possible to shoot the entire film in IMAX : " if you could take an IMAX camera to Mount Everest or outer space , you could use it in a feature movie . " In addition , Nolan chose to edit some of the IMAX sequences using the original camera negative , which by eliminating generation loss , raised the film resolution of those sequences up to 18 thousand lines .
Warner Bros. chose to film in Chicago for 13 weeks , because Nolan had a " truly remarkable experience " filming part of Batman Begins there . Instead of using the Chicago Board of Trade Building as the location for the headquarters of Wayne Enterprises , as Batman Begins did , The Dark Knight shows Wayne Enterprises as being headquartered in the Richard J. Daley Center . While filming in Chicago , the film was given the false title Rory 's First Kiss to lower the visibility of production , but the local media eventually uncovered the ruse . Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times commented on the absurdity of the technique , " Is there a Bat @-@ fan in the world that doesn 't know Rory 's First Kiss is actually The Dark Knight , which has been filming in Chicago for weeks ? " Production of The Dark Knight in Chicago generated $ 45 million in the city 's economy and created thousands of jobs . For the film 's prologue involving the Joker , the crew shot in Chicago from April 18 , 2007 to April 24 , 2007 . They returned to shoot from June 9 , 2007 to early September . Noticeably , unlike Batman Begins , less CGI was used to disguise Chicago . Many recognizable locations were used in the film , like the Sears Tower , Navy Pier , 330 North Wabash , the James R. Thompson Center , Trump International Hotel and Tower , LaSalle Street , The Berghoff , Randolph Street Station , and Hotel 71 . An old Brach 's factory was used as Gotham Hospital . The defunct Van Buren Street post office doubles as Gotham National Bank for the opening bank robbery . Several sequences , including one car chase , were shot on the lower level of Wacker Drive . The Marina City towers also appear in the background throughout the movie .
Pinewood Studios , near London , was the primary studio space used for the production . While planning a stunt with the Batmobile in a special effects facility near Chertsey , England in September 2007 , technician Conway Wickliffe was killed when his car crashed . The film is dedicated to both Ledger and Wickliffe . The restaurant scene was filmed at the Criterion Restaurant in Piccadilly Circus , London .
The following month in London at the defunct Battersea Power Station , a rigged 200 @-@ foot fireball was filmed , reportedly for an opening sequence , prompting calls from local residents who feared a terrorist attack on the station . A similar incident occurred during the filming in Chicago , when an abandoned Brach 's candy factory ( which was Gotham Hospital in the film ) was demolished .
Filming took place in Hong Kong from November 6 to 11 , 2007 , at various locations in Central , including Hong Kong 's tallest building at the time , the International Finance Centre , for the scene where Batman captures Lau . The shoot hired helicopters and C @-@ 130 aircraft . Officials expressed concern over possible noise pollution and traffic . In response , letters sent to the city 's residents promised that the sound level would approximate noise decibels made by buses . Environmentalists also criticized the filmmakers ' request to tenants of the waterfront skyscrapers to keep their lights on all night to enhance the cinematography , describing it as a waste of energy . Cinematographer Wally Pfister found the city officials a " nightmare , " and ultimately Nolan had to create Batman 's jump from a skyscraper digitally .
= = = Design = = =
Costume designer Lindy Hemming described the Joker 's look as reflecting his personality , in that " he doesn 't care about himself at all " ; she avoided designing him as a vagrant , but still made him appear to be " scruffier , grungier , " so that " when you see him move , he 's slightly twitchier or edgy . " Nolan noted , " We gave a Francis Bacon spin to [ his face ] . This corruption , this decay in the texture of the look itself . It 's grubby . You can almost imagine what he smells like . " In creating the " anarchical " look of the Joker , Hemming drew inspiration from such countercultural pop culture artists as Pete Doherty , Iggy Pop , and Johnny Rotten . Ledger described his " clown " mask , made up of three pieces of stamped silicone , as a " new technology , " taking less than an hour for the make @-@ up artists to apply , much faster than more @-@ conventional prosthetics usually requires . Ledger also said that he felt he was barely wearing any make @-@ up .
Hemming and Ledger 's Joker design has had an impact in popular and political culture in the form of the Barack Obama " Joker " poster , and has since become a meme in its own right .
Designers improved on the design of the Batsuit from Batman Begins , adding wide elastic banding to help bind the costume to Bale , and suggest more sophisticated technology . It was constructed from 200 individual pieces of rubber , fiberglass , metallic mesh , and nylon . The new cowl was modeled after a motorcycle helmet and separated from the neck piece , allowing Bale to turn his head left and right and nod up and down . The cowl is equipped to show white lenses over the eyes when the character turns on his sonar detection , which gives Batman the white eyed look from the comics and animation . The gauntlets have retractable razors which can be fired . Though the new costume is eight pounds heavier , Bale found it more comfortable and not as hot to wear . The depiction of Gotham City is less gritty than in Batman Begins . " I 've tried to unclutter the Gotham we created on the last film , " said production designer Nathan Crowley . " Gotham is in chaos . We keep blowing up stuff , so we can keep our images clean . "
= = = Effects = = =
The film introduces the Batpod , which is a recreation of the Batcycle . Production designer Nathan Crowley , who designed the Tumbler for Batman Begins , designed six models ( built by special effects supervisor Chris Corbould ) for use in the film 's production , because of necessary crash scenes and possible accidents . Crowley built a prototype in Nolan 's garage , before six months of safety tests were conducted . The Batpod is steered by shoulder instead of hand , and the rider 's arms are protected by sleeve @-@ like shields . The bike has 508 @-@ millimeter ( 20 @-@ inch ) front and rear tires , and is made to appear as if it is armed with grappling hooks , cannons , and machine guns . The engines are located in the hubs of the wheels , which are set 31 ⁄ 2 feet ( 1067 mm ) apart on either side of the tank . The rider lies belly down on the tank , which can move up and down to dodge any incoming gunfire that Batman may encounter . Stuntman Jean @-@ Pierre Goy doubled for Christian Bale during the riding sequences in The Dark Knight . The Batpod was highly unstable for riding , and Goy was the only stuntman who could manage to balance the bike , even commenting that he had to " nearly un @-@ learn how to ride a motorcycle " to manage riding the Batpod . Bale did insist on doing shots on the Batpod himself , but was prohibited by the team fearing his safety .
Nolan designed Two @-@ Face 's appearance in the film as one of the least disturbing , explaining , " When we looked at less extreme versions of it , they were too real and more horrifying . When you look at a film like Pirates of the Caribbean – something like that , there 's something about a very fanciful , very detailed visual effect , that I think is more powerful and less repulsive . " Framestore created 120 computer @-@ generated shots of Two @-@ Face 's scarred visage . Nolan felt using make @-@ up would look unrealistic , as it adds to the face , unlike real burn victims . Framestore acknowledged they rearranged the positions of bones , muscles and joints to make the character look more dramatic . For each shot , three 720 @-@ pixel HD cameras were set up at different angles on set to fully capture Aaron Eckhart 's performance . Eckhart wore markers on his face and a prosthetic skullcap , which acted as a lighting reference . A few shots of the skullcap were kept in the film . Framestore also integrated shots of Bale and Eckhart into that of the exploding building where Dent is burned . It was difficult simulating fire on Eckhart because it is inherently unrealistic for only half of something to burn .
= = = Music = = =
Batman Begins composers Hans Zimmer and James Newton Howard returned to score the sequel . Composition began before shooting , and during filming Nolan received an iPod with ten hours of recordings . Their nine @-@ minute suite for the Joker , " Why So Serious ? , " is based around two notes . Zimmer compared its style to that of Kraftwerk , a band from his native Germany , as well as bands like The Damned . When Ledger died , Zimmer felt like scrapping and composing a new theme , but decided that he could not be sentimental and compromise the " evil [ Ledger 's performance ] projects . " Howard composed Dent 's " elegant and beautiful " themes , which are brass @-@ focused .
= = Marketing = =
In May 2007 , 42 Entertainment began a viral marketing campaign utilizing the film 's " Why So Serious ? " tagline with the launch of a website featuring the fictional political campaign of Harvey Dent , with the caption , " I Believe in Harvey Dent . " The site aimed to interest fans by having them try to earn what they wanted to see and , on behalf of Warner Bros. , 42 Entertainment also established a " vandalized " version of I Believe in Harvey Dent , called " I believe in Harvey Dent too , " where e @-@ mails sent by fans slowly removed pixels , revealing the first official image of the Joker ; it was ultimately replaced with many " Haha " s and a hidden message that said " see you in December . "
During the 2007 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , 42 Entertainment launched WhySoSerious.com , sending fans on a scavenger hunt to unlock a teaser trailer and a new photo of the Joker . On October 31 , 2007 , the film 's website morphed into another scavenger hunt with hidden messages , instructing fans to uncover clues at certain locations in major cities throughout the United States , and to take photographs of their discoveries . The clues combined to reveal a new photograph of the Joker and an audio clip of him from the film saying " And tonight , you 're gonna break your one rule . " Completing the scavenger hunt also led to another website called Rory 's Death Kiss ( referencing the false working title of Rory 's First Kiss ) , where fans could submit photographs of themselves costumed as the Joker . Those who sent photos were mailed a copy of a fictional newspaper called The Gotham Times , whose electronic version led to the discovery of numerous other websites .
The Dark Knight 's opening sequence , ( showing a bank raid by the Joker ) and closing montage of other scenes from the film , was screened with selected IMAX screenings of I Am Legend , which was released on December 14 , 2007 . A theatrical teaser was also released with non @-@ IMAX showings of I Am Legend , and also on the official website . The sequence was released on the Blu @-@ ray Disc edition of Batman Begins on July 8 , 2008 . Also on July 8 , 2008 , the studio released Batman : Gotham Knight , a direct @-@ to @-@ DVD animated film , set between Batman Begins and The Dark Knight and featuring six original stories , directed by Bruce Timm , co @-@ creator and producer of Batman : The Animated Series , and starring veteran Batman voice actor Kevin Conroy . Each of these segments , written by Josh Olson , David S. Goyer , Brian Azzarello , Greg Rucka , Jordan Goldberg , and Alan Burnett , presents its own distinctive artistic style , paralleling numerous artists collaborating in the same DC Universe .
After the death of Heath Ledger on January 22 , 2008 , Warner Bros. adjusted its promotional focus on the Joker , revising some of its websites dedicated to promoting the film and posting a memorial tribute to Ledger on the film 's official website and overlaying a black memorial ribbon on the photo collage in WhySoSerious.com. On February 29 , 2008 , I Believe in Harvey Dent was updated to enable fans to send their e @-@ mail addresses and phone numbers . In March 2008 , Harvey Dent 's fictional campaign informed fans that actual campaign buses nicknamed " Dentmobiles " would tour various cities to promote Dent 's candidacy for district attorney .
On May 15 , 2008 , Six Flags Great America and Six Flags Great Adventure theme parks opened The Dark Knight roller coaster , which cost US $ 7 @.@ 5 million to develop and which simulates being stalked by the Joker . Mattel produced toys and games for The Dark Knight , action figures , role play costumes , board games , puzzles , and a special @-@ edition UNO card game , which began commercial distribution in June 2008 .
Warner Bros. devoted six months to an anti @-@ infringement strategy that involved tracking the people who had a pre @-@ release copy of the film at any one time . Shipping and delivery schedules were also staggered and spot checks were carried out both domestically and overseas to ensure illegal copying of the film was not taking place in cinemas . An unlicensed copy was released on the web approximately 38 hours after the film 's release . BitTorrent search engine The Pirate Bay taunted the movie industry over its ability to provide the movie free , replacing its logo with a taunting message .
= = Release = =
Warner Bros. held the world premiere for The Dark Knight in New York City on July 14 , 2008 , screening in an IMAX theater with the film 's composers James Newton Howard and Hans Zimmer playing a part of the film score live . Leading up to The Dark Knight 's commercial release , the film had drawn " overwhelmingly positive early reviews and buzz on Heath Ledger 's turn as the Joker . " The Dark Knight was commercially released on July 16 , 2008 in Australia , grossing almost $ 2 @.@ 3 million in its first day .
In the United States and Canada , The Dark Knight was distributed to 4 @,@ 366 theaters , breaking the previous record for the highest number of theaters held by Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End in 2007 . The number of theaters also included 94 IMAX theaters , with the film estimated to be played on 9 @,@ 200 screens in the United States and Canada . Online , ticketing services sold enormous numbers of tickets for approximately 3 @,@ 000 midnight showtimes as well as unusually early showtimes for the film 's opening day . All IMAX theaters showing The Dark Knight were sold out for the opening weekend .
= = Reception = =
The movie was met with mostly positive reviews . Based on 314 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , the film received a 94 % approval rating from critics , with an average score of 8 @.@ 6 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads , " Dark , complex and unforgettable , The Dark Knight succeeds not just as an entertaining comic book film , but as a richly thrilling crime saga . " By comparison , Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating in the 0 – 100 range based on reviews from top mainstream critics , calculated an average score of 82 , indicating " universal acclaim " , based on 39 reviews . CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade cinemagoers gave the film was " A " on an A + to F scale , and that audiences skewed slightly male and older .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , awarding four out of four stars , described The Dark Knight as a " haunted film that leaps beyond its origins and becomes an engrossing tragedy . " He praised the performances , direction , and writing , saying the film " redefine [ s ] the possibilities of the comic @-@ book movie . " Ebert stated that the " key performance " is by Heath Ledger , and pondered whether he would become the first posthumous Academy Award @-@ winning actor since Peter Finch in 1976 . ( Ledger ultimately won the Oscar . ) Ebert named it one of his twenty favorite films of 2008 . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone writes that the film is deeper than its predecessor , with a " deft " script that refuses to scrutinize the Joker with popular psychology , instead pulling the viewer in with an examination of Bruce Wayne 's psyche . Travers has praise for all the cast , saying each brings his or her " ' A ' game " to the film . He says Bale is " electrifying , " evoking Al Pacino in The Godfather Part II , that Eckhart 's portrayal of Harvey Dent is " scarily moving " , and that Oldman " is so skilled that he makes virtue exciting as Jim Gordon " . Travers says Ledger moves the Joker away from Jack Nicholson 's interpretation into darker territory , and expresses his support for any potential campaign to have Ledger nominated for an Academy Award , Travers says that the filmmakers move the film away from comic book cinema and closer to being a genuine work of art , citing Nolan 's direction and the " gritty reality " of Wally Pfister 's cinematography as helping to create a universe that has something " raw and elemental " at work within it . In particular , he cites Nolan 's action choreography in the IMAX @-@ tailored heist sequence as rivaling that of Heat ( 1995 ) . Manohla Dargis of The New York Times wrote " Pitched at the divide between art and industry , poetry and entertainment , it goes darker and deeper than any Hollywood movie of its comic @-@ book kind . " Entertainment Weekly put it on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade , " best @-@ of " list , saying , " Every great hero needs a great villain . And in 2008 , Christian Bale 's Batman found his in Heath Ledger 's demented dervish , the Joker . " BBC critic Mark Kermode , in a positive review , said that Ledger is " very , very good " but that Oldman 's turn is " the best performance in the film , by a mile " ; Kermode felt Oldman was deserving of an Oscar nomination .
Emanuel Levy wrote Ledger " throws himself completely " into the role , and that the film represents Nolan 's " most accomplished and mature " work , and the most technically impressive and resonant of all the Batman films . Levy calls the action sequences some of the most impressive seen in an American film for years , and talks of the Hong Kong @-@ set portion of the film as being particularly visually impressive . Levy and Peter Travers conclude that the film is " haunting and visionary , " while Levy goes on to say that The Dark Knight is " nothing short of brilliant . " On the other hand , David Denby of The New Yorker said that the story is not coherent enough to properly flesh out the disparities . He said the film 's mood is one of " constant climax , " and that it feels rushed and far too long . Denby criticized scenes which he argued to be meaningless or are cut short just as they become interesting . Denby remarks that the central conflict is workable , but that " only half the team can act it , " saying that Bale 's " placid " Bruce Wayne and " dogged but uninteresting " Batman is constantly upstaged by Ledger 's " sinister and frightening " performance , which he says is the film 's one element of success . Denby concludes that Ledger is " mesmerising " in every scene . The vocalization of Christian Bale 's Batman ( which was partly altered during post @-@ production ) was the subject of particular criticism by some commentators , with David Edelstein from NPR describing Bale delivering his performance with " a voice that 's deeper and hammier than ever " . Alonso Duralde at MSNBC , however , referred to Bale 's voice in The Dark Knight as an " eerie rasp " , as opposed to the voice used in the Batman Begins , which according to Duralde " sounded absurdly deep , like a 10 @-@ year @-@ old putting on an ‘ adult ’ voice to make prank phone calls " .
The Dark Knight was ranked the 15th greatest film in history on Empire 's 2008 list of the " 500 Greatest Movies of All Time , " based upon the weighted votes of 10 @,@ 000 readers , 150 film directors , and 50 key film critics . Heath Ledger 's interpretation of the Joker was also ranked number three on Empire 's 2008 list of the " 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time . " In June 2010 , the Joker was ranked number five on Entertainment Weekly 's " 100 Greatest Characters of the Last 20 Years " . Paste magazine named it one of the 50 Best Movies of the Decade ( 2000 – 2009 ) , ranking it at number 11 . In 2016 , Playboy ranked the film number five on its list of 15 Sequels That Are Way Better Than The Originals . The Dark Knight was included in American Cinematographer 's " Best @-@ Shot Film of 1998 @-@ 2008 " list , ranking in the top 10 . More than 17 @,@ 000 people around the world participated in the final vote . In March 2011 , the film was voted by BBC Radio 1 and BBC Radio 1Xtra listeners as their eight favorite film of all time . On the March 22 , 2011 television special Best in Film : The Greatest Movies of Our Time , The Dark Knight was voted the second best action film while the Joker , as portrayed by Ledger , was voted the third greatest film character . In 2012 , Total Film ranked The Dark Knight as the sixth most accomplished film of the past 15 years , writing that " Christopher Nolan 's psycho @-@ operatic crime drama was its decade 's most exciting blockbuster – and its most challenging . " In 2014 , Time Out polled several film critics , directors , actors and stunt actors to list their top action films . The Dark Knight was listed at 80th place on this list . In 2014 , The Dark Knight was ranked the 3rd greatest film ever made on Empire 's list of " The 301 Greatest Movies Of All Time " as voted by the magazine 's readers . The film was also included and ranked 57th on Hollywood 's 100 Favorite Films , a list compiled by The Hollywood Reporter , surveying " Studio chiefs , Oscar winners and TV royalty " . The Dark Knight ranked 96th on BBC 's " 100 Greatest American Films " list , voted on by film critics from around the world .
= = = = Commentary = = = =
Mystery writer Andrew Klavan , writing in The Wall Street Journal , compared the extreme measures that Batman takes to fight crime with those U.S. President George W. Bush used in the War on Terror . Klavan claims that , " at some level " The Dark Knight is " a paean of praise to the fortitude and moral courage that has been shown by George W. Bush in this time of terror and war . " Klavan supports this reading of the film by comparing Batman — like Bush , Klavan argues — " sometimes has to push the boundaries of civil rights to deal with an emergency , certain that he will re @-@ establish those boundaries when the emergency is past . " Klavan 's article has received criticism on the Internet and in mainstream media outlets , such as in The New Republic 's " The Plank . " Reviewing the film in The Sunday Times , Cosmo Landesman reached the opposite conclusion to Klavan , arguing that The Dark Knight " offers up a lot of moralistic waffle about how we must hug a terrorist – okay , I exaggerate . At its heart , however , is a long and tedious discussion about how individuals and society must never abandon the rule of law in struggling against the forces of lawlessness . In fighting monsters , we must be careful not to become monsters – that sort of thing . The film champions the anti @-@ war coalition 's claim that , in having a war on terror , you create the conditions for more terror . We are shown that innocent people died because of Batman – and he falls for it . " Benjamin Kerstein , writing in Azure , says that both Klavan and Landesman " have a point , " because " The Dark Knight is a perfect mirror of the society which is watching it : a society so divided on the issues of terror and how to fight it that , for the first time in decades , an American mainstream no longer exists . "
U.S. president Barack Obama has used the film to help explain how he understood the role and growth of Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIS ) . " There 's a scene in the beginning in which the gang leaders of Gotham are meeting ... These are men who had the city divided up . They were thugs , but there was a kind of order . Everyone had his turf . And then the Joker comes in and lights the whole city on fire . ISIS is the Joker . It has the capacity to set the whole region on fire . That 's why we have to fight it . ”
= = = = Themes and analysis = = = =
According to David S. Goyer , the primary theme of The Dark Knight is escalation . Gotham City is weak and the citizens blame Batman for the city 's violence and corruption as well as the Joker 's threats , and it pushes his limits , making him feel that taking the laws into his own hands is further downgrading the city . Roger Ebert noted , " Throughout the film , [ the Joker ] devises ingenious situations that force Batman , Commissioner Gordon and District Attorney Harvey Dent to make impossible ethical decisions . By the end , the whole moral foundation of the Batman legend is threatened . "
Other critics have mentioned the theme of the triumph of evil over good . Harvey Dent is seen as Gotham 's " White Knight " in the beginning of the film but ends up becoming seduced to evil . The Joker , on the other hand , is seen as the representation of anarchy and chaos . He has no motive , no orders , and no desires but to cause havoc and " watch the world burn . " The terrible logic of human error is another theme as well . The ferry scene displays how humans can easily be enticed by iniquity , and how that could lead to potential disaster .
= = = = Awards = = = =
Most notable among the nominations were Heath Ledger 's almost complete sweep of over twenty awards for acting , including the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor , Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Supporting Actor , the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture , and the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role . The Dark Knight also received nominations from the Writers Guild of America ( for Best Adapted Screenplay ) , the Producers Guild of America , and the Directors Guild of America , as well as a slew of other guild award nominations and wins . It was nominated for Best Film at the Critics Choice Awards and was named one of the top ten films of 2008 by the American Film Institute .
The Dark Knight was nominated for eight Academy Awards for the 81st Ceremony , breaking the previous record of seven held by Dick Tracy for the most nominations received by a film based on a comic book , comic strip , or graphic novel . The Dark Knight won two awards : Best Supporting Actor for Heath Ledger and Best Sound Editing . It was additionally nominated for six others , these being Best Art Direction , Best Cinematography , Best Sound Mixing , Best Visual Effects , Best Makeup , and Best Film Editing . Heath Ledger was the first posthumous winner of the Best Supporting Actor award , and only the second posthumous acting winner ever ( Peter Finch posthumously won the Best Actor award for his performance in the 1976 film Network ) . In addition , Ledger 's win marked the first win in any of the major Oscar categories ( producing , directing , acting , or writing ) for a superhero @-@ based film . Notably , Richard King 's win in the Sound Editing category blocked a complete awards sweep of the evening by the eventual Best Picture winner , Slumdog Millionaire . Although it did not receive a Best Picture nomination , the show 's opening song paid homage to The Dark Knight along with the five Best Picture nominees , including host Hugh Jackman riding on a mockup of the Batpod made out of garbage . In spite of the film 's critical success , the film was noticeably absent from the Best Picture nominee list , prompting controversy and led many to criticize the Academy Awards for " snubbing " the film . There was speculation that the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences later changed their number of Best Picture nominees to ten , instead of the traditional five , because of the film 's omission . In a question @-@ and @-@ answer session that followed the announcement , the Academy 's then president Sidney Ganis said ; " I would not be telling you the truth if I said the words Dark Knight did not come up . "
A British @-@ American production , the film was nominated for the 2009 Goya Award for Best European Film . It had a nomination in Japan for the 2009 Seiun Awards under the Science Fiction category with a Japan Academy Prize Award for Best Foreign Film .
= = = Box office = = =
The Dark Knight earned $ 534 @.@ 9 million in North America and $ 469 @.@ 7 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 1 billion . Worldwide , it is the 25th highest @-@ grossing film , the highest @-@ grossing film of 2008 , and the fourth film in history to gross more than $ 1 billion . It made $ 199 @.@ 7 million on its worldwide opening weekend , which ranks 34th on the all @-@ time chart . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 74 @.@ 26 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run .
In order to increase the film 's chances of crossing $ 1 billion in worldwide gross and of winning Oscars , Warner Bros. re @-@ released the film in traditional and IMAX theaters in the United States and other countries on January 23 , 2009 . Before the re @-@ release , the film 's gross remained at $ 997 million , but following the re @-@ release , the film crossed the $ 1 billion @-@ mark in February 2009 .
= = = = North America = = = =
The Dark Knight opened on Friday , July 18 , 2008 . It set a record for midnight showings , earning $ 18 @.@ 5 million from 3 @,@ 040 theaters ( a record first surpassed by Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince ) . The midnight opening included $ 640 @,@ 000 from IMAX screenings . It was then shown on 9 @,@ 200 screens at a record 4 @,@ 366 theaters ( a record first surpassed by Iron Man 2 ) , also setting an opening and single @-@ day record gross , with $ 67 @.@ 2 million ( both records first surpassed by The Twilight Saga : New Moon ) , and an opening weekend record , with $ 158 @.@ 4 million ( first surpassed by Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 ) . The weekend per theater average of $ 36 @,@ 283 stands as the fifth @-@ largest of all time . It sold an estimated 22 @.@ 37 million tickets during its first weekend with 2008 's average admission of $ 7 @.@ 08 , meaning the film sold more tickets than Spider @-@ Man 3 , which sold 21 @.@ 96 million with the average price of $ 6 @.@ 88 in 2007 . Additionally , the film set an IMAX opening weekend record , with $ 6 @.@ 3 million ( a record first surpassed by Star Trek ) . It achieved the largest Sunday gross with $ 43 @.@ 6 million and the largest opening week from Friday to Thursday with $ 238 @.@ 6 million ( both records surpassed by Marvel 's The Avengers ) . It also achieved the largest cumulative gross through its third and fourth day of release ( both records first surpassed by Deathly Hallows – Part 2 ) and so on until its tenth day of release ( records surpassed by Marvel 's The Avengers ) . Moreover , it was the fastest film to reach $ 100 million ( a record first surpassed by New Moon ) , $ 150 million and each additional $ 50 million through $ 450 million ( records surpassed by Marvel 's The Avengers ) , and $ 500 million ( a record first surpassed by Avatar ) . Finally , it achieved the largest second @-@ weekend gross ( a record first surpassed by Avatar ) .
It has grossed the fourth largest Saturday gross ( $ 51 @,@ 336 @,@ 732 ) . On its first Monday , it grossed $ 24 @.@ 5 million , which stands as the largest non @-@ holiday Monday gross and the fourth largest Monday gross overall , and on its first Tuesday , it grossed another $ 20 @.@ 9 million , which stands as the largest non @-@ opening Tuesday gross and the second largest Tuesday gross overall . Notably , it topped the box office during the second biggest weekend of all time in North America ( aggregated total of $ 253 @,@ 586 @,@ 871 ) and it was the only 2008 film that remained on top of the box office charts for four consecutive weekends .
The Dark Knight is the highest @-@ grossing film of 2008 , the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing superhero film , the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing film based on comics , and the fourth highest @-@ grossing North American film of all time . Adjusted for ticket @-@ price inflation though , it ranks 28th . In contrast to Avatar and Titanic — both which grossed more than The Dark Knight in North America and had slow but steady earnings — The Dark Knight broke records in its opening weekend and slowed down significantly after its first few weekends .
= = = = Other territories = = = =
Overseas , The Dark Knight is the highest @-@ grossing 2008 film and the fourth @-@ highest @-@ grossing superhero film . It premiered in 20 other territories on 4 @,@ 520 screens , grossing $ 41 @.@ 3 million in its first weekend . The film came second to Hancock , which was screening in 71 territories in its third weekend . The Dark Knight 's biggest territory was Australia , where it grossed $ 13 @.@ 7 million over the weekend , setting a record for the largest superhero film opening . It topped the weekend box office outside North America three consecutive times and four in total . Citing cultural sensitivities to some elements in the film , and a reluctance to adhere to pre @-@ release conditions , Warner Bros. declined to release the film in mainland China . Its highest @-@ grossing market after North America was the UK , Ireland , and Malta , where it earned $ 89 @.@ 1 million . Also , in Australia , it earned of $ 39 @.@ 9 million , still remaining in the all @-@ time Top 10 of the country . The five highest @-@ grossing markets outside North America also include Germany ( $ 29 @.@ 7 million ) , France and the Maghreb region ( $ 27 @.@ 5 million ) and South Korea ( $ 25 @.@ 0 million ) .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc in North America on December 9 , 2008 . Releases include a one @-@ disc edition DVD ; a two @-@ disc Special Edition DVD ; a two @-@ disc edition BD ; and a Special Edition BD package featuring a statuette of the Bat @-@ pod . The BD / iTunes version presents the film in a variable aspect ratio , with the IMAX sequences framed in 1 @.@ 78 : 1 , while scenes filmed in 35 mm are framed in 2 @.@ 40 : 1 . The DVD versions feature the entire film framed in a uniform 2 @.@ 40 : 1 aspect ratio . Disc 2 of the two @-@ disc Special Edition DVD features the six main IMAX sequences in the original 1 @.@ 44 : 1 aspect ratio . Additional IMAX shots throughout the film that are presented in 1 @.@ 78 : 1 on the Blu @-@ ray release are not , however , included in the DVD 's special features . In addition to the standard DVD releases , some stores released their own exclusive editions of the film .
In the United Kingdom , the film had combined sales of 513 @,@ 000 units on its first day of release , of which 107 @,@ 730 ( 21 % ) were Blu @-@ ray Discs , the highest number of first @-@ day Blu @-@ ray Discs sold . In the United States , The Dark Knight set a sales record for most DVDs sold in one day , selling 3 million units on its first day of release – 600 @,@ 000 of which were Blu @-@ ray Discs .
The DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc editions were released in Australia on December 10 , 2008 . Releases were in the form of a one @-@ disc edition on DVD ; a two @-@ disc edition on DVD ; a two @-@ disc edition including a Batmask on DVD and BD ; a two @-@ disc Batpod statuette Limited BD Edition ; a two @-@ disc BD edition ; and a four @-@ disc Batman Begins / The Dark Knight pack on DVD and BD . As of December 19 , 2008 , the DVD release is the top selling film in the Australian DVD Charts and is expected to break the Australian sales record set by Finding Nemo .
The movie also sold Blu @-@ ray copies worth 370 million yen ( US $ 4 @.@ 1 million ) in Japan , placing it 3rd out of 10 in the top 10 overall Blu @-@ ray category .
In March 2011 , Warner Bros. offered The Dark Knight for rent on Facebook , becoming the first movie ever to be released via digital distribution on a social networking site . Users in the United States were able to use Facebook Credits to view the film .
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= Battle of Slater 's Knoll =
The Battle of Slater 's Knoll ( 28 March – 6 April 1945 ) was a battle during the Second World War fought between Australian and Japanese forces on Bougainville Island . Part of the Bougainville campaign , the battle occurred as a force of about 3 @,@ 300 Japanese from the Japanese 6th Division supported by a sizeable concentration of artillery launched a counterattack against the main Australian offensive which had been pushing south towards Buin , concentrating their attacks on Slater 's Knoll near the Puriata River . The Australian troops belonged to the 7th Brigade , with the 25th Infantry Battalion being the most heavily engaged , although the 9th Infantry Battalion and the 61st Infantry Battalion also took part in the fighting .
Against Japanese tactics that included massed attacks , the Australians utilised armour and artillery , and in the end these proved telling . Commencing in late March , after the Australian advance had been halted by wet weather , over the course of several days the Japanese launched several probing raids following by heavy attacks against the Australians The final assault on the knoll came on the night of 4 / 5 April when 129 men from ' B ' Company , 25th Infantry Battalion repulsed an attack by a force of about 1 @,@ 100 Japanese , killing 292 . This proved to be the 7th Brigade 's final involvement in the campaign as they were relieved by the 15th Brigade shortly afterwards . Overall , 620 Japanese were killed in the battle with another 1 @,@ 000 estimated to have been wounded , while the Australians suffered 189 casualties .
= = Background = =
At the beginning of 1945 , the south @-@ eastern part of Bougainville was occupied by the Japanese 6th Division , under the command of Lieutenant General Tsutomu Akinaga . Made up of the 13th and 23rd Infantry Regiments — 600 and 700 @-@ strong respectively — as well as the 6th Field Artillery Regiment , the 6th Engineer Regiment , the 6th Transport Regiment and the 4th Field Heavy Artillery Regiment , Akinaga 's division consisted of 3 @,@ 300 men .
The previous November , the Australian II Corps under Lieutenant General Stanley Savige had taken over responsibility of the island from the US XIV Corps , who had been transferred to fight in the Philippines . Although incorrect , at the time the Allies believed that the Japanese forces on the island numbered around 17 @,@ 500 men and while these forces were understrength , they were still considered to be capable of carrying out effective combat operations . In order to counter this , it was decided that the Australian II Corps — consisting of Militia and Australian Imperial Force troops from the 3rd Division and the 11th and 23rd Brigades — would go on the offensive and a three @-@ pronged campaign was planned in the northern , central and southern sectors of the island .
As a result , the Australian campaign on the island developed into three separate drives : in the north , it was planned that Japanese forces would be forced into the narrow Bonis Peninsula and contained ; in the centre , the seizure of Pearl Ridge would give the Australians control of the east – west thoroughfares and protection against further counterattacks , while also opening the way for a drive to the east coast ; and the main campaign would take place in the south , where the bulk of the Japanese forces were concentrated . Consequently , on 21 January , Savige directed the 3rd Division under Major General William Bridgeford to take " swift and vigorous action " to destroy Japanese forces in southern Bougainville . The division 's immediate task was to advance south to the Puriata , and send patrols across it . Savige considered that the Japanese division was " weak and off balance " due to casualties and disease as well as a shortage of supplies . Brigadier Raymond Monaghan 's 29th Brigade had opened the campaign in the south in mid @-@ December , crossing the Jaba River , before conducting a series of landings by barge along the coast of Empress Augusta Bay , outflanking the Tuju , Tavera , Adele and Hupai Rivers , in what became dubbed the " Battle of the Swamps " by the Australians . The fighting during this time resulted in 240 Japanese killed , and 148 Australian casualties . Monaghan was also relieved of his command .
In late January , the 7th Brigade , under Brigadier John Field , which had been patrolling the Jaba River to protect the 29th Brigade 's rear while they pushed south , was subsequently was tasked to " take Mosigetta , clear the enemy from the Kupon – Nigitan – Sisiruai area , and patrol along the Puriata " . Each of the brigade 's three infantry battalions was marginally below full strength at the time , with frontages of between 600 and 700 personnel around the start of the battle .
= = Prelude = =
In late January , a company from the Australian 25th Infantry Battalion — under Lieutenant Colonel John McKinna — subsequently carried out an amphibious landing south of Motupena Point , on the Solomon Sea coast and had cleared towards Matsunkei . On 2 February , the battalion carried out another landing at Toko , and advanced northeast from there towards Batara , and then along the west bank of the Puriata , towards the Buin Road . Meanwhile , further to the east , the 9th Infantry Battalion was moved by truck from Torokina to the Jaba River and then moved by barge along the Empress Augusta Bay coast , landing at Mawaraka from where they advanced towards Mosigetta , and the 61st Infantry Battalion also proceeded towards there , setting off from the junction of the Jaba and Pagana Rivers while the 2 / 8th Commando Squadron provided flank security further to the east . Elements of the 1st New Guinea Infantry Battalion also conducted a landing on the coast , on the 25th Battalion 's left flank , to the north of Toko , and advanced to Makaku and then towards Mosigetta .
On 4 March , a company from the 25th Infantry Battalion crossed the Puriata River southward — at the point where the Buin Road crossed — on a north @-@ facing bend , later known as Galvin 's Crossing . The following day the Japanese were forced off a small knoll close to the river and the road , about 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) south of the crossing . On 6 March , Japanese shelling of the knoll wounded an Australian , Private Carl Slater , who held his post until relieved . The only casualty during this period , the knoll was named after him as a result . Throughout March , the 25th Infantry Battalion continued to expand its perimeter , to the north and south , along the Buin Road , while the 9th moved west from Mosigetta to link up with them and the 61st skirted east around Makapeka . By late march , though , heavy rain temporarily stopped the Australian advance , as the main road became impassable due to thick mud .
Although the Japanese sporadically shelled the knoll during March , there were no further Australian casualties . The 25th Infantry Battalion , which had established its headquarters and main defensive position around the knoll , in front of the Puriata River , sent out patrols every day , and on 9 March , one of these reported having killed 10 Japanese soldiers without loss to itself . The Japanese also began making dawn attacks , in which light machine gunners would approach by stealth , set up and fire on the Australian positions , then retire to their own lines , 250 yd ( 230 m ) away . As the advance was halted , the Australians began to expect a major attack in the area of the knoll .
The Japanese launched a number of attacks on the Australians between 15 and 17 March . Under fire from three sides and in danger of being enveloped , on 19 March the Australians launched an attack of their own along the Buin Road , and although they had some success in clearing the forward Japanese positions , they then encountered a system of pillboxes and trenches around the Hatai Road junction . The 25th Infantry Battalion 's commander , McKinna , ordered the two platoons led by Lieutenant Dick Jefferies to attack the pillboxes , supported by a section of machine guns , and several PIAT anti @-@ tank weapons . A two @-@ hour fire @-@ fight and a bayonet charge followed . This attack was ultimately beaten back by the defenders with the loss of eight Australians killed and 14 wounded . A second attack was launched on 22 March . Supported by heavy artillery , mortar and machine gun support , it proved successful , largely after the individual efforts of Corporal Reg Rattey , who single @-@ handedly silenced several bunkers himself .
As the Australians began to prepare for the next stage of the offensive , important intelligence confirmed that the Japanese were planning a large @-@ scale counterattack in the area . Believing that the Australian forces in the area surrounding the knoll were limited to just 400 men and observing that the Australians had not had time to reorganise , the Japanese XVII Army commander — Lieutenant General Masatane Kanda — ordered the 6th Division commander — Akinaga — to delay the Australian advance towards the south . Akinaga assessed that a counterattack against the Australian forces at this point with the entire weight of his division might be successful at this time and consequently he gave the order for his division to begin an attack across the Puriata . Akinaga planned to commit 2 @,@ 000 men to the assault , while 1 @,@ 300 would be held back to act as ammunition carriers .
According to Karl James , no detailed orders were produced for the attack and deliberate planning was hastily completed with little or no co @-@ ordination between the attacking infantry regiments . In addition , to increase the size of the infantry force , troops from the field artillery regiment were quickly re @-@ roled as riflemen . In the meantime , the Australians on Slater 's Knoll , having been alerted to the possibility of a large @-@ scale attack began adjusting their defences . The soldiers cleared fields off fire and set out clear engagement areas to the north , northwest and south of the knoll , to allow maximum effectiveness of their supporting Vickers medium machine guns and Bren light machine guns . Barbed wire was laid out , and booby traps set .
= = Battle = =
= = = Probing raids = = =
The main attack was planned for 1 April , but as the various Japanese units moved into position , a number of minor probes were made by elements of the Japanese 6th Engineer Regiment in the Australian rear areas and along their line of communications . The first raid came on the night of 27 / 28 March , when a force of about 100 Japanese exploited a gap between the 25th Infantry Battalion 's main defensive position and its ' B ' Echelon — which included its transport and logistics elements and was protected by a company from the 61st Infantry Battalion — fixed bayonets and then assaulted the rear of the Australian perimeter . The Australians had been alerted to their approach after the communication line between the two positions had been cut , and when the attack began the men had already been roused and the weapons pits fully manned . As a result , the attack failed and was turned back . A number of Japanese survivors managed to dig @-@ in near the perimeter and later fired upon the Australian clearing patrol that was sent out the following morning , as well as snipe at the company defending ' B ' Echelon 's position . Afterwards , the Australians counted 19 dead Japanese around their position , while they also managed to capture one of the wounded . Against this , the 25th Infantry Battalion had lost three killed and seven wounded .
Another probe was made early on the morning of 28 March on the positions of the Australian 5th Field Battery , whose eight guns were located east of Toko , on the west bank of the Puriata river from where they could provide defensive fires in support of the 25th Infantry Battalion 's main positions on the knoll . Shortly before dawn one of the booby traps that the Australians had set around their perimeter to provide early warning was set off and one of the sentries opened fire upon what he believed to be a Japanese probe . A short time later , a small section of Japanese stumbled into one of the forward positions and fire was exchanged . Later , as a team was sent out to disarm the remaining booby traps , this team was fired upon and sporadic fighting continued until midday .
That evening , around 23 : 00 , the 9th Infantry Battalion 's rear echelon at Barara , along the Toko – Mosigetta – Buin Road , came under attack . Under the command of the battalion second @-@ in @-@ command , and possessing only four Bren light machine guns for direct fire support , they were nevertheless able to hold off the initial attack . Following this , sporadic fighting continued into the early morning , when at 04 : 45 on 29 March a force of about 100 Japanese attacked the position supported by sustained machine gun and rifle fire . Rushing the Australian position with bayonets , they were beaten back by stiff defence and fell back from the position , leaving behind 23 dead but taking their wounded with them . Four Australians were wounded in this encounter .
Throughout 29 March , the Japanese continued the tactic of using small @-@ scale attacks to test the Australian defences and isolate the 25th Infantry Battalion 's forward companies from its headquarters and rear . Over the course of the morning and into the afternoon , one of its companies was probed , while the headquarters also came under attack . The company from the 61st Infantry Battalion protecting the 25th Infantry Battalion 's line of communications also came under attack from the 70 Japanese that were believed to be entrenched between the ' B ' Echelon and the 25th 's main positions , suffering two killed and two wounded . Later , it became clear to the Australians that the Japanese were preparing for a major attack against Slater 's Knoll , following the capture of a Japanese sergeant who confirmed that the probes were , in the words of Gavin Long , the " prelude to a full @-@ scale offensive " .
These probes intensified on 30 March , as one of the 25th Infantry Battalion 's companies was strongly attacked by the Japanese . The Australian position had been weakened by having about a third of its strength out on patrol at the time of the attack . Unable to return to the perimeter while the company was under fire , they were forced to link up with one of the other companies further north . Meanwhile , the company was attacked four times throughout the day . The first three attacks were repulsed before the last attack came at 13 : 00 , preceded by a heavy mortar bombardment . Twelve Japanese were killed in the attack , while one Australian was killed and two were missing in action . Nevertheless , the Australian position had been made untenable and they were forced to withdraw and link up with the company to the north . In doing so they left behind three mortars and a quantity of ammunition which the Japanese later brought into action against them .
Communications between the brigade and battalion headquarters and the forward company positions broke down at this stage and runners had to be despatched to pass a message asking for artillery support . Meanwhile , the supply situation for the Australians also became desperate as they had consumed all of their rations and had run out of water . The water situation was solved by digging a well within the perimeter , but it became clear that reinforcements were required . The Australian divisional commander , Bridgeford , subsequently placed a squadron of Matilda tanks under Major Kenneth Arnott from the 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment at the 7th Brigade commander 's disposal , and over the course of the day these tanks were brought up towards the 25th 's position from Toko where they had been put ashore from landing craft . Engineers were used to bridge a number of creeks and streams , while bulldozers were also employed to improve the terrain or to pull the tanks along when they were unable move under their own power .
This was the first time tanks had been used in the campaign and the going was slow . By 19 : 00 on 30 March they reached the ' B ' Echelon position . Early on 31 March the tanks moved up to the battalion headquarters on Slater 's Knoll where they were escorted by a platoon from the headquarters company and moved out again , once again using bulldozers to improve the ground in front of them . Just as they did , the Japanese launched an attack on one of the isolated companies . When they were 400 yd ( 370 m ) from the forward positions , the infantry deployed to the left and right of the tanks and they began their advance to contact , arriving just in time to help defeat the Japanese attack .
As the forward companies began to move back towards the main defensive position , jeeps were sent up to collect the wounded while McKinna led a force of two platoons and two tanks out to the perimeter at the Hatai junction . There they were able to reclaim the mortars that had earlier been abandoned and destroyed them so that they could not be used against the Australians again , but the jeeps carrying the wounded ran into a Japanese ambush in which five Australians were killed . McKinna then organised a quick counterattack , taking a force up the road along with three tanks and subsequently attacking the ambushing force , killing 11 , before forming a harbour around the tanks for the night .
= = = First major assault = = =
The next morning , 1 April , the Australians extended across the Kero Creek and advanced north to the Puriata where they established a perimeter 1 @,@ 000 yd ( 910 m ) south of Slater 's Knoll . Around 12 : 00 , the Japanese 6th Field Artillery Regiment , whose gunners had been converted to the role of infantry , set up a form @-@ up position 50 m ( 55 yd ) to the front of the Australian company holding the perimeter to the south of Slater ’ s Knoll at a location the Japanese called Pain , which lay along the Buin Road . Before the attack could be launched , the Australians detected the movement of the Japanese and began firing upon them . Shortly after 12 : 40 , the Japanese gunners launched their assault . Firing their weapons from the hip , they rushed the Australian position , forcing the defenders to withdraw , leaving a number of dead and wounded . That evening , the Australians launched a series of determined counterattacks in order to re @-@ establish contact between Slater 's Knoll and the forward companies , however , these were turned back .
Meanwhile , the Japanese 23rd Infantry Regiment , which had advanced on the right flank from Barara attempted to move on Slater 's Knoll from the north . Finding its way blocked by wire obstacles and lacking the equipment necessary to remove them , it was forced to halt its advance and cover the flank of Colonel Toyoji Muta 's 13th Infantry Regiment , which was attempting to launch an assault across the Puriata . At this point , the river was about 100 m ( 110 yd ) across and 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) deep , while the opposite bank was about 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) high . The crossing began at 03 : 00 on 1 April , and the three battalions made heavy work of it . When they were halfway across , the two forward battalions were spotted by the Australians in the moonlight and engaged with machine gun and rifle fire . The Japanese quickly deployed and attempted to launch an attack ; however , in the confusion the 1st Battalion , 23rd Infantry Regiment was cut off from the rest of the assault force . As daylight came , the Australians were able to call down mortar fire on the Japanese , causing considerable casualties . Running low on ammunition and having suffered considerable losses , the 23rd Infantry were forced to withdraw . The 1st Battalion remained cut off until the evening of 1 April , when it was able to re @-@ establish contact with the other two battalions and report to the divisional commander that the attack had been unsuccessful .
= = = Lull in the battle and secondary attack = = =
On 2 April , the Japanese divisional commander , Akanaga , called the 13th and 23rd Infantry Regiments back across the Puriata , to a position south @-@ west of the Pain feature . At this point , the decision was made to launch a fresh attack aimed at taking Slater 's Knoll and eliminating the Australian forces in the area surrounding the Puriata ford . The attack was scheduled for 5 April , and over the course of the following three days , contact was minimal . In this time , there were a few minor skirmishes , and small groups of Japanese were seen by the Australians around Barara , Slater 's Knoll and Mosigetta . As further intelligence reports came in , it became clear to the Australian commanders that the Japanese were about to deliver the main attack .
On the night of 4 / 5 April , the Japanese heavily shelled the Australian artillery battery , while communications between brigade headquarters and the 25th Infantry Battalion headquarters were severed , as were the lines from the 25th Infantry Battalion 's headquarters to its forward companies . Suspecting that the attack was about to commence , runners were sent and the men defending Slater 's Knoll , now consisting of a force of only 129 men from ' B ' Company , stood @-@ to .
At 05 : 00 on 5 April , the Japanese launched an attack from the north . This was followed almost simultaneously by a stronger attack from the south @-@ west . For the next 80 minutes , 900 – 1 @,@ 100 Japanese from the 13th and 23rd Infantry Regiments attacked the small Australian force in waves . They overwhelmed the Australian forward positions , but finding their way blocked by wire obstacles and lacking any equipment to deal with them the Japanese attack stalled . Quickly , the situation was turned back in favour of the Australians , and the Japanese were cut down by heavy defensive artillery fire and by well @-@ sited machine guns . A further attack was launched by a smaller force along the Buin Road and aimed at two of the forward companies positioned there . This attack was beaten back also . After regrouping , the surviving members of the 13th Infantry Regiment began preparing for a final charge , determined to fight to the last man . Their commander , Muta , in a final act of defiance wrapped his unit 's banner around his waist and armed himself with a grenade with which to blow himself up during the assault . Elsewhere , the remaining officers of the 23rd Infantry made a pact to hurl themselves against the Australians one last time in a suicidal charge . Nevertheless , Akinaga , realising that further assaults were futile finally dispatched the order to cancel the attack . At around 08 : 30 , the Australians realised that the Japanese had decided that they had had enough . Just after midday , two tanks were dispatched from the ' B ' Echelon perimeter , escorted by a company from the 61st Infantry Battalion , arriving on the knoll by 13 : 45 where they were used as fire support as the Australians began to carry out mopping up operations , flushing out small groups of survivors all around the position .
= = Aftermath = =
The day after the final Japanese assault on the knoll , 292 dead Japanese were counted around ' B ' Company 's perimeter . In total , over the course of the battle , the Australians counted 620 Japanese killed , and estimated that another 1 @,@ 000 had probably been wounded . Information obtained from captured Japanese clarified that the Australians had come up against a force of at least 2 @,@ 400 troops . The commander of the 23rd Infantry Regiment , Lieutenant Colonel Kawano Koji , was among the dead , as was a senior divisional staff officer , Lieutenant Colonel Honda Matsuo . Four wounded Japanese were also taken prisoner of war . Casualties for the Australians included 10 officers and 179 other ranks killed or wounded , while there had been a further 81 Australians evacuated due to non @-@ combat related issues . Wartime Japanese casualty estimates vary from these figures , though , claiming to have killed 1 @,@ 800 Australians , while placing their own losses at 280 killed and 320 wounded . Long argues that these figures are problematic , as based upon the same report , the Japanese believed that there were only 400 Australians in the region during the battle , and yet they claimed to have killed almost five times that number .
The result of the battle had a profound effect on the Japanese commanders . According to James , Kanda had been " so certain of victory ... [ he ] ... had not developed any plans for ... subsequent activities " . Nevertheless , after the battle , the Japanese forces in the area pulled back to the Hongorai River , where they were reorganised due to the heavy losses , with several infantry , engineer and artillery units being amalgamated . Lacking food , suffering the effects of disease , and isolated from home , morale amongst the Japanese troops fell heavily , with many realising that the war was lost . There was an increase in desertions at this time , although the vast majority continued to fight , if only because they were under orders to do so .
Operationally , the battle proved to the Australian high command how effective armour could be when used in close co @-@ operation with infantry and in protecting the lines of communication . The use of machine gun carriers to carry out the wounded had also been quite effective . While the Japanese soldiers and officers on the ground fought bravely , continuing the assault even when it was clear it had failed , ultimately the battle proved to be a decisive Australian victory ; however , James notes that poor planning and unreliable communications had also contributed to the result . Long goes on to argue that if the Japanese commander had been more flexible in his tactics , the result might have been different . The Australian right flank had been vulnerable , but Akinaga did not exploit this opportunity .
There were tactical deficiencies as well , particularly the predictability of cutting Australian signals lines just before an attack and bunching together in tight groups during an assault , allowing the Australians to take full toll with their machine guns . The Australian commander of the 25th Infantry Battalion , McKinna , had spread his companies out effectively and went forward to direct the fighting at several points . Fields of fire had been cleared , perimeters set and patrolling had been maintained . Nevertheless , the Australians had also failed to seize opportunities as they arose , for after the battle they did not follow up their success immediately . After the failure of the final assault , the Japanese had possessed no forces in the immediate vicinity that would have been capable of resisting any follow up forces that the Australians might have been able to bring up and it is possible that an advance could have been carried all the way to the Hongorai River . As it was , however , the Australian line of supply was stretched and it was necessary for a pause before the advance could continue in earnest .
In the days immediately after the battle , the Australians continued to carry out patrolling operations around the knoll . On 7 April , a patrol from the 9th Infantry Battalion clashed with a Japanese force of about 30 men and in the ensuing engagement four Japanese were killed , while a patrol from the 61st Infantry Battalion on 8 April killed another five . On 13 April , the order was given that the 7th Brigade would be gradually withdrawn and relieved by the 15th . Shortly afterwards , the 58th / 59th Infantry Battalion replaced the 25th in occupation of the knoll , while the 24th Infantry Battalion resumed the advance along the Buin Road on 17 April , subsequently taking part in the fighting along the Hongorai River . The 9th Infantry Battalion , however , was not withdrawn immediately , and remained in the northern area until it handed over to the 57th / 60th Infantry Battalion in early May . The fighting on Bougainville continued throughout April as the Japanese resisted the Australian advance and went on until July when the fighting petered out due to heavy rain and flooding .
After the war , the battle honour of " Slater 's Knoll " was awarded to the 25th Infantry Battalion and the 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment . Neither the 9th or 61st Infantry Battalions were similarly credited , although according to Gordon Maitland there seems to be no explanation as to why . For his actions during the attack on the Japanese pillboxes on 22 March , Rattey later received the Victoria Cross . Initially , his battalion commander , McKinna , had nominated him for the lesser Distinguished Conduct Medal , but on review by the Field , the brigade commander , the nomination was elevated . It was subsequently announced in the London Gazette in July 1945 .
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= Barthélemy Boganda =
Barthélemy Boganda ( 4 April 1910 – 29 March 1959 ) was the leading nationalist politician of what is now the Central African Republic . Boganda was active prior to his country 's independence , during the period when the area , part of French Equatorial Africa , was administered by France under the name of Oubangui @-@ Chari . He served as the first Prime Minister of the Central African Republic autonomous territory .
Boganda was born into a family of subsistence farmers , and was adopted and educated by Roman Catholic Church missionaries . In 1938 , he was ordained as the first Roman Catholic priest from Oubangui @-@ Chari . During World War II , Boganda served in a number of missions and after was persuaded by the Bishop of Bangui to enter politics . In 1946 , he became the first Oubanguian elected to the French National Assembly , where he maintained a political platform against racism and the colonial regime . He then returned to Oubangui @-@ Chari to form a grassroots movement in opposition of French colonialism . The movement led to the 1949 foundation of the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa ( MESAN ) , which became popular among villagers and the working class . Boganda 's reputation was slightly damaged when he was laicized from the priesthood after marrying Michelle Jourdain , a parliamentary secretary . Nonetheless , he continued to advocate for equal treatment and civil rights for blacks in the territory well into the 1950s .
In 1958 , after the French Fourth Republic began to consider granting independence to most of its African colonies , Boganda met with Prime Minister Charles de Gaulle to discuss terms for the independence of Oubangui @-@ Chari . De Gaulle accepted Boganda 's terms , and on 1 December , Boganda declared the establishment of the Central African Republic . He became the autonomous territory 's first Prime Minister and intended to serve as the first President of the independent CAR . He was killed in a mysterious plane crash on 29 March 1959 , while en route to Bangui . Experts found a trace of explosives in the plane 's wreckage , but revelation of this detail was withheld . Although those responsible for the crash were never identified , people have suspected the French secret service , and even Boganda 's wife , of being involved . Slightly more than one year later , Boganda 's dream was realized , when the Central African Republic attained formal independence from France .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Boganda was born to a family of subsistence farmers in Bobangui , a large M 'Baka village in the Lobaye basin located at the edge of the equatorial forest some 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) southwest of Bangui . French commercial exploitation of Central Africa had reached an apogee around the time of Boganda 's birth , and although interrupted by World War I , activity resumed in the 1920s . The French consortia used what was essentially a form of slavery — the corvée — and one of the most notorious was the Compagnie forestière de la Sangha @-@ Oubangui , involved in rubber gathering in the Lobaye district .
In the late 1920s , Boganda 's mother was beaten to death by the company 's officials while collecting rubber in the forest . His uncle , whose son Jean @-@ Bédel Bokassa would later crown himself as the Emperor of the Central African Empire , was beaten to death at the colonial police station as a result of his alleged resistance to work . Boganda 's father was a witch doctor who had engaged in cannibalistic rituals .
During his early years , Boganda was adopted by Catholic missionaries . As a boy he attended the school opened at Mbaiki ( the administrative centre for the Lobaye prefecture ) by the post 's founder , Lieutenant Mayer . From December 1921 to December 1922 , he spent two hours a day with Monsignor Jean @-@ Réné Calloch learning how to read , while spending the rest of his time performing manual labour . On December 24 , he was received into the church under the name Barthélemy , in honour of one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ who was believed to have worked as Christian missionary in Africa . Father Gabriel Herrau sent Boganda to the Catholic School of Betou and then to the school of the Saint Paul Mission at Bangui , where he completed his primary studies under Mgr Calloch , whom he would consider his spiritual father . The missionaries there , encouraged by his intellectual promise and pious demeanour , helped him continue secondary studies at small seminaries in Brazzaville and Kisantu ( under Belgian Jesuits ) before he moved on to the great seminary at Yaoundé . On 17 March 1938 , fulfilling an ambition he had had since age twelve , he was ordained and became the first Roman Catholic priest native to Oubangui @-@ Chari , as the colony was then called . He ministered at Bangui , Grimari and Bangassou , and in 1939 , his bishop denied his request to join the French Army . He was needed at home , as many Frenchmen involved with the church had been recalled to the metropole to fight in World War II , during which he served in a number of missions .
= = = Beginnings in politics and marriage = = =
After World War II , Boganda was urged by the Bishop of Bangui , Mgr Grandin , to complement his humanitarian and social works through political action . Boganda decided to run for election to the National Assembly of France . On 10 November 1946 , he became the first Oubanguian elected to the assembly after winning almost half of the total votes cast and defeating three other candidates , including the outgoing incumbent , François Joseph Reste , who had formerly served as the Governor @-@ General of French Equatorial Africa . Boganda arrived in Paris attired in his clerical garb and introduced himself to his fellow legislators as the son of a polygamous cannibal . From 1947 on , Boganda conducted a lively campaign against racism and the colonial regime . Soon realizing the limits of his influence in France ( he served in parliament until 1958 but gradually detached himself from its activities ) , he returned to Oubangui @-@ Chari to organise a grassroots movement of teachers , truck drivers and small producers to oppose French colonialism , although his previous attempt to set up a marketing cooperative among African planters of his own ethnicity had failed . On 28 September 1949 , at Bangui , he founded the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa ( MESAN ) , a quasi @-@ religious political movement and party that sought to affirm black humanity and quickly came to dominate local politics . His political creed was summed up in the Sango phrase " zo kwe zo " , which translated to " every human being is a person " . Effectively , he was looking for equal treatment and civil rights for blacks within the French Union rather than independence , at least for the time being . He demarginalised large masses of people — women , youth , workers , poor cultivators — with the intent of unleashing the creativity of the Oubanguian people by placing them centre stage in the making of their country 's history .
The movement was more popular among villagers than among évolué townsmen , whom Boganda considered servile and to whom he applied the derogatory term " Mboundjou @-@ Voko " ( " Black @-@ Whites " ) . Additionally , he created the Intergroupe Liberal Oubanguien ( ILO ) in 1953 , which aimed to elect an equal number of black and white politicians to the assembly , so that a united electoral college could be established . MESAN 's activities angered the French administration and the companies trading in cotton , coffee , diamonds and other commodities . The Bangui chamber of commerce was controlled by these companies , and the men who gathered at this club strongly resented the demise of forced labour and the resultant rise of black nationalism . They hated Boganda in particular , viewing him as a dangerous revolutionary demagogue and a threat to their " free enterprise " , and they resolved to get rid of him . They also set up local RPF branches to counter MESAN , and the presence of African Democratic Rally ( RDA ) in the other three territories of French Equatorial Africa posed some menace for MESAN , but by 1958 , although other parties were allowed , they had been reduced to tiny groups . On many occasions , General Charles de Gaulle expressed his sympathy for Oubangui @-@ Chari , which had supported de Gaulle 's Free French Forces as early as August 1940 , and refused to support the violent intrigues of the RPF against Boganda and his men . He received Boganda , by then head of the Grand Council of French Equatorial Africa and pushing for independence , in Paris in July 1958 and was in turn received at Brazzaville in August . The discussions there led to the General accepting Boganda 's demands for independence and the endorsement of the French Community in September throughout French Equatorial Africa .
Boganda 's attachment to his chosen calling weakened when he met and fell in love with a young Frenchwoman , Michelle Jourdain , who was employed as a parliamentary secretary . They were married on 13 June 1950 , for which Boganda was expelled from the priesthood and cut off from the Catholic hierarchy 's support . Boganda and Jourdain would later have two daughters and a son . The affair caused a minor scandal in Paris , but it did little to dent his popularity with his people . In the National Assembly he continued to battle , often in vain , against repressive features of the French administration in Oubangui @-@ Chari . Arbitrary arrest , low wages , compulsory cotton cultivation , and the exclusion of blacks from restaurants and cinemas were all targets of his rhetoric .
= = = Increasing popularity and move toward autonomy = = =
On 29 March 1951 , Boganda was sentenced to two months in prison following his arrest on 10 January for " endangering the peace " after intervening in a local market dispute ( the " Bokanga incident " in Lobaye ) . His wife was sentenced to 15 days in prison , but neither served their terms . On 17 June , he was re @-@ elected to the National Assembly with 48 % of the vote despite the obstacles placed in his way by the administration and strong opposition by the authorities , colonists , and the missions , with two prominent French candidates seeking to oust him . At this time , he emerged as an extraordinarily popular messianic folk hero and his country 's leading nationalist ; MESAN became the majority party in the Territorial Assembly elections in March 1952 . In this period he divided his time between his coffee plantation , his emancipation work and new political positions . In April 1954 , an incident that would showcase Boganda 's talent and appeal with crowds erupted at Berbérati . A white public works agent , who had recently been reprimanded for his brutality toward Africans , announced that his cook and the cook 's wife had died . A riot broke out and the governor sent in parachutists while armoured vehicles patrolled the streets . Boganda hesitated to appear in a village that was not one of his strongholds , but did so anyway and declared before the rioters that justice would be the same for blacks and whites . Upon hearing Boganda 's words , the crowd became calm and dispersed .
He played a crucial role at the beginning of internal autonomy ( 1956 – 1958 ) , although the relatively conservative Boganda remained sympathetic to French interests and still did not advocate immediate independence . For Boganda , the 1956 election , in which he took 89 % of the vote against another Oubanguian , was an uncontested speaker 's platform with which the colonial administration had come to terms ; the French had realised that opposing him would be dangerous and sought to accommodate him . That year he agreed to European representation on election lists in exchange for the financial support of French business leaders , and on 18 November , was elected as the first mayor of Bangui . On 31 March 1957 , MESAN won all seats in the Territorial Assembly election ; on 18 June , Boganda was elected president of the Grand Council of French Equatorial Africa ( a forum he used to broadcast his views on African unity ) and in May was appointed vice @-@ president of the Oubangui @-@ Chari Government Council ( the French governor was still its president ) .
A pragmatist , Boganda spoke before the local assembly on 30 December 1957 in praise of the new Comité de Salut Economique , which envisioned joint administration of the economy between French colonials and MESAN territorial councilors ( he called it " the union of capital and Oubanguian labour " ) , but lack of French investment and opposition by Oubanguians soon led him to turn away from the idea . With the numerous declarations of independence being made in much of Francophone Africa , Boganda advised that an independent Oubangui @-@ Chari would face major economic problems from the onset . Instead , he advocated the independence of all of French Equatorial Africa and its integration into a United States of Latin Africa comprising the former French , Belgian , and Portuguese colonies of Central Africa ; he intended for Oubangui @-@ Chari to become a federal unit within that structure . However , such a federation proved unrealistic , foundering on the rocks of regional jealousy and personal ambition , and Boganda came to accept a constitution covering only Oubangui @-@ Chari as the Central African Republic . Thus , after 1 December 1958 , when Boganda declared the establishment of the Central African Republic as an autonomous member of the French Community , the name was applied only to the former Oubangui @-@ Chari . On 8 December , the CAR 's first government came into being with Boganda as prime minister ; a French governor remained in the country but was now called high commissioner . The new government began by adopting a law banning nudity and vagabondage , Boganda 's missionary education still showing through . Its main task , however , was to draw up a constitution , which was democratic and modelled to some extent on that of France ; this was approved by the assembly on 16 February 1959 . Formal independence came later , on 13 August 1960 .
= = = Death and aftermath = = =
Boganda was poised to become the first president of the independent CAR when he boarded a plane at Berbérati for a flight to Bangui on 29 March 1959 , just prior to legislative elections . The aircraft exploded in midair over Boukpayanga in the sub @-@ prefecture of Boda ( about 160 kilometres ( 100 mi ) west of Bangui ) , killing all passengers and crew . No clear cause has ever been ascertained for the mysterious crash and no commission of inquiry was ever formed ; sabotage was widely suspected . The nation was shocked at the death of its revered leader , whose funeral on April 2 at the cathedral of Notre @-@ Dame de Bangui saw a great outpouring of grief from thousands of Oubanguians . The 7 May edition of the Paris weekly L 'Express revealed that experts had found traces of explosive in the wreckage , but the French high commissioner banned the sale of that magazine edition when it appeared in the CAR . Many suspected that expatriate businessmen from the Bangui chamber of commerce , possibly aided by the French secret service , played a role . Michelle Jourdain was also suspected of being involved : by 1959 , relations between Boganda and his wife had deteriorated , and he thought of leaving her and returning to the priesthood . She had a large insurance policy on his life , taken just days before the accident . According to Brian Titley , author of Dark Age : The Political Odyssey of Emperor Bokassa , there are good reasons for suspecting her involvement in the plane crash .
Abel Goumba , the vice @-@ premier and finance minister whom Titley describes as " intelligent , honest , and strongly nationalistic " , emerged as Boganda 's logical successor . However , his close confidant and cousin , interior minister David Dacko , more likely to lead a regime deferential to foreign interests , was backed by the high commissioner , Colonel Roger Barberot , with the support of the chamber of commerce and Michelle Jourdain . He thus brushed aside Goumba and by 1962 had shut down the opposition , with MESAN becoming the country 's single party . The events after Boganda 's death are strongly evocative of other French efforts to maintain economic domination by ensuring that compliant leaders came to power in its former colonies . It also robbed the country of a charismatic leader in the Houphouët @-@ Boigny or Senghor mould , whose prestige alone might have sufficed to retain civilian rule , which ended when Bokassa deposed the unpopular Dacko in 1966 .
= = Legacy = =
Boganda is not only considered the hero and father of his nation but also as one of the great leaders of decolonization in Africa ; the historian Georges Chaffard described him after his death as " the most prestigious and the most capable of Equatorial political men , " while political historian Gérard Prunier called him " probably the most gifted and most inventive of French Africa 's decolonization generation of politicians . " Among the places named after him are an avenue in Bangui , one of the city 's largest high schools , a Château Boganda and Barthélemy Boganda Stadium . March 29 , the anniversary of his death , is Boganda Day , a public holiday . Boganda was also the designer of the flag of the Central African Republic , originally intended for the United States of Latin Africa .
Boganda is one in a long line of African political leaders who , in an attempt to develop specifically national political cultures , were presented ( or presented themselves ) as the great national leader , glorified and sometimes nearly deified . They were hailed as the fathers of their nations and considered wise in the ways of understanding the best interests of their peoples . Others who became particular objects of hero @-@ worship include Léopold Sédar Senghor , Félix Houphouët @-@ Boigny , Moktar Ould Daddah , Ahmed Sékou Touré , Modibo Keïta , Léon M 'ba and Daniel Ouezzin Coulibaly . Boganda did little to discourage wide circulation of tales about his supernatural powers , putative invulnerability and even immortality . Shortly before his death , a large crowd waited on the shore of the Ubangui River to see him cross by walking upon the waters . He did not show up , but apparently a good many people still believed that he could have made the miraculous crossing . More than just a charismatic political leader , he was seen as the " black Christ " , a great religious figure endowed with extraordinary powers . Along with Congo @-@ Brazzaville 's Fulbert Youlou , who remained a priest while president , Boganda was not particularly concerned with his religious mission once he entered politics , but he unabashedly used the enormous popular respect for the Church and the cloth to political advantage . He successfully manipulated religious symbols ( clerical garb , crosses , baptism , disciples , acolytes , etc . ) for political purposes .
Once he died , his mystique grew : he was a national martyr , and miracles were regularly attributed to him . The Boganda myth continues to exercise a strong hold on many people in the CAR , and it has frequently been used by his successors in their appeals for national unity . Those who were related to him even tenuously , such as Bokassa ( who was from the same village and minority ethnic group , was the son of his mother 's uncle , justified his coup using Boganda 's name and created a cult of Boganda as founder of the party and state ) , or Dacko ( who posed as the ideological successor of Boganda by championing for " national reconciliation " during the 1981 election ) were able to capture some of his aura and use it to their advantage .
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= SpongeBob SquarePants ( season 5 ) =
The fifth season of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants , created by former marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg , aired on Nickelodeon from February 19 , 2007 to July 19 , 2009 , and contained 20 episodes , beginning with the special episode " Friend or Foe " . The series chronicles the exploits and adventures of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom . The season was executive produced by series creator Hillenburg and writer Paul Tibbitt , who also acted as the showrunner .
The show itself received several recognition , including the Kids ' Choice Awards for Favorite Cartoon in 2009 and 2010 . At the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards , the episodes " The Inmates of Summer " and " The Two Faces of Squidward " were nominated for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) , but lost to The Simpsons episode " Eternal Moonshine of the Simpson Mind " . The episode " Dear Vikings " was nominated at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Special Class - Short @-@ Format Animated Programs . The show won the 2007 BAFTA Children 's Awards for the International category . Tom Kenny was nominated at the 35th Annie Awards for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Television Production for his role as SpongeBob SquarePants in the episode " Spy Buddies " . Furthermore , Alan Smart was also nominated at the 36th Annie Awards for Direction in an Animated Television Production or Short @-@ form for the episode " Penny Foolish " .
Several compilation DVDs that contained episodes from the season were released . The SpongeBob SquarePants : Season 5 , Volume 1 and 2 DVDs were released in Region 1 on September 4 , 2007 and November 18 , 2008 , respectively , while the complete season set was released in Region 2 on November 3 , 2008 and Region 4 on November 7 , 2008 . On November 13 , 2012 , The Complete Fifth Season DVD was released in Region 1 .
= = Production = =
The season aired on Nickelodeon , which is owned by Viacom , and was produced by United Plankton Pictures and Nickelodeon . The season 's executive producers were series creator Stephen Hillenburg and Paul Tibbitt , who also acted as the series ' showrunner . While most episodes consisted of two shorts that were about eleven minutes long or specials that lasted the whole episode , certain episodes were made of one full eleven @-@ minute episode , and two shorts , one of which was seven minutes long and the other only four minutes long . The animation was handled overseas in South Korea at Rough Draft Studios . Throughout the series run , from 1999 to 2008 , SpongeBob SquarePants was drawn and animated using pencils . In 2008 , the crew shifted and used Wacom Cintiqs for the drawings , instead of pencils . The episode " Pest of the West " was the first episode in the series that the crew used it . Series background designer Kenny Pittenger said that " the only real difference between the way we draw now and the way we drew then is that we abandoned pencil and paper during the fifth season . " The crew began the shift while they were working on the episode . Pittenger said that " it was while we were working on ' Pest of the West ' , one of the half @-@ hour specials , that we made the switch ... did you notice ? " The shift to Wacom Cintiqs let the designers and animators draw on computer screen and make immediate changes or undo mistakes . Pittenger said " Many neo @-@ Luddites — er ... I mean , many of my cohorts — don 't like working on them , but I find them useful . There 's no substitute for the immediacy of drawing on a piece of paper , of course , but digital nautical nonsense is still pretty fun . "
Animation directors credited with episodes in the fifth season included Larry Leichliter , Andrew Overtoom , Alan Smart , and Tom Yasumi . Episodes were written by a team of writers , which consisted of Casey Alexander , Steven Banks , Charlie Bean , Luke Brookshier , Nate Cash , Zeus Cervas , Tim Hill , Tom King , Dani Michaeli , Greg Miller , Chris Mitchell , Mike Mitchell , Richard Pursel , Chris Reccardi , Eric Shaw , Aaron Springer , and Tuck Tucker . The season was storyboarded by Alexander , Bean , Brookshier , Cash , Cervas , King , Miller , Chris Mitchell , Mike Mitchell , Reccardi , Springer , and Tucker .
= = Cast = =
The fifth season had a cast of six main actors . Tom Kenny provided the voice of the title character SpongeBob SquarePants and his pet snail Gary . SpongeBob 's best friend , starfish named Patrick Star , was voiced by Bill Fagerbakke , while Rodger Bumpass played the voice of Squidward Tentacles , an arrogant and ill @-@ tempered octopus . Other members of the cast were Carolyn Lawrence as Sandy Cheeks , a squirrel from Texas ; Clancy Brown as Mr. Krabs , a miserly crab obsessed with money and SpongeBob 's boss at the Krusty Krab ; and Mr. Lawrence as Plankton , a small green copepod and Mr. Krabs ' business rival . The season had a number of secondary characters including Jill Talley as Plankton 's computer wife , Karen ; Mary Jo Catlett as Mrs. Puff , SpongeBob 's driving instructor ; Lori Alan as Pearl , Mr. Krabs ' daughter ; and Brian Doyle @-@ Murray as the Flying Dutchman .
In addition to the regular cast members , episodes feature guest voices from many ranges of professions , including actors , musicians , and artists . For instance , in the episode " The Original Fry Cook " , American comedian and actor Patton Oswalt guest starred as the voice of Jim the Fry Cook . Oswalt reflected on his voice @-@ over work for the episode , saying " The best part was that I sat next to Clancy Brown in the studio . I 'm a big Highlander fan , so to see him do Mr. Krabs was really fun . " In the episode " Night Light " , Ernest Borgnine and Tim Conway returned to reprise their roles as Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy , respectively . It was also guest starred by Mark Hamill as the voice of The Moth . American film and book critic Gene Shalit made a vocal cameo in " The Krusty Sponge " as his " [ fish- ] likeness " , Gene Scallop . In the special episode and television film SpongeBob 's Atlantis SquarePantis , English musician and actor David Bowie guest starred as Lord Royal Highness ( LRH ) . Bowie accepted the role when he was persuaded by his 6 @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Alexandria Zahra , who is a fan of the show . Bowie wrote in his blog that he " [ is ] hit the Holy Grail of animation gigs . We , the family , are thrilled . Nothing else need happen this year , well , this week anyway . " In " BlackJack " , Marion Ross returned to reprise her role as the voice of Grandma SquarePants . The episode was also guest starred by John DiMaggio as BlackJack SquarePants , SpongeBob 's cousin . In " The Inmates of Summer " , R. Lee Ermey appeared as the Prison Warden . In the entry " 20 @,@ 000 Patties Under the Sea " , American musician and Kiss vocalist Gene Simmons guest starred as the Sea Monster , while his wife , Shannon Tweed , voiced the Mother . American Emmy Award winning actor Ray Liotta guest starred in the episode " WhoBob WhatPants ? " as Trevor , the leader of New Kelp City 's Bubble Poppin Boys gang , and the main villain in the episode . In " Banned in Bikini Bottom " , Andrea Martin voiced the character of Ms. Gristlepuss . English @-@ American actor and director Christopher Guest voiced Stanley S. SquarePants , SpongeBob 's cousin , in the episode of the same name .
= = Reception = =
In 2008 , Tom Kenny was nominated at the 35th Annie Awards for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Television Production for his role as SpongeBob SquarePants in the episode " Spy Buddies " . Alan Smart was also nominated at the 36th Annie Awards for Direction in an Animated Television Production or Short @-@ form for the episode " Penny Foolish " . In 2010 , the " SpongeBob vs. The Big One " DVD won the Best Home Entertainment Production category . At the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards , the episodes " The Inmates of Summer " and " The Two Faces of Squidward " were nominated for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) , but lost to The Simpsons episode " Eternal Moonshine of the Simpson Mind " . The episode " Dear Vikings " was nominated at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Special Class - Short @-@ Format Animated Programs ; however , it had no winner as the nominees neither received the necessary 50 percent support . At the BAFTA Children 's Awards , the show won the International category . At the 2008 Golden Reel Awards , the episode " SpongeHenge " won the Best Sound Editing in Television : Animated category . The episode " Suction Cup Symphony " received a nomination at the 2009 Golden Reel Awards for Best Sound Editing : Television Animation , while the episode " SpongeBob vs. The Big One " was also nominated for the same category in 2010 . However , neither of the episodes win . The show itself received several recognition , including the Kids ' Choice Awards for Favorite Cartoon in 2009 and 2010 . The series was nominated for the award in 2008 , but lost to Avatar : The Last Airbender . The series also won the same category at the Philippines Kids ' Choice Awards and Indonesia Kids ' Choice Awards , held in 2008 and 2009 , respectively . At the 2009 ASTRA Awards , the show was nominated for the Favourite International Program category . Furthermore , the show won the Choice TV Animated Show category at the 2009 Teen Choice Awards .
In his review for DVD Talk , Paul Mavis " highly recommended " the Volume 1 season set , saying " [ This ] is another winner from Nickelodeon DVD , and a must @-@ have for parents who can 't get enough of the braying little yellow sponge . Oh yeah ; the kids will probably like it , too . " Mavis also praised the voice actors who contributed on the show , and wrote " As funny as the stories are , and in this collection , there are some real gems , I can 't stress enough the importance of those voice talents in conveying the unhinged , manic quality that is so integral to the success of SpongeBob SquarePants . In a separate review for the Volume 2 DVD , Mavis only " recommended " the set and wrote " SpongeBob may , and I repeat , ' may , ' be starting to level off . " He particularly criticized the later entries as " indication of that potential trend . "
Roy Hrab of DVD Verdict was positive on the season , but wrote " I do not think that adults will be as entertained as in previous seasons . The comedy is more targeted at the kids than in the past . " In particular , Hrab cited the episode " Rise and Shine " as " tiresome ( for adults , anyway ; kids will enjoy it ) . " In conclusion , he said " there 's nothing new here and adults will be disappointed , but the latest installment of SpongeBob SquarePants delivers a lot of silly and good @-@ natured fun for the kids and there 's nothing wrong with that . " In the Volume 2 review also for the DVD Verdict , Dennis Prince said " [ The season ] is not the series ' best work but , nevertheless , is an improvement " . He added " [ It ] delivers more of what SpongeBob fans crave . "
= = Episodes = =
Key
The following episodes listed in the chart are arranged according to their production order , rather than by their original air dates .
= = DVD release = =
The first 20 segment episodes of the fifth season were released on DVD by Paramount Home Entertainment in the United States and Canada on September 4 , 2007 . The " Volume 1 " DVD release features bonus material including " Bubble Burst Trivia " for " Friend or Foe " and " The Krusty Sponge " . The remaining 21 segment episodes of the season were also released under the title " Volume 2 " in the United States and Canada on November 18 , 2008 . In Region 2 and 4 , the DVD release for the season was a complete set . On November 13 , 2012 , The Complete Fifth Season DVD was released in Region 1 , three years after the season had completed broadcast on television .
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= Steve Burdick =
" Steve Burdick " is an episode of the 1990 NBC television series Lifestories , an anthology drama that each week followed a new set of characters dealing with a medical issue . The episode revolves around Burdick ( D. W. Moffett ) , a gay television newsman with AIDS . When his lover dies of the disease , Burdick reveals his own diagnosis on the air to the displeasure of his station manager . The episode was loosely based on Paul Wynne , a newscaster out of San Francisco who died of AIDS in 1990 .
The episode was originally scheduled for December 2 , 1990 . However , NBC pulled the episode , sparking criticism from gay and AIDS activists . The network rescheduled it for December 18 , when Lifestories was changed from being a weekly series to a monthly special . The episode was critically acclaimed , winning a GLAAD Media Award , but financially unsuccessful for the network .
= = Synopsis = =
Steve Burdick is a local television news anchor who keeps his homosexuality private . He and his lover are tested for HIV and both test positive . Burdick struggles to keep himself together as his lover 's health declines . When his lover dies , Burdick breaks down on the air and announces the death and that he too is HIV @-@ positive . Station managers want to fire him , but his producer , Barbara Hudson , convinces the station that AIDS reportage is newsworthy and socially responsible . Burdick 's pieces are tagged with a viewer discretion advisory . He continues to report until he begins to show symptoms of AIDS , at which time the station managers pull him off the air .
= = Cast = =
Robert Prosky – Storyteller ( voice )
D.W. Moffett – Steve Burdick
Joyce Hyser – Barbara Hudson
= = Scheduling controversy = =
" Steve Burdick " was originally scheduled to air on December 2 , 1990 . Had it aired on that date it would have been one of several programs relating to AIDS airing in early December , which is designated World AIDS Month , with December 1 being World AIDS Day . Gay and AIDS activists accused NBC of pulling the episode out of fear of advertiser backlash , a charge that NBC denied . A network spokesperson also denied that network schedulers were aware of World AIDS Month and , in a perhaps unfortunate choice of phrase , characterized the decision to pull the episode as a " straight programming decision " . Series producer Jeffrey Lewis also believed there was an economic motive , saying " I suspect a show about AIDS would not be popular with advertisers — particularly ( when it focused on ) a gay person with AIDS . " NBC changed Lifestories from a weekly series to a monthly one in December and on December 5 confirmed that " Steve Burdick " would be the first of the monthly episodes aired .
= = Reception = =
" Steve Burdick " was well received by critics . The Seattle Times described the episode as " as honest an exploration of AIDS as anything seen on commercial network TV " . Moffett 's performance was singled out for praise , as was Richard Gollance 's script , for " look [ ing ] at a number of aspects of the AIDS problem , exploring a variety of attitudes about it " . The Times marks this as the best episode of the series . The Hartford Courant concurred in this assessment , citing the episode as the most memorable of one of the season 's most daring new series . Gollance 's script was also praised by critic Jon Burlingame , writing for United Features Syndicate , for delivering accurate information on AIDS and HIV . Burlingame called the episode " as much an indictment of commercial television for its skittishness in dealing with the AIDS crisis as it is a show about AIDS patients " and speculated that this may have been the reason NBC initially pulled it . He cited this episode , along with two AIDS @-@ themed episodes of NBC 's Midnight Caller ( themselves the subject of protests from gay and AIDS activists ) , as " network series TV 's finest AIDS @-@ related dramas to date " . Right @-@ wing activists criticized dialogue from the episode in which Burdick overhears his hospital roommate in prayer and admonishes him that he didn 't pay attention well enough in church to learn that God ignores the prayers of " faggots " .
" Steve Burdick " scored a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 7 , equating to approximately 9 @.@ 5 million viewers , and a 17 share , meaning that 17 % of all television sets in use during its time period were tuned to the episode . NBC reported losing $ 500 @,@ 000 in advertising revenue . Speaking of this loss , then @-@ NBC president Warren Littlefield said , at odds with NBC 's earlier denial of possible revenue loss being a factor in its scheduling decision , " There are few things in broadcasting that we know for sure , and one of those is that when you do an episode of any series that deals with AIDS , there is going to be advertiser sensitivity to it . And if you choose to do it anyway , you better count on losing money . "
" Steve Burdick " won a GLAAD Media Award as the best television drama episode of 1990 .
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= New York State Route 73 =
New York State Route 73 ( NY 73 ) is a state highway located entirely within Essex County , New York , in the United States . The highway begins at an intersection with NY 86 in the village of Lake Placid and ends at a junction with U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) north of the hamlet of Underwood in the extreme southwestern corner of the town of Elizabethtown . NY 73 meanders through a mountainous region of Adirondack Park and passes by several named peaks , including Porter Mountain and Lower Wolfjaw Mountain . Along the way , the route has a short concurrency with NY 9N in the town of Keene .
In the early 19th century , Lake Placid and Keene were connected by the North West Bay Road , an east – west highway linking Hopkinton to Westport . The highway was initially a crude , impassable road ; however , it was significantly improved by the state of New York in the mid @-@ 1810s . A highway linking Keene to Underwood was constructed by 1846 ; at Underwood , the road connected to a stagecoach road that went from Albany to the Canadian border . The latter road became the basis for most of modern US 9 .
NY 73 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York from NY 28N in Tahawus to NY 22 in Ticonderoga . The portion of the route from Tahawus to North Hudson followed the Blue Ridge Road ; from North Hudson to Schroon , NY 73 overlapped US 9 . At the time , modern NY 73 was designated as New York State Route 86A from Lake Placid to Keene . By the following year , the remainder of current NY 73 had become New York State Route 427 . NY 73 was cut back to Schroon c . 1936 while NY 427 was replaced by an extended NY 86A c . 1938 . In the 1950s , NY 73 was extended northward to Lake Placid , supplanting NY 86A . The eastern terminus of NY 73 was moved to the vicinity of Underwood c . 1973 , and the former routing of NY 73 from Schroon to Ticonderoga became NY 74 .
= = Route description = =
NY 73 begins at a traffic light along NY 86 near the eastern end of the village of Lake Placid in the town of North Elba . The highway heads towards the southwest , passing homes as Sentinel Road . At the intersection with Mill Pond Road , NY 73 passes a small pond , crossing over an associated creek . For that short time , the highway takes on a more southerly direction , mainly to the southeast . The surroundings of the highway remain the same as NY 73 leaves Lake Placid via Cascade Road .
NY 73 exits Lake Placid , where it passes Lake Placid Airport . There , County Route 35 ( CR 35 ) merges from the northwest , providing a bypass around the village of Lake Placid to NY 86 . Just south of North Elba , NY 73 passes the Lake Placid Olympic Ski Jumping Complex , accessible via NY 910M to nearby John Brown 's Farm at the intersection with CR 35 . The highway crosses the West Branch of the Ausable River , intersecting with CR 21 at an elevation of 1 @,@ 800 feet ( 550 m ) .
Cascade Road makes several turns , passing south of the Craig Wood Golf Course . After the golf course , NY 73 climbs in elevation , up to 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) . The highway turns from the southeast to the east , and to the southeast once more as it rounds Round Lake . The road passes Mud Pond , where it turns to the northeast along the side of a high ridge . Pitchoff Mountain is directly to the northwest as NY 73 passes Upper Cascade and Lower Cascade Lakes .
NY 73 begins to descend in elevation , while CR 51 splits off and NY 73 heads into Keene . After crossing the East Branch of the Ausable River , NY 73 merges in with NY 9N . The two roads continue to drop in elevation , passing and circling mountains as they head along . After Norton Cemetery , NY 9N splits off to the east and NY 73 continues southward . NY 73 now runs along the East Branch , intersecting with county and local roads as it heads southward .
The highway heads along the base of Porter Mountain and into Keene Valley , crosses Johns Brook and heads through downtown . Lower Wolfjaw Mountain , which averages the same height as Porter , is nearby . NY 73 continues , eventually crossing the Ausable River branch , later coming in the towns of Elizabethtown and North Hudson . There are a few more ponds and mountains before NY 73 ends at an intersection with US 9 .
According to estimates made by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) in 2009 , NY 73 serves an average of 1 @,@ 950 vehicles per day from US 9 to the east end of the NY 9N overlap in Keene . The overlap with NY 9N accumulated an average of 4 @,@ 360 vehicles , with the stretch up to the control station at NY 913Q having a less amount of traffic . After NY 913Q , the average increases , peaking at 4 @,@ 810 vehicles at NY 86 in Lake Placid .
= = History = =
= = = Early highways = = =
= = = = North West Bay Road = = = =
The area that is now known as the hamlet of Keene — the modern junction of NY 9N and NY 73 — was first settled in the first few years of the 19th century . Many of the early settlers arrived in the region by traveling along a rough and nearly unusable highway connecting what became Keene to Jay in the north and Lewis in the east . By 1810 , part of the crude roadway had been supplanted by a privately funded highway leading westward from Westport to at least North Elba and possibly to Saranac Lake by way of Keene . On April 5 , 1810 , the New York State Legislature passed an act establishing a new state highway linking Westport to Hopkinton by way of Keene and Saranac Lake . The highway incorporated the entirety of the pre @-@ existing roadway between Westport and Saranac Lake .
Initially , the state highway was poorly constructed and largely impassable , mirroring the condition of the roadways that preceded it . An act passed by the state legislature on June 19 , 1812 , indicated that the funds that had been allocated to the highway were " entirely inadequate to open and improve " the road . On April 17 , 1816 , the state attempted to correct the issue by approving a measure that appointed two sets of commissioners to oversee the reconstruction of the highway . Each set was to work on opposite ends of the route and eventually converge at a point midway along the route . Work on the highway was completed by 1818 . The road was officially named the " North West Bay Road " ; however , it eventually became known as the " Old Military Road " . The route did not enter the village of Lake Placid ; instead , it bypassed it to the southwest . This portion of the highway is still known today by the latter name .
= = = = Other highways = = = =
The highway through Keene Valley from Underwood to Keene was built by 1846 . At its southern end , it connected to a major stagecoach road that connected Albany to the Canadian border . The route fostered the rise of local lumber and tanning industries ; up to 40 wagon loads of timber used the stagecoach route daily . Various hotels and taverns opened in the nearby town of North Hudson to serve travelers along the route .
= = = State ownership and designations = = =
In 1909 , the state of New York began to take control of many private highways across the state under the terms of the new highway law developed in 1908 . One of these highways was the old north – south stagecoach road from Albany to Canada . Most of the highway north of modern NY 8 in Chester became the northern half of Route 22 , an unsigned legislative route , under the text of the highway law . In 1913 , the New York State Legislature created Route 22 @-@ b , a spur route connecting Route 22 in Schroon to the then @-@ village of Ticonderoga . On March 1 , 1921 , Route 22 @-@ b became part of Route 48 , a new route created as part of a partial renumbering of New York 's legislative route system . The path of the former Albany – Canada stagecoach route was largely designated as US 9 in 1927 .
NY 73 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York ; however , it did not initially follow any of its modern routing . It began at an intersection with NY 28N in Tahawus and followed the Blue Ridge Road east to US 9 in North Hudson . From there , it overlapped US 9 south to Schroon , where it proceeded eastward on the former legislative Route 48 to Ticonderoga , where it ended at a junction with NY 22 . At the time , modern NY 73 from Lake Placid to Keene — identical to the old North West Bay Road east of the Lake Placid area — was assigned NY 86A . The remainder of what is now NY 73 from Keene south to Underwood was designated as NY 427 within a year 's time .
The portion of NY 73 between Tahawus and North Hudson was removed from the state highway system c . 1936 . As a result , NY 73 was truncated to a new western terminus at US 9 in Schroon , eliminating the concurrency with US 9 . To the north , NY 427 was supplanted by an extended NY 86A c . 1938 . In the early 1950s , NY 73 was extended eastward through Ticonderoga to the ferry dock on Lake Champlain , where it connected to the Fort Ticonderoga – Larrabees Point Ferry . The change supplanted NY 347 , a short spur route off NY 22 that had been in place since c . 1934 . In the mid @-@ 1950s , NY 73 was extended northward to Lake Placid via Underwood and Keene , replacing NY 86A and overlapping US 9 from Severance to Underwood . NY 73 was truncated to its current eastern terminus in Underwood c . 1973 , eliminating the 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) overlap with US 9 . Its former routing from Schroon to Lake Champlain was renumbered to NY 74 .
On September 14 , 1994 , the state of New York signed a proposal to turn NY 73 into a scenic byway into law . The 30 @-@ mile ( 48 km ) byway , known as the " High Peaks Scenic Byway " , begins at the western terminus of NY 73 in Lake Placid and follows NY 73 and US 9 to Interstate 87 exit 30 . In December 1994 , the group Scenic America designated the highway as one of the ten most scenic areas in the nation .
= = Future = =
In 2009 , NYSDOT has made plans to repair seven bridges along NY 73 . The seven projects will cost the state an estimated $ 11 @.@ 1 million ( equivalent to $ 12 @.@ 2 million in 2016 ) and are tentatively scheduled to begin at various times between 2013 and 2016 . The $ 11 million cost includes $ 4 @.@ 3 million for two bridges over the West Branch of the Ausable River that were built in 1932 , $ 1 @.@ 3 million for a bridge over the Southern Fork of the Bouquet River in Keene , $ 2 @.@ 6 million for two bridges over Beede Brook that were built in 1935 and 1936 , $ 1 @.@ 3 million for a bridge over the outlet of Lower Cascade Lake , and $ 1 @.@ 6 million for a bridge over Johns Brook .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Essex County .
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= Blood Sugar Sex Magik =
Blood Sugar Sex Magik is the fifth studio album by American rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers , released on September 24 , 1991 . Produced by Rick Rubin , it was the band 's first record released on Warner Bros. Records . The musical styles of Blood Sugar Sex Magik differed notably from the techniques employed on the Chili Peppers ' preceding album , Mother 's Milk , and featured little use of heavy metal guitar riffs . The album 's subject matter incorporated sexual innuendos and references to drugs and death as well as themes of lust and exuberance .
Peaking at number one in Australia , Canada , and New Zealand , and at three on the United States ' Billboard 200 , the album has sold over 13 million copies worldwide and was the Red Hot Chili Peppers ' introduction into worldwide popularity and critical acclaim . Blood Sugar Sex Magik produced an array of hit singles including the hugely successful " Under the Bridge " and one of their most popular songs , " Give It Away " . The other three singles released were " Suck My Kiss " , " Breaking the Girl " , and " If You Have to Ask " . Guitarist John Frusciante quit the band mid @-@ tour in 1992 ( not returning until 1998 ) due to his inability to cope with the album 's popularity . Blood Sugar Sex Magik is recognized as an influential and seminal component of the alternative rock explosion in the early 1990s . Steve Huey of AllMusic stated that Blood Sugar Sex Magik is " ... probably the best album the Chili Peppers will ever make . "
= = Background = =
The band 's previous album , 1989 's Mother 's Milk would become the band 's second album to enter in the Billboard 200 , peaking at number 52 and at the time the biggest of their career . Although the record was mildly successful , production was weighed down by producer Michael Beinhorn . He convinced Frusciante to play with an overall heavier tone , and instructed Kiedis to write lyrics that would be more radio viable , thus causing the band to feel restricted creatively .
As the Chili Peppers ' contract with EMI came to an end , they began looking for a new record company to release their next album . The group reached a consensus to go with Sony BMG / Epic , with the proviso that they buy out their last album from EMI . Even though the label promised it would take only a few days , the process stretched out into several months . Although a deal had been made with Sony / Epic , Mo Ostin of Warner Bros. Records called Kiedis to congratulate him on the successful deal , and complimented the rival record label . Kiedis recalled of the situation : " The coolest , most real person we had met during all these negotiations had just personally called to encourage me to make a great record for a rival company . That was the kind of guy I 'd want to be working for . " The group pursued the idea , and eventually dropped the contract with Sony in favor of a deal with Warner Bros. Ostin called an old friend at EMI , who immediately allowed for the label transfer .
= = Recording and production = =
Now settled into Warner Bros. Records , the Chili Peppers began looking for a suitable producer . One person in particular , Rick Rubin , stood out , as he was more broadminded in contrast to individuals they had worked with in the past even though Rubin previously turned down the band 's offer to produce their 1987 album The Uplift Mofo Party Plan due to the drug problems of Kiedis and guitarist Hillel Slovak who would die of a heroin overdose a year later . Eventually , the band decided Rubin would be the best choice as a producer , and therefore hired him to produce what would become Blood Sugar Sex Magik . Unlike the Peppers ' previous producers , Rubin was someone that they felt confident to ask for guidance and input during times of difficulty . He would often help arrange drum beats , guitar melodies and lyrics .
The band sought to record the album in an unconventional setting , believing it would enhance their creative output . Rubin suggested the mansion magician Harry Houdini once lived in , to which they agreed . A crew was hired to set up a recording studio and other equipment required for production in the house . The band decided that they would remain inside the mansion for the duration of recording , though Smith , convinced the location was haunted , refused to stay . He would , instead , come each day by motorcycle . Frusciante agreed with Smith , and said " There are definitely ghosts in the house , " but unlike Smith , Frusciante felt they were " very friendly . We [ the band ] have nothing but warm vibes and happiness everywhere we go in this house . "
Frusciante , Kiedis , and Flea each had their own separate rooms at each end of the house . When not recording with the band , Frusciante would spend his time painting , listening to music , reading and recording songs he 'd written . Due to the seclusion , Kiedis ended up recording all his vocals in his room , as it was large enough to accommodate the recording equipment . For over thirty days , the Chili Peppers worked inside the house ; Kiedis felt it was an accommodating and resourceful environment which allowed him to complete the rest of the lyrics . During production , the band agreed to let Flea 's brother @-@ in @-@ law document the creative process on film . When the album 's recording was complete , the Chili Peppers released the film , titled Funky Monks .
= = Music = =
Blood Sugar Sex Magik was written at a more rapid pace than the band 's previous album . Prior to the Chili Peppers relocation into the mansion , Frusciante and Kiedis collaborated at each other 's homes , in order to arrange song structures and guitar riffs . They would then present ideas to Flea and Smith , and the band would , as a whole , decide what they would use for the bass , guitar , vocal and percussion ensembles .
Kiedis focused lyrically on sexual references and innuendos as they were frequently on his mind . Songs such as " Suck My Kiss , " " If You Have to Ask , " " Sir Psycho Sexy , " " Give It Away " and " Blood Sugar Sex Magik " all contained various sexual links , with lyrics like " A state of sexual light / Kissing her virginity / My affinity " and " Glorious euphoria / Is my must / Erotic shock / Is a function of lust . " The concept behind " The Greeting Song " was a request by Rubin , who asked Kiedis to write a song solely about girls and cars . Although Kiedis disliked the concept , he wrote the song as Rubin requested and ended up hating nearly every aspect of the lyrics . Kiedis also began to write about anguish , and the self mutilating thoughts he would experience as a result of his heroin and cocaine addiction ; he believed his life had come to its lowest point under a bridge in downtown Los Angeles . Over a month later , Rubin stumbled upon a poem that would become the lyrics to " Under the Bridge " , and suggested Kiedis show it to the rest of the band . Kiedis was , however , apprehensive because he believed the lyrics to be " too soft " and unlike the band 's style . After singing the verse to Frusciante , they began structuring the song the next day . The two worked for several hours arranging chords and melodies until they both agreed it was complete . Frusciante ultimately chose the chords he played in the intro to balance out the depressing atmosphere of the song : " my brain interpreted it as being a really sad song so I thought if the lyrics are really sad like that I should write some chords that are happier . " " Naked in the Rain " was one of the first songs written for the album and even played once at the end of the Mother 's Milk Tour in 1990 while the intros for " The Greeting Song " and " Sir Psycho Sexy " were also teased during the end of that tour but neither song was completed or had lyrics .
Blood Sugar Sex Magik integrated the band 's typical punk and funk style , but moved away from this with more melodically driven songs . Tracks like " The Righteous and the Wicked , " " Suck My Kiss , " " Blood Sugar Sex Magik , " " Give it Away " and " Funky Monks " still incorporated use of heavy metal guitar riffs , but differed from Mother 's Milk in that they contained less distortion . Flea , who had centered his bass playing around the slapping technique , downplayed on this in favor of more traditional and melodic bass lines . He also adopted a minimalist , " less is more " philosophy : " I was trying to play simply on Blood Sugar Sex Magik because I had been playing too much prior to that , so I thought , ' I 've really got to chill out and play half as many notes ' . When you play less , it 's more exciting — there 's more room for everything . If I do play something busy , it stands out , instead of the bass being a constant onslaught of notes . Space is good . " Kiedis felt that the album would expand the Chili Peppers ' musical horizons , and that it was a departure from their previous material . One of Blood Sugar Sex Magik 's more melodic tracks , " Breaking the Girl , " was written about Kiedis ' constantly shifting relationships . He feared that he was following in his father 's footsteps and simply becoming a womanizer , rather than establishing stable and long @-@ term relationships : " ... As exciting and temporarily fulfilling as this constant influx of interesting and beautiful girls can be , at the end of the day , that shit is lonely and you 're left with nothing . " The track also featured a bridge in the middle , consisting of percussion instruments salvaged from a garbage dump .
Although jams had always been an integral aspect of song creation for the Chili Peppers , Blood Sugar Sex Magik saw songs being created with more structure . One specific jam would lead to the breakout song on the album : Frusciante , Flea and Smith were all playing together — with Kiedis at another part of the room watching — when " ... Flea started playing this insane bass line , and Chad cracked up and played along ... I always had fragments of song ideas or even specific isolated phrases in my mind . I ( Kiedis ) took the mic and belted out ' Give it away , give it away , give it away , give it away now . " The philosophy behind the lyrics originated from a conversation Kiedis had with Nina Hagen , regarding selflessness and how insignificant material possessions were in his life . It , thus , gave birth to the song " Give It Away . " He 'd also been reminiscing about late Chili Peppers guitarist Hillel Slovak , composing " My Lovely Man " in his tribute . Kiedis wrote " Sir Psycho Sexy " to be an over @-@ zealous and overly exaggerated version of himself ; a figure that could get any woman , and do anything he pleased to them . " The Power of Equality " confronted topics concerning racial equality , prejudice and sexism . Kiedis wrote " I Could Have Lied " to document the brief relationship he had with Irish singer Sinéad O 'Connor .
= = Artwork = =
All photography , paintings and art direction for Blood Sugar Sex Magik were credited to filmmaker Gus Van Sant , with the exception of the " tongue illustration " , which , according to the album booklet , is credited to Henky Penky ( Henk Schiffmacher ) . The cover of the album features the four band members ' faces positioned around a rose . The lyrics are printed in white lettering across a black background , hand written by Kiedis . The booklet also contains a collage of photos assembled to showcase the band members ' various tattoos , which feature faces of Native American tribal leaders , animals and sea creatures , as well as various symbols and phrases . Photographs of each band member alone , and two photographs of the band as a whole are also included .
Singles released to coincide with the album share little with Blood Sugar 's artwork . The cover of " Give It Away " was a painting of a Chinese infant , surrounded by fish , vegetables , fruits and sushi ; " Under the Bridge " is a photograph of a bridge in the city of Los Angeles ; " Suck My Kiss " had a black and white photograph of the band , with Kiedis and Flea holding a large fish ; " If You Have to Ask " is an illustration of an avocado next to a girl 's large buttocks in a yellow bikini ; and " Breaking the Girl " featured a painting of a human being covered in magma .
= = Promotion and release = =
Blood Sugar Sex Magik was released on September 24 , 1991 , the same day as Nirvana 's breakthrough album Nevermind . It was certified gold just over two months later on November 26 , 1991 , and certified platinum on April 1 , 1992 ; since then it has gone seven times platinum in the United States . The album peaked at number 3 on the Billboard 200 . Originally , " Give it Away " did not fare well in the mainstream ; several of Warner Bros. ' target radio stations refused to air it , telling the band to " come back to us when you have a melody in your song . " KROQ ( of Los Angeles ) , however , began to play the single several times daily , and that , according to Kiedis , " was the beginning of the infusion of ' Give It Away ' into mass consciousness . " The single ultimately peaked at number 9 on the UK Top 40 and number 73 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Blood Sugar Sex Magik has sold over 13 million copies worldwide .
Due to the success of " Give it Away , " the band did not foresee " Under the Bridge " as being equally viable . Warner Bros. sent representatives to a Chili Peppers ' concert in order to figure out what would ultimately be the next single . When Frusciante began playing " Under the Bridge " , Kiedis missed his cue ; the entire audience began singing the song , instead . Kiedis was initially " mortified that I had fucked up in front of Warner 's people ... I apologized for fucking up but they said ' Fucking up ? Are you kidding me ? When every single kid at the show sings a song , that 's our next single . ' " " Under the Bridge " was , therefore , selected as Blood Sugar Sex Magik 's second single . By January 1992 , " Under the Bridge " had exploded , peaking at number 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
To promote the album in Europe , Kiedis and Frusciante both agreed they would make the trip . However , it proved difficult for Frusciante to adapt to life outside of the mansion , after being in near @-@ seclusion for almost 30 days . Kiedis recalled of the situation : " He had such an outpouring of creativity while we were making that album that I think he really didn 't know how to live life in tandem with that creativity . " It was also during this period when Frusciante began to experiment with heroin , which further compromised his mental stability . The European promotional trek took its toll on Frusciante , and he decided to return home when he and Kiedis reached London .
= = Critical reception and legacy = =
Blood Sugar Sex Magik was well received by critics , who praised the Chili Peppers for not overpowering the listener with heavy metal guitar riffs as their previous album had . Rolling Stone 's Tom Moon credited Rick Rubin for the change in style ; Rubin " [ gave ] the Chilis ' dynamic . " He went on to praise the overall sound , which " displayed a growing curiosity about studio texture and nuance . " Steve Huey of AllMusic said the album was " The Red Hot Chili Peppers ' best album ... John Frusciante 's guitar is less overpoweringly noisy , leaving room for differing textures and clearer lines , while the band overall is more focused and less indulgent . " He considered Blood Sugar to be " varying ... it expands the group 's musical and emotional range . " Guitar Player magazine credited Frusciante with the Chili Peppers ' drastic change in style : " by blending acid @-@ rock , soul @-@ funk , early art @-@ rock , and blues style with a raw , unprocessed Strat @-@ and @-@ Marshall tone , [ Frusciante ] hit on an explosive formula that has yet to be duplicated . " Devon Powters of PopMatters said that " in one funked @-@ out , fucked up , diabolical swoop , Blood Sugar Sex Magik reconfigured my relationship to music , to myself , to my culture and identity , to my race and class . " In an article published in The Tampa Tribune , editor Philip Booth praised the record as " an ambitious effort that amounts to a culmination and blossoming of the musical forces that have been brewing in the band 's sound since Kiedis and Flea birthed the band in 1983 . " Music critic Robert Christgau gave the album a two star honorable mention . Blood Sugar Sex Magik is considered to be an influential album , throughout the nineties , by establishing itself as a fundamental foundation for alternative rock . It has also been referred to as " the cornerstone album of funk rock " by FasterLouder .
" Under the Bridge , " which became a breakout song for the band , was considered to be a highlight of the album by several critics . Allmusic reviewed the song individually and called it a " ... poignant sentiment ... it is self evident among the simple guitar which cradles the introductory verse , and the sense of fragility that is only doubled by the still down @-@ tempo choral crescendo " , and ultimately " has become an integral part of the 1990s alterna @-@ landscape , and remains one of the purest diamonds that sparkle amongst the rough @-@ hewn and rich funk chasms that dominate the Peppers ' own oeuvre . " However , Entertainment Weekly criticized the seriousness that the Red Hot Chili Peppers explored as being " disapproving of the band 's usual Red Hot antics " , and " Under the Bridge " had " fancy @-@ shmancy touches " . The song ended up peaking at number 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 in April 1992 . " Give It Away " was also praised , though as " ... a free @-@ associative mixture of positive vibes , tributes to musical heroes , and free love " , with Frusciante " ... adding the song 's two most unpredictable change @-@ ups : a sudden contrast to Kiedis ' hyperactivity in the form of a languid solo pre @-@ recorded and dubbed backwards over the rhythm track , and a hard @-@ rocking riff which is not introduced until the song 's outro ... " Tracks such as " Sir Psycho Sexy " , however , were criticized for being overly explicit . Devon Powters of Pop Matters said that " Eight minutes of ' Sir Psycho Sexy ' will turn RHCP 's young listeners into quivering masses of hormonal jello . Oversexed lines sneak their way into ' Apache Rose Peacock ' ; ' Blood Sugar Sex Magik ' , simply , sounds like fucking . Even the purest virgin comes away from Blood Sugar Sex Magik with a degree of sexual maturity ; even the slickest playa can learn a couple of new moves . " In contrast , " Suck My Kiss " , according to Amy Hanson of Allmusic , " completely flew in the face of the established pecking order of alternative rock . " With the song , the Chili Peppers " fully allied themselves with the very few genre @-@ bending bands that were able to make a radical impact on the sonic landscape that was dominated , it seemed , from every minute angle by grunge . "
Years later , Blood Sugar was placed atop many " Best Of " lists , especially those pertaining to the ' 90s . Spin magazine charted the album at number 58 on their " Top 90 Albums of the 90s " , and number 11 on a similar list compiled by Pause & Play . The record was placed in slapnpop Magazine " 101 Essential Guitar Albums " ; and included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . Blood Sugar Sex Magik also ranked number 310 on Rolling Stone 's the " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " and number 14 on the " 100 Best Albums of the Nineties " .
= = Blood Sugar Sex Magik Tour and John Frusciante 's departure = =
Before the Blood Sugar Sex Magik Tour began , Kiedis saw the music video for The Smashing Pumpkins ' " Rhinoceros " on MTV . He then called the band 's manager and asked him to accommodate The Smashing Pumpkins for the tour . Several days after the Pumpkins confirmed they would accompany the Chili Peppers , former Chili Peppers drummer Jack Irons called and asked the band to allow his friend 's new group , Pearl Jam , to open for them on the forthcoming tour . The first show following the release of Blood Sugar Sex Magik was at the Oscar Mayer Theater in Madison , Wisconsin , which was met with positive reactions from the Milwaukee Journal : " the audience was a swirling mass of airborne cups , ice cubes , shoes , shirts , pogo dancers , body @-@ passers and stage divers . And it wasn 't purely a boy 's club in the moshpit — many females bought into the mayhem , stripping down to their bras and flinging themselves about madly as the band tore through ' Higher Ground ' , ' Suck My Kiss ' , and ' Give it Away ' , which was Goth @-@ ed up by Frusciante when he added a riff from Black Sabbath 's ' Sweet Leaf ' . "
Blood Sugar Sex Magik began receiving heavy radio play and massive sales in the middle of their U.S. tour . Frusciante , who preferred the Chili Peppers to remain in the underground music scene , entered a state of denial and depression because of this . According to Kiedis , " He began to lose all of the manic , happy @-@ go @-@ lucky , fun aspects of his personality . Even onstage , there was a much more serious energy around him . " Frusciante was slowly slipping away from the band altogether , and began to form grudges against his band mates . He saw the band 's newfound popularity as shameful .
Onstage tension began to grow between Kiedis and Frusciante . Kiedis recalled an argument after a show in New Orleans : " We had a sold @-@ out house and John just stood in the corner , barely playing his guitar . We came offstage and John and I got into it . " With the Peppers now playing shows at arenas rather than theaters , the promoters of the tour decided that Pearl Jam should be replaced with a more successful act . Kiedis contacted Nirvana drummer Dave Grohl , and asked him if Nirvana would replace Pearl Jam on the tour — an offer Grohl accepted . The Smashing Pumpkins ' Billy Corgan , however , refused to play with Nirvana as he once dated frontman Kurt Cobain 's wife Courtney Love . The Pumpkins were , therefore , taken off the concert bill and replaced with Pearl Jam . Their first show with Nirvana was at the L.A Sports Arena . Kiedis considered their act to be " raw energy ; their musicality , their song selection , they were like a chain saw cutting through the night . " When the Red Hot Chili Peppers finished touring with Nirvana , they traveled to Europe , where Frusciante , in need of someone to connect to , brought along his girlfriend Toni Oswald . Kiedis said that " John had broken our unwritten rule of no spouses or girlfriends on the road . " Briefly interrupting the European @-@ tour , the Chili Peppers flew to New York City and performed on an episode of Saturday Night Live . The band played " Under the Bridge " as the second number ; a performance that Kiedis felt was sabotaged by Frusciante :
[ Frusciante ] was experimenting the way he would have if we 'd been rehearsing the tune . Well we weren 't . We were on live TV in front of millions of people and it was torture . I started singing in what I thought was the key he was playing in . I felt like I was getting stabbed in the back and hung out to dry in front of all of America while this guy was off in a corner in the shadow , playing some dissonant out @-@ of @-@ tune experiment .
The band took a two @-@ week hiatus between the European and Japanese legs of the tour , which began in May 1992 . Minutes before the Chili Peppers were scheduled to perform in Tokyo , Frusciante refused to go on stage , claiming he quit the band . After half an hour of coaxing , Frusciante agreed to play the show , though he asserted it would be his last . Kiedis recalled of the situation : " It was the most horrible show ever . Every single note , every single word , hurt , knowing that we were no longer a band . I kept looking over at John and seeing this dead statue of disdain ... And that night , John disappeared from the topsy @-@ turvy world of the Red Hot Chili Peppers . " The band hired guitarist Arik Marshall to complete the rest of the tour , which included Lollapolooza and several European festivals . Marshall , however , was fired at the end of the tour .
= = Accolades = =
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Red Hot Chili Peppers , except where noted .
= = Album outtakes = =
Around 25 songs were written and recorded during the Blood Sugar Sex Magik sessions . Seventeen of those songs made the album 's final cut . The album 's singles contained four outtakes from the album sessions as b @-@ sides . Among those songs were the instrumental " Fela 's Cock " , a cover of the Stooges ' " Search and Destroy " , " Sikamikanico " ( which would also appear on the Wayne 's World soundtrack " in 1992 ) , and " Soul to Squeeze " , a song that would eventually become a hit single in 1993 when it was released on the Coneheads soundtrack . The song was also included on the band 's 2003 Greatest Hits album . " Little Miss Lover " and " Castles Made of Sand " ( a song the band had been performing live for a few years ) , two Jimi Hendrix cover songs , would eventually be released in 2006 as iTunes bonus tracks . An unknown song appeared in the VH @-@ 1 Blood Sugar Sex Magik documentary , Ultimate Albums . A rough mix of the album surfaced on the Internet and contains some alternate versions of the songs recorded during the album 's sessions .
= = Personnel = =
Red Hot Chili Peppers
Flea – bass , backing vocals , percussion on " Breaking the Girl " , trumpet on " Apache Rose Peacock " , piano on " Mellowship Slinky in B Major "
John Frusciante – electric and acoustic guitars , backing vocals , percussion on " Breaking the Girl "
Anthony Kiedis – lead vocals , percussion on " Breaking the Girl "
Chad Smith – drums , percussion on " Breaking the Girl " and " Give It Away "
Additional musicians
Brendan O 'Brien – mellotron on " Breaking the Girl " and " Sir Psycho Sexy " , B3 Organ on " Suck My Kiss " and " Give It Away " , toy celeste on " Apache Rose Peacock "
Gail Frusciante and her friends – choir vocals on " Under the Bridge "
Pete Weiss – Jew 's harp on " Give It Away "
Recording personnel
Brendan O 'Brien – engineering , mixing ( with Rick Rubin )
Rick Rubin – production
Howie Weinberg – mastering engineering
Additional personnel
Gus Van Sant – art direction
= = Chart positions and sales certifications = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
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= William Hayden English =
William Hayden English ( August 27 , 1822 – February 7 , 1896 ) was an American congressman from Indiana and the Democratic nominee for vice president in 1880 . English entered politics at a young age , becoming a part of Jesse D. Bright 's conservative faction of the Indiana Democratic Party . After a few years in the federal bureaucracy in Washington beginning in 1845 , he returned to Indiana and participated in the state constitutional convention of 1850 . He was elected to the state house of representatives in 1851 and served as its speaker at the age of twenty @-@ nine . After a two @-@ year term in the state house , English represented Indiana in the federal House of Representatives for four terms from 1853 to 1861 , working most notably to achieve a compromise on the admission of Kansas as a state .
English retired from the House in 1861 , but remained involved in party affairs . In the American Civil War he was a War Democrat , supporting the Union war effort . As well as pursuing a political career , he was an author and businessman , owning an opera house , serving as president of a bank , and developing many residential properties . English 's business career was successful , and he became one of the wealthiest men in Indiana . After nearly two decades in the private sector , English returned to political life as the Democratic nominee for vice president in 1880 . English and his presidential running mate , Winfield Scott Hancock , lost narrowly to their Republican opponents , James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur .
= = Family and early career = =
William Hayden English was born August 27 , 1822 , in Lexington , Indiana , the only son of Elisha Gale English and his wife , Mahala ( Eastin ) English . Both his parents were Kentucky natives from slaveholding families of English and French Huguenot ancestry . They moved to southern Indiana in 1818 . Elisha English quickly became involved in local politics as a Democrat , serving in the state legislature as well as building a prominent business career . William English was educated in the local public schools , later attending Hanover College . He left college after three years and began to read law . In 1840 , English was admitted to the bar at the age of eighteen and soon built a practice in his native Scott County . He started early in politics as well , attending the state Democratic convention that same year and giving speeches on behalf of the Democratic presidential candidate , Martin Van Buren .
By the end of 1842 , English came under the mentorship of Lieutenant Governor Jesse D. Bright , who helped him rise within Bright 's faction of the party . The following year , Indiana House of Representatives selected English as their clerk . In 1844 , he worked the campaign trail , this time in the service of presidential candidate James K. Polk .
= = Politics and marriage = =
As a reward , after Polk took office in 1845 , he granted English a patronage appointment as a clerk in the federal Treasury Department in Washington , D.C. English held this position for four years , during which time he met Emma Mardulia Jackson . They married in November 1847 . They would have two children : William Eastin and Rosalind .
English attended the 1848 Democratic National Convention in Baltimore , where he supported Lewis Cass , the eventual presidential nominee . With the election of the Whig Party 's candidate , Zachary Taylor , to the presidency , a Whig party member replaced English at the Treasury Department . He secured a job as clerk to the United States Senate 's Claims Committee through party connections ; serving until 1850 in Washington , DC .
Later that year , English and his wife returned to Indiana , where he worked as secretary to the Indiana Constitutional Convention . Democrats were in the majority at the convention , and their proposals were included in the new law , including increasing the number of elective offices , guaranteeing a homestead exemption , and restricting voting rights to white men . Free blacks had earlier had formerly had suffrage in the state . The voters approved the new Constitution of 1851 by a large majority .
In August 1851 , English won his first election to the state house of Representatives . As it was the first meeting of the legislature under the 1851 constitution , English 's knowledge of it contributed to his election , at the age of twenty @-@ nine , as speaker of the House . The House had a Democratic majority and at Bright 's direction , English worked for the election of Graham N. Fitch , a member of Bright 's faction of the party , to the federal Senate . The legislature chose a different Democrat , John Pettit , instead . Holding the office of Speaker increased English 's influence throughout the state ; in 1852 , the Democrats chose him as their nominee for the federal House of Representatives from the newly redistricted 2nd district . The Democrats were victorious in the election that October , sweeping all but one House seat . English defeated his Whig opponent 55 % - 45 % and joined the 33rd Congress when it convened in Washington in 1853 .
= = Congress = =
= = = Kansas – Nebraska Act = = =
The House of Representatives convened for the 33rd Congress in December 1853 . At that time , the simmering disagreement between the free and slave states heated up with the introduction of the Kansas – Nebraska Act , proposed by Illinois Democrat Stephen A. Douglas , which would open the Kansas and Nebraska territories to slavery , an implicit repeal of the Missouri Compromise of 1820 . Intended to quiet national agitation over slavery by shifting the decision to local settlers , Douglas 's proposal instead inflamed anti @-@ slavery sentiment in the North by allowing the possibility of slavery 's expansion to territories held as free soil for three decades . English , a member of the Committee on Territories , thought the bill was unnecessary and disagreed with its timing ; when the committee approved the bill , English wrote a minority report to that effect . He was not altogether opposed to the principle of popular sovereignty , however , believing that " each organized community ought to be allowed to decide for itself " . Northern Democrats divided almost evenly on the bill , but English , despite his stated reservations , was among those who voted for it . In doing so , he said that Congress was bound to respect the decision of the territories ' residents and pledged to uphold their decisions . President Franklin Pierce signed the bill into law on May 30 , 1854 .
The Kansas – Nebraska Act was grossly unpopular across the North . The reaction ultimately killed the Whig Party , weakened northern Democrats , and brought about a new party , the Republicans . Only 3 of 42 free @-@ state representatives were reelected after voting for it ; English was one of them . English was a conservative Democrat , and his southern Indiana district , while not pro @-@ slavery , also had little sympathy for abolitionism . He was reelected again in 1856 , when the Democrats regained the House majority in the 35th Congress . The Speaker , James Lawrence Orr , assigned English to the Post Office and Post Roads Committee , but the issue of Kansas claimed more of his time .
= = = English Bill = = =
In December 1857 , in an election boycotted by free @-@ state partisans , Kansas adopted the pro @-@ slavery Lecompton Constitution and petitioned Congress to be admitted as a slave state . President James Buchanan , a Democrat , urged that Congress take up the matter , and the Senate approved a bill to admit Kansas . The bill was defeated in the House , 112 – 120 . English found the process by which the pro @-@ slavery Kansans forced through their constitution inadequate , and voted against admission . Congress continued to debate the matter for months without resolution . English and Georgia Democrat Alexander H. Stephens came up with a compromise measure , later called the English Bill . The English Bill offered Kansas admission as a slave state , but only if they endorsed that choice in a referendum . The Bill also required Kansans to renounce the unusually large grant of federal lands they had requested in the Lecompton Constitution . The Kansas voters could , thus , reject Lecompton by the face @-@ saving measure of turning down the smaller land grant . Congress passed the English Bill , and Kansans duly rejected their pro @-@ slavery constitution by a ratio of six to one . Some of English 's political allies , including Bright ( now a senator ) , would have preferred Kansas be admitted as a slave state , but the decision was popular enough in his district to allow English to be reelected in 1858 with a majority of 56 % to 44 % .
= = Business career = =
English declined to run for reelection in 1860 , but did give several speeches advocating compromise and moderation in the growing North @-@ South divide . After Abraham Lincoln 's election that year , English urged Southerners not to secede . When the Southern states did secede and the Civil War began , Governor Oliver P. Morton offered English command of a regiment , but he declined it , having no military knowledge or interests . He did , however , support Morton 's ( and Lincoln 's ) war policies and considered himself a War Democrat . English loaned money to the state government to cover the expenses of outfitting the troops and served as provost marshal for the 2nd congressional district .
After retiring from Congress , English spent a year at his home in Scott County before relocating to Indianapolis , the state capital . English and ten associates ( including James Lanier ) organized the First National Bank of Indianapolis in 1863 , the first bank in that city chartered under the new National Bank Act . He remained president of that bank until 1877 , including the difficult period during the Panic of 1873 , when many other banks folded . English 's business interests included other industries as well . He became the controlling shareholder of the Indianapolis Street Railway Company , remaining in charge of that company until 1876 , when he sold his shares . Having also sold his shares of the bank by 1877 , English turned most of his investment capital to real estate . By 1875 , he had already ordered construction of seventy @-@ five houses along what is now English Avenue . His wife , Emma , died two years later , in 1877 . English survived her by nineteen years . By the time he died in 1896 , he owned 448 pieces of property , most of them in Indianapolis .
In 1880 , English constructed English 's Opera House , which , according to the 1994 Encyclopedia of Indianapolis , quickly became known as the city 's finest . The building was modeled after the Grand Opera House in New York and seated 2000 people . It opened on September 27 , 1880 , with a performance of Hamlet starring Lawrence Barrett . By that time , English was involved in politics once more . He turned over management of the Opera House to his son , William Eastin English , who was interested in the theater ( and had just married an actress , Annie Fox ) . English senior later added a hotel to the Opera House , and both operated until 1948 .
= = Vice @-@ presidential candidate = =
After leaving the House of Representatives , English had remained in touch with local politics , even serving as chairman of the Indiana Democratic Party . His son had been elected to the state house in 1879 , and the elder English was still consulted on political matters . Although he had not sought elected office since 1858 , he had raised his national profile in 1879 through several interviews and letters to friendly newspapers . English attended the 1880 Democratic National Convention in Cincinnati as a member of the Indiana delegation , where he favored presidential candidate Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware , whom he admired for his support of the gold standard . The first ballot was inconclusive , with Bayard in second place . Major General Winfield Scott Hancock of Pennsylvania led the voting , and on the second ballot was nominated for President .
The Indiana delegation held back their votes from Hancock until the crucial moment , and as a reward , the delegates selected English for the vice @-@ presidential nomination . The nomination was unanimous . He was not expected to add much to the ticket outside of Indiana , but the party leaders thought his popularity in that swing state would help Hancock against James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur , the Republican nominees . The Republicans believed that the real reason for English 's nomination was his willingness to use his personal fortune to finance the campaign , as Democratic campaign coffers were low . English gave a brief speech accepting the nomination , then replied more formally in a letter a month later . In that letter , English called the disputes of the Civil War settled , and promised a " sound currency , of honest money " , the restriction of Chinese immigration , and a " rigid economy in public expenditure " . He characterized the election as one between
the people endeavoring to regain the political power which rightfully belongs to them , and to restore the pure , simple , economical , constitutional government of our fathers on the one side , and a hundred thousand federal office @-@ holders and their backers , pampered with place and power , and determined to retain them at all hazards , on the other .
Hancock and the Democrats expected to carry the Solid South , which , with the disenfranchisement of black Southerners following the end of Reconstruction , was dominated electorally by white Democrats . In addition to the South , the ticket needed to add a few of the Midwestern states to their total to win the election ; national elections in that era were largely decided by closely divided states there . The practical differences between the parties were few , and the Republicans were reluctant to attack Hancock personally because of his heroic reputation . The one policy difference the Republicans were able to exploit was a statement in the Democratic platform endorsing " a tariff for revenue only " . Garfield 's campaign used this statement to paint the Democrats as unsympathetic to the plight of industrial laborers , who benefited from the high protective tariff then in place . The tariff issue cut Democratic support in industrialized Northern states , which were essential in establishing a Democratic majority .
The October state elections in Ohio and Indiana resulted in Republican victories there , discouraging Democrats about the federal election to come the following month . There was even some talk among party leaders of dropping English from the ticket , but English convinced them that the October losses owed more to local issues , and that the Democratic ticket could still carry Indiana , if not Ohio , in November . In the end , English was proven wrong : the Democrats and Hancock failed to carry any of the Midwestern states they had targeted , including Indiana . Hancock and English lost the popular vote by just 7 @,@ 018 . The electoral vote , however , had a much larger spread : 214 for Garfield and Arthur , compared to 155 for Hancock and English .
= = Post @-@ election career and legacy = =
English resumed his business career after the election . He also became more interested in local history , joining a reunion of the survivors of the 1850 state constitutional convention , which met at his opera house in 1885 . He became the president of the Indiana Historical Society and wrote two volumes , which were published at his death : Conquest of the Country Northwest of the River Ohio , 1778 – 1783 ; and Life of General George Rogers Clark . He served on the Indianapolis Monument Commission in 1893 , and helped to plan and finance the Soldiers ' and Sailors ' Monument there .
He died at his home in Indianapolis on February 7 , 1896 . English was interred in Crown Hill Cemetery with his wife , who had died in 1877 . Although many of the buildings he constructed have been demolished , English , Indiana , the county seat of Crawford County , is named after him , as is English Street in Indianapolis . Identical statues of English stand in front of the Scott County Courthouse in Scottsburg , Indiana , and at the Crawford County Fairgrounds in English . His son William served in Congress from 1884 to 1885 . His grandson , William English Walling , the son of his daughter Rosalind , was a co @-@ founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People . An extensive collection of English 's personal and family papers is housed at the Indiana Historical Society in Indianapolis , where it is open for research .
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= Black Hawk War =
The Black Hawk War was a brief 1832 conflict , between the United States and Native Americans , led by Black Hawk , a Sauk leader . The war erupted soon after Black Hawk and a group of Sauks , Meskwakis , and Kickapoos , known as the " British Band " , crossed the Mississippi River , into the US state of Illinois , from Iowa Indian Territory in April 1832 . Black Hawk 's motives were ambiguous , but he was apparently hoping to avoid bloodshed while resettling on tribal land that had been ceded to the United States in the disputed 1804 Treaty of St. Louis .
US officials , convinced that the British Band was hostile , mobilized a frontier militia and opened fire on a delegation from the Native Americans on May 14 , 1832 . Black Hawk responded by successfully attacking the militia at the Battle of Stillman 's Run . He led his band to a secure location in what is now southern Wisconsin and was pursued by US forces . Meanwhile , other Native Americans conducted raids against forts and settlements largely unprotected with the absence of US troops . Some Ho @-@ Chunk and Potawatomi warriors with grievances against European @-@ Americans took part in these raids , although most tribe members tried to avoid the conflict . The Menominee and Dakota tribes , already at odds with the Sauks and Meskwakis , supported the US .
Commanded by General Henry Atkinson , the US troops tracked the British Band . Militia under Colonel Henry Dodge caught up with the British Band on July 21 and defeated them at the Battle of Wisconsin Heights . Black Hawk 's band was weakened by hunger , death , and desertion and many native survivors retreated towards the Mississippi . On August 2 , US soldiers attacked the remnants of the British Band at the Battle of Bad Axe , killing many or capturing most who remained alive . Black Hawk and other leaders escaped , but later surrendered and were imprisoned for a year .
The Black Hawk War gave the young captain Abraham Lincoln his brief military service . Other participants who later became famous included Winfield Scott , Zachary Taylor , and Jefferson Davis . The war gave impetus to the US policy of Indian removal , in which Native American tribes were pressured to sell their lands and move west of the Mississippi River and stay there .
= = Background = =
In the 18th century , the Sauk and Meskwaki ( or Fox ) Native American tribes lived along the Mississippi River in what is now the U.S. states of Illinois and Iowa . The two tribes had become closely connected after having been displaced from the Great Lakes region in conflicts with New France and other Native American tribes , particularly after the so @-@ called Fox Wars ended in the 1730s . By the time of the Black Hawk War , the population of the two tribes was about 6 @,@ 000 people .
= = = Disputed treaty = = =
As the United States expanded westward in the early 19th century , government officials sought to buy as much Native American land as possible . In 1804 , territorial governor William Henry Harrison negotiated a treaty in St. Louis in which a group of Sauk and Meskwaki leaders supposedly sold their lands east of the Mississippi for more than $ 2 @,@ 200 , in goods and annual payments of $ 1 @,@ 000 in goods . The treaty became controversial because the Native leaders had not been authorized by their tribal councils to cede lands . Historian Robert Owens argued that the chiefs probably did not intend to give up ownership of the land , and that they would not have sold so much valuable territory for such a modest price . Historian Patrick Jung concluded that the Sauk and Meskwaki chiefs intended to cede a little land , but that the Americans included more territory in the treaty 's language than the Natives realized . According to Jung , the Sauks and Meskwakis did not learn the true extent of the cession until years later .
The 1804 treaty allowed the tribes to continue using the ceded land until it was sold to American settlers by the U.S. government . For the next two decades , Sauks continued to live at Saukenuk , their primary village , which was located near the confluence of the Mississippi and Rock Rivers . In 1828 , the U.S. government finally began to have the ceded land surveyed for white settlement . Indian agent Thomas Forsyth informed the Sauks that they should vacate Saukenuk and their other settlements east of the Mississippi .
= = = Sauks divided = = =
The Sauks were divided about whether to resist implementation of the disputed 1804 treaty . Most Sauks decided to relocate west of the Mississippi rather than become involved in a confrontation with the United States . The leader of this group was Keokuk , who had helped defend Saukenuk against the Americans during the War of 1812 . Keokuk was not a chief , but as a skilled orator , he often spoke on behalf of the Sauk civil chiefs in negotiations with the Americans . Keokuk regarded the 1804 treaty as a fraud , but after having seen the size of American cities on the east coast in 1824 , he did not think the Sauks could successfully oppose the United States .
Although the majority of the tribe decided to follow Keokuk 's lead , about 800 Sauks — roughly one @-@ sixth of the tribe — chose instead to resist American expansion . Black Hawk , a war captain who had fought against the United States in the War of 1812 and was now in his 60s , emerged as the leader of this faction in 1829 . Like Keokuk , Black Hawk was not a civil chief , but he became Keokuk 's primary rival for influence within the tribe . Black Hawk had actually signed a treaty in May 1816 that affirmed the disputed 1804 land cession , but he insisted that what had been written down was different from what had been spoken at the treaty conference . According to Black Hawk , the " whites were in the habit of saying one thing to the Indians and putting another thing down on paper . "
Black Hawk was determined to hold onto Saukenuk , where he lived and had been born . When the Sauks returned to the village in 1829 after their annual winter hunt in the west , they found that it had been occupied by white squatters who were anticipating the sale of land . After months of clashes with the squatters , the Sauks left in September 1829 for the next winter hunt . Hoping to avoid further confrontations , Keokuk told Forsyth that he and his followers would not return to Saukenuk .
Against the advice of Keokuk and Forsyth , Black Hawk 's faction returned to Saukenuk in the spring of 1830 . This time , they were joined by more than 200 Kickapoos , a people who had often allied with the Sauks . Black Hawk and his followers became known as the " British Band " because they sometimes flew a British flag to defy claims of U.S. sovereignty , and because they hoped to gain the support of the British at Fort Malden in Canada .
When the British Band once again returned to Saukenuk in 1831 , Black Hawk 's following had grown to about 1 @,@ 500 people , and now included some Potawatomis , a people with close ties to the Sauks and Meskwakis . American officials determined to force the British Band out of the state . General Edmund P. Gaines , commander of the Western Department of the United States Army , assembled troops with the hope of intimidating Black Hawk into leaving . The army had no cavalry to pursue the Sauks should they flee further into Illinois on horseback , and so on June 5 Gaines requested that the state militia provide a mounted battalion . Illinois governor John Reynolds had already alerted the militia ; about 1 @,@ 500 volunteers turned out . Meanwhile , Keokuk convinced many of Black Hawk 's followers to leave Illinois .
On June 26 , 1831 , Gaines launched an assault against Saukenuk , only to find that Black Hawk and his followers had abandoned the village and recrossed the Mississippi . On June 30 , Black Hawk , Quashquame , and other Sauk leaders met with Gaines and signed an agreement in which the Sauks promised to remain west of the Mississippi and to break off further contact with the British in Canada .
= = Black Hawk 's return = =
Black Hawk did not remain west of the Mississippi for long . In late 1831 , Neapope , a Sauk civil chief , returned from Fort Malden and told Black Hawk that the British and the other Illinois tribes were prepared to support the Sauks against the United States . Why Neapope made these claims , which would prove to be unfounded , is unclear . Historians have described Neapope 's report to Black Hawk as " wishful thinking " and the product of a " fertile imagination " . Black Hawk welcomed the information , though he would later criticize Neapope for misleading him . He spent the winter in an unsuccessful attempt to recruit additional allies from other tribes and from Keokuk 's followers .
According to Neapope 's erroneous report , Wabokieshiek ( " White Cloud " ) , a shaman known to Americans as the " Winnebago Prophet " , had claimed that other tribes were ready to support Black Hawk . Wabokieshiek 's mother was a Ho @-@ Chunk ( Winnebago ) , but his father had belonged to a Sauk clan that provided the tribe 's civil leaders . When Wabokieshiek joined the British Band in 1832 , he would become the ranking Sauk civil chief in the group . His village , Prophetstown , was about thirty @-@ five miles up the Rock River from Saukenuk . The village was inhabited by about 200 Ho @-@ Chunks , Sauks , Meskwakis , Kickapoos , and Potawatomis who were dissatisfied with tribal leaders who refused to stand up to American expansion . Although some Americans would later characterize Wabokieshiek as a primary instigator of the Black Hawk War , the Winnebago Prophet , according to historian John Hall , " actually discouraged his followers from resorting to armed conflict with the whites " .
On April 5 , 1832 , the British Band entered Illinois once again . Numbering about 500 warriors and 600 non @-@ combatants , they crossed near the mouth of the Iowa River over to Yellow Banks ( present @-@ day Oquawka , Illinois ) , and then headed north . Black Hawk 's intentions upon reentering Illinois are not entirely clear , since reports from both white and Indian sources are conflicting . Some said that the British Band intended to reoccupy Saukenuk , while others said that the destination was Prophetstown . According to historian Kerry Trask , " even Black Hawk may not have been sure where they were going and what they intended to do " .
As the British Band moved into Illinois , American officials urged Wabokieshiek to advise Black Hawk to turn back . Previously , the Winnebago Prophet had encouraged Black Hawk to come to Prophetstown , arguing that the 1831 agreement made with General Gaines prohibited a return to Saukenuk , but did not forbid the Sauks from moving to Prophetstown . Now , instead of telling Black Hawk to turn back , Wabokieshiek told him that , as long as the British Band remained peaceful , the Americans would have no choice but to let them settle at Prophetstown , especially if the British and the area tribes supported the band . Although the British Band traveled with armed guards as a security precaution , Black Hawk was probably hoping to avoid a war when he reentered Illinois . The presence of women , children , and the elderly indicated that the band was not a war party .
= = Intertribal war and American policy = =
Although the return of Black Hawk 's band worried U.S. officials , they were at the time more concerned about the possibility of a war among the Native American tribes in the region . Most accounts of the Black Hawk War focus on the conflict between Black Hawk and the United States , but historian John Hall argues that this overlooks the perspective of many Native American participants . According to Hall , " the Black Hawk War also involved an intertribal conflict that had smoldered for decades " . Tribes along the Upper Mississippi had long fought for control of diminishing hunting grounds , and the Black Hawk War provided an opportunity for some Natives to resume a war that had nothing to do with Black Hawk .
After having displaced the British as the dominant outside power following the War of 1812 , the United States had assumed the role of mediator in intertribal disputes . Before the Black Hawk War , U.S. policy discouraged intertribal warfare . This was not strictly for humanitarian reasons : intertribal warfare made it more difficult for the United States to acquire Indian land and move the tribes to the West , a policy known as Indian removal , which had become the primary goal by the late 1820s . U.S. efforts at mediation included multi @-@ tribal treaty councils at Prairie du Chien in 1825 and 1830 , in which tribal boundaries were drawn . Native Americans sometimes resented American mediation , especially young men , for whom warfare was an important avenue of social advancement .
The situation was complicated by the American spoils system . After Andrew Jackson assumed the U.S. presidency in March 1829 , many competent Indian agents were replaced by unqualified Jackson loyalists , argues historian John Hall . Men like Thomas Forsyth , John Marsh , and Thomas McKenney were replaced by less qualified men such as Felix St. Vrain . In the 19th century , historian Lyman Draper argued that the Black Hawk War could have been avoided had Forsyth remained as the agent to the Sauks .
In 1830 , violence threatened to undo American attempts at preventing intertribal warfare . In May , Dakotas ( Santee Sioux ) and Menominees killed fifteen Meskwakis attending a treaty conference at Prairie du Chien . In retaliation , a party of Meskwakis and Sauks killed twenty @-@ six Menominees , including women and children , at Prairie du Chien in July 1831 . American officials discouraged the Menominees from seeking revenge , but the western bands of the tribe formed a coalition with the Dakotas to strike at the Sauks and Meskwakis .
Hoping to prevent the outbreak of a wider war , American officials ordered the U.S. Army to arrest the Meskwakis who massacred the Menominees . General Gaines was ill , and so his subordinate , Brigadier General Henry Atkinson , received the assignment . Atkinson was a middle @-@ aged officer who had ably handled administrative and diplomatic tasks , most notably during the 1827 Winnebago War , but he had never seen combat . On April 8 , he set out from Jefferson Barracks in Missouri , moving up the Mississippi River by steamboat with about 220 soldiers . By chance , Black Hawk and his British Band had just crossed into Illinois . Although Atkinson did not realize it , his boats passed Black Hawk 's band .
When Atkinson arrived at Fort Armstrong on Rock Island on April 12 , he learned that the British Band was in Illinois , and that most of the Meskwakis he wanted to arrest were now with the band . Like other American officials , Atkinson was convinced that the British Band intended to start a war . Because he had few troops at his disposal , Atkinson hoped to get support from the Illinois state militia . He wrote to Governor Reynolds on April 13 , describing — and perhaps purposely exaggerating — the threat that the British Band posed . Reynolds , who was eager for a war to drive the Indians out of the state , responded as Atkinson had hoped : he called for militia volunteers to assemble at Beardstown by April 22 to begin a thirty @-@ day enlistment . The 2 @,@ 100 men who volunteered were organized into a brigade of five regiments under Brigadier General Samuel Whiteside . Among the militiamen was 23 @-@ year @-@ old Abraham Lincoln , who was elected captain of his company .
= = Initial diplomacy = =
After Atkinson 's arrival at Rock Island on April 12 , 1832 , he , Keokuk , and Meskwaki chief Wapello sent emissaries to the British Band , which was now ascending the Rock River . Black Hawk rejected the messages advising him to turn back . Colonel Zachary Taylor , a regular army officer who served under Atkinson , later stated that Atkinson should have made an attempt to stop the British Band by force . Some historians have agreed , arguing that Atkinson could have prevented the outbreak of war with more decisive action or astute diplomacy . Cecil Eby charged that " Atkinson was a paper general , unwilling to proceed until all risk had been eliminated " . Kerry Trask , however , argued that Atkinson was correct in believing that he did not yet have enough troops to stop the British Band . According to Patrick Jung , leaders on both sides had little chance of avoiding bloodshed at this point , because the militiamen and some of Black Hawk 's warriors were spoiling for a fight .
Meanwhile , Black Hawk learned that the Ho @-@ Chunk and Potawatomi tribes were less supportive than anticipated . As in other tribes , different bands of these tribes often pursued different policies . The Ho @-@ Chunks who lived along the Rock River in Illinois had family ties to the Sauks ; they cautiously supported the British Band while trying not to provoke the Americans . Ho @-@ Chunks in Wisconsin were more divided . Some bands , remembering their loss to the Americans in the 1827 Winnebago War , decided to stay clear of the conflict . Other Ho @-@ Chunks with ties to the Dakotas and Menominees , most notably Waukon Decorah and his brothers , were eager to fight against the British Band .
Most Potawatomis wanted to remain neutral in the conflict , but found it difficult to do so . Many white settlers , recalling the Fort Dearborn massacre of 1812 , distrusted the Potawatomis and assumed that they would join Black Hawk 's uprising . Potawatomi leaders worried that the tribe as a whole would be punished if any Potawatomis supported Black Hawk . At a council outside Chicago on May 1 , 1832 , Potawatomi leaders including Billy Caldwell " passed a resolution declaring any Potawatomi who supported Black Hawk a traitor to his tribe " . In mid May , Potawatomi chiefs Shabonna and Waubonsie told Black Hawk that neither they nor the British would come to his aid .
Without British supplies , adequate provisions , or Native allies , Black Hawk realized that his band was in serious trouble . By some accounts , he was ready to negotiate with Atkinson to end the crisis , but an ill @-@ fated encounter with Illinois militiamen would end all possibility of a peaceful resolution .
= = Stillman 's Run = =
On May 8 , General Whiteside 's militia brigade was mustered into federal service under Atkinson . Two days later , the militia and regulars began marching up the Rock River in pursuit of the British Band , with Governor Reynolds accompanying the expedition as a major general of militia . Atkinson allowed Reynolds , Whiteside , and the militiamen to take the lead while he brought up the rear with the regular soldiers . In what historian Patrick Jung calls a " serious lapse in judgment " , Atkinson directed the militia — his least trained and disciplined men — to " move upon the Indians should they be within striking distance without waiting for my arrival " . On May 12 , the militiamen learned that Black Hawk 's band was only twenty @-@ five miles away . Reynolds wanted to send out a scouting force , but the cautious Whiteside insisted on waiting for Atkinson . Because most of the militia were now under U.S. Army command , Reynolds could not give them orders , but he did have two battalions of mounted militia under Major Isaiah Stillman that had not been federalized . In what would prove to be a controversial decision , Reynolds sent these 260 amateur citizen @-@ soldiers forward to reconnoiter the British Band .
In what became known as the Battle of Stillman 's Run , the two battalions of militia came into contact with Black Hawk and his warriors on May 14 , near present @-@ day Stillman Valley . Accounts of how the battle began are varied . Black Hawk later stated that he sent three men under a white flag to parley , but the Americans imprisoned them and opened fire on a second group of observers who followed . Some militiamen never reported seeing a white flag ; others believed that the flag was a ruse the Indians used to set an ambush . All accounts agree that Black Hawk 's warriors attacked the militia camp at dusk . To Black Hawk 's surprise , his forty warriors completely routed the much larger militia force . Twelve Illinois militiamen were killed in the humiliating defeat ; the British Band suffered only three fatalities .
The Battle of Stillman 's run was a turning point . Prior to this battle , Black Hawk had not been committed to war . Now he determined to avenge what he saw as the treacherous killing of his warriors under a flag of truce . After Stillman 's defeat , American leaders like President Jackson and Secretary of War Lewis Cass would not consider a diplomatic solution ; they wanted a resounding victory over Black Hawk to serve as an example to other Native Americans who might consider similar uprisings .
= = Initial raids = =
With hostilities now underway , and few allies to depend upon , Black Hawk sought a place of refuge for the women , children , and elderly in his band . Accepting an offer from the Rock River Ho @-@ Chunks , the band traveled further upriver to Lake Koshkonong in the Michigan Territory and camped in an isolated place known as the " Island " . With the non @-@ combatants secure , members the British Band , with a number of Ho @-@ Chunk and Potawatomi allies , began raiding white settlers . Not all Native Americans in the region supported this turn of events ; most notably , Potawatomi chief Shabonna rode throughout the settlements , warning whites of the impending attacks .
The initial raiding parties consisted primarily of Ho @-@ Chunk and Potawatomi warriors . The first attack came on May 19 , 1832 , when Ho @-@ Chunks ambushed six men near Buffalo Grove , Illinois , killing a man named William Durley . Durley 's scalped and mutilated body was found by Indian agent Felix St. Vrain . The Indian agent was himself killed and mutilated , along with three other men , several days later at Kellogg 's Grove .
The Ho @-@ Chunks and Potawatomis , who took part in the war , were sometimes , motivated by grievances , not directly related to Black Hawk 's objectives . One such incident was the Indian Creek massacre . In the spring of 1832 , Potawatomis living along Indian Creek were upset that a settler named William Davis had dammed the creek , preventing fish from reaching their village . Davis ignored the protests , and assaulted a Potawatomi man who tried to dismantle the dam . The Black Hawk War provided the Indian Creek Potawatomis with an opportunity for revenge . On May 21 , about fifty Potawatomis and three Sauks from the British Band attacked Davis 's settlement , killing , scalping , and mutilating fifteen men , women , and children . Two teenage girls from the settlement were kidnapped and taken to Black Hawk 's camp . A Ho @-@ Chunk chief named White Crow negotiated their release two weeks later . Like other Rock River Ho @-@ Chunks , White Crow was trying to placate the Americans while clandestinely aiding the British Band .
= = American reorganization = =
News of Stillman 's defeat , the Indian Creek massacre , and other smaller attacks triggered panic among the white population . Many settlers fled to Chicago , then a small town , which became overcrowded with hungry refugees . Many Potawatomis also fled towards Chicago , not wanting to get caught in the conflict nor be mistaken for hostiles . Throughout the region , settlers hurriedly organized militia units and built small forts .
After Stillman 's defeat on May 14 , the regulars and militia continued up the Rock River to search for Black Hawk . The militiamen became discouraged at not being able to find the British Band . When they heard about the Indian raids , many deserted so that they could return home to defend their families . As morale plummeted , Governor Reynolds asked his militia officers to vote on whether to continue the campaign . General Whiteside , disgusted with the performance of his men , cast the tie @-@ breaking vote in favor of disbanding . Most of Whiteside 's brigade disbanded at Ottawa , Illinois , on May 28 . About 300 men , including Abraham Lincoln , agreed to remain in the field for twenty more days until a new militia force could be organized .
As Whiteside 's brigade disbanded , Atkinson organized a new force in June 1832 that he dubbed the " Army of the Frontier " . The army consisted of 629 regular army infantrymen and 3 @,@ 196 mounted militia volunteers . The militia was divided into three brigades commanded by Brigadier Generals Alexander Posey , Milton Alexander , and James D. Henry . Since many men were assigned to local patrols and guard duties , Atkinson had only 450 regulars and 2 @,@ 100 militiamen available for campaigning . Many more militiamen served in units that were not part of the Army of the Frontier 's three brigades . Abraham Lincoln , for example , reenlisted as a private in an independent company that was taken into federal service . Henry Dodge , a Michigan territorial militia colonel who would prove to be one of the best commanders in the war , fielded a battalion of mounted volunteers that numbered 250 men at its strongest . The overall number of militiamen who took part in the war is not precisely known ; the total from Illinois alone has been estimated at six to seven thousand .
In addition to organizing a new militia army , Atkinson also began to recruit Native American allies , reversing the previous American policy of trying to prevent intertribal warfare . Menominees , Dakotas , and some Ho @-@ Chunks bands were eager to go to war against the British Band . By June 6 , agent Joseph M. Street had assembled about 225 Natives at Prairie du Chien . This force included about eighty Dakotas under Wabasha and L 'Arc , forty Menominees , and several bands of Ho Chunks . Although the Indian warriors followed their own leaders , Atkinson placed the force under the nominal command of William S. Hamilton , a militia colonel and a son of Alexander Hamilton . Hamilton would prove to be an unfortunate choice to lead the force ; historian John Hall characterized him as " pretentious and unqualified " . Before long , the Indians became frustrated with marching around under Hamilton and not seeing any action . Some Menominee scouts remained , but most of the Natives eventually left Hamilton and fought the war on their own terms .
= = June raids = =
In June 1832 , after hearing that Atkinson was forming a new army , Black Hawk began sending out raiding parties . Perhaps hoping to lead the Americans away from his camp at Lake Koshkonong , he targeted areas to the west . The first major attack occurred on June 14 near present @-@ day South Wayne , Wisconsin , when a band of about 30 warriors attacked a group of farmers , killing and scalping four .
Responding to this attack , militia Colonel Henry Dodge gathered a force of twenty @-@ nine mounted volunteers and set out in pursuit of the attackers . On June 16 , Dodge and his men cornered about eleven of the raiders at a bend in the Pecatonica River . In a brief battle , the Americans killed and scalped all of the Natives . The Battle of Horseshoe Bend ( or Battle of Pecatonica ) was the first real American victory in the war , and helped restore public confidence in the volunteer militia force .
On the same day of Dodge 's victory , another skirmish took place at Kellogg 's Grove in present @-@ day Stephenson County , Illinois . American forces had occupied Kellogg 's Grove in an effort to intercept war parties raiding to the west . In the First Battle of Kellogg 's Grove , militia commanded by Adam W. Snyder pursued a British Band raiding party of about thirty warriors . Three Illinois militiamen and six Native warriors died in the fighting . Two days later , on June 18 , militia under James W. Stephenson encountered what was probably the same war party near Yellow Creek . The Battle of Waddams Grove became a hard fought , hand @-@ to @-@ hand melee . Three militiamen and five or six Indians were killed in the action .
Back on June 6 , when a civilian miner was killed by raiders near the village of Blue Mounds in the Michigan Territory , residents began to fear that the Rock River Ho @-@ Chunks were joining the war . On June 20 , a Ho @-@ Chunk raiding party estimated by one eyewitness to be as large as 100 warriors attacked the settler fort at Blue Mounds . Two militiamen were killed in the attack , one of whom was badly mutilated .
On June 24 , 1832 , Black Hawk and about 200 warriors attacked at the hastily constructed Apple River Fort , near present @-@ day Elizabeth , Illinois . Local settlers , warned of Black Hawk 's approach , took refuge in the fort , which was defended by about 20 to 35 militiamen . The Battle of Apple River Fort lasted about forty @-@ five minutes . The women and girls inside the fort , under the direction of Elizabeth Armstrong , loaded muskets and molded bullets . After losing several men , Black Hawk broke off the siege , looted the nearby homes , and headed back towards his camp .
The next day , June 25 , Black Hawk 's party encountered a militia battalion commanded by Major John Dement . In the Second Battle of Kellogg 's Grove , Black Hawk 's warriors drove the militiamen inside their fort and commenced a two @-@ hour siege . After losing nine warriors and killing five militiamen , Black Hawk broke off the siege and returned to his main camp at Lake Koshkonong . This would prove to be Black Hawk 's last military success in the war . With his band running low on food , he decided to take them back across the Mississippi .
= = Final campaign = =
On June 15 , 1832 , President Andrew Jackson , displeased with Atkinson 's handling of the war , appointed General Winfield Scott to take command . Scott gathered about 950 troops from eastern army posts just as a cholera pandemic had spread to eastern North America . As Scott 's troops traveled by steamboat from Buffalo , New York , across the Great Lakes towards Chicago , his men started getting sick from cholera , with many of them dying . At each place the vessels landed , the sick were deposited and soldiers deserted . By the time the last steamboat landed in Chicago , Scott had only about 350 effective soldiers left . On July 29 , Scott began a hurried journey west , ahead of his troops , eager to take command of what was certain to be the war 's final campaign , but he would be too late to see any combat .
General Atkinson , who learned in early July that Scott would be taking command , hoped to bring the war to a successful conclusion before Scott 's arrival . The Americans had difficulty locating the British Band , however , thanks in part to false intelligence given to them by area Native Americans . Potawatomis and Ho @-@ Chunks in Illinois , many of whom had sought to remain neutral in the war , decided to cooperate with the Americans . Tribal leaders knew that some of their warriors had aided the British Band , and so they hoped that a highly visible show of support for the Americans would dissuade U.S. officials from punishing the tribes after the conflict was over . Wearing white headbands to distinguish themselves from hostile Natives , Ho @-@ Chunks and Potawatomis served as guides for Atkinson 's army . Ho @-@ Chunks sympathetic to the plight of Black Hawk 's people misled Atkinson into thinking that the British Band was still at Lake Koshkonong . While Atkinson 's men were trudging through the swamps and running low on provisions , the British Band had in fact relocated miles to the north . Potawatomis under Billy Caldwell also managed to demonstrate support for the Americans while avoiding battle .
In mid @-@ July , Colonel Dodge learned from métis trader Pierre Paquette that the British Band was camped near the Rock River rapids , at present Hustisford , Wisconsin . Dodge and James D. Henry set out in pursuit from Fort Winnebago on July 15 . The British Band , reduced to fewer than 600 people due to death and desertion , headed for the Mississippi River as the militia approached . The Americans pursued them , killing and scalping several Native stragglers along the way .
= = = Wisconsin Heights = = =
On July 21 , 1832 , the militiamen caught up with the British Band near present @-@ day Sauk City , Wisconsin . To buy time for the noncombatants to cross the Wisconsin River , Black Hawk and Neapope confronted the Americans in a rear guard action that became known as the Battle of Wisconsin Heights . Black Hawk was desperately outnumbered , leading about 50 Sauks and 60 to 70 Kickapoos against 750 militiamen . The battle was a lopsided victory for the militiamen , who lost only one man while killing as many as 68 of Black Hawk 's warriors . Despite the high casualties , the battle allowed much of the British Band , including many women and children , to escape across the river . Black Hawk had managed to hold off a much larger force while allowing most of his people to escape , a difficult military operation that impressed some U.S. Army officers when they learned of it .
The Battle of Wisconsin Heights had been a victory for the militia ; no regular soldiers of the U.S. Army had been present . Atkinson and the regulars joined up with the volunteers several days after the battle . With a force of about 400 regulars and 900 militiamen , the Americans crossed the Wisconsin River on July 27 and resumed the pursuit of the British Band . The British Band was moving slow , encumbered with wounded warriors and people dying of starvation . The Americans followed the trail of dead bodies , cast off equipment , and the remains of horses the hungry Natives had eaten .
= = = Bad Axe = = =
After the Battle of Wisconsin Heights , a messenger from Black Hawk had shouted to the militiamen that the starving British Band was going back across the Mississippi and would fight no more . No one in the American camp understood the message , however , since their Ho @-@ Chunk guides were not present to interpret . Black Hawk may have believed that the Americans had gotten the message , and that they had not pursued him after the Battle of Wisconsin Heights . He apparently expected that the Americans were going to let his band recross the Mississippi unmolested .
The Americans , however , had no intentions of letting the British Band escape . The Warrior , a steamboat outfitted with an artillery piece , patrolled the Mississippi River , while American allied @-@ Dakotas , Menominees , and Ho @-@ Chunks watched the banks . On August 1 , the Warrior arrived at the mouth of the Bad Axe River , where the Dakotas told the Americans that they would find Black Hawk 's people . Black Hawk raised a white flag in an attempt to surrender , but his intentions may have been garbled in translation . The Americans , in no mood to accept a surrender anyway , thought that the Indians were using the white flag to set an ambush . When they became certain that the Natives on land were the British Band , they opened fire . Twenty @-@ three Natives were killed in the exchange of gunfire , while just one soldier on the Warrior was injured .
After the Warrior left , Black Hawk decided to seek refuge in the north with the Ojibwes . Only about 50 people , including Wabokieshiek , agreed to go with him ; the others remained , determined to cross the Mississippi and return to Sauk territory . The next morning , on August 2 , Black Hawk was heading north when he learned that the American army had closed in on the members of the British Band who were trying to cross the Mississippi . He tried to rejoin the main body , but after a skirmish with American troops near present @-@ day Victory , Wisconsin , he gave up the attempt . Sauk chief Weesheet later criticized Black Hawk and Wabokieshiek for abandoning the people during the final battle of the war .
The Battle of Bad Axe began at about 9 : 00 am on August 2 after the Americans caught up with the remnants of the British Band a few miles downstream from the mouth of the Bad Axe River . The British Band was reduced to roughly 500 people by this time , including about 150 warriors . The warriors fought with the Americans while the Native noncombatants frantically tried to cross the river . Many made it to one of the two nearby islands , but were dislodged after the steamboat Warrior returned at noon , carrying regulars and Menominees allied with the Americans .
The battle was another lopsided victory for the Americans , who lost just 14 men , including one Menominee who died by friendly fire and was buried with honors alongside the white soldiers . At least 260 members of the British Band were killed , including about 110 who drowned while trying to cross the river . Although the regular soldiers of the U.S. Army generally tried to avoid needless bloodshed , many of the militiamen intentionally killed Native noncombatants , sometimes in cold blood . The encounter was , in the words of historian Patrick Jung , " less of a battle and more of a massacre " .
Menominees from Green Bay , who had mobilized a battalion of nearly 300 men , arrived too late for the battle . They were upset at having missed the chance to fight their old enemies , and so on August 10 , General Scott sent 100 of them after a part of the British Band that had escaped . Indian agent Samuel C. Stambaugh , who accompanied them , urged the Menominees not to take any scalps , but Chief Grizzly Bear insisted that such a prohibition could not be enforced . The group tracked down about ten Sauks , only two of whom were warriors . The Menominees killed and scalped the warriors , but spared the women and children .
The Dakotas , who had volunteered 150 warriors to fight against the Sauks and Meskwakis , also arrived too late to participate in the Battle of Bad Axe , but they pursued the members of the British Band who made it across the Mississippi into Iowa . On about August 9 , in the final engagement of the war , they attacked the remnants of the British Band along the Cedar River , killing 68 and taking 22 prisoners . Ho @-@ Chunks also hunted survivors of the British Band , taking between fifty and sixty scalps .
= = Aftermath = =
The Black Hawk War resulted in the deaths of 77 white settlers , militiamen , and regular soldiers . This figure does not included the deaths from cholera suffered by the relief force under General Winfield Scott . Estimates of how many members of the British Band died during the conflict range from about 450 to 600 , or about half of the 1 @,@ 100 people who entered Illinois with Black Hawk in 1832 .
A number of American men with political ambitions fought in the Black Hawk War . At least seven future U.S. Senators took part , as did four future Illinois governors , and future governors of Michigan , Nebraska , and the Wisconsin Territory . The Black Hawk War demonstrated to American officials the need for mounted troops to fight a mounted foe . During the war , the U.S. Army did not have cavalry ; the only mounted soldiers were part @-@ time volunteers . After the war , Congress created the Mounted Ranger Battalion under the command of Henry Dodge , which was expanded to the 1st Cavalry Regiment in 1833 .
= = = Black Hawk 's imprisonment and legacy = = =
After the Battle of Bad Axe , Black Hawk , Wabokieshiek , and their followers traveled northeast to seek refuge with the Ojibwes . American officials offered a reward of $ 100 and forty horses for Black Hawk 's capture . While camping near present @-@ day Tomah , Wisconsin , Black Hawk 's party was seen by a passing Ho @-@ Chunk man , who alerted his village chief . The village council sent a delegation to Black Hawk 's camp and convinced him to surrender to the Americans . On August 27 , 1832 , Black Hawk and Wabokieshiek surrendered at Prairie du Chien to Indian agent Joseph Street . Colonel Zachary Taylor took custody of the prisoners , and sent them by steamboat to Jefferson Barracks , escorted by Lieutenants Jefferson Davis and Robert Anderson .
By war 's end , Black Hawk and nineteen other leaders of the British Band were incarcerated at Jefferson Barracks . Most of the prisoners were released in the succeeding months , but in April 1833 , Black Hawk , Wabokieshiek , Neapope , and three others were transferred to Fort Monroe in Virginia , which was better equipped to hold prisoners . The American public was eager to catch a glimpse of the captured Indians . Large crowds gathered in Louisville and Cincinnati to watch them pass . On April 26 , the prisoners met briefly with President Jackson in Washington , D.C. , before being taken to Fort Monroe . Even in prison they were treated as celebrities : they posed for portraits by artists such as Charles Bird King and John Wesley Jarvis , and a dinner was held in their honor before they left .
American officials decided to release the prisoners after a few weeks . First , however , the Natives were required to visit several large U.S. cities on the east coast . This was a tactic often used when Native American leaders came to the East , because it was thought that a demonstration of the size and power of the United States would discourage future resistance to U.S. expansion . Beginning on June 4 , 1833 , Black Hawk and his companions were taken on a tour of Baltimore , Philadelphia , and New York City . They attended dinners and plays , and were shown a battleship , various public buildings , and a military parade . Huge crowds gathered to see them . Black Hawk 's handsome son Nasheweskaska ( Whirling Thunder ) was a particular favorite . Reaction in the west , however , was less welcoming . When the prisoners traveled through Detroit on their way home , one crowd burned and hanged effigies of the Indians .
According to historian Kerry Trask , Black Hawk and his fellow prisoners were treated like celebrities because the Indians served as a living embodiment of the noble savage myth that had become popular in the eastern United States . Then and later , argues Trask , white Americans absolved themselves of complicity in the dispossession of Native Americans by expressing admiration or sympathy for defeated Indians like Black Hawk . The mythologizing of Black Hawk continued , argues Trask , with the many plaques and memorials that were later erected in his honor . " Indeed , " writes Trask , " most of the reconstructed memory of the Black Hawk War has been designed to make white people feel good about themselves . " Black Hawk also became an admired symbol of resistance among Native Americans , even among descendants of those who had opposed him .
= = = Treaties and removals = = =
The Black Hawk War marked the end of Native armed resistance to U.S. expansion in the Old Northwest The war provided an opportunity for American officials such as Andrew Jackson , Lewis Cass , and John Reynolds to compel Native American tribes to sell their lands east of the Mississippi River and move to the West , a policy known as Indian removal . Officials conducted a number of treaties after the war to purchase the remaining Native American land claims in the Old Northwest . The Dakotas and Menominees , who won approval from American officials for their role in the war , largely avoided postwar removal pressure until later decades .
After the war , American officials learned that some Ho @-@ Chunks had aided Black Hawk more than had been previously known . Eight Ho @-@ Chunks were briefly imprisoned at Fort Winnebago for their role in the war , but charges against them were eventually dropped due to a lack of witnesses . In September 1832 , General Scott and Governor Reynolds conducted a treaty with the Ho @-@ Chunks at Rock Island . The Ho @-@ Chunks ceded all their land south of the Wisconsin River in exchange for a forty @-@ mile strip of land in Iowa and annual payments of $ 10 @,@ 000 for twenty @-@ seven years . The land in Iowa was known as the " Neutral Ground " because it had been designated in 1830 as a buffer zone between the Dakotas and their enemies to the south , the Sauks and Meskwakis . Scott hoped that the settlement of the Ho @-@ Chunks in the Neutral Ground would help keep the peace . Ho @-@ Chunks remaining in Wisconsin were pressured to sign a removal treaty in 1837 , even though leaders such as Waukon Decorah had been U.S. allies during the Black Hawk War . General Atkinson was assigned to use the army to forcibly relocate those Ho @-@ Chunks who refused to move to Iowa .
Following the September 1832 treaty with the Ho @-@ Chunks , Scott and Reynolds conducted another with the Sauks and Meskwakis , with Keokuk and Wapello serving as the primary representatives of their tribes . Scott told the assembled chiefs that " if a particular part of a nation goes out of their country , and makes war , the whole nation is responsible " . The tribes sold about 6 million acres ( 24 @,@ 000 km ² ) of land in eastern Iowa to the United States for payments of $ 20 @,@ 000 per year for thirty years , among other provisions . Keokuk was granted a reservation within the cession and recognized by the Americans as the primary chief of the Sauks and Meskwakis . The tribes sold the reservation to the United States in 1836 , and additional land in Iowa the following year . Their last lands in Iowa were sold in 1842 , and most of the Natives moved to a reservation in Kansas .
Thanks to the decision of Potawatomi leaders to aid the U.S. during the war , American officials did not seize tribal land as war reparations . Instead , only three individuals accused of leading the Indian Creek massacre were tried in court ; they were acquitted . Nevertheless , the drive to purchase Potawatomi land west of the Mississippi began in October 1832 , when commissioners in Indiana bought a large amount of Potawatomi land , even though not all Potawatomi bands were represented at the treaty . The tribe was compelled to sell their remaining land west of the Mississippi in a treaty held in Chicago in September 1833 .
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= Tracing in English law =
Tracing in English law is a procedure to identify property ( such as money ) that has been taken from the claimant involuntarily . It is not in itself a way to recover the property , but rather to identify it so that the courts can decide what remedy to apply . The procedure is used in several situations , broadly demarcated by whether the property has been transferred because of theft , breach of trust , or mistake .
Tracing is divided into two forms , common law tracing and equitable tracing . Common law tracing relies on the claimant having legal ownership of the property , and will fail if the property has been mixed with other property , the legal title has been transferred to the defendant , or the legal title has been transferred by the defendant to any further recipient of the property . Equitable tracing , on the other hand , relies on the claimant having an equitable interest in the property , and can succeed where the property has been mixed with other property .
Defences to tracing are possible , particularly if returning the property would harm an innocent defendant , where the claimant has made false representations that the defendant relied on to his detriment , or where the property has been transferred to an innocent third party without anything given to the defendant in return that the claimant could recover in lieu .
= = Definition = =
Tracing is a process that allows for the recovery of property ( such as land or money ) by the owner if it is taken involuntarily , and the owner has not consented to the transfer of title . This can be through theft , breach of trust , or mistake . Owners can recover their property and perhaps also any profits made from it , or in situations where the property cannot be recovered ( as it has been mixed in with other property , or cannot be found ) , substitute property . The process has two steps , following and tracing . In Foskett v McKeown , Lord Millett defined them by saying that " [ Following and tracing ] are both exercises in locating assets which may or may be taken to represent an asset belonging to the [ claimants ] and to which they assert ownership . The process of following and tracing are , however , distinct . Following is the process of following the same asset as it moves from hand to hand . Tracing is the process of identifying a new asset as the substitute for the old " . Following , therefore , is simply establishing who the original owner of property is , where that property is , and returning it to the original owner . Tracing arises when the property cannot be returned and the court is asked to recognise an interest in new property , such as whatever the defendant received in exchange for the claimant 's original property . Tracing can occur at both the common law and equity . It is not a remedy for breach of trust ; tracing is merely the process of identifying the property . It is then up to the courts to decide what will happen to it .
= = Tracing in common law = =
Common law tracing is where the claimant seeks to identify property that belongs to him at common law . This is where physical possession of the property passes , but not legal ownership . The problem with common law tracing is that the property must be identifiable ; if it has been mixed with other property , such as money paid into an account with other money from a different source , it cannot be successfully recovered . It is also essential that the involuntary transfer did not also transfer the legal title , nor any succeeding transfer . If this has happened , the property is also not recoverable under the common law . Someone with an equitable interest in the property but no legal title , as in MCC Proceeds v Lehman Brothers , cannot recover the money under common law . Due to these limitations , " many leading academics and judges " have suggested that common law tracing should be completely merged with equitable tracing .
= = Tracing in equity = =
Equitable tracing is based not on legal ownership but on the claimant 's possession of an equitable interest . There are several advantages to equitable tracing ; first , it can trace property now mixed with other property . In Boscawen v Bajwa , Millett justified this by saying that " equity 's power to charge a mixed fund with the repayment of trust moneys enables the claimant to follow the money , not because it is his , but because it is derived from a fund which is treated as if it were subject to a charge in his favour " . A limitation is that where the property has been put into a bank account that no longer contains enough money to repay it , it cannot be traced .
For equitable tracing to be valid , several things must be demonstrated . First , the equitable title must exist ; it can be brought into existence by the courts , such as in Constructive trusts . Secondly , there must be some kind of fiduciary relationship between the claimant and the defendant . If the property was transferred through breach of trust , it will not be necessary to establish such a relationship , because it already exists . In addition , property transferred through breach of trust may be traced to any third party ( other than a purchaser in good faith ) , even if they did not previously have a fiduciary relationship with the claimant . Historically , the courts have been willing to be " generous in finding that the necessary fiduciary relationship existed " , even going so far as to recognise relationships that did not exist at the time of the transfer .
= = = Mixture of trust funds with trustee 's funds = = =
Equitable tracing 's greatest strength is its ability to trace into mixtures of money . Different rules apply in different situations ; where the money has been mixed with the money of a trustee , where a trust fund has been mixed with another trust fund ( or money belonging to an innocent volunteer ) , and where money has been transferred by mistake rather than malicious intent . Where the money has been mixed with the money of a trustee , the court 's decision depends on the motive of the trustee . Because a trustee is expected to invest trust property and behave honestly , the courts may choose to find that the trustee transferred the money to further the goal of the trust . Since the trustee is assumed to behave honestly , any profits made may be assumed ( by this " convenient fiction " ) to be made by the trust money , and any losses from the trustee 's personal funds .
The alternate approach taken is the " beneficiary election " approach . This is that where trust funds are wrongly mixed with the trustee 's personal funds , used for an investment , and the money is thus not recoverable , the beneficiaries are allowed to " elect " whether the investment is to be held as a security for the amounts owed to them , or whether to take the unauthorised investment as part of the trust fund . This is considered the exception , rather than the rule ; in Foskett v McKeown , Millett said that " The primary rule in regard to a mixed fund , therefore , is that gains and losses are borne by the contributors rateably . The beneficiary 's right to elect instead to enforce a lien to obtain repayment is an exception to the primary rue , exercisable where the fund is deficient and the claim is made against the wrongdoer and those claiming through him " .
= = = Innocent parties and mistake = = =
Where funds are mixed with those of another trust , or mixed with the funds of an " innocent volunteer " , certain general principles apply . As laid out in Re Diplock , the principle applied is that the claimant 's entitlement ranks pari passu to that of the volunteer ; each has an equal claim to their funds . Whether the fund decreases or increases in value , each party can claim a percentage equal to their contribution . The problem here comes if the mixed funds are used in unequal chunks to acquire other property . The long @-@ standing rule is that established in Clayton 's Case ; that the money deposited first is deemed to be spent on the first property purchased . The problem with this is that if the first property becomes less valuable than the second property purchased , the first claimant loses some of their money while the second claimant is able to claim their money in its entirety . The alternate approach is the previously mentioned pari passu idea ; whatever the total property is worth , the claimants get a share proportionate to their input , without assuming that the first claimant 's money is tied to the first property purchased and the second claimant 's money to the second property . In Barlow Clowes International v Vaughan , the Court of Appeal applied a similar set of principles , holding that the size of the contribution and the amount of time the money was part of the mixed fund were the factors to be considered .
Where payments have been made by mistake claimants may or may not be able to recoup their losses . The leading case is Westdeutsche Landesbank Girozentrale v Islington LBC , where Lord Browne @-@ Wilkinson declared that a constructive trust would be created when the recipient of the funds became aware of the mistaken transfer . As such , ignorance of the mistake would not create a fiduciary relationship , therefore not a trust , and the property would be untraceable .
= = Loss of the right to trace and defences = =
The right to trace may be lost if the property cannot be found , or no longer exists . Defences to tracing are possible . The " change of position " defence is where the defendant has received property and giving it back would change his personal circumstances . This was concisely defined by Lord Goff in Lipkin Gorman v Karpnale as " Where an innocent defendant 's position is so changed that he will suffer an injustice if called upon to repay or to repay in full , the injustice of requiring him so to repay outweighs the injustice of denying the plaintiff restitution " . Such a defence is closely linked with unjust enrichment , and has limitations . Any bad faith on the part of the defendant will invalidate the defence , such as if the recipient of the property has encouraged the payer to transfer it or has received it by mistake and then used it without making enquiries . The defence is also not available to people who act illegally , as in Barros Mattos v MacDaniels Ltd . Activity which constitutes a " change of position " can be broadly defined as taking steps which would not otherwise have been taken , or not taking steps which otherwise would have been taken , as a result of receiving the property .
Another defence is that of " estoppel by representation " . This is similar to " change of position " , and comes about when the defendant can show that the claimant made some false representation to him , which he acted upon to his detriment . Traditionally , the entire property would be the defendant 's if the defence was successful . In National Westminster Bank plc v Somer International , however , the Court of Appeal decided that the defendant was only allowed to retain property equal to his losses due to the claimant 's representation . Another defence similar to " change of position " is that of passing on , where the defendant has passed the property on to a third person without any benefit for the defendant ; it is thus impossible to trace the property as the defendant has neither the property nor any proceeds from transferring it .
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= Actuary =
An actuary is a business professional who deals with the measurement and management of risk and uncertainty ( BeAnActuary 2011a ) . The name of the corresponding profession is actuarial science . These risks can affect both sides of the balance sheet , and require asset management , liability management , and valuation skills ( BeAnActuary 2011b ) . Actuaries provide assessments of financial security systems , with a focus on their complexity , their mathematics , and their mechanisms ( Trowbridge 1989 , p . 7 ) .
While the concept of insurance dates to antiquity ( Johnston 1903 , § 475 – § 476 , Loan 1992 , Lewin 2007 , pp. 3 – 4 ) , the mathematics and finance needed to scientifically measure and mitigate risks have their origins in the 17th century studies of probability and annuities ( Heywood 1985 ) . Actuaries of the 21st century require analytical skills , business knowledge , and an understanding of human behavior and information systems to design and manage programs that control risk ( BeAnActuary 2011c ) . The actual steps needed to become an actuary are usually country @-@ specific ; however , almost all processes share a rigorous schooling or examination structure and take many years to complete ( Feldblum 2001 , p . 6 , Institute and Faculty of Actuaries 2014 ) .
The profession has consistently ranked as one of the most desirable ( Riley 2013 ) . In various studies , being an actuary was ranked number one or two multiple times since 2010 ( Thomas 2012 , Weber 2013 , CareerCast 2015 ) .
= = Responsibilities = =
Actuaries use skills primarily in mathematics , particularly calculus @-@ based probability and mathematical statistics , but also economics , computer science , finance , and business . For this reason , actuaries are essential to the insurance and reinsurance industries , either as staff employees or as consultants ; to other businesses , including sponsors of pension plans ; and to government agencies such as the Government Actuary 's Department in the United Kingdom or the Social Security Administration in the United States of America . Actuaries assemble and analyze data to estimate the probability and likely cost of the occurrence of an event such as death , sickness , injury , disability , or loss of property . Actuaries also address financial questions , including those involving the level of pension contributions required to produce a certain retirement income and the way in which a company should invest resources to maximize its return on investments in light of potential risk . Using their broad knowledge , actuaries help design and price insurance policies , pension plans , and other financial strategies in a manner that will help ensure that the plans are maintained on a sound financial basis ( Bureau of Labor Statistics 2015 , Government Actuary 's Department 2015 ) .
= = = Disciplines = = =
Most traditional actuarial disciplines fall into two main categories : life and non @-@ life .
Life actuaries , which include health and pension actuaries , primarily deal with mortality risk , morbidity risk , and investment risk . Products prominent in their work include life insurance , annuities , pensions , short and long term disability insurance , health insurance , health savings accounts , and long @-@ term care insurance ( Bureau of Labor Statistics 2015 ) . In addition to these risks , social insurance programs are influenced by public opinion , politics , budget constraints , changing demographics , and other factors such as medical technology , inflation , and cost of living considerations ( GAO 1980 , GAO 2008 ) .
Non @-@ life actuaries , also known as property and casualty or general insurance actuaries , deal with both physical and legal risks that affect people or their property . Products prominent in their work include auto insurance , homeowners insurance , commercial property insurance , workers ' compensation , malpractice insurance , product liability insurance , marine insurance , terrorism insurance , and other types of liability insurance ( AIA 2014 ) .
Actuaries are also called upon for their expertise in enterprise risk management ( Bureau of Labor Statistics 2015 ) . This can involve dynamic financial analysis , stress testing , the formulation of corporate risk policy , and the setting up and running of corporate risk departments ( Institute and Faculty of Actuaries 2011b ) . Actuaries are also involved in other areas of the financial services industry , such as analysing securities offerings or market research ( Bureau of Labor Statistics 2015 ) .
= = = Traditional employment = = =
On both the life and casualty sides , the classical function of actuaries is to calculate premiums and reserves for insurance policies covering various risks ( Institute and Faculty of Actuaries 2014 ) . On the casualty side , this analysis often involves quantifying the probability of a loss event , called the frequency , and the size of that loss event , called the severity . The amount of time that occurs before the loss event is important , as the insurer will not have to pay anything until after the event has occurred . On the life side , the analysis often involves quantifying how much a potential sum of money or a financial liability will be worth at different points in the future . Since neither of these kinds of analysis are purely deterministic processes , stochastic models are often used to determine frequency and severity distributions and the parameters of these distributions . Forecasting interest yields and currency movements also plays a role in determining future costs , especially on the life side ( Tolley , Hickman & Lew 2012 ) .
Actuaries do not always attempt to predict aggregate future events . Often , their work may relate to determining the cost of financial liabilities that have already occurred , called retrospective reinsurance , or the development or re @-@ pricing of new products .
Actuaries also design and maintain products and systems . They are involved in financial reporting of companies ' assets and liabilities . They must communicate complex concepts to clients who may not share their language or depth of knowledge . Actuaries work under a code of ethics that covers their communications and work products ( ASB 2013 ) .
= = = Non @-@ traditional employment = = =
As an outgrowth of their more traditional roles , actuaries also work in the fields of risk management and enterprise risk management for both financial and non @-@ financial corporations ( D 'Arcy 2005 ) . Actuaries in traditional roles study and use the tools and data previously in the domain of finance ( Feldblum 2001 , p . 8 ) . The Basel II accord for financial institutions ( 2004 ) , and its analogue , the Solvency II accord for insurance companies ( to come into effect in 2016 ) , require institutions to account for operational risk separately , and in addition to , credit , reserve , asset , and insolvency risk . Actuarial skills are well suited to this environment because of their training in analyzing various forms of risk , and judging the potential for upside gain , as well as downside loss associated with these forms of risk ( D 'Arcy 2005 ) .
Actuaries are also involved in investment advice and asset management , and can be general business managers and chief financial officers ( Mungan 2002 , Stefan 2010 ) . They analyze business prospects with their financial skills in valuing or discounting risky future cash flows , and apply their pricing expertise from insurance to other lines of business . For example , insurance securitization requires both actuarial and finance skills ( Krutov 2006 ) . Actuaries also act as expert witnesses by applying their analysis in court trials to estimate the economic value of losses such as lost profits or lost wages ( Wagner 2006 ) .
= = History = =
= = = Need for insurance = = =
The basic requirements of communal interests gave rise to risk sharing since the dawn of civilization . For example , people who lived their entire lives in a camp had the risk of fire , which would leave their band or family without shelter . After barter came into existence , more complex risks emerged and new forms of risk manifested . Merchants embarking on trade journeys bore the risk of losing goods entrusted to them , their own possessions , or even their lives . Intermediaries developed to warehouse and trade goods , which exposed them to financial risk . The primary providers in extended families or households ran the risk of premature death , disability or infirmity , which could leave their dependents to starve . Credit procurement was difficult if the creditor worried about repayment in the event of the borrower 's death or infirmity . Alternatively , people sometimes lived too long from a financial perspective , exhausting their savings , if any , or becoming a burden on others in the extended family or society ( Lewin 2007 , p . 3 ) .
= = = Early attempts = = =
In the ancient world there was not always room for the sick , suffering , disabled , aged , or the poor — these were often not part of the cultural consciousness of societies ( Perkins 1995 ) . Early methods of protection , aside from the normal support of the extended family , involved charity ; religious organizations or neighbors would collect for the destitute and needy . By the middle of the 3rd century , 1 @,@ 500 suffering people were being supported by charitable operations in Rome ( Perkins 1995 ) . Charitable protection remains an active form of support in the modern era ( GivingUSA 2009 ) , but receiving charity is uncertain and is often accompanied by social stigma . Elementary mutual aid agreements and pensions did arise in antiquity ( Thucydides ) . Early in the Roman empire , associations were formed to meet the expenses of burial , cremation , and monuments — precursors to burial insurance and friendly societies . A small sum was paid into a communal fund on a weekly basis , and upon the death of a member , the fund would cover the expenses of rites and burial . These societies sometimes sold shares in the building of columbāria , or burial vaults , owned by the fund — the precursor to mutual insurance companies ( Johnston 1903 , § 475 – § 476 ) . Other early examples of mutual surety and assurance pacts can be traced back to various forms of fellowship within the Saxon clans of England and their Germanic forbears , and to Celtic society ( Loan 1992 ) .
Non @-@ life insurance started as a hedge against loss of cargo during sea travel . Anecdotal reports of such guarantees occur in the writings of Demosthenes , who lived in the 4th century BCE ( Lewin 2007 , pp. 3 – 4 ) . The earliest records of an official non @-@ life insurance policy come from Sicily , where there is record of a 14th @-@ century contract to insure a shipment of wheat ( Sweeting 2011 , p . 14 ) . In 1350 , Lenardo Cattaneo assumed " all risks from act of God , or of man , and from perils of the sea " that may occur to a shipment of wheat from Sicily to Tunis up to a maximum of 300 florins . For this he was paid a premium of 18 % ( Lewin 2007 , p . 4 ) .
= = = Development of theory = = =
During the 17th century , a more scientific basis for risk management was being developed . In 1662 , a London draper named John Graunt showed that there were predictable patterns of longevity and death in a defined group , or cohort , of people , despite the uncertainty about the future longevity or mortality of any one individual . This study became the basis for the original life table . Combining this idea with that of compound interest and annuity valuation , it became possible to set up an insurance scheme to provide life insurance or pensions for a group of people , and to calculate with some degree of accuracy each member 's necessary contributions to a common fund , assuming a fixed rate of interest . The first person to correctly calculate these values was Edmond Halley ( Heywood 1985 ) . In his work , Halley demonstrated a method of using his life table to calculate the premium someone of a given age should pay to purchase a life @-@ annuity ( Halley 1693 ) .
= = = Early actuaries = = =
James Dodson 's pioneering work on the level premium system led to the formation of the Society for Equitable Assurances on Lives and Survivorship ( now commonly known as Equitable Life ) in London in 1762 . This was the first life insurance company to use premium rates that were calculated scientifically for long @-@ term life policies , using Dodson 's work . After Dodson 's death in 1757 , Edward Rowe Mores took over the leadership of the group that eventually became the Society for Equitable Assurances . It was he who specified that the chief official should be called an actuary ( Ogborn 1956 , p . 235 ) . Previously , the use of the term had been restricted to an official who recorded the decisions , or acts , of ecclesiastical courts , in ancient times originally the secretary of the Roman senate , responsible for compiling the Acta Senatus ( Ogborn 1956 , p . 233 ) . Other companies that did not originally use such mathematical and scientific methods most often failed or were forced to adopt the methods pioneered by Equitable ( Bühlmann 1997 , p . 166 ) .
= = = Development of the modern profession = = =
In the 18th and 19th centuries , computational complexity was limited to manual calculations . The actual calculations required to compute fair insurance premiums are complex . The actuaries of that time developed methods to construct easily used tables , using sophisticated approximations called commutation functions , to facilitate timely , accurate , manual calculations of premiums ( Slud 2006 ) . Over time , actuarial organizations were founded to support and further both actuaries and actuarial science , and to protect the public interest by ensuring competency and ethical standards ( Hickman 2004 , p . 4 ) . Since calculations were cumbersome , actuarial shortcuts were commonplace .
Non @-@ life actuaries followed in the footsteps of their life compatriots in the early 20th century . In the United States , the 1920 revision to workers ' compensation rates took over two months of around @-@ the @-@ clock work by day and night teams of actuaries ( Michelbacher 1920 , pp. 224 , 230 ) . In the 1930s and 1940s , rigorous mathematical foundations for stochastic processes were developed ( Bühlmann 1997 , p . 168 ) . Actuaries began to forecast losses using models of random events instead of deterministic methods . Computers further revolutionized the actuarial profession . From pencil @-@ and @-@ paper to punchcards to microcomputers , the modeling and forecasting ability of the actuary has grown exponentially ( MacGinnitie 1980 , pp. 50 – 51 ) .
Another modern development is the convergence of modern financial theory with actuarial science ( Bühlmann 1997 , pp. 169 – 171 ) . In the early 20th century , actuaries were developing techniques that can be found in modern financial theory , but for various historical reasons , these developments did not achieve much recognition ( Whelan 2002 ) . In the late 1980s and early 1990s , there was a distinct effort for actuaries to combine financial theory and stochastic methods into their established models ( D 'Arcy 1989 ) . In the 21st century , the profession , both in practice and in the educational syllabi of many actuarial organizations , combines tables , loss models , stochastic methods , and financial theory ( Feldblum 2001 , pp. 8 – 9 ) , but is still not completely aligned with modern financial economics ( Bader & Gold 2003 ) .
= = Remuneration and ranking = =
As there are relatively few actuaries in the world compared to other professions , actuaries are in high demand , and are highly paid for the services they render ( Hennessy 2003 , Kurtz 2013 ) . As of 2014 , in the United States , newly credentialed actuaries on average earn around $ 100 @,@ 000 per year , while more experienced actuaries can earn over $ 150 @,@ 000 per year ( Ezra Penland 2014 ) . Similarly , a 2014 survey in the United Kingdom indicated a starting salary for a newly credentialed actuary of about £ 50 @,@ 000 ; actuaries with more experience can earn well in excess of £ 100 @,@ 000 ( Crail 2014 ) .
The actuarial profession has been consistently ranked for decades as one of the most desirable . Actuaries work comparatively reasonable hours , in comfortable conditions , without the need for physical exertion that may lead to injury , are well paid , and the profession consistently has a good hiring outlook ( Riley 2013 ) . Not only has the overall profession ranked highly , but it also is considered one of the best professions for women ( Shavin 2014 ) , and one of the best recession @-@ proof professions ( Kiviat 2008 ) . In the United States , the profession was rated as the best profession by CareerCast , which uses five key criteria to rank jobs — environment , income , employment outlook , physical demands , and stress , in 2010 ( Needleman 2010 ) , 2013 ( Weber 2013 ) , and 2015 ( CareerCast 2015 ) . In other years , it remained in the top 10 ( Thomas 2012 , CareerCast 2014 ) . In the United Kingdom ( Ugwumadu 2013 ) , and around the world ( ESSEC 2014 ) , actuaries continue to be highly ranked as a profession .
= = Credentialing and exams = =
Becoming a fully credentialed actuary requires passing a rigorous series of professional examinations , usually taking several years . In some countries , such as Denmark , most study takes place in a university setting ( Norberg 1990 , p . 407 ) . In others , such as the US , most study takes place during employment through a series of examinations ( SOA 2015 , CAS 2015 ) . In the UK , and countries based on its process , there is a hybrid university @-@ exam structure ( Institute and Faculty of Actuaries 2011a ) .
= = = Exam support = = =
As these qualifying exams are extremely rigorous , support is usually available to people progressing through the exams . Often , employers provide paid on @-@ the @-@ job study time and paid attendance at seminars designed for the exams ( BeAnActuary 2011d ) . Also , many companies that employ actuaries have automatic pay raises or promotions when exams are passed . As a result , actuarial students have strong incentives for devoting adequate study time during off @-@ work hours . A common rule of thumb for exam students is that , for the Society of Actuaries examinations , roughly 400 hours of study time are necessary for each four @-@ hour exam ( Sieger 1998 ) . Thus , thousands of hours of study time should be anticipated over several years , assuming no failures ( Feldblum 2001 , p . 6 ) .
= = = Pass marks and pass rates = = =
Historically , the actuarial profession has been reluctant to specify the pass marks for its examinations ( Muckart 2010 , Prevosto 2000 ) . To address concerns that there are pre @-@ existing pass / fail quotas , a former Chairman of the Board of Examiners of the Institute and Faculty of Actuaries stated that " [ a ] lthough students find it hard to believe , the Board of Examiners does not have fail quotas to achieve . Accordingly pass rates are free to vary ( and do ) . They are determined by the quality of the candidates sitting the examination and in particular how well prepared they are . Fitness to pass is the criterion , not whether you can achieve a mark in the top 40 % of candidates sitting . " ( Muckart 2010 ) . In 2000 , the Casualty Actuarial Society ( CAS ) decided to start releasing pass marks for the exams it offers ( Prevosto 2000 ) . The CAS 's policy is also not to grade to specific pass ratios ; the CAS board affirmed in 2001 that " the CAS shall use no predetermined pass ratio as a guideline for setting the pass mark for any examination . If the CAS determines that 70 % of all candidates have demonstrated sufficient grasp of the syllabus material , then those 70 % should pass . Similarly , if the CAS determines that only 30 % of all candidates have demonstrated sufficient grasp of the syllabus material , then only those 30 % should pass . " ( CAS 2001 ) .
= = Notable actuaries = =
= = Fictional actuaries = =
Actuaries have appeared in works of fiction including literature , theater , television , and film . At times , they have been portrayed as " math @-@ obsessed , socially disconnected individuals with shockingly bad comb @-@ overs " , which has resulted in a mixed response amongst actuaries themselves ( Coleman 2003 ) .
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